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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4
+       "G" to "Gaskell, Elizabeth"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2011 [EBook #37160]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GABEL, KRISTOFFER: "See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk.
+      Biograf. Lex. art "Gabel" (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); Danmarks Riges
+      Historie (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. v." '1905' amended from
+      '1005'.
+
+    ARTICLE GALLS: "The same authority (loc. cit. p. 550) mentions a
+      willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food
+      and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
+      that altogether some twenty-four insects, ..." 'altogether' amended
+      from 'alltogether'.
+
+    ARTICLE GANNET: "... and orderly takes its place in the rear of the
+      string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds
+      itself above its prey." 'its' amended from 'is'.
+
+    ARTICLE GARDNER, PERCY: "... an account of excavations in Greece
+      and Asia Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd
+      ed. 1898); ..." 'Asia' amended from 'Aisa'.
+
+    ARTICLE GARNET, HENRY: "... by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the
+      pseudonym Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, Antilogia
+      versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes, ..." 'Eudaemon' amended from
+      'Endaemon'.
+
+    ARTICLE GARTH, SIR SAMUEL: "He wrote little besides his best-known
+      work The Dispensary and Claremont, a moral epistle in verse."
+      'epistle' amended from 'espistle'.
+
+    ARTICLE GAS ENGINE: "The Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also
+      built large engines, several of which are in operation at the
+      various works of the Carnegie Steel Co." 'Pittsburgh' amended from
+      'Pittsburg'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XI, SLICE IV
+
+          G to Gaskell, Elizabeth
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  G                                 GALLUPPI, PASQUALE
+  GABBRO                            GALLUS, CORNELIUS
+  GABEL, KRISTOFFER                 GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
+  GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER     GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
+  GABELLE                           GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS
+  GABERDINE                         GALOIS, EVARISTE
+  GABES                             GALSTON
+  GABII                             GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH
+  GABINIUS, AULUS                   GALT, JOHN
+  GABION                            GALT
+  GABLE                             GALTON, SIR FRANCIS
+  GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS             GALUPPI, BALDASSARE
+  GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP            GALVANI, LUIGI
+  GABLETS                           GALVANIZED IRON
+  GABLONZ                           GALVANOMETER
+  GABORIAU, ÉMILE                   GALVESTON
+  GABRIEL                           GALWAY (county of Ireland)
+  GABRIEL HOUNDS                    GALWAY (town of Ireland)
+  GABRIELI, GIOVANNI                GAMA, VASCO DA
+  GABUN                             GAMALIEL
+  GACE BRULÉ                        GAMBETTA, LÉON
+  GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER            GAMBIA (river of West Africa)
+  GAD                               GAMBIA (country of West Africa)
+  GADAG                             GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,
+  GADARA                            GAMBIER
+  GADDI                             GAMBOGE
+  GADE, NIELS WILHELM               GAMBRINUS
+  GADOLINIUM                        GAME
+  GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER              GAME LAWS
+  GADSDEN, JAMES                    GAMES, CLASSICAL
+  GADWALL                           GAMING AND WAGERING
+  GAEKWAR                           GAMUT
+  GAETA                             GANDAK
+  GAETANI                           GANDAMAK
+  GAETULIA                          GANDERSHEIM
+  GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON                GANDHARVA
+  GAGE, THOMAS                      GANDÍA
+  GAGE                              GANDO
+  GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST      GANESA
+  GAHANBAR                          GANGES
+  GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE     GANGOTRI
+  GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE               GANGPUR
+  GAILLAC                           GANGRENE
+  GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI           GANILH, CHARLES
+  GAINESVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.)     GANJAM
+  GAINESVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.)       GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS
+  GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS              GANNET
+  GAINSBOROUGH                      GANODONTA
+  GAIRDNER, JAMES                   GANS, EDUARD
+  GAIRLOCH                          GÄNSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST
+  GAISERIC                          GANTÉ
+  GAISFORD, THOMAS                  GANYMEDE
+  GAIUS                             GAO
+  GAIUS CAESAR                      GAOL
+  GALAGO                            GAON
+  GALANGAL                          GAP
+  GALAPAGOS ISLANDS                 GAPAN
+  GALASHIELS                        GARARISH
+  GALATIA                           GARASHANIN, ILIYA
+  GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE         GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH
+  GALATINA                          GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN
+  GALATZ                            GARAY, JÁNOS
+  GALAXY                            GARBLE
+  GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman general)  GARÇÃO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRÊA
+  GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman emperor)  GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL
+  GALBANUM                          GARCÍA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO
+  GALCHAS                           GARCÍA DE PAREDES, DIEGO
+  GALE, THEOPHILUS                  GARCÍA GUTIÉRREZ, ANTONIO
+  GALE, THOMAS                      GARD
+  GALE                              GARDA, LAKE OF
+  GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD         GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU
+  GALEN, CLAUDIUS                   GARDELEGEN
+  GALENA (Illinois, U.S.A.)         GARDEN
+  GALENA (Kansas, U.S.A.)           GARDENIA
+  GALENA (ore of lead)              GARDINER, JAMES
+  GALEOPITHECUS                     GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON
+  GALERIUS                          GARDINER, STEPHEN
+  GALESBURG                         GARDINER
+  GALGACUS                          GARDNER, PERCY
+  GALIANI, FERDINANDO               GARDNER
+  GALICIA (crownland of Austria)    GARE-FOWL
+  GALICIA (province of Spain)       GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM
+  GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO       GAR-FISH
+  GALILEE (province of Palestine)   GARGANEY
+  GALILEE (architectural term)      GARGANO, MONTE
+  GALILEE, SEA OF                   GARGOYLE
+  GALILEO GALILEI                   GARHWAL
+  GALION                            GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE
+  GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH                GARIN LE LOHERAIN
+  GALL                              GARLAND, JOHN
+  GALLABAT                          GARLIC
+  GALLAIT, LOUIS                    GARNET, HENRY
+  GALLAND, ANTOINE                  GARNET
+  GALLARATE                         GARNETT, RICHARD
+  GALLARS, NICOLAS DES              GARNIER, CLÉMENT JOSEPH
+  GALLAS, MATTHIAS                  GARNIER, GERMAIN
+  GALLAS                            GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES
+  GALLATIN, ALBERT                  GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANÇOIS
+  GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS         GARNIER, ROBERT
+  GALLE                             GARNIER-PAGÈS, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS
+  GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE GARNISH
+  GALLERY                           GARO HILLS
+  GALLEY                            GARONNE
+  GALLIA CISALPINA                  GARRET
+  GALLIC ACID                       GARRETT, JOÃO BAPTISTA DE ALMEIDA
+  GALLICANISM                       GARRETTING
+  GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON            GARRICK, DAVID
+  GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS EGNATIUS       GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD
+  GALLIFFET, GASTON AUGUSTE         GARRISON
+  GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS            GARROTE
+  GALLIPOLI (Italy)                 GARRUCHA
+  GALLIPOLI (Turkey)                GARSTON
+  GALLIPOLIS                        GARTH, SIR SAMUEL
+  GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE    GARTOK
+  GALLIUM                           GARY
+  GALLON                            GAS
+  GALLOWAY, JOSEPH                  GASCOIGNE, GEORGE
+  GALLOWAY, THOMAS                  GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM
+  GALLOWAY                          GASCONY
+  GALLOWS                           GAS ENGINE
+  GALLS                             GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN
+
+
+
+
+G    The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an invention of
+the Romans, who had previously converted the third symbol of the
+alphabet into a representative of a _k_-sound (see C). Throughout the
+whole of Roman history C remained as the symbol for G in the
+abbreviations C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
+to Plutarch (_Roman Questions_, 54, 59) the symbol for G was invented by
+Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 B.C. This probably means that he was
+the first person to spell his cognomen RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to
+occupy the seventh place in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been
+taken by Z, because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the z-sounds of Latin
+passed into r, names like _Papisius_ and _Fusius_ in that period
+becoming Papirius and Furius (see Z), so that the letter z had become
+superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus Capella z was
+removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312
+B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into the alphabet is also sometimes
+ascribed.
+
+In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the lower lip
+of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line [symbol], but
+[symbol] and [symbol] are found also in republican times. In the
+earliest Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the form
+is [symbol] written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom lip
+of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a diacritical
+mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is represented by K. The
+use of the new form was not firmly established till after the middle of
+the 3rd century B.C.
+
+In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop (as in _gig_)
+in classical times. Later, before _e_, _g_ passed into a sound like the
+English _y_, so that words begin indifferently with _g_ or _j_; hence
+from the Lat. _generum_ (accusative) and _Ianuarium_ we have in Ital.
+_genero_ and _Gennajo_, Fr. _gendre_ and _janvier_. In the ancient
+Umbrian dialect _g_ had made this change between vowels before the
+Christian era, the inhabitant of _Iguvium_ (the modern Gubbio) being in
+the later form of his native speech _Iuvins_, Lat. _Iguvinus_. In most
+cases in Mid. Eng. also _g_ passed into a _y_ sound; hence the old
+prefix _ge_ of the past participle appears only as _y_ in _yclept_ and
+the like. But _ng_ and _gg_ took a different course, the _g_ becoming an
+affricate d_z_ (_dzh_), as in _singe_, _ridge_, _sedge_, which in
+English before 1500 were _senge_, _rigge_, _segge_, and in Scotch are
+still pronounced _sing_, _rig_, _seg_. The affricate in words like
+_gaol_ is of French origin (_geôle_), from a Late Lat. _gabiola_, out of
+_caveola_, a diminutive of the Lat. _cavea_.
+
+The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay down rules
+for the pronunciation of English _g_; thus there are in the language
+five words _Gill_, three of which have the _g_ hard, while two have it
+soft: viz. (1) _gill_ of a fish, (2) _gill_, a ravine, both of which are
+Norse, and (3) _Gill_, the surname, which is mostly Gaelic = White; and
+(4) _gill_ a liquid measure, from O. Fr. _gelle_, Late Lat. _gella_ in
+the same sense, and (5) _Gill_, a girl's name, shortened from _Gillian_,
+_Juliana_ (see Skeat's _Etymological Dictionary_). No one of these words
+is of native origin; otherwise the initial _g_ would have changed to
+_y_, as in Eng. _yell_ from the O. Eng. _gellan_, _giellan_.
+     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+GABBRO, in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks, holocrystalline
+and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting essentially of a basic
+plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian minerals (such as
+augite, hornblende, hypersthene and olivine). The name was given
+originally in north Italy to certain coarsely crystalline dark green
+rocks, some of which are true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The
+gabbros are the plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the
+dolerites, basalts and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite)
+with which they agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute
+structure. Of their minerals felspar Is usually the most abundant, and
+is principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs in
+some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others. The
+felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being for the
+most part short and broad, with rather irregular or rounded outlines.
+Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these rocks it is often
+accompanied by pericline twinning by which the broad or narrow albite
+plates are cut transversely by many thin, bright and dark bars as seen
+in polarized light. Equally characteristic of the gabbros is the
+alteration of the felspars to cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite.
+These are compact, tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and
+usually a greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by
+the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote, with
+garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite, amphibole,
+serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals. The augite is usually
+brown, but greenish, violet and colourless varieties may occur.
+Hypersthene, when present, is often strikingly pleochroic in colours
+varying from pink to bright green. It weathers readily to
+platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are soft and yield low polarization
+colours. The olivine is colourless in itself, but in most cases is
+altered to green or yellow serpentine, often with bands of dark
+magnetite granules along its cleavages and cracks. Hornblende when
+primary is often brown, and may surround augite or be perthitically
+intergrown with it; original green hornblende probably occurs also,
+though it is more frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by
+no means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many of
+them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown with felspar
+as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals may be mentioned
+apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, picotite and garnet.
+
+A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the minerals of
+these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the occurrence of small
+black or dark brown enclosures often regularly arranged parallel to
+certain crystallographic planes. Reflection of light from the surfaces
+of these minute enclosures produces a shimmering or _Schiller_. In
+augite or hypersthene the effect is that the surface of the mineral has
+a bronzy sub-metallic appearance, and polished plates seen at a definite
+angle yield a bright coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of
+the felspars may exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in
+the Labrador spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious
+stone. In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but
+branching growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as
+"schillerization"; its origin has been much discussed, some holding that
+it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures as original.
+
+In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement of the
+minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which the others
+grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with olivine, may be
+enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene, sometimes with a later
+growth of biotite, while the felspars occupy the interspaces between the
+clusters of ferromagnesian minerals. In some cases there are borders
+around olivine consisting of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic
+pyroxene (kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may
+occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where olivine
+is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical resorption at a
+late stage in the solidification of the rock. In some gabbros and
+norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende are found around both
+hypersthene and diallage where these are in contact with felspar.
+Typical orbicular structure such as characterizes some granites and
+diorites is rare in the gabbros, though it has been observed in a few
+instances in Norway, California, &c.
+
+  In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase
+  felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is
+  enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases.
+  When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into ophitic
+  diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose felspar
+  in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can be observed
+  in some of the rocks of this series, and is characterized by the
+  occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in
+  ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars
+  predominate.
+
+  These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class
+  which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral
+  composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase
+  and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and hypersthene, and
+  troctolite of plagioclase and olivine, we must add to these
+  olivine-gabbro and olivine-norite in which that mineral occurs in
+  addition to those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are distinctly
+  rare, except when the hornblende has been developed from pyroxene by
+  pressure and shearing, but many rocks may be described as hornblende-
+  or biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain these
+  ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase, augite and
+  hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro and quartz-norite
+  (containing primary quartz or micropegmatite) and orthoclase-gabbro
+  (with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite has been given to gabbros
+  in which the felspar is mainly anorthite; many of them also contain
+  hypersthene or enstatite and olivine, while allivalites are
+  anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals occur in nearly
+  equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating olivine, anorthite
+  felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro there are often
+  masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral, for example,
+  felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks (pyroxenites
+  and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peridotites).
+  Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with pyroxene or
+  olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and anorthosite masses.
+
+  Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of individual
+  crystals several inches in length; such a type often form dikes or
+  veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-pegmatite.
+  Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been distinguished
+  as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence of sheared,
+  foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the minerals have a
+  parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken down by pressure
+  into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish fibrous or bladed
+  amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine. The diallage may be
+  present as rounded or oval crystals around which the crushed felspar
+  has flowed (augen-gabbro); or the whole rock may have a well-foliated
+  structure (hornblende-schists and amphibolites). Very often a mass of
+  normal gabbro with typical igneous character passes at its margins or
+  along localized zones into foliated rocks of this kind, and every
+  transition can be found between the different types. Some authors
+  believe that the development of saussurite from felspar is also
+  dependent on pressure rather than on weathering, and an analogous
+  change may affect the olivine, replacing it by talc, chlorite,
+  actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes of the latter type have
+  been described from Switzerland under the name allalinites.
+
+  Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor occurring
+  in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread. In Great
+  Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland,
+  Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the Lizard
+  (Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David's (Wales). Most of
+  these occur along with troctolites, norites, serpentine and
+  peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-gabbros is
+  found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur and there are
+  sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series of basaltic
+  lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts in early
+  Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros are
+  the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the basalts
+  which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites which
+  consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such as those
+  of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more or less
+  foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists and
+  amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the Harz Mountains,
+  Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest. Many outcrops of similar
+  rocks have been traced in the northern zones of the Alps, often with
+  serpentine and hornblende-schist. They occupy considerable tracts of
+  country in Norway and Sweden, as for instance in the vicinity of
+  Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian Alps, Dauphiné and Tuscany are other
+  European localities for gabbro. In Canada great portions of the
+  eastern portion of the Dominion are formed of gabbros, norite,
+  anorthosite and allied rock types. In the United States gabbros and
+  norites occur near Baltimore and near Peekskill on the Hudson river.
+  As a rule each of these occurrences contains a diversity of
+  petrographical types, which appear also in certain of the others; but
+  there is often a well-marked individuality about the rocks of the
+  various districts in which gabbros are found.
+
+  From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance. They
+  are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too dark in
+  colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as building
+  stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be compared for
+  beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segregations of iron
+  ores are found in connexion with many of them (Norway and Sweden) and
+  are sometimes mined as sources of the metal.
+
+  Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision and
+  show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They have low
+  silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime
+  distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and the
+  peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited here.
+
+    +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |     | SiO2  | TiO2 | Ab2O3 | FeO  | Fe2O3| MgO  | CaO  | Na2O | K2O  | H2O  |
+    +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |  I. | 49.63 | 1.75 | 16.18 |12.03 | 1.92 | 5.38 | 9.33 | 1.89 | 0.81 | 0.55 |
+    | II. | 49.90 |  ..  | 16.04 |  ..  | 7.81 |10.08 |14.48 | 1.69 | 0.55 | 1.46 |
+    |III. | 45.73 |  ..  | 22.10 | 3.51 | 0.71 |11.16 | 9.26 | 2.54 | 0.34 | 4.38 |
+    | IV. | 46.24 |  ..  | 29.85 | 2.12 | 1.30 | 2.41 |16.24 | 1.98 | 0.18 |  ..  |
+    +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  I. Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg; II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony; III.
+  Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall; IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the Seine
+  river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GABEL, KRISTOFFER (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was born at Glückstadt,
+on the 6th of January 1617. His father, Wulbern, originally a landscape
+painter and subsequently recorder of Glückstadt, was killed at the siege
+of that fortress by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffer is first heard
+of in 1639, as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick.
+When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III., Gabel
+followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and man of business.
+Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence considerable financial
+ability and uncommon shrewdness, had great influence over the irresolute
+king. During the brief interval between King Charles X.'s first and
+second attack upon Denmark, Gabel was employed in several secret
+missions to Sweden; and he took a part in the intrigues which resulted
+in the autocratic revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). His
+services on this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not
+the originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief
+intermediary between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in the
+mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in Denmark. His
+activity on this occasion won the king's lifelong gratitude. He was
+enriched, ennobled, and in 1664 made governor of Copenhagen. From this
+year must be dated his open and official influence and power, and from
+1660 to 1670 he was the most considerable personage at court, and very
+largely employed in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick
+III. died, in February 1670, Gabel's power was at an end. The new ruler,
+Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in from
+every quarter. When, on the 18th of April 1670, he was dismissed, nobody
+sympathized with the man who had grown wealthy at a time when other
+people found it hard to live. He died on the 13th of October 1673.
+
+  See Carl Frederik Bricka, _Dansk. Biograf. Lex._ art "Gabel"
+  (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen,
+  1897-1905), vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER (1807-1874), German linguist and
+ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the 13th of October 1807, was the only
+son of Hans Karl Leopold von der Gabelentz, chancellor and
+privy-councillor of the duchy of Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he
+attended the gymnasium of his native town, where he had Matthiae (the
+eminent Greek scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius
+Löbe for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work, he
+carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the latter
+language continued especially to engage his attention during his
+undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the universities of Leipzig
+and Göttingen. In 1830 he entered the public service of the duchy of
+Altenburg, where he attained to the rank of privy-councillor in 1843.
+Four years later he was chosen to fill the post of _Landmarschall_ in
+the grand-duchy of Weimar, and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort
+parliament, and represented the Saxon duchies on the commission for
+drafting an imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same
+year he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned
+office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was president of
+the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but in the latter year he
+withdrew entirely from public life, that he might give undivided
+attention to his learned researches. He died on his estate of Lemnitz,
+in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3rd of September 1874.
+
+In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than
+eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and elegance.
+But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition than for the
+higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge to the genuine
+advancement of linguistic science. Immediately after quitting the
+university, he followed up his Chinese researches by a study of the
+Finno-Ugrian languages, which resulted in the publication of his
+_Éléments de la grammaire mandchoue_ in 1832. In 1837 he became one of
+the promoters, and a joint-editor, of the _Zeitschrift für die Kunde des
+Morgenlandes_, and through this medium he gave to the world his _Versuch
+einer mordwinischen Grammatik_ and other valuable contributions. His
+_Grundzüge der syrjänischen Grammatik_ appeared in 1841. In conjunction
+with his old school friend, Julius Löbe, he brought out a complete
+edition, with translation, glossary and grammar, of Ulfilas's Gothic
+version of the Bible (1843-1846); and from 1847 he began to contribute
+to the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft_ the
+fruits of his researches into the languages of the Swahilis, the
+Samoyedes, the Hazaras, the Aimaks, the Formosans and other
+widely-separated tribes. The _Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde_ (1852) contain
+Dyak, Dakota, and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a
+_Grammatik u. Wörterbuch der Kassiasprache_, and in 1860 a treatise in
+universal grammar (_Über das Passivum_). In 1864 he edited the Manchu
+translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king, along with a
+dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work which constitutes his most
+important contribution to philology, _Die melanesischen Sprachen nach
+ihrem grammatischen Bau und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den
+malaiisch-polynesischen Sprachen untersucht_ (1860-1873). It treats of
+the language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, New
+Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the Polynesian
+class. He also contributed most of the linguistic articles in Pierer's
+_Conversations-Lexicon_.
+
+
+
+
+GABELLE (French, from the Med. Lat. _gabulum_, _gablum_, a tax, for the
+origin of which see GAVELKIND), a term which, in France, was originally
+applied to taxes on all commodities, but was gradually limited to the
+tax on salt. In process of time it became one of the most hated and most
+grossly unequal taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all
+supporters of reform, it was not abolished until 1790. First imposed in
+1286, in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made
+a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly, it was
+made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged every
+individual above the age of eight years to purchase weekly a minimum
+amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted, it was levied
+uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the greater part of
+its history the price varied in different provinces. There were five
+distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows: (a) the _Pays de
+grandes gabelles_, in which the tax was heaviest; (b) the _Pays de
+petites gabelles_, which paid a tax of about half the rate of the
+former; (c) the _Pays de salines_, in which the tax was levied on the
+salt extracted from the salt marshes; (d) the _Pays rédimés_, which had
+purchased redemption in 1549; and (e) the _Pays exempts_, which had
+stipulated for exemption on entering into union with the kingdom of
+France. _Greniers à sel_ (dating from 1342) were established in each
+province, and to these all salt had to be taken by the producer on
+penalty of confiscation. The _grenier_ fixed the price which it paid for
+the salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate.
+
+  See J.J. Clamagéran, _Histoire de l'impôt en France_ (1876); A.
+  Gasquet, _Précis des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_
+  (1885); Necker, _Compte rendu_ (1781).
+
+
+
+
+GABERDINE, or GABARDINE, any long, loose over-garment, reaching to the
+feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made of coarse material,
+commonly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims, beggars and almsmen. The
+Jews, conservatively attached to the loose and flowing garments of the
+East, continued to wear the long upper garment to which the name
+"gaberdine" could be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common
+form as worn by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, e.g.
+in Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-coat
+very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race. The fact
+that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to engage in handicrafts
+also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form of dress unfitted for manual
+labour. The idea of the "gaberdine" being enforced by law upon the Jews
+as a distinctive garment is probably due to Shakespeare's use in the
+_Merchant of Venice_, I. iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged
+to wear generally on the outer garment was the badge. This was first
+enforced by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The "badge" (Lat.
+_rota_; Fr. _rouelle_, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of
+cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times. In
+France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it took the
+form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of yellow. In Edward
+I.'s reign it was made in the shape of the Tables of the Law (see the
+_Jewish Encyclopedia_, s.v. "Costume" and "Badge"). The derivation of
+the word is obscure. It apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms
+_gauverdine_, _galvardine_, and thence into Ital. as _gavardina_, and
+Span. _gabardina_, a form which has influenced the English word. The
+_New English Dictionary_ suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger.
+_wallevart_, pilgrimage. Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) refers it to Span.
+_gaban_, coat, cloak; _cabaña_, hut, cabin.
+
+
+
+
+GABES, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same name, and
+70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the Tacape of the
+Romans and consists of an open port and European quarter and several
+small Arab towns built in an oasis of date palms. This oasis is
+copiously watered by a stream called the Wad Gabes. The European quarter
+is situated on the right bank of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent
+are the Arab towns of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns
+are built largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins of
+Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern Tunisia. The
+population of the oasis is about 20,000, including some 1500 Europeans.
+There is a considerable export trade in dates.
+
+Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is intimately
+connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire to create a Saharan sea
+by making a channel from the Mediterranean to these shats (large salt
+lakes below the level of the sea). Roudaire proposed to cut a canal
+through the belt of high ground between Gabes and the shats, and fixed
+on Wad Melah, a spot 10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel
+(see SAHARA). The company formed to execute his project became simply an
+agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created an
+oasis of olive and palm trees.
+
+The Gulf of Gabes, the _Syrtis Minor_ of the ancients, is a
+semi-circular shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m.
+across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern shore,
+to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The waters of the gulf
+abound in fish and sponge.
+
+
+
+
+GABII, an ancient city of Latium, between 12 and 13 m. E. of Rome, on
+the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known as the Via Gabina.
+The part played by it in the story of the expulsion of the Tarquins is
+well known; but its importance in the earliest history of Rome rests
+upon other evidence--the continuance of certain ancient usages which
+imply a period of hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption
+of the _cinctus Gabinus_ by the consul when war was to be declared. We
+hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tarquinius
+Superbus, the original text of which, written on a bullock's skin, was
+said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant in his day. Its
+subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear of it again in the 1st
+century B.C. as a small and insignificant place, though its desolation
+is no doubt exaggerated by the poets. From inscriptions we learn that
+from the time of Augustus or Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal
+organization. Its baths were well known, and Hadrian, who was
+responsible for much of the renewed prosperity of the small towns of
+Latium, appears to have been a very liberal patron, building a
+senate-house (_Curia Aelia Augusta_) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd
+century Gabii practically disappears from history, though its bishops
+continue to be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of
+the 9th. The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the
+citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of
+Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south. The
+most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple, generally
+attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front and six on each
+side. The plan is interesting, but the style of architecture was
+apparently mixed. To the east of the temple lay the Forum, where
+excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton in 1792. All the objects found
+were placed in the Villa Borghese, but many of them were carried off to
+Paris by Napoleon, and still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts
+are especially numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus,
+Diana, Nemesis, &c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus,
+Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and Sabina, M.
+Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius and others. The
+inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal matters.
+
+  See E.Q. Visconti, _Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana_ (Rome,
+  1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at
+  Rome_, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in _Bull. Com._ (1903), 321 seq.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GABINIUS, AULUS, Roman statesman and general, and supporter of Pompey, a
+prominent figure in the later days of the Roman republic. In 67 B.C.,
+when tribune of the people, he brought forward the famous law (_Lex
+Gabinia_) conferring upon Pompey the command in the war against the
+Mediterranean pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute
+control over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other
+measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors in Rome were
+made non-actionable (as a check on the corruption of the senate) and the
+senate was ordered to give audience to foreign envoys on certain fixed
+days (1st of Feb.-1st of March). In 61 Gabinius, then praetor,
+endeavoured to win the public favour by providing games on a scale of
+unusual splendour, and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not
+without suspicion of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius
+Clodius in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went as
+proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus in the
+high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced important
+changes in the government of Judaea, and rebuilt several towns. During
+his absence in Egypt, whither he had been sent by Pompey, without the
+consent of the senate, to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria
+had been devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had
+again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the
+high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order, and in 54
+handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius Crassus. The
+knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered heavy losses during
+the disturbances in Syria, were greatly embittered against Gabinius,
+and, when he appeared in the senate to give an account of his
+governorship, he was brought to trial on three counts, all involving a
+capital offence. On the charge of _majestas_ (high treason) incurred by
+having left his province for Egypt without the consent of the senate and
+in defiance of the Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that
+the judges were bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked
+Gabinius with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as
+little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy. On the
+second charge, that of _repetundae_ (extortion during the administration
+of his province), with especial reference to the 10,000 talents paid by
+Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found guilty, in spite of evidence
+offered on his behalf by Pompey and witnesses from Alexandria and the
+eloquence of Cicero, who had been induced to plead his cause. Nothing
+but Cicero's wish to do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to
+take up what must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted
+that the half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to
+Gabinius's condemnation. The third charge, that of _ambitus_
+(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship), was
+consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his property was
+confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war, he was recalled by
+Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took no active part against
+his old patron Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalus, he was
+commissioned to transport some recently levied troops to Illyricum. On
+his way thither by land, he was attacked by the Dalmatians and with
+difficulty made his way to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended
+himself against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus Octavius,
+but in a few months died of illness (48 or the beginning of 47).
+
+  See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63; Plutarch,
+  _Pompey_, 25. 48; Josephus, _Antiq._ xiv. 4-6; Appian, _Illyrica_, 12,
+  _Bell. Civ._ ii. 24. 59; Cicero, _ad Att._ vi. 2, _ad Q. Fratrem_, ii.
+  13, _Post reditum in senatu_, 4-8, _Pro lege Manilia_, 17, 18, 19;
+  exhaustive article by Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopädie_; and monograph by G. Stocchi, _Aulo Gabinio e i suoi
+  processi_ (1892).
+
+
+
+
+GABION (a French word derived through Ital. _gabbione_, _gabbia_, from
+Lat. _cavea_, a cage), a cylindrical basket without top or bottom, used
+in revetting fortifications and for numerous other purposes of military
+engineering. The gabion is filled with earth when in position. The
+ordinary brushwood gabion in the British service has a diameter of 2 ft.
+and a height of 2 ft. 9 in. There are several forms of gabion in use,
+the best known being the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron
+or steel band gabion.
+
+
+
+
+GABLE, in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the level of
+the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is a southern
+English form of the Scottish _gavel_, or of an O. Fr. word _gable_ or
+_jable_, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian _gafl_. In other
+Teutonic languages, similar words, such as Ger. _Gabel_ and Dutch
+_gaffel_, mean "fork," cf. Lat. _gabalus_, gallows, which is Teutonic in
+origin; "gable" is represented by such forms as Ger. _Giebel_ and Dutch
+_gevel_. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the primary meaning
+of all these words is probably "top" or "head," cf. Gr. [Greek:
+kephalê], and refers to the forking timbers at the end of a roof. The
+gable corresponds to the pediment in classic buildings where the roof
+was of low pitch. If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall
+so that the purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden
+by a "barge board," but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of
+the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle ages the
+gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was crowned by coping
+stones properly weathered on both sides to throw off the rain. In the
+16th century in England variety was given to the outline of the gable by
+a series of alternating semi-circular and ogee curves. In Holland,
+Belgium and Scotland a succession of steps was employed, which in the
+latter country are known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and
+the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables assume
+very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character, and they are
+sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or three storeys. Designs
+of a similar rococo character are found in England, but only in
+crestings such as those which surmount the towers of Wollaton and the
+gatehouse of Hardwick Hall.
+
+_Gabled Towers_, in architecture, are those towers which are finished
+with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex. Many of the
+German Romanesque towers are gabled.
+
+
+
+
+GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1786-1853), German Hegelian philosopher, son of
+J.P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th of July 1786, at Altdorf in
+Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied his father to Jena, where he completed
+his studies in philosophy and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple
+of Hegel. After holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821
+appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830 general
+superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel in the Berlin
+chair. He died at Teplitz on the 13th of September 1853. His works
+include _Lehrbuch d. philos. Propädeutik_ (1st vol., Erlangen, 1827), a
+popular exposition of the Hegelian system; _De verae philosophiae erga
+religionem Christianam pietate_ (Berlin, 1836), and _Die Hegel'sche
+Philosophie_ (ib., 1843), a defence of the Hegelian philosophy against
+Trendelenburg.
+
+
+
+
+GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1753-1826), German Protestant theologian of the
+school of J.J. Griesbach and J.G. Eichhorn, was born at
+Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In 1772 he entered the
+university of Jena as a theological student. In 1776 he was on the point
+of abandoning theological pursuits, when the arrival of Griesbach
+inspired him with new ardour. After having been successively _Repetent_
+in Göttingen and teacher in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia)
+and Altdorf (Bavaria), he was, in 1785, appointed second professor of
+theology in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a
+chair in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he
+died on the 17th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published
+(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of Eichhorn's
+_Urgeschichte_; this was followed, two years afterwards, by a supplement
+entitled _Neuer Versuch über die mosaische Schöpfungsgeschichte_. He was
+also the author of many essays which were characterized by much critical
+acumen, and which had considerable influence on the course of German
+thought on theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was
+editor of the _Neuestes theologisches Journal_, first conjointly with
+H.K.A. Hänlein (1762-1829), C.F. von Ammon (1766-1850) and H.E.G.
+Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to 1804 of the _Journal für
+theologische Litteratur_; and from 1805 to 1811 of the _Journal für
+auserlesene theologische Litteratur_.
+
+  Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and a
+  memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schröter.
+
+
+
+
+GABLETS (diminutive of "gable"), in architecture, triangular
+terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English and
+Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally terminated in
+pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally plain, and very sharp
+in pitch. In the Decorated period they are often enriched with panelling
+and crockets. They are sometimes finished with small crosses, but of
+oftener with finials.
+
+
+
+
+GABLONZ (Czech, _Jablonec_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 94 m. N.E. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly German. It is the chief seat
+of the glass pearl and imitation jewelry manufacture, and has also an
+important textile industry, and produces large quantities of hardware,
+papier mâché and other paper goods.
+
+
+
+
+GABORIAU, ÉMILE (1833-1873), French novelist, was born at Saujon
+(Charente Inférieure) on the 9th of November 1833. He became secretary
+to Paul Féval, and, after publishing some novels and miscellaneous
+writings, found his real gift in _L'Affaire Lerouge_ (1866), a detective
+novel which was published in the _Pays_ and at once made his reputation.
+The story was produced on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels
+dealing with the annals of the police court followed, and proved very
+popular. Among them are: _Le Crime d'Orcival_ (1867), _Monsieur Lecoq_
+(1869), _La Vie infernale_ (1870), _Les Esclaves de Paris_ (1869),
+_L'Argent des autres_ (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th of
+September 1873.
+
+
+
+
+GABRIEL (Heb. [Hebrew: Gavriel], man of God), in the Bible, the heavenly
+messenger (see Angel) sent to Daniel to explain the vision of the ram
+and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction of the Seventy Weeks
+(Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also employed to announce the birth of
+John the Baptist to Zacharias, and that of the Messiah to the Virgin
+Mary (Luke i. 19, 26). Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke
+i. 19; Rev. viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian
+writers generally speak of him as an archangel. In the _Book of Enoch_
+"the four great archangels" are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael, and
+Gabriel, who is set over "all the powers" and shares the work of
+intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish literature of the
+later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to the Targum
+Pseudo-Jonathan, he was the man who showed the way to Joseph (Gen.
+xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is affirmed that he, along with
+Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah and the Metatron, buried the body of
+Moses. In the Targum on 2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who
+destroyed the host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still
+later period he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire,
+thunder, the ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes.
+In the Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium of
+divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan interpreters, he it
+is who is referred to by the appellations "Holy Spirit" and "Spirit of
+Truth." He is specially commemorated in the calendars of the Greek,
+Coptic and Armenian churches.
+
+
+
+
+GABRIEL HOUNDS, a spectral pack supposed in the North of England to
+foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend is that they are
+the souls of unbaptized children wandering through the air till the day
+of judgment. They are also sometimes called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A
+very prosaic explanation of this nocturnal noise is given by J.C.
+Atkinson in his _Cleveland Glossary_ (1868). "This," he writes, "is the
+name for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling the cry
+of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large flocks of wild geese
+which chance to be flying by night."
+
+  See further Joseph Lucas, _Studies in Nidderdale_ (1882), pp. 156-157.
+
+
+
+
+GABRIELI, GIOVANNI (1557-1612?), Italian musical composer, was born at
+Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle Andrea, a distinguished
+musician of the contrapuntal school and organist of St Mark's. He
+succeeded Claudio Merulo as first organist of the same church in 1585,
+and died at Venice either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his
+compositions for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices,
+and is important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony. It was
+probably for this reason that he made a special point of combining
+voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders of choral and
+orchestral composition. Among his pupils was Heinrich Schütz; and the
+church of St Mark, from the time of the Gabrielis onwards down to that
+of Lotti, became one of the most important musical schools in Europe.
+
+  See also Winterfeld, _Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit_ (1834).
+
+
+
+
+GABUN, a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the colonies
+forming French Congo (q.v.). It derives its designation from the
+settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabão. The Gabun, in reality an
+estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of the equator. At the
+entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa Clara on the N. and Cape
+Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it has a width of about 10 m. It
+maintains a breadth of some 7 m. for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it
+contracts into what is known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2
+or 3 m. from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is the
+chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun was discovered
+by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the 15th century, and was
+named from its fanciful resemblance to a _gabão_ or cabin. On the small
+island of Koniké, which lies about the centre of the estuary, scanty
+remains of a Portuguese fort have been discovered. The three principal
+tribes in the Gabun are the Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai.
+
+
+
+
+GACE BRULÉ (d. c. 1220), French _trouvère_, was a native of Champagne.
+It has generally been asserted that he taught Thibaut of Champagne the
+art of verse, an assumption which is based on a statement in the
+_Chroniques de Saint-Denis_: "Si fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brulé
+les plus belles chançons et les plus délitables et melodieuses qui onque
+fussent oïes." This has been taken as evidence of collaboration between
+the two poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those
+of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known. Paulin Paris,
+in the _Histoire littéraire de la France_ (vol. xxiii.), quotes a number
+of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace's songs. Gace is the author
+of the earliest known _jeu parti_. The interlocutors are Gace and a
+count of Brittany who is identified with Geoffrey of Brittany, son of
+Henry II. of England. Gace appears to have been banished from Champagne
+and to have found refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a
+contract between Gatho Bruslé (Gace Brulé) and the Templars for a piece
+of land in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1220, at
+the latest in 1225.
+
+  See Gédéon Busken Huet, _Chansons de Gace Brulé_, edited for the
+  Société des anciens textes français (1902), with an exhaustive
+  introduction. Dante quotes a song by Gace, _Ire d'amor qui en mon cuer
+  repaire_, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre (_De
+  vulgari eloquentia_, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1885), Belgian man of letters, was born in
+Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered the administration of the
+royal archives in 1826, and was appointed director-general, a post which
+he held for fifty-five years. During this long period he reorganized the
+service, added to the records by copies taken in other European
+collections, travelled for purposes of study, and carried on a wide
+correspondence with other keepers of records, and with historical
+scholars. He also edited and published many valuable collections of
+state papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the
+_Annuaire de l'académie royale de Belgique_ by Ch. Piot in 1888, pp.
+220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of several
+historical writings, of which the best known are _Don Carlos et Philippe
+II_ (1867), _Études et notices historiques concernant l'histoire des
+Pays-Bas_ (1863), _Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII^e
+siècle_ (1880), _Histoire politique et diplomatique de P.P. Rubens_
+(1877), all published at Brussels. His chief editorial works are the
+_Actes des états généraux des Pays-Bas 1576-1585_ (Brussels, 1861-1866),
+_Collection de documents inédits concernant l'histoire de la Belgique_
+(Brussels, 1833-1835), and the _Relations des ambassadeurs Vénitiens sur
+Charles V et Philippe II_ (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels on
+the 24th of December 1885.
+
+
+
+
+GAD, in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a "seer" (cp. 1 Sam. ix. 9),
+who was a companion of David from his early days. He is first mentioned
+in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David to take refuge in Judah, and
+appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 seq. to make known Yahweh's displeasure
+at the numbering of the people. Together with Nathan he is represented
+in post-exilic tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of
+the temple (2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to
+have written an account of David's deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a history
+of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the lines of later
+prophetic ideas is far from improbable.
+
+2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; a tribe of Israel (Gen. xxx.
+11). The name is that of the god of "luck" or fortune, mentioned in Isa.
+lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several names of places, e.g. Baal-Gad (Josh.
+xi. 17, xii. 7), and possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and
+Nahal-Gad.[1] There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the
+name is played on: "Gad, a plundering troop (_gedûd_) shall plunder him
+(_yegudennu_), but he shall plunder at their heels." There are no
+traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest
+references to the name is the statement on the inscription of Mesha,
+king of Moab (about 850 B.C.), that the "men of Gad" had occupied
+Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the king of Israel had
+fortified the city. This is in the district ascribed to Reuben, with
+which tribe the fortunes of Gad were very closely connected. In Numbers
+xxxii. 34 sqq., the cities of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of
+Heshbon; in Joshua xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north;
+while other texts present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled
+with either passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and
+Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That Gad, at one
+time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah and Nebo would
+follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of the Targums be
+accepted, "and he looked out the first part for himself, because there
+was the portion of the buried law-giver." It is certain, however, that,
+at a late period, this tribe was localized chiefly in Gilead, in the
+district which now goes by the name of Jebel Jil'ad. The traditions
+encircling this district point, it would seem, to the tribe having been
+of Aramaean origin (see the story of Jacob); at all events its position
+was extremely exposed, and its population at the best must have been a
+mixed one. Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding
+nomads of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives
+the tribe a character for bravery, and David's men of Gad (1 Chron. xii.
+8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by name (the
+geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad enters into the
+lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of Ammon and Moab it must
+have played some part. It followed Jeroboam in the great revolt against
+the house of David, and its later fortunes until 734 B.C. (1 Chron. v.
+26) would be those of the northern kingdom.
+
+  See, for a critical discussion of the data, H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._
+  cols. 1579 sqq.; also GILEAD; MANASSEH; REUBEN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See G.B. Gray, _Heb. Proper Names_, pp. 134 seq., 145.
+
+
+
+
+GADAG, or GARAG, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of
+Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 30,652. It is an important
+railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system, with a growing trade
+in raw cotton, and also in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are
+factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town
+contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit fine
+carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence of Gadag as
+early as the 10th century.
+
+
+
+
+GADARA, an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital of Peraea,
+and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris. It was a
+Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin. The earliest
+recorded event in its history is its capture by Antiochus III. of Syria
+in 218 B.C.; how long it may have existed before this date is unknown.
+About twenty years later it was besieged for ten months by Alexander
+Jannaeus. It was restored by Pompey, and in 30 B.C. was presented by
+Augustus to Herod the Great; on Herod's death it was reunited to Syria.
+The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions as have
+been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and wealthy classes were
+probably Greek, the common people being Hellenized and Judaized
+Aramaeans. The community was Hellenistically organized, and though
+dependent on Syria and acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was
+governed by a democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In
+the Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine period
+it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was renowned for
+its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and show the remains of
+bath-houses. The temperature of the springs is 110° F. This town was the
+birthplace of Meleager the anthologist. There is a confusion in the
+narrative of the healing of the demoniac between the very similar names
+_Gadara_, _Gerasa_ and _Gergesa_; but the probabilities, both textual
+and geographical, are in favour of the reading of Mark (_Gerasenes_, ch.
+v. 1, revised version); and that the miracle has nothing to do with
+Gadara, but took place at _Kersa_, on the eastern shore of the Sea of
+Galilee.
+
+Gadara is now represented by _Umm Kais_, a group of ruins about 6 m.
+S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the sea-level. There are
+very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in the neighbourhood. There are
+the remains of two theatres and (probably) a temple, and many heaps of
+carved stones, representing ancient buildings of various kinds. The
+walls are, or were, traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also
+the remains of a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying
+the ruins by quarrying building material out of them.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GADDI. Four painters of the early Florentine school--father, son and two
+grandsons--bore this name.
+
+1. GADDO GADDI was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend of Cimabue,
+and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and death have been given
+as 1239 and about 1312; these are probably too early; he may have been
+born towards 1260, and may have died in or about 1333. He was a painter
+and mosaicist, is said to have executed the great mosaic inside the
+portal of the cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the
+Virgin, and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside
+the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to the
+legend of the foundation of that church; their date is probably 1308. In
+the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also executed the mosaics
+of the choir, and those of the front representing on a colossal scale
+God the Father, with many other figures; likewise an altarpiece in the
+church of S. Maria Novella, Florence; these works no longer exist. It is
+ordinarily held that no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo
+Gaddi is now extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that
+the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance in style
+to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi, representing
+incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4 and especially 5,
+which shows Francis stripping himself, and protected by the bishop),
+that those frescoes likewise may, with considerable confidence, be
+ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant mosaics are attributed to him, but
+without full authentication. This artist laid the foundation of a very
+large fortune, which continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a
+highly distinguished worldly position.
+
+2. TADDEO GADDI (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo, was born in
+Florence, and is usually said to have been one of Giotto's most
+industrious assistants for a period of 24 years. This can hardly be
+other than an exaggeration; it is probable that he began painting on his
+own account towards 1330, when Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded
+as a merchant, and had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a
+painter, mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the
+Baroncelli (now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce,
+the "Virgin and Child between Four Prophets," on the funeral monument at
+the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in the legend of the
+Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the Temple up to the
+Nativity. In the subject of the "Presentation of the Virgin in the
+Temple" are the two heads traditionally accepted as portraits of Gaddo
+Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at any rate, are not likely to be portraits
+of those artists from the life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are
+the "Eight Virtues." In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo,
+the "Virgin and Child," and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the
+Naples gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the "Virgin enthroned along
+with Four Saints," the "Baptism of Jesus," and his "Deposition from the
+Cross"; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near Poggibonsi, an
+altarpiece dated 1355, the "Virgin and Child enthroned amid Angels." A
+series of paintings, partly from the life of St Francis, which Taddeo
+executed for the presses in S. Croce, are now divided between the
+Florentine Academy and the Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken
+from or founded on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have
+ascribed their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant
+in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings, which
+have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most eminent successors
+of Giotto; it may be said that he continued working up the material
+furnished by that great painter, with comparatively feeble inspiration
+of his own. His figures are vehement in action, long and slender in
+form; his execution rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are
+generally ascribed the celebrated frescoes--those of the ceiling and
+left or western wall--in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church of
+S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to considerable
+doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the designs for the
+ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also are the three pictures
+ascribed to him in the National Gallery, London. In mosaic he has left
+some work in the baptistery of Florence. As an architect he supplied in
+1336 the plans for the present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original
+(not the present) Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church
+of Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto's death the work of
+the unrivalled Campanile.
+
+3. AGNOLO GADDI, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo; the date of
+his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350 is nearer the mark.
+He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by his father, and a merchant as
+well; in middle age he settled down to commercial life in Venice, and he
+added greatly to the family wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396.
+His paintings show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced
+in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra' Fossi, Florence,
+represents the "Resurrection of Lazarus." Another probably youthful
+performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di Prato--legends of
+the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed upon St Thomas, and
+brought to Prato in the 11th century by Michele dei Dagomari; the
+"Marriage of Mary" is one of the best of this series, the later
+compositions in which have suffered much by renewals. In S. Croce he
+painted, in eight frescoes, the legend of the Cross, beginning with the
+archangel Michael giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and
+ending with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters
+Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself. Agnolo
+composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more dignity and
+individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold colourist; the
+general effect is laudably decorative, but the drawing is poor, and the
+works show best from a distance. Various other productions of this
+master exist, and many have perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the
+celebrated treatise on painting, was one of his pupils.
+
+4. GIOVANNI GADDI, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of promise. He
+died young in 1383.
+
+  Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as to the Gaddi.
+  Other notices appear here and there--such as _La Cappella de'
+  Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze_, by G. Ajazzi (1845).     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GADE, NIELS WILHELM (1817-1890), Danish composer, was born at
+Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 1817, his father being a musical
+instrument maker. He was intended for his father's trade, but his
+passion for a musician's career, made evident by the ease and skill with
+which he learnt to play upon a number of instruments, was not to be
+denied. Though he became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and
+in the elements of theory under Weyse and Berggreen, he was to a great
+extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in the
+great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the court band.
+In 1840 his _Aladdin_ and his overture of _Ossian_ attracted attention,
+and in 1841 his _Nachklänge aus Ossian_ overture gained the local
+musical society's prize, the judges being Spohr and Schneider. This work
+also attracted the notice of the king, who gave the composer a stipend
+which enabled him to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the
+Gewandhaus concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn's absence, and on the
+latter's death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the outbreak of the
+Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where he was appointed organist
+and conductor of the Musik-Verein. In 1852 he married a daughter of the
+composer J.P.E. Hartmann. He became court conductor in 1861, and was
+pensioned by the government in 1876--the year in which he visited
+Birmingham to conduct his _Crusaders_. This work, and the
+_Frühlingsfantasie_, the _Erlkönigs Tochter_, _Frühlingsbotschaft_ and
+_Psyche_ (written for Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide
+popularity. Indeed, they represent the strength and the weakness of
+Gade's musical ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the
+best of which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato
+pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his music is
+highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather than dramatic
+and effective. Much of the pianoforte music, _Aquarellen_, _Spring
+Flowers_, for instance, enjoyed a considerable vogue, as did the
+_Novelletten_ trio; but Gade's opera _Mariotta_ has not been heard
+outside the Copenhagen opera house. He died at Copenhagen on the 21st of
+December 1890.
+
+
+
+
+GADOLINIUM (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157.3), one of the rare earth
+metals (see ERBIUM). The element was discovered in 1880 in the mineral
+samarskite by C. Marignac (_Comptes rendus_, 1880, 90, p. 899; _Ann.
+chim. phys._, 1880 [5] 20, p. 535). G. Urbain (_Comptes rendus_, 1905,
+140, p. 583) separates the metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of
+nickel and gadolinium. The salts show absorption bands in the
+ultra-violet. The oxide Gd2O3 is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).
+
+
+
+
+GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), American patriot, was born in
+Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father, Thomas Gadsden, was for
+a time the king's collector for the port of Charleston. Christopher went
+to school near Bristol, in England, returned to America in 1741, was
+afterwards employed in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a
+merchant and planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an
+artillery company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a
+member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously from 1760
+to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp Act Congress of 1765
+and in the Continental Congress in 1774-1776. In February 1776 he was
+placed in command of all the military forces of South Carolina, and in
+October of the same year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was
+taken into the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising
+out of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his
+command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in 1780, when
+Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about three months
+following this event he was held as a prisoner on parole within the
+limits of Charleston; then, because of his influence in deterring others
+from exchanging their paroles for the privileges of British subjects, he
+was seized, taken to St Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would
+not give another parole to those who had violated the former agreement
+affecting him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In 1782
+Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature; he was also
+elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground that he was too
+old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the convention which ratified
+for South Carolina the Federal constitution; and in 1790 he was a member
+of the convention which framed the new state constitution. He died in
+Charleston on the 28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor
+Thomas Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature
+improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was hostile to
+the British administration. He was an ardent leader of the opposition to
+the Stamp Act, advocating even then a separation of the colonies from
+the mother country; and in the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed
+the situation on the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and
+urged an immediate attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be
+defeated before receiving reinforcements.
+
+
+
+
+GADSDEN, JAMES (1788-1858), American soldier and diplomat, was born at
+Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788, the grandson of Christopher
+Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806, became a merchant in his native
+city, and in the war of 1812 served in the regular U.S. Army as a
+lieutenant of engineers. In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with
+the rank of captain, as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In
+October 1820 he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with
+the rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the
+establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From August
+1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his appointment not
+being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army and became a planter in
+Florida. He served in the Territorial legislature, and as Federal
+commissioner superintended in 1823 the removal of the Seminole Indians
+to South Florida. In 1832 he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty
+which provided for their removal within three years to lands in what is
+now the state of Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move,
+hostilities again broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was
+quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February to April
+1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice planter, and was
+president of the South Carolina railway. In 1853 President Franklin
+Pierce appointed him minister to Mexico, with which country he
+negotiated the so-called "Gadsden treaty" (signed the 30th of December
+1853), which gave to the United States freedom of transit for mails,
+merchandise and troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided
+for a readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of
+Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m. of land,
+since known as the "Gadsden Purchase," in what is now New Mexico and
+Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
+which bound the United States to prevent incursions of Indians from the
+United States into Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by
+such Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United
+States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of the
+treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the 30th of
+June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired from his post. The
+boundary line between Mexico and the "Gadsden Purchase" was marked by
+joint commissions appointed in 1855 and 1891, the second commission
+publishing its report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South
+Carolina, on the 25th of December 1858.
+
+An elder brother, CHRISTOPHER EDWARDS GADSDEN (1785-1852), was
+Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in 1839-1852.
+
+
+
+
+GADWALL, a word of obscure origin,[1] the common English name of the
+duck, called by Linnaeus _Anas strepera_, but considered by many modern
+ornithologists to require removal from the genus _Anas_ to that of
+_Chaulelasmus_ or _Ctenorhynchus_, of either of which it is almost the
+sole species. Its geographical distribution is almost identical with
+that of the common wild duck or mallard (see DUCK), since it is found
+over the greater part of the northern hemisphere; but, save in India,
+where it is one of the most abundant species of duck during the cold
+weather, it is hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern
+parts of the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare
+than otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed,
+greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance on the water
+is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated form and
+elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler even at such a
+distance as hinders him from seeing its very distinct plumage. In
+coloration the two sexes appear almost equally sombre; but on closer
+inspection the drake exhibits a pencilled grey coloration and upper
+wing-coverts of a deep chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly
+clad partner. She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour,
+but has, like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure
+white, presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most
+readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The gadwall is
+a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the few that have
+been induced, by the protection afforded them in certain localities, to
+resume the indigenous position they once filled, but had, through the
+draining and reclaiming of marshy lands, long since abandoned. In regard
+to the present species, this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew
+Fountaine, on whose property, in West Norfolk and its immediate
+neighbourhood, the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing
+numbers. It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for
+the table.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The _New English Dictionary_ has nothing to say. Webster gives
+    the etymology _gad well_ = go about well. Dr R.G. Latham suggested
+    that it was taken from the syllables _quedul_, of the Lat.
+    _querquedula_, a teal. The spelling "gadwall" seems to be first found
+    in Willughby in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later
+    writers; but Merrett, in 1667, has "gaddel" (_Pinax rerum naturalium
+    Britannicarum_, p. 180), saying that it was so called by
+    bird-dealers. The synonym "gray," given by Willughby and Ray, is
+    doubtless derived from the general colour of the species, and has its
+    analogue in the Icelandic _Gráönd_, applied almost indifferently, or
+    with some distinguishing epithet, to the female of any of the
+    freshwater ducks, and especially to both sexes of the present, in
+    which, as stated in the text, there is comparatively little
+    conspicuous difference of plumage in drake and duck.
+
+
+
+
+GAEKWAR, or GUICOWAR, the family name of the Mahratta rulers of Baroda
+(q.v.) in western India, which has been converted by the English into a
+dynastic title. It is derived from the vernacular word for the cow, but
+it is a mistake to suppose that the family are of the cowherd caste;
+they belong to the upper class of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a
+Rajput origin. The dynasty was founded by a succession of three
+warriors, Damaji I., Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta
+supremacy throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 18th century.
+The present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.
+
+
+
+
+GAETA (anc. _Caietae Portus_), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania,
+Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 53 m. W.N.W. by rail
+via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It occupies a lower projecting point of
+the promontory which forms the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The
+tomb of Munatius Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see CAIETAE
+PORTUS), is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the
+extensive earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is well
+sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial importance, being
+mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the suburb of Elena (formerly
+Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369. Above the town is a castle erected
+by the Angevin kings, and strengthened at various periods. The cathedral
+of St Erasmus (S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun
+in 860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the interior
+has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of the cathedral is a
+candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the end of the 13th century,
+consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief, with 24 representations from the
+life of Christ, and 24 of the life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, _Storia
+dell' arte Italiana_, iii. Milan, 1904, 642 seq.). The cathedral
+possesses three fine _Exultet_ rolls, with miniatures dating from the
+11th to the beginning of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the
+banner sent by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of
+Lepanto. The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527,
+is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close to that
+of La Trinità is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical fissure from 6
+to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level. Over the chasm is a
+chapel _del Crocefisso_, the mountain having split, it is said, at the
+death of Christ.
+
+During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi and Naples,
+would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port
+and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant. Its history,
+however, is obscure until, in 823, it appears as a lordship ruled by
+hereditary _hypati_ or consuls. In 844 the town fell into the hands of
+the Arabs, but four years later they were driven out with help supplied
+by Pope Leo IV. In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who
+gave it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long
+claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the _hypatus_ John
+(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he established
+as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman emperors. In the 11th
+century the duchy fell into the hands of the Norman counts of Aversa,
+afterwards princes of Capua, and in 1135 it was definitively annexed to
+his kingdom by Roger of Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage
+as late as 1229.
+
+In military history the town has played a conspicuous part. Its
+fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On the 30th of
+September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months' siege, by the
+Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August 1734 it was taken, after
+a siege of four months, by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under
+the future King Charles of Naples. The fortifications were again
+strengthened; and in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On
+the 18th of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the
+French under Masséna; and on the 18th of July 1815 it capitulated, after
+a three months' siege, to the Austrians. In November 1848 Pope Pius IX.,
+after his flight in disguise from Rome, found a refuge at Gaeta, where
+he remained till the 4th of September 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the
+scene of the last stand of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of
+United Italy. Shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's
+occupation of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen
+Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th of
+February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having made
+bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to capitulate.
+
+  See G.B. Federici, _Degli antichi duchi, consoli o ipati della città
+  di Gaeta_ (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d' Aragona, _Mem. stor.
+  della città di Gaeta_ (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, _Il Golfo di Gaeta_
+  (Novara, 1876).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GAETANI, or CAETANI, the name of the oldest of the Roman princely
+families which played a great part in the history of the city and of the
+papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin, and the founder of the
+house is said to be one Dominus Constantinus Cagetanus, who flourished
+in the 10th century, but the family had no great importance until the
+election of Benedetto Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1294,
+when they at once became the most notable in the city. The pope
+conferred on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato
+(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles II. of
+Anjou created the pope's brother count of Caserta. Giordano Loffredo
+Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna dell' Aquila, heiress of the
+counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297 added the name of Aquila to his
+own, and his grandson Giacomo acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and
+Gioia. The Gaetani proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to
+protect Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th
+centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturbances in
+Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to civil war. They also
+played an important rôle as Neapolitan nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in
+his attempt to crush the great Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the
+Gaetani fiefs and gave them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.); but
+they afterwards regained them.
+
+At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (1) Gaetani, princes of Teano
+and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello Gaetani, whose grandson,
+Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in
+1503, the marquisate of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus
+V. in 1585. In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by
+marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the principality
+of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house, Onorato Gaetani, 14th
+duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano, duke of San Marco, marquis of
+Cisterna, &c., is a senator of the kingdom of Italy, and was minister
+for foreign affairs for a short time. (2) Gaetani dell' Aquila
+d'Aragona, princes of Piedimonte, and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by
+Onorato Gaetani dell' Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and
+Morcone, lord of Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname
+of Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani, duke of
+Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural daughter of King
+Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Laurenzana, in the kingdom of
+Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani by his marriage in 1606 with
+Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte
+was raised to a principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the
+house is Nicola Gaetani dell' Aquila d'Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of
+Piedimonte and 12th duke of Laurenzana.
+
+  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868); F.
+  Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanach
+  de Gotha_ (1907 and 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GAETULIA, an ancient district in northern Africa, which in the usage of
+Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of the southern slopes of
+Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the Atlantic, and the oases in the
+northern part of the Sahara. They were always distinguished from the
+Negro people to the south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber
+race which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and Mauretania
+(q.v.). The tribes to be found there at the present day are probably of
+the same race, and retain the same wandering habits; and it is possible
+that they still bear in certain places the name of their Gaetulian
+ancestors (see Vivien St Martin, _Le Nord de l'Afrique_, 1863). A few
+only seem to have mingled with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus
+interpret Ptolemy's allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were
+noted for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000
+foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh and
+milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name is that of the
+purple dye which became famous from the time of Augustus onwards, and
+was made from the purple fish found on the coast, apparently both in the
+Syrtes and on the Atlantic.
+
+We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106 B.C.), when,
+as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name of Rome. They took
+part with Jugurtha against Rome; but when we next hear of them they are
+in alliance with Caesar against Juba I. (_Bell. Afr._ 32). In 25 B.C.
+Augustus seems to have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together
+with his kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling
+the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred the Roman
+residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been inflicted on
+them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the surname Gaetulicus) in
+A.D. 6 that they submitted to the king. After Mauretania became a Roman
+province in A.D. 40, the Roman governors made frequent expeditions into
+the Gaetulian territory to the south, and the official view seems to be
+expressed by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as
+the Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the
+Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but inscriptions
+prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops of the empire, and
+it may be assumed that the country passed within the sphere of Roman
+influence, though hardly within the pale of Roman civilization.
+
+  For bibliography see AFRICA, ROMAN.
+
+
+
+
+GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier, was born at De Ruyter,
+Madison county, New York, on the 28th of June 1836. He was educated at
+an academy at Rome, New York, where at the age of seventeen he became a
+bank clerk. In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as
+book-keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house of
+the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was cashier in
+1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively assistant cashier (1868),
+vice-president (1882), and president (1891) of the First National Bank
+of Chicago, one of the strongest financial institutions in the middle
+west. He was chosen in 1892 president of the board of directors of the
+World's Columbian Exposition, the successful financing of which was due
+more to him than to any other man. In politics he was originally a
+Republican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the party
+in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884, however, he
+supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency, and came to be looked
+upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President Cleveland, after his second
+election, offered Gage the post of secretary of the treasury, but the
+offer was declined. In the "free-silver" campaign of 1896 Gage laboured
+effectively for the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897
+until January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets
+successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From April 1902 until
+1906 he was president of the United States Trust Company in New York
+City. His administration of the treasury department, through a more than
+ordinarily trying period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking
+toward the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater
+flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the
+relations between the government and the National banks.
+
+
+
+
+GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts,
+second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the
+army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of
+Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in March 1751. In
+1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in
+General Braddock's disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a
+new regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal. He
+was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and
+in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in
+America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. In 1774 he was
+appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted
+with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which
+surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the
+gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April
+at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the
+battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William)
+Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on
+the 2nd of April 1787.
+
+
+
+
+GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the performance of
+an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure to carry it out. The
+word also appears in "engage," and is taken from the O. Fr., as are
+"wage," payment for services, and "wager," bet, stake, from the
+collateral O. Fr. _waige_. These two words are from the Low Lat.
+_wadiare_, _vadiare_, to pledge, _vadium_, classical Lat. _vas_,
+_vadis_, but may be from the old Teutonic cognate base seen in Gothic
+_wadi_, a pledge (cf. Ger. _wetten_, to wager); this Teutonic base is
+seen in Eng. "wed," to marry, i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth,
+_gawadjon_, to betrothe). A particular form of giving a "gage" or pledge
+was that of throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a
+judicial combat, the glove being the "pledge" that the parties would
+appear on the field; hence the common phrase "to throw down the gage of
+defiance" for any challenge (see GLOVE and WAGER).
+
+
+
+
+GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (1766-1852), German statesman
+and political writer, was born at Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the
+25th of January 1766. After studying law at the universities of Leipzig
+and Göttingen, he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg,
+whom in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards
+appointed the prince's envoy at Paris, where he remained till the decree
+of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left side of the Rhine
+to serve any other state than France, compelled him to resign his office
+(1811). He then retired to Vienna, and in 1812 he took part in the
+attempt to excite a second insurrection against Napoleon in Tirol. On
+the failure of this attempt he left Austria and joined the headquarters
+of the Prussian army (1813), and became a member of the board of
+administration for north Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator
+of the Orange principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king
+of the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister. In 1815 he
+represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded in obtaining
+for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation of territory. From 1816
+to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy at the German diet, but was recalled, at
+the instance of Metternich, owing to his too independent advocacy of
+state constitutions. In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at
+Hornau, near Höchst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first
+chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take an active
+share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of his country. He
+retired from public life in 1848, and died at Hornau on the 22nd of
+October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote a history of the German nation
+(Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols., Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several
+other books on subjects connected with history and social and political
+science. Of most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, _Mein
+Anteil an der Politik_, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).
+
+Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained considerable
+eminence:--
+
+FRIEDRICH BALDUIN, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the eldest, was born
+at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He entered the university of
+Göttingen, but soon left, and, taking service in the Austrian army, took
+part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and fought in the following year
+at Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took
+part in the campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at
+Heidelberg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of the
+German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took part in the
+Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being promoted to the rank
+of general, was sent on an important mission to the Dutch East Indies to
+inquire into the state of their military defences. In 1847 he was
+appointed governor at the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the
+spring of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the
+revolutionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government of
+Baden to take the command against the insurgent "free companies"
+(_Freischaaren_). At Kandern, on the 20th of April, he made a vain
+effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was about to order his
+troops to attack when he was mortally wounded by the bullets of the
+insurgents. His _Life_, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg and Leipzig, 1856-1857),
+was written by his brother Heinrich von Gagern.
+
+HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, Freiherr von Gagern (1799-1880), the third son,
+was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August 1799, educated at the
+military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in the service of the
+duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo. Leaving the service after the war,
+he studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Göttingen and Jena, and in 1819
+went for a while to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his
+official career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 was
+elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities he had
+proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the _Burschenschaft_,
+and he now threw himself into open opposition to the unconstitutional
+spirit of the Hessian government, an attitude which led to his dismissal
+from the state service in 1833. Henceforth he lived in comparative
+retirement, cultivating a farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and
+occasionally publishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February
+revolution of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active
+political life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian
+administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation of a
+united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the preliminary convention
+(_Vorparlament_) of Frankfort he deeply impressed the assemblies with
+the breadth and moderation of his views; with the result that when the
+German national parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first
+president. His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist
+party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was he who
+was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a united empire
+with a common parliament, and in carrying the election of the Archduke
+John as regent. With the growing split between the Great Germans
+(_Grossdeutschen_), who wished the new empire to include the Austrian
+provinces, and the Little Germans (_Kleindeutschen_), who realized that
+German unity could only be attained by excluding them, his position was
+shaken. On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian
+members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the imperial
+ministry, and on the 18th he introduced a programme (known as the
+_Gagernsche Programm_) according to which Austria was to be excluded
+from the new federal state, but bound to it by a treaty of union. After
+a severe struggle this proposal was accepted; but the academic
+discussion on the constitution continued for weary months, and on the
+20th of May, realizing the hopelessness of coming to terms with the
+ultra-democrats, Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted
+to influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the
+national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt
+parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good results
+from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from the contest,
+and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-Holstein government,
+took part in the Danish War of 1850. After the war he retired into
+private life at Heidelberg. In 1862, misled by the constitutional
+tendency of Austrian politics, he publicly declared in favour of the
+Great German party. In 1864 he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring
+in 1872 when the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd of
+May 1880.
+
+MAXIMILIAN, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest son, was born
+at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to 1848 he was a government
+official in Nassau; in that year he became a member of the German
+national parliament and under-secretary of state for foreign affairs.
+Throughout the revolutionary years he supported his brother's policy,
+became a member of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the
+national movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In
+1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service as court
+and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs. In 1871
+he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life member of the Upper Chamber
+(_Herrenhaus_). He died at Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.
+
+  See _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878)
+  and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated by the
+Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond with the six periods
+of creation: (1) _Maidhyozaremaya_ (mid spring), (2) _Maidhyoshema_
+(midsummer), (3) _Paitishahya_ (season of corn), (4) _Ayathrema_ (season
+of flocks), (5) _Maidhyarya_ (winter solstice), (6) _Hamaspathmaedha_
+(festival of sacrifices).
+
+
+
+
+GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE (1642-1715), French genealogist, antiquary
+and collector, was the son of Aimé de Gaignières, secretary to the
+governor of Burgundy, and was born on the 30th of December 1642. He
+became écuyer (esquire) to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards
+to Louis Joseph's aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed
+governor of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to
+make a collection of original materials for history generally, and, in
+particular, for that of the French church and court. He brought together
+a large collection of original letters and other documents, together
+with portraits and prints, and had copies made of a great number of the
+most curious antiquarian objects, such as seals, tombstones, stained
+glass, miniatures and tapestry. In 1711 he presented the whole of his
+collections to the king. The bulk of them is preserved in the
+Bibliothèque Nationale at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian
+library at Oxford.
+
+  See G. Duplessis, _Roger de Gaignières_ (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle,
+  _Cabinet des manuscrits_, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, _Les
+  Portraits aux crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siècles_ (Paris, 1884); Ch.
+  de Grandmaison, _Gaignières, ses correspondants et ses collections de
+  portraits_ (Niort, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829), French hellenist, was born in Paris on
+the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed deputy, and in 1792
+titular professor at the Collège de France. During the Revolution he
+quietly performed his professional duties, taking no part in politics,
+although he possessed the faculty of ingratiating himself with those in
+authority. In 1815 he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in
+the royal library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other
+conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. Gail imagined
+that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle his learning and
+professional success, and there was a standing quarrel between him and
+his literary opponents, the most distinguished of whom was P.L. Courier.
+He died on the 5th of February 1829. Without being a great Greek
+scholar, Gail was a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was
+devoted to his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for
+having rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during
+the troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published
+works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of
+Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). He also
+wrote a number of elementary educational works, based on the principles
+of the school of Port Royal. His communications to the Académie des
+Inscriptions being coldly received and seldom accorded the honour of
+print, he inserted them in a vast compilation in 24 volumes, which he
+called _Le Philologue_, containing a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek
+grammar, geography, archaeology, and various authors.
+
+  See "Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in
+  _Mém. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, ix.; the articles in _Biographie
+  universelle_ (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopädie_ (by C.F. Bähr); a list of his works will be found in
+  J.M. Quérard, _La France littéraire_ (1829), including the contents of
+  the volumes of _Le Philologue_.
+
+
+
+
+GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Tarn, on the right bank of the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi
+on the railway from that city to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388;
+commune, 7535. The churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from
+the 13th and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There
+are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen, of the
+Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors. The public
+institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance,
+and a communal college. Its industries include the manufacture of lime
+and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-sawing and flour-milling are also
+carried on; it has a considerable trade in grain, flour, vegetables,
+dried plums, anise, coriander, &c., and in wine, the white and red wines
+of the arrondissement having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round
+the Benedictine abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century.
+
+
+
+
+GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian, was born at
+Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the bar, but after
+finishing his studies adopted a literary career, ultimately devoting his
+chief attention to history. He was already a member of the Academy of
+Inscriptions and Belles-lettres (1760), when, after the publication of
+the three first volumes of his _Histoire de la rivalité de la France et
+d'Angleterre_, he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when
+Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third class
+(_Académie française_) in 1803. For forty years he was the intimate
+friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He died at St Firmin,
+near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806. Gaillard is painstaking
+and impartial in his statement of facts, and his style is correct and
+elegant, but the unity of his narrative is somewhat destroyed by
+digressions, and by his method of treating war, politics, civil
+administration, and ecclesiastical affairs under separate heads. His
+most important work is his _Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de
+l'Angleterre_ (in 11 vols., 1771-1777); and among his other works may be
+mentioned _Essai de rhétorique française, à l'usage des jeunes
+demoiselles_ (1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the
+author; _Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne_ (1757); _Histoire de François
+I^er_ (7 vols., 1776-1779); _Histoire des grandes querelles entre
+Charles V. et François I^er_ (2 vols., 1777); _Histoire de Charlemagne_
+(2 vols., 1782); _Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l'Espagne_
+(8 vols., 1801); _Dictionnaire historique_ (6 vols., 1789-1804), making
+part of the _Encyclopédie méthodique_; and _Mélanges littéraires_,
+containing _éloges_ on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, La
+Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.
+
+
+
+
+GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Alachua county, Florida,
+U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 2790; (1900) 3633,
+of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413; (1910) 6183. Gainesville is
+served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa
+& Jacksonville railways, and is an important railway junction. It is the
+seat of the University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City
+in 1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university includes a
+school of language and literature, a general scientific school, a school
+of agriculture, a technological school, a school of pedagogy, a normal
+school, and an agricultural experiment station. In 1908 the university
+had 15 instructors and 103 students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference
+and Chautauqua is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter
+resort, and its climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by
+pulmonary troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne's
+Prairie, Newman's Lake, the Devil's Mill Hopper and other objects of
+interest. The surrounding country produces Sea Island cotton, melons,
+citrus and other fruits, vegetables and naval stores. About 15 m. W. of
+the city there is a rich phosphate mining district. The city has
+bottling works, and manufactures fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c.
+The municipality owns and operates the water-works; the water-supply
+comes from a spring 2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles
+that of the Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the
+famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here about 1850;
+and Gainesville, named in honour of General E.P. Gaines, was
+incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooke county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m. N. of Fort Worth. Pop.
+(1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes and 269 foreign-born); (1910)
+7624. The city is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fé, and the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by an interurban electric
+railway. Gainesville is a trading centre and market for the surrounding
+country, in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are
+grown and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for
+the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city has
+cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manufactures are
+cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks, canned goods,
+foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery products. Gainesville was
+settled about 1851, was incorporated in 1873, and was chartered as a
+city in 1879; it was named in honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines
+(1777-1849), who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a
+brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of
+major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of Fort Erie in
+August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the operations against the
+Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he was in command of the Southern
+Military District) and in 1836 and during the Mexican War commanded the
+department of the South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans.
+
+
+
+
+GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788), English painter, one of the greatest
+masters of the English school in portraiture, and only less so in
+landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in the spring of 1727. His
+father, who carried on the business of a woollen crape-maker in that
+town, was of a respectable character and family, and was noted for his
+skill in fencing; his mother excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged
+her son in the use of the pencil. There were nine children of the
+marriage, two of the painter's brothers being of a very ingenious turn.
+
+At ten years old, Gainsborough "had sketched every fine tree and
+picturesque cottage near Sudbury," and at fourteen, having filled his
+task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and sketched the
+portrait of a man whom he had detected on the watch for robbing his
+father's orchard, he was allowed to follow the bent of his genius in
+London, with some instruction in etching from Gravelot, and under such
+advantages as Hayman, the historical painter, and the academy in St
+Martin's Lane could afford. Three years of study in the metropolis,
+where he did some modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two
+years in the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young
+lady of many charms, including an annuity of £200, married her after
+painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age of twenty,
+became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being £6 a year. The annuity
+was reported to come from Margaret's real (not her putative) father, who
+was one of the exiled Stuart princes or else the duke of Bedford. She
+was sister of a young man employed by Gainsborough's father as a
+traveller. At Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was "chiefly in the
+face-way"; his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often
+rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society of
+Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many landscapes with
+an attention to details which his later works never exhibited, or from
+joining a musical club and entertaining himself and his fellow-townsmen
+by giving concerts. As he advanced in years he became ambitious of
+advancing in reputation. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and
+fashion, and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he
+removed with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their
+marriage. His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he
+gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40
+guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he rapidly
+developed beyond the comparatively plain and humdrum quality of his
+Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at this period were the authors
+Sterne and Richardson, and the actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick.
+Meanwhile he contributed both portraits and landscapes to the annual
+exhibitions in London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to
+play the viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His
+house harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians. He
+haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted gratuitously the
+portraits of many of the actors: he constantly gave away his sketches
+and landscapes. In the summer of 1774, having already attained a
+position of great prosperity, he took his departure for London, and
+fixed his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still
+standing, for a part of which the artist paid £300 a year.
+
+Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he received a
+summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he divided with West
+the favour of the court, and with Reynolds the favour of the town.
+Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin, Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu,
+Mrs Siddons, Clive, Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who
+sat to him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited, were
+commended, and were year after year returned to him, "till they stood,"
+says Sir William Beechey, "ranged in long lines from his hall to his
+painting-room." Gainsborough was a member of the Royal Academy, one of
+the original 36 elected in 1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with
+the position assigned on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the
+three princesses, he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never
+afterwards exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the
+business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibition in
+his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while witnessing the
+trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary chill at the back of
+his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer (or, as some say, a
+malignant wen) which proved fatal on the 2nd of August of the same year.
+He lies buried at Kew.
+
+Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive to the
+point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish likings, a
+lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough embodiment of
+the artistic temperament; delighting in nature and "the look of things,"
+insatiable in working, fond of music and the theatre hardly less than of
+painting--a warm, rich personality, to whom severe principle was perhaps
+as foreign as deliberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his
+death was not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the
+musician Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of
+mental aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried. Mrs
+Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, survived her husband
+ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that Gainsborough, if he ever had
+a tiff with her, would write a pacifying note, confiding it to his dog
+Fox, who delivered it to the lady's pet spaniel Tristram. The note was
+worded as in the person of Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied
+in the best of humours, as from Tristram to Fox.
+
+Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest
+portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance; but
+Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation. It
+is difficult to say which stands the higher of the two, although
+Reynolds may claim to have worked with a nearer approach to even and
+demonstrable excellence. In grace, spirit, and lightness of insight and
+of touch, Gainsborough is peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight
+for the most part, and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree
+masterly; and his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted
+than his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of "Lady
+Ligonier," "Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," "Master Buttall (the Blue
+Boy)," now in Grosvenor House, "Mrs Sheridan and Mrs Tickell," "Orpin,
+the parish clerk" (National Gallery), "the Hon. Mrs Graham" (Scottish
+National Gallery), his own portrait (Royal Academy), "Mrs Siddons"
+(National Gallery); also "the Cottage Door," "the Market Cart," "the
+Return from Harvest," "the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm" (destroyed by
+fire), and "Waggon and Horses passing a Brook" (National Gallery--this
+was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast number of drawings and
+sketches.
+
+A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual works by
+Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics as a painter.
+
+Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at Ipswich,
+were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston. His first great hit
+was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord Nugent. With a likeness of Mr
+Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided advance in artistic type, and his style
+became fixed towards 1768. The date of the "Blue Boy" is somewhat
+uncertain: most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark.
+This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is said
+that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting a dictum
+of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour unsuitable for the
+main light of a work. But, if the picture was produced before 1778, the
+date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-cherished and often-repeated
+tradition must be given up. A full-length of the duke of Norfolk was
+perhaps the latest work to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait
+of Elizabeth, duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance,
+has aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not long
+after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed "the Duchess of
+Devonshire," does really represent that lady, is by no means certain. It
+was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in London immediately after it had been
+purchased by Messrs Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a
+long time elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New
+York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through the agency
+of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the American detectives
+working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold to Mr Pierpont Morgan.
+
+Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300, including 220
+portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and 3 in aquatint. At the
+date of his death 56 paintings remained on hand: these, along with 148
+drawings, were then exhibited. In his earlier days he made a practice of
+copying works by Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration),
+Titian, Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not in a
+spirit of servile reproduction.
+
+Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential element of
+portraiture--truthful likeness. In process of time he advanced in the
+rendering of immediate expression, while he somewhat receded in general
+character. He always made his sitters look pleasant, and, after a while,
+distinguished. Unity of impression is one of the most marked qualities
+in his work; he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he
+wrought at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very
+wilful some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result. He
+painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later years. For
+portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft. long; there was but
+little light in his painting-room, and he often worked in the evenings.
+He kept his landscape work distinct from his portraiture, not ever
+adding to the latter a fully realized landscape background; his views he
+never signed or dated--his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are
+constantly cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
+scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming rain,
+or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his landscapes is
+somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-groups or in
+portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plaintive than mirthful.
+It should be acknowledged that, whether in portraiture or in landscape,
+the painter's mannerisms of execution increased in process of
+time--patchings of the brush, tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits
+are hurried and flimsy, with a minimum of solid content, though not
+other than artistic in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:--"What
+makes the difference between man and man is real performance, and not
+genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous for a
+person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours smelt
+offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is just as
+material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and drawing of a
+picture." "The eye is the only perspective-master needed by a
+landscape-painter."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor of
+  Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the artist's
+  fortunes at starting, published A _Sketch of the Life and Paintings of
+  Thomas Gainsborough_. He had quarrelled with the painter at Bath,
+  partly because the latter had undertaken to do a portrait of him as a
+  gift, and then neglected the work, and finally, in a huff, bundled it
+  off only half done. The crucial question here is whether or not
+  Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform any such gratuitous
+  work, and this point has been contested. Thicknesse's book is in part
+  adverse to Gainsborough, and more particularly so to his wife.
+  Reynolds's "Lecture" on Gainsborough, replete with critical insight,
+  should never be lost sight of as a leading document. In 1856 a
+  heedfully compiled _Life of Thomas Gainsborough_ was brought out by
+  T.W. Fulcher. This was the first substantial work about him subsequent
+  to Allan Cunningham's lively account (1829) in his _Lives of the
+  Painters_. Of late years a great deal has been written, mainly but not
+  by any means exclusively from the critical or technical point of
+  view:--Sir Walter Armstrong (two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur
+  Bell (1902); Sir W.M. Conway, _Artistic Development of Reynolds and
+  Gainsborough_ (1886); Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G.M.
+  Brock-Arnold (1881). G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in
+  Germany (1904) under the title _Gainsborough_.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or Gainsborough
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; on the right (E.) bank
+of the Trent. Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,660. It is served by the
+Lincoln-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern
+railways, by which it is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central
+railway. The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century,
+excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish churches are
+modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged in the 16th, is a
+picturesque building, forming three sides of a quadrangle, partially
+timber-framed, but having a beautiful oriel window and other parts of
+stone. There is also a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific
+institute occupy part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar
+school (founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other
+schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church of
+England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water on the Trent
+and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-founding are carried on,
+and there are manufactures of linseed cake, and agricultural and other
+machinery.
+
+Gainsborough (_Gegnesburh_) was probably inhabited by the Saxons on
+account of the fishing in the Trent. The _Saxon Chronicle_ states that
+in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed here and subjugated the
+inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not a chartered borough, was probably
+one by prescription, for mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The
+privilege of the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor,
+Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed to Ralph de
+Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a Wednesday market, but there
+is no extant grant before 1258, when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market
+to William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward
+I. in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints' Day, and the seven
+preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III. granted to John
+Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day and morrow of St James
+the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592 granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two
+fairs, to begin on Easter Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting
+three days. Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to
+nine days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are
+Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and Wednesday
+after the 20th of October.
+
+  See Adam Stark, _History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh_ (London,
+  1843).
+
+
+
+
+GAIRDNER, JAMES (1828-   ), English historian, son of John Gairdner,
+M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of March 1828. Educated in his
+native city, he entered the Public Record Office in London in 1846,
+becoming assistant keeper of the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner's
+valuable and painstaking contributions to English history relate chiefly
+to the reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the "Rolls
+Series" he edited _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Reigns of
+Richard III. and Henry VII._ (London, 1861-1863), and _Memorials of
+Henry VII._ (London, 1858); and he succeeded J.S. Brewer in editing the
+_Letters and Papers_, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII.
+(London, 1862-1905). He brought out the best edition of the _Paston
+Letters_ (London, 1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a
+valuable introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the
+_Historical collections of a Citizen of London_ (London, 1876), and
+_Three 15th-century Chronicles_ (London, 1880). His other works include
+excellent monographs on _Richard III._ (London, 1878, new and enlarged
+edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on _Henry VII._ (London, 1889, and
+subsequently); _The Houses of Lancaster and York_ (London, 1874, and
+other editions); _The English Church in the 16th century_ (London,
+1902); _Lollardy and the Reformation in England_ (1908); and
+contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the _Dictionary of
+National Biography_, the _Cambridge Modern History_, and the _English
+Historical Review_. Gairdner received the honorary degree of LL.D. from
+the university of Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GAIRLOCH (Gaelic _geàrr_, short), a sea loch, village and parish in the
+west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901)
+3797. The parish covers a large district on the coast, and stretches
+inland beyond the farther banks of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies
+within its bounds. It also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in
+the loch, and Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646
+acres. The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in
+Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross, Gairloch
+has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th century.
+Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little glen of the same
+name, lying close to the village, is the chief seat of the Gairloch
+branch of the clan Mackenzie. William Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic
+poet, who was schoolmaster of Gairloch, of which his mother was a
+native, was buried in the old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates
+him.
+
+
+
+
+GAISERIC, or GENSERIC (c. 390-477), king of the Vandals, was a son of
+King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390. Though lame and only of
+moderate stature, he won renown as a warrior, and became king on the
+death of his brother Gonderic in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host
+of Vandals from Spain into Roman Africa, and took possession of
+Mauretania. This step is said to have been taken at the instigation of
+Boniface, the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented
+of his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending Hippo
+Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months Gaiseric raised the
+siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced to fly to Italy, and the city
+afterwards fell into the hands of the Vandals. Having pillaged and
+conquered almost the whole of Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a
+treaty with the emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed
+to retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long, and in
+October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the capital of his
+kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric at this time first
+actually assumed the title of king. In religious matters he was an
+Arian, and persecuted the members of the orthodox church in Africa,
+although his religious policy varied with his relations to the Roman
+empire. Turning his attention in another direction he built a fleet, and
+the ravages of the Vandals soon made them known and feared along the
+shores of the Mediterranean. "Let us make," said Gaiseric, "for the
+dwellings of the men with whom God is angry," and he left the conduct of
+his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he led an
+expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen days his troops
+were permitted to plunder, and then returned to Africa laden with spoil.
+He also carried with him many captives, including the empress Eudoxia,
+who is said to have invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two
+attempts to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus,
+in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years later;
+but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius of
+Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought Sicily,
+Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule, and even
+extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia Minor. Having made
+peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in 476, he died on the 25th of
+January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel and cunning man, possessing great
+military talents and superior mental gifts. Though the effect of his
+victories was afterwards neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his
+name long remained the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said
+to be derived from _gais_, a javelin, and _reiks_, a king.
+
+  See VANDALS; also T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, vol. ii.
+  (London, 1892); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed.
+  J.B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Vandalen_ (Leipzig,
+  1901); and F. Martroye, _Genseric; La Conquête vandale en Afrique_
+  (Paris, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855), English classical scholar, was born at
+Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779. Proceeding to Oxford in
+1797, he became successively student and tutor of Christ Church, and was
+in 1811 appointed regius professor of Greek in the university. Taking
+orders, he held (1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in
+Oxfordshire, and other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with
+his professorship. From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he
+was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and principal
+delegate of the University Press he was instrumental in securing the
+co-operation of distinguished European scholars as collators, notably
+Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous contributions to Greek literature
+may be mentioned, Hephaestion's _Encheiridion_ (1810); _Poëtae Graeci
+minores_ (1814-1820); Stobaeus' _Florilegium_ (1822); _Herodotus_, with
+variorum notes (1824); Suidas' _Lexicon_ (1834); _Etymologicon magnum_
+(1848); Eusebius's _Praeparatio_ (1843) and _Demonstratio evangelica_
+(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were founded
+at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.
+
+
+
+
+GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history very little is
+known. It is impossible to discover even his full name, Gaius or Caius
+being merely the personal name (praenomen) so common in Rome. From
+internal evidence in his works it may be gathered that he flourished in
+the reigns of the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and
+Commodus. His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180, at
+the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and its government
+the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some provincial town, and hence
+we find no contemporary notices of his life or works. After his death,
+however, his writings were recognized as of great authority, and the
+emperor Valentinian named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus
+and Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be
+followed by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these
+jurists accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.
+
+Besides the _Institutes_, which are a complete exposition of the
+elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the _Edicts
+of the Magistrates_, of _Commentaries on the Twelve Tables_, and on the
+important _Lex Papia Poppaea_, and several other works. His interest in
+the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, and for this reason his work
+is most valuable to the historian of early institutions. In the disputes
+between the two schools of Roman jurists he generally attached himself
+to that of the Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius
+Capito, of whose life we have some account in the _Annals_ of Tacitus,
+and to advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules,
+and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of Gaius occur
+in the _Digest_ of Justinian, and so acquired a permanent place in the
+system of Roman law; while a comparison of the _Institutes_ of Justinian
+with those of Gaius shows that the whole method and arrangement of the
+later work were copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous
+passages are word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of
+the period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and Justinian,
+the _Institutes_ of the former had been the familiar textbook of all
+students of Roman law.
+
+Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816, a
+manuscript was discovered by B.G. Niebuhr in the chapter library of
+Verona, in which certain of the works of St Jerome were written over
+some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The
+greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered and the
+text is now fairly complete. This discovery has thrown a flood of light
+on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most
+obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in
+the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the
+ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced
+"survivals" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of
+comparative law with valuable illustrations, which may explain the
+strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. Another
+circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the
+historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time
+when actions were tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions
+given by the praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to
+whom he referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae
+it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history
+of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law
+of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction
+of the praetors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into
+harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It
+is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an
+independent set of courts administering, as in England previous to the
+Judicature Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts,
+but by the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the
+work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared.
+
+The _Institutes_ of Gaius are divided into four books--the first
+treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in
+the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights
+over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills; the
+third of intestate succession and of obligations; the fourth of actions
+and their forms.
+
+  There are several carefully prepared editions of the _Institutes_,
+  starting from that of Göschen (1820), down to that of Studemund and
+  Krüger (1900). The most complete English edition is that of E. Poste,
+  which includes beside the text an English translation and copious
+  commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of actions
+  mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive societies will
+  be found in Sir H. Maine's _Early Institutions_, cap. 9. For further
+  information see M. Glasson, _Étude sur Gaius et sur le jus
+  respondendi_; also ROMAN LAW.
+
+
+
+
+GAIUS CAESAR (A.D. 12-41), surnamed CALIGULA, Roman emperor from 37-41,
+youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, was born on the 31st
+of August A.D. 12. He was brought up in his father's camp on the Rhine
+among the soldiers, and received the name Caligula from the _caligae_,
+or foot-soldiers' boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his
+father to Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was
+summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed to
+escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius by
+Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards, which was
+probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the throne amidst the
+rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred the imperial power upon
+him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus, the grandson of the preceding
+emperor, had been designated as his co-heir. He entered on his first
+consulship in July 37. For the first eight months of his reign he did
+not disappoint the popular expectation; but after his recovery from a
+severe illness his true character showed itself. His extravagance,
+cruelty and profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption
+that he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his conduct
+was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up, and the ideas of
+sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to pose as a monarch of
+the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his exhausted treasury he put to death
+his wealthy subjects and confiscated their property; even the poor fell
+victims to his thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a
+consulship upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should
+be offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole Roman
+people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a single stroke.
+In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally to punish the Germans
+for having invaded Roman territory, but in reality to get money by
+plunder and confiscation. Before leaving, he led his troops to the coast
+opposite Britain, and ordered them to pick up shells on the seashore, to
+be dedicated to the gods at Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return
+he entered Rome with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were
+built, statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood
+instituted to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new
+forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole Rome was
+free from internal disturbances during his reign; some insignificant
+conspiracies were discovered and rendered abortive. A personal insult to
+Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian cohort, led to Caligula's
+assassination on the 24th of January 41.
+
+  See Suetonius, _Caligula_; Tacitus, _Annals_, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius
+  lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, _The Tragedy of the Caesars_ (3rd ed.,
+  1892); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly Review_ (April, 1905); H. Willrich,
+  _Beiträge zur alten Geschichte_ (1903); H. Schiller, _Geschichte der
+  römischen Kaiserzeit_, i. pt. 1; J.B. Bury, _Student's Hist. of the
+  Roman Empire_ (1893); Merivale, _History of the Romans under the
+  Empire_, ch. 48; H. Furneaux's _Annals_ of Tacitus, ii.
+  (introduction). Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L.
+  Quidde, _Caligula_. _Eine Studie über römischen Cäsarenwahnsinn_ and
+  an anonymous supplement, _1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar?_
+  (both 1894); and a reply, _Fin-de-Siècle-Geschichtsschreibung_, by G.
+  Sommerfeldt (1895).
+
+
+
+
+GALAGO, the Senegal name of the long-tailed African representatives of
+the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as their technical
+designation. Till recently the galagos have been included in the family
+_Lemuridae_; but this is restricted to the lemurs of Madagascar, and
+they are now classed with the lorises and pottos in the family
+_Nycticebidae_, of which they form the section _Galaginae_,
+characterized by the great elongation of the upper portion of the feet
+(tarsus) and the power of folding the large ears. Throughout the greater
+part of Africa south of the Sahara galagos are widely distributed in
+the wooded districts, from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the
+east, and as far south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are
+very active at night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When
+they descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by jumping
+with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little animals,
+varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a rat, with
+large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails. There are several
+species, of which _G. crassicaudatus_ from Mozambique is the largest;
+together with _G. garnetti_ of Natal, _G. agisymbanus_ of Zanzibar, and
+_G. monteiroi_ of Angola, this represents the subgenus _Otolemur_. The
+typical group includes _G. senegalensis_ (or _galago_) of Senegal, _G.
+alleni_ of West and Central Africa, and _G. moholi_ of South Africa;
+while _G. demidoffi_ of West and Central Africa and _G. anomurus_ of
+French Congoland represent the subgenus _Hemigalago_. (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GALANGAL, formerly written "galingale," and sometimes "garingal,"
+_rhizoma galangae_ (Arab. _Kholínjan_;[1] Ger. _Galgantwurzel_; Fr.
+_Racine de Galanga_), a drug, now obsolete, with an aromatic taste like
+that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser galangal root, _radix galangae
+minoris_, the ordinary galangal of commerce, is the dried rhizome of
+_Alpinia officinarum_, a plant of the natural order Zingiberaceae,
+growing in the Chinese island of Hainan, where it is cultivated, and
+probably also in the woods of the southern provinces of China. The plant
+is closely allied to _Alpinia calcarata_, the rhizome of which is sold
+in the bazaars of some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems
+attain a length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate
+and light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with red
+veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses, sometimes
+more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow horizontally, and
+are ¾ in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to have been unknown to
+the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to have been first introduced into
+Europe by Arabian physicians. It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn
+Khurdádbah, an Arabian geographer who flourished in the latter half of
+the 9th century, and "gallengar" (gallingale or galangal) is one of the
+ingredients in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a "wen salve" (see O.
+Cockayne, _Saxon Leechdoms_, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at
+present in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem
+in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still
+employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in Russia,
+where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring for liqueurs.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Apparently derived from the Chinese _Kau-liang-Kiang_, i.e.
+    Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after
+    the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called
+    Kau-liang (see F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. to the Materia Medica ...
+    of China_, p. 9, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, an archipelago of five larger and ten smaller islands
+in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator. The nearest island to
+the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of Ecuador, to which country
+they belong. The name is derived from _galápago_, a tortoise, on account
+of the giant species, the characteristic feature of the fauna. The
+islands were discovered early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave
+them their present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names
+of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for whom
+the group formed a convenient retreat.
+
+The larger members of the group, several of which attain an elevation of
+2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m. long, 28 m. in
+extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and an extreme elevation of
+5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina, Indefatigable or Santa Cruz,
+Chatham or San Cristobal, James or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa
+Maria. The total land area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters, a
+few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence that the
+archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The number of main craters
+may be about twenty-five, but there are very many small eruptive cones
+on the flanks of the old volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on
+Chatham with some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed
+huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other officials
+of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in 1832, when General
+Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island, naming it in honour of Juan
+José Flores, president of Ecuador. A governor has been appointed since
+1885, some importance being foreseen for the islands in connexion with
+the cutting of the Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to
+Australia opened up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of
+the group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets
+numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no doubt
+escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild cattle,
+horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs--the last large and fierce--which
+occur abundantly on most of the islands have escaped from domestication.
+
+The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a dense
+barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable thicket of
+tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended, give place to
+taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered with orchids and
+trailing moss (_orchilla_), and from which creepers hang down
+interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low grounds are parched
+and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of Peruvian cactus and stunted
+shrubs, and a most uninviting shore. The contrast between this low zone
+and the upper zone of rich vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously
+marked. From July to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and
+give moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry.
+Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does not
+occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water is scarce.
+Though the islands are under the equator, the climate is not intensely
+hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the Antarctic sea, which,
+having followed the coast of Peru as far as Cape Blanco, bear off to the
+N.W. towards and through the Galapagos. The mean temperature of the
+lower zone is about 71° F., that of the upper from 66° to 62°.
+
+The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to Ecuador, on
+account of the guano and the orchilla moss found on them and exported to
+Europe. Except on Charles Island, where settlement has existed longest,
+little or no influence of the presence of man is evident in the group;
+still, the running wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the
+vegetation, especially goats, must in a comparatively short period
+greatly modify the biological conditions of the islands.
+
+The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so distinctly
+oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief importance to this
+archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in the "Beagle." The
+Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare advantage from its isolated
+situation, and from the fact that its history has never been interfered
+with by any aborigines of the human race. Of the seven species of giant
+tortoises known to science (although at the discovery of the islands
+there were probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to
+its own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two
+species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the
+birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while more
+than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the flora is
+unknown elsewhere.
+
+  Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific
+  investigators--by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and the
+  naturalists of the "Albatross," between 1888 and 1891; and in
+  1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially undertaken
+  at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very complete
+  collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions, been
+  brought together; but their examination does not materially change the
+  facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin, from the
+  evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he "no doubt
+  would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded by
+  Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which we
+  are acquainted now" (Günther). His conclusions were that the group
+  "has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have its
+  members been at any time closer together"; and that the character of
+  the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over from
+  America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where in
+  their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees and
+  ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further
+  exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists
+  that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from
+  subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large
+  island mass into a number of islets, wherein the separated species
+  became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these
+  giant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former land
+  connexion with the continent of America may be sustained. "Nearly all
+  authorities agree that it is not probable that they have crossed the
+  wide sea between the Galapagos Islands and the American continent,
+  although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to swim, they can
+  float on the water. If their ancestors had been carried out to sea
+  once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as the Galapagos
+  Islands" (Wallace), "they must have been numerous on the continent"
+  (Rothschild and Hartert). No remains, and of course no living species,
+  of these tortoises are known to exist or have existed on the mainland.
+  Rothschild and Hartert think "it is more natural to assume the
+  disappearance of a great stock of animals, the remains of which have
+  survived, ... than to assume the disappearance in comparatively recent
+  times (i.e. in the Eocene period or later) of enormous land masses."
+  Past elevations of land, however (and doubtless equally great
+  subsidences) have taken place in South America since the Eocene, and
+  the conclusion that extensive areas of land have subsided in the
+  Indian Ocean has long been based on a somewhat similar distribution of
+  giant tortoises in the Mascarene region.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Darwin, _Voyage of the "Beagle"_; O. Salvin, "On the
+  Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ part ix.
+  (1876); Sclater and Salvin, "Characters of New Species collected by Dr
+  Habel in the Galapagos Islands," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1870, pp.
+  322-327; A.R. Wallace, _Geographical Distribution of Animals_ (New
+  York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, _Ein Besuch der Galapagos Inseln_
+  (Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in _Geographical Journal_, vi. 560
+  (1895); W.L. and P.L. Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_ (London,
+  1899); Ridgway, "Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Proc. U.S. Nat.
+  Mus._ vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897); Baur, "New Observations on the
+  Origin of the Galapagos Islands," _Amer. Nat._ (1897), pp. 661-680,
+  864-896; A. Agassiz, "The Galapagos Islands," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._
+  vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Günther, _Proc. Linn. Soc._ (London
+  (President's Address), October 1898), pp. 14-29 (with bibliography
+  from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-tortoises); Rothschild and Hartert,
+  "Review of the Ornithology of the Galapagos Islands," _Novitates
+  zoologicae_, vi. pp. 85-205; B.L. Robinson, "Flora of the Galapagos
+  Islands," _Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences_, xxxviii. (1902).
+
+
+
+
+GALASHIELS, a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on Gala Water, within a
+short distance of its junction with the Tweed, 33½ m. S.S.E. of
+Edinburgh by the North British railway. The town stretches for more than
+2 m. along both banks of the river, the mills and factories occupying
+the valley by the stream, the villas and better-class houses the
+high-lying ground on either side. The principal structures include the
+municipal buildings, corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market
+cross. The town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council,
+and, along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border) group
+of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures, dating from the close
+of the 16th century, are the most important in Scotland, though now
+mainly confined to the weaving of tweeds. Other leading industries are
+hosiery, tanning (with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and
+brass founding, engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built
+for the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.), it
+became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the
+Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose peel-tower
+was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created into a burgh of
+barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts' Work begins near the town and
+passes immediately to the west. Clovenfords, 3½ m. W., is noted for the
+Tweed vineries, which are heated by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply the
+London market throughout the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is
+Ashestiel, where Sir Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he
+wrote his most famous poems and began _Waverley_, and which he left for
+Abbotsford.
+
+
+
+
+GALATIA. I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman _Gallograecia_)
+this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples to a large inland
+district of Asia Minor since its occupation by Gaulish tribes in the 3rd
+century B.C. Bounded on the N. by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, W. by
+Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the
+greater part of the modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus
+eastwards to Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra
+southwards to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including
+the plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history),--a
+rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad.
+
+Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here ranging
+from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographically into two
+parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak),--a small eastern district
+lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije Irmak, the principal affluent
+of the Halys, and a large western region drained almost entirely by the
+Sangarius (Sakaria) and its tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists
+of a series of plains with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare
+hills. But the greater part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating
+uplands, intersected by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast
+level waste of treeless (anc. _Axylon_) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia;
+these uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage
+for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart, and
+the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general condition
+and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient as in modern
+times.
+
+The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 B.C. They
+numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men, the rest
+being doubtless women and children; and not long after their arrival we
+find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and
+Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate sphere of operations. They
+had split off from the army which invaded Greece under Brennus in 279
+B.C., and, marching into Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed
+over to Asia at the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required
+help in his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were
+the scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country, as
+allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious
+check, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted several
+severe defeats upon them, and about 232 B.C. forced them to settle
+permanently in the region to which they gave their name. Probably they
+already occupied parts of Galatia, but definite limits were now fixed
+and their right to the district was formally recognized. The tribes were
+settled where they afterwards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the
+Tolistobogii round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The
+constitution of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably
+to Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr. [Greek:
+tetrarchiai]), each governed by a chief ("tetrarch") of its own with a
+judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder,
+which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons
+and meeting at a holy place called Drynemeton. But the power of the
+Gauls was not yet broken. They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in
+their wars with Antiochus, and after Attalus' death their raids into W.
+Asia Minor forced Rome in 189 B.C. to send an expedition against them
+under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson. Henceforward
+their military power declined and they fell at times under Pontic
+ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by the Mithradatic wars,
+in which they heartily supported Rome. In the settlement of 64 B.C.
+Galatia became a client-state of the empire, the old constitution
+disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled "tetrarchs") were
+appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before
+the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of
+Cicero and Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies
+and was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the
+death of the third king Amyntas in 25 B.C., Galatia was incorporated by
+Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces were more
+enthusiastically loyal.
+
+The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the arrival of
+the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited by Phrygians,
+and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians and other native races. This native
+population remained, and constituted the majority of the inhabitants of
+the rural parts and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were
+left in possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, _B.G._ i. 31)
+on condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who took
+the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the arts and
+crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands. They were
+henceforth ranked as "Galatians" by the outside world equally with their
+overlords, and it was from their numbers that the "Galatian" slaves who
+figure in the markets of the ancient world were drawn. The conquerors,
+who were few in number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not
+in the towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their
+castles kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With
+the decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with the
+natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation was
+accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became as complete as
+that of the Normans with the Saxons in England, but they gave to the
+mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and long retained their
+national characteristics and social customs, as well as their language
+(which continued in use, side by side with Greek, in the 4th century
+after Christ). In the 1st century, when St Paul made his missionary
+journeys, even the towns Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were
+few) were not Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and
+trade, was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected by
+Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to appear
+in the towns only in the later 2nd century. In the rustic parts a
+knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the 3rd century; but only in the
+4th and 5th centuries, after the transference of the centre of
+government first to Nicomedia and then to Constantinople placed Galatia
+on the highway of imperial communication, was Hellenism in its Christian
+form gradually diffused over the country. (See also ANCYRA; PESSINUS;
+GORDIUM.)
+
+II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C., included the
+greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz. Galatia Proper, part
+of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia, Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia,
+part of Lycaonia (including Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly
+100 years it was the frontier province, and the changes in its
+boundaries are an epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the
+Euphrates, one client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in
+6-5 B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, A.D. 1-2; Comana, A.D.
+34-35,--together forming Pontus Galaticus,--the Pontic kingdom of
+Polemon, A.D. 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In A.D. 70
+Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since A.D. 17) with Armenia Minor
+became the centre of the forward movement and Galatia lost its
+importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a vast double governorship
+until A.D. 114 (probably), when Trajan separated the two parts, making
+Galatia an inferior province of diminished size, while Cappadocia with
+Armenia Minor and Pontus became a great consular military province,
+charged with the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's
+reorganization Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the
+name retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia of
+Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the addition of a
+few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia Prima and Secunda or
+Salutaris, the division indicating the renewed importance of Galatia in
+the Byzantine empire. After suffering from Persian and Arabic raids,
+Galatia was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed
+to the Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.
+
+The question whether the "Churches of Galatia," to which St Paul
+addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or southern part of
+the province has been much discussed, and in England Prof. Sir W.M.
+Ramsay has been the principal advocate of the adoption of the
+South-Galatian theory, which maintains that they were the churches
+planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and Antioch (see GALATIANS). In the
+present writer's opinion this is supported by the study of the
+historical and geographical facts.[1]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Van Gelder, _De Gallis in Graecia et Asia_ (1888);
+  Staehelin, _Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater_ (1897); Perrot, _De Galatia
+  prov. Rom._ (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Histor. Geogr._ (1890), _St
+  Paul_ (1898), and Introd. to _Histor. Commentary on Galatians_ (1899).
+  For antiquities generally, Perrot, _Explor. archéol. de la Galatie_
+  (1862); K. Humann and O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien_ (1890);
+  Koerte, _Athen. Mitteilungen_ (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, _Journ.
+  of Hellenic Studies_ (1899); and Anderson, _Map of Asia Minor_
+  (London, Murray, 1903).     (J. G. C. A.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
+    attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above
+    statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
+    on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.--Ed. _E.B._
+
+
+
+
+GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. This
+early Christian scripture is one of the books militant in the world's
+literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his propaganda was no accident
+in its history; it originated in a controversy, and the varying views of
+the momentous struggle depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally
+determined, from time to time, the conception of the epistle's aim and
+date. Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be
+given here. (See PAUL.) It must suffice to say that to the present
+writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not
+with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of Acts
+xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra, Derbe and
+Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian [Greek: chôra] with Phrygia
+upon the other.[1] A further visit to the latter country is mentioned,
+upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to whom the epistle
+was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the most part (iv. 8) of pagan
+birth, belonging to the northern section of the province, perhaps mainly
+in its south-western district adjoining Bithynia and the province of
+Asia. The scanty allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as
+any objection to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical
+difficulty. The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all
+does the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that
+the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century A.D., was
+Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and inscriptions
+indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated throughout the
+province did not exclude the infusion either of Greek religious
+conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree of elementary Greek
+culture needful for the understanding of Galatians cannot be shown to
+have been foreign to the inhabitants of north Galatia. So far as any
+trustworthy evidence is available, such Hellenic notions as are
+presupposed in this epistle might well have been intelligible to the
+Galatians of the northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance
+with Roman jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends
+(_Über röm. Recht im Galaterbrief_, 1895), not merely that Paul must
+have acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle
+there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of Roman law
+was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.
+
+The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after the
+period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the _terminus ad quem_ is more
+difficult to fix.[2] The composition may be placed (cf. the present
+writer's _Historical New Testament_, pp. 124 f. for details) either
+during the earlier part of Paul's residence at Ephesus (Acts xix. 1, 10,
+so most editors and scholars), or on his way from Ephesus to Corinth, or
+at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek, Salmon).
+
+The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica, but
+the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul undertaken
+some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe. When he composed this
+letter, he had visited the churches twice. On the former of these visits
+(iv. 13 [Greek: to proteron]), though broken down by illness (2 Cor.
+xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically welcomed, and the immediate
+result of his mission was an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5,
+iv. 14 f.). The local Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But
+they failed to maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7,
+v. 21) the apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due
+to discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence in
+some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective. Otherwise,
+this second visit is left in the shadow.[3] So far as it was accompanied
+by warnings, these were evidently general rather than elicited by any
+definite and imminent peril to the churches. Not long afterwards,
+however, some judaizing opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous
+anonymity of the [Greek: tines] in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by
+one prominent and influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance
+among the Galatians, promulgating a "gospel" which meant fidelity to,
+not freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament,
+they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which required to
+be supplemented by legal exactitude,[4] including ritual observance (iv.
+10) and even circumcision,[5] while at the same time they sought to
+undermine his authority[6] by pointing out that it was derived from the
+apostles at Jerusalem and therefore that his teaching must be open to
+the checks and tests of that orthodox primitive standard which they
+themselves claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic
+privileges was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory
+upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).
+
+When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had evidently not
+yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised. It was not too late
+to arrest the Galatians on their downward plane, and the apostle, unable
+or unwilling to re-visit them, despatched this epistle. How or when the
+information came to him, we do not know. But the gravity of the
+situation renders it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time
+in writing to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from
+allusions like those in i. 6 ([Greek: tacheôs] and [Greek:
+metatithesthe]--the lapse still in progress), we may conclude that the
+interval between the reception of the news and the composition of the
+letter must have been comparatively brief.
+
+After a short introduction[7] (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual word
+of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical
+vindication[8] of his apostolic independence, which, developed
+negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main sections
+in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he drifts over from
+an account of this interview with Peter into a sort of monologue upon
+the incompatibility of the Mosaic law with the Christian gospel (ii.
+15-21),[9] and this starts him afresh upon a trenchant expostulation and
+appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding the alternatives of law and spirit.
+Faith dominates this section; faith in its historical career and as the
+vantage-ground of Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be
+merely a provisional episode[10] culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28)
+as a message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The
+genuine "sons of Abraham" are not legalistic Jewish Christians but those
+who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate outburst then
+follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the apostle essays,
+with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity over legalism
+as the free and final religion for men, applying this to the moral
+situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12). This conception of
+freedom then leads him to define the moral responsibilities of the faith
+(v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent misconception and to enforce the
+claims of the gospel upon the individual and social life of the
+Galatians. The epilogue (vi. 11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt,
+emphatic sentences, the main points of the epistle.
+
+The allusion in vi. 11 [Greek: (idete pêlikois hymin grammasin egrapsa
+tê emê cheiri)] is to the large bold size[11] of the letters in Paul's
+handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are matters of
+dispute. It is "a sensational heading" (Findlay), but it may either
+refer[12] to the whole epistle (so Augustine, Chrysostom, &c., followed
+by Zahn) or, as most hold (with Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18).
+Paul commonly dictated his letters. His use of the autograph here may
+have been to prevent any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal
+emphasis of his message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians
+knew his handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript
+from a feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize
+that, after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating
+them like children, "playfully hinting that surely the large letters
+will touch their hearts" (so Deissmann, _Bible-Studies_ (1901), 346 f.).
+
+The earliest allusion to the epistle[13] is the notice of its inclusion
+in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be
+heard in Justin Martyr's _Dial._ xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known to
+Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of its popularity
+multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the Ophites to Irenaeus and
+the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's _Canon and Text of N.T._, 1907, pp.
+201-203). It is no longer necessary for serious criticism to refute the
+objections to its authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain
+quarters;[14] as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's
+commentaries, "to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism."
+Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion (cf.
+Tert. _Adv. Marc._ 2-4) removed what he judged to be some
+interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion's text is
+more original than the canonical (_Theolog. Tijdschrift_, 1887, 400 f.
+451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation in _Die
+Einheitlichkeit der paulin_. _Briefe_, 1894, pp. 100 f. and Zahn's
+_Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons_, ii. 409 f.), and little or no
+weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J.A. Cramer) to
+disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even D. Völter, who
+applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, admits that
+Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a literary unity
+(_Paulus und seine Briefe_, 1905, pp. 229-285). The frequent roughnesses
+of the traditional text suggest, however, that here and there marginal
+glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a ([Greek: to gar Sina oros estin
+en tê Arabia]) probably represents the explanatory and prosaic gloss of
+a later editor, as many scholars have seen from Bentley (_Opuscula
+philologica_, 1781, pp. 533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S.
+Baljon and C. Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and
+unpremeditated, "one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine and
+inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, such as may
+often have been seen by his Galatians" (J. Macgregor). But there is a
+certain rhythmical balance, especially in the first chapter (cf. J.
+Weiss, _Beiträge zur paulin. Rhetorik_, 1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere
+the rush and flow of feeling carry with them some care for rhetorical
+form, in the shape of antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might
+more or less unconsciously retain.[15] All through, the letter shows the
+breaks and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis.
+Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, are its
+most characteristic features.[16] The trenchant remonstrances and fiery
+outbursts make it indeed "read like a dithyramb from beginning to end."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of more modern editions in English, the most competent
+  are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and
+  grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot
+  (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall
+  (_Expositor's Greek Testament_, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in
+  Ellicott's _Commentary_, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879),
+  B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (_Pulpit Comment._, 1885), Dr Agar
+  Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (_Century Bible_), Dr E.H.
+  Perowne (_Cambridge Bible_, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (_Internat.
+  Handbooks to N.T._, 1899) also comment on the English text. The
+  editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their
+  subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Historical Commentary on
+  Galatians_ (1899) contains archaeological and historical material
+  which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor,
+  those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being
+  adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by
+  F. Sieffert (in Meyer's _Comment._, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed.,
+  1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott
+  (1834), A. Wieseler (Göttingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859),
+  J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd
+  ed., _Hand.-Commentar_, 1892), and Zöckler (2nd ed., 1894) may still
+  be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld's commentary (1852)
+  discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the
+  standpoint of Baur's criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed.,
+  1894) and W. Bousset (_in Die Schriften des N.T._, 2nd ed., 1907) are
+  more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X.
+  Reithmayr (1865), A. Schäfer (Münster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892,
+  also in _Cursus scripturae sacrae_, 1907) are the most satisfactory
+  modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be
+  forgotten that the 16th century produced the _Literalis expositio_ of
+  Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona
+  (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther
+  (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin
+  and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (_Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u.
+  Römer Christen_, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter.
+  For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and
+  Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably
+  expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (_Das Evangelium
+  Paulus_, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (_St Paul's Conception of
+  Christianity_, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (_Expositor's
+  Bible_). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (_Galat. und
+  Apostelgeschichte_, 1882) and M. Thomas (_Mélanges d'histoire et de
+  litt. religieuse_, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H.
+  Askwith's essay (_Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date_,
+  1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood
+  (_Studies in St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_, 1887) criticizes
+  Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all
+  biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in
+  works like Sabatier's _The Apostle Paul_ (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon's
+  _Story of St Paul_ (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw's _The Pauline Epistles_
+  (2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, _Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli_
+  (1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar's _Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum
+  Galaterbrief_ (1887), to which may be added a series of papers by
+  Haupt in _Deutsche Evang.-Blätter_ (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183,
+  238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in the _Zeitschrift für
+  wiss. Theologie_ ("Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal." 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866,
+  pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been
+  noted in the course of this article. See further under PAUL.
+       (J. Mt.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which
+    lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated
+    in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a
+    matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent
+    dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the
+    archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the
+    north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia
+    as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English
+    reader in P.W. Schmiedel's exhaustive article in _Encycl. Biblica_
+    (1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert's _Student's Life of Paul_ (1902),
+    pp. 260-272. Schmiedel's arguments are mainly directed against Sir
+    W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann,
+    takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the
+    controversy (_Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes_, Münster, i. W.,
+    1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and
+    Zöckler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman,
+    Prof. Valentine Weber.
+
+  [2] The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to
+    put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with,
+    if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in _The Date of
+    St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_ (1906).
+
+  [3] It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
+    were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten,
+    Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsäcker) or whether they
+    are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and
+    Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening
+    of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to
+    have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians' defection.
+
+  [4] Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in
+    ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).
+
+  [5] The critical dubiety about [Greek: oude] in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn's
+    excursus and Prof. Lake in _Expositor_, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws
+    a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that
+    the agitators had quoted Paul's practice as an authoritative sanction
+    of the rite.
+
+  [6] This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word [Greek: oi
+    dokountes] ("those of repute," ii. 6), while other echoes of their
+    talk can be overheard in such phrases as "we are Abraham's seed"
+    (iii. 16), "sinners of Gentiles" (ii. 15) and "Jerusalem which is our
+    mother" (iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of
+    "seeking to please men" (i. 10) and "preaching circumcision" (v. 11).
+
+  [7] Not only is the address "to the churches of Galatia" unusually
+    bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was
+    on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to
+    concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet the [Greek:
+    hêmeis] of i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.
+
+  [8] Cf. Hausrath's _History of the N.T. Times_ (iii. pp. 181-199),
+    with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that "Paul stands before us like an
+    ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and
+    shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to
+    be called Imperator."
+
+  [9] Cf. T.H. Green's _Works_, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the
+    indirect abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the
+    apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he
+    dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.
+
+  [10] Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
+    (cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy
+    for the evil _yezer_ of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues,
+    it is an aggravation.
+
+  [11] According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
+    use of his son, [Greek: idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin] (cf.
+    Field's _Notes on Translation of the New Testament_, p. 191). If the
+    point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot
+    have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have
+    assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2
+    Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, _Johannine Grammar_, pp. 530-532).
+
+  [12] For [Greek: egrapsa], the epistolary aorist, at the close of a
+    letter, cf. Xen. _Anab._ i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX)
+    and Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ x.
+
+  [13] Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the
+    later N.T. literature to Galatians (_Die Ursprünglichkeit des
+    Galaterbriefes_, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of
+    the literary evidence.
+
+  [14] Cf. especially J. Gloe's _Die jüngste Kritik des Galaterbriefes_
+    (Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Steck and Loman
+    (_Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal._,
+    1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already
+    referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling's _The Testimony of St Paul to
+    Christ_ (1905), 28 f.
+
+  [15] Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,
+    _Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa_ (1905), pp.
+    43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into
+    unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 ([Greek: emoi men
+    ouk oknêron, hymin d' asphales]) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv.
+    33, a reminiscence of Menander.
+
+  [16] This affects even the vocabulary which has also "einen gewissen
+    vulgären Zug" (Nägeli, _Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus_, 1905,
+    pp. 78-79).
+
+
+
+
+GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which
+it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,917
+(town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable for the fine Gothic
+church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by Raimondello del Balzo Orsini,
+count of Soleto, with a fine portal and rose-window. The interior
+contains frescoes by Francesco d' Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the
+fine mausoleum of the son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported
+by four columns, with his statue beneath it.
+
+
+
+
+GALATZ (_Galatii_), a city of Rumania, capital of the department of
+Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. W. by N. of its
+mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including 12,000 Jews. The Danube
+is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E.
+Galatz is built on a slight eminence among the marshes which line the
+intervening shore and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the
+shallow mere called Lake Bratych (_Bratesul_), more than 50 sq. m. in
+extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th century,
+of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved streets
+and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every year, the city
+improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays were constructed along the
+Danube; electric tramways were opened in the main streets, which were
+lighted by gas or electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher,
+or north-western part of the city, which is the more open and
+comfortable, contains many of the chief buildings. These include the
+prefecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals
+and the offices of the international commission for the control of the
+Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at Galatz. There
+are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and other churches; the most
+interesting being the cathedral, and St Mary's church, in which is the
+tomb of the famous Cossack chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been
+rifled of its contents by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and
+the headquarters of the III. army corps, protected by a line of
+fortifications which extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as
+the Sereth line. But the main importance of the city is commercial.
+Galatz is the chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three
+waterways, the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual
+volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways which
+intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, machinery,
+and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a large trade in petroleum
+and salt, Galatz ranks first among Rumanian cities in its export of
+timber, and second to Braila in its export of grain. It possesses many
+saw-mills, paste-mills, flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and
+petroleum refineries; manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap
+and candles. Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but
+cargoes consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at
+Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the principal
+owners being British.
+
+
+
+
+GALAXY, properly the MILKY WAY, from the Greek name [Greek: ho
+galaxias], sc. [Greek: kyklos], from [Greek: gala], milk, cf. the Lat.
+_via lactea_ (see STAR). The word is more generally employed in its
+figurative or transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant
+or distinguished persons or objects.
+
+
+
+
+GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general and orator. He served under
+Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian War. As praetor in 151
+B.C. in farther Spain he made himself infamous by the treacherous murder
+of a number of Lusitanians, with their wives and children, after
+inducing them to surrender by the promise of grants of land. For this in
+149 he was brought to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by
+holding up his little children before the people to gain their sympathy.
+He was consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an
+eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in Cicero's
+opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His speeches, however, were
+almost forgotten in Cicero's time.
+
+  Livy xlv. 35; Appian, _Hisp._ 58-60; Cicero, _De orat._ i. 53, iii. 7;
+  Brutus 21.
+
+
+
+
+GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman emperor (June A.D. 68 to January 69),
+born near Terracina, on the 24th of December 5 B.C. He came of a noble
+family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or
+by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was
+regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both
+Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, _Annals_,
+vi. 20; Suetonius, _Galba_, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he
+acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany,
+Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and
+impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his
+friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the
+first half of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the
+emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the
+spring of 68 Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death,
+and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first
+inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of
+the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the
+praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived Galba's
+spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the
+senate and Roman people; after the murder of Nero, he assumed the title
+of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. At first he was welcomed by
+the senate and the party of order, but he was never popular with the
+soldiers or the people. He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by
+scornfully refusing to pay them the reward promised in his name, and
+disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His
+advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands
+of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of Germany, who demanded
+that the senate should choose another emperor, first made him aware of
+his own unpopularity and the general discontent. In order to check the
+rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius
+Piso Frugi Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His
+choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a sign of
+fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was
+not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and
+one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen
+instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented
+praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at
+once set out to meet the rebels--he was so feeble that he had to be
+carried in a litter--was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near
+the Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial
+administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to
+a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities
+of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy
+of empire if he had never been emperor ("omnium consensu capax imperii
+nisi imperasset").
+
+  See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 7-49;
+  Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, _Civil War and
+  Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70_ (1908); W.A. Spooner, _On
+  the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius_ in Introd. to his edition
+  (1891) of the _Histories_ of Tacitus.
+
+
+
+
+GALBANUM (Heb. _Helbenah_; Gr. [Greek: chalbanê]), a gum-resin, the
+product of _Ferula galbaniflua_, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps also
+of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or soft,
+irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally
+in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow
+colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky
+odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% of terpene;
+about 65% of a resin which contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a
+very small quantity of the colourless crystalline substance
+_umbelliferone_, C9H6O3. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In
+Exodus xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the
+making of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in
+medicine, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary
+curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that
+"the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill
+a serpent." The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses
+of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances
+containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however,
+obsolescent.
+
+
+
+
+GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, Kohistan and
+Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks,
+are identified with the _Calcienses populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict
+Goes, who crossed the Pamir in 1603 and described them as "of light hair
+and beard like the Belgians." The word "Galcha," which has been
+explained as meaning "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the
+mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik
+family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably simply
+the Persian _galcha_, "clown" or "rustic," in reference to their uncouth
+manners. The Galchas conform physically to what has been called the
+"Alpine or Celtic European race," so much so that French anthropologists
+have termed them "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy
+describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy
+cheeks, black, chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes,
+never oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face
+and round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas
+represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through Armenia
+and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The Galchas for the most
+part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.
+
+  See Robert Shaw, "On the Galtchah Languages," in _Journ. As. Soc.
+  Bengal_, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of
+  the Hindoo-Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, _An
+  Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_ (1815); _Bull. de la société
+  d'anthropologie de Paris_ (1887); Charles Eugene D'Ujfalvy de
+  Mezoe-Koevesd, _Les Aryens_ (1896), and in _Revue d'anthropologie_
+  (1879), and _Bull. de la soc. de géogr._ (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,
+  _Races of Europe_ (New York, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist divine, was born in
+1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where his father was vicar. In
+1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his B.A.
+degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor
+of his college. He remained some years at Oxford, discharging actively
+the duties of tutor, and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester
+cathedral. In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and
+was ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he
+accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, returning to
+England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he passed in London as
+assistant to John Rowe, an Independent minister who had charge of an
+important church in Holborn; Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in
+the following year. His principal work, _The Court of the Gentiles_,
+which appeared in parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse
+of miscellaneous philosophical learning. It resembles the _Intellectual
+System_ of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work both in
+general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's endeavour (based on
+a hint of Grotius in _De veritate_, i. 16) is to prove that the whole
+philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or mangled reproduction of
+Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth referred the Democritean doctrine of
+atoms to Moses as the original author, so Gale tries to show that the
+various systems of Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources.
+Like so many of the learned works of the 17th century, the _Court of
+the Gentiles_ is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is
+rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical
+discrimination.
+
+  His other writings are: _A True Idea of Jansenism_ (1669); _Theophil,
+  or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ_ (1671);
+  _Anatomie of Infidelitie_ (1672); _Idea theologiae_ (1673);
+  _Philosophia generalis_ (1676).
+
+
+
+
+GALE, THOMAS (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and antiquarian,
+was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Westminster school
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In 1666 he
+was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high
+master of St Paul's school, in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a
+fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York
+on the 7th (or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, _Opuscula
+mythologica, ethica, et physica_, and editions of several Greek and
+Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old works
+bearing on Early English history, entitled _Historiae Anglicanae
+scriptores_ and _Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae, Anglo-Danicae
+scriptores XV_. He was the author of the inscription on the London
+Monument in which the Roman Catholics were accused of having originated
+the great fire.
+
+  See J.E.B. Mayor, _Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne_, 448-450.
+
+
+
+
+GALE. 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from Dan. _gal_,
+mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense of boisterous) a
+wind of considerable power, considerably stronger than a breeze, but not
+severe enough to be called a storm. In nautical language it is usually
+combined with some qualifying word, as "half a gale," a "stiff gale." In
+poetical and figurative language "gale" is often used in a pleasant
+sense, as in "favouring gale"; in America, it is used in a slang sense
+for boisterous or excited behaviour.
+
+2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; a "hanging
+gale" is an arrear of rent left over after each successive "gale" or
+rent day. The term survives in the Forest of Dean, for leases granted to
+the "free miners" of the forest, granted by the "gaveller" or agent of
+the crown, and the term is also applied to the royalty paid to the
+crown, and to the area mined. The word is a contracted form of the O.
+Eng. _gafol_, which survives in "gavel," in gavelkind (q.v.), and in the
+name of the office mentioned above. The root from which these words
+derive is that of "give." Through Latinized forms it appears in
+_gabelle_ (q.v.).
+
+3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or gaul,
+sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of the word is
+_gagel_. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub found on bogs
+and moors in the British Islands, and widely distributed in the north
+temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked leaves and inconspicuous,
+apetalous, unisexual flowers borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like
+fruit is attached to the persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea
+and as a country medicine. John Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1228) describes it
+as sweet willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The
+genus _Myrica_ is the type of a small, but widely distributed order,
+_Myricaceae_, which is placed among the apetalous families of
+Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow family.
+_Myrica cerifera_ is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (1606-1678), prince bishop of
+Münster, belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and was born on the
+12th of October 1606. Reduced to poverty through the loss of his
+paternal inheritance, he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him
+from fighting on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the
+concluding stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1650 he succeeded
+Ferdinand of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Münster. After
+restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, Galen
+had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of the
+citizens of Münster; but at length this was crushed, and the bellicose
+bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an important personage in
+Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of the directors of the imperial army
+raised to fight the Turk; and after the peace which followed the
+Christian victory at St Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English
+king Charles II. in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of
+Louis XIV. and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to make
+a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again attacked Holland six
+years later he was in alliance with Louis, but he soon deserted his new
+friend, and fought for the emperor Leopold I. against France. Afterwards
+in conjunction with Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of
+Sweden, and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the 19th
+of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform the church,
+but his chief energies were directed to increasing his power and
+prestige.
+
+  See K. Tücking, _Geschichte des Stifts Münster unter C.B. von Galen_
+  (Münster, 1865); P. Corstiens, _Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van
+  Munster_ (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Hüsing, _Fürstbischof C.B. von Galen_
+  (Münster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the _English Historical Review_,
+  vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in
+  1666, entitled _Letter to the bishop of Munster containing a
+  Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse_.
+
+
+
+
+GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer and other
+writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of ancient medical
+writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about A.D. 130. His father
+Nicon, from whom he received his early education, is described as
+remarkable both for excellence of natural disposition and for mental
+culture; his mother, on the other hand, appears to have been a second
+Xanthippe. In 146 Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his
+twentieth year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself
+under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and of the
+peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited other cities,
+and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. A few years later he
+went for the first time to Rome. There he healed Eudemus, a celebrated
+peripatetic philosopher, and other persons of distinction; and ere long,
+by his learning and unparalleled success as a physician, earned for
+himself the titles of "Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and
+"Paradoxopoeus," the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and
+envy of his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to
+his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in Venetia, by
+the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In 170 he returned to
+Rome with the latter, who, on departing thence to conduct the war on the
+Danube, having with difficulty been persuaded to dispense with his
+personal attendance, appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus.
+In Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his reputation
+as a physician, and writing some of his most important treatises. It
+would appear that he eventually betook himself to Pergamus, after
+spending some time at the island of Lemnos, where he learned the method
+of preparing a certain popular medicine, the "terra lemnia" or
+"sigillata." Whether he ever revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are
+the time and place of his death. According to Suidas, he died at the age
+of seventy, or in the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If,
+however, we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took
+place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one of the
+most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He composed, it is
+said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, including logic, ethics
+and grammar. Of the published works attributed to him, 83 are recognized
+as genuine, 19 are of doubtful authenticity, 45 are confessedly
+spurious, 19 are fragments, and 15 are notes on the writings of
+Hippocrates.
+
+Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic philosophy,
+was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the numerous commentaries
+and original treatises, a catalogue of which is given in his work _De
+propriis libris_, one only has come down to us, the treatise on
+_Fallacies in dictione_ ([Greek: Peri tôn kata tên lexin sophismatôn]).
+Many points of logical theory, however, are discussed in his medical and
+scientific writings. His name is perhaps best known in the history of
+logic in connexion with the fourth syllogistic figure, the first
+distinct statement of which was ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no
+evidence from Galen's own works that he did make this addition to the
+doctrines of syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides
+Minas from a Greek commentator on the _Analytics_, referring the fourth
+figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, as generally
+supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an amplification or
+alteration of the indirect moods of the first figure already noted by
+Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.
+
+In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the
+superscription _Galenus_, entitled [Greek: Galênou eisagôgê dialektikê].
+Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth figure,
+and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of the Aristotelian
+and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest contempt. He shows
+demonstratively that it cannot be regarded as a writing of Galen's, and
+ascribes it to some one or other of the later Greek logicians. A full
+summary of its contents will be found in the 1st vol. of the _Geschichte
+der Logik_ (pp. 591-610), and a notice of the logical theories of the
+true Galen in the same work, pp. 559-577.
+
+  There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's
+  works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo.
+  Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
+  Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
+  Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston,
+  Caspar Hoffman, René Chartier, Haller and Kühn. Of Latin translations
+  Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following
+  century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.;
+  at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by René
+  Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in
+  1821-1833, by C.G. Kühn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An
+  epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R.
+  Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen's
+  smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Müller and G. Helmreich was
+  published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909.
+
+  Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and
+  medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles
+  under the headings of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. See also René Chartier's
+  Life, in his edition of Galen's works; N.F.J. Eloy, _Dictionnaire
+  historique de la médecine_, s.v. "Galien," tom. i. (1778); F. Adams's
+  "Commentary" in his _Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta_ (London and
+  Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, "A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen,
+  so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology," _Trans. Provincial
+  Med. and Surg. Assoc._ vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg,
+  _Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l'anatomie, la physiologie
+  et la pathologie du système nerveux_ (Thèse pour le Doctorat en
+  Médecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, "The Practical Medicine of
+  Galen and his Time," _The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
+  Rev._, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, "Die Schriften des
+  Claudius Galenos," _Rheinisches Museum für Philologie_, 1889, 1892 and
+  1896.
+
+
+
+
+GALENA, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena (formerly the
+Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, about 165 m.
+W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom 918 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
+Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways; the Galena
+river has been made navigable by government locks at the mouth of the
+river, but the river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky
+limestone bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river,
+and a number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected
+by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General U.S.
+Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the Civil War. In
+the vicinity there are the most important deposits of zinc and lead in
+the state, and the city derives its name from the deposits of sulphide
+of lead (galena), which were the first worked about here; below the
+galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or smithsonite) ores, which was the
+main zone worked between 1860 and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende,
+or zinc sulphide, now the principal source of the mineral wealth of the
+region. The production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is
+unimportant. The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery,
+flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is afforded by
+the river. Galena was originally a trading post, called by the French
+"La Pointe" and by the English "Fever River," the river having been
+named after le Fevre, a French trader who settled near its mouth. In
+1826 Galena was laid out as a town and received its present name; it was
+incorporated in 1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre
+was opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father
+of the celebrated actor of that name.
+
+
+
+
+GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the extreme S.E.
+part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring river. Pop. (1890)
+2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were negroes and 251 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. It is situated at the intersection of the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis
+("Frisco System") railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region,
+extremely valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in
+1877. Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing
+establishments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring
+river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies
+founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former S. of
+Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated in 1877,
+and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.
+
+
+
+
+GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide (PbS). The
+mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, and it is sometimes now
+known as lead-glance (Ger. _Bleiglanz_). It crystallizes in the cubic
+system, and well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; the usual
+form is the cube or the cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important character,
+and one by which the mineral may always be recognized, is the perfect
+cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is brilliant and metallic. The
+colour of the mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; it is opaque; the
+hardness is 2½ and the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned crystals are not
+common, but the presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by
+fine striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage
+surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure are of
+common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such masses present a
+spangled appearance owing to the numerous bright cleavages.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur 13.4%. The
+mineral nearly always contains a small amount of silver, and sometimes
+antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, &c. Argentiferous galena is
+an important source of silver; this metal is present in amounts rarely
+exceeding 1%, and often less than 0.03% (equivalent to 10¾ ounces per
+ton). Since argentite (Ag2S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable
+that the silver isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that
+native silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.
+
+Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous
+veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones, and also
+as pockets in limestones. It is often associated with blende and
+pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz, barytes, chalybite and
+pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the upper oxidized parts of the
+deposits, cerussite and anglesite occur as alteration products. The
+mineral has occasionally been observed as a recent formation replacing
+organic matter, such as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal.
+As small concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone
+at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of Derbyshire and
+the north of England the ore occurs as veins and flats in the
+Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall the veins traverse
+clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead region of Missouri, Illinois,
+Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills large cavities or chambers in
+limestone.
+
+Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of localities
+which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the following may be
+selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the
+Isle of Man (where crystals measuring almost a foot across have been
+found), Neudorf in the Harz, Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri.
+Good crystals have also been obtained as a furnace product.
+
+Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then known
+as "potters' ore" or alquifoux.
+
+The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as
+argentite (q.v.). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite (lead
+selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which, with their
+lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely resemble galena in
+appearance; these species are named after the localities at which they
+were originally found, namely, Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai
+mountains in Asiatic Russia. Altaite is of interest as being one of the
+tellurides found associated with gold.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GALEOPITHECUS, the scientific designation of the Colugo (q.v.) or
+Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone representing the
+family _Galeopithecidae_. Much uncertainty has prevailed among
+naturalists as to the systematic position of this animal, or rather
+these animals (for there are two species); and while some have referred
+it to the lemurs, others have placed it with the bats, and others again
+among the _Insectivora_, as the representative of a special subordinal
+group, the _Dermoptera_. Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study
+of the creature, writes, however, as follows: "It appears, at least in
+the judgment of the author, that _Galeopithecus_ cannot be regarded as
+being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands alone,
+the sole representative of an ancient group, _Galeopithecidae_, as
+_Hyrax_ does of _Hyracoidea_. While _Galeopithecus_ is but remotely
+related to the _Lemuroidea_ and _Insectivora_, it is so closely related
+to _Chiroptera_, more particularly in regard to the structure of its
+patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus, &c., that
+there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the descendants of
+Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the descendants of a
+Galeopithecus-like ancestor." Without going quite so far as this, it may
+be definitely admitted that the colugo is entitled to represent an order
+by itself, the characters of which will be as follows: Herbivorous,
+climbing, unguiculate mammals, provided with a very extensive
+flying-membrane, and having the dental formula i. 2/2, c. 0/1, p. 3/3,
+m. 3/3, total 34. The lower incisors are directed forwards and have a
+comb-like structure of their crowns, while the outermost of these teeth
+and the canines are double-rooted, being in these respects, taken
+together, quite unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have
+numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of milk-molars
+by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone, and the
+tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external meatus. The ulna and
+fibula are to some extent inclined backwards; the carpus has a
+scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed. The hemispheres of the brain
+are short and but slightly convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a
+large caecum; the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus
+is two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two pairs of
+pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a birth.
+
+[Illustration: Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur
+(_Galeopithecus philippinensis_).]
+
+It will be obvious that if other representatives of the _Dermoptera_
+were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the family
+_Galeopithecidae_.
+
+There are two species, _Galeopithecus volans_, ranging from Burma, Siam
+and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and _G.
+philippinensis_ of the Philippine group. The former, which is nearly 2
+ft. in total length, is distinguished by its larger upper incisors,
+shorter ears and smaller skull. In both species not only are the long
+and slender limbs connected by a broad integumentary expansion
+extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, but there is
+also a web between the fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws
+(fig.); and the hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion
+passing outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws,
+and, inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true
+interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats
+altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted
+outer incisors and canines, _Galeopithecus_ contrasts strongly with that
+order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and in the great
+length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in _Chiroptera_. From
+the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of the brain, the character of
+the teeth, the structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal
+placenta at once separate the group.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GALERIUS [GALERIUS VALERIUS MAXIMIANUS], Roman emperor from A.D. 305 to
+311, was born near Sardica in Thrace. He originally followed his
+father's occupation, that of a herdsman, whence his surname of
+_Armentarius_ (Lat. _armentum_, herd). He served with distinction as a
+soldier under Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar
+along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's
+daughter Valeria, and at the same time being entrusted with the care of
+the Illyrian provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he
+was removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign ended
+in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing through the
+mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory over Narses (q.v.)
+and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian
+and Maximianus, he at once assumed the title of Augustus, with
+Constantius his former colleague, and having procured the promotion to
+the rank of Caesar of Flavius Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and
+Daia (Maximinus), his nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to
+become sole master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was
+defeated by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on
+the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and Maxentius
+in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in 307 he elevated his
+friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and, moderating his ambition,
+devoted the few remaining years of his life "to the enjoyment of
+pleasure and to the execution of some works of public utility." It was
+at the instance of Galerius that the first of the celebrated edicts of
+persecution against the Christians was published, on the 24th of
+February 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until
+the appearance of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his
+own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311
+A.D.
+
+  See Zosimus ii. 8-11; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24, x. 1.
+
+
+
+
+GALESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
+in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890)
+15,264; (1900) 18,607; of whom 3602 were foreign-born; (census, 1910)
+22,089. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé, and the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and
+coeducational), which was chartered here in 1837 as the "Knox Manual
+Labor College" (the present name was adopted in 1857), was opened in
+1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628 students, of whom
+more than half were in the Conservatory of Music, a department of the
+college, and 79 were in the Academy. Lombard College (coeducational;
+Universalist), which was chartered as the "Illinois Liberal Institute"
+in 1851, was known as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard,
+a benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal Arts,
+the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of music and domestic
+science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors and 117 students. Here also
+are Corpus Christi College (Roman Catholic), St Joseph's Academy (Roman
+Catholic) and Brown's Business College (1874). There is a public
+library, founded in 1874. The industries consist mainly of the
+construction and repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and
+machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements and
+machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$2,217,772, being 52.9% more than in 1900. Galesburg was named in honour
+of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1789-1862), a prominent Presbyterian
+preacher, who in 1827-1834 had founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute
+at Whitestown, Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college
+in the Mississippi Valley to supply "an evangelical and able ministry"
+to "spread the Gospel throughout the world," and also wishing to
+counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he interested a
+number of people in the project, formed a society for colonization, and
+in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the "Mesopotamia in the
+West." Knox College was founded to fulfil his educational purpose.
+Galesburg was an important "station" of the Underground Railroad, one of
+the conditions of membership in the "Presbyterian Church of Galesburg"
+(the name of Mr Gale's society) being opposition to slavery; and in 1855
+this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery. Galesburg was
+chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October 1858 one of the
+famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the grounds of Knox College.
+
+
+
+
+GALGACUS, or perhaps rather CALGACUS, a Caledonian chief who led the
+tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman army under Cn. Julius
+Agricola about A.D. 85 and was defeated at the battle of Mons Graupius
+(Tac. _Agric._ 29). The name recurs much later, in Adamnan's _Life of
+Columba_, in the name of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or
+Roboretum Calgachi, "the wood of Calgacus": it may be Celtic and denote
+"the man with the sword."
+
+
+
+
+GALIANI, FERDINANDO (1728-1787), Italian economist, was born at Chieti
+on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully educated by his uncle
+Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome with a view to entering the
+Church. Galiani gave early promise of distinction as an economist, and
+even more as a wit. At the age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders,
+he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far
+beyond the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his _Trattato della
+moneta_, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the mercantile
+school, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always
+with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the
+whole monetary system of the Neapolitan government. The other, _Raccolta
+in Morte del Boia_, established his fame as a humorist, and was highly
+popular in Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In
+this volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of
+discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the most
+pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day. Galiani's political
+knowledge and social qualities now pointed him out to the discriminating
+eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and his liberal
+minister Tanucci, and he was appointed in 1759 secretary to the
+Neapolitan embassy at Paris. This post he held for ten years, when he
+returned to Naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of
+commerce, and in 1777, minister of the royal domains. His economic
+reputation was made by a book written in French and published in Paris,
+namely, his _Dialogues sur le commerce des blés_. This work, by its
+light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it abounded,
+delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production of which
+Plato and Molière might have been combined! The author, says Pecchio,
+treated his arid subject as Fontenelle did the vortices of Descartes, or
+Algarotti the Newtonian system of the world. The question at issue was
+that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in
+particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the
+exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain
+height. The general principle he maintains is that the best system in
+regard to this trade is to have no system--countries differently
+circumstanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment.
+He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the
+mercantilists--holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even Verri, that
+one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier
+treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing
+the currency. Until his death at Naples on the 30th of October 1787,
+Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends a correspondence, which
+was published in 1818.
+
+  See _L'Abate Galiani_, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his
+  correspondence with Tanucci in Viesseux's _L'Archivio storico_
+  (Florence, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+GALICIA (Ger. _Galizien_; Pol. _Halicz_), a crownland of Austria,
+bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and W. by
+Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299 sq. m., and is
+the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old kingdoms of Galicia
+and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator, and the grand duchy
+of Cracow.
+
+Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which with their
+offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of the country. The
+surface gradually sinks down by undulating terraces to the valleys of
+the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and E. of these rivers Galicia forms
+a continuation of the great plains of Russia, intersected only by a few
+hills, which descend from the plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which
+attain in some places an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians,
+which, extending in the form of an arc, form the boundary between
+Galicia and Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides,
+which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif of the
+Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia Góra (5650 ft.), the Wolowiec
+(6773 ft.) and the Cserna Góra (6505 ft.). The principal passes are
+those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of Dukla, Vereczke Körösmezö or
+Delatyn in the East Beskides. The river Vistula, which becomes navigable
+at Cracow, and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia,
+receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with its affluents
+the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San and the Bug. The
+Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of
+Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor, and receives on the right the
+Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and the Bystrzyca, and on the left the
+Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards
+Russia. The Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the
+territory of Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives
+the Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few lakes
+in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable morasses exist
+about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the San, while the ponds or
+dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated to cover an area of over 200
+sq. m. The most frequented mineral springs are the alkaline springs at
+Szczawnica and Krynica, the sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and
+Lubian, and the iodine springs at Iwonicz.
+
+Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and shut out by
+the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds, Galicia has the severest
+climate in Austria. It has long winters, with an abundant snowfall,
+short and wet springs, hot summers and long and steady autumns. The mean
+annual temperature at Lemberg is 46.2° F., and at Tarnopol only 43° F.
+
+Of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16% by meadows,
+9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76% by forests. The soil is
+generally fertile, but agriculture is still backward. The principal
+products are barley, oats, rye, wheat, maize and leguminous plants.
+Galicia has the largest area under potatoes and legumes in the whole of
+Austria, and hemp, flax, tobacco and hops are of considerable
+importance. The principal mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum.
+Salt is extracted at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and
+Kosow. Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza
+near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum fields in
+Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and are worked at
+Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka and Potok near Krosno,
+Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c. Great quantities of ozocerite are
+also extracted in the petroliferous region of the Carpathians. Other
+mineral products are zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the
+Cracow region, amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria,
+iron ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur mines
+of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since 1598, were
+abandoned in 1884.
+
+The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly developed. The
+first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose output amounts to
+nearly 40% of the total production of spirits in Austria. Then follow
+the petroleum refineries and kindred industries, saw-mills and the
+fabrication of various wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar
+factory at Tlumacz and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the
+largest establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is
+concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens is
+pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian region,
+the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is mainly in the
+hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit trade to Russia and
+to the East is also of considerable importance.
+
+Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is equivalent to
+241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal nationalities are the Poles
+(45%) and the Ruthenians (42%), the former predominating in the west and
+in the big towns, and the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the
+Carpathians are distinguished as Goralians (from _góry_, mountain), and
+those of the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian
+highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly Roman
+Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there are over
+770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are Catholics and stand
+under the jurisdiction of an Armenian archbishop at Lemberg.
+
+The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg, and three
+bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the Greek Catholic
+Church is represented by an archbishop, at Lemberg, and two bishops, at
+Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the head of the educational institutions
+stand the two universities of Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy
+of science at Cracow.
+
+The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3 archbishops,
+the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities, and Galicia sends
+78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the
+province is divided into 78 districts and 2 autonomous
+municipalities--Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the capital, and Cracow
+(91,310). Other principal towns are: Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea
+(34,188), Tarnów (31,548), Tarnopol (30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj
+(23,673), Jaroslau (22,614), Drohobycz (19,146), Podgórze (18,142),
+Brody (17,360), Sambor (17,027), Neusandec (15,724), Rzeszów (14,714),
+Zloczow (12,209), Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504),
+Sniatyn (11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671),
+Chrzanów (10,170), Jaworów (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and Biala (8265).
+
+Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring
+principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th
+century--the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch.
+Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the
+interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190 assumed the
+title of king, and appointed his son Andreas lieutenant of the kingdom.
+Polish assistance, however, enabled Vladimir, the former possessor, to
+expel Andreas, and in 1198 Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself
+master of Galicia also. On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland
+and Hungary for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was
+arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be invested with
+Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian king, with Galicia.
+Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav of Novgorod; and in his turn
+Andreas, Mstislav's nominee, was expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a
+powerful prince, who by a flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his
+position. Though in 1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary,
+yet, when he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu,
+he called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown of
+Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when Innocent
+disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former connexion with
+the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line in 1340 Casimir III. of
+Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg; on Casimir's death in 1370
+Louis the Great of Hungary, in accordance with previous treaties, became
+king of Poland, Galicia and Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of
+Louis's daughter with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as
+part of his Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became
+definitively assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in
+1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria, and to this
+was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795; but at the peace
+of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were surrendered to the
+grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of East Galicia, including
+Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This latter portion was recovered by
+Austria at the peace of Paris (1814), and the former came back on the
+suppression of the independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the
+introduction of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a
+larger degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian
+empire.
+
+  See _Die österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol.
+  19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); _Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns in Wort
+  und Bild_, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable sketches of
+  Galician life are to be found in the works of the German novelist
+  Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).
+
+
+
+
+GALICIA (the ancient _Gallaecia_ or _Callaecia_, [Greek: Kallaikia] or
+[Greek: Kalaikia]), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom,
+countship and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded on
+the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by Portugal,
+and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515; area, 11,254 sq. m.
+In 1833 Galicia was divided for administrative purposes into the
+provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and Pontevedra.
+
+Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded as a
+continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is further broken
+in the east by the westernmost ridges of that system, which, running in
+a south-westerly direction, rise above the basin of the Miño. The high
+land north of the headwaters of the Miño forms the sole connecting link
+between the Cantabrians properly so-called and the mountains of central
+and western Galicia. The average elevation of the province is
+considerable, and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Peña
+Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.
+
+The principal river is the Miño (Portuguese _Minho_; Lat. _Minius_; so
+named, it is said, from the _minium_ or vermilion found in its bed).
+Rising near Mondoñedo, within 25 m. of the northern coast, the Miño
+enters the Atlantic near the port of Guardia, after a course of 170 m.
+S. and S.W. Its lower reaches are navigable by small vessels. Of its
+numerous affluents the most important is the Sil, which rises among the
+lofty mountains between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a
+westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and the Lerez
+or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or _rias_ called
+respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria de Pontevedra.
+The rivers of the northern versant, such as the Nera, are, like those of
+Asturias, for the most part short, rapid and subject to violent floods.
+
+The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere bold
+and deeply indented, presenting a large number of secure harbours, and
+in this respect forming a marked contrast to the neighbouring province.
+The Eo, which bounds Galicia on the east, has a deep estuary, the
+Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero
+Bay and the Ria del Barquero y Váres are of a similar character; while
+the harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief
+naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite side of
+Betanzos Bay (the [Greek: megas limên] or _Portus Magnus_ of the
+ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Coruña. The principal port on
+the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered bay of Vigo,
+but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion under Cape Finisterre,
+at Marin and at Carril.
+
+The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the interior,
+owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1500 ft. above
+sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is
+exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations for
+a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole fertile,
+and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of timber is grown
+on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures support large herds of
+cattle, while the abundance of oaks and chestnuts favours the rearing of
+swine. In the lowland districts good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats
+and rye, as well as of turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit
+also is of excellent quality and in great variety, although the culture
+of the vine is limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern
+districts. The _dehesas_ or moorlands abound in game, and fish are
+plentiful in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province,
+which are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients.
+Strabo (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny (A.D.
+23-79) mentions the _gemma Gallaica_, a precious stone. Galicia is also
+remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other warm springs, the
+most important of which are those at Lugo, and those from which Orense
+is said to take its name (_Aquae urentes_).
+
+Ethnologically the Galicians (_Gallegos_) are allied to the Portuguese,
+whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in habits more than the
+other inhabitants of the peninsula. The men are well known all over
+Spain and Portugal as hardy, honest and industrious, but for the most
+part somewhat unskilled, labourers; indeed the word _Gallego_ has come
+to be almost a synonym in Madrid for a "hewer of wood and drawer of
+water." It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning "boor." Agriculture
+engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and
+female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed.
+The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971); Santiago de
+Compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal see; Lugo, Tuy,
+Mondoñedo and Orense are bishoprics.
+
+_Gallaecia_, the country of the Galacci, _Callaici_ or _Gallaici_, seems
+to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier geographers.
+According to Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) the entire population of the
+peninsula were at one time called _Galatae_. The region properly called
+by their name, bounded on the south by the Douro and on the east by the
+Navia, was first entered by the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus
+in 137-136 B.C. (Livy lv., lvi., _Epit._); but the final subjugation
+cannot be placed earlier than the time of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14). On
+the partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the
+Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaecia fell to the lot of the first named
+(A.D. 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly 200 years, the
+Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic dominions under Leovigild
+in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the Moors, who in turn were driven out
+by Alphonso I. of Asturias, in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it
+was the subject of dispute between more than one count of Galicia and
+the suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans.
+When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, Galicia
+was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the three. In 1072
+it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother Alphonso VI. of Castile
+and thenceforward it remained an integral part of the kingdom of Castile
+or of Leon. The honorary title of count of Galicia has frequently been
+borne by younger sons of the Spanish sovereign.
+
+  See Annette B. Meakin, _Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain_ (London,
+  1909).
+
+
+
+
+GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), newspaper publisher, was born
+at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some time in London, he went to
+Paris, where he started in 1800 an English library, and in 1808 a
+monthly publication, the _Repertory of English Literature_. In 1814 he
+began to publish, in Paris, _Galignani's Messenger_, a daily paper
+printed in English. At his death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his
+two sons, Jean-Antoine (1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under
+their management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to promote
+good feeling between England and France. The brothers established and
+endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine. In recognition of
+their generosity the city of Corbeil erected a monument in their honour.
+In 1884 the Galignani family disposed of their interest in _Galignani's
+Messenger_, and from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the
+paper appeared under the title of the _Daily Messenger_.
+
+
+
+
+GALILEE (Heb. [Hebrew: Galil], "border" or "ring," Gr. [Greek:
+Galilaia]), a Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S.
+by Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the Leontes
+(Litani), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of Phoenicia. Its maximum
+extent was about 60 m. north to south and 30 east to west. The name in
+the Hebrew Scriptures hardly had a definite territorial significance. It
+literally means a ring or circuit, and, like analogous words in English,
+could be applied to various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel
+(iii. 4) refer to the _Geliloth_ ("borders, coast") of the Philistines
+or of Palestine; Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8)
+mention the Jordan valley plain as the "Geliloth of Jordan" in "the
+Eastern Gelilah." In its more restricted connotation, denoting the
+district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found
+in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, 1 Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was situated
+the town of Kadesh; and in 1 Kings ix. 11, the district of "worthless"
+cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. 1 we find the full name of
+the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally "the ring, circuit or border of
+the foreigners"--referring to the Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by
+whose country the province was on three sides surrounded. In 1 Kings xv.
+29 it is specified as one of the districts whose population was deported
+by Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, however,
+Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the unit of
+territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial, and though
+such important events as those associated with the names of Barak,
+Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within its borders, yet these
+belong rather to the histories of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali,
+whose territories together almost correspond with Galilee, than to the
+province itself.
+
+After the Jewish return from exile the population confined itself to
+Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed multitude of
+successors established there by the Assyrians. When it once more came
+into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is generally supposed that its
+reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus. Before very long it developed a
+nationalism and patriotism as intense as that of Judaea itself,
+notwithstanding the contempt with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem
+looked down upon the Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such
+as "Out of Galilee cometh no prophet" (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha,
+and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common.
+Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the Galileans; it
+appears that they confused the gutturals in pronunciation.
+
+Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate governed by
+members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was tetrarch of Galilee in
+47 B.C.; in 4 B.C. he was succeeded by his son Antipas. Galilee was the
+land of Christ's boyhood and the chief centre of His active work, and in
+His various ministries here some of His chief discourses were uttered
+(as the Sermon on the Mount, Matt. v.) and some of His chief miracles
+performed.
+
+After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic schools took
+refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised. No ancient remains
+of Jewish synagogues exist except those that have been identified in
+some of the ancient Galilean towns, such as Tell Hum (Talhum), Kerazeh,
+Kefr Bir'im, and elsewhere. One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was
+Safed, still a sacred city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members
+of that faith. Near here is Meirun, a place much revered by the Jews as
+containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai; a yearly
+festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At Tiberias also
+are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers, including Maimonides.
+
+  The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower Galilee,
+  the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which prolonged
+  would cut the Jordan about midway between Huleh and the Sea of
+  Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf and Esdraelon.
+
+
+    Lower Galilee.
+
+  The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by
+  volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up
+  towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed over the
+  plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district the highest hills
+  are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The ridge of Nazareth rises
+  north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and north of this again is the
+  fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from the sea-coast plains by
+  low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the basaltic plateau called
+  Sahel el Ahma ("the inaccessible plain"), rising 1700 ft. above the
+  Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a confused hill country, the
+  spurs falling towards a broad valley which lies at the foot of the
+  mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad valley, running westwards to
+  the coast, is perhaps the old boundary of Zebulun--the valley of
+  Jiphthah-el (Josh, xix. 14). The great plain of Esdraelon is of
+  triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the east and by the ridge which
+  runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m. long from Jenin to the
+  Nazareth hills, and its southern border is about 20 m. long. It rises
+  200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both sides being some 1500 ft.
+  higher. The whole drainage is collected by the Kishon, which runs
+  through a narrow gorge at the north-west corner of the plain,
+  descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea. The broad valley of
+  Jezreel on the east, descending towards the Jordan valley, forms the
+  gate by which Palestine is entered from beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor
+  stands isolated in the plain at the north-east corner, and rather
+  farther south the conical hill called Nebi Duhi rises between Tabor
+  and Gilboa. The whole of Lower Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is
+  fed by springs from near Tabor and from a copious stream from the west
+  side of the plain of Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is Wadi el
+  Melek, an open valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of
+  Acre, rising in the sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above
+  identified with Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel
+  is full of magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains
+  of Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-Ahma are all
+  remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which
+  corn, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of
+  vegetable are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in
+  former times. The Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but
+  west of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads
+  over the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain
+  are partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets.
+  The mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub,
+  except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal
+  places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000
+  inhabitants), Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above
+  the Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jenin (En Gannim),
+  a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The
+  ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a
+  precipitous spur of Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets,
+  Solam (Shunem), Endur (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side of the
+  plain is the ruin of Lejjun (the Legio of the 4th century, which was
+  then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf is
+  Jefat, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata
+  defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian village
+  at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is one of the
+  sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kana, on the north
+  side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to the
+  pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries.
+
+
+    Upper Galilee.
+
+  The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the
+  drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the
+  rocky range of Jebel Jarmuk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above the sea; on
+  the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms the watershed, with steep
+  eastern slopes falling towards Jordan. Immediately west of the
+  watershed are two small plateaus covered with basaltic débris, near
+  el-Jish and Kades. On the west are rugged mountains with deep
+  intricate valleys. The main drains of the country are--first, Wadi el
+  'Ayun, rising north of Jebel Jarmuk, and running north-west as an open
+  valley; and secondly, Wadi el Ahjar, a rugged precipitous gorge
+  running north to join the Leontes. The district is well provided with
+  springs throughout, and the valleys are full of water in the
+  spring-time. Though rocky and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren,
+  the soil of the plateaus is rich, and the vine flourishes in the
+  higher hills, especially in the neighbourhood of Kefr Bir'im. The
+  principal town is Safed, perched on a white mountain 2700 ft. above
+  the sea. It has a population of about 9000, including Jews, Christians
+  and Moslems.
+
+Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in _Wars_,
+iii. 3. 2: "The Galileans are inured to war from their infancy, and have
+been always very numerous; nor hath the country been ever destitute of
+men of courage or wanted a numerous set of them; for their soil is
+universally rich and fruitful, and full of plantations of trees of all
+sorts, insomuch that it invites the most slothful to take pains in its
+cultivation.... Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very
+many villages there are here are everywhere full of people." Though the
+population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country is still
+remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its water-supply
+draining from the Lebanon mountains.
+
+The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and soap (from
+the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd.
+
+The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone monuments,
+rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous remains of Byzantine
+monasteries and fine churches of the time of the crusades. There are
+also remains of Greek architecture in various places; but the most
+interesting buildings are the ancient synagogues, of which some eleven
+examples are now known. They are rectangular, with the door to the
+south, and two rows of columns forming aisles east and west. The
+architecture is a peculiar and debased imitation of classic style,
+attributed by architects to the 2nd century A.D. In Kefr Bir'im there
+were remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of
+them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At Irbid, above
+Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different character. Traces of
+synagogues have also been found on Carmel, and at Tireh, west of
+Nazareth. It is curious to find the representation of various animals in
+relief on the lintels of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also
+occur, and the carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though
+debased.
+
+In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian kingdom of
+Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected by fortresses, the
+magnificent remains of which still crown the most important strategical
+points. Toron (mod. _Tibnin_) was built in 1104, the first fortress
+erected by the crusaders, and standing on the summit of the mountains of
+Upper Galilee. Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a
+precipice above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the
+advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time Château Neuf
+(Hunin) was erected above the Hüleh lake. Belfort (esh Shukif), on the
+north bank of the Leontes, the finest and most important, dates somewhat
+earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east
+of Acre, completing the chain of frontier fortresses. The town of
+Banias, with its castle, formed also a strong outpost against Damascus,
+and was the scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many
+desperate encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was
+the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Christians. In
+1250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands extending round Acre
+as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including Safed. These
+possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.
+
+The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the peasants are
+principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek Christians round
+Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper Galilee, however, there is
+a mixture of Jews and Maronites, Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine
+settlers), while the slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering
+Arabs. The Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and
+Moslems in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral people.
+     (C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or chapel
+which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case at Durham and
+Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name is sometimes given to
+the south-west porch. The name is said to be derived from the scriptural
+expression "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are
+supposed to have been used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably
+served chiefly for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church.
+The Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey
+church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they were
+related, or from which they could hear divine service. The foundation of
+what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at the west end of
+Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were placed there before
+interment.
+
+
+
+
+GALILEE, SEA OF, a lake in Palestine consisting of an expansion of the
+Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is 13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64
+sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of the Mediterranean, and,
+according to Merrill and Barrois (who have corrected the excessive depth
+said to have been found by Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in
+maximum depth. It is pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In
+the Hebrew Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth
+(probably derived from a town of the same name mentioned in Joshua xi. 2
+and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with [Hebrew: kinor], "a
+harp," is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of Maccabees it is
+named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is usually called Sea of
+Galilee, though once it is called Lake of Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and
+twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1, xxi. 1). The modern Arabic name is
+_Bahr Tubariya_, which is often rendered "Lake of Tiberias." Pliny
+refers to it as the Lake of Taricheae.
+
+Like the Dead Sea it is a "rift" lake, being part of the great fault
+that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show that originally
+it formed part of the great inland sea that filled this depression in
+Pleistocene times. The district on each side of the lake has a number of
+hot springs, at least one of which is beneath the sea itself, and has
+always shown indications of volcanic and other subterranean
+disturbances. It is especially liable to earthquakes. The water of the
+sea, though slightly brackish and not very clear, is generally used for
+drinking. The shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel;
+some yards from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish
+mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon falls about
+10° F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range of temperature
+affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.; below that depth the water
+is uniformly about 59° F. The sea is set deep in hills which rise on the
+east side to a height of about 2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms (such
+as are described in Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel passages)
+are often produced by the changes of temperature in the air resulting
+from these great differences of level.
+
+  The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western
+  precipices. It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills
+  rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes
+  and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with black
+  basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma terminates in
+  precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the black rocky
+  tops called "the Horns of Hattin" are conspicuous objects. On the
+  south is a broad valley through which the Jordan flows. On the east
+  are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the great plateau of the
+  Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the lake through a narrow gorge
+  between lower hills. A marshy plain, 2½ m. long and 1½ broad, called
+  el-Batihah, exists immediately east of the Jordan inlet. There is also
+  on the west side of the lake a small plain called el-Ghuweir, formed
+  by the junction of three large valleys. It measures 3¼ m. along the
+  shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain, naturally fertile, but now almost
+  uncultivated, is supposed to be the plain of Gennesareth, described by
+  Josephus (B. J. iii. 10, 8). On the east the hills approach in one
+  place within 40 ft. of the water, but there is generally a width of
+  about ¾ of a mile from the hills to the beach. On the west the flat
+  ground at the foot of the hills has an average width of about 200 yds.
+  A few scattered palms dot the western shores, and a palm grove is to
+  be found near Kefr Harib on the south-east. The hot baths south of
+  Tiberias include seven springs, the largest of which has a temperature
+  of 137° F. In these springs a distinct rise in temperature was
+  observed in 1837, when Tiberias and Safed were destroyed by an
+  earthquake. The plain of Gennesareth, with its environs, is the
+  best-watered part of the lake-basin. North of this plain are the five
+  springs of et-Tabighah, the largest of which was enclosed about a
+  century ago in an octagonal reservoir by 'Ali, son of Dhahr el-Amir,
+  and the water led off by an aqueduct 52 ft. above the lake. The
+  Tabighah springs, though abundant, are warm and brackish. At the north
+  end of the plain is 'Ain et-Tineh ("spring of the fig-tree"), also a
+  brackish spring with a good stream; south of the plain is 'Ain
+  el-Bardeh ("the cold spring"), which is sweet, but scarcely lower in
+  temperature than the others. One of the most important springs is 'Ain
+  el-Madawwera ("the round spring"), situated 1 m. from the south end of
+  the plain and half a mile from the shore. The water rises in a
+  circular well 32 ft. in diameter, and is clear and sweet, with a
+  temperature of 73° F. The bottom is of loose sand, and the fish called
+  _coracinus_ by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is here found (see below).
+  Dr Tristram was the first explorer to identify this fish, and on
+  account of its presence suggested the identification of the "round
+  spring" with the fountain of _Capharnaum_, which, according to
+  Josephus, watered the plain of Gennesareth. There is, however, a
+  difficulty in this identification; there are no ruins at 'Ain
+  el-Madawwera.
+
+  _Fauna and Flora._--For half the year the hillsides are bare and
+  steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation.
+  Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at 'Ain
+  et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms with
+  fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose boats
+  are the only representatives of the many ships and boats which plied
+  on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a lucrative
+  industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws regulating
+  it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and unclean, the
+  good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong to the genera
+  _Chromis_, _Barbus_, _Capoeta_, _Discognathus_, _Nemachilus_,
+  _Blennius_ and _Clarias_; and there is a great affinity between them
+  and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight
+  species of _Chromis_, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their
+  young in the buccal cavities of the males. The _Chromis simonis_ is
+  popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece of
+  money (Matt. xvii. 27). _Clarias macracanthus_ (Arab. _Burbur_) is the
+  _coracinus_ of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs of 'Ain
+  el-Madawwera, 'Ain et-Tineh and 'Ain et-Tabighah, on the lake shore
+  where muddy, and in Lake Hüleh. It is a scaleless, snake-like fish,
+  often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the _C. anguillaris_ of
+  Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be
+  unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of Matt.
+  vii. 10 and Luke xi. 11. Large numbers of grebes--great crested,
+  eared, and little,--gulls and pelicans frequent the lake. On its
+  shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable
+  sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of
+  _Melania_, _Melanopsis_, _Neritina_, _Corbicula_ and _Unio_ have been
+  found.
+
+_Antiquities._--The principal sites of interest round the lake may be
+enumerated from north to west and from south to east. Kerazeh, the
+undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur 900 ft. above the
+lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and scattered stones cover
+the slopes and the flat valley below. On the west is a rugged gorge. In
+the middle of the ruins are the scattered remains of a synagogue of
+richly ornamental style built of black basalt. A small spring occurs on
+the north. Tell Hum (as the name is generally spelt, though _Talhum_
+would probably be preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin
+on the shore, south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of
+foundations and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic
+thistles) extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations
+of a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white
+limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has been erected
+close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell Hum synagogue. Since
+the 4th century Tell Hum has been pointed out by all the Christian
+writers of importance as the site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers
+question this identification, but without sufficient reason (see
+CAPERNAUM). Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of
+Gennesareth, 2½ m. from the last, and close to the shore. There are
+extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and foundations.
+Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here discovered in course
+of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of an old khan, which appears
+to have been built in the middle ages. This is another suggested
+identification for Capernaum; but all the remains belong to the Arab
+period. Between Tell Hum and Minyeh is _Tell 'Oreimeh_, the site of a
+forgotten Amorite city.
+
+South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly supposed
+to represent the New Testament town of Magdala. A few lotus trees and
+some rock-cut tombs are here found beside a miserable mud hamlet on the
+hill slope, with a modern tombhouse (_kubbeh_). Passing beneath rugged
+cliffs a recess in the hills is next reached, where stands Tubariya, the
+ancient Tiberias or Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half
+of whom are Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly
+destroyed by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el-Amir, as was
+the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were erected by
+his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders' church, and the tomb of the
+celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, while Rabbi Aqiba and Rabbi
+Meir lie buried outside. The ruins of the ancient city, including
+granite columns and traces of a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards
+a mile beyond the modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought
+water a distance of 9 m. from the south.
+
+Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a peninsula
+surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, and by a broad water
+ditch, while on the north-west a narrow neck of land remains. The
+plateau thus enclosed is partly artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft.
+above the water. A ruined citadel remains on the north-west, and on the
+east was a bridge over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of
+sculptured stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the
+description given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30
+stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities.
+Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the cliffs, and
+partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a plain (the
+Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at the south end of
+the Sea of Galilee. _Sinn en-Nabreh_, a ruin on a spur of the hills
+close to the last-mentioned site, represents the ancient Sennabris,
+where Vespasian (Josephus, _B.J._ iii. 9, 7) fixed his camp, advancing
+from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30
+stadia from Tiberias, or about the distance of the ruin now existing.
+
+The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully explored
+than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly recovered. The site
+of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is fixed by Clermont-Ganneau
+at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn ("castle of the stronghold") is a ruin
+on a rocky spur opposite Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain,
+with traces of an old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong
+wall once surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east
+where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the site on the
+north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs are found beneath
+the ruin. This site is not identified; the suggestion that it is Gamala
+is doubtful, and not borne out by Josephus (_War_, iv. 1, 1), who says
+Gamala was over against Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of
+the last, is thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th
+century, situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill
+south of this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine "ran
+violently down a steep place" (Matt. viii. 32).
+     (C. R. C; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and experimental
+philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of February 1564. His father,
+Vincenzio, was an impoverished descendant of a noble Florentine house,
+which had exchanged the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the
+election, in 1343, of one of its members, Tommaso de' Bonajuti, to the
+college of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen times
+represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier to Florence,
+flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. Vincenzio
+Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was a competent
+mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on the theory and
+practice of music, and was especially distinguished amongst his
+contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance upon the lute.
+By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he had three sons and four
+daughters.
+
+From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family, was
+remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical
+invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original and
+ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary studies was
+equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence,
+where his education was principally conducted, he not only made himself
+acquainted with the best Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of
+the Greek tongue, thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and
+elegant style. From one of the monks he also received instruction in
+logic; but the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly
+distasteful to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that
+he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to have
+joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs for him,
+seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to withdraw him
+permanently from the care of the monks. Having had personal experience
+of the unremunerative character both of music and of mathematics, he
+desired that his son should apply himself to the cultivation of
+medicine, and, not without some straining of his slender resources,
+placed him, before he had completed his eighteenth year, at the
+university of Pisa. He accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of
+November 1581, and immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures
+of the celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino.
+
+The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time equally ready
+to develop in any direction towards which choice or hazard might incline
+them. In musical skill and invention he already vied with the best
+professors of the art in Italy; his personal taste would have led him to
+choose painting as his profession, and one of the most eminent artists
+of his day, Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he
+was mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while
+watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed that,
+whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably executed in
+equal times. The experimental verification of this fact led him to the
+important discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum. He at first
+applied the new principle to pulse-measurement, and more than fifty
+years later turned it to account in the construction of an astronomical
+clock. Up to this time he was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his
+father having carefully held him aloof from a study which he rightly
+apprehended would lead to his total alienation from that of medicine.
+Accident, however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given
+by Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced,
+tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his attention
+was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he threw all his
+energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly presented to him. With
+Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered the elements of the science, and
+eventually extorted his father's reluctant permission to exchange
+Hippocrates and Galen for Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was
+withdrawn from the university, through lack of means, before he had
+taken a degree, and returned to Florence, where his family habitually
+resided. We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy
+on the site and dimensions of Dante's _Inferno_; and he shortly
+afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the
+hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy.
+His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo del Monte of Pesaro, a man
+equally eminent in science, and influential through family connexions.
+At the Marchese's request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of
+gravity in solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of
+"the Archimedes of his time," the honourable though not lucrative post
+of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During the ensuing two
+years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable series of experiments by
+which he established the first principles of dynamics and earned the
+undying hostility of bigoted Aristotelians. From the leaning tower of
+Pisa he afforded to all the professors and students of the university
+ocular demonstration of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that
+heavy bodies fall with velocities proportional to their weights, and
+with unanswerable logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the
+schools regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or
+levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his adversaries.
+The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not calculated to soothe
+the susceptibilities of men already smarting under the deprivation of
+their most cherished illusions. He seems, in addition, to have
+compromised his position with the grand-ducal family by the imprudent
+candour with which he condemned a machine for clearing the port of
+Leghorn, invented by Giovanni de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo
+I. Princely favour being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show
+itself. He was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to
+resign his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through the
+death of his father in July of that year family cares and
+responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to the chair
+of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by the influence of
+the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian senate, was welcome both as
+affording a relief from pecuniary embarrassment and as opening a field
+for scientific distinction.
+
+His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of eighteen years,
+from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted prosperity. His
+appointment was three times renewed, on each occasion with the
+expressions of the highest esteem on the part of the governing body, and
+his yearly salary was progressively raised from 180 to 1000 florins. His
+lectures were attended by persons of the highest distinction from all
+parts of Europe, and such was the charm of his demonstrations that a
+hall capable of containing 2000 people had eventually to be assigned for
+the accommodation of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His
+invention of the proportional compass or sector--an implement still used
+in geometrical drawing--dates from 1597; and about the same time he
+constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb and tube filled
+with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of water. In this
+instrument the results of varying atmospheric pressure were not
+distinguishable from the expansive and contractive effects of heat and
+cold, and it became an efficient measure of temperature only when
+Rinieri, in 1646, introduced the improvement of hermetically sealing the
+liquid in glass. The substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water
+completed the modern thermometer.
+
+Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the
+Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from avowing his
+opinions--as is proved by his letter to Kepler of August 4, 1597--by the
+fear of ridicule rather than of persecution. The appearance, in September
+1604, of a new star in the constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed
+an opportunity, of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an
+onslaught upon the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the
+heavens; but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to
+Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent implement
+of research in the shape of the telescope (q.v.) placed at his command
+startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as to the constitution and
+mutual relations of the heavenly bodies. Galileo was not the original
+inventor of the telescope.[1] That honour must be assigned to Johannes
+Lippershey, an obscure optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October
+1608, petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive
+rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the apparent
+size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention, which reached
+Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the track; and after one
+night's profound meditation on the principles of refraction, he succeeded
+in producing a telescope of threefold magnifying power. Upon this first
+attempt he rapidly improved, until he attained to a power of thirty-two,
+and his instruments, of which he manufactured hundreds with his own
+hands, were soon in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only--a
+plano-convex and a plano-concave--were needed for the composition of
+each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the
+construction of opera-glasses. Galileo's direction of his new instrument
+to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy. Discoveries
+followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in bewildering variety. The
+_Sidereus Nuncius_, published at Venice early in 1610, contained the
+first-fruits of the new mode of investigation, which were sufficient to
+excite learned amazement on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous
+configuration of the moon's surface was there first described, and the
+so-called "phosphorescence" of the dark portion of our satellite
+attributed to its true cause--namely, illumination by sunlight reflected
+from the earth.[2] All the time-worn fables and conjectures regarding the
+composition of the Milky Way were at once dissipated by the simple
+statement that to the eye, reinforced by the telescope, it appeared as a
+congeries of lesser stars, while the great nebulae were equally declared
+to be resolvable into similar elements. But the discovery which was at
+once perceived to be most important in itself, and most revolutionary in
+its effects, was that of Jupiter's satellites, first seen by Galileo on
+the 7th of January 1610, and by him named _Sidera Medicea_, in honour of
+the grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and was
+about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the general run of
+mankind, more powerful to convince than an argument; and the cogency of
+the visible plea for the Copernican theory offered by the miniature
+system, then first disclosed to view, was recognizable in the triumph of
+its advocates as well as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.
+
+In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His
+researches with the telescope had been rewarded by the Venetian senate
+with the appointment for life to his professorship, at an
+unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery of the "Medicean Stars" was
+acknowledged by his nomination (July 12, 1610) as philosopher and
+mathematician extraordinary to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments
+of this office, which involved no duties save that of continuing his
+scientific labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of
+increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism, which
+induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of which had
+indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610 the memorable cycle
+of discoveries begun in the previous year was completed by the
+observation of the ansated or, as it appeared to Galileo, triple form of
+Saturn (the ring-formation was first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in
+1655), of the phases of Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards
+sun-spots, however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim
+priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring of
+1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the Quirinal
+Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most eminent
+personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the flattering
+reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his _Letters on the Solar
+Spots_, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more decided position
+towards that doctrine on the establishment of which, as he avowed in a
+letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the grand-duke, "all his life
+and being henceforward depended." Even in the time of Copernicus some
+well-meaning persons, especially those of the reformed persuasion, had
+suspected a discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and
+certain passages of Scripture--a suspicion strengthened by the
+anti-Christian inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the
+question was never formally debated until Galileo's brilliant
+disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic zeal,
+irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities.
+Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be
+admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself into it
+with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to precipitate a
+decision which it was his interest to avert. In December 1613 a
+Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli, at that time professor of
+mathematics at the university of Pisa, wrote to inform Galileo of a
+recent discussion at the grand-ducal table, in which he had been called
+upon to defend the Copernican doctrine against theological objections.
+This task Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan
+astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation and success.
+Galileo's answer, written, as he said himself, _currente calamo_, was an
+exposition of a formal theory as to the relations of physical science to
+Holy Writ, still further developed in an elaborate apology addressed by
+him in the following year (1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager
+grand-duchess of Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts,
+he met his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and
+endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system which seemed
+to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to the scientific few a
+beautiful but daring innovation. The rising agitation on the subject,
+fomented for their own purposes by the rabid Aristotelians of the
+schools, was heightened rather than allayed by these manifestoes, and on
+the fourth Sunday of the following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of
+Santa Maria Novella. Padre Caccini's denunciation of the new astronomy
+was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors;
+nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican monk named
+Lorini laid Galileo's letter to Castelli before the Inquisition.
+
+Cardinal Robert Bellarmin was at that time by far the most influential
+member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast learning and upright
+piety, but, although personally friendly to Galileo, there is no doubt
+that he saw in his scientific teachings a danger to religion. The year
+1615 seems to have been a period of suspense. Galileo received, as the
+result of a conference between Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a
+semi-official warning to avoid theology, and limit himself to physical
+reasoning. "Write freely," he was told by Monsignor Dini, "but keep
+outside the sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself
+to dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome, full of
+confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity of his
+eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical court to his
+views. He was cordially received, and eagerly listened to, but his
+imprudent ardour served but to injure his cause. On the 24th of February
+1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the two
+propositions--that the sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and
+that the earth has a diurnal motion of rotation--the first as "absurd in
+philosophy, and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy
+Scripture," and the second as "open to the same censure in philosophy,
+and at least erroneous as to faith." Two days later Galileo was, by
+command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned to the palace of Cardinal
+Bellarmin, and there officially admonished not thenceforward to "hold,
+teach or defend" the condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to
+obey. On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree
+reiterating, with the omission of the word "heretical," the censure of
+the theologians, suspending, _usque corrigatur_, the great work of
+Copernicus, _De revolutionibus orbium coelestium_, and absolutely
+prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini, which
+treated the same subject from a theological point of view. At the same
+time it was given to be understood that the new theory of the solar
+system might be held _ex hypothesi_, and the trivial verbal alterations
+introduced into the Polish astronomer's book in 1620, when the work of
+revision was completed by Cardinal Gaetani, confirmed this
+interpretation. This edict, it is essential to observe, the
+responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary congregation in no
+sense representing the church, was never confirmed by the pope, and was
+virtually repealed in 1757 under Benedict XIV.
+
+Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased, as his
+letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He brought with
+him, for the refutation of calumnious reports circulated by his enemies,
+a written certificate from Cardinal Bellarmin, to the effect that no
+abjuration had been required of or penance imposed upon him. During a
+prolonged audience he had received from the pope assurances of private
+esteem and personal protection; and he trusted to his dialectical
+ingenuity to find the means of presenting his scientific convictions
+under the transparent veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere
+Catholic, he seems to have laid but little stress on the secret
+admonition of the Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged
+him gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written
+memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, according to his
+own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin's certificate, in
+which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather than expressly
+recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during which he led a life of
+studious retirement in the Villa Segni at Bellosguardo, near Florence,
+he maintained an almost unbroken silence. At the end of that time he
+appeared in public with his _Saggiatore_, a polemical treatise written
+in reply to the _Libra astronomica_ of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym
+of Lotario Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The
+subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous appearance
+of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished the occasion of the
+controversy. Galileo's views, although erroneous, since he held comets
+to be mere atmospheric emanations reflecting sunlight after the
+evanescent fashion of a halo or a rainbow, were expressed with such
+triumphant vigour, and embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his
+opponent did not venture upon a reply. The _Saggiatore_ was printed at
+Rome in October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was
+a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and
+notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of Copernican
+opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical, no less than
+by scientific authorities.
+
+Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken prosperity to
+Galileo's career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest friend and admirer in
+the Sacred College, was, by the election of the 8th of August 1623,
+seated on the pontifical throne; and the marked distinction with which
+he was received on his visit of congratulation to Rome in 1624
+encouraged him to hope for the realization of his utmost wishes. He
+received every mark of private favour. The pope admitted him to six long
+audiences in the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to
+the grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his
+distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and granted a
+pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards transferred to
+himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the end of his life. But
+on the subject of the decree of 1616, the revocation of which Galileo
+had hoped to obtain through his personal influence, he found him
+inexorable. Yet there seemed reason to expect that it would at least be
+interpreted in a liberal spirit, and Galileo's friends encouraged his
+imprudent confidence by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance
+which it was possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal
+Hohenzollern, Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the
+earth's motion had not been and could not be condemned as heretical, but
+only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican monk Tommaso
+Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had expressed to him in
+conversation his disapproval of the prohibitory decree. Thus, in the
+full anticipation of added renown, and without any misgiving as to
+ulterior consequences, Galileo set himself, on his return to Florence,
+to complete his famous but ill-starred work, the _Dialogo dei due
+massimi sistemi del mondo_. Finished in 1630, it was not until January
+1632 that it emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book
+was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected obstacles
+interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the death of Prince
+Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an outbreak of plague impeded
+communication between the various Italian cities; and the _imprimatur_
+was finally extorted, rather than accorded, under the pressure of
+private friendship and powerful interest. A tumult of applause from
+every part of Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult
+to find in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style
+are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific
+exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati, Sagredo,
+and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which the work is
+composed. The first-named expounds the views of the author; the second
+is an eager and intelligent listener; the third represents a
+well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the others treat at times with
+undisguised contempt. Salviati and Sagredo took their names from two of
+Galileo's early friends, the former a learned Florentine, the latter a
+distinguished Venetian gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from
+the Cilician commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless
+instigated by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word.
+There were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to
+depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party; and
+the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by certain
+imprudences of expression, which Urban was not permitted to ignore.
+
+It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable work was
+in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen years before its
+publication, as well as with the author's personal pledge of conformity
+to it. The ironical submission with which it opened, and the assumed
+indetermination with which it closed, were hardly intended to mask the
+vigorous assertion of Copernican principles which formed its substance.
+It is a singular circumstance, however, that the argument upon which
+Galileo mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the
+truth of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow of
+the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial double
+movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the absolute
+velocities through space of the various parts of the earth's surface,
+due to its rotation. To this notion, which took its rise in a confusion
+of thought, he attached capital importance, and he treated with scorn
+Kepler's suggestion that a certain occult attraction of the moon was in
+some way concerned in the phenomenon. The theological censures which the
+book did not fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt.
+Towards the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of
+October the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his
+age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the obstacles
+to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the pope was sternly
+indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude and insubordination, and
+no excuse was admitted. At length, on the 13th of February 1633, he
+arrived at the residence of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the
+pontifical court, and there abode in retirement for two months. From the
+12th to the 30th of April he was detained in the palace of the
+Inquisition, where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with
+unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the hospitality of
+Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation against him was that he had
+written in contravention of the decree of 1616, and in defiance of the
+command of the Holy Office communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin;
+and his defence consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an
+appeal to his good intentions. On the 21st of June he was finally
+examined under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his
+assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the Index,
+he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the publication of the
+documents relating to this memorable trial, there can no longer be any
+doubt, not only that the threat of torture was not carried into
+execution, but that it was never intended that it should be. On the 22nd
+of June, in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his
+recantation, and received his sentence. He was condemned, as "vehemently
+suspected of heresy," to incarceration at the pleasure of the tribunal,
+and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a week for three years
+the seven penitential psalms. This sentence was signed by seven
+cardinals, but did not receive the customary papal ratification. The
+legend according to which Galileo, rising from his knees after repeating
+the formula of abjuration, stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, "_Eppur
+si muove!_" is, as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its
+earliest ascertained appearance is in the Abbé Irailh's _Querelles
+littéraires_ (vol. iii. p. 49, 1761).
+
+Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the 21st to the
+24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the Villa Medici on the
+Trinità de' Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July, he was permitted to
+depart for Siena, where he spent several months in the house of the
+archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one of his numerous and trusty friends.
+It was not until December that his earnest desire of returning to
+Florence was realized, and the remaining eight years of his life were
+spent in his villa at Arcetri called "Il Giojello," in the strict
+seclusion which was the prescribed condition of his comparative freedom.
+Domestic afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to
+embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family, who came
+to live with him on his return from Rome, perished shortly afterwards of
+the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634 died, to the inexpressible
+grief of her father, his eldest and best-beloved daughter, a nun in the
+convent of San Matteo at Arcetri. Galileo was never married; but by a
+Venetian woman named Marina Gamba he had three children--a son who
+married and left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an
+early age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to the
+last. In 1636 he completed his _Dialoghi delle nuove scienze_, in which
+he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and mature
+meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in many respects his
+most valuable work was printed by the Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and
+excited admiration equally universal and more lasting than that accorded
+to his astronomical treatises. His last telescopic discovery--that of
+the moon's diurnal and monthly librations--was made in 1637, only a few
+months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness. It
+was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited him at
+Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet extinct. He
+continued his scientific correspondence with unbroken interest and
+undiminished logical acumen; he thought out the application of the
+pendulum to the regulation of clockwork, which Huygens successfully
+realized fifteen years later; and he was engaged in dictating to his
+disciples, Viviani and Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of
+impact when he was seized with the slow fever which in two months
+brought him to the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long
+life of triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval between
+the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.
+
+The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are virtually
+summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theoretical perfection
+of the science he contributed little or nothing. He pointed out indeed
+that the so-called "third motion," introduced by Copernicus to account
+for the constant parallelism of the earth's axis, was a superfluous
+complication. But he substituted the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a
+magnetic attraction, and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be
+explained was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the
+absence of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously
+detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the
+discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his
+contemporaries. Kepler's first and second laws were published in 1609,
+and his third ten years later. By these momentous inductions the
+geometrical theory of the solar system was perfected, and a hitherto
+unimagined symmetry was perceived to regulate the mutual relations of
+its members. But by Galileo they were passed over in silence. In his
+_Dialogo dei massimi sistemi_, printed not less than thirteen years
+after the last of the three laws had been given to the world, the
+epicycles by which Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of
+uniform circular motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the
+irregularities of the planetary movements, were neither expressly
+adopted nor expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that
+this grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps
+unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not
+originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that vast
+extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has rendered
+modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his telescopic
+observations are a standing monument to his sagacity and acumen.
+
+With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic features
+of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his inferences, except
+when distorted by polemical exigencies, have been strikingly confirmed
+by modern investigations. Of his two capital errors, regarding
+respectively the theory of the tides and the nature of comets, the first
+was insidiously recommended to him by his passionate desire to find a
+physical confirmation of the earth's double motion; the second was
+adopted for the purpose of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded
+on the planetary analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within
+two years of their first discovery, he had constructed approximately
+accurate tables of the revolutions of Jupiter's satellites, and he
+proposed their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes,
+not only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great
+stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular glass,
+and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was offered by him in
+1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards to that of Tuscany, but
+in each case unsuccessfully; and the close of his life was occupied with
+prolonged but fruitless negotiations on the same subject with the
+states-general of Holland. The idea, though ingenious, has been found of
+little practical utility at sea.
+
+A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the principal
+appearances revealed by modern instruments in the solar spots. He
+pointed out that they were limited to a certain defined zone on the
+sun's surface; he noted the _faculae_ with which they are associated,
+the penumbra by which they are bordered, their slight proper motions and
+their rapid changes of form. He inferred from the regularity of their
+general movements the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of
+little less than a month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the
+paths seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive,
+argument in favour of the earth's annual revolution. Twice in the year,
+he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in straight
+lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he referred with
+great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun's axis of rotation
+to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the earth finds herself in the
+plane of the sun's equator, which occurs at two opposite points of her
+orbit, the spots, travelling in circles parallel with that plane,
+necessarily appear to describe right lines; but when the earth is above
+or below the equatorial level, the paths of the spots open out into
+curves turned downwards or upwards, according to the direction in which
+they are seen. But the explanation of this phenomenon is equally
+consistent with the geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the
+solar system. The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have
+hovered on the borders of this great man's mind, without ever fully
+entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which holds the
+moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels Jupiter's satellites
+to circulate round their primary, and the attraction exercised by the
+earth on bodies at its surface;[3] but he failed to conceive the
+combination of central force with tangential velocity, and was disposed
+to connect the revolutions of the planets with the axial rotation of the
+sun. This notion, it is plain, tended rather towards Descartes's theory
+of vortices than towards Newton's theory of gravitation. More valid
+instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found in his
+prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be found for
+some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets would at some
+future time be ascertained to exist, and in his conviction that light
+travels with a measurable, although, in relation to terrestrial
+distances, infinite velocity.
+
+The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his first
+biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to him. Such an
+instrument was made as early as 1590 by Zacharias Jansen of Middleburg;
+and although Galileo discovered, in 1610, a means of adapting his
+telescope to the examination of minute objects, he did not become
+acquainted with the compound microscope until 1624 when he saw one of
+Drebbel's instruments in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity,
+immediately introduced some material improvements into its construction.
+
+The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work
+consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establishment of
+mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts and theorems
+had been previously discovered and proved, but it was he who first
+clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical agent, and extended to
+the external world the conception of the invariability of the relation
+between cause and effect. From the time of Archimedes there had existed
+a science of equilibrium, but the science of motion began with Galileo.
+It is not too much to say that the final triumph of the Copernican
+system was due in larger measure to his labours in this department than
+to his direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is
+essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical conceptions of
+the dependence of motion upon force which Galileo familiarized to men's
+minds, that problem might have remained a sealed book even to the
+intelligence of Newton. The interdependence of motion and force was not
+indeed formulated into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on
+dynamics are everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of
+dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extraordinary advances
+made by him in this branch of knowledge were owing to his happy method
+of applying mathematical analysis to physical problems. As a pure
+mathematician he was, it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than
+one among his pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative
+grasp of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with
+Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or Leibnitz.
+Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his powerful and
+original mind left notable traces of its working. He studied the
+properties of the cycloid, and attempted the problem of its quadrature;
+and in the "infinitesimals," which he was one of the first to introduce
+into geometrical demonstrations, was contained the fruitful germ of the
+differential calculus. But the method which was peculiarly his, and
+which still forms the open road to discoveries in natural science,
+consisted in the combination of experiment with calculation--in the
+transformation of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous
+comparison of results. The first-fruits of the new system of
+investigation was his determination of the laws of falling bodies.
+Conceiving that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he
+assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth
+descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence that the
+velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces traversed in the
+duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the beginning of motion;
+finally, he proved, by observing the times of descent of bodies falling
+down inclined planes, that the postulated law was the true law. Even
+here, he was obliged to take for granted that the velocities acquired in
+descending from the same height along planes of every inclination are
+equal; and it was not until shortly before his death that he found the
+mathematical demonstration of this not very obvious principle.
+
+The first law of motion--that which expresses the principle of
+inertia--is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly accelerated
+velocity. The recognition of the second--that of the independence of
+different motions--must be added to form the true theory of projectiles.
+This was due to Galileo. Up to his time it was universally held in the
+schools that the motion of a body should cease with the impulse
+communicated to it, but for the "reaction of the medium" helping it
+forward. Galileo showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once
+impressed is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that
+the effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another
+commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by more than
+one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed that a cannon ball,
+or other projectile, moves forward in a right line until its first
+impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to the ground. In the
+fourth of Galileo's dialogues on mechanics, he demonstrated that the
+path described by a projectile, being the result of the combination of a
+uniform transverse motion with a uniformly accelerated vertical motion,
+must, apart from the resistance of the air, be a parabola. The
+establishment of the principle of the composition of motions formed a
+conclusive answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against
+the rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly
+brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the systems
+of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a body flung upward
+or cast downward would, if the earth were in motion, be left behind by
+the rapid translation of the point from which it started; Galileo proved
+on the contrary that the reception of a fresh impulse in no way
+interfered with the movement already impressed, and that the rotation of
+the earth was insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its
+surface. His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his
+satisfactory definition of "momentum," led him towards the third law of
+motion. We find Newton's theorem, that "action and reaction are equal
+and opposite," stated with approximate precision in his treatise _Della
+scienza meccanica_, which contains the substance of lectures delivered
+during his professorship at Padua; and the same principle is involved in
+the axiom enunciated in the third of his mechanical dialogues, that "the
+propensity of a body to fall is equal to the least resistance which
+suffices to support it." The problems of percussion, however, received
+no definitive solution until after his death.
+
+His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the kinetical
+division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory demonstration of
+equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to the level by a sound
+and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by establishing the theory of
+"virtual velocities," he laid down the fundamental principle which, in
+the opinion of Lagrange, contains the general expression of the laws of
+equilibrium. He studied with attention the still obscure subject of
+molecular cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on
+the question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first
+brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his _Discorso
+intorno alle cose che stanno su l'acqua_, published in 1612, he used the
+principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more important
+theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the equilibrium of fluid in a
+siphon, and proved against the Aristotelians that the floating of solid
+bodies in a liquid depends not upon their form, but upon their specific
+gravities relative to such liquid.
+
+In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by Galileo in
+natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate the confused and
+erroneous opinions prevailing on all such subjects in his time. His best
+eulogium, it has been truly said, consists in the fallacies which he
+exposed. The scholastic distinctions between corruptible and
+incorruptible substances, between absolute gravity and absolute levity,
+between natural and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear
+from scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place of
+honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these obscure and
+misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and levity are relative
+terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even those which, like the air,
+are invisible; that motion is the result of force, instantaneous or
+continuous; that weight is a continuous force, attracting towards the
+centre of the earth; that, in a vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal
+velocities; that the "inertia of matter" implies the continuance of
+motion, as well as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the
+heavenly bodies is equally "corruptible" with that of the earth. These
+simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of development and
+investigation, and were not only true but the prelude to further truth;
+while those they superseded defied inquiry by their vagueness and
+obscurity. Galileo was a man born in due time. He was superior to his
+contemporaries, but not isolated amongst them. He represented and
+intensified a growing tendency of the age in which he lived. It was
+beginning to be suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature,
+and some were found who no longer treated the _ipse dixit_ of the
+Stagirite as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but
+ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind traditions
+of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and Campanella, and
+the revolution which Galileo completed had been prepared by his
+predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so effectually
+accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality of genius. He
+struck out for himself the happy middle path between the _a priori_ and
+the empirical systems, and exemplified with brilliant success the method
+by which experimental science has wrested from nature so many of her
+secrets. His mind was eminently practical. He concerned himself above
+all with what fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others
+the larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to
+the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty
+generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work has
+proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations. His keen
+intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argument, his
+fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made him
+irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs of scornful
+controversy have given place to the sedate applause of a long-lived
+posterity.
+
+  The first complete edition of Galileo's writings was published at
+  Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of Signor
+  Eugenio Albèri. Besides the works already enumerated, it contained the
+  _Sermones de motu gravium_ composed at Pisa between 1589 and 1591; his
+  letters to his friends, with many of their replies, as well as several
+  of the essays of his scientific opponents; his laudatory comments on
+  the _Orlando Furioso_, and depreciatory notes on the _Gerusalemme
+  Liberata_, some stanzas and sonnets of no great merit, together with
+  the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint of Viviani's _Life_, with
+  valuable notes and corrections. The original documents from the
+  archives of the Inquisition, relating to the events of 1616 and 1633,
+  recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts of Count Rossi, and now in
+  the Vatican Library, were to a limited extent made public by Monsignor
+  Marino-Marini in 1850, and more unreservedly by M. Henri de l'Épinois,
+  in an essay entitled _Galilée, son procès, sa condemnation_,
+  published in 1867 in the _Revue des questions historiques_. He was
+  followed by M. Karl von Gebler, who, in an able and exhaustive but
+  somewhat prejudiced work, _Galileo Galilei und die römische Curie_
+  (Stuttgart, 1876), sought to impeach the authenticity of a document of
+  prime importance in the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by
+  Signor Domenico Berti, in _Il Processo originale di Galileo Galilei_
+  (Rome, 1876), and by M. de l'Épinois, with _Les pièces du procès de
+  Galilée_ (Rome, Paris, 1877). The touching letters of Galileo's eldest
+  daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by
+  Professor Carlo Arduini, in a publication entitled _La Primogenita di
+  Galileo Galilei_.
+
+  The issue of a "national edition" of the Works of Galileo, in 20 large
+  volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a mass of
+  previously inedited correspondence and other documents, collected by
+  the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro, among whose
+  numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be mentioned: _Galileo
+  e lo studio di Padova_ (2 vols., 1883); _Scampoli Galileani_ (12
+  series, 1886-1897); _Nuovi Studii Galileani_ (1891); _Galileo Galilei
+  e Suor Maria Celeste_ (1891). See also Th. Henri Martin's _Galilée,
+  les droits de la science et la méthode des sciences physiques_ (1868);
+  _Private Life of Galileo_ (by Mrs Olney, 1870); J.J. Fahie's _Galileo;
+  his Life and Work_ (1903); _Galilée et Marius_, by J.A.C. Oudemans and
+  J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of Galileo to the Church are
+  temperately and ably discussed by F.R. Wegg-Prosser in _Galileo and
+  his Judges_ (1889), and in two articles published in the _American
+  Catholic Quarterly_ for April and July 1901.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word _telescope_, from [Greek: têle], far, [Greek: skopein],
+    to view, was invented by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at
+    the request of Prince Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was
+    used by Galileo as early as 1612, but was not introduced into England
+    until much later. In 1655 the word _telescope_ was inserted and
+    explained in Bagwell's _Mysteries of Astronomy_, _trunk_ or
+    _cylinder_ being the terms until then ordinarily employed.
+
+  [2] Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come to
+    the same conclusion.
+
+  [3] The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in
+    the original:--"Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro
+    di essa, che quando ella cangiasse luogo, le dette parti, benchè
+    lontane dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero
+    per tutto; esempio di ciò sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee,
+    ancorchè separate continuamente da Giove. L'istesso si deve dire
+    della Luna, obbligata a seguir la Terra."--_Dialogo dei massimi
+    sistemi_, Giornata terza, p. 351 of Albèri's edition.
+
+
+
+
+GALION, a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of
+Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born); (1910)
+7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
+the Erie railways, and by an interurban electric railway. The city is
+about 1165 ft. above sea level, and has extensive railway shops (of the
+Erie railway) and manufactories of brick and tile machinery, carriages
+and wagons, and grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and
+operates its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in
+1831, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a city
+in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist, and founder of
+phrenology (q.v.), was born at Tiefenbrunn near Pforzheim, Baden, on the
+9th of March 1758. After completing the usual literary course at Baden
+and Bruchsal, he began the study of medicine under J. Hermann
+(1738-1800) at Strassburg, whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van
+Swieten (1700-1772) and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to
+Vienna in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as a
+physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted to the
+scientific investigation of problems which had occupied his attention
+from boyhood. At a comparatively early period he formed the
+generalization that in the human subject at least a powerful memory is
+invariably associated with prominent eyes; and further observation
+enabled him, as he thought, also to define the external characteristics
+indicative of special talents for painting, music and the mechanical
+arts. Following out these researches, he gradually reached the strong
+conviction, not only that the talents and dispositions of men are
+dependent upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be
+inferred with perfect exactitude and precision from the external
+appearances of the skull. Gall's first appearance as an author was made
+in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of a (never completed)
+work entitled _Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen über Natur u.
+Kunst im kranken u. gesunden Zustande des Menschen_. The first public
+notice of his inquiries in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a
+letter addressed to a friend, which appeared in C.M. Wieland's
+_Deutscher Mercur_ in 1798; but two years previously he had begun to
+give private courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his
+doctrines soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing
+success until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being
+dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities had the
+effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing Gall's
+celebrity.
+
+In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his friend and
+associate J.C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through Germany, in the course
+of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden, Magdeburg and several of the
+university towns. His expositions, which he knew how to make popular and
+attractive, were much resorted to by the public, and excited
+considerable controversy in the scientific world. He had almost reached
+the zenith of his fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and
+established himself there as a medical practitioner, at the same time
+continuing his activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his
+_Introduction au cours de physiologie du cerveau_, which was followed in
+1809 by the _Recherches sur le système nerveux en général, et sur celui
+du cerveau en particulier_ (originally laid before the Institute of
+France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment of the
+_Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et du cerveau en
+particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité de reconnaître
+plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des
+animaux par la configuration de leurs têtes._ The _Recherches_ and the
+first two volumes of the _Anatomie_ bear the conjoint names of Gall and
+Spurzheim. The latter work was completed in 1819, and appeared in a
+second edition of six volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a
+charge of Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against
+him, by a treatise entitled _Des dispositions innées de l'âme et de
+l'esprit_, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater work. In
+1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his efforts two years
+afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy of Sciences, although
+supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, were unsuccessful. In 1823 he
+visited London with the intention of giving a series of phrenological
+lectures, but his reception was not what he had anticipated, and he
+speedily abandoned his plans. He continued to lecture and practise in
+Paris until the beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic
+seizure. His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of
+August 1828.
+
+
+
+
+GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _gal_, and
+Ger. _Galle_; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. [Greek: cholê] and
+Lat. _fel_; possibly connected with "yellow," with reference to the
+colour of bile), the secretion of the liver known as "bile," the term
+being also used of the pear-shaped _diverticulum_ of the bile-duct,
+which forms a reservoir for the bile, more generally known as the
+"gall-bladder" (see LIVER). From the extreme bitterness of the
+secretion, "gall," like the Lat. _fel_, is used for anything extremely
+bitter, whether actually or metaphorically. From the idea that the
+gall-bladder was the dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament,
+"gall" was formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one
+very ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang, with
+the meaning "impudence" or "assurance."
+
+"Gall," meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a horse, may
+be the same word, derived from an early use of the word as meaning
+"poison." On the other hand, in Romanic languages, the Fr. _galle_, Sp.
+_agalla_, a wind-gall or puffy distension of the synovial bursa on the
+fetlock joint of a horse, is derived from the Lat. _galla_, oak-apple,
+from which comes the English "gall," meaning an excrescence on trees
+caused by certain insects. (See GALLS.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLABAT, or GALABAT, called by the Abyssinians Matemma (Metemma), a
+town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13° N. 36° 12' E. It is built, at
+the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank of a tributary of the Atbara
+called the Khor Abnaheir, which forms here the Sudan-Abyssinian
+frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m. W. by N. of Gondar, the capital of Amhara,
+and being on the main route from Sennar to Abyssinia, is a trade centre
+of some importance. Pop. about 3000. The majority of the buildings are
+grass _tukls_. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and hides were formerly
+the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was closed about 1874.
+Being on the frontier line, the possession of the town was for long a
+matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later the Egyptians, on the
+one hand and the Abyssinians on the other. About 1870 the Egyptians
+garrisoned the town, which in 1886 was attacked by the dervishes and
+sacked. From Gallabat a dervish raiding party penetrated to Gondar,
+which they looted. In revenge an Abyssinian army under King John
+attacked the dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889. The dervishes
+suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a stray bullet,
+the Abyssinians retired (see EGYPT: _Military Operations_, 1885-1896).
+In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered Gallabat. The
+Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result of frontier
+arrangement the town was definitely included in the Sudan, though
+Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since 1899 the trade of the
+place has revived, coffee and live stock being the most important items.
+
+The town and district form a small ethnographical island, having been
+peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri from Darfur, who,
+finding the spot a convenient resting-place for their fellow-pilgrims on
+their way to Mecca and back, obtained permission from the negus of
+Abyssinia to make a permanent settlement. They are an industrious
+agricultural race, and cultivate cotton with considerable success. They
+also collect honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged
+throwing knives, which are said to have been brought from their original
+home in the Upper Congo regions.
+
+
+
+
+GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at Tournay, in
+Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He first studied in his native
+town under Hennequin. In 1832 his first picture, "Tribute to Caesar,"
+won a prize at the exhibition at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to
+prosecute his studies under Mathieu Ignace Van Brée, and in the
+following year exhibited at the Brussels Salon "Christ Healing the
+Blind." This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the
+cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he sent to the
+Belgian Salons "Job on the Dunghill," "Montaigne Visiting Tasso in
+Prison"; and, in 1841, "The Abdication of Charles V.," in the Brussels
+Gallery. This was hailed as a triumph, and gained for the painter a
+European reputation. Official invitations then caused him to settle at
+Brussels, where he died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater
+works may be named: "The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont and Horn by
+the Corporations of the Town of Brussels," now at Tournay; "The Death of
+Egmont," in the Berlin gallery; the "Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of
+Constantinople," painted for Versailles; "The Temptation of St Anthony,"
+in the palace at Brussels; "The Siege of Antioch," "Art and Liberty," a
+"Portrait of M.B. Dumortier" and "The Plague at Tournay," all in the
+Brussels gallery. "A Gipsy Woman and her Children" was painted in 1852.
+"M. Gallait has all the gifts that may be acquired by work, taste,
+judgment and determination," wrote Théophile Gautier; his art is that of
+a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment but
+superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the example of the
+Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment of Belgian classical
+painters and the French Romantic school, sincerely aimed at truth;
+unfortunately, misled by contemporary taste, he could not conceive of it
+excepting as dressed in sentimentality. As an artist employed by the
+State he exercised considerable influence, and for a long period he was
+the leader of public taste in Brussels.
+
+  See Teichlin, _Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland_ (1853);
+  J. Dujardin, _L'Art flamand_ (1899); C. Lemonnier, _Histoire des
+  beaux-arts en Belgique_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+GALLAND, ANTOINE (1646-1715), French Orientalist and archaeologist, the
+first European translator of the _Arabian Nights_, was born on the 4th
+of April 1646 at Rollot, in the department of Somme. The completion of
+his school education at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to
+a trade, from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic
+studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time in making a
+catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne, he was, in 1670,
+attached to the French embassy at Constantinople; and in 1673 he
+travelled in Syria and the Levant, where he copied a great number of
+inscriptions, and sketched, and in some cases removed historical
+monuments. After a brief visit to France, where his collection of
+ancient coins attracted some attention, Galland returned to the Levant
+in 1676; and in 1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by
+the French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert; on
+the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the government to
+continue his researches, and had the title of "antiquary to the king"
+conferred upon him. During his prolonged residences abroad he acquired a
+thorough knowledge of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and
+literatures, which, on his final return to France, enabled him to render
+valuable assistance to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to
+Barthélemy d'Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some time at Caen
+under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721), the intendant of Caen,
+himself no mean archaeologist; and there he began the publication (12
+vols., 1704-1717) of _Les mille et une nuits_, which excited immense
+interest during the time of its appearance, and is still the standard
+French translation. It had no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the
+coarseness of the language was modified to suit European taste, but the
+narrative was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted
+into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed to the
+chair of Arabic in the Collège de France. He continued to discharge the
+duties of this post until his death, which took place on the 17th of
+February 1715.
+
+  Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department
+  of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic, Persian
+  and Turkish, entitled _Paroles remarquables, bons mots et maximes des
+  orientaux_ (1694), and a translation from an Arabic manuscript, _De
+  l'origine et du progrès du café_ (1699). The former of these works
+  appeared in an English translation in 1795. His _Contes et fables
+  indiennes de Bidpaï et de Lokman_ was published (1724) after his
+  death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts are a translation of
+  the Koran and a _Histoire générale des empereurs turcs_. His _Journal_
+  was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+GALLARATE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from
+which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,002. The town is of
+medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its textile factories. It
+is the junction of railways to Varese, Laveno and Arona (for the
+Simplon). Six miles to the W. are the electric works of Vizzola, the
+largest in Europe, where 23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.
+
+
+
+
+GALLARS [in Lat. GALLASIUS], NICOLAS DES (c. 1520-c. 1580), Calvinistic
+divine, first appears as author of a _Defensio_ of William Farel,
+published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-1549) by translations into
+French of three tracts by Calvin. In 1551 he was admitted burgess of
+Geneva, and in 1553 made pastor of a country church in the
+neighbourhood. In 1557 he was sent to minister to the Protestants at
+Paris; his conductor, Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in
+his possession, was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing
+suspicious about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the
+Strangers' church in London (1560), he, being then minister at Geneva,
+came to London to organize the French branch; and in 1561 he published
+_La Forme de police ecclésiastique instituée à Londres en l'Église des
+François_. In the same year he assisted Beza at the colloquy of Poissy.
+He became minister to the Protestants at Orleans in 1564; presided at
+the synod of Paris in 1565; was driven out of Orleans with other
+Protestants in 1568; and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d'Albret, queen
+of Navarre. Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis,
+and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegetical and
+polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on Exodus (1560); edited
+an annotated French Bible (1562) and New Testament (1562); and published
+tracts against Arians (1565-1566). His main work was his edition of
+Irenaeus (1570) with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London,
+and giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text. His
+collaboration with Beza in the _Histoire des Églises Réformées du
+royaume de France_ (1580) is doubted by Bayle.
+
+  See Bayle, _Dictionnaire hist. et crit._; Jean Senebier, _Hist.
+  littéraire de Genève_ (1786); _Nouvelle Biog. gén._ (1857),
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+GALLAS, MATTHIAS, COUNT OF CAMPO, DUKE OF LUCERA (1584-1647), Austrian
+soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and in Savoy with the Spaniards,
+and subsequently joined the forces of the Catholic League as captain. On
+the general outbreak of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an
+infantry regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of
+Stadtlohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as _General-Feldwachtmeister_
+under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the capture of
+Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service, he returned to
+Germany for the campaign against Gustavus Adolphus. In command of a
+corps of Wallenstein's army, he covered Bohemia against the Swedes in
+1631-1632, and served at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lützen.
+Further good service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General
+Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general in
+his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators against Wallenstein,
+and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed to the command of the army
+which Wallenstein had formed and led. At the great battle of Nördlingen
+(23rd of August 1634) in which the army of Sweden was almost
+annihilated, Gallas commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next
+command was in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so
+much from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still more
+was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded against
+the Swedish general Banér in 1637 and 1638. At first driving the Swedes
+before him, in the end he made a complete failure of the campaign, lost
+his command, and was subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather
+the indiscipline of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's
+methods) than his own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat
+across North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to
+endeavour to stop Torstenson's victorious advance, only to be shut up in
+Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant of his forces. Once
+more relieved of his command, he was again recalled to make head against
+the Swedes in 1645 (after their victory at Jankow). Before long, old and
+warworn, he resigned his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army
+had earned for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and
+rapacious force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his _Merode Brüder_
+have survived in the word _marauder_. Like many other generals of that
+period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial possessions
+(the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates). He was the
+founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which furnished many
+distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.
+
+
+
+
+GALLAS, or more correctly GALLA, a powerful Hamitic people of eastern
+Africa, scattered over the wide region which extends for about 1000 m.
+from the central parts of Abyssinia to the neighbourhood of the river
+Sabaki in British East Africa. The name "Galla" or "Gala" appears to be
+an Abyssinian nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves _Ilm'
+Orma_, "sons of men" or "sons of Orma," an eponymous hero. In Shoa
+(Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gála in Guragie, on the
+banks of which a great battle is said to have been fought between the
+Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud d'Abbadie says that the Abyssinian
+Moslems recount that, when summoned by the Prophet's messenger to adopt
+Islam, the chief of the Galla said "No,"--in Arabic _kal_ (or _gal_)
+_la_,--and the Prophet on hearing this said, "Then let their very name
+imply their denial of the Faith." Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla are
+the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them (c. 1860) at from
+six to eight millions; later authorities put them at not much over three
+millions. Individual tribes are said to be able to bring 20,000 to
+30,000 horsemen into the field.
+
+Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early home of
+the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern part of its
+present territory since the 16th century. According to Hiob Ludolf and
+James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the Abyssinian frontiers
+in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a district along the northern side
+of the river Abai) tell how their savage forefathers came from the
+south-east from a country on the other side of a bahr (lake or river),
+and the Yejju and Raia Galla also point towards the east and commemorate
+the passage of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be
+mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the country now
+occupied by the Somali. Their original home was possibly in the district
+east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near Mount Kenya are stated to
+go on periodical pilgrimages to the mountain, making offerings to it as
+if to their mother. A theory has been advanced that the great exodus
+which it seems certain took place among the peoples throughout eastern
+Africa during the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of
+Kenya and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical term
+Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central regions of the
+Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla are numerically
+strongest. There is no sharp dividing line between the territory
+occupied respectively by the Galla and by the Somali.
+
+In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast eastern
+Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the Somali, the Afars
+(Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the eastern Hamites, there is a
+perceptible strain of Negro blood in the Galla, who are, however,
+described by Sir Frederick Lugard as "a wonderfully handsome race, with
+high foreheads, brown skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the
+wool of the Bantus." As a rule their features are quite European. Their
+colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a coffee and
+milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the Limmu and Gudru on
+the river Abai.
+
+  The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral
+  stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements.
+  Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are
+  generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle
+  and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven or
+  eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child; and
+  among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever thinks of
+  going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very large. The
+  ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and honey, the
+  last being considered of so much importance by the southern Galla that
+  a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and the husband who fails to
+  furnish his wife with a sufficient supply of honey may be excluded
+  from all conjugal rights. In the south monogamy is the rule, but in
+  the north the number of a man's wives is limited only by his wishes
+  and his wealth. Marriage-forms are numerous, that of bride-capture
+  being common. Each tribe has its own chief, who enjoys the strange
+  privilege of being the only merchant for his people, but in all public
+  concerns must take the advice of the fathers of families assembled in
+  council. The greater proportion of the tribes are still pagan,
+  worshipping a supreme god Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess
+  Oglieh and Atetieh, whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and
+  sheep. With a strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a
+  certain time of the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the
+  wants of their enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some
+  tribes, and notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to
+  Mahommedanism and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the
+  north, where the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of
+  superficial Christianization has taken place, to the extent at least
+  that the people are familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary,
+  Balawold or Jesus, Girgis or St George, &c.; but to all practical
+  intents paganism is still in force. The serpent is a special object of
+  worship, the northern Galla believing that he is the author of the
+  human race. There is a belief in were-wolves (_buda_), and the
+  northern Galla have sorcerers who terrorize the people. Though cruel
+  in war, all Galla respect their pledged word. They are armed with a
+  lance, a two-edged knife, and a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide.
+  A considerable number find employment in the Abyssinian armies.
+
+  Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each
+  instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the Kukatta,
+  the Baole, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Ilani, the Arrar and the
+  Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be considered to
+  mark the division between north and south; and in the north we find
+  the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the Ambassil, the Aijjo,
+  and the Azobo Galla.
+
+  See C.T. Beke, "On the Origin of the Gallas," in _Trans. of Brit.
+  Assoc._ (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, _Travels in Eastern Africa_ (1860);
+  and _Vocabulary of the Galla Language_ (London, 1842); Arnaud
+  d'Abbadie, _Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie_ (1868); Ph. Paulitschke,
+  _Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas_; _Die geistige Kultur der Dan'akil,
+  Galla u. Somâl_ (Berlin, 1896); P.M. de Salviac, _Les Galla_ (Paris,
+  1901).
+
+
+
+
+GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849), American statesman, was born in Geneva
+(Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The Gallatins were both an
+old and a noble family. They are first heard of in Savoy in the year
+1258, and more than two centuries later they went to Geneva (1510),
+united with Calvin in his opposition to Rome, and associated their
+fortunes with those of the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and
+with one or two other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth
+many representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the
+service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the eve
+of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva, occupying
+the same position which they had held for two hundred years. Albert
+Gallatin's father died in 1765, his mother five years later, and his
+only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan at nine, he was by no means
+lonely or unprotected. His grandparents, a large circle of near
+relatives and Mlle Catherine Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his
+mother, cared for him during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at
+the schools of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or
+academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to enter the army
+of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve "a tyrant," and a
+year later slipped away from Geneva and embarked for the United States.
+A competent fortune, good prospects, social position, and a strong
+family connexion were all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New
+World. His relatives very properly opposed his course, but they
+nevertheless did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to
+treat him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their
+opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the
+established order of things, and some political enthusiasm imbibed from
+the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons which can now be assigned
+for Gallatin's desertion of home and friends.
+
+In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784) landed in
+Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope and courage, as well
+as a little money, and at once entered into business. The times,
+however, were unfavourable. The great convulsion of the Revolution was
+drawing to a close, and everything was in an unsettled condition. The
+young Genevans failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds
+of Maine, and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a
+living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not without
+success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New England repelled
+him, and he made his way to the South. In the backwoods of Pennsylvania
+and Virginia there seemed to be better chances for a young adventurer.
+Gallatin engaged in land speculations, and tried to lay the foundation
+of his fortune in a frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allègre,
+and every prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered
+again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and Gallatin
+was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier life became now
+more dreary than ever; he flung himself into politics, the only outside
+resource open to him, and his long, and eventful public career began.
+
+The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and Gallatin, with
+his dislike of strong government still upon him, threw himself into
+opposition and became one of the founders of the Anti-Federalist, or, as
+it was afterwards called, the Republican party. He was a member of the
+Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1789-1790, and of the
+Pennsylvania Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising
+rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak English
+with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by his sound
+education; but the true cause of his success lay in his strong sense,
+untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and great intellectual
+force. In 1793 he was chosen United States senator from Pennsylvania by
+the votes of both political parties. No higher tribute was ever paid to
+character and ability than that conveyed by this election. But the
+staunch Federalists of the senate, who had begun to draw the party lines
+rather sharply, found the presence of the young Genevan highly
+distasteful. They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a
+man of levelling principles. His seat was contested on account of a
+technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in
+February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the session,
+the senate annulled the election and sent him back to Pennsylvania with
+all the glory of political martyrdom.
+
+The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the "Whisky Insurrection"
+in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt, been an efficient cause in
+his rejection by the senate. He intended fully to restrain within legal
+bounds the opposition which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked,
+but he made the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the
+character of the backwoods population. When legal resistance developed
+into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and
+prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the 29th of
+August 1794, before the "Committee of Sixty" who were appointed to
+represent the disaffected people, he opposed with vigorous eloquence the
+use of force against the government, and refused to be intimidated by an
+excited band of riflemen who happened to be in the vicinity and
+represented the radical element. He effectively checked the excitement,
+and when a month later an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon
+the western counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of
+all the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin
+alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the national house
+of representatives, and took his seat in December 1795. There, by sheer
+force of ability and industry, he wrested from all competitors the
+leadership of the Republicans, and became the most dangerous opponent
+whom the Federalists had ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a
+hatred of France just then rising to the dignity of a party principle,
+they found in Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion
+peculiarly obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in
+vain. His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and
+action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most
+effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His clear
+mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance. He became
+the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his cardinal doctrines
+of simplicity and economy, and was an effective critic of the measures
+of government. Cool and temperate, Gallatin, when following his own
+theories, was usually in the right, although accused by his followers of
+trimming. Thus, in regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the
+constitutional right of the house to consider the treaty, but he did not
+urge rejection in this specific case. On the other hand, when following
+a purely party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the
+mainspring of Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commercial
+treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion. On these
+points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed his views after a
+good deal of bitter experience.
+
+The greatest period of Gallatin's career in congress was in 1798, after
+the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches. The insults of
+Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort bribes from the
+American commissioners, roused the deep anger of the people against
+France. The Federalists swept all before them, and the members of the
+opposition either retired from Philadelphia or went over to the
+government. Alone and single-handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in
+congress. The Federalists bore down on him unmercifully, and even
+attempted (1798) a constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship,
+partly, it appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on,
+making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying very
+little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson and
+Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong measures of the
+Federalists shocked the country; the leaders of the dominant party
+quarrelled fiercely among themselves; and the Republicans carried the
+elections of 1800. In the exciting contest for the presidency in the
+house of representatives between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who
+led the Republicans.
+
+When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801), there were
+two men whose commanding abilities marked them for the first places in
+the cabinet. James Madison became secretary of state, and Albert
+Gallatin secretary of the treasury. Wise, prudent and conservative,
+Gallatin made few changes in Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve
+years administered the national finances with the greatest skill. He and
+Jefferson were both imbued with the idea that government could be
+carried on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness
+of human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory fell
+upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity of
+administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and everything bent to
+these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary pirates was a mere
+question of expense. It was cheaper to seize Louisiana than to await the
+settlement of doubtful points. Commercial warfare was to be avoided
+because of the cost. All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded
+it was less extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared.
+Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself in the
+matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six years the public
+debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana purchase) by $14,260,000,
+a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive and beneficent scheme of
+internal improvements was ready for execution, and the promised land
+seemed in sight. Then came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched
+neutrality at home, fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair
+structure of government by a priori theories based on the goodness of
+unoppressed humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown helplessly
+back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government according to
+circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets, but the position was a trying
+one. The sworn foe of strong government, he was compelled, in pursuance
+of Jefferson's policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other
+radical and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain.
+Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and Jefferson,
+having entangled foreign relations and brought the country to the verge
+of civil war, retired to private life, leaving to his successor Madison,
+and to Gallatin, the task of extricating the nation from its
+difficulties. From 1809 the new administration, drifting steadily
+towards war, struggled on from one abortive and exasperating negotiation
+to another. It was a period of sore trial to Gallatin. The peace policy
+had failed, and nothing else replaced it. He had lost his hold upon
+Pennsylvania and his support in the house, while a cabal in the senate,
+bitterly and personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the
+administration and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At
+last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison's recommendation
+declared war against England.
+
+Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished schemes
+were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had come, and he
+believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and progress of America. He
+therefore put the finances in the best order he could, and set himself
+to mitigate the evil effects of the war by obtaining an early peace.
+With this end in view he grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of
+Russia, and without resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May
+1813.
+
+Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered, catching at
+every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his labours came the
+news that the senate had refused to confirm his appointment as peace
+commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially until, the objection of
+the senate having been met by the appointment of a new secretary of the
+treasury, his second nomination was approved, and he was able to proceed
+with direct negotiations. The English and American commissioners finally
+met at Ghent, and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued
+Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in managing his
+colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, able
+men of strong wills and jarring tempers. He succeeded in preserving
+harmony, and thus established his own reputation as an able diplomatist.
+Peace was his reward; on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was
+signed; and after visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood,
+and assisting in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England
+by which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July 1815
+returned to America.
+
+While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become minister to
+France; this appointment he accepted in January 1816, and adhered to his
+acceptance in spite of his being asked in April 1816 to serve once more
+as secretary of the treasury. He remained in France for the next seven
+years. He passed his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing
+everybody of note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of
+his official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted
+patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted country with
+the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard Rush, then United
+States minister in London, in negotiating a commercial convention with
+Great Britain to take the place of that negotiated in 1815.
+
+In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found himself
+plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress for the
+presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal friend William H.
+Crawford, whom he regarded as the true heir and representative of the
+old Jeffersonian principles. With these feelings he consented in May
+1824 to stand for the vice-presidency on the Crawford ticket. But
+Gallatin had come home to new scenes and new actors, and he did not
+fully appreciate the situation. The contest was bitter, personal,
+factious and full of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford
+interest, came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second
+place, by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October
+Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the
+popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the choice of
+John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from his retirement and
+sent him as minister to England to conduct another complicated and
+arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked at his new task with his usual
+industry, tact and patience, but the results were meagre, although an
+open breach on the delicate question of the north-east boundary of the
+United States was avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king
+of the Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the United
+States and bade farewell to public life.
+
+Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839 president of
+the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) of New York, but his
+duties were light, and he devoted himself chiefly to the congenial
+pursuits of science and literature. In both fields he displayed much
+talent, and by writing his _Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the
+United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the British and Russian
+Possessions in North America_ (1836), and by founding the American
+Ethnological Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of "Father
+of American Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest himself in
+public affairs, although no longer an active participant, and in all
+financial questions, especially in regard to the bank charter, the
+resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837, he exerted a
+powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question touched him nearly.
+Gallatin had always been a consistent opponent of slavery; he felt
+keenly, therefore, the attempts of the South to extend the slave power
+and confirm its existence, and the remnant of his strength was devoted
+in his last days to writing and distributing two able pamphlets against
+the war with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the
+24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of Texas;
+and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling New York mob with
+the same cool, unflinching courage which he had displayed half a century
+before when he faced the armed frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During
+the winter of 1848-1849 his health failed, and on the 12th of August
+1849, at the home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed
+peacefully away.
+
+Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he married in November
+1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of New York, the daughter of Com. James
+Nicholson (1737-1804), an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of
+the navy from 1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the "Virginia,"
+he was taken by the British "Iris" and "General Monk." By her he had
+three children, two sons and a daughter, who all survived him. In
+personal appearance he was above middle height, with strongly-marked
+features, indicating great strength of intellect and character. He was
+reserved and very reticent, cold in manner and not sympathetic. There
+was, too, a certain Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much
+beloved by his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have
+a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood, with
+Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won his place by
+force of character, courage, application and intellectual power. His
+eminent and manifold services to his adopted country, his great
+abilities and upright character, assure him a high position in the
+history of the United States.
+
+  _The Writings of Albert Gallatin_, edited by Henry Adams, were
+  published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these
+  volumes was published an excellent biography, _The Life of Albert
+  Gallatin_, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John Austin
+  Stevens's _Albert Gallatin_ (Boston, 1884) in the "American Statesmen"
+  series.      (H. C. L.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-1851), American educator of the deaf and
+dumb, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot
+ancestry, on the 10th of December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805,
+where he was a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology
+at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having determined to
+abandon the ministry and devote his life to the education of deaf mutes,
+he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and studied the methods of the abbé
+Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor
+Joseph Watson (1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United
+States in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of
+Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbé Sicard, a
+school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress, largely through the
+influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant, and which Gallaudet presided
+over with great success until ill-health compelled him to retire in
+1830. It was the first institution of the sort in the United States, and
+served as a model for institutions which were subsequently established.
+He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851.
+
+  There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, _Life,
+  Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet_ (Hartford,
+  1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a third (and
+  the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).
+
+His son, THOMAS GALLAUDET (1822-1902), after graduating at Trinity
+College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal ministry, settled in
+New York City, and there in 1852 organized St Anne's Episcopal church,
+where he conducted services for deaf mutes. In 1872 he organized and
+became general manager of the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885
+founded the Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at
+Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York.
+
+Another son, EDWARD MINER GALLAUDET (b. 1837), was born at Hartford,
+Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and graduated at Trinity
+College in 1856. After teaching for a year in the institution for deaf
+mutes founded by his father at Hartford, he removed with his mother,
+Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1798-1877), to Washington, D.C., where at the
+request of Amos Kendall (1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took
+charge of the Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received
+support from the government, and of which he became president. This
+institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate education for
+deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees), and was
+successful from the start. The Gallaudet College (founded in 1864 as the
+National Deaf Mute College and renamed in 1893 in honour of Thomas H.
+Gallaudet) and the Kendall School are separate departments of this
+institution, under independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but
+under the management of one board of directors.
+
+
+
+
+GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE, a town and port of Ceylon on the south-west
+coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and divided into the five
+districts of the Fort, Callowelle, Galopiadde, Hirimbure and
+Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile in circumference,
+overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded by a range of hills.
+Within its enclosure are not only several government buildings, but an
+old church erected by the Dutch East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan
+chapel, a hospital, and a considerable number of houses occupied by
+Europeans. The old Dutch building known as the queen's house, or
+governor's residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated
+state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in 1873.
+Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but the general
+style of domestic architecture is pleasant and comfortable, though not
+pretentious. One of the most delightful features of the place is the
+profusion of trees, even within the town, and along the edge of the
+shore--suriyas, palms, coco-nut trees and bread-fruit trees. The
+ramparts towards the sea furnish fine promenades. In the harbour deep
+water is found close to the shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but
+the south-west monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently
+drives vessels from their moorings.
+
+The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of a
+breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and most of
+the commercial steamers to the capital of the island, seriously
+diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few steamers still call
+to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of the Peninsular and
+Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced the port to a subordinate
+position; nor has the extension of the railway from Colombo, and beyond
+Galle to Matara, very much improved matters. The tea-planting industry
+has, however, spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in
+digging plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella
+oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil, plumbago,
+coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade cotton goods are the
+chief item. Both the export and import trade for the district, however,
+now chiefly passes through Colombo. Pop. (1901) 37,165.
+
+  Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers, unless
+  the identification with Ptolemy's Avium Promontorium or Cape of Birds
+  be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native chronicles before
+  1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th century, distinctly
+  states that Kali--that is, Galle--was a _small_ town. It was not till
+  the period of Portuguese occupation that it rose to importance. When
+  the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese they strengthened the
+  fortifications, which had been vigorously defended against their
+  admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the place had the rank of a
+  commandancy. In the marriage treaty of the infanta of Portugal with
+  Charles II. of England it was agreed that if the Portuguese recovered
+  Ceylon they were to hand over Galle to the English; but as the
+  Portuguese did not recover Ceylon the town was left to fall into
+  English hands at the conquest of the island from the Dutch in 1796.
+  The name Galle is derived from the Sinhalese _galla_, equivalent to
+  "rock"; but the Portuguese and Dutch settlers, being better fighters
+  than philologists, connected it with the Latin _gallus_, a cock, and
+  the image of a cock was carved as a symbol of the town in the front of
+  the old government house.
+
+
+
+
+GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE (1810-1895), Italian author and
+patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of November 1810, was the eldest son
+of a Piedmontese of good family, who served for ten years in the French
+army under Masséna and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the
+university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused a ferment
+in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and within a few months was
+successively a conspirator, a state prisoner, a combatant and a
+fugitive. For the next five years he lived a wandering life in France,
+Spain and Africa. In August 1836 he embarked for New York, and three
+years later he proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a
+translator and teacher of languages. His first book, _Italy; General
+Views of its History and Literature_, which appeared in 1841, was well
+received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of the
+Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in communication with
+the insurgents. He filled the post of Chargé d'Affaires for Piedmont at
+Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the next few years he travelled
+incessantly between Italy and England, working for the liberation of his
+country. In 1854, through Cavour's influence, he was elected a deputy to
+the Italian parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the
+summer in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in
+the winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he
+proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of _The Times_. The campaign
+was so brief that the fighting was over before he arrived, but his
+connexion with _The Times_ endured for twenty years. He was a forcible
+and picturesque writer, with a command of English remarkable for an
+Italian. He materially helped to establish that friendly feeling towards
+Italy which became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased
+the Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he
+retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December 1895. He
+was twice married. Among his chief works are an _Historical Memoir of
+Frà Dolcino and his Times_ (1853); a _History of Piedmont_ (3 vols.,
+1855; Italian translation, 1856); _Country Life in Piedmont_ (1858);
+_The Invasion of Denmark_ (2 vols., 1864); _The Pearl of the Antilles_
+[travels in Cuba] (1873); _Italy Revisited_ (2 vols., 1875); _Two Years
+of the Eastern Question_ (2 vols., 1877); _The Pope_ [Pius IX.] _and the
+King_ [Victor Emmanuel] (2 vols., 1879); _South America_ (1880); _A
+Summer Tour in Russia_ (1882); _Iberian Reminiscences_ (2 vols., 1883);
+_Episodes of my Second Life_ (1884); _Italy, Present and Future_ (2
+vols., 1887). Gallenga's earlier publications appeared under the
+pseudonym of Luigi Mariotti.
+
+
+
+
+GALLERY (through Ital. _galleria_, from Med. Lat. _galeria_, of which
+the origin is unknown),[1] a covered passage or space outside a main
+wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the ground floor, and as a
+balcony if on an upper floor and supported by columns, piers or corbels;
+similarly the upper seats in a theatre or a church, on either side as in
+many 17th-century churches, or across the west end under the organ. The
+word is also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place
+various rooms in communication with one another; but if of narrow width
+this is usually called a corridor or passage. When of sufficient width
+the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures and other art treasures. In
+the 16th century the picture gallery formed the largest room or hall in
+English mansions, with wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster
+ceiling; the principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft.
+by 34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.); Hatfield,
+Hertfordshire (163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham
+(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17 ft.); and
+Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.). Hence the application of
+the term to art museums (the National Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller
+rooms with top-light in which temporary exhibitions are held.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Galeria," suggests an origin from
+    _galera_, a galley, on the analogy of "nave," from _navis_, the
+    galley being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, _alii alia
+    opinantur_.
+
+
+
+
+GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. _galee_, _galie_, from the Med. Lat.
+_galea_, Ital. _galea_, Port. _galé_, of uncertain origin; from the Med.
+Lat. variant form _galera_ are derived the Mod. Fr. _galère_, Span. and
+Ital. _galera_), a long single or half decked vessel of war, with low
+free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps; but also having masts
+for sails. The word is used generally of the ancient war vessels of
+Greece and Rome of various types, whose chief propelling power was the
+oar or sweep, but its more specific application is to the medieval war
+vessel which survived in the navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers
+after the general adoption of the larger many-decked ship of war,
+propelled solely by sail-power. Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval
+battle in which the galley played the principal part. The "galleass" or
+"galliass" (Med. Lat. _galeasea_, Ital. _galeazza_, an augmented form of
+_galea_) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually carried
+three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated structure. The
+"galliot" (O. Fr. _galiot_, Span. and Port. _galeota_, Ital. _galeotta_,
+a diminutive of _galea_) was a small light type of galley. The "galleon"
+(formerly in English "galloon," Fr. _galion_, derived from the Med. Lat.
+_galio_, _galionis_, a derivative of _galea_) was a sailing ship of war
+and trade, shorter than the galley and standing high out of the water
+with several decks, chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th
+century in the carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or
+sweeps varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the
+galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men. This
+labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves or
+prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to
+sentence condemned criminals to row in the war galleys of the state.
+Traces of this in France can be found as early as 1532, but the first
+legislative enactment is in the _Ordonnance d'Orléans_ of 1561. In 1564
+Charles IX. forbade the sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less
+than ten years. The galley-slaves were branded with the letters _Gal._
+At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war
+purposes had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not
+incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the galleys
+and of the convict rowers (_galériens_) was at Marseilles. The majority
+of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others were sent to
+Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work in the arsenal. At
+Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on the galleys, which were
+moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore prisons were, however, provided
+for them, known as _bagnes_, baths, a name given to such penal
+establishments first by the Italians (_bagno_), and said to have been
+derived from the prison at Constantinople situated close by or attached
+to the great baths there. The name _galérien_ was still given to all
+convicts, though the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the
+French Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed
+to _forçat_. In Spain _galera_ is still used for a criminal condemned to
+penal servitude.
+
+  A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
+  Jean Marteilhes's _Memoirs of a Protestant_, translated by Oliver
+  Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of one
+  of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict of
+  Nantes.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. _Cis_, on this side, i.e. of the Alps), in
+ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of Liguria and
+Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited by various Celtic and
+other peoples, of whom the Celts were in continual hostility to Rome. In
+early times it was bounded on the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in
+Caesar's time by Liguria and the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War
+(203 B.C.) these tribes were severely punished by the Roman generals for
+the assistance they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district
+into two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was made
+directly subject to the government at Rome, while the northern portion
+was put under a distinct authority, probably similar to the usual
+transmarine commands (see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, Eng. trans., bk. iv.
+c. 10).
+
+  For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
+  district see ITALY (ancient), and ROME: _History, Ancient_.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIC ACID, trioxybenzoic acid (HO)3(3.4.5.)C6H2CO2H·H2O, the _acidum
+gallicum_ of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K. W. Scheele; it
+occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate root-bark, in tea,
+in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%, and in other vegetable
+productions. It may be prepared by keeping moist and exposed to the air
+for from four to six weeks, at a temperature of 20° to 25° C., a paste
+of powdered gall-nuts and water, and removing from time to time the
+mould which forms on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water,
+the hot solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic acid
+drained, and purified by dissolving in boiling water, recrystallization
+at about 27° C., and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water. The
+production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in the galls of
+a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by boiling the tannin
+procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol and ether with weak solution
+of acids. It may also be produced by heating an aqueous solution of
+di-iodosalicylic acid with excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on
+dibromosalicylic acid with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It
+crystallizes in white or pale fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky
+needles, and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold
+and 3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent and an
+acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200° C., and at 210° to 215°
+it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol, C6H3(OH)3. With
+ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue colour, and with ferrous
+salts, after exposure to the air, an insoluble, blue-black,
+ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali metals give with it four
+series of salts; these are stable except in alkaline solutions, in which
+they absorb oxygen and turn brown. Solution of calcium bicarbonate
+becomes with gallic acid, on exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour.
+Unlike tannic acid, gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of
+the alkaloids, or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold
+and silver are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm
+solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phosphorus
+oxychloride at 120° C. gallic acid yields tannic acid, and with
+concentrated sulphuric acid at 100°, _rufigallic acid_, C14H8O8, an
+anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic acid, convert
+it into _ellagic acid_, C14H8O9 + H2O, probably a fluorene derivative, a
+substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the external membrane of the
+episperm of the walnut, and probably in many plants, and composes the
+"bezoar stones" found in the intestines of Persian wild goats.
+Medicinally, gallic acid has been, and is still, largely used as an
+astringent, styptic and haemostatic. Gallic acid, however, does not
+coagulate albumen and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So
+far is it from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living
+blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutralization in the
+intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote actions.
+
+
+
+
+GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories maintaining that
+the church and king of France had ecclesiastical rights of their own,
+independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction of the pope. Gallicanism
+had two distinct sides, a constitutional and a dogmatic, though both
+were generally held together, the second serving as the logical basis of
+the first. And neither is intelligible, except in relation to the rival
+theory of Ultramontanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
+the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that the
+church's infallible authority was committed to pope and bishops jointly.
+The pope decided in the first instance, but his judgments must be
+tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops before they had the force
+of law. This ancient theory survived much longer in France than in other
+Catholic countries. Hence the name of Gallican is loosely given to all
+its modern upholders, whether of French nationality or not.
+Constitutional Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state
+in France. It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the
+theocratic pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as
+vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns of
+princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they disapproved.
+Gallicanism answered that kings held their power directly of God; hence
+their temporal concerns lay altogether outside the jurisdiction of the
+pope. During the troubles of the Reformation era, when the papal
+deposing power threatened to become a reality, the Gallican theory
+became of great importance. It was elaborated, and connected with
+dogmatic Gallicanism, by the famous theologian, Edmond Richer
+(1559-1631), and finally incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration
+of the French Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that
+the temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) that a
+general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient liberties of the
+Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible teaching authority
+of the church belongs to pope and bishops jointly. This declaration led
+to a violent quarrel with Rome, and was officially withdrawn in 1693,
+though its doctrines continued to be largely held. They were asserted in
+an extreme form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which
+almost severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802 Napoleon
+contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration textually in a
+statute. Long before his time, however, the issue had been narrowed down
+to determining exactly how far the pope should be allowed to interfere
+in French ecclesiastical affairs. Down to the repeal of the Concordat in
+1905 all French governments continued to uphold two of the ancient
+"Gallican Liberties." The secular courts took cognizance of
+ecclesiastical affairs whenever the law of the land was alleged to have
+been broken; and papal bulls were not allowed to be published without
+the leave of the state. (See also FEBRONIANISM.)      (St. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849-   ), French soldier and colonial
+administrator, was born at Saint-Béat, in the department of
+Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military academy
+of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the Marines,
+becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He saw service in the
+Franco-German War, and between 1877 and 1881 took an important part in
+the explorations and military expeditions by which the French dominion
+was extended in the basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly
+valuable service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
+almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce on the
+upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the Société de
+Géographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed in Martinique. On
+the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and
+on the 20th of December was nominated governor of Upper Senegal. He
+obtained several successes against Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory
+to agree to a treaty by which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger
+(see SENEGAL: _History_). In connexion with his service in West Africa,
+Gallieni published two works--_Mission d'exploration du Haut-Niger,
+1879-1881_ (Paris, 1885), and _Deux Campagnes au Sudan français_ (Paris,
+1891)--which, besides possessing great narrative interest, give
+information of considerable value in regard to the resources and
+topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an officer of the
+Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of colonel, and from 1893
+to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding the second military division
+of the territory. In 1899 he published his experiences in _Trois
+Colonnes au Tonkin_. In 1896 Madagascar was made a French colony, and
+Gallieni was appointed resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to
+governor-general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration
+of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out against the
+French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni succeeded in completing
+the subjugation of the island. He also turned his attention to the
+destruction of the political supremacy of the Hovas and the restoration
+of the autonomy of the other tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle,
+Ratsimamanga, and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior,
+in October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in 1897,
+on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova hegemony, and
+made an end of Hova intrigues against French rule. The task of
+government was one of considerable difficulty. The application of the
+French customs and other like measures, disastrous to British and
+American trade, were matters for which Gallieni was not wholly
+responsible. His policy was directed to the development of the economic
+resources of the island and was conciliatory towards the non-French
+European population. He also secured for the Protestants religious
+liberty. In 1899 he published a _Rapport d'ensemble sur la situation
+générale de Madagascar_. In 1905, when he resigned the governorship,
+Madagascar enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In
+1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army corps and
+military government of Lyons. He reviewed the results of his Madagascar
+administration in a book entitled _Neuf Ans à Madagascar_ (Paris, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, Roman emperor from A.D. 260 to
+268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about 218. From 253 to 260 he
+reigned conjointly with his father, during which time he gave proof of
+military ability and bravery. But when his father was taken prisoner by
+Shapur I. of Persia, in 260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his
+release, or to withstand the incursions of the invaders who threatened
+the empire from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in
+literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up
+chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of their
+military and provincial commands, which were transferred to equites.
+During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful pestilence; and the
+chief cities of Greece were sacked by the Goths, who descended on the
+Greek coast with a fleet of five hundred. His generals rebelled against
+him in almost every province of the empire, and this period of Roman
+history came to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless,
+these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining
+order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians. Gallienus was killed
+at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while besieging Aureolus, who was
+proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian legions. His sons Valerianus and
+Saloninus predeceased him.
+
+  Life by Trebellius Pollio in _Script. Hist. Aug._; on coins see
+  articles in _Numism. Zeit._ (1908) and _Riv. ital. d. num._ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE, MARQUIS DE, Prince de Martignes
+(1830-1909), French general, was born in Paris on the 23rd of January
+1830. He entered the army in 1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in
+1853, and served with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in
+the Italian campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a
+time he served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He
+displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of
+Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded. When he
+returned to France to recover from his wounds he was entrusted with the
+task of presenting the captured standards and colours to the emperor,
+and was promoted _chef d'escadrons_. He went again to Algeria in 1864,
+took part in expeditions against the Arabs, returned to Mexico as
+lieutenant-colonel, and, after winning further distinction, became in
+1867 colonel of the 3rd Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of
+1870-71 he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until
+promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At the battle
+of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in the heroic charge
+of General Margueritte's cavalry division, which extorted the admiration
+of the old king of Prussia. Made prisoner of war at the capitulation, he
+returned to France during the siege of Paris by the French army of
+Versailles, and commanded a brigade against the Communists. In the
+suppression of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly,
+and on that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout
+his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army,
+made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the chamber of
+deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna subdivision of Algeria,
+and commanded an expedition against El Golea, surmounting great
+difficulties in a rapid march across the desert, and inflicting severe
+chastisement on the revolted tribes. On the general reorganization of
+the army he commanded the 31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of
+division in 1875, he successively commanded the 15th infantry division
+at Dijon, the IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps
+at Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Supérieur de la
+Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive years, and
+attained a European reputation on all cavalry questions, and, indeed, as
+an army commander. Decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of
+Honour in 1887, he received the military medal for his able conduct of
+the autumn manoeuvres in 1891, and after again commanding at the
+manoeuvres of 1894 he retired from the active list. Afterwards he took
+an important part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899
+to 29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet, and distinguished
+himself by the firmness with which he dealt with cases of unrest in the
+army, but he then retired into private life, and died on the 8th of July
+1909.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally LUCIUS ANNAEUS NOVATUS), son of the
+rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca
+the philosopher, was born at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of
+the Christian era. At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a
+rhetorician of some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio.
+His brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises _De Ira_ and _De
+Vita Beata_, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded to by
+the poet Statius (_Silvae_, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was
+banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned together to
+Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to Nero. Towards the
+close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was proconsul of the newly
+constituted senatorial province of Achaea, but seems to have been
+compelled by ill-health to resign the post within a few years. During
+his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed the charge brought by the Jews
+against the apostle Paul (Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion
+("But Gallio cared for none of these things") shows the impartial
+attitude of the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days.
+He survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death by
+order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.
+
+  Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M.
+  Ramsay, _St Paul the Traveller_, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings' _Dict.
+  of the Bible_ (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given by
+  Anatole France in _Sur la pierre blanche_.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIPOLI (anc. _Callipolis_), a seaport town and episcopal see of
+Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by rail,
+46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune, 13,459. It is
+situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of Taranto, but is united to the
+mainland by a bridge, protected by a castle constructed by Charles I.
+of Anjou. The other fortifications have been removed. The handsome
+cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of
+olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the
+rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine,
+however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.
+
+The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its name
+("beautiful city") shows. It is hardly mentioned in ancient times. Pliny
+tells us that in his time it was known as Anxa. It lay a little off the
+road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, but was reached by a branch from
+Aletium (the site is marked by the modern church of S. Maria della
+Lizza), among the ruins of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no
+Latin ones, have been found.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLIPOLI (Turk. _Gelibolu_, anc. [Greek: Kallipolis]), a seaport and
+city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the
+north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula 132 m.
+W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in 40° 24' N. and
+26° 40' 30" E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly opposite is Lapsaki on
+the Asiatic side of the channel, which is here about 2 m. wide.
+Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; its streets are narrow and
+dirty, and many of its houses are built of wood, although there are a
+few better structures, occupied by the foreign residents and the richer
+class of Turkish citizens. The only noteworthy buildings are the large,
+crowded and well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are several
+mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman and
+Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor Justinian
+(483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to Bayezid I.
+(1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly called the tombs of
+the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built on a cliff, has a fine
+appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. Gallipoli is the seat of a
+Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, and is the principal station for
+the Turkish fleet. From its position as the key of the Dardanelles, it
+was occupied by the allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the
+isthmus a few miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was
+fortified with strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly
+on the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications
+were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the Russians threatening
+to take possession of Constantinople. The peninsula thus isolated by the
+fortified positions has the Gulf of Saros on the N.W., and extends some
+50 m. S.W. The guns of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the
+strait joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly
+fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the
+Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.
+
+The district (_sanjak_) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well
+adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and comprises
+four _kazas_ (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its excellent
+cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, noted for its
+cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and canary seed; (3)
+Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi (Peristeri) on the coast of the
+Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the
+neighbourhood formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and
+largely exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however,
+amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit of the
+viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and replanted their
+lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture their occupation.
+
+There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli itself,
+except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line of railway
+between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been prejudicial to the
+transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts have been made to
+obtain concessions for the construction of a railway that would connect
+this port with the Turkish railway system. Steamers to and from
+Constantinople call regularly. In 1904 the total value of the exports
+was £80,000. Wheat and maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to
+Turkish ports on the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great
+Britain; canary seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain.
+Semolina and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock,
+principally sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople
+and Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also
+exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from Italy,
+Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from Germany and
+Austria. These goods are imported through Constantinople. Cordage is
+chiefly obtained from Servia. Other imports are fuel, iron and
+groceries.
+
+The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th century B.C. At
+an early date it became a Christian bishopric, and in the middle ages
+developed into a great commercial city, with a population estimated at
+100,000. It was fortified by the East Roman emperors owing to its
+commanding strategic position and its valuable trade with Greece and
+Italy. In 1190 the armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor
+Frederick I. (Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the
+capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into
+the power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force in
+the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, established
+themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their leader massacred
+almost all the citizens; they were vainly besieged by the allied troops
+of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew in 1307, after dismantling the
+fortifications. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded
+Europe, and Gallipoli was the first city to fall into their power. The
+Venetians under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890)
+4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) 5560. It is served by the
+Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways,
+and (at Gallipolis Ferry, West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the
+Baltimore & Ohio railway. The city is built on a level site several feet
+above the river's high-water mark. It has a United States marine
+hospital and a state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's
+manufactures are lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was settled
+in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received worthless deeds to
+lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, founded by Col. William Duer
+(1747-1799) and others in 1787 and officially organized in 1789 as the
+Compagnie du Scioto in Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his
+associates abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen.
+This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for the use of
+about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the Scioto, on which the
+Ohio Company had secured an option only. The dishonesty of those who
+conducted the sales in France, the unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and
+the failure of Duer and his associates to meet their contract with the
+Ohio Company, caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790,
+and two subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about 150,000
+acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and in October
+1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained for two months at
+Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of Gallipolis, where rude huts
+had been built for them. This land, however, fell within the limits of
+the tract bought outright by the Ohio Company, which sold it to the
+Scioto Company, and to which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto
+Company to pay. In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United
+States, decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the
+Ohio Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were legally
+vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company sold to the French
+settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they occupied and adjacent improved
+lots, and the United States government granted to them 24,000 acres in
+the southern part of what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this
+land (still known as the "French Grant"), however, was ever occupied by
+them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was first
+chartered as a city in 1865.
+
+  See Theodore T. Belote, _The Scioto Speculation and the French
+  Settlement at Gallipolis_ (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No.
+  3 of the _University Studies_ of the University of Cincinnati.
+
+
+
+
+GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840), American Roman Catholic
+priest, called "The Apostle of the Alleghanies," was born at the Hague
+on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.),
+the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich
+Gallitzin (1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate
+friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years
+was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748-1806),
+until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic
+church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too
+became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a
+diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the
+commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the
+assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was
+dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by
+travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland,
+where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest
+in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in
+America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland,
+whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive
+objection to some of Bishop Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked,
+and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown,
+Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such
+misdirected zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by
+his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement
+in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land
+which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending
+$150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot
+singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his
+father's death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of
+Russia "by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical
+profession"; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his
+half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after
+her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The
+priest, who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of
+Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his
+real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from
+Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of
+Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin's
+"great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable
+purposes, contracted." In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric
+of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg,
+and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the
+settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840.
+Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in
+building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be
+estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of
+his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant
+dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his
+controversial pamphlets are: _A Defence of Catholic Principles_ (1816),
+_Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures_ (1820), _Appeal
+to the Protestant Public_ (1834), and _Six Letters of Advice_ (1834), in
+reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.
+
+  See Sarah M. Brownson, _Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest_
+  (New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing in
+  _American Catholic Records_ (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October 1886,
+  pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton in _The
+  Gallitzin Memorandum Book_, in _American Catholic Historical Society
+  of Philadelphia, Records_, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic chemical
+elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen
+of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (_Comptes rendus_, 1875, 81, p.
+493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of
+gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeléeff (c. 1869)
+from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc
+(see ELEMENT). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only
+contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an
+acid, and precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate
+is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by
+sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally
+precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before
+the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and
+finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is
+obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium
+crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30.15° C. to a
+silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and
+flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without
+breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5.956 (24.5° C.), of
+the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties are,
+for the solid form 0.079 (12-23° C.) and for the liquid 0.082 (106-119°)
+[M. Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not
+appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in
+the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is
+heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de
+Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer
+and K. Seubert.
+
+  _Gallium oxide_ Ga2O3 is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
+  solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
+  forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
+  On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish mass
+  which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium forms
+  colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are
+  converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are
+  precipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not
+  by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium
+  ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In
+  neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By
+  heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the _dichloride_
+  GaCl2 is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164° C. and
+  readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride GaCl3 is
+  similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream of
+  chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of
+  nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at
+  75.5° C. and boiling at 215-220° C. The bromide, iodide and sulphate
+  are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best detected
+  by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines of wave
+  length 4171 and 4031.
+
+
+
+
+GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also
+used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word
+was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. _galon_, Central Fr. _jalon_, and was
+Latinized as _galo_ and _galona_. It appears to be connected with the
+modern French _jale_, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has
+been referred without much plausibility to Gr. [Greek: gaulos], a milk
+pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub.
+in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard
+gallon of the United States.
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the
+most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel
+county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he
+acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in
+1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania
+Assembly, over which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with
+his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary
+government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for
+the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between
+Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative
+course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial
+complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a
+member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September
+1774) a "Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the
+Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided
+for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme
+executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council,
+elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have
+such "rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and
+in the House of Commons of Great Britain"; the president-general and
+grand council were to be "an inferior distinct branch of the British
+legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the grand
+council and of the British parliament was to be "requisite to the
+validity of all ... general acts or statutes," except that "in time of
+War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared by the grand
+council and approved by the president-general, shall be valid and passed
+into a law, without the assent of the British parliament." The
+individual colonies, however, were to retain control over their strictly
+internal affairs. The measure was debated at length, was advocated by
+such influential members as John Jay and James Duane of New York and
+Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by
+the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second election to
+Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New Brunswick, New Jersey
+(December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the
+Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778)
+was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of
+the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until
+his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After
+he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at
+£40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which
+he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary
+pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political
+writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler,
+"shared with Thomas Hutchinson the supreme place among American
+statesmen opposed to the Revolution."
+
+  Among his pamphlets are _A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of
+  Great Britain and the Colonies_ (1775); _Historical and Political
+  Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion_
+  (1780); _Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
+  American Independence_ (1780); and _The Claim of the American
+  Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of
+  Law and Justice_ (1788).
+
+  See Thomas Balch (Ed.), _The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a
+  Committee of the House of Commons_ (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H.
+  Baldwin, _Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician_ (New Haven, 1903);
+  and M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2
+  vols., New York, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at
+Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered
+the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in
+mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics
+at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed
+actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of
+that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on
+the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the
+most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is "On the
+Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was published in the _Phil.
+Trans._, 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and also wrote several scientific papers for
+the _Edinburgh Review_ and various scientific journals. His
+_Encyclopaedia_ article, "Probability," was published separately.
+
+  See _Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (1852).
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the
+counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the _Novantia_ of the
+Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the
+southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been
+adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long
+established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of
+earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts.
+Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black
+hornless cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE.
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWS[1] (a common Teutonic word--cf. Goth. _galga_, O.H. Ger.
+_galgo_, Mod. Ger. _Galgen_, A.S. _galzan_, &c.--of uncertain origin),
+the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually
+consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a
+single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows
+was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible "gallows" was
+used for the cross on which Christ suffered (so _galga_ in Ulfilas's
+Gothic Testament).[2] Another form of gallows in the middle ages was
+that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type.
+This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in
+each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which
+the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather.
+
+According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop
+(introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and
+the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the
+falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the
+spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times
+the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in
+a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a
+ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors
+in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by
+a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by
+strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are
+private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set
+apart for the purpose inside the gaol.
+
+The word "gibbet," the Fr. _gibet_, gallows, which appears in the first
+instance to have meant a crooked stick,[3] was originally used in
+English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later
+and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a
+projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after
+their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the
+tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented
+roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid
+decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the
+gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet" for any
+holding up to public infamy or contempt.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word "gallows" is the plural of a word (_galwe_, _galowe_,
+    _gallow_) which, according to the _New English Dictionary_, was
+    occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th
+    century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of
+    "a gallows," and, in the older form, of "a pair of gallows," this
+    referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century
+    onwards "gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a
+    new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. "The latter, though
+    not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to
+    be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in
+    commonly evaded" (_New Eng. Dict._ s.v. "Gallows").
+
+  [2] In Med. Lat. "gallows" was translated by _furia_ and _patibulum_,
+    both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of
+    punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. _Furia_, in
+    feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major
+    jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.
+
+  [3] Cf. Wace, _Roman de Rou_, iii. 8349:
+
+      "Et il a le gibet saisi
+       Qui a son destre braz pendi."
+
+
+
+
+GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living
+mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous
+insects of the genus _Oestrus_. Signor Moriggia[1] has described and
+figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of
+the human hand, which was caused by _Acarus domesticus_. What are
+commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to
+the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable
+productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more
+particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation."
+For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance.
+The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls,
+appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus,
+secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the
+puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of
+plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the
+cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or
+larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the
+formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain
+relation is necessary between the "stimulus" and the "supporter of the
+stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of
+each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it
+must be the quality of the irritant of the tissues, rather than the
+specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that
+principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics
+of the currant-gall of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., which occurs alike
+on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to
+the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing
+it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly _Nematus gallicola_ are found on
+four different species of willow, _Salix fragilis_, _S. alba_, _S.
+caprea_ and _S. cinerea_;[2] and the galls of a Cynipid, _Biorhiza
+aptera_, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been
+procured also from the deodar.[3] Often the gall bears no visible
+resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly,
+however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the
+gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less
+modified special organs of the plant. The gall of _Cecidomyia
+strobilina_, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the
+stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth,
+seed-shaped gall of the American _Cynips seminator_, Harris, according
+to W.F. Bassett,[4] is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly
+hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The
+moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a
+Cynipid, _Rhodites rosae_, represents leaves which have been developed
+with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and
+the "artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by _Aphilothrix
+gemmae_, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists
+of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached,
+with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.[5] E. Newman held the view that
+many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn
+has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the
+attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded
+leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at
+fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result
+in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.[6] Galls
+vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their
+makers. The polythalamous gall of _Aphilothrix radicis_, found on the
+roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls
+of another Cynipid, _Andricus occultus_, Tschek,[7] which occurs on the
+male flowers of _Quercus sessiliflora_, is 2 millimetres, or barely a
+line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the
+oak-leaf hairy galls of _Spathegaster tricolor_, which are of a crimson
+hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. The variety
+of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others
+lenticular. The "knoppern" galls of _Cynips polycera_, Gir., are cones
+having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a
+toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, "some are as symmetrical as a
+composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry;
+some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of
+long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs."[8] The
+characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic,
+even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American
+willow, _Salix humilis_, it is difficult or impossible to tell the
+full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of
+complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are
+monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst
+others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are
+the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers
+into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or
+rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common
+gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an
+epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer,
+composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a
+complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer;
+and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the
+growing larva.[9]
+
+Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are
+the gall-wasps (_Cynips_ and its allies), which infect the various
+species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a
+compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and
+third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and
+concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the
+larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or
+perfect insect, tunnels its way,--usually in autumn, though sometimes,
+as has been observed of some individuals of _Cynips Kollari_, after
+hibernation.
+
+Among the commoner of the galls of the _Cynipidae_ are the "oak-apple"
+or "oak-sponge" of _Andricus terminalis_, Fab.; the "currant" or "berry
+galls" of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., above mentioned; and the
+"oak-spangles" of _Neuroterus lenticularis_,[10] Oliv., generally
+reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature
+by Frederick Smith,[11] and the succulent "cherry-galls" of _Dryophanta
+scutellaris_, Oliv. The "marble" or "Devonshire woody galls" of
+oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are
+produced by _Cynips Kollari_,[12] already alluded to. They were first
+introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near
+Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in
+several parts of Scotland.[13] They contain about 17% of tannin.[14] On
+account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for
+making ornamental baskets. The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah
+galls,[15] produced on a species of oak by _Cynips insana_, Westw., have
+been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (_mala
+insana_), or apples of Sodom (_poma sodomitica_), alluded to by Josephus
+and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (_Bibl. Researches
+in Palestine_, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular
+fruit called by the Arabs _'Ösher_, produced by the _Asclepias gigantea_
+or _procera_ of botanists. What in California are known as "flea seeds"
+are oak-galls made by a species of _Cynips_; in August they become
+detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the
+spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.[16]
+
+Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, or Levant
+galls of commerce (Ger. _Galläpfel_, _levantische Gallen_; Fr. _noix de
+Galle_), are produced on _Quercus infectoria_, a variety of _Q.
+Lusitanica_, Webb, by _Cynips_ (_Diplolepis_, Latr.) _tinctoria_, L., or
+_C. gallae tinctoriae_ Oliv. Aleppo galls (_gallae halepenses_) are
+brittle, hard, spherical bodies, 2/5-4/5 in. in diameter, ridged and
+warty on the upper half, and light brown to dark greyish-yellow within.
+What are termed "blue," "black," or "green" galls contain the insect;
+the inferior "white" galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so
+compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig.
+1.). Less valued are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence
+the name "Tarablous galls"). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according
+to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of
+nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe for
+various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26
+(H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see Vinen, _loc. cit._), with
+gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, water, and minute quantities
+of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free sugar and, in the cells around the
+inner shelly chamber, calcium oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by
+Theophrastus, Dioscorides (i. 146), and other ancient writers, including
+Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be
+produced "in a single night." Their insect origin appears to have been
+entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, though
+Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is produced in
+certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes oak-apples as "an
+exudation of plants joined with putrefaction." Pomet[17] thought that
+gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar opinion obtains among
+the modern Chinese, who apply to them the term _Mu-shih-tsze_, or
+"fruits for the foodless."[18] Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for
+their astringent properties, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 5) recommends
+them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the
+mouth and some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts are
+used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments _unguentum
+gallae_ and _unguentum gallae cum opio_, and of the tinctura gallae, and
+also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid (q.v.). They have from
+very early times been resorted to as a means of staining the hair of a
+dark colour, and they are the base of the tattooing dye of the Somali
+women.[19]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_a_, Aleppo "blue" gall; _b_, ditto in section,
+showing central cavity for grub; _c_, Aleppo "white" gall, perforated by
+insect; _d_, the same in section (natural size).]
+
+The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the _Cynipidae_ proper,
+certain species of the genus _Eurytoma_ (_Isosoma_, Walsh) and family
+_Chalcididae_, e.g. _E. hordei_, the "joint-worm" of the United States,
+which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;[20] also various members of
+the family _Tenthredinidae_, or saw-flies. The larvae of the latter
+usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the earth, or, as
+in the case of _Athalia abdominalis_, Klg., of the clematis, may emerge
+from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the
+gall-bearing plant.
+
+The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats
+(_Cecidomyidae_), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually
+covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of
+them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or
+become pupae. The true willow-galls are the work either of these or of
+saw-flies. Their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants
+of widely distinct genera, e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,[21]
+grape-vine,[22] alder, gooseberry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle,
+fennel, meadowsweet,[23] common cabbage and cereals. In the northern
+United States, in May, "legions of these delicate minute flies fill the
+air at twilight, hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong
+north-west wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the
+farmer."[24] Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family
+_Trypetidae_, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the
+family _Mycetophilidae_, such as the species _Sciara tilicola_,[25] Löw,
+the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young
+shoots and leaves of the lime.
+
+Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the
+families _Tingidae_, _Psyllidae_, _Coccidae_ and _Aphidae_. _Coccus
+pinicorticis_ causes the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy
+matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in
+America.[26] The galls of examples of the last family are common objects
+on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the poplar. An American Aphid of
+the genus _Pemphigus_ produces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped
+excrescences on the young branches of the hickory.
+
+  The Chinese galls of commerce (_Woo-pei-tsze_) are stated to be
+  produced by _Aphis Chinensis_, Bell, on _Rhus semialata_, Murr. (_R.
+  Bucki-amela_, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. India,
+  China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform,
+  tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally
+  with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and
+  insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on
+  the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when,
+  after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations,
+  male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the
+  frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.[27]
+
+  Chinese galls examined by Viedt[28] yielded 72% of tannin, and less
+  mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are
+  produced by Aphides on species of _Pistacia_.
+
+  M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the
+  Aphis of Pistachio galls, _Anopleura lentisci_, is hatched an apterous
+  insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides
+  (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots
+  of certain grasses (_Bromus sterilis_ and _Hordeum vulgare_), and by
+  budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous
+  insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These
+  last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit
+  their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals,
+  the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders,
+  thus recommencing the biological cycle (see _Compt. rend._, Nov. 18,
+  1878, p. 782, quoted in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879, p. 174).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_a_, Chinese gall (abt. ½ natural size); _b_,
+ditto broken, showing thin-walled cavity; _c_, Japanese gall (natural
+size).]
+
+Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers there are,
+among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), and species
+of the exotic _Sagridae_ and _Lamiadae_ and an American beetle,
+_Saperda inornata_ (_Cerambycidae_), which forms the pseudo-galls of
+_Salix longifolia_ and _Populus angulata_, or cottonwood. Among the
+Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the _Tineidae_,
+_Aegeriidae_, _Tortricidae_ and _Pterophoridae_. The larva of a New
+Zealand moth, _Morova subfasciata_, Walk. (_Cacoëcia gallicolens_), of
+the family _Drepanulidae_, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the
+pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform
+gall.[29]
+
+Mite-galls, or _acarocecidia_, are abnormal growths of the leaves of
+plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus _Phytoptus_
+(gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened
+portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface,
+so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform
+cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine,
+mulberry and many other plants; and formerly, e.g. the gall known as
+_Erineum quercinum_, on the leaves of _Quercus Cerris_, were taken for
+cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf "nail-galls" of _Phytoptus tiliae_
+closely resemble the "trumpet-galls" formed on American vines by a
+species of _Cecidomyia_.[30] Certain minute Nematoid worms, as
+_Anguillula scandens_, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise
+to galls.
+
+Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually
+contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies
+or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of _Cynips_ and its allies are inhabited
+by members of other cynipideous genera, as _Synergus_, _Amblynotus_ and
+_Synophrus_; and the pine-cone-like gall of _Salix strobiloides_, as
+Walsh has shown,[30] is made by a large species of _Cecidomyia_, which
+inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous
+larvae in its outer part being mere inquilines. In many instances the
+lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some
+saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and
+some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford
+harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the
+case of the Curculio beetle _Conotrachelius nenuphar_, Hbst., of which
+one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives
+in the "black knot" of the plum-tree, regarded by Walsh as probably a
+true cecidomyidous gall. The same authority (_loc. cit._ p. 550)
+mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with
+food and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
+that altogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are
+dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to
+be nothing but "an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the numerous insects
+parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the
+family _Proctotrypidae_, and of the family _Chalcididae_, e.g.
+_Callimome regius_, the larva of which preys on the larvae of both
+_Cynips glutinosa_ and its lodger _Synergus facialis_. The oak-apple
+often contains the larvae of _Braconidae_ and _Ichneumonidae_, which Von
+Schlechtendal (_loc. sup. cit._ p. 33) considers to be parasites not on
+the owner of the gall, _Andricus terminalis_, but on inquilinous
+_Tortricidae_. Birds are to be included among the enemies of
+gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in
+order to obtain the grub within, and the "button-galls" of _Neuroterus
+numismatis_, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.
+
+A great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and
+mites as well as by fungi have been described. They are in some cases
+very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite
+structures. The whole are now included under the term Cecidia; a prefix
+gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due, e.g.
+Phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls
+are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved;
+compound galls are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most
+remarkable galls recently discovered we may mention those found on
+Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia. They are
+remarkable for their variety, and are due to small scale-insects of the
+peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As regards the mode of production of
+galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from
+the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the
+plant, and those that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in
+the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to
+enclose its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result of
+the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been known, and
+is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the
+tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or prior to, the actual
+development of the tissue. Little more than this is known. The power
+that gall-producers possess of influencing by direct interference the
+growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of
+subsistence is an art that appears to be widely spread among animals,
+but is at the same time one of which we have little knowledge. The views
+of Adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies
+have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct
+observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one
+generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has
+also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate
+generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is supposed
+that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference
+in the nutrition of the alternating generations. When two different
+generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is
+clear the properties of the sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse
+so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. In some
+cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of
+trees, and even on different parts of the two species.
+
+  On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further--J.T.C.
+  Ratzeburg, _Die Forst-Insecten_, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844);
+  T.W. Harris, _Insects injurious to Vegetation_ (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed.,
+  1852); C.L. Koch, _Die Pflanzenläuse Aphiden_ (Nuremberg, 1854); T.
+  Hartig, _Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen_ (Berlin, 1860);
+  Walsh, "On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous,
+  inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," _Proc. Ent. Soc.
+  Philadelphia_, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp.
+  223-288; T.A. Marshall, "On some British Cynipidae," _Ent. Month.
+  Mag._ iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Müller, "A List of
+  Gall-bearing British Plants," _ib._ v. pp. 118 and 216; G.L. Mayr,
+  _Die mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna,
+  1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in the
+  _Entomologist_, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, "Die
+  Einmiethler der mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen," _Verhandl. d.
+  zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxii. pp. 669-726; and "Die europäischen
+  Torymiden," _ib._ xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in _Cistula
+  entomologica_, i., London, 1869-1876); F. Löw, "Beiträge zur Kenntnis
+  der Gallmücken," _ib._ pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm
+  and P. Löw, "Synopsis Cecidomyidarum," _ib._ xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris,
+  _Ann. Soc. Entom. de France_, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R.
+  Osten-Sacken, "On the North American Cecidomyidae," _Smithsonian
+  Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg,
+  _Entomologie für Gärtner und Gartenfreunde_ (Leipzig, 1871); J.W.H.
+  Traill, "Scottish Galls," _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871), pp. 123,
+  &c.; Albert Müller, "British Gall Insects," _The Entomologist's Annual
+  for 1872_, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, _Forstzoologie_, iii. "Insecten," pp.
+  250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach, _Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der
+  Classe der Insecten_ (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d'Arbois de Jubainville and
+  J. Vesque, _Les Maladies des plantes cultivées_, pp. 98-105 (Paris,
+  1878).     (F. H. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Quoted in _Zoological Record_, iv. (1867), p. 192.
+
+  [2] P. Cameron, _Scottish Naturalist_, ii. pp. 11-15.
+
+  [3] _Entomologist_, vii. p. 47.
+
+  [4] See in _Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873_, p. xvi.
+
+  [5] See A. Müller, _Gardener's Chronicle_ (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;
+    and E.A. Fitch, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 129.
+
+  [6] _Entomologist_, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.
+
+  [7] _Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxi. p. 799.
+
+  [8] Darwin, _Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication_,
+    ii. p. 282.
+
+  [9] "Recherches pour servir à l'histoire des galles," _Ann. des sci.
+    nat._ xix. pp. 293 sqq.
+
+  [10] According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place
+    between _N. lenticularis_ and _Spathegaster baccarum_ (see E.A.
+    Ormerod, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 34).
+
+  [11] See Westwood, _Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects_, ii.
+    (1840) p. 130.
+
+  [12] For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see
+    _Entomologist_, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.
+
+  [13] _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.
+
+  [14] Vinen, _Journ. de pharm. et de chim._ xxx. (1856) p. 290;
+    "English Ink-Galls," _Pharm. Journ._ 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.
+
+  [15] See Pereira, _Materia Medica_, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; _Pharm.
+    Journ._ 1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.
+
+  [16] See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes, _Proc. California Acad. of
+    Sciences_, iv. pp. 265 and 266.
+
+  [17] _A Complete History of Drugs_ (translation), p. 169 (London,
+    1748).
+
+  [18] F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of
+    China_, p. 100 (1871).
+
+  [19] R.F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178 (1856).
+
+  [20] A.S. Packard, jun., _Guide to the Study of Insects_, p. 205
+    (Salem, 1870).
+
+  [21] On the Cecidomyids of _Quercus Cerris_, see Fitch,
+    _Entomologist_, xi. p. 14.
+
+  [22] See, on _Cecidomyia oenephila_, Von Haimhoffen, _Verhandl. d.
+    zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxv. pp. 801-810.
+
+  [23] See _Entomologist's Month. Mag._ iv. (1868) p. 233; and for
+    figure and description, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 13.
+
+  [24] A.S. Packard, jun., _Our Common Insects_, p. 203 (Salem, U.S.
+    1873). On the Hessian fly, _Cecidomyia destructor_, Say, the May
+    brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of
+    barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, _The Hessian Fly_ (Albany,
+    1847), reprinted from _Trans. New York State Agric. Soc._ vol. vi.
+
+  [25] J. Winnertz, _Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen_, p.
+    164 (Vienna, 1867).
+
+  [26] Asa Fitch, _First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects of
+    the State of New York_, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).
+
+  [27] See E. Doubleday, _Pharm. Journ._ 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and
+    Pereira, _ib._ vol. iii. p. 377.
+
+  [28] _Dingler's Polyt. Journ._ ccxvi. p. 453.
+
+  [29] For figure and description see _Zoology of the "Erebus" and
+    "Terror,"_ ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).
+
+  [30] On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Löw, "Beiträge zur
+    Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (_Phytoptus_, Duj.)," _Verhandl. d.
+    zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and
+    "Über Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend," _ib._ pp.
+    495-508; Andrew Murray, _Economic Entomology, Aptera_, pp. 331-374
+    (1876); and F.A.W. Thomas, _Ältere und neue Beobachtungen über
+    Phytopto-Cecidien_ (Halle, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+GALLUPPI, PASQUALE (1770-1846), Italian philosopher, was born on the 2nd
+of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He was of good family, and after
+studying at the university of Naples he entered the public service, and
+was for many years employed in the office of the administration of
+finances. At the age of sixty, having become widely known by his
+writings on philosophy, he was called to the chair of logic and
+metaphysics in the university of Naples, which he held till his death in
+November 1846. His most important works are: _Lettere filosofiche_
+(1827), in which he traces his philosophical development; _Elementi di
+filosofia_ (1832); _Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza_
+(1819-1832); _Sull' analisi e sulla sintesi_ (1807); _Lezioni di logica
+e di metafisica_ (1832-1836); _Filosofia della volontà_ (1832-1842,
+incomplete); _Storia della filosofia_ (i., 1842); _Considerazioni
+filosofiche sull' idealismo trascendentale_ (1841), a memoir on the
+system of Fichte.
+
+  On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, _Essai sur l'histoire de la
+  philosophie en Italie au XIX^e siècle_, i. (1869); V. Botta in
+  Ueberweg's _Hist. of Philosophy_, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti,
+  "Philosophy in Italy," in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, _Pasquale
+  Galluppi. Studio critico_ (Florence, 1890).
+
+GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.), Roman poet, orator and politician,
+was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (_Fréjus_) in Gaul. At an
+early age he removed to Rome, where he was taught by the same master as
+Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.)
+to him, was in great measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the
+restoration of his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause
+of Octavianus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of
+Egypt (Suetonius, _Augustus_, 66). His conduct in this position
+afterwards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having been
+deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he put an end to
+his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a high reputation among
+his contemporaries as a man of intellect, and Ovid (_Tristia_, iv. 10)
+considered him the first of the elegiac poets of Rome. He wrote four
+books of elegies chiefly on his mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for
+Cytheris, a notorious actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion
+of Chalcis (q.v.); he also translated some of this author's works into
+Latin. Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems
+attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 and printed
+in A. Riese's _Anthologia Latina_, 1869) are generally regarded as a
+forgery.
+
+  See C. Völker, _De C. Galli vita et scriptis_ (1840-1844); A. Nicolas,
+  _De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus_ (1851), an exhaustive
+  monograph. An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the
+  Egyptian exploits; see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der römischen
+  Litteratur_, and Plessis, _Poésie latine_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24 B.C. By order of Augustus
+he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix, with disastrous results. The
+troops suffered greatly from disease, heat, want of water and the
+obstinate resistance of the inhabitants. The treachery of a foreign
+guide also added to his difficulties. After six months Gallus was
+obliged to return to Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his
+force. He was a friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of
+the expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29; Pliny,
+_Nat. Hist._ vi. 32; C. Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the
+Empire_, ch. 34; H. Krüger, _Der Feldzug des A. G. nach dem glücklichen
+Arabien_, 1862). He has been identified with the Aelius Gallus
+frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are stated to have been used
+with success in an Arabian expedition.
+
+
+
+
+GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign of Nero. When
+the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the outrages of the Roman
+procurators, had seized the fortress of Masada and treacherously
+murdered the garrison of the palace of Herod, Gallus set out from
+Antioch to restore order. On the 17th of November A.D. 66 he arrived
+before Jerusalem. Having gained possession of the northern suburb, he
+attacked the temple mount; but, after five days' fighting, just when
+(according to Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably
+withdrew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by the
+Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in making good his
+escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater part of his army and a
+large amount of war material. Soon after his return Gallus died (before
+the spring of 67), and was succeeded in the governorship by Licinius
+Mucianus, the prosecution of the war being entrusted to Vespasian.
+
+  See Tacitus, _Hist._ v. 10, 13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 4; Josephus,
+  _Bell. Jud._ ii. 14-20; E. Schürer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, div.
+  i. vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).
+
+
+
+
+GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general, statesman and orator. Under
+Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend, he commanded the 2nd legion
+in the campaign against Perseus, king of Macedonia, and gained great
+reputation for having predicted an eclipse of the moon on the night
+before the battle of Pydna (168 B.C.). On his return from Macedonia he
+was elected consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to
+submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and Asia, where
+he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges brought against
+Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives of various cities of Asia
+Minor. Gallus was a man of great learning, an excellent Greek scholar,
+and in his later years devoted himself to the study of astronomy, on
+which subject he is quoted as an authority by Pliny.
+
+  See Livy xliv. 37, _Epit_. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, _Brutus_,
+  20, _De officiis_, i. 6, _De senectute_, 14; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii.
+  9.
+
+
+
+
+GALOIS, EVARISTE (1811-1832), French mathematician, was born on the 25th
+of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 31st of May 1832. An
+obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier appeared in the _Revue
+encyclopédique_ (1832); and his collected works are published, _Journal
+de Liouville_ (1846), pp. 381-444, about fifty of these pages being
+occupied by researches on the resolubility of algebraic equations by
+radicals. This branch of algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also
+due the notion of a group of substitutions (see EQUATION: _Theory of
+Equations_; also GROUPS, THEORY OF).
+
+  His collected works, with an introduction by C.F. Picard, were
+  published in 1897 at Paris.
+
+
+
+
+GALSTON, a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m. E. by S. of
+Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The
+manufactures include blankets, lace, muslin, hosiery and
+paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the vicinity. About 1 m. to the
+north, amid the "bonnie woods and braes," is Loudoun Castle, a seat of
+the earl of Loudoun.
+
+
+
+
+GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-1893), Canadian statesman, was the
+youngest son of John Galt the author. Born in London on the 6th of
+September 1817, he emigrated to Canada in 1835, and settled in
+Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec, where he entered the service of
+the British American Land Company, of which he rose to be chief
+commissioner. Later he was one of the contractors for extending the
+Grand Trunk railway westward from Toronto. He entered public life in
+1849 as Liberal member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the
+chief measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same
+year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States,
+believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-Saxon
+ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in his native
+province be maintained. In the same year he retired from parliament but
+re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the chief representative of the
+English-speaking Protestants of Quebec province. On the fall of the
+Brown-Dorion administration in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry,
+but declined the task, and became finance minister under Sir John
+Macdonald and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the
+British North American provinces should become a part of their
+programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance minister,
+and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances of Canada into
+order. To him are due the introduction of the decimal system of currency
+and the adoption of a system of protection to Canadian manufactures. To
+his diplomacy was due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and
+Cartier, which carried the federation of the British North American
+provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which followed
+his was one of the chief influences. He became finance minister in the
+first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and mysteriously resigned on the
+4th of November 1867. After his retirement he gave to the administration
+of Sir John Macdonald a support which grew more and more fitful, and
+advocated independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was
+again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning these
+views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee on the
+Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and rendered brilliant
+service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian high commissioner to Great
+Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour of Sir Charles Tupper. During
+this period he advocated imperial federation. He was Canadian delegate
+at the Paris Monetary Conference of 1881, and to the International
+Exhibition of Fisheries in 1883. From this date till his death on the
+19th of September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman
+has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual
+fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague in
+political life.     (W. L. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GALT, JOHN (1779-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at Irvine, Ayrshire,
+on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early education at Irvine and
+Greenock, and read largely from one of the public libraries while
+serving as a clerk in a mercantile office. In 1804 he went to settle in
+London, where he published anonymously a poem on the _Battle of Largs_.
+After unsuccessful attempts to succeed in business Galt entered at
+Lincoln's Inn, but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission
+from a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and
+Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John Hobhouse at
+Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met him again at Athens.
+He was afterwards employed by the Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on
+similar business at Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland.
+His early works are the _Life and Administration of Wolsey_, _Voyages
+and Travels_, _Letters from the Levant_, the _Life of Benjamin West_,
+_Historical Pictures_ and _The Wandering Jew_; and he induced Colburn to
+publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces rejected by London
+managers. These were afterwards edited by Galt as the _New British
+Theatre_, which included some plays of his own. He first showed his real
+power as a writer of fiction in _The Ayrshire Legatees_, which appeared
+in _Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his
+masterpiece--_The Annals of the Parish_; and, at short intervals, _Sir
+Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Steam-Boat_ and _The Provost_ were
+published. These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his
+happiest manner. His next works were _Ringan Gilhaize_ (1823), a story
+of the Covenanters; _The Spaewife_ (1823), which relates to the times of
+James I. of Scotland; _Rothelan_ (1824), a novel founded on the reign of
+Edward III.; _The Omen_ (1825), which was favourably criticized by Sir
+Walter Scott; and _The Last of the Lairds_, another picture of Scottish
+life.
+
+In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land Company. He
+carried out extensive schemes of colonization, and opened up a road
+through what was then forest country between Lakes Huron and Erie. In
+1827 he founded Guelph in upper Canada, passing on his way the township
+of Galt on the Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon.
+But all this work proved financially unprofitable to Galt. In 1829 he
+returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted himself with
+great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first fruit was _Lawrie
+Todd_--one of his best novels. Then came _Southennan_, a tale of
+Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary. In 1830 he was appointed
+editor of the _Courier_ newspaper--a post he soon relinquished. His
+untiring industry was seen in the publication, in rapid succession, of a
+_Life of Byron_, _Lives of the Players_, _Bogle Corbet_, _Stanley
+Buxton_, _The Member_, _The Radical_, _Eben Erskine_, _The Stolen
+Child_, his _Autobiography_, and a collection of tales entitled _Stories
+of the Study_. In 1834 appeared his _Literary Life and Miscellanies_,
+dedicated by permission to William IV., who sent the author a present of
+£200. As soon as this work was published Galt retired to Greenock, where
+he continued his literary labours till his death on the 11th of April
+1839.
+
+Galt, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly unequal. His
+masterpieces are _The Ayrshire Legatees_, _The Annals of the Parish_,
+_Sir Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Provost_ and _Lawrie Todd_. _The
+Ayrshire Legatees_ gives, in the form of a number of exceedingly
+diverting letters, the adventures of the Rev. Dr Pringle and his family
+in London. The letters are made the excuse for endless tea-parties and
+meetings of kirk-session in the rural parish of Garnock. _The Annals of
+the Parish_ are told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Galt's finest
+character. This work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before
+_Waverley_ was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned
+Scottish pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour,
+genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by Scott. It
+is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish dialect, and
+preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast passing out of use even
+in country districts. In this novel Mr Galt used, for the first time,
+the term "Utilitarian," which afterwards became so intimately associated
+with the doctrines of John Stuart Mill and Bentham (see _Annals of the
+Parish_, chap. xxxv., and a note by Mill in _Utilitarianism_, chap.
+ii.). In _Sir Andrew Wylie_ the hero entered London as a poor lad, but
+achieved remarkable success by his shrewd business qualities. The
+character is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. _The Entail_
+was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Galt's longer
+novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was considered by
+Byron equal to any female character in literature since Shakespeare's
+time. _The Provost_, in which Provost Pawkie tells his own story,
+portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings and self-seeking of
+municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish burgh. In _Lawrie Todd_ Galt,
+by giving us the Scot in America, accomplished a feat which Sir Walter
+never attempted. This novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater
+love of nature than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted
+with unerring pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much
+more poetical than any of the author's professed poems.
+
+  The best of Galt's novels were reprinted in Blackwood's _Standard
+  Novels_, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.
+
+
+
+
+GALT, a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m. N.N.W. of
+Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific
+railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866. It is named after John Galt,
+the author. It has excellent water privileges which furnish power for
+flour-mills and for manufactures of edge tools, castings, machinery,
+paper and other industries.
+
+
+
+
+GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822-   ), English anthropologist, son of S.T.
+Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the 16th of February
+1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist Erasmus Darwin, and
+Charles Darwin was his cousin. After attending King Edward VI.'s grammar
+school, Birmingham, he studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at
+King's College, London, with the intention of making medicine his
+profession; but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in travelling
+in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with Dr John Anderson,
+of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in south-west Africa, starting from
+Walfisch Bay. These tracts had practically never been traversed before,
+and on the appearance of the published account of his journey and
+experiences under the title of _Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical
+South Africa_ (1853) Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal
+Geographical Society. His _Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in
+Wild Countries_ was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the
+north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the
+country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which he
+edited, entitled _Vacation Tourists_. He then turned to meteorology, the
+result of his investigations appearing in _Meteorographica_, published
+in 1863. This work was the first serious attempt to chart the weather on
+an extensive scale, and in it also the author first established the
+existence and theory of anti-cyclones. Galton was a member of the
+meteorological committee (1868), and of the Meteorological Council which
+succeeded it, for over thirty years. But his name is most closely
+associated with studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In
+1869 appeared his _Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences_, a work
+which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This was
+followed by _English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture_,
+published in 1874; _Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development_,
+issued in 1883; _Life-History Album_ (1884); _Record of Family
+Faculties_ (1884) (tabular forms and directions for entering data, with
+a preface); and _Natural Inheritance_ (1889). The idea that systematic
+efforts should be made to improve the breed of mankind by checking the
+birth-rate of the unfit and furthering the productivity of the fit was
+first put forward by him In 1865; he mooted it again in 1884, using the
+term "eugenics" for the first time in _Human Faculty_, and in 1904 he
+endowed a research fellowship in the university of London for the
+promotion of knowledge of that subject, which was defined as "the study
+of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial
+qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally." Galton
+was the author of memoirs on various anthropometric subjects; he
+originated the process of composite portraiture, and paid much attention
+to finger-prints and their employment for the identification of
+criminals, his publications on this subject including _Finger Prints_
+(1892), _Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints_ (1893) and _Finger Print
+Directories_ (1895). From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a
+fellow in 1860, he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal
+in 1902, and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894) and
+Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published _Memories of My Life_, and in
+1909 he received a knighthood.
+
+
+
+
+GALUPPI, BALDASSARE (1706-1785), Italian musical composer, was born on
+the 18th of October 1706 on the island of Burano near Venice, from which
+he was often known by the nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber,
+and violinist at the local theatre, was his first teacher. His first
+opera, composed at the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he
+determined to study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli
+Incurabili at Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully
+producing two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G.B.
+Pescetti, in 1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer
+of operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five in a
+year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a _pasticcio_, _Alexander
+in Persia_, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his influence on
+English music to have been very powerful. In 1740 he became
+_vice-maestro di cappella_ at St Mark's and _maestro_ in 1762. In 1749
+he began writing comic operas to libretti by Goldoni, which enjoyed an
+enormous popularity. He was invited to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766,
+where his operas made a favourable impression, and his influence was
+also felt in Russian church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where
+he had held the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili
+since 1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.
+
+Galuppi's best works are his comic operas, of which _Il Filosofo di
+Campagna_ (1754), known in England as _The Guardian Trick'd_ (Dublin,
+1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive rather than
+original, but his workmanship in harmony and orchestration is generally
+superior to that of his contemporaries. He seems to have been the first
+to extend the concerted finales of Leo and Logroscino into a chain of
+several separate movements, working up to a climax, but in this respect
+he is much inferior to Sarti and Mozart.
+
+Browning's poem, "A Toccata of Galuppi," does not refer to any known
+composition, but more probably to an imaginary extemporization on the
+harpsichord, such as was of frequent occurrence in the musical
+gatherings of Galuppi's day.
+
+  See also Alfred Wotquerme, _Baldassare Galuppi, étude bibliographique
+  sur ses oeuvres dramatiques_ (Brussels, 1902). Many of his autograph
+  scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.
+       (E. J. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GALVANI, LUIGI (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after whom galvanism
+received its name, was born at Bologna on the 9th of September 1737. It
+was his wish in early life to enter the church, but by his parents he
+was educated for a medical career. At the university of Bologna, in
+which city he practised, he was in 1762 appointed public lecturer in
+anatomy, and soon gained repute as a skilled though not eloquent
+teacher, and, chiefly from his researches on the organs of hearing and
+genito-urinary tract of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His
+celebrated theory of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, "De
+viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius," published in the
+7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna in
+1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and elsewhere
+subsequently. The statement has frequently been repeated that, in 1786,
+Galvani had noticed that the leg of a skinned frog, on being
+accidentally touched by a scalpel which had lain near an electrical
+machine, was thrown into violent convulsions; and that it was thus that
+his attention was first directed to the relations of animal functions to
+electricity. From documents in the possession of the Institute of
+Bologna, however, it appears that twenty years previous to the
+publication of his _Commentary_ Galvani was already engaged in
+investigations as to the action of electricity upon the muscles of
+frogs. The observation that the suspension of certain of these animals
+on an iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of
+their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first
+experiment with which is described in the third part of the
+_Commentary_, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he constructed
+of two different metals, which, placed in contact the one with a frog's
+nerve and the other with a muscle, caused contraction of the latter. In
+Galvani's view the motions of the muscle were the result of the union,
+by means of the metallic arc, of its exterior or negative electrical
+charge with positive electricity which proceeded along the nerve from
+its inner substance. Volta, on the other hand, attributed them solely to
+the effect of electricity having its source in the junction of the two
+dissimilar metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply
+as conductors. On Galvani's refusal, from religious scruples, to take
+the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he was removed
+from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means of livelihood, he
+retired to the house of his brother Giacomo, where he soon fell into a
+feverish decline. The republican government, in consideration of his
+great scientific fame, eventually, but too late, determined to reinstate
+him in his chair, and he died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.
+
+  A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-1842,
+  by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under the
+  title _Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani_.
+
+
+
+
+GALVANIZED IRON, sheet iron having its surface covered with a thin
+coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic action has often no part
+in the production of galvanized iron, which is prepared by dipping the
+iron, properly cleaned and pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc.
+The hotter the zinc the thinner the coating, but as a high temperature
+of the bath is attended with certain objections, it is a common practice
+to use a moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by
+passing the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers's process a
+thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the
+zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a wooden
+tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride, when tin is
+deposited on them by galvanic action. In "cold galvanizing" the zinc is
+deposited electrolytically from a bath, preferably kept neutral or
+slightly acid, containing a 10% solution of crystallized zinc sulphate,
+ZnSO4·7H2O. The resulting surface is usually duller and less lustrous
+than that obtained by the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming
+a coating of zinc, known as "sherardizing," was invented by Sherard
+Cowper-Coles, who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product
+obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed with
+a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures well below
+the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer of that metal. In
+carrying out the process the articles are placed in an air-tight vessel
+with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and subjected to a heat of
+250-330°C., the time for which the heating is continued depending on the
+thickness of the deposit required and varying from one-half to several
+hours. If an air-tight receptacle is not available, a small percentage
+of powdered carbon is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent increase in the
+amount of oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to make the deposit
+dull.
+
+Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion by the
+weather, though the protection is not very efficient in the presence of
+acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it is extensively employed for
+roofing, especially in the form of corrugated sheets. The iron wire used
+for wire-netting, telegraphic purposes, &c., is commonly galvanized, as
+also are bolts, nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.
+
+
+
+
+GALVANOMETER, an instrument for detecting or measuring electric
+currents. The term is generally applied to instruments which indicate
+electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary units, as opposed to
+instruments called amperemeters (q.v.), which show directly on a dial
+the value of the current in amperes. Galvanometers may be divided into
+direct current and alternating current instruments, according as they
+are intended to measure one or other of these two classes of currents
+(see ELECTROKINETICS).
+
+  _Direct Current Galvanometers_.--The principle on which one type of
+  direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvanometer,
+  depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended in the
+  centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the
+  direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the
+  current passing through it. In the other type, or movable coil
+  galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence the
+  coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force
+  of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some way to
+  take up and retain a definite position when no current is passing by
+  means which are called the "control."
+
+
+    Movable needle galvanometer.
+
+    Mirror galvanometers.
+
+  In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer
+  consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil of
+  insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like a compass
+  needle. The direction of such a needle is controlled by the direction
+  of the terrestrial magnetic force within the coil. If the needle is so
+  placed that its axis is parallel to the plane of the coil, then when
+  an electric current passes through the coil it is deflected and places
+  itself at an angle to the axis of the coil determined by the strength
+  of the current and of the controlling field. In the early forms of
+  movable needle galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively
+  large magnet several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was
+  employed carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees
+  so as to indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion
+  by means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K.F. Gauss
+  and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it, and a telescope
+  having cross wires in the focus was used to observe the scale
+  divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord Kelvin
+  (Professor W. Thomson) made the important improvement of reducing the
+  size of the needle and attaching it to the back of a very small
+  mirror, the two being suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The
+  mirror was made of silvered microscopic glass about ¼ in. in diameter,
+  and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short fragments of
+  watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being thrown on the
+  mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were observed by
+  watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from it upon a
+  fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first devised in
+  connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became an
+  indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory.
+
+
+    Astatic galvanometers.
+
+  In course of time both the original form of single needle galvanometer
+  and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the astatic
+  principle and weakening the external controlling magnetic field. If
+  two magnetic needles of equal size and moment are attached rigidly to
+  one stem parallel to each other but with poles placed in opposite
+  directions an astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so
+  suspended as to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are
+  made exactly equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no
+  directive power. If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the
+  suspended system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines
+  of force of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle
+  galvanometer devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of
+  magnetized needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other
+  with poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one
+  coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the
+  current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the
+  pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement a
+  greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more perfect
+  astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields. The
+  earth's magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling
+  magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the
+  galvanometer coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In
+  instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the
+  current in both coils passes so as to turn both needles in the same
+  direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal
+  position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the
+  plane of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with
+  a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument
+  (fig. 1); it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields
+  caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors, and
+  therefore is not suitable for use in many places.
+
+
+    Movable coil galvanometer.
+
+  This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer
+  which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling
+  instrument but subsequently modified by A. d'Arsonval and others into
+  a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). In this instrument a permanent
+  magnet, generally of the horseshoe shape, is employed to create a
+  strong magnetic field, in which a light movable coil is suspended. The
+  suspension is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are
+  connected to the ends of the coil and serve to lead the current in and
+  out. If such a coil is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of
+  force of the permanent magnet, then when a current is passing through
+  it it displaces itself in the field, so as to set with its axis more
+  nearly parallel to the lines of force of the field. The movable coil
+  may carry a pointer or a mirror; in the latter form it is well
+  represented by several much used laboratory instruments. The movable
+  coil galvanometer has the great advantage that it is not easily
+  disturbed by the magnetic fields caused by neighbouring magnets or
+  electric currents, and thus is especially useful in the electrical
+  workshop and factory.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Kelvin Astatic Mirror Galvanometer. Elliott
+  square pattern.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Movable Coil Galvanometer.]
+
+
+    Construction and use.
+
+  In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil
+  galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the wire
+  of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered, wound on a frame,
+  the whole being thoroughly saturated with paraffin wax. In some cases
+  two wires are wound on in parallel, constituting a "differential
+  galvanometer." When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for
+  the exact comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if
+  an electric current is passed through one wire and creates certain
+  deflexions of the needle, the current which annuls this deflexion when
+  passed through the other wire must be equal to the first current. In
+  the construction of a movable coil galvanometer, it is usual to
+  intensify the magnetic field by inserting a fixed soft iron core in
+  the interior of the movable coil. If the current to be measured is too
+  large to be passed entirely through the galvanometer, a portion is
+  allowed to flow through a circuit connecting the two terminals of the
+  instrument. This circuit is called a _shunt_ and is generally arranged
+  so as to take 0.9, 0.99, or 0.999 of the total current, leaving 0.1,
+  0.01 or 0.001 to flow through the galvanometer. W.E. Ayrton and T.
+  Mather have designed a universal shunt box or resistance which can be
+  applied to any galvanometer and by which a known fraction of any
+  current can be sent through the galvanometer when we know its
+  resistance (see _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond_., 1894, 23, p. 314). A
+  galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its deflexion
+  determined, by passing through it an electric current of known value
+  and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The known current
+  can be provided in the following manner:--a single secondary cell of
+  any kind can have its electromotive force measured by the
+  potentiometer (q.v.), and compared with that of a standard voltaic
+  cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer through
+  a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is shunted, that
+  is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S, then if the
+  resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G, the whole
+  resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance has a value
+  represented by R + GS/(G + S), and therefore the current through the
+  galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of the cell is
+  represented by
+
+         SE
+    -------------.
+    R(G + S) + GS
+
+  Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil or
+  spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the value
+  of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation between the
+  deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the galvanometer
+  is meant the deflexion produced by a known electromotive force put
+  upon its terminals or a known current sent through it. It is usual to
+  specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer by requiring a
+  certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot of light thrown
+  on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror, when an
+  electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt) is applied
+  to the terminals of the galvanometer; it may be otherwise expressed by
+  stating the deflexion produced under the same conditions when a
+  current of one microampere is passed through the coil. In modern
+  mirror galvanometers a deflexion of 1 mm. of the spot of light upon a
+  scale at 1 metre distance can be produced by a current as small as one
+  hundred millionth (10^-8) or even one ten thousand millionth (10^-10)
+  of an ampere. It is easy to produce considerable sensitiveness in the
+  galvanometer, but for practical purposes it must always be controlled
+  by the condition that the zero remains fixed, that is to say, the
+  galvanometer needle or coil must come back to exactly the same
+  position when no current is passing through the instrument. Other
+  important qualifications of a galvanometer are its time-period and its
+  dead-beatness. For certain purposes the needle or coil should return
+  as quickly as possible to the zero position and with either no, or
+  very few, oscillations. If the latter condition is fulfilled the
+  galvanometer is said to be "dead-beat." On the other hand, for some
+  purposes the galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that
+  is to say, there must be as little retardation as possible to the
+  needle or coil when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a
+  galvanometer is called "ballistic." The quality of a galvanometer in
+  this respect is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of
+  the oscillations when the movable system is set swinging. This last
+  term is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next
+  succeeding swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic
+  decrement is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes,
+  such as for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a
+  galvanometer which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by
+  affixing to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a
+  movable needle galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame
+  when it is a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the
+  comparison of capacities of condensers and for other purposes, a
+  galvanometer is required which is as little damped as possible, and
+  for this purpose the coil must have the smallest possible frictional
+  resistance to its motion through the air. In this case the moment of
+  inertia of the movable system must be decreased or the control
+  strengthened.
+
+  The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive
+  instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists
+  of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic
+  field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across
+  the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope.
+
+
+    Tangent galvanometer.
+
+  For the measurement of large currents a "tangent galvanometer" is
+  employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a
+  distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a current passing
+  through them creates in the central region between them a nearly
+  uniform magnetic field. At the centre of the coils is suspended a
+  small magnetic needle the length of which should not be greater than
+  1/10 the radius of either coil. The normal position of the needle is
+  at right angles to the line joining the centre of the coils. If a
+  current is passed through the coils, the needle will be deflected, and
+  the tangent of the angle of its deflexion will be nearly proportional
+  to the current passing through the coil, provided that the controlling
+  field is uniform in strength and direction, and that the length of the
+  magnetic needle is so short that the space in which it rotates is a
+  practically uniform magnetic field.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Helmholtz Tangent Galvanometer.]
+
+  _Alternating Current Galvanometers._--For the detection of small
+  alternating currents a magnetic needle or movable coil galvanometer is
+  of no utility. We can, however, construct an instrument suitable for
+  the purpose by suspending within a coil of insulated wire a small
+  needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45° to the
+  axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through the coil
+  the soft iron needle tends to set itself in the direction of the axis
+  of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic wire
+  so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument.
+  Another arrangement, devised by J.A. Fleming in 1887, consists of a
+  silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the disk
+  being held at 45° to that of the coil. When an alternating current is
+  passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the disk and
+  the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set itself so that
+  these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvanometer has been
+  made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble oscillatory electric
+  currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless telegraph
+  apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another very sensitive form
+  of alternating current galvanometer. In it the current to be detected
+  or measured is passed through a high resistance wire or strip of
+  metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is suspended a closed loop of
+  bismuth and antimony, forming a thermoelectric couple. This loop is
+  suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong magnetic field, and one
+  junction of the couple is held just over the resistance wire and as
+  near it as possible without touching. When an alternating current
+  passes through the resistance it creates heat which in turn acts on
+  the thermo-junction and generates a continuous current in the loop,
+  thus deflecting it in the magnetic field. The sensitiveness of such a
+  thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently great to detect a current of
+  a few microamperes.
+
+  References.--J.A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory
+  and Testing Room_, vol. i. (London, 1901); W.E. Ayrton, T. Mather and
+  W.E. Sumpner, "On Galvanometers," _Proc. Phys. Soc. London_ (1890),
+  10, 393; H.R. Kempe, _A Handbook of Electrical Testing_ (London,
+  1906); A. Gray, _Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism_,
+  vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful information is also contained
+  in the catalogues of all the principal electrical instrument
+  makers--Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The Cambridge Scientific
+  Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and Braun, Queen and others.
+       (J. A. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GALVESTON, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of Galveston
+county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the N.E. extremity of
+Galveston Island and at the entrance to Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m.
+S.E. of Houston and 310 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900)
+37,789, (6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land
+area (1906) 7.8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston &
+Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the Gulf, Colorado &
+Santa Fé, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the International & Great
+Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by numerous
+steamship lines to Gulf ports in the United States and Mexico, and to
+Cuba, South America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States.
+Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long and 1½
+to 3½ m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland. The city, which
+extends across the island from Gulf to Bay, faces and has its harbour on
+the latter. The island was connected with the mainland before the 1900
+storm by a road bridge and several railway bridges, which, a short
+distance W. of the city, crossed the narrow strip of water separating
+the West Bay from Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least harmed (a
+single-track railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was for a time
+the city's only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908 bonds were
+issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four railway
+tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for vehicles and
+pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in 1904 at a cost of
+$2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and Gulf sides of the city,
+about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide (1.5 ft. above the
+high-water mark of the storm of 1900 and 7.5 ft. above the previous
+high-water mark, that of September 1875), 16 ft. wide at the base and 5
+ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the lineal foot, and with a granite
+rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft. on the Gulf side. The entire grade of
+the city was raised from 1 to 15 ft. above the old level. Between the
+sea-wall and the sea there is a splendid beach, the entire length of
+which is nearly 30 m. Among the principal buildings are the city hall,
+the court-house, the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and
+post-office, the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United
+States government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station, an
+immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal government
+separate quarantine stations. In addition to the Ball public high
+school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary's University (1854), the Sacred
+Heart and Ursuline academies, and the Cathedral school, all under Roman
+Catholic control.
+
+The government of the municipality was long vested in a council of ward
+aldermen, controlled by a "machine," which was proved corrupt in 1894 by
+an investigation undertaken at the personal expense of the mayor; it
+gave place in 1895 to a city council of aldermen at large, which by 1901
+had proved its inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm
+of the preceding year. Government then seemed a business question and
+was practically undertaken by the city's commercial experts, the
+Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been harbour improvement,
+and who now drew up a charter providing for government by a board of
+five appointed by the governor of the state. A compromise measure making
+three members appointees of the governor and two elected by the voters
+of the city was in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A
+third charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by
+the people, dividing among themselves the posts of mayor-president and
+commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-works and sewerage, of
+streets and public property, and of police and fire protection, each
+commissioner being held individually responsible for the management of
+his department. These are business departments carefully systematized by
+their heads. The legislative power is vested in the commission as a
+whole, over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote
+like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. The success of
+this commission government has been remarkable: in 1901-1908 the city,
+without issuing bonds except for grade raising, paid off a large debt,
+raised the salaries of city employees, paid its running expenses in
+cash, planned and began public improvements and sanitary reforms, and
+did much for the abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice.
+The Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been adopted
+in many other American cities.
+
+Galveston's manufactories, the products of which in 1900 were valued at
+$5,016,360, a decrease of 12.4% from 1890 (value of products under
+"factory system," $3,675,323 in 1900; $2,996,654 in 1905, a decrease of
+18.5%), include cotton-seed oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber
+mills, wooden-ware factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works,
+ship-yards and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses,
+coal and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The Gulf
+Fisheries Company has its fleet's headquarters and large packing-houses
+at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that Galveston is chiefly
+important. In 1907 it was the second port in the United States in the
+value of its exports (domestic and foreign, $196,627,382, or 10.22% of
+the total), being surpassed only by New York City; and was the first of
+the Gulf ports (having 45.43% of the total value), New Orleans being
+second with $164,998,540. Galveston's imports in 1907 were valued at
+$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port in the
+Union, its exports of cotton in 1907 being valued at $163,564,445. Other
+exports of great value are cotton seed products (oil and cake,
+$10,188,594 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279 in 1907), wheat
+($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The electric lighting and
+water-supply systems are owned and operated by the municipality.
+
+The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about 1782 by Spanish
+explorers in honour either of José de Galvez, Marquis of Sonora, or his
+nephew Bernardo, governor of Louisiana; and in the early days of the
+19th century was the principal rendezvous of a powerful band of
+buccaneers and pirates, of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean
+Lafitte was chief. After much difficulty these were finally dispersed
+about 1820 by the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first
+settlement from the United States was made on the site of the present
+city. The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic of
+Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken by a
+Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw (1816-1863).
+After a sharp engagement a Confederate force under General John B.
+Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on the 1st of January 1863, one of
+the Federal ships, the "Harriet Lane," falling into Confederate hands,
+and another, the "Westfield," being blown up with Commander Renshaw on
+board. Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although
+rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war. On
+the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by a West
+Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen hours, reached a
+velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the Gulf were piled up in
+enormous waves that swept across a large part of the city, destroying or
+badly damaging more than 8000 buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000
+lives, and a property loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal
+contributions came from all over the country, and the state partially
+remitted the city's taxes for 17 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on
+a more substantial plan.
+
+
+
+
+GALWAY, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of Connaught,
+bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; E. by Roscommon, King's County and
+Tipperary; S. by Clare and Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The
+area is 1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in
+size to Cork among the Irish counties.
+
+The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two great
+divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county except the four
+western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and is, generally speaking,
+a level champaign country, but contains large quantities of wet bog. Its
+southern portion is partly a continuation of the Golden Vale of
+Limerick, celebrated for its fertility, and partly occupied by the
+Slievebaughty Mountains. The northern portion of the division contains
+rich pasture and tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and
+dale. Some of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated,
+but forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the
+county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and
+mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara,
+Jar-Connaught and Joyce's Country; the name of Connemara is, however,
+often applied to the whole district. Its highest mountains are the grand
+and picturesque group of Bunnabeola, or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which
+occupy a space of about 25 sq. m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft.
+Much of this district is a gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft.
+above sea-level. Joyce's Country, farther north, is an elevated tract,
+with flat-topped hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys
+lying between them.
+
+Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of sea-coast,
+indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are rarely used except by
+a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the boundary with the county Mayo
+in the north is Killary Harbour which separates the two counties. The
+first bay on the western coast capable of accommodating large ships is
+Ballynakill, sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in
+succession is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of
+Inishbofin and Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet,
+within which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot.
+Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminating at
+the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the southern inlet has
+also good anchorage within the bar, and has a good salmon fishery.
+Mannin Bay, though large, is much exposed and little frequented by
+shipping. From Slyne Head the coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay,
+which has its entrance protected by the islands of Inishnee and
+Inishlacken. Next in order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and
+rocks, but deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast,
+has a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is but 3 m.
+broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is Greatman's Bay and
+close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of those in Connemara. The
+whole of the coast from Greatman's Bay eastward is comprehended in the
+Bay of Galway, the entrance of which is protected by the three limestone
+islands of Aran, Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer.
+
+The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size. The Suck,
+which forms the eastern boundary of the county, rises in Roscommon, and
+passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the Shannon at Shannonbridge. The
+Shannon forms the south-eastern boundary of the county, and passing
+Shannon Harbour, Banagher, Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great
+expanse of water called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as
+the village of Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through
+the centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above the
+town of Galway. The Ballynahinch, considered one of the best
+salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins, passes
+through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid course falls into
+Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough Corrib extends from Galway
+town northwards over 30,000 acres, with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The
+lake is studded with many islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The
+district west of Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about
+twenty-five of them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town
+of the same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent.
+Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called
+turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the year.
+Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder, and contain
+large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, draining into Camus Bay, a
+branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess and the Ballynahinch waters, are
+the best fishing centres. On account of its scenic beauty, both coastal
+and inland, together with its facilities for sport, county Galway is
+frequented by summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were
+difficult of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the
+western counties generally, the Galway and Clifden railway assisted
+private enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains, broken
+by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as by the
+innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts, afford scenes
+varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded along the water's
+edge to wild, bare moorlands among the heights, while the summits are
+usually bold and rocky cones. Several small fishing villages have
+acquired the dignity of watering-places from the erection of hotels,
+which have also been planted in previously untenanted situations of high
+scenic attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the head of
+Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letterfrack on
+Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel on Bertraghboy Bay.
+Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare, and Ballynahinch, on the lough
+of that name, both on the railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.
+
+  _Geology_.--The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous
+  Limestone plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore
+  and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock appears
+  freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over almost
+  level land. Its west branches, however, run up into "Dalradian" hills,
+  which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara. A broad mass of
+  ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough Corrib and Galway Bay,
+  cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest the presence of an
+  east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve Bens owe their supremacy to
+  the quartzites, which are here well bedded and associated with
+  limestone and mica-schist. Silurian conglomerates and sandstones, with
+  andesitic lavas, overlie the Dalradians, with marked unconformity,
+  south of Leenane and round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard
+  rocks admirably record the action of ice throughout the county. There
+  is black Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway; and the
+  well-known "Connemara Marble" is a banded serpentinous crystalline
+  limestone in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown.
+  Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west of
+  Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.
+
+  _Climate and Industries_.--The climate is mild and healthy but
+  variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon. Frost or
+  snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle of every
+  description continue unhoused during the winter. The eastern part of
+  the county produces the best wheat. Oats are frequently sown after
+  potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat. The flat shores of
+  the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for manure. Limestone,
+  gravel and marl are to be had in most other parts. When a sufficient
+  quantity of manure for potatoes cannot be had, the usual practice is
+  to pare and burn the surface. In many places on the seashore fine
+  early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand manured with seaweed, and
+  the crop is succeeded by barley. Those parts of the eastern district
+  less fitted for grain are employed in pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks
+  occupy a very large tract between Monivea and Galway. An extensive
+  range from Athenry, stretching to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also
+  chiefly occupied by sheep. Over half the total acreage of the county
+  is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are extensively
+  reared. The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as one to
+  four; and owing to the nature of the country fully one-third of the
+  total area is quite barren.
+
+  Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by the
+  domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels and
+  blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and
+  Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit woollen
+  stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called bandle linen, is
+  also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving factory at
+  Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great source of profit
+  on the western shores, is still carried on to some extent. Feathers
+  and sea-fowls' eggs are brought in great quantities from the islands
+  of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-fowl that frequent
+  the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many of the inhabitants, the
+  industry having as its centres the ports of Galway and Clifden.
+
+  The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at Ballinasloe,
+  and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension to Oughterard (Lough
+  Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern & Western line from Sligo to
+  Limerick traverses the county from N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry
+  and Gort.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The population of county Galway
+(211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more than half in the
+last seventy years of the 19th century, and the decrease continues, as
+emigration is heavy. About 97% of the population are Roman Catholics,
+and a somewhat less percentage are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained
+by many in this remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426),
+Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the smaller
+towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford, Oughterard and
+Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four parliamentary divisions
+(returning one member each); north, south, east and Connemara, while the
+town of Galway returns one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes
+are held at Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden,
+Gort, Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county comprises
+parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of Killaloe; and of the
+Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway, Clonfert and Killaloe.
+
+_History._--The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure, and
+nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its legend
+with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for mastery
+undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of the Spanish Armada
+on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose influence is still to be
+traced. The formation of Galway into a county was effected about 1579 by
+Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim
+(q.v.) the decisive battle of the English Revolution was fought in 1691.
+Among the antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is
+at Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning considerably
+out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are numerous and several
+cromlechs are to be seen in good preservation. The ruins of monastic
+buildings are also numerous. That of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam,
+said to have been founded in 1180 by Cathal O'Connor, was adorned with
+rude fresco paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable
+as being the best authentic representations existing of ancient Irish
+costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-Norman settlers
+are frequently met with; some have been kept in repair, but the greater
+number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam, built in 1161 by Roderick
+O'Connor, king of Ireland, at the period of the English invasion, is
+said to have been the first building of this description of stone and
+mortar in Ireland. The remains of a round castle, a form of building
+very uncommon in the military architecture of the country, are to be
+seen between Gort and Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and
+monastic ruins on the Aran Islands (q.v.) must be mentioned; and the
+town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe all show
+interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the south of the
+county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a cathedral, the diocese of
+which was united with Kilfenora, Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.
+
+
+
+
+GALWAY, a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county town of county
+Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway Bay, and on the main line
+of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+13,426. Some of the streets are very narrow, and contain curious
+specimens of old buildings, chiefly in antique Spanish style, being
+square, with a central court, and a gateway opening into the street. The
+most noteworthy of these is the pile known as Lynch's Castle. This
+residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch
+Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose severity as a
+magistrate is exemplified in the story that he executed his own son, and
+thus gave origin (according to one of several theories) to the familiar
+term of Lynch law. The principal streets are broad and contain good
+shops. St Nicholas church is a fine cruciform building founded in 1320,
+and containing monuments, and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to
+have been brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not
+known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward VI. created
+the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it; but the old college
+buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the church ceased to be
+collegiate in 1840. There are remains of a Franciscan friary founded in
+1296. St Augustine's church (Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town
+is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and
+industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College,
+Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University
+College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey
+limestone. It was founded as Queen's College, with other colleges of the
+same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of 1845, and its name was
+changed when it was granted a new charter pursuant to the Irish
+Universities Act 1908. The harbour comprises an extensive line of quays,
+and is connected for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping
+trade is considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited
+unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are important. The
+chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and black marble, which is
+polished in local mills. Other industrial establishments include
+corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and brush and bag factories.
+The borough, which returned two members to parliament until 1885, now
+returns one.
+
+Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb known as
+the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a curious collection of
+small cottages, where communal government by a locally elected mayor
+long prevailed, together with peculiar laws and customs, strictly
+exclusive inter-marriage, and a high moral and religious standard.
+Specimens of the distinctive Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and
+treasured as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive
+dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their vestiges
+remain.
+
+The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome residences.
+The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam, with its round
+tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill, with golf links, is a
+waterside residential suburb.
+
+Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival of the
+English, at which time it was under the protection of O'Flaherty, who
+possessed the adjoining district to the west. On the extinction of the
+native dynasty of the O'Connors, the town fell into the hands of the De
+Burgos, the head of a branch of which, under the name of M'William
+Eighter, long governed it by magistrates of his own appointment. After
+it had been secured by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are
+still in part traceable, it became the residence of a number of
+enterprising settlers, through whom it attained a position of much
+commercial celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen
+in number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of Norman,
+Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in their relationships
+that dispensations were frequently requisite for the canonical legality
+of marriages among them. The town rapidly increased from this period in
+wealth and commercial rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival
+city of Limerick. Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with
+liberal privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the
+right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to show
+that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in 1545,
+extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran, permitted
+the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and woollens, and
+confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers of Cromwell's
+soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and there are many traces
+of Spanish blood among the population. Its municipal privileges were
+extended by a charter from James I., whereby the town, and a district of
+two miles round in every direction, were formed into a distinct county,
+with exclusive jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates.
+During the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was
+surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote; after
+which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and their property
+was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly from England. On the
+accession of James II. the old inhabitants entertained sanguine hopes of
+recovering their former rights. But the successes of King William soon
+put an end to their expectations; and the town, after undergoing
+another siege, again capitulated to the force brought against it by
+General Ginkell.
+
+
+
+
+GAMA, VASCO DA (c. 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and discoverer of
+the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small seaport in the
+province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama's early history little is known. His
+descent, according to the _Nobiliario_ of Antonio de Lima, was derived
+from a noble family which is mentioned in the year 1166; but the line
+cannot be traced without interruption farther back than the year 1280,
+to one Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevão da Gama, civil
+governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born probably about the
+year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the Navigator, to whose
+intelligence and foresight must be traced back all the fame that
+Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Explorers
+sent out at his instigation discovered the Azores and unknown regions on
+the African coast, whence continually came reports of a great monarch,
+"who lived east of Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both
+temporal and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings," a
+story which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of "Prester John"
+which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests, that John
+II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea and by land the
+attempt should be made to reach the country of this potentate. For this
+purpose Pedro de Covilham and Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward
+by land; while Bartholomeu Diaz (q.v.), in command of two vessels, was
+sent westward by sea (see ABYSSINIA, 14). That there was in truth an
+ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned in December
+1488 with the report that when sailing southward he was carried far to
+the east by a succession of fierce storms, past--as he discovered only
+on his return voyage--what he ascertained to be the southern extremity
+of the African continent. The condition of John's health and concerns of
+state, however, prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition;
+and it was not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to
+the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were
+completed--hastened, doubtless, by Columbus's discovery of America in
+the meanwhile.
+
+For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected Vasco da
+Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against Castile, and in
+his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid mariner. The fleet,
+consisting of four vessels specially built for this mission, sailed down
+the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after prayers and confession made by
+the officers and crews in a small chapel on the site where now stands
+the church of S. Maria de Belem (see LISBON), afterwards built to
+commemorate the event. Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St
+Helena Bay, South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the
+beginning of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa.
+Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained from
+Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived at Calicut, on
+the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1498, and set up, according to the
+custom of his country, a marble pillar as a mark of conquest and a proof
+of his discovery of India. His reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler
+of Calicut, would have in all probability been favourable enough, had it
+not been for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for
+their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da Gama
+was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having seen enough of
+India to assure him of its great resources, he returned to Portugal in
+September 1499. The king received him with every mark of distinction,
+granted him the use of the prefix _Dom_, thus elevating him to the rank
+of an untitled noble, and conferred on him pensions and other property.
+In prosecution of da Gama's discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships
+was immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who, in
+sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on reaching
+his destination established a factory at Calicut. The natives, again
+instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose up in arms and murdered all
+whom Cabral had left behind. To avenge this outrage a powerful armament
+of ten ships was fitted out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first
+given to Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who
+received the title admiral of India (January 1502). A few weeks later
+the fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately bombarded
+the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery too horrible to
+describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November to Cochin, "doing all
+the harm he could on the way to all that he found at sea," and having
+made favourable trading terms with it and with other towns on the coast,
+he returned to Lisbon in September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and
+his captains were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received
+additional privileges and revenues.
+
+Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora,
+possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he expected, but
+more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and position which he had
+acquired; for he was now one of the richest men in the kingdom. He had
+married, probably in 1500, a lady of good family, named Catherina de
+Ataide, by whom he had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to
+advise King Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime
+policy up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-1522
+which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour. The most
+important of these is a grant dated December 1519 by which Vasco da Gama
+was created count of Vidigueira, with the extraordinary privileges of
+civil and criminal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical patronage. During
+this time the Portuguese conquests increased in the East, and were
+presided over by successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so
+unfortunate that da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel's
+successor, John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in
+April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during September of
+the same year, he immediately set himself to correct with vigour the
+many abuses which had crept in under the rule of his predecessors. He
+was not destined, however, to prosecute far the reforms he had
+inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve following his arrival, he died at
+Cochin after a short illness, and was buried in the Franciscan monastery
+there. In 1538 his body was conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the
+town of Vidigueira. In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence
+to have been his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria
+de Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching Portugal, and
+raising her to one of the foremost places among the nations of Europe,
+and eventually the far greater one of bringing to pass the colonization
+of the East by opening its commerce to the Western world.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Vasco da Gama's First Voyage_, by Dr E. Ravenstein
+  (London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes, &c., of
+  the anonymous _Roteiro_ (Journal or Itinerary), written by one of
+  Vasco da Gama's subordinates who sailed on board the "S. Raphael,"
+  which was commanded by the admiral's brother Paulo da Gama. This is
+  the most important of the original authorities; five accounts of the
+  voyage in letters contemporary with it are appended to the Hakluyt
+  Society's translation. See also J. de Barros, _Decadas da India_
+  (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written c. 1540); F.L. de Castanheda, _Historia do
+  descobrimento da India_ (Coimbra, 1551, largely based on the
+  _Roteiro_); _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama and his Viceroyalty_,
+  by Gaspar Correa (Hakluyt Society, 1869), chiefly valuable for the
+  events of 1524; _The Lusiads_ of Camoens, the central incident in
+  which is Vasco da Gama's first voyage; _Calcoen_ (i.e. _Calicut_), _a
+  Dutch Narrative of the Second Voyage of Vasco da Gama_, written by
+  some unknown seaman of the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504,
+  reprinted in facsimile, with introduction and translation, by J. Ph.
+  Berjeau (London, 1874); Thomé Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of
+  Ramusio.
+
+
+
+
+GAMALIEL ([Hebrew: Gamliel]). This name, which in Old Testament times
+figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh (_vide_ Num.
+i. 10, &c.), was hereditary among the descendants of Hillel. Six persons
+bearing the name are known.
+
+1. GAMALIEL I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated Ha-Zaqen
+(the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that he was numbered among
+the Sanhedrin, the high council of Jerusalem. According to the tradition
+of the schools of Palestine Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his
+father (of the latter nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as _Nasi_,
+or president of the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not
+correspond with historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel
+took a leading position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest
+repute as an authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the
+interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name was
+prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in the Acts
+of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted in the
+Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were threatened with
+death, and on this occasion he is designated as a Pharisee and as being
+"had in reputation among all the people" ([Greek: nomodidaskalos timios
+panti tô laô]). In the Mishna (_Gittin_ iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the
+author of certain legal ordinances affecting the welfare of the
+community (the expression in the original is "_tiqqun ha-'olam_," i.e.
+improvement of the world) and regulating certain questions as to
+conjugal rights. In the tradition was also preserved the text of the
+epistles regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent
+to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (i.e. southern Palestine)
+and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and elsewhere). He
+figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser of the king and queen,
+i.e. Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris (Pesahim 88 b). His function as a
+teacher is proved by the fact that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat
+at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the
+saying preserved in Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of
+scrupulousness in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very
+remarkable characterization of the different natures of the scholars
+remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in later days is
+summed up in the words (Mishna, end of Sotah): "When Rabban Gamaliel the
+Elder died, regard for the Torah (the study of the Law) ceased, and
+purity and piety died." As Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose
+name is mentioned in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian
+legend, and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstratensian)
+relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel's commentary on the
+Old Testament, thereby most probably meaning the Talmud.
+
+2. GAMALIEL II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of Jerusalem's
+foremost men in the war against the Romans (_vide_ Josephus, _Bellum
+Jud_. iv. 3, 9, _Vita_ 38), and grandson of Gamaliel I. To distinguish
+him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel of Jabneh. In Jabneh
+(Jamnia), where during the siege of Jerusalem the scribes of the school
+of Hillel had taken refuge by permission of Vespasian, a new centre of
+Judaism arose under the leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a
+school whose members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of
+Jerusalem. Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and
+rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration of
+Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the destruction
+of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political autonomy. He put
+an end to the division which had arisen between the spiritual leaders of
+Palestinian Judaism by the separation of the scribes into the two
+schools called respectively after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to
+enforce his own authority as the president of the chief legal assembly
+of Judaism with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he
+himself said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in
+order that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel's position
+was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the end of
+Domitian's reign (c. A.D. 95) he went to Rome in company with the most
+prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in order to avert a danger
+threatening the Jews from the action of the terrible emperor. Many
+interesting particulars have been given regarding the journey of these
+learned men to Rome and their sojourn there. The impression made by the
+capital of the world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an
+overpowering one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
+In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend Judaism in
+polemical discussions with pagans, and also with professed Christians.
+In an anecdote regarding a suit which Gamaliel was prosecuting before a
+Christian judge, a converted Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the
+words of Jesus in Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 a, b). Gamaliel devoted
+special attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after
+the cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He gave
+the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its final
+revision, and declared it every Israelite's duty to recite it three
+times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were not Jews, and
+was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when the latter died he
+mourned for him as for a beloved member of his own family. He loved
+discussing the sense of single portions of the Bible with other
+scholars, and made many fine expositions of the text. With the words of
+Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the lesson: "So long as thou thyself art
+merciful, God will also be merciful to thee." Gamaliel died before the
+insurrections under Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At
+his funeral obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos),
+reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value of
+seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his body was
+to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this he wished to
+check the extravagance which had become associated with arrangements for
+the disposal of the dead, and his end was attained; for his example
+became the rule, and it also became the custom to commemorate him in the
+words of consolation addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 b). Gamaliel's
+son, Simon, long after his father's death, and after the persecutions
+under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his descendants
+handed on from father to son.
+
+3. GAMALIEL III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna, and his
+successor as _Nasi_ (patriarch). The redaction of the Mishna was
+completed under him, and some of his sayings are incorporated therein
+(Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows: "Beware of those in
+power, for they permit men to approach them only for their own uses;
+they behave as friends when it is for their advantage, but they do not
+stand by a man when he is in need." Evidently this was directed against
+the self-seeking of the Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the
+first half of the 3rd century.
+
+4. GAMALIEL IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter half of
+the 3rd century: about him very little is known.
+
+5. GAMALIEL V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.: beyond
+his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the latter half of the 4th
+century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel whom Jerome mentions in his letter
+to Pamachius, written in 393.
+
+6. GAMALIEL VI., grandson of the above, the last of the patriarchs, died
+in 425. With him expired the office, which had already been robbed of
+its privileges by a decree of the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II.
+(dated the 17th of October 415). Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and
+a celebrated remedy of his is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus
+(_De Medicamentis_, liber 21).     (W. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMBETTA, LÉON (1838-1882), French statesman, was born at Cahors on the
+2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who had established himself as
+a grocer and had married a Frenchwoman named Massabie, is said to have
+been his son's prototype in vigour and fluency of speech. In his
+sixteenth year young Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left
+eye, which eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation,
+he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors, and in
+1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern vehemence gave him
+great influence among the students of the Quartier Latin, and he was
+soon known as an inveterate enemy of the imperial government. He was
+called to the bar in 1859, but, although contributing to a Liberal
+review, edited by Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the
+17th of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist
+Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a monument to
+the representative Baudin, who was killed in resisting the _coup d'état_
+of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity and assailed both the _coup
+d'état_ and the government with an eloquence of invective which made him
+immediately famous.
+
+In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first
+circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte Carnot
+for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for the latter. He
+elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no opportunity of attacking the
+Empire in the Assembly. He was at first opposed to the war with
+Germany, but when satisfied that it had been forced upon France he did
+not, like some of his colleagues, refuse to vote supplies, but took the
+patriotic line of supporting the flag. When the news of the disaster at
+Sedan reached Paris, Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself
+proclaimed the fall of the emperor at the _corps législatif_, and the
+establishment of a republic at the hôtel de ville. He was one of the
+first members of the new government of national defence, becoming
+minister of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and
+conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice was
+rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a delegation to
+organize resistance in the provinces was despatched to Tours, but when
+this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta himself (7th October) quitted
+Paris in a balloon, and upon arriving at Tours took the supreme
+direction of affairs as minister of the interior and of war. Aided by M.
+de Freycinet, then a young officer of engineers, as his assistant
+secretary of war, he displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He
+speedily organized an army, which might possibly have effected the
+relief of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine
+brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success was
+impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans early in
+December the seat of government had to be transferred to Bordeaux, and
+when Paris surrendered at the end of January, Gambetta, though resisting
+and protesting, was compelled to submit to the capitulation concluded
+with Prince Bismarck. He immediately resigned his office. Elected by
+nine departments to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the
+1st of March 1871) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of
+the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification was to
+be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he resigned in
+protest and retired to Spain.
+
+He returned to France in June, was elected by three departments in July,
+and commenced an agitation for the definitive establishment of the
+Republic. On the 5th of November 1871 he established a journal, _La
+République française_, which soon became the most influential in France.
+His orations at public meetings were more effective than those delivered
+in the Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and
+that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he spoke of
+political power having passed to les _nouvelles couches sociales_. When
+Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873, and a Royalist was placed
+at the head of the government in the person of Marshal MacMahon,
+Gambetta gave proof of his statesmanship by unceasingly urging his
+friends to a moderate course, and by his tact and parliamentary
+dexterity, no less than by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in
+the voting of the constitution in February 1875. This policy he
+continued during the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and
+gave it the appropriate name of "opportunism." It was not until the 4th
+of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was notorious,
+and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the restoration of the
+temporal power of the pope, that he delivered his famous speech
+denouncing "clericalism" as "the enemy." On the 16th of May Marshal
+MacMahon, in order to support the clerical reactionaries, perpetrated
+his parliamentary _coup d'état_, and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in
+a speech at Lille, gave him the alternative se _soumettre ou se
+démettre_. He then undertook a political campaign to rouse the
+republican party throughout France, which culminated in a speech at
+Romans (September 18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally
+unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to
+dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry under the
+premiership of Dufaure.
+
+When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about the abdication
+of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to become a candidate for the
+presidency, but gave his support to Grévy; nor did he attempt to form a
+ministry, but accepted the office of president of the chamber of
+deputies (January 1879). This position, which he filled with much
+ability, did not prevent his occasionally descending from the
+presidential chair to make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty
+to the communards, was especially memorable. Although he really
+directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought that
+the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to direct the
+policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe a neutral
+attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on, and early in
+1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement for restoring _scrutin
+de liste_, or the system by which deputies are returned by the entire
+department which they represent, so that each elector votes for several
+representatives at once, in place of _scrutin d'arrondissement_, the
+system of small constituencies, giving one member to each district and
+one vote to each elector. A bill to re-establish _scrutin de liste_ was
+passed by the Assembly on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on
+the 19th of June.
+
+But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the country
+his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at the election.
+His supporters were in a large majority, and on the reassembling of the
+chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned. Gambetta was unwillingly
+entrusted by Grévy on the 14th of November 1881 with the formation of a
+ministry--known as _Le Grand Ministère_. He now experienced the Nemesis
+of his over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of
+compromising his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at a
+dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice, were
+directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on the 26th of
+January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six days. Had he remained
+in office his declarations leave no doubt that he would have cultivated
+the British alliance and cooperated with Great Britain in Egypt; and
+when the Freycinet administration, which succeeded, shrank from that
+enterprise only to see it undertaken with signal success by England
+alone, Gambetta's foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were
+presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of December
+1882, at his house in Ville d'Avray, near Sèvres, he died by a shot from
+a revolver which accidentally went off. Then all France awoke to a sense
+of her obligation to him, and his public funeral on the 6th of January
+1883 evoked one of the most overwhelming displays of national sentiment
+ever witnessed on a similar occasion.
+
+Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by preserving her
+self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance he organized during
+the German War, by his tact in persuading extreme partisans to accept a
+moderate Republic, and by his energy in overcoming the usurpation
+attempted by the advisers of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early
+age of forty-four, cut short a career which had given promise of still
+greater things, for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the
+future of his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been
+potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his life was
+his connexion with Léonie Léon (d. 1906), the full details of which were
+not known to the public till her death. This lady, with whom Gambetta
+fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a French artillery officer.
+She became his mistress, and the _liaison_ lasted till he died. Gambetta
+himself constantly urged her to marry him during this period, but she
+always refused, fearing to compromise his career; she remained, however,
+his confidante and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is
+understood that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and
+the date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which caused
+his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory accounts have indeed
+been given as to this fatal episode, but that it was accidental, and not
+suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the influence of Léonie was absorbing,
+both as lover and as politician, and the correspondence which has been
+published shows how much he depended upon her. But in various matters of
+detail the serious student of political history must be cautious in
+accepting her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in
+the writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took
+place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta after 1875
+felt strongly that the relations between France and Germany might be
+improved, and that he made it his object, by travelling incognito, to
+become better acquainted with Germany and the adjoining states, may be
+accepted, but M. Laur appears to have exaggerated the extent to which
+any actual negotiations took place. On the other hand, the increased
+knowledge of Gambetta's attitude towards European politics which later
+information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost
+prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April 1905 a
+monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was unveiled by President
+Loubet.
+
+  Gambetta's _Discours et plaidoyers politiques_ were published by J.
+  Reinach in 11 vols. (Paris, 1881-1886); his _Dépêches, circulaires,
+  décrets_ ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have
+  appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, _Léon Gambetta_ (1884),
+  _Gambetta orateur_ (1884) and _Le Ministère Gambetta, histoire et
+  doctrine_ (1884); Neucastel, _Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idées
+  politiques_ (1885); J. Hanlon, _Gambetta_ (London, 1881); Dr Laborde,
+  _Léon Gambetta biographie psychologique_ (1898); P.B. Gheusi,
+  Gambetta, _Life and Letters_ (Eng. trans. by V.M. Montagu, 1910). See
+  also G. Hanotaux, _Histoire de la France contemporaine_ (1903, &c.).
+  F. Laur's _Le Coeur de Gambetta_ (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains
+  the correspondence with Léonie Léon; see also his articles on
+  "Gambetta and Bismarck" in _The Times_ of August 17 and 19, 1907, with
+  the correspondence arising from them.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIA, an important river of West Africa, and the only river of Africa
+navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for over 200 m. from its
+mouth. It rises in about 11° 25' N. and 12° 15' W., within 150 m. of the
+sea on the north-eastern escarpment of the Futa Jallon highlands, the
+massif where also rise the head-streams of the Senegal and some of the
+Niger tributaries, besides the Rio Grande and many other rivers flowing
+direct to the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in its lower
+course, is very serpentine, and although the distance from the source to
+the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct line, the
+total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first N.N.E.,
+receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12° 35' N. takes a sharp
+bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it leaves the fertile and
+hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the lower district is marked by
+the Barraconda rapids, formed by a ledge of rock stretching across the
+river. Between 30 and 50 m. above the falls the Gambia is joined by two
+considerable affluents, the Nieriko from the north and the Kuluntu or
+Grey river from the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the Atlantic
+the Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this distance the
+waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year round by boats
+drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles below Barraconda, the
+river has a breadth, even at the dry season, of over 300 ft., with a
+depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls to McCarthy's Island, a distance of
+200 m., the river valley, which here presents a park-like appearance, is
+enclosed by low rocky hills of volcanic character. For 50 m. below the
+island, where the stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks of the river
+are steep and thickly wooded. They then become low and are fringed with
+mangrove swamps. From Devil's Point, a sharp promontory on the north
+bank--up to which place the water is salt--the river widens considerably
+and enters the Atlantic, in about 13½° N. and 16½° W., by a broad
+estuary. Near the mouth of the river on the south side is St Mary's
+Island (3½ m. long by 1½ broad), and opposite on the north bank is Barra
+Point, the river being here contracted to 2½ m. Eighteen miles lower
+down the distance from shore to shore is 27 m. There is a sand-bar at
+the entrance to the river, but at the lowest state of the tide there are
+26 ft. of water over the bar. The Gambia is in flood from November to
+June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable by small boats. Above the
+rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m. Politically the Gambia is
+divided between Great Britain and France--Britain possessing both banks
+of the river up to, but not including, Yarbatenda.
+
+The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the Carthaginian in his
+famous voyage along the west coast of Africa. It was known to Ptolemy
+and the Arabian geographers, and was at one time supposed to be a mouth
+of the Nile, and, later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was
+possibly visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly
+discovered by the Portuguese c. 1446, but was first explored for any
+distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto (q.v.),
+who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1507 (_La Prima
+Navigazione per l'Oceano alle terre de' Negri della Bassa Ethiopia_).
+Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place for explorers of the
+interior, among them Mungo Park, who began both his journeys (1795 and
+1805) from this river. It was not until 1818 that the sources of the
+Gambia were reached, the discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard
+Mollien, who had travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle
+course of the river was explored in 1851 by R.G. MacDonnell, then
+governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V.S. Gouldsbury also
+navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind was seen above
+Barraconda. The more correct name of the river is Gambra, and it is so
+called in old books of travel.
+
+  See Mungo Park's _Travels_ (London, 1799); G. Mollien, _Travels ... to
+  the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ..._, edited by T.E. Bowdich
+  (London, 1820); the account of Dr Gouldsbury's journey in the Blue
+  Book C 3065 (1881); also under the country heading below.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIA, the most northerly of the British West African dependencies. It
+consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the lower Gambia. The
+colony, with the protectorate dependent upon it, has an area of about
+4000 sq. m. and a population officially estimated (1907) at 163,000. The
+colony proper (including St Mary's Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded
+Mile, McCarthy's Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m.
+The protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres
+(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about 200 m. in
+a direct line from the sea. The land outside these limits is French.
+Within the protectorate are various petty kingdoms, such as Barra, to
+the north of the Gambia, and Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the
+colony near the coast is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The
+greatest breadth is 39 m.
+
+  _Physical Features, Fauna and Flora._--The colony, as its name
+  implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (q.v.),
+  which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony,
+  while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth
+  and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river
+  banks, the country is largely "bush." The region above McCarthy's
+  Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The
+  fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys,
+  bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part of the
+  river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most common are
+  bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and sand-grouse. Bees
+  are very numerous in parts of the country. The flora resembles that of
+  West Africa generally, the mangrove being common. Mahogany and
+  rosewood (_Pterocarpus erinaceus_) trees are found, though not in
+  large numbers, and the rubber-vine and oil-palm are also comparatively
+  scarce. There are many varieties of fern. The cassava (manioca) and
+  indigo plants are indigenous.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate during the dry season (November-June) is the
+  best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is then
+  considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of the
+  malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean
+  temperature at Bathurst is 77° F., the shade minimum being 56° and the
+  solar maximum 165°. Upriver the variation in temperature is even
+  greater than at Bathurst, from 50° in the morning to 100°-104° at 3
+  P.M. being common at McCarthy's Isle. The average rainfall is about 50
+  in. a year, but save for showers in May and June there is rarely any
+  rain except between July and October. The first instance of rain in
+  December in twenty-six years was recorded in 1906. The dry east wind
+  known as the harmattan blows intermittently from December to March.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and industrious,
+are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the chief tribes
+represented being the Mandingo (q.v.), the Jolof and the Jola. Numbers
+of Fula (q.v.) are also settled in the country. Fully four-fifths of the
+natives are Mahommedans. The few European residents are officials,
+traders or missionaries.
+
+_Towns and Trade._--Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief town of the
+colony, in 13° 24' N., 16° 36' W., is built on St Mary's Island, which
+lies at the mouth of the river near its south bank and is connected with
+the mainland by a bridge across Oyster Creek. It was founded in 1816 and
+is named after the 3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of state for the
+colonies from 1812 to 1827. Bathurst is a fairly well-built town, the
+chief material employed being red sandstone. It lies about 12 to 14 ft.
+above the level of the river. The principal buildings face the sea, and
+include Government House, barracks, a well-appointed hospital, founded
+by Sir R.G. MacDonnell (administrator, 1847-1852), and various churches.
+The market-place is shaded by a fine avenue of bombax and other
+wide-spreading trees. There are no other towns of any size in the
+Gambia. A trading station called Georgetown is situated on McCarthy's
+Island, so named after Sir Charles McCarthy, the governor of Sierra
+Leone, who in 1824 was captured and beheaded by the Ashanti at the
+battle of Essamako. Albreda, a small port on the north bank of the
+river, of some historic interest (see below), is in the Barra district.
+
+  _Products._--Ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), rubber, beeswax, palm
+  kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions. Millet
+  and rice are the staple food of the people. The curing of hides, the
+  catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the weaving
+  of cotton into cloths called "pagns," afford employment to a
+  considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal exports,
+  besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being obtained
+  from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between 1830 and 1840
+  from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually, but shipments
+  ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of gold-dust can still
+  be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export of hides received a
+  severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of nearly all the cattle,
+  but after an interval of seven or eight years the industry gradually
+  revived. The value of hides exported increased from £520 in 1902 to
+  £9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber was started about 1880, but
+  the trade has not assumed large proportions. In 1907 the value of the
+  rubber exported was £4602. The export of wax, valued at £37,000 in
+  1843, had dwindled in 1907 to £2325. The cultivation of the
+  ground-nut, first exported in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by
+  1850 had become the chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of
+  the nuts was £256,685, over 11/12 of the total exports (exclusive of
+  specie). Nearly the whole male population is engaged in the industry
+  for eight months of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains,
+  the crop is reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (4/5
+  to Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as
+  olive oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the
+  beginning of the planting season of thousands of men from a distance,
+  "strange farmers," as they are called, who are housed and fed and
+  given farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce
+  to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the "strange
+  farmer" goes off, often not returning for years.
+
+  Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural
+  resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are
+  kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their
+  wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-one
+  years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier is
+  unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical
+  station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and
+  Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment proved
+  discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting farmers to
+  grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly scientific
+  lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of the ground-nut.
+  The principal imports, of which over 2/3 come from Great Britain or
+  British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone),
+  tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the
+  average annual value of the exports was £301,000, of the imports
+  £316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent mineral
+  wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above McCarthy's
+  Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with Europe and the
+  rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony, but it is
+  traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft. The
+  Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A government
+  steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy's Island, and a
+  smaller boat plies on the upper river. The shipping trade is chiefly
+  British; French and German tonnage coming next.
+
+  Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the
+  colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which country
+  most of the exports go. A considerable entrepôt trade is also done
+  with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of French influence
+  is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece, locally known as a
+  dollar, is largely circulated throughout the protectorate, and is
+  accepted as legal tender, although the currency in the colony proper
+  is the English coinage.
+
+  _Administration, Revenue, &c._--The Gambia is administered by a
+  governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On the
+  last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats. The colony is
+  self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue, which in 1906 for
+  the first time exceeded £60,000, is mainly derived from customs. A
+  company of the West African Frontier Force is maintained. Travelling
+  commissioners visit the five districts into which, for administrative
+  purposes, the protectorate is divided, and in which the native form of
+  government prevails. From the native law-courts appeal can be made to
+  the supreme court at Bathurst. There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan
+  court, established in 1906, for the trial of cases involving the civil
+  status of Moslems.
+
+  Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denominations,
+  and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have also a
+  secondary and a technical school. There is a privately supported
+  school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans, Wesleyans and Roman
+  Catholics have numerous converts.
+
+_History._--Of the early history of the Gambia district there is scant
+mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars (apparently of a
+"Druidical" character), whose ruins are found at several places along
+the upper Gambia, were erected is not known. Those at Lamin Koto, on the
+right bank of the river opposite McCarthy's Island, are still in good
+preservation, and are an object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see
+_Geog. Journ._ vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed
+part, successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The
+relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with the
+north and east; consequently no large town was founded on the banks of
+the river, nor any trade carried on (before the coming of the white man)
+by vessels sailing the ocean. About the 11th century the district came
+under Mahommedan influence.
+
+The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the 15th century, and in the
+beginning of the 16th century were trading in the lower river. Embassies
+were sent from the Portuguese stations inland to Melle to open up trade
+with the interior, but about the middle of the century this
+trade--apparently mostly in gold and slaves--declined. At the end of the
+century the river was known as the resort of banished men and fugitives
+from Portugal and Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living
+in England that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to "certain
+merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London for a
+trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea." This company was
+granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its operations led to no
+permanent settlement in the Gambia. In 1618 James I. granted a charter
+to another company named "The Company of Adventurers of London trading
+into Africa," and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich,
+afterwards earl of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold
+Coast. This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then believed
+to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower Gambia in
+considerable quantities. With this object George Thompson (a merchant
+who had traded with Barbary) was sent out in the "Catherine," and
+ascended the Gambia in his ship to Kassan, a Portuguese trading town,
+thence continuing his journey in small boats. In his absence the
+"Catherine" was seized and the crew murdered by Portuguese and
+half-castes, and Thompson himself was later on murdered by natives. Two
+years afterwards Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of
+Adventurers, advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was
+followed, about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who
+on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country full of
+gold.
+
+The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth of the
+Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by Captain
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small island 20 m. from the
+mouth of the river and named Fort James, in honour of the duke of York
+(James II.). This fort was built expressly to defend the British trade
+against the Dutch, and from that time the British remained in permanent
+occupation of one or more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain
+Bartholomew Stibbs was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had
+succeeded the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden's reports of gold.
+He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not found.
+The French now became rivals for the trade of the Gambia, but the treaty
+of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in the river to Britain,
+reserving, however, Albreda for French trade, while it assigned the
+Senegal to France, with the reservation of the right of the British to
+trade at Portendic for gum. This arrangement remained in force till
+1857, when an exchange of possessions was effected and the lower Gambia
+became a purely British river. In the period between the signing of the
+treaty of Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the
+colony proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings. St
+Mary's Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy's Isle was bought in 1823;
+the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in 1826; and British
+Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During this period the colony had gone
+through an economic crisis by the abolition of the slave trade (1807),
+which had been since 1662 its chief financial support. The beginning of
+a return to prosperity came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged
+to leave Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the
+Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary's Isle. From that year
+the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river, dates. The
+Gambia witnessed many administrative changes. When the slave trade was
+abolished, the settlement was placed under the jurisdiction of the
+governor of Sierra Leone, and was formally annexed to Sierra Leone on
+the dissolution of the Royal African Company (1822). It so remained
+until 1843, when the Gambia was made an independent colony, its first
+governor being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia became
+a portion of the officially styled "West African Settlements." In 1883
+it was again made a separate government, administered as a crown colony.
+Between the years last mentioned--1866-1888--the colony had suffered
+from the retrograde policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West
+African Settlements (_vide_ Report of the Select Committee of 1865).
+
+In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great Britain on the
+basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West Africa. Suspended
+owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War the negotiations were
+resumed in 1876. "Definite proposals were at that time formulated by
+which the Gambia was to be exchanged for all posts by France between the
+Rio Pongas (Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have
+been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong a
+feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was manifested
+in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies, that the government of
+the day was unable to press the scheme."[1] Nothing was done, however,
+to secure for the Gambia a suitable _hinterland_, and in 1877 the 4th
+earl of Carnarvon (then colonial secretary) warned British traders that
+they proceeded beyond McCarthy's Isle at their own risk. Meantime the
+French from Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British
+settlements, so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement
+of the 10th of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to secure
+only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This document
+fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at a radius of 10
+m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda; which town is situated at
+the limit of navigability of the Gambia from the sea. By Art. 5 of the
+Anglo-French convention of the 8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded
+to France, with the object of giving that country a port on the river
+accessible to sea-going merchantmen.
+
+Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the acquirement
+of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance increasing
+expenditure, to impose a "hut tax" on the natives. This was done in
+1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum for a family, met with no
+opposition.
+
+In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be forcibly
+expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-raider, Fodi
+Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An expedition under
+Captain E.H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble succeeded in routing him, and
+Fodi Silah took refuge in French territory, where he died. During the
+expedition Captain Gamble was led into an ambush, and in this engagement
+lost 15 killed and 47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the
+agency of Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French
+territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F.C. Sitwell and Mr Silva)
+were murdered in June of that year, at a place called Suankandi, and a
+punitive expedition was sent out under Colonel H.E. Brake. Suankandi was
+captured and, the French co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi
+Kabba being killed on the 23rd of March 1901.
+
+The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and contented,
+and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision was moreover made by
+an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of slavery itself throughout the
+protectorate, it being enacted that henceforth all children born of
+slaves were free from birth, and that all slaves became free on the
+death of their master.
+
+  See the _Annual Reports_ on the colony published by the colonial
+  office, London, which give the latest official information; C.P.
+  Lucas's _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. iii.,
+  _West Africa_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contains valuable
+  bibliographical notes); and _The Gambia Colony and Protectorate_, an
+  official handbook (with map and considerable historical information),
+  by F.B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early accounts
+  of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley's _New
+  General Collection of Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1745-1747). See
+  also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, _Travels in Western Africa in
+  1818-1821, from the River Gambia ... to the River Niger_ (London,
+  1829). The flora has been the subject of a special study, A. Rançon,
+  _La Flore utile du bassin de la Gambie_ (Bordeaux, 1895). Most of the
+  books mentioned under GOLD COAST also deal with the Gambia.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British
+    ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 1892.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833), English admiral, was born on
+the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas, of which his father, John
+Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-governor. He entered the navy in
+1767 as a midshipman on board the "Yarmouth," under the command of his
+uncle; and, his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he
+was raised in 1778 to the rank cf post-captain, and appointed to the
+"Raleigh," a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was placed on
+half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution, he
+was appointed to the command of the 74-gun ship "Defence," under Lord
+Howe; and in her he had an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of
+June 1794. In recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain
+Gambier received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines; the
+following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral, and
+appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he continued
+for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral of 1799,
+hoisted his flag on board the "Neptune," of 98 guns, as third in command
+of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Cornwallis, where, however, he
+remained for but a year, when he was appointed governor of Newfoundland
+and commander-in-chief of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he
+returned to the admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806,
+continued there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his
+uncle, Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805 he was raised
+to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807, whilst still a lord
+of the admiralty, he was appointed to the command of the fleet ordered
+to the Baltic, which, in concert with the army under Lord Cathcart,
+reduced Copenhagen, and enforced the surrender of the Danish navy,
+consisting of nineteen ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops,
+gunboats, and naval stores. This service was considered by the
+government as worthy of special acknowledgment; the naval and military
+commanders, officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both
+Houses of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.
+
+In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the admiralty
+on being appointed to the command of the Channel Fleet; and in that
+capacity he witnessed the partial, and prevented the total, destruction
+of the French fleet in Basque Roads, on the 12th of April 1809. It is in
+connexion with this event, which might have been as memorable in the
+history of the British navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see
+DUNDONALD), that Lord Gambier's name is now best known. A court-martial,
+assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over by a warm
+partisan, "most honourably acquitted" him on the charge "that, on the
+12th of April, the enemy's ships being then on fire, and the signal
+having been made that they could be destroyed, he did, for a
+considerable time, neglect or delay taking effectual measures for
+destroying them"; but this decision was in reality nothing more than a
+party statement of the fact that a commander-in-chief, a supporter of
+the government, is not to be condemned or broken for not being a person
+of brilliant genius or dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the
+French fleet should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had
+Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of many of
+his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the Channel Fleet for
+the full period of three years, at the end of which time--in 1811--he
+was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil capacity as chief
+commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace with the United States;
+for his exertions in which business he was honoured with the Grand Cross
+of the Bath. In 1830 he was raised to the high rank of admiral of the
+fleet, and he died on the 19th of April 1833.
+
+Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious principle,
+and of undoubted courage; but the administration of the admiralty has
+seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as during the time when he
+was a member of it; and through the whole war the self-esteem of the
+navy suffered no such wound as during Lord Gambier's command in the Bay
+of Biscay.
+
+  The so-called _Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral Lord
+  Gambier_, by Lady Chatterton (1861), has no historical value. The life
+  of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall's _Royal Naval Biography_,
+  in Ralfe's _Naval Biography_, in Lord Dundonald's _Autobiography of a
+  Seaman_, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in the general
+  history of the period.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIER, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop. (1900) 751; (1910)
+537. It is served by the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus railway. The
+village is finely situated, and is the seat of Kenyon College and its
+theological seminary, Bexley Hall (Protestant Episcopal), and of
+Harcourt Place boarding school for girls (1889), also Protestant
+Episcopal. The college was incorporated in 1824 as the "Theological
+Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio"; but
+in 1891 "Kenyon College," the name by which the institution has always
+been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held at
+Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-1852), first
+Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west Territory, by whose
+efforts the funds for its endowment had been raised in England in
+1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords Kenyon and Gambier. The first
+permanent building, "Old Kenyon" (still standing, and used as a
+dormitory), was erected on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a
+forest. In 1907-1908 the theological seminary had 18 students and the
+collegiate department 119.
+
+  Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop
+  Chase's _Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the
+  Principal Events in the Author's Life to 1847_ (2 vols., New York,
+  1848).
+
+
+
+
+GAMBOGE (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is obtained), a
+gum-resin procured from _Garcinia Hanburii_, a dioecious tree with
+leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow flowers, and usually
+square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a member of the natural order
+Guttiferae, and indigenous to Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the
+south of Cochin China, formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The
+juice, which when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark
+of the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from
+this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being placed to
+receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce in cylindrical
+pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also, usually of inferior
+quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is of a dirty orange
+externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a conchoidal and
+reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a brilliant yellow
+powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first slight, but subsequently
+acrid; forms with water an emulsion; and consists of from 20 to 25% of
+gum soluble in water, and from 70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest
+adulterants are rice-flour and pulverized bark.
+
+Gamboge (_Cambogia_) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, causing much
+griping and irritation of the intestine. A small quantity is absorbed,
+adding a yellow ingredient to the urine and acting as a mild diuretic.
+Its irritant action on the skin may cause the formation of pustules. It
+is less active only than croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in
+doses of half to two grains, combined with some sedative such as
+hyoscyamus, in apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used
+as a pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to
+have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East at the
+close of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBRINUS, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the first
+brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of Jan Primus,
+i.e. Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant, from 1261 to 1294,
+who was president of the Brussels gild of brewers; his portrait with a
+foaming glass of ale in his hand had the place of honour in the
+gild-hall, and this led in time, it is suggested, to the myth of the
+beer-king who is usually represented outside a barrel with a tankard in
+his hand.
+
+
+
+
+GAME, a word which in its primary and widest significance means any
+amusement or sport, often combined in the early examples with "glee,"
+"play," "joy" or "solace." It is a common Teutonic word, in O. Eng.
+_gamen_, in O.H.G. _gaman_, but only appears in modern usage outside
+English in Dan. _gammen_ and Swed. _gamman_. The ulterior derivation is
+obscure, but philologists have identified it with the Goth. _gaman_,
+companion or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the
+prefix _ga_-, with, and the root seen in "man." Apart from its primary
+and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first to a
+contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in
+accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those wild
+animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as used for
+food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry, and from the
+flesh of deer, to which the name "venison" is given. For "game," from
+the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its pursuit and capture see
+GAME LAWS. The athletic contests of the ancient Greeks ([Greek: agônes])
+and the public shows (_ludi_) of the arena and amphitheatre of the
+ancient Romans are treated below (GAMES, CLASSICAL); the various forms
+of modern games, indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or
+chance, are dealt with under their specific titles. A special use
+("gaming" or "gambling") restricts the term to the playing of games for
+money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in
+horse-racing, &c. (see GAMING AND WAGERING). "Gamble," "gambler" and
+"gambling" appear very late in English. The earliest quotations in the
+_New English Dictionary_ for the three words are dated 1775, 1747 and
+1784 respectively. They were first regarded as cant or slang words, and
+implied a reproach, either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to
+those who played recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the
+words is obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation
+_gammle_ of the M.E. _gamenian_. From this word must, of course, be
+distinguished "gambol," to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms
+(_gambald, gambaud_) show, is from the Fr. _gambade_, leap, jump, of a
+horse, It. _gambado_, _gamba_, leg (Mod. Fr. _jambe_).
+
+
+
+
+GAME LAWS. This title in English law is applied to the statutes which
+regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of wild
+animals (see above). The existence of these statutes is due to the rules
+of the common law as to the nature of property, and the interest of the
+Norman sovereigns and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or
+the chase. The substantial basis of the law of property is physical
+possession of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By
+the common law wild animals are regarded as _res nullius_, and as not
+being the subject of private property until reduced into possession by
+being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a bird in the
+bush is not. Even bees do not become property until hived. "Though a
+swarm lights in my tree," says Bracton, "I have no more property therein
+than I have in the birds which make their nests thereon." If reclaimed
+or confined they become property. If they escape, the rights of the
+owner continue only while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, i.e. no
+other person can in the meantime establish a right of property against
+him by capturing the animal. A swarm of bees "which fly out of my hive
+are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have power to pursue
+them." But the right of recapture does not entitle the owner to follow
+his animals on to the lands of another, and the only case in which any
+right to follow wild animals on to the lands of others is now expressly
+recognized is when deer or hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds.
+This recognition merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal
+game trespass, and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags
+are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the
+consent of the occupier (_Paul v. Summerhayes_, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9).
+
+It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one can claim
+any property belong to the crown by its prerogative: this rule has been
+applied to wild animals, and in particular to deer and what is now
+called "game." The crown rights may pass to a subject by grant or
+equivalent prescription. In the course of time the exclusive right to
+take game, &c., on lands came to be regarded as incidental to the
+ownership or occupation of the lands. This is described as the right to
+game _ratione soli_. In certain districts of England which are crown
+forests or chases or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren,
+the right to take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the
+soil, but is in the crown by prerogative, or _ratione privilegii_ in the
+grantee of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior
+to and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over
+which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these special
+rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is treated
+as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of the land on
+which they are found, and there is no public right to take them on
+private land or even on a highway; nor is there any method known to the
+law by which the public at large or an undefined body of persons can
+lawfully acquire the right to take wild animals _in alieno solo_.
+
+In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is valuable as to
+deer and the animals usually described as game, and not as to those
+which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply valueless, as small birds.
+Upon the rules of the common law there has been grafted much legislation
+which up till the end of the 18th century was framed for the
+preservation of deer and game for the recreation and amusement of
+persons of fortune, and to prevent persons of inferior rank from
+squandering in the pursuit of game time which their station in life
+required to be more profitably employed. These enactments included the
+rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see FOREST LAWS), as well
+as what are usually called the Game Laws.
+
+In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed early
+in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389) to 1831, no
+person might kill game unless qualified by estate or social standing, a
+qualification raised from a 40s. freehold in 1389 to an interest of £100
+a year in freehold or £150 in long leaseholds (1673). In 1831 this
+qualification by estate was abolished as to England. But in Scotland the
+right to hunt is theoretically reserved to persons who have in heritage
+that unknown quantity a "plough-gate of land" (Scots Act 1621, c. 31);
+and in Ireland qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing
+game and keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In
+England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts of 1828
+and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, and
+the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From the fact that the right of
+landowners over wild animals on their land does not amount to ownership
+it follows that they cannot prosecute any one for stealing live wild
+animals: and that apart from the game laws the only remedy against
+poachers is by civil action for trespass. As between trespasser and
+landowner the law is peculiar (_Blades_ v. _Higgs_, 1865, 11 H.L.C.
+621). If A starts and kills a hare on B's land the dead hare belongs to
+B (_ratione soli_) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own
+efforts (_per industriam_). But if A hunts the hare from B's land on to
+C's land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and not to B or
+C. It is not B's because it was not taken on his land, and it is not C's
+because it was not started on his land. In other words the right of each
+owner is limited to animals both started and killed on his own land, and
+in the case of conflicting claims to the animal taken (made _ratione
+soli_) the captor can make title (_per industriam_) against both
+landowners. If he is a trespasser he is liable to civil or criminal
+proceedings by both landowners, but the game is his unless forfeited
+under a statute. Another peculiar result of the law is that where
+trespassers (e.g. poachers) kill and carry off game or rabbits as part
+of one continuous transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of
+game trespass (_R_. v. _Townley_, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is
+theft for a trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the
+owner of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an
+independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals belong (_propter
+impotentiam_) to the owner of the land until they are able to fly or run
+away. This right does not extend to the eggs of wild birds. But the
+owner can reduce the eggs into possession by taking them up and setting
+them under hens or in enclosures. And if this is done persons who take
+them are thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for
+wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game preserve
+in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to the ordinary
+incidents of the law as to animals _ferae naturae_.
+
+  The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England is
+  as follows:--
+
+  1. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all
+  beasts of venery.
+
+  2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox,
+  marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.
+
+  3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant,
+  woodcock, quail, rail and heron.
+
+  4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the Game Act
+  of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse, bustard and
+  hare. In France game (_gibier_) includes everything eatable that runs
+  or flies.
+
+  5. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless
+  prized for sport, e.g. duck, snipe, plovers, &c.
+
+  6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected
+  against destruction by the Wild Birds Protection Acts, which were,
+  however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws.
+
+  As regards class 1 no subject without special authority of the crown
+  may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent highways,
+  rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does not
+  depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative as to the
+  animals, i.e. it exists not _ratione soli_ but _ratione privilegii_:
+  and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831. A chase
+  is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which is an
+  enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription founded
+  on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance the same
+  as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on ownership of
+  the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee usually but not
+  necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which the right of
+  warren runs. The right of free warren depends on crown grant or
+  prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a right of property
+  over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within the franchise. As
+  will appear from the list above, some game birds are not fowl of
+  warren, e.g. black game and red grouse (_Duke of Devonshire_ v.
+  _Lodge_, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite different from
+  ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred by the owner of
+  the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such warrens is protected
+  under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by the game laws. In
+  manors, of which none have been created since 1290, the lord by his
+  franchise had the sporting rights over the manor, but at the present
+  time this right is restricted to the commons and wastes of the manor,
+  the freehold whereof is in him, and does not extend to enclosed
+  freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds, unless at the
+  time of enclosure the sporting rights were reserved to him by the
+  Enclosure Act or award (_Sowerby_ v. _Smith_, 1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514).
+  In other words his rights exist ratione _soli_ and not _ratione
+  privilegii_. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of manors and privileged
+  persons certain rights as to appointing gamekeepers with special
+  powers to protect game within the district over which their rights
+  extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws in no way cut down the
+  special privileges as to forest, park, chase or free warren (1831, s.
+  9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of manors on the wastes of
+  the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not affected by these rights,
+  the right to kill or take game on the land is presumably in the
+  occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject to the qualifications
+  hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right to kill or take
+  "game" or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently with or in
+  exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in the landlord
+  the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for breaches of
+  covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on summary
+  conviction if without the lessor's authority he pursues, kills or
+  takes any "game" upon the land or gives permission to others to do so
+  (1831, s. 12). In effect he is made criminally liable for game
+  trespass on lands in his own occupation, so far as relates to game,
+  but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe, woodcock, quails or
+  rails.
+
+  The net effect of the common law and the game laws is to give the
+  occupier of lands and the owner of sporting rights over them the
+  following remedies against persons who infringe their right to kill or
+  take wild animals on the land. A stranger who enters on the land of
+  another to take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for
+  trespass on the land and for the animals started and killed on the
+  land by the trespasser. He is also criminally liable for game trespass
+  if he has entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of "game" or
+  woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or rabbits. If the trespass is in
+  the daytime (whether on lands of the subject or in royal forests,
+  &c.), the penalty on conviction may not exceed 40s., unless five or
+  more persons go together, in which case the maximum penalty is £5. If
+  a single offender refuses his name or address or gives a false address
+  to the occupier or to the owner of the sporting rights or his
+  representatives, or refuses to leave the land, he may be arrested by
+  them, and is liable to a penalty not exceeding £5, and if five or more
+  concerned together in game trespass have a gun with them and use
+  violence, intimidation or menace, to prevent the approach of persons
+  entitled to take their names or order them off the land, they incur a
+  further penalty up to £5.
+
+  If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game _or rabbits_ in the
+  nighttime, the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment
+  with hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment,
+  &c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under
+  sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or
+  for two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence
+  the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions, but
+  for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is liable
+  to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2
+  years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or occupier of the
+  land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or offer violence
+  by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be indicted and on
+  conviction punished to the same extent as in the last offence. In 1844
+  the above penalties were extended to persons found by night on
+  highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more trespass
+  together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits, and any
+  of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive weapon,
+  they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced to penal
+  servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2 years). By
+  "day" time is meant from the beginning of the first hour before
+  sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by "night" from
+  the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning of the first
+  hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34). The time
+  is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time.
+
+  The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters between
+  the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers have often
+  been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is illegal and
+  severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns for poachers
+  (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby any grievous
+  bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a trespasser, so that
+  the incursions of poachers can be prevented only by personal
+  attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to be observed
+  also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated are, so far as
+  concerns private land, left to be enforced by private enterprise
+  without the interference of the police, with the result that in some
+  districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war. Even in the Night
+  Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways, the arrest of offenders
+  is made by owners, occupiers or their gamekeepers. The police were not
+  given any direct authority as to poachers until the Poaching
+  Prevention Act 1862, under which a constable is empowered "on any
+  highway, street or public place, to search any person whom he may have
+  good cause to suspect of coming from any land where he shall have been
+  unlawfully in search or pursuit of 'game,' or any persons aiding or
+  abetting such person, and having in his possession any game unlawfully
+  obtained, or any gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the
+  killing or taking game; and also to stop and search any cart or other
+  conveyance in or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have
+  good cause to suspect that any such game, or any such article or
+  thing, is being carried by such person." If any such thing be found
+  the constable is to detain it, and apply for a summons against the
+  offender, summoning him to appear before a petty sessional court, on
+  conviction before which he may be fined not more than £5, and forfeits
+  the game, guns, &c., found in his possession. In this act "game"
+  includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds other
+  than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night or by
+  day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal lies to
+  quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &c., taken may be
+  forfeited by the court which tries the poacher.
+
+  _Close Time._--On certain days, and within periods known as "close
+  time," it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close times are
+  as follows:--
+
+    +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
+    |                      |       England.      |         Ireland.        |      Scotland.     |
+    +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
+    | Hare                 |        None         | April 21 to Aug. 11*    |        None        |
+    | Red deer (male)      |        None         | Jan. 1 to June 9        |        None        |
+    | Fallow deer          |        None         | Sept. 29 to June 10     |        None        |
+    | Roe deer             |        None         |         None            |        None        |
+    | Pheasant             | Feb. 1 to Sept. 30  | Feb.1 to Sept. 30 (1845)| Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 |
+    | Partridge            | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31   | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 (1899)| Feb. 1 to Aug. 31  |
+    | Black game           | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20**| Dec. 10 to Aug. 20      | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 |
+    | Red grouse           | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12  | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12      | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 |
+    | Ptarmigan            |        None         | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20      | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 |
+    | Bustard (wild turkey)| March 1 to Sept. 1  | Jan. 10 to Sept. 1      |        None        |
+    +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
+      * Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.
+     ** Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1.
+
+  In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares may not
+  be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to sell or expose
+  for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June and July. It is
+  illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or sell winged game birds
+  after ten days from the beginning of the close season as fixed by the
+  English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13). This prohibition applies to the
+  sale of live game, British or foreign, and to the sale of British dead
+  game. It is illegal to lay poison for game or rabbits except in rabbit
+  holes, and it is illegal to kill game by firearms at night. Wild birds
+  not within the list above given but of interest for sport are
+  protected by close times fixed under the Wild Birds Protection Acts,
+  which may vary in each county of each kingdom.
+
+  _Licences_.--Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill
+  game which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the
+  lands on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by
+  the laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the
+  right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the lord
+  of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social rank of the
+  person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which ranged from a
+  40s. freehold (in 1389) to £100 a year (1671). These restrictions were
+  abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was made conditional on
+  the possession of a game certificate, now called a game licence in
+  Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the Game Licences
+  Act 1860 "any person, before he shall in Great Britain take, kill or
+  pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking, killing or
+  pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun, net or other
+  engine for the purpose of taking, killing or pursuing any game, or any
+  woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any deer, shall
+  take out a proper licence to kill game under this act"--subject to a
+  penalty of £20. There are certain exceptions and exemptions as to
+  royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with reference to taking
+  woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing or hunting hares or
+  deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares Acts 1848, Game
+  Licences Act 1860) in certain enclosed lands by the owners or
+  occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and assistants who go
+  out with holders of a game licence. The licence is granted by the
+  Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regulated by the Game Licences
+  Act 1860 as amended by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The
+  licences now in use are of four kinds:--
+
+  Those taken out after 31st July--
+
+      To expire on the next 31st July           £3 0 0
+      To expire on the next 31st October         2 0 0
+
+  Those taken out after 1st November--
+
+      To expire on the next 31st July            2 0 0
+
+  Those taken out for any continuous period of
+    fourteen days specified in the licence       1 0 0
+
+  In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer pays
+  the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is £2, but the
+  licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a right to
+  kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right and not as
+  gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United Kingdom. The
+  game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands of others in
+  search of game nor the shooting of game, &c., at night, and is
+  forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30; 1860, s. 11).
+  Persons who have game licences need not have a gun licence, but the
+  possession of a gun licence does not qualify the holder to kill game
+  or even rabbits.
+
+  The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation.
+  Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their
+  employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence may
+  sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game.
+  These licences are annual (expiring on the 1st of July), and are
+  granted in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England
+  by the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the
+  dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27),
+  and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the
+  licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop. The
+  following persons are disqualified for holding the licence:
+  innkeepers, persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners,
+  guards or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances,
+  carriers and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with
+  the grant of game licences to large stores which also have licences to
+  sell beer. The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons
+  who are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under
+  the Game Act 1831 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must
+  also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of £2 is
+  charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling game
+  killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning of
+  close time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated
+  under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in 1860
+  extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were in 1893 applied
+  to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect of the system
+  of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by poachers rather than
+  to benefit the revenue.
+
+  _Deer_.--Deer are not included within the definition of game in any of
+  the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously punished by
+  the old law, and under an act of 9 George I. c. 22, known as the
+  Waltham Black Act, passed because of the depredations of disguised
+  deer-stealers in Epping Forest, it was under certain circumstances
+  made a capital offence. At present offences with reference to deer are
+  included in the Larceny Act 1861. It is a felony to hunt or kill deer
+  in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in enclosed land
+  where deer is usually kept, or after a previous conviction to hunt or
+  kill deer in the open parts of a forest, &c., and certain minor
+  provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forfeiture of venison
+  unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting traps for deer. These
+  enactments do not prevent a man from killing on his own land deer
+  which have strayed there (_Threlkeld_ v. _Smith_, 1901, 2 K.B. 531).
+  In Scotland the unlawful killing of deer is punished as theft.
+
+  _Eggs_.--The owner or occupier of land has no property in the eggs of
+  wild birds found on his lands unless he takes them up. But under s. 24
+  of the Game Act 1831 a penalty of 5s. per egg is incurred by persons
+  who unlawfully (i.e. without being, or having licence from, the person
+  entitled to kill the game) and wilfully take from the nest or destroy
+  in the nest the eggs of any game bird, or of a swan, wild duck, teal
+  or widgeon. Similar provisions exist in Ireland under an act of 1698,
+  and by the Poaching Prevention Act 1862 (United Kingdom) power is
+  given to constables to search persons suspected of poaching and to
+  take from them the eggs of pheasants, partridges, grouse or black
+  game. And the Wild Birds Protection Acts deal with the eggs of all
+  wild birds except game and swans.
+
+  _Damage to Crops by Game_.--Where an occupier of lands has not the
+  right to kill game or rabbits he runs the risk of suffering damage by
+  the depredations of the protected animals, which he may not kill
+  without incurring a liability to summary conviction or for breach of
+  the conditions on which he holds the land. At common law the owner of
+  land who has reserved to himself the sporting rights, and his sporting
+  tenants, must use the reserved rights reasonably. They are liable for
+  any damage wilfully or unnecessarily done to the crops, &c., of the
+  occupier, such as trampling down standing crops or breaking hedges or
+  fences. They are not directly liable to the occupier for damage done
+  to the crops by game bred on the land or frequenting it in the
+  ordinary course of nature; but are not entitled to turn down game or
+  rabbits on the land. And if game or rabbits are for the purposes of
+  sport imported or artificially raised on land, the person who breeds
+  or brings them there is liable for the damage done to the crops of
+  adjoining owners or occupiers (_Farrer_ v. _Nelson_, 1885, 15 Q.B.D.
+  258; _Birkbeck_ v. _Paget_, 31 Beav. 403; _Hilton_ v. _Green_, 1862, 2
+  F. & F. 821).
+
+  Recent legislation has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers
+  of land as against the owners of sporting rights over it. As regards
+  hares and rabbits the occupier's rights are regulated by the Ground
+  Game Act 1880 (which is expressed to be made "in the interests of good
+  husbandry and for the better security of capital and labour invested
+  in the cultivation of the soil"). By that act the occupier of land as
+  incident to and inseparable from his occupation has the right to kill
+  and take hares and rabbits on the land. The right is indefeasible and
+  cannot be divested by contract with the owner or landlord or even by
+  letting the occupier's sporting rights to another. But where apart
+  from the act the right to kill game on the land is vested in a person
+  other than the occupier, such person has a right concurrent with the
+  statutory right of the occupier to take hares and rabbits on the land.
+  The act does not extend to common lands nor to lands over which rights
+  of grazing or pasturage for not more than nine months in the year
+  exist. Consequently over such lands exclusive rights of killing ground
+  game still continue, and the law appears not to apply in cases where a
+  special right of killing or taking ground game vested before the 7th
+  of September 1880 in any person (other than the landlord) by statute,
+  charter or franchise (s. 5). The mode of exercise of the occupier's
+  right is subject to certain limitations. The ground game is only to be
+  taken by him or by persons whom he has duly authorized in writing, who
+  must be members of his family or his servants or bona fide employed by
+  him for reward to take ground game. The written authority must be
+  produced on demand to persons having concurrent rights to take and
+  kill the ground game (s. 1 (1) (c)). Firearms may not be used by
+  night, nor may poison be used, nor may spring traps be set except in
+  rabbit holes (s. 6); nor may ground game be killed on days or seasons
+  or by methods prohibited by statute in 1880 (s. 10).
+
+  In the case of moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not arable and
+  do not consist of small detached portions of less than 25 acres) the
+  occupier may between the 1st of September and the 31st of March kill
+  and take ground game; but between the 1st of September and the 10th of
+  December firearms may not be used (1880, s. 1 (3); 1906, s. 2). In the
+  case of such lands the occupiers and the owners of the sporting rights
+  may between the 1st of September and the 10th of December make and
+  enforce for their joint benefit agreements for taking the ground game.
+  The Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, _inter
+  alia_, with damage to crops by deer and winged game, but does not
+  apply to damage by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land
+  is entitled to compensation for damage to his crops exceeding 1s. per
+  acre over the area affected if caused by game, "the right to kill or
+  take which is vested neither in him nor in any one claiming under him
+  other than the landlord and which the tenant has not permission in
+  writing to kill" (s. 2). The right of the tenant is indefeasible and
+  cannot be contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by
+  arbitration; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing
+  crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops
+  before carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before
+  the 1st of January 1909, allowances are to be made if by their terms
+  compensation for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of
+  an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing the
+  rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to his right
+  to be indemnified in cases where the sporting rights are not vested in
+  him.
+
+  _Sporting Rights_.--Sporting rights (i.e. rights of fowling or of
+  shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing),
+  when severed from the occupation of land, are subject to income or
+  property tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating
+  Act 1874); and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of
+  the sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of
+  value in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights
+  are the landlord's, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by
+  the tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is
+  reserved and let, the rating authority may rate either the landlord or
+  the sporting tenant as occupier of the right. The Ground Game Acts
+  have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights of
+  killing hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent
+  right granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.), 385-387). The ownership
+  of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of the
+  land over which they are exercisable is not an interest in land giving
+  the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land is
+  taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts.
+
+  _Scotland_.--By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege
+  of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which
+  does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or in
+  the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is liable to
+  the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in exercise of
+  his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage by
+  over-preserving or over-stocking. Under an act of 1877 he was liable
+  for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or retained
+  under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1878, or reserved by
+  presumption of common law; this act from 1909 onwards is superseded by
+  the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906. Night poaching
+  is punished by the same act as in England, and day poaching by an act
+  of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887 poaching by night under arms
+  was a capital offence. The definition of game in Scotland for purposes
+  of night poaching is the same as in England. The provisions of the act
+  of 1832 as to game trespass by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits,
+  woodcock, snipe, rails and wild duck; but in other respects closely
+  resemble those of the English act of 1831.
+
+  Offences against the game laws are not triable by justices of the
+  peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time for game birds in
+  Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is
+  concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game may not be
+  killed between the 10th of December and the 25th of August, nor
+  ptarmigan between the 10th of December and the 20th of August. There
+  is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an old
+  Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of such
+  acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not own a
+  plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified.
+
+  _Ireland_.--The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as for
+  England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts passed
+  prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts limited
+  to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole United
+  Kingdom.
+
+  Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not a
+  freehold worth £40 a year or £1000 net personality, and elaborate
+  provisions are made by that and later acts against the keeping of
+  sporting dogs by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British
+  officers and soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted to
+  poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of 1698
+  and 1707.
+
+  Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass on
+  lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by
+  reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act of
+  1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe,
+  quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act
+  1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement of
+  the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the
+  exclusive right of taking "game" as above defined.
+
+  A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But in
+  other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences
+  to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain.
+
+  _British Possessions Abroad_.--The English game laws have not been
+  carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists,
+  nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial
+  legislation. But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to
+  preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of
+  these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These
+  statutes are free from feudal prepossessions as to sporting rights,
+  and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acts
+  than on the English game laws, but in some possessions, e.g. Quebec,
+  sporting leases by the crown are recognized. The acts since 1895 are
+  indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished in
+  the _Journal_ of the Society of Comparative Legislation.
+
+  See also Oke's _Game Laws_, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897); Warry,
+  _Game Laws of England_ (1897); Marchant and Watkins, _Wild Birds
+  Protection Act_ (1897).     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMES, CLASSICAL. 1. _Public Games_.--The public games of Greece
+([Greek: agônes]) and Rome (_Ludi_) consisted in athletic contests and
+spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and forming part
+of a religious observance. Probably no institution exercised a greater
+influence in moulding the national character, and producing that unique
+type of physical and intellectual beauty which we see reflected in Greek
+art and literature, than the public contests of Greece (see ATHLETE;
+ATHLETIC SPORTS). For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they
+were the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought his
+wares, and the common ground of union for every member of the Hellenic
+race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the earliest form and
+the fullest development of ancient games. The shows of the Roman circus
+and amphitheatre were at best a shadow, and in the later days of the
+empire a travesty, of the Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory
+notice.
+
+
+  Greek.
+
+The earliest games of which we have any record are those at the funeral
+of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-third Iliad. They are
+noteworthy as showing that Greek games were in their origin clearly
+connected with religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites,
+or else instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a
+victory gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime.
+Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred place and
+is associated with some deity or mythical hero. It was not before the
+4th century that this honour was paid to a living man (see Plutarch,
+_Lysander_, 18). The games of the _Iliad_ and those of the _Odyssey_ at
+the court of Alcinous are also of interest as showing at what an early
+date the distinctive forms of Greek athletics--boxing, wrestling,
+putting the weight, the foot and the chariot race--were determined.
+
+The _Olympian_ games were the earliest, and to the last they remained
+the most celebrated of the four national festivals. Olympia was a
+naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis, bounded on the N. by
+the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S. and W. by the Alpheus and
+its tributary the Cladeus. There was the grove of Altis, in which were
+ranged the statues of the victorious athletes, and the temple of
+Olympian Zeus with the chryselephantine statue of the god, the
+masterpiece of Pheidias. There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar
+has introduced in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis
+and slain its king Augeas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in
+honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies
+historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and
+ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help, and was
+bidden restore the games which had fallen into desuetude; and there was
+in the time of Pausanias, suspended in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a
+bronze disk whereon were inscribed, with the regulations of the games,
+the names of Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that
+the games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and
+first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of Sparta.
+The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities, during the month
+in which the games were held, is also credited to Iphitus.
+
+In 776 B.C. the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman Coroebus
+as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have an almost unbroken
+list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad or fourth recurrent
+year. For the next fifty years no names occur but those of Eleians or
+their next neighbours. After 720 B.C. we find Corinthians and Megareans,
+and later still Athenians and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first
+was nothing more than a village feast became a bond of union for all the
+branches of the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to
+which every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly to
+the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived even the
+extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed twelve centuries
+when it was abolished by the decree of the Christian emperor
+Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign. The last Olympian victor was
+a Romanized Armenian named Varastad.
+
+Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy days must
+have presented as the great festival approached. Heralds had proclaimed
+throughout Greece the "truce of God." So religiously was this observed
+that the Spartans chose to risk the liberties of Greece, when the
+Persians were at the gates of Pylae, rather than march during the holy
+days. Those white tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the
+olive groves belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games,
+chosen one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already
+ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or most of
+the athletes must have arrived, for they have been undergoing the
+indispensable training in the gymnasium of the Altis. But along the
+"holy road" from the town of Elis there are crowding a motley throng.
+Conspicuous in the long train of pleasure-seekers are the [Greek:
+theôroi] or sacred deputies, clad in their robes of office, and bearing
+with them in their carriages of state offerings to the shrine of the
+god. Nor is there any lack of distinguished visitors. It may be
+Alcibiades, who, they say, has entered no less than seven chariots; or
+Gorgias, who has written a famous [Greek: epideixis] for the occasion;
+or the sophist Hippias, who boasts that all he bears about him, from the
+sandals on his feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, are his
+own manufacture; or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage
+of Alexander and Roxana--the picture which gained him no less a prize
+than the daughter of the Hellanodices Praxonides; or, in an earlier age,
+the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar himself. One feature of the
+medieval tournament and the modern racecourse is wanting. Women might
+indeed compete and win prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the
+priestesses of Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to
+enter the enclosure.
+
+At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleuterium, where
+the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses that they were of
+pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain, religious or civil, on their
+character. Laying their hands on the bleeding victim, they swore that
+they had duly qualified themselves by ten months' continuous training in
+the gymnasium, and that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred
+contests. Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to
+the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, "Let the runners
+put their feet to the line," and called on the spectators to challenge
+any disqualified by blood or character. If no objection was made, they
+were started by the note of the trumpet, running in heats of four,
+ranged in the places assigned them by lot. The presidents seated near
+the goal adjudged the victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four
+Olympian contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not suppose
+that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the 77th
+Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the feast was
+extended to five.
+
+  The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture,
+  but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was
+  followed. We will now describe in this order the most important.
+
+  (1) The _Foot-race_.--For the first 13 Olympiads the [Greek: dromos],
+  or single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only
+  contest. The [Greek: diaulos], in which the course was traversed
+  twice, was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the 15th the [Greek:
+  dolichos], or long race, of 7, 12 or, according to the highest
+  computation, 24 laps, about 2-2/3 m. in length. We are told that the
+  Spartan Ladas, after winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal.
+  There was also, for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato
+  highly commends as a preparation for active service. (2) _Wrestling_
+  was introduced in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this
+  exercise is shown by the very word _palaestra_, and Plutarch calls it
+  the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice differed
+  little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler's limbs were
+  anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third throw, which
+  decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and struggling on the
+  ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence, was not
+  allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was introduced
+  the [Greek: pentathlon] (pentathlon), a combination of the five games
+  enumerated in the well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides:--
+
+    [Greek: halma, podôkeiên, diskon, hakonta, palên].
+
+  Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised
+  seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their momentum
+  by means of [Greek: haltêres] or dumb-bells, which they swung in the
+  act of leaping and dropped as they "took off." The take-off may have
+  been slightly raised, and some commentators with very little warrant
+  have stated that spring-boards were used. The record jump with which
+  Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible with or without
+  a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in all five contests,
+  or in three at least, was required to win the [Greek: pentathlon]. (4)
+  The rules for boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring (see
+  PUGILISM), and the chief difference was in the use of the _caestus_.
+  This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the
+  boxer's fists and wrists; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal
+  studs, which made the caestus more like a "knuckle-duster" than a
+  boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an
+  antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for
+  a prize but was severely punished. The use of ear-guards and the comic
+  allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer did
+  not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill fashion,
+  like the modern rustic. In the _pancratium_, a combination of
+  wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched
+  fist, was disallowed. (5) The _chariot-race_ had its origin in the
+  23rd Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain, but
+  from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimensions
+  were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there ran a bank
+  of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post round which
+  the chariots had to pass. "To shun the goal with rapid wheels"
+  required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a more
+  important part in the race than even the modern jockey. Pausanias
+  tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots. The
+  places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were
+  elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of
+  chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain. Pindar
+  (_Pyth._ v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrene for having brought off
+  his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took
+  part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors, and
+  even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in the list of
+  victors we find the names of Cylon, the would-be tyrant of Athens,
+  Pausanias the Spartan king, Archelaus of Macedon, Gelon and Hiero of
+  Syracuse, and Theron of Agrigentum. Chariot-races with mules, with
+  mares, with two horses in place of four, were successively introduced,
+  but none of these present any special interest. Races on horseback
+  date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the course was the same, success must
+  have depended on skill as much as on swiftness. Lastly, there were
+  athletic contests of the same description for boys, and a competition
+  of heralds and trumpeters, introduced in the 93rd Olympiad.
+
+  The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic
+  value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest was
+  a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from the
+  kallistephanos, the sacred tree brought by Hercules "from the dark
+  fountains of Ister in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a shelter
+  common to all men and a crown of noble deeds" (Pindar, _Ol._ iii. 18).
+  Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with complacency on the
+  magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing but honour and were
+  content to struggle for a corruptible crown. But though the Greek
+  games present in this respect a favourable contrast to the greed and
+  gambling of the modern racecourse, yet to represent men like Milon and
+  Damoxenus as actuated by pure love of glory is a pleasing fiction of
+  the moralists. The successful athlete received in addition to the
+  immediate honours very substantial rewards. A herald proclaimed his
+  name, his parentage and his country; the Hellanodicae took from a
+  table of ivory and gold the olive crown and placed it on his head, and
+  in his hand a branch of palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the
+  temple of Zeus, his friends and admirers showered in his path flowers
+  and costly gifts, singing the old song of Archilochus, [Greek: tênella
+  kallinike], and his name was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh
+  honours and rewards awaited him on his return home. If he was an
+  Athenian he received, according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and
+  free rations for life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his
+  prerogative the post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides
+  and Euripides sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and
+  Praxiteles were engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read
+  of a breach in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the
+  common road were not good enough for such a hero; and there are
+  well-attested instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered
+  to a successful athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was
+  regarded as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman's
+  contempt for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian
+  victor receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and
+  tells the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the
+  prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day, was
+  addressed by a Laconian in these words:--"Die, Diagoras, for thou hast
+  nothing short of divinity to desire." Alcibiades, when setting forth
+  his services to the state, puts first his victory at Olympia, and the
+  prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent display. But perhaps
+  the most remarkable evidence of the exaggerated value which the Greeks
+  attached to athletic prowess is a casual expression which Thucydides
+  employs when describing the enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at
+  Scione. The state, he says, voted him a crown of gold, and the
+  multitude flocked round him and decked him with garlands, _as though
+  he were an athlete_.
+
+The _Pythian_ games originated in a local festival held at Delphi,
+anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo, and were
+limited to musical competitions. The date at which they became a
+Panhellenic [Greek: agôn] (so Demosthenes calls them) cannot be
+determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era date from 527 B.C.,
+by which time music had been added to all the Panhellenic contests. Now,
+too, these were held at the end of every fourth year; previously there
+had been an interval of eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the
+prize was a chaplet of laurel.
+
+The _Nemean_ games were biennial and date from 516 B.C. They were by
+origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean Zeus, but in historical
+times were open to all Greece and provided the established round of
+contests, except that no mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of
+wild celery was the prize.
+
+The _Isthmian_ games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the first and
+third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius, from 523 B.C.
+They are variously reported to have been founded by Poseidon or Sisyphus
+in honour of Melicertes, or by Theseus to celebrate his victory over the
+robbers Sinis and Sciron. Their early importance is attested by the law
+of Solon which bestowed a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who
+gained a victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and after
+the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 B.C.) the presidency passed to
+the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth (46 B.C.). They
+probably continued to exist till Christianity became the religion of the
+Roman empire. The Athenians were closely connected with the festival,
+and had the privilege of _proedria_, the foremost seat at the games,
+while the Eleans were absolutely excluded from participation. The games
+included gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little
+from those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made
+at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later period of
+pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later times is shown by
+the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion for proclaiming the
+liberation of Greece, 196 B.C. That at a later anniversary (A.D. 67)
+Nero repeated the proclamation of Flamininus, and coupled with it the
+announcement of his own infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the
+hollowness of the first gift and the degradation which had befallen the
+Greek games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality.
+
+
+  Roman.
+
+The _Ludi Publici_ of the Romans included feasts and theatrical
+exhibitions as well as the public games with which alone we are
+concerned. As in Greece, they were intimately connected with religion.
+At the beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls to
+vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth, and the
+expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus, at no cost to themselves,
+the Roman public were enabled to indulge at the same time their
+religious feelings and their love of amusement. Their taste for games
+naturally grew till it became a passion, and under the empire games were
+looked upon by the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The
+aediles who succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to
+supplement the state allowance from their private purse. Political
+adventurers were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and
+what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon men of
+wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian horde or the death of
+a relation served as the pretext for a magnificent display. But the
+worst extravagance of private citizens was eclipsed by the reckless
+prodigality of the Caesars, who squandered the revenues of whole
+provinces in catering for the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour
+their throne depended. But though public games played as important a
+part in Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman
+historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet,
+regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of
+interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how any man
+of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary round of fights
+and races.
+
+It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games of Greece
+and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were actors, the Romans
+from first to last were spectators. It is true that even in Greek games
+the professional element played a large and ever-increasing part. As
+early as the 6th century B.C. Xenophanes complains that the wrestler's
+strength is preferred to the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides,
+in a well-known fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering
+athlete. But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be
+such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal. No
+Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in person for the
+Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior in gymnastic exercises,
+kept strictly to the privacy of the palaestra; and for a patrician to
+appear in public as a charioteer is stigmatized by the satirist as a
+mark of shameless effrontery.
+
+Roman games are generally classified as _fixed_, _extraordinary_ and
+_votive_; but they may be more conveniently grouped according to the
+place where they were held, viz. the circus or the amphitheatre.
+
+For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a
+fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring, and a
+playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says that in his
+day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason to doubt the
+precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus Maximus there were
+seats for 350,000 spectators.
+
+  Of the various _Ludi Circenses_ it may be enough here to give a short
+  account of the most important, the _Ludi Magni_ or _Maximi_.
+
+  Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the _Ludi Magni_
+  were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised by the
+  general when he took the field, and performed on his return from the
+  annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of a military
+  spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force, which
+  marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum and thence
+  to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aventine. First came
+  the sons of patricians mounted on horseback, next the rest of the
+  burghers ranged according to their military classes, after them the
+  athletes, naked save for the girdle round their loins, then the
+  company of dancers with the harp and flute players, next the priestly
+  colleges bearing censers and other sacred instruments, and lastly the
+  simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on their shoulders or drawn in
+  cars. The games themselves were fourfold:--(1) the chariot race; (2)
+  the _ludus Troiae_; (3) the military review; and (4) gymnastic
+  contests. Of these only the first two call for any comment. (1) The
+  chariot employed in the circus was the two-wheeled war car, at first
+  drawn by two, afterwards by four, and more rarely by three horses.
+  Originally only two chariots started for the prize, but under Caligula
+  we read of as many as twenty-four heats run in the day, each of four
+  chariots. The distance traversed was fourteen times the length of the
+  circus or nearly 5 m. The charioteers were apparently from the first
+  professionals, though the stigma under which the gladiator lay never
+  attached to their calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in
+  popularity and fortune with a modern jockey. The drivers were divided
+  into companies distinguished by the colours of their tunics, whence
+  arose the faction of the circus which assumed such importance under
+  the later emperors. In republican times there were two factions, the
+  white and the red; two more, the green and the blue, were added under
+  the empire, and for a short time in Domitian's reign there were also
+  the gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal's day party spirit ran so
+  high that a defeat of the green was looked upon as a second Cannae.
+  After the seat of empire had been transferred to Constantinople these
+  factions of the circus were made the basis of political cabals, and
+  frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults, such as the famous Nika
+  revolt (A.D. 532), in which 30,000 citizens lost their lives. (2) The
+  Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on horseback in which the actors were
+  patrician youths. A spirited description of it will be found in the
+  5th Aeneid. (See also CIRCUS.)
+
+  The two exhibitions we shall next notice, though occasionally given in
+  the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre. _Venatio_ was
+  the baiting of wild animals who were pitted either with one another or
+  with men--captives, criminals or trained hunters called _bestiarii_.
+  The first certain instance on record of this amusement is in 186 B.C.,
+  when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in the arena. The taste for
+  these brutalizing spectacles grew apace, and the most distant
+  provinces were ransacked by generals and proconsuls to supply the
+  arena with rare animals--giraffes, tigers and crocodiles. Sulla
+  provided for a single show 100 lions, and Pompey 600 lions, besides
+  elephants, which were matched with Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar
+  enjoys the doubtful honour of inventing the bull-fight. At the
+  inauguration of the Colosseum 5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were
+  killed, and to commemorate Trajan's Dacian victories there was a
+  butchery of 11,000 beasts. The _naumachia_ was a sea-fight, either in
+  the arena, which was flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and
+  sluices, or on an artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by
+  prisoners of war or criminals, who often fought till one side was
+  exterminated. In the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the
+  emperor Claudius, 100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged.
+
+  But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the _munus
+  gladiatorium_, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and
+  Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 B.C. It was
+  probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common savage
+  custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a warrior or
+  chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein of coarseness
+  and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise noble character of the
+  Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows. We can fancy how
+  Pericles, or even Alcibiades, would have loathed a spectacle that
+  Augustus tolerated and Trajan patronized. Only after the conquest of
+  Greece we hear of their introduction into Athens, and they were then
+  admitted rather out of compliment to the conquerors than from any love
+  of the sport. In spite of numerous prohibitions from Constantine
+  downwards, they continued to flourish even as late as St Augustine. To
+  a Christian martyr, if we may credit the story told by Theodoret and
+  Cassiodorus, belongs the honour of their final abolition. In the year
+  404 Telemachus, a monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred
+  mission, rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the
+  combatants. He was instantly despatched by the praetor's orders; but
+  Honorius, on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games,
+  which were never afterwards revived. (See GLADIATORS.)
+
+  Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice. The
+  _Ludi Apollinares_ were established in 212 B.C., and were annual after
+  211 B.C.; mainly theatrical performances. The _Megalenses_ were in
+  honour of the great goddess, Cybele: instituted 204 B.C., and from 191
+  B.C. celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or priests of Cybele,
+  was a leading feature. Under the empire the festival assumed a more
+  orgiastic character. Four of Terence's plays were produced at these
+  games. The _Ludi Saeculares_ were celebrated at the beginning or end
+  of each _saeculum_, a period variously interpreted by the Romans
+  themselves as 100 or 110 years. The celebration by Augustus in 17 B.C.
+  is famous by reason of the Ode composed by Horace for the occasion.
+  They were solemnized by the emperor Philip A.D. 248 to commemorate the
+  millennium of the city.
+
+2. _Private Games._--These may be classified as outdoor and indoor
+games. There is naturally all the world over a much closer resemblance
+between the pursuits and amusements of children than of adults. Homer's
+children built castles in the sand, and Greek and Roman children alike
+had their dolls, their hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses,
+their kites, their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the
+tug-of-war, pitch and toss, blind-man's buff, hide and seek, and kiss in
+the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were popular in
+Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there were five distinct
+kinds of ball and more ways of playing with them. For particulars the
+dictionary of antiquities must be consulted. It is strange that we can
+find in classical literature no analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or
+polo, and though the _follis_ resembled our football, it was played with
+the hand and arm, not with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at
+Athens and Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove
+their pluck.
+
+Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and games of
+skill, though in some of them the two elements are combined. _Tesserae_,
+shaped and marked with pips like modern dice, were evolved from the
+_tali_, knuckle-bones with only four flat sides. The old Roman threw a
+hazard and called a main, just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of
+gambling was lashed by Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The
+Latin name for a dice-box has survived in the _fritillary_ butterfly and
+flower.
+
+The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simultaneously held
+up by the player and his opponent is still popular in Italy where it is
+known as "morra." The proverbial phrase for an honest man was _quicum in
+tenebris mices_, one you would trust to play at morra in the dark.
+
+Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and playing at
+[Greek: pessoi], some kind of draughts. The invention of the game was
+ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was played on a board
+with five lines and with five pieces. Later we find eleven lines, and a
+further development was the division of the board into squares, as in
+the game of [Greek: poleis] (cities). In the Roman _latrunculi_
+(soldiers), the men were distinguished as common soldiers and "rovers,"
+the equivalent of crowned pieces.
+
+_Duodecim scripta_, as the name implies, was played on a board with
+twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our backgammon.
+There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the moves were determined by
+a throw of the dice; "blots" might be taken, and the object of the
+player was to clear off all his own men. Lastly must be mentioned the
+_Cottabus_ (q.v.), a game peculiar to the Greeks, and with them the
+usual accompaniment of a wine party. In its simplest form each guest
+threw what was left in his cup into a metal basin, and the success of
+the throw, determined partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was
+reckoned a divination of love. For the various elaborations of the game
+(in Sicily we read of Cottabus houses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be
+consulted.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquités
+  grecques et romaines_, articles "Agon," "Athleta," "Circus," "Ludi,"
+  "Olympia," "Spiele"; Curtius and Adler, _Olympia_ (5 vols., 1890,
+  &c.); Hachtmann, _Olympia und seine Festspiele_; Blümner, _Home Life
+  of the Ancient Greeks_; J.P. Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_; P.
+  Gardner and F.B. Jevons, _Manual of Greek Antiquities_; E.N. Gardiner,
+  _Greek Athletic Sports_ (1910); Becker-Marquardt, _Handbuch der
+  römischen Altertümer_ (5 vols.).     (F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMING AND WAGERING. It is somewhat difficult exactly to define or
+adequately to distinguish these terms of allied meaning. The word "game"
+(q.v.) is applicable to most pastimes and many sports, irrespective of
+their lawful or unlawful character. "Gaming" is now always associated
+with the staking of money or money's worth on the result of a game of
+pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and "gambling" has the same
+meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive or the practice
+otherwise reprehensible, while "wager" and "wagering" are applied to
+money hazarded on any contingency in which the person wagering has no
+interest at risk other than the amount at stake. "Betting" is usually
+restricted to wagers on events connected with sports or games, and
+"lottery" applies to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance.
+
+At English common law no games were unlawful and no penalties were
+incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-houses, unless by reason of
+disorder they became a public nuisance. From very early times, however,
+the English statute law has attempted to exercise control over the
+sports, pastimes and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view
+have been taken: (1) their competition with military exercises and
+training; (2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them
+from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of Sunday;
+(4) their combination with betting or gambling as causing impoverishment
+and dishonesty in children, servants and other unwary persons; (5) the
+use of fraud or deceit in connexion with them. The legislation has
+assumed several forms: (1) declaring certain games unlawful either
+absolutely or if accompanied by staking or betting money or money's
+worth on the event of the game; (2) declaring the keeping of
+establishments for betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting
+the use of streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting
+the enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts.
+
+
+    Games, lawful and unlawful.
+
+  The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the
+  interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to
+  render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute of Richard
+  II. (1388) directed servants and labourers to have bows and arrows and
+  to use them on Sundays and holidays, and to cease from playing
+  football, quoits, dice, putting the stone, kails and other such
+  importune games. A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (11 Hen.
+  IV. c. 4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV. c. 3) on
+  persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises. These
+  acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute passed
+  on the petition of the bowyers, fletchers (_fléchiers_), stringers and
+  arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force) is
+  entitled an "act for maintenance of archery and debarring of unlawful
+  games"; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of 3 & 6 Hen.
+  VIII.) "divers and many subtil inventative and crafty persons have
+  found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty games and plays,
+  as logating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise called shove-groat,
+  as well within the city of London as elsewhere in many other and
+  divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays and alleys for the
+  maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is sore decayed, and
+  daily is like to be more minished, and divers bowyers and fletchers,
+  for lack of work, gone and inhabit themselves in Scotland and other
+  places out of this realm, there working and teaching their science, to
+  the puissance of the same, to the great comfort of strangers and
+  detriment of this realm." Accordingly penalties are imposed on all
+  persons keeping houses for unlawful games, and all persons resorting
+  thereto (s. 8). The games specified are dicing, table (backgammon) or
+  carding, or any game prohibited by any statute theretofore made or any
+  unlawful new game then or thereafter invented or to be invented. It is
+  further provided that "no manner of artificer or craftsman of any
+  handicraft or occupation, husbandman, apprentice, labourer, servant at
+  husbandry, journeyman or servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen,
+  watermen, or any serving man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice,
+  cards, bowls, clash, coyting, logating or any other unlawful game out
+  of Christmas under the pain of xxs. to be forfeit for every time; and
+  in Christmas to play at any of the said games in their masters' houses
+  or in their masters' presence; and also that no manner of person shall
+  at any time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden
+  or orchard" (s. 11). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment,
+  crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the
+  preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the
+  statute--the maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between
+  games of skill and games of chance, and no reference is made to
+  playing for money or money's worth. The _Book of Sports_ of James I.
+  (1617), republished by Charles I. (1633), was aimed at encouraging
+  certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of
+  Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act 1625
+  prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the
+  Lord's Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been
+  attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act goes on
+  to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes, common plays
+  or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by parishioners within
+  their own parishes. According to Blackstone (iv. _Comm._ c. 13) the
+  principal ground of complaint leading to legislation in the 18th
+  century was "gambling in high life." He collects the statutes made
+  with this view, but only those still in force need have been
+  mentioned.
+
+  The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing games
+  was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c. 7) "against deceitful, disorderly and
+  excessive gaming" which deals with games both of skill and chance at
+  which people cheat, or play otherwise than with ready money, or lose
+  more than £100 on credit. In 1698 (13 Will. III. c. 23) legislation
+  was passed against lotteries, therein described as "mischievous and
+  unlawful games." This act was amended in 1710 (9 Anne c. 6), and in
+  the same year was passed a statute which is the beginning of the
+  modern legislation against gambling (9 Anne c. 19). It includes within
+  its scope money won by "gaming or playing" at cards, &c., and money
+  won by "betting" on the sides or hands of those who game at any of the
+  forbidden games. But it refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games
+  with cards and dice.
+
+  The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in
+  _Oliphant on Horses, &c._ (6th ed.): horse-races, steeplechases,
+  trotting matches, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas,
+  rowing matches, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives,
+  rackets, bowls, skittles, quoits, curling, putting the stone,
+  football, and presumably every bona-fide variety, e.g. croquet, knurr
+  and spell, hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have
+  been unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting
+  animals to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to
+  Animals Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist and other
+  lawful games at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess,
+  draughts and dominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these
+  games or at skittles or "skittle pool" or "puff and dart" on licensed
+  premises is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The earlier acts
+  declared unlawful the following games of skill: football, quoits,
+  putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or
+  cloyshcayls, logating, half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and
+  backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with backgammon
+  tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-racing, long under
+  restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665 and many 18th-century
+  acts, was fully legalized in 1840 (3 & 4 Vict. c. 35). The act of
+  1541, so far as it declared any game of mere skill unlawful, was
+  repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is legal in private houses
+  or clubs and in public places duly licensed. The following games have
+  been declared by the statutes or the judges to be unlawful, whether
+  played in public or in private, unless played in a royal palace where
+  the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts, pharaoh (faro), basset and
+  hazard (1738), passage, and every game then invented or to be invented
+  with dice or with any other instrument, engine or device in the nature
+  of dice having one or more figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulet
+  or roly-poly (1744), and all lotteries (except Art Union lotteries),
+  _rouge et noir_, _baccarat-banque_ (1884), _chemin de fer_ (1895), and
+  all games at cards which are not games of mere skill. The definition
+  of unlawful game does not include whist played for a prize not
+  subscribed to by the players, but it does include playing cards for
+  money in licensed premises; even in the private room of the licensee
+  or with private friends during closing hours.
+
+  The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries "by dice,
+  lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other
+  way whatsoever." An act of 1721 prohibited lotteries which under the
+  name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land, jewels,
+  &c., by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722, 1733 and 1823
+  prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers in
+  foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as unlawful
+  were in 1738 declared to be "games or lotteries by cards or dice," and
+  in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include "little-goes
+  and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament, drawn by dice,
+  lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any other way,
+  contrivance or device whatsoever." This wide definition reaches
+  raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of foreign or
+  illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 1836 and 1844. In 1846 art
+  unions were exempted from the scope of the Lottery Acts. Attempts have
+  been made to suppress the sale in England of foreign lottery tickets,
+  but the task is difficult, as the post-office distributes the
+  advertisements, although, under the Revenue Act 1898, the Customs
+  treat as prohibited goods advertisements or notices as to foreign
+  lotteries. More success has been obtained in putting down various
+  devices by newspapers and shopkeepers to attract customers by
+  instituting "missing word competitions" and "racing coupon
+  competitions"; by automatic machines which give speculative chances in
+  addition to the article obtained for the coin inserted; by
+  distribution of prizes by lot or chance to customers; by holding
+  sweepstakes at public-houses, by putting coins in sweetmeats to tempt
+  street urchins by cupidity to indigestion; or by gratuitous
+  distribution of medals giving a chance of a prize from a newspaper. An
+  absolutely gratuitous distribution of chances seems not to be within
+  the acts, but a commercial distribution is, even if individuals who
+  benefit do not pay for their chance.
+
+  As already stated, the keeping of a gaming-house was at common law
+  punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of 1541
+  imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful games.
+  Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but these were
+  abolished in 1555 (2 & 3 Phil. and Mar.). In 1698 lotteries were
+  declared public nuisances, and in 1802 the same measure was meted out
+  to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are provided for
+  those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with cards or dice,
+  &c. (1738, 1739, 1744). In 1751 inhabitants of a parish were enabled
+  to insist on the prosecution of gaming-houses. The act of 1802 imposed
+  severe penalties on persons publicly or privately keeping places for
+  any lottery. This statute hits at the deliberate or habitual use of a
+  place for the prohibited purpose, and does not touch isolated or
+  incidental uses on a single occasion, e.g. at a bazaar or show; but
+  under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery tickets is in itself an
+  offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the search of suspected
+  gaming-houses and the proof that they are such. It provides that, to
+  prove any house to be a common gaming-house, it "shall be sufficient
+  to show that it is kept or used for playing therein at any unlawful
+  game, and that a bank is kept there by one or more of the players
+  exclusively of the others, or that the chances of any game played
+  therein are not alike favourable to all the players, including among
+  the players the banker or other person by whom the game is managed, or
+  against whom the other players stake, play or bet." Gambling, it will
+  be noticed, is still in this definition connected with some kind of
+  game. The act also provides that proof that the gaming was for money
+  shall not be required, and that the presence of cards, dice and other
+  instruments of gaming shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was
+  used as a common gaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with
+  gaming-houses is of 1854, which provides summary remedies against the
+  keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It may
+  be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by cheating at
+  any game or wager punishable in the same way as obtaining money by
+  false pretences. At the present time proceedings for keeping
+  gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is commonly understood
+  are comparatively rare, and are usually against foreigners. The
+  statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses (see the Park Club
+  case, _Jenks_ v. _Turpin_, 1884, 13 Q.B.D. 505, the leading case on
+  unlawful games). The proprietor and the person who keeps the bank at
+  an unlawful game are both within the statute: the players are not, but
+  the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that they can be put under
+  recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses. Under the Licensing Act
+  1872 penalties are incurred by licensed victuallers who suffer any
+  gaming or unlawful game to be played on their premises. A single
+  instance of playing an unlawful game for money in a private house is
+  not within the statutes (_R_. v. _Davies_, 1897, 2 Q.B. 199).
+
+  In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at cards
+  is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pastimes, or
+  speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The legislation
+  against betting _eo nomine_ began in 1853. In the Betting Act 1853 it
+  is described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the injury and
+  demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of places called
+  betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money _in advance_ by
+  the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises to pay money on
+  events or horse races and like contingencies. This act strikes at
+  ready money betting as distinguished from betting on credit ("on the
+  nod"). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open to all and sundry as
+  distinguished from private betting clubs such as Tattersall's. The act
+  seeks to punish persons who keep a house, office, room or other place
+  for the purpose (_inter alia_) of any person betting with persons
+  "resorting thereto" or of receiving deposits in consideration of bets
+  on contingencies relating to horse-races or other races, fights,
+  games, sports or exercises. The act especially excepts persons who
+  receive or hold prizes or stakes to be paid to the winner of a race or
+  lawful sport, game or exercise, or to the owner of a horse engaged in
+  a race (s. 6). Besides the penalties incurred by keeping such places,
+  the keeper is liable to repay to depositors the sums deposited (s. 5).
+
+  By the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed persons
+  who allow their houses to be used in contravention of the Betting Act
+  1853. There has been a great deal of litigation as to the meaning and
+  scope of this enactment, and a keen contest between the police and the
+  Anti-gambling League (which has been very active in the matter) and
+  the betting confraternity, in which much ingenuity has been shown by
+  the votaries of sport in devising means for evading the terms of the
+  enactment. The consequent crop of legal decisions shows a considerable
+  divergence of judicial opinion. The House of Lords has held that the
+  Tattersall's enclosure or betting ring on a racecourse is not a
+  "place" within the statute; and members of a bona-fide club who bet
+  with each other in the club are not subject to the penalties of the
+  act. But the word "place" has been held to include a public-house bar,
+  an archway, a small plot of waste ground, and a bookmaker's stand, and
+  even a bookmaker's big umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from
+  the judges any clear indication of the nature of the "places" to which
+  the act applies. The act is construed as applying only to ready-money
+  betting, i.e. when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only
+  to places used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto;
+  so that bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its
+  penalties. The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as
+  thieves "welshers," who receive and make off with deposits on bets
+  which they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an
+  offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for
+  betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties on
+  persons advertising as to betting. But this has been read as applying
+  to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not prohibit the
+  publication of betting news or sporting tips in newspapers. A few
+  newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in some public
+  libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts crowds of
+  undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great extent
+  effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of them to
+  Holland and other places. But it has been deemed expedient to
+  legislate against betting in the streets, which has been found too
+  attractive to the British workman.
+
+
+    Street betting.
+
+  By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons
+  assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London or
+  county of London for the purpose of betting and deemed to be
+  obstructing the street, may be arrested without warrant by a constable
+  and fined a sum not exceeding £5. The Vagrancy Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict.
+  c. 38) provides that "Every person playing or betting by way of
+  wagering or gaming on any street, road, highway or other open and
+  public place, or in any open place to which the public have, or are
+  permitted to have, access, at or with any table or instrument of
+  gaming, or any coin, card, token or other article used as an
+  instrument or means of gaming, at any game or pretended game of
+  chance, shall be deemed a rogue and vagabond." This act amended a
+  prior act of 1868, passed to repress the practice of playing pitch and
+  toss in the streets, which had become a public nuisance in the
+  colliery districts. The powers of making by-laws for the peace, order
+  and good government of their districts, possessed by municipal
+  boroughs--and since 1888 by county councils--and extended in 1899 to
+  the new London boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by
+  making by-laws forbidding any person to "frequent or use any street or
+  other public place, on behalf either of himself or any other person,
+  for the purpose of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to
+  bet or wager with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling
+  bets." This and similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found
+  inadequate, and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c. 43),
+  passed by the efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence
+  for any person to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on
+  behalf of himself or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking
+  or betting or wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or
+  receiving or settling bets. The punishment for a first offence is fine
+  up to £10, for a second fine up to £20, and the punishment is still
+  higher in the case of a third or subsequent offence, or where the
+  accused while committing the offence has any betting transaction with
+  a person under the age of sixteen. The act does not apply to ground
+  used for a course for horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on
+  which races take place; but the expression public place includes a
+  public park, garden or sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which
+  the public for the time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places
+  other than public parks or gardens to which the public have a
+  restricted right of access with or without payment, if the owners or
+  persons controlling the place exhibit conspicuously a notice
+  prohibiting betting therein. A constable may arrest without warrant
+  persons offending and seize all books, papers, cards and other
+  articles relating to betting found in their possession, and these
+  articles may be forfeited on conviction. Besides the above provision
+  against betting with infants the Betting and Loans (Infants) Act
+  1892, passed at the instance of the late Lord Herschell, makes it a
+  misdemeanour to send, with a view to profit, to any one known by the
+  sender to be an infant, a document inviting him to enter into a
+  betting or wagering transaction. The act is intended to protect lads
+  at school and college from temptation by bookmakers.
+
+
+  Wagering.
+
+We must now turn from the public law with respect to gaming to the
+treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of their obligation
+on the individuals who lose them. A wager may be defined as "a promise
+to give money or money's worth upon the determination or ascertainment
+of an uncertain event" (Anson, _Law of Contract_, 11th ed., p. 206). The
+event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because its
+happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a wager the
+determination of the event must be the sole condition of the bargain.
+According to the view taken in England of the common law, bets or wagers
+were legally enforceable, subject to certain rules dictated by
+considerations of public policy, e.g. that they did not lead to
+immorality or breach of the peace, or expose a third person to
+ridicule.[1] The courts were constantly called upon to enforce wagers
+and constantly exercised their ingenuity to discover excuses for
+refusing. A writer on the law of contracts[2] discovers here the origin
+of that principle of "public policy" which plays so important a part in
+English law. Wagering contracts were rejected because the contingencies
+on which they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common
+weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared void
+because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the king's
+enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest in
+compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the amount of the
+hop-duty was held to be against public policy, because it tended to
+expose the condition of the king's revenue to all the world. A bet
+between two hackney coachmen, as to which of them should be selected by
+a gentleman for a particular journey, was void because it tended to
+expose the customer to their importunities. When no such subtlety could
+be invented, the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the
+fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by the
+judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an action, he
+could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision of more
+important cases.
+
+Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law within
+narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial wagers, and both
+by general and temporary enactments. An example of the latter was 7 Anne
+c. 16 (1710), avoiding all wagers and securities relating to the then
+war with France. The earliest general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7
+(1665), prohibiting the recovery of a sum exceeding £100 lost in games
+or pastimes, or in betting on the sides or hands of the players, and
+avoiding securities for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities
+for such wagers for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders
+for value without notice, and enabled the loser of £10 or upwards to sue
+for and recover the money he had lost within three months of the loss.
+Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering were declared void,
+in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the case of other risks in
+1774. It was not until 1845 that a general rule was made excluding
+wagers from the courts. Section 18 of the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after
+a parliamentary inquiry in 1844 as to gaming) enacted "that all
+contracts or agreements, whether by parole or in writing, by way of
+gaming or wagering shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be
+brought or maintained in any court of law or equity for recovering any
+sum of money or valuable thing alleged to be won upon any wager, or
+which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person to abide the
+event on which any wager shall have been made; provided always that this
+enactment shall not be deemed to apply to any subscription or
+contribution, or agreement to subscribe or contribute, for or towards
+any plate, prize or sum of money to be awarded to the winner or winners
+of any lawful game, sport, pastime or exercise."
+
+The construction put on this enactment enabled turf commission agents
+to recover from their principals bets made and paid for them. But the
+Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any promise, express or implied,
+to repay to any person any sum of money paid by him under, or in respect
+of, any contract or agreement rendered null and void by the Gaming Act
+1845, or to pay any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or
+otherwise in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any
+services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and provided
+that no action should be brought or maintained to recover any such sum.
+By the combined effect of these two enactments the recovery by the
+winner from the loser or stakeholder of bets or of stakes on games
+falling within s. 18 of the Gaming Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but
+persons who have deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not
+debarred from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is
+decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the stake is
+paid over to the winner;[3] and a man who pays a bet for a friend, or a
+turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet for a principal, has
+now no legal means of recovering the money, unless some actual deceit
+was used to induce him to pay in ignorance that it was a bet. But a
+person who has received a bet on account of another can still, it would
+seem, be compelled to pay it over, and the business of a betting man is
+treated as so far lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and
+actions between parties in such a business for the taking of partnership
+accounts have been entertained.
+
+The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares or
+other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to be
+correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two persons,
+having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event (past or
+future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that on the
+determination of the event one shall win, and the other shall pay over a
+sum of money, or other stake, neither party having any other interest in
+the event than the sum or stake to be won or lost. This definition does
+not strike at contracts in "futures," under which the contractors are
+bound to give or take delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in
+existence at the date of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered
+void because they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact,
+their legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
+Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or wagering on
+events in which the assured has no interest present or prospective
+whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774) or maritime risks
+(Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act known as Sir John Barnard's Act (7
+Geo. II. c. 8, entitled "An act to prevent the infamous practice of
+stock jobbing") prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any
+public stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but
+this act was repealed in 1860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks and
+shares are not now void because entered into by way of speculation and
+not for purposes of investment. The only limitation on such contracts is
+that contained in Leeman's Act (30 & 31 Vict. c. 29) as to contracts for
+the sale of shares in joint-stock banking companies. But a transaction
+in any commodity, though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming
+Acts if in substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the
+commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not matter whether
+the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it is entered into on
+the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange, or elsewhere; nor is it
+conclusive in favour of the validity of the bargain that it purports to
+bind the parties to take or deliver the article dealt in. The courts are
+entitled to examine into the true nature of the transaction; and where
+the substantial intention of the parties is merely to gamble in
+differences, to make what is called "a time bargain," the fact that it
+is carried out by a series of contracts, regular and valid in form, will
+not be sufficient to exclude the application of the Gaming Acts.
+
+In very many cases transactions with "outside stockbrokers" or "bucket
+shops" have been held to be mere wagers, although the contracts
+purported to give "put" or "call" options to demand delivery or
+acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the cover deposited by the
+"client" has been treated as a mere security for performance of the
+bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time, i.e. before it is used for
+the purpose for which it is deposited. There was not up to 1909 any
+authoritative decision as to the application of the Gaming Act 1892 to
+transactions on the London Stock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a
+member of "the House"; but the same principle appears to be applicable
+where the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the
+intention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive
+differences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the Stock
+Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people from setting up a
+gaming act defence: as each contract entitles the holder to call for
+delivery or acceptance of the stock named therein. In the event of the
+bankruptcy of a person involved in speculations, the bankruptcy
+officials exclude from proof against the estate all claims founded on
+any dealing in the nature of a wager; and on the same principle the
+bankrupt's trustee cannot recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming
+transactions, but unexhausted "cover" on uncompleted transactions may be
+recovered back.
+
+
+  Gambling debts.
+
+Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or wagers by
+action there has also been a good deal of legislation dealing with
+securities given in respect of "gambling debts." The earliest (1665)
+dealt with persons playing at games otherwise than for ready money and
+losing £100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from
+recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning it.
+An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes, bills,
+bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the consideration
+is for money or valuable security won by gaming at cards, stocks or
+other games, or by betting on the sides or hands of the gamesters, or
+for reimbursing money knowingly advanced for such gaming or betting.
+This act draws a distinction between gaming and other bets or wagers.
+Under this act the securities were void even in the hands of innocent
+transferees. In 1841 the law was altered, declaring such securities not
+void but made upon an "illegal" consideration. The effect of the change
+is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note or
+cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the original
+taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to put on him
+the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder for value. In the
+case of a negotiable security given for a wager not within the acts of
+1710 or 1841 (e.g. a bet on a contested election), but within the act of
+1845, a third person holding it would be presumed to be a holder for
+value and on the person prima facie liable under the security falls the
+burden of proving that no consideration was given for it. It has been
+decided after considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action
+will not lie in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a
+cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at
+baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the game.
+The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming Acts of 1845 and
+1892 as the _lex fori_ prohibit the English courts from enforcing gaming
+debts wherever incurred (_Moulis_ v. _Owen_, 1907, 1 K.B. 746).
+
+  _Scotland._--A Scots act of 1621 c. 14 (said still to be in force)
+  forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry, and
+  directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding or
+  dicing or at wagers on horse races should be at once sent to the
+  treasurer of the kirk session. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1698,
+  apply to Scotland; and the Betting House Act 1853 was extended to
+  Scotland in 1874. The Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scotland, and
+  gaming houses can be suppressed under the Burgh Police Act 1892, and
+  street betting, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903.
+
+  The Scots courts refuse to try actions on wagers, as being _sponsiones
+  ludicrae_, unbecoming the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 19 and 5 &
+  6 Will. IV. c. 41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of judicial
+  opinion is that the Gaming Act 1845 does not.
+
+  _Ireland._--The British Acts against lotteries were extended to
+  Ireland in 1780, and the general law as to gaming is the same in both
+  countries.
+
+  _British Possessions._--Certain of the earlier imperial acts are in
+  force in British possessions, e.g. the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is
+  in force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the Straits
+  Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordinances directed
+  against gambling and lotteries, and particularly against forms of
+  gambling introduced by the Chinese. Under these ordinances the money
+  paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law. In the Transvaal
+  betting houses were suppressed by proclamation (No. 33) soon after the
+  annexation. An invention known in France as the _pari mutuel_, and in
+  Australia as the totalizator, is allowed to be used on race-courses in
+  most of the states (but not in New South Wales). In Queensland, South
+  Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia the state levies a duty on
+  the takings of the machine. In Tasmania the balance of the money
+  retained by the stewards of the course less the tax must be applied
+  solely for improving the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria
+  under an act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by advertisement duly
+  posted make betting on the ground illegal.
+
+  _Egypt._--By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with
+  certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or
+  offer them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the
+  notice of the public. The authorized lotteries are those for
+  charitable purposes, e.g. those of the benevolent societies of the
+  various foreign communities.
+
+  _United States._--In the United States many of the states make gaming
+  a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse race, or
+  a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given upon a bet
+  are often made void, and this may destroy a gaming note in the hands
+  of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies outside of the
+  province of the federal government. By the legislation of some states
+  the loser may recover his money if he sue within a limited time, as he
+  might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Brandt on _Games_ (1872); Oliphant, _Law of Horses, &c._
+  (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the _Stock Exchange_ (1905);
+  Melsheimer on the _Stock Exchange_ (4th ed., 1905); Coldridge and
+  Hawksford, _The Law of Gambling_ (1895); Stutfield, _Betting_ (3rd
+  ed., 1901).     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Leake on _Contracts_ (4th ed.), p. 529.
+
+  [2] Pollock, _Contracts_ (7th ed.), p. 313.
+
+  [3] _Burge_ v. _Ashby_, 1900, 1 Q.B. 744.
+
+
+
+
+GAMUT (from the Greek letter _gamma_, used as a musical symbol, and
+_ut_, the first syllable of the medieval hymn _Sanctus Johannes_), a
+term in music used to mean generally the whole compass or range of notes
+possessed by an instrument or voice. Historically, however, the sense
+has developed from its stricter musical meaning of a scale (the
+recognized musical scale of any period), originating in the medieval
+"great scale," of which the invention has usually been ascribed to Guido
+of Arezzo (q.v.) in the 11th century. The whole question is somewhat
+obscure, but, in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical
+alphabetical system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more
+properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales the
+semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord, as G, A,
+[flat]B, C, so the [natural]B and # F of the second octave were in false
+relation to the [flat]B and [natural]F of the first two tetrachords. To
+this scale of four notes, G, A, [flat]B, C, were subsequently added a
+note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with the semitone
+between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as F, G, A, [flat]B, C, D. It
+was at a much later date that the 7th, our leading note, was admitted
+into a key, and for this the first two letters of the last line of the
+above-named hymn, "Sanctus Johannes," would have been used, save for the
+notion that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel
+should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the syllable Si
+was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable Ut was replaced by
+Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France; and in these two
+countries, with whatever others employ their nomenclature, the original
+Ut and the substituted Do stand for the sound defined by the letter C in
+English and German terminology. The literal musical alphabet thus
+accords with the syllabic: A (La), B (Si), C (Ut or Do), D (Re), E (Mi),
+F (Fa), G (Sol). In Germany a remnant of Greek use survives. A was
+originally followed in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical
+Mese was followed by Paramese, and this note, namely [flat]B, is still
+called B in German, English [natural]B (French and Italian Si) being
+represented by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted, did
+not pass out of use until the 19th century, regarded the hexachord and
+not the octachord, employed both letters and syllables, made the former
+invariable while changing the latter according to key relationship, and
+acknowledged only the three keys of G, C and F; it took its name from
+having the Greek letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the
+Latin letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the
+other notes.
+
+
+
+
+GANDAK, a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal-Himalayas,
+flows south-west until it reaches British territory, where it forms the
+boundary between the United Provinces and Bengal for a considerable
+portion of its course, and falls into the Ganges opposite Patna. It is a
+snow-fed stream, and the surrounding country in the plains, lying at a
+lower level than its banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is
+accordingly enclosed by protective embankments.
+
+The LITTLE GANDAK rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur district
+about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just within the Saran
+district of Bengal.
+
+The BURHI (or old) GANDAK also rises in the Nepal hills, and follows a
+course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak, of which it
+represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and joining the Ganges
+nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal tributary is the Baghmati,
+which rises in the hills N. of Kathmandu, flows in a southerly direction
+through Tirhut, and joins the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera.
+
+
+
+
+GANDAMAK, a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad on the road to
+Kabul. On the retreat from Kabul of General Elphinstone's army in 1842,
+a hill near Gandamak was the scene of the massacre of the last survivors
+of the force, twenty officers and forty-five British soldiers. It is
+also notable for the treaty of Gandamak, which was signed here in 1879
+with Yakub Khan. (See AFGHANISTAN.)
+
+
+
+
+GANDERSHEIM, a town of Germany in the duchy of Brunswick, in the deep
+valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick, on the railway
+Böissum-Holzminden. Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two Protestant churches of
+which the convent church (_Stiftskirche_) contains the tombs of famous
+abbesses, a palace (now used as law courts) and the famous abbey (now
+occupied by provincial government offices). There are manufactures of
+linen, cigars, beet-root sugar and beer.
+
+The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of Saxony, who
+removed here in 856 the nuns who had been shortly before established at
+Brunshausen. His own daughter Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was
+succeeded on her death by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga's
+government Louis III. granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess
+was to continue in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was
+found competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the abbey
+a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop of Hildesheim
+and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested with each other about its
+supervision, Pope Innocent III. declared it altogether independent of
+both. The abbey was ultimately recognized as holding directly of the
+Empire, and the abbess had a vote in the imperial diet. The conventual
+estates were of great extent, and among the feudatories who could be
+summoned to the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the
+king of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1568, and Magdalena,
+the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant abbesses
+were appointed to the foundation, and continued to enjoy their imperial
+privileges till 1803, when Gandersheim was incorporated with Brunswick.
+The last abbess, Augusta Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the
+ducal house, and kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim
+will long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the famous
+Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the 9th century; and the
+rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim ranks as in all probability
+the earliest historical work composed in low German.
+
+  The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the
+  monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the _Monumenta Germ. historica_
+  (1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse
+  (Göttingen, 1872). See also "Agii vita Hathumodae abbatissae
+  Gandershemensis primae," in J.G. von Eckhart's _Veterum monumentorum
+  quaternio_ (Leipzig, 1720); and Hase, _Mittelalterliche Baudenkmäler
+  Niedersachsens_ (1870).
+
+
+
+
+GANDHARVA, in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote (1) in the
+Rig-Veda usually a minor deity; (2) in later writings a class of divine
+beings. As a unity Gandharva has no special attributes but many duties,
+and is in close relation with the great gods. Thus he is director of the
+sun's horses; he is guardian of soma, the sacred liquor, and therefore
+is regarded as the heavenly physician, soma being a panacea. He is
+servant of Agni the god of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is
+omnipresent: in the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the
+keeper of heaven's secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men.
+He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife he has
+the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her became father
+of the first mortals, Yama and Yami. He is the tutelary deity of women
+and presides over marriage ceremonies. In their collective capacity the
+Gandharva share the duties allotted to the single deity. They live in
+the house of Indra and with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time
+by singing, acting and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as
+numbering twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In
+Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual consent and
+without formality.
+
+
+
+
+GANDÍA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the
+Gandía-Alcóy and Alcira-Denia railways. Pop. (1900) 10,026. Gandía is on
+the left bank of the river Alcóy or Sérpis, which waters one of the
+richest and most populous plains of Valencia and enters the
+Mediterranean Sea at the small harbour of Gandía (_El Grao_), 3 m. N.E.
+The chief ancient buildings of Gandía are the Gothic church, the
+college, founded by San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the
+order of Jesus (1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandía--a
+title held in the 15th and 16th centuries by members of the princely
+house of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and the
+palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manufactures of
+leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandía has a thriving export trade in
+fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour. In 1904, 400 vessels,
+of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour.
+
+
+
+
+GANDO, a sultanate of British West Africa, included in the protectorate
+of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger above Borgu. The
+sultanate was established, c. 1819, on the death of Othman Dan Fodio,
+the founder of the Fula empire, and its area and importance varied
+considerably during the 19th century, several of the Fula emirates being
+regarded as tributaries, while Gando itself was more or less dependent
+on Sokoto. Gando in the middle of the century included both banks of the
+Niger at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British
+protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been in treaty
+relations with the British, and in 1903 the part assigned to the British
+sphere by agreement with France came definitely under the control of the
+administration in Nigeria. Gando now forms the sub-province of the
+double province of Sokoto. The emir was appointed under British
+authority after the conquest of Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the
+province has been organized for administration on the same system as the
+rest of the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native
+courts of justice have been established, roads have been opened, the
+slave trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new
+scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga and
+Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto, the first
+considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about 60 m. S.W. of
+the town of Sokoto.
+
+
+
+
+GANESA, or GANESH, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom and prudence,
+always represented with an elephant's head possibly to indicate his
+sagacity. He is the son of Siva and Parvati. He is among the most
+popular of Indian deities, and almost every act, religious or social, in
+a Hindu's life begins with an invocation to him, as do most books. He
+typifies not the wisdom of knowledge but that worldly wisdom which
+results in financial success, and thus he is particularly the god of the
+Hindu shopkeeper. In his divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of
+heaven, the spirits which come and go to do Indra's will.
+
+
+
+
+GANGES (GANGA), a great river of northern India, formed by the drainage
+of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This mighty stream, which in
+its lower course supplies the river system of Bengal, rises in the
+Garhwal state, and falls into the Bay of Bengal after a course of 1500
+m. It issues, under the name of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the
+foot of a Himalayan snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level
+of the sea.
+
+  During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it
+  receives the Jahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the
+  Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of the Ganges.
+  Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place of
+  pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream. At
+  Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to
+  Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous
+  course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
+  Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it receives the
+  Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more than a series of
+  broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of course, during
+  the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy season. At
+  Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty sister stream,
+  which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west of the sources
+  of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards by south-east
+  through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti and the Gogra. The
+  point of junction with both the Gumti and the Gogra has more or less
+  pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of land at Allahabad, where the
+  Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true Prayag, _the_ place of
+  pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of devout Hindus repair to
+  wash away their sins in the sacred river. It is here that the great
+  festival called the Magh mela is held.
+
+  Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters
+  Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from the
+  south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume from
+  the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it receives the
+  Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply to the
+  southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur. By this
+  time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flies, from the
+  sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over the level
+  country, and this spot marks the commencement of the delta, 220 m. in
+  a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river, from the Bay of
+  Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the Padma or Padda, and
+  proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past Pabna to Goalanda, above
+  which it is joined by the Jamuna or main stream of the Brahmaputra.
+  The vast confluence of waters rushes towards the sea, receiving
+  further additions from the hill country on the east, and forming a
+  broad estuary known under the name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay
+  of Bengal near Noakhali. This estuary, however, is only the largest
+  and most easterly of a great number of mouths or channels. The most
+  westerly is the Hugli, which receives the waters of a number of
+  distributary channels that start from the parent Ganges above
+  Murshidabad. Between the Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the east
+  lies the delta. The upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile
+  districts, such as Murshidabad, Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas.
+  But towards its southern base, resting on the sea, the country sinks
+  into a series of great swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable
+  channels. This wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the
+  _sundari_ tree, which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts.
+
+  The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the Hugli, on
+  which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth. Beyond this city
+  the navigation is conducted by native craft,--the modern facilities
+  for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the river having put
+  an end to the previous steamer communication, which plied until about
+  1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below Calcutta important boat routes
+  through the delta connect the Hugli with the eastern branches of the
+  river, for both native craft and steamers.
+
+  The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities: Calcutta, Monghyr,
+  Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction
+  with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are on the
+  Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is bounded on the
+  N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan range, on the S. by
+  the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the ranges which separate
+  Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin thus enclosed embraces 432,480
+  sq. m. According to the latest calculations, the length of the main
+  stream of the Ganges is 1540 m., or with its longest affluent, 1680;
+  breadth at true entrance into the sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in
+  dry season, 1¼ to 2¼ m.; depth in dry season, 30 ft.; flood discharge,
+  1,800,000 cub. ft. per second; ordinary discharge, 207,000 cub. ft.;
+  longest duration of flood, about 40 days. The average fall from
+  Allahabad to Benares is 6 in. per mile; from Benares to Calcutta,
+  between 4 and 5 in.; from Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great
+  changes take place from time to time in the river-bed, which alter the
+  face of the country. Extensive islands are thrown up, and attach
+  themselves to the mainland, while the river deserts its old bed and
+  seeks a new channel, it may be many miles off. Such changes are so
+  rapid and on so vast a scale, and the corroding power of the current
+  on the bank so irresistible, that in Lower Bengal it is considered
+  perilous to build any structure of a large or permanent character on
+  its margin. Many decayed or ruined cities attest the changes in the
+  river-bed in ancient times; and within our own times the main channel
+  which formerly passed Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the
+  town high and dry, 7 m. from the bank.
+
+  The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as far as
+  Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been sanctioned.
+
+  The UPPER GANGES CANAL and the LOWER GANGES CANAL are the two
+  principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Provinces. The
+  Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and irrigates
+  978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of the original
+  canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates 830,000 acres.
+  The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna, command the greater
+  portion of the Doab lying between the Ganges and the Jumna, above
+  Allahabad. Navigation in either is insignificant.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among the Himalaya
+Mountains. It is situated in the native state of Garhwal in the United
+Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief head-stream of the Ganges, which
+is here not above 15 or 20 yds. broad, with a moderate current, and not
+in general above 3 ft. deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and
+on the bank near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in
+which are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of
+mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century. The bed of
+the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the Brahmans into three
+basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of these portions is dedicated to
+Brahma, another to Vishnu and the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to
+Gangotri is considered efficacious in washing away the sins of the
+devotee, and ensuring him eternal happiness in the world to come. The
+water taken from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and
+sold at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is
+10,319 ft.
+
+
+
+
+GANGPUR, a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until 1905 among
+the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by Ranchi district, E. by the
+Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the
+Central Provinces. The country is for the most part an undulating plain,
+broken by detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range,
+possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from the
+plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with two
+flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani, formed here by
+the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both navigable by canoes. The
+Ib was formerly famous on account of diamonds found in its bed, and its
+sands are still washed for gold. One of the largest coalfields in India
+extends into the state, and iron ore is also found. Jungle
+products--lac, silk cocoons, catechu and resin, which are exported; wild
+animals--bisons, buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals,
+wild dogs and many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
+238,896; estimated revenue, £16,000.
+
+
+
+
+GANGRENE (from Gr. [Greek: gangraina], an eating sore, from [Greek:
+grainein], to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (q.v.), or
+a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the circulation
+by various causes.
+
+
+
+
+GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and politician, was born
+at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January 1758. He was educated for
+the profession of law and practised as _avocat_. During the troubled
+period which culminated in the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of
+July 1789, he came prominently forward in public affairs, and was one of
+the seven members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat
+at the hôtel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, and
+was only released by the counter-revolution of the 9th Thermidor. During
+the first consulate he was called to the tribunate, but was excluded in
+1802. In 1815 he was elected deputy for Cantal, and finally left the
+Chamber on its dissolution in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best
+known as the most vigorous defender of the mercantile school in
+opposition to the views of Adam Smith and the English economists.
+
+  His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision with
+  which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess much
+  value for the student of political economy. He wrote _Essai politique
+  sur le revenue des peuples de l'antiquité, du moyen âge, &c._ (1808);
+  _Des systèmes d'économie politique_ (1809); _Théorie d'économie
+  politique_ (1815); _Dictionnaire analytique de l'économie politique_
+  (1826).
+
+
+
+
+GANJAM, a district of British India, in the extreme north-east of the
+Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much of the district is
+exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is interspersed with open valleys
+and fertile plains. Pleasant groves of trees in the plains give to the
+scenery a greener appearance than is usually met with in the districts
+to the south. The mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of
+the Eastern Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft.--its
+principal peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and
+Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam, with an
+area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114, mostly wild
+backward tribes, incapable of being governed under ordinary conditions
+and therefore ruled by an agent of the governor with special powers. The
+chief rivers are the Rushikulya, the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The
+sea and river fisheries afford a livelihood to a considerable section of
+the population. The hilly region abounds in forests consisting
+principally of _sal_, with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller
+quantities.
+
+Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its early history
+is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the Gajapati dynasty
+ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract became even nominally a
+part of their dominions. Owing to the nature of the country the rising
+Mahommedan power was long kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a
+century after the first invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor
+was sent to govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present
+district of Ganjam. In 1753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were
+made over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his
+French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an English force
+sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to abandon Ganjam and
+their other factories in the north. In 1765 the Northern Circars
+(including Ganjam) were granted to the English by imperial firman, and
+in August 1768 an English factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a
+fort. The present district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the
+earlier years of British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in
+the administration of the district; and on more than one occasion the
+refractory large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular
+troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in 1836 occurred
+the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came into contact with the
+aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose practice of human sacrifice
+was successfully accomplished. A petty rising of a section of the Kondhs
+occurred in 1865, which was, however, suppressed without the aid of
+regular troops.
+
+In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,256, showing an increase of
+20% in the decade. There are two systems of government irrigation: (1)
+the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam minor rivers system. The
+principal crops are rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and a
+little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is evaporated, as a government
+monopoly, along the coast. Sugar is refined, according to German
+methods, at Aska, where rum also is produced. A considerable trade is
+conducted at the ports of Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open
+roadsteads. The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast
+railway (Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to Madras
+in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlakimedi. The
+headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of Ganjam occupied this
+position till 1815, when it was found unhealthy, and its importance has
+since declined.
+
+
+
+
+GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS (1791-1852), French chemist, was born at
+Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered the medical
+department of the French army, and witnessed the retreat from Moscow in
+1812. After the downfall of the empire he worked at the École
+Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at the Faculty of Sciences as
+assistant to L.J. Thénard. His contributions to technical chemistry
+included a method of refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers
+formed of gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for
+manufacturing glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c. The Institute
+awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of chlorine as a
+remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for his discovery of the
+efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and chloride for preserving
+anatomical preparations. In the latter part of his life he turned his
+attention to embalmment, his method depending on the injection of
+solutions of aluminium salts into the arteries. He died at Paris in
+January 1852. His son FELIX, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the
+question of the disposal of the dead, among his publications being _Mort
+réelle et mort apparente_ (1868), _Inhumation et crémation_ (1876), and
+_Les Cimetières_ (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of
+which only one volume appeared.
+
+
+
+
+GANNET (O.E. _ganot_) or SOLAN GOOSE,[1] the _Pelecanus bassanus_ of
+Linnaeus and the _Sula bassana_ of modern ornithologists, a large
+sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose of breeding,
+to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of Forth, and to certain
+other islands off the coast of Britain, of which four are in Scottish
+waters--namely, Ailsa Craig, at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the
+group known collectively as St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east
+of the Butt of Lewis; and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance
+westward of Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the
+coast of Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and
+it resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel--its only
+English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settlements are
+Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and various small islands
+off the coast of Iceland, of which the Vestmannaeyjar, the Reykjanes
+Fuglaskér and Grimsey are the chief. On the western side of the Atlantic
+it appears to have but five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four
+rocks in the Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird
+arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn when
+its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-season many of
+the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions at a vast distance
+from their home, while at other times of the year their range is greater
+still, for they not only frequent the North Sea and the English Channel,
+but stray to the Baltic, and, in winter, extend their flight to the
+Madeiras, while the members of the species of American birth traverse
+the ocean from the shores of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: Gannet, or Solan Goose.]
+
+Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail, the
+gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is white,
+tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer edge and
+principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare spaces round the
+eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin. The first plumage of the
+young is of a deep brown above, but paler beneath, and each feather is
+tipped with a triangular white spot. The nest is a shallow depression,
+either on the ground itself or on a pile of turf, grass and
+seaweed--which last is often conveyed from a great distance. The single
+egg it contains has a white shell of the same chalky character as a
+cormorant's. The young are hatched blind and naked, but the
+slate-coloured skin with which their body is covered is soon clothed
+with white down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark
+colour already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be
+attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the majority of
+gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood of their
+breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea, follow the
+shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of which they are most
+useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great distance from land. Their
+prey is almost invariably captured by plunging upon it from a height,
+and a company of gannets fishing presents a curious and interesting
+spectacle. Flying in a line, each bird, when it comes over the shoal,
+closes its wings and dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it
+emerges after a few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers,
+mounts in a wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the
+string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself
+above its prey.[2]
+
+Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note, such as its
+closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all connected by a
+web--characters which it possesses in common with most of the other
+members of the group of birds (_Steganopodes_) to which it belongs. But
+more remarkable still is the system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of
+large size, pervading almost the whole surface of the body,
+communicating with the lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied
+at the will of the bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of
+several writers--Montagu, Sir R. Owen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1831, p. 90),
+and Macgillivray.
+
+In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two nearly
+allied but somewhat smaller forms--one, _Sula capensis_, inhabiting the
+coast of South Africa, and the other, _S. serrator_, the Australian
+seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but the former seems to
+have a permanently black tail, and the latter a tail the four middle
+feathers of which are blackish-brown with white shafts.
+
+Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the smaller
+birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extraordinary stupidity
+they commonly display. They differ, however, in having no median stripe
+of bare skin down the front of the throat; they almost invariably breed
+upon trees and are inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, _S.
+cyanops_, when adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but _S.
+piscator_ is readily distinguishable by its red legs, and _S.
+leucogaster_ by its upper plumage and neck of deep brown. These three
+are widely distributed within the tropics, and are in some places
+exceedingly abundant. The fourth, _S. variegata_, which seems to
+preserve throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the
+immature _S. bassana_, has a much more limited range, being as yet only
+known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which
+contribute to the formation of guano. (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The phrase _ganotes bæð_ (gannet's bath), a periphrasis for the
+    sea, occurs in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, in reference to events
+    which took place A.D. 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose
+    learned treatise on this bird (_Ibis_, 1866, p. 1) nearly exhausts
+    all that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further
+    on (p. 13) this writer remarks:--"The name gannet is intimately
+    connected with our modern English gander, both words being
+    modifications of the ancient British 'gan' or 'gans,' which is the
+    same word as the modern German 'Gans,' which in its turn corresponds
+    with the old High German 'Kans,' the Greek [Greek: chên], the Latin
+    _anser_, and the Sanskrit 'hansa,' all of which possess the same
+    signification, viz. a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland,
+    sulan, sula and haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is
+    not so obvious. Martin [_Voy. St Kilda_] informs us that 'some
+    imagine that the word solan comes from the Irish souler, corrupted
+    and adapted to the Scottish language, _qui oculis irretortis e
+    longinquo respiciat praedam_.' The earlier writers in general derive
+    the word from the Latin _solea_, in consequence of the bird's
+    supposed habit of hatching its egg with its foot; and in a note
+    intercalated into Ray's description of the solan goose in the edition
+    of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society, and edited by Dr
+    Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the statement is
+    given, that 'the gannet, _Sula alba_, should be written solent goose,
+    i.e. a channel goose.'" Hereon an editorial note remarks that this
+    last statement appears to have been a suggestion of Yarrell's, and
+    that it seems at least as possible that the "Solent" took its name
+    from the bird.
+
+  [2] The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they
+    take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations on
+    this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that
+    in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as
+    plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were
+    more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by
+    Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at
+    12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in
+    1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their
+    number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (_Report on the Herring
+    Fisheries of Scotland_, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),--being a diminution
+    of one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.
+
+
+
+
+GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth),
+a group of specialized North American Lower and Middle Eocene mammals of
+uncertain affinity. The group includes _Hemiganus_, _Psittacotherium_
+and _Conoryctes_ from the Puerco, _Calamodon_ and _Hemiganus_ from the
+Wasatch, and _Stylinodon_ from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of
+_Conoryctes_, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests
+affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones.
+The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be considered
+ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the molars when first
+developed have tritubercular summits, but these soon become worn away,
+leaving tall columnar crowns, with a subcircular surface of dentine
+exposed at the summit of each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a
+comparatively full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested
+with enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth
+never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life. These and
+other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard the Ganodonta as an
+ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this view is not accepted by Prof.
+W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally assigned to _Calamodon_ have been
+obtained from the Lower Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.
+
+  See J.L. Wortman, "The Ganodonta and their Relationship to the
+  Edentata," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott,
+  "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to
+  Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at Berlin on the 22nd
+of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents. He studied law first at
+Berlin, then at Göttingen, and finally at Heidelberg, where he attended
+Hegel's lectures, and became thoroughly imbued with the principles of
+the Hegelian philosophy. In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he
+returned to Berlin as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and
+the following year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary,
+professor in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical
+school of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed
+owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied the
+method to one special branch--the right of succession. His great work,
+_Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung_ (1824, 1825, 1829 and
+1835), is of permanent value, not only for its extensive survey of
+facts, but for the admirable manner in which the general theory of the
+slow evolution of legal principles is presented. In 1830, and again in
+1835, Gans visited Paris, and formed an intimate acquaintance with the
+leaders of literary culture and criticism there. The liberality of his
+views, especially on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure
+of the Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of
+the last fifty years (published as _Vorlesungen über d. Geschichte d.
+letzten fünfzig Jahre_, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He died at
+Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works above mentioned,
+there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental laws of property
+(_Über die Grundlage des Besitzes_, Berlin, 1829), a portion of a
+systematic work on the Roman civil law (_System des römischen
+Civil-Rechts_, 1827), and a collection of his miscellaneous writings
+(_Vermischte Schriften_, 1832). Gans edited the _Philosophie der
+Geschichte_ in Hegel's _Werke_, and contributed an admirable preface.
+
+  See _Revue des deux mondes_ (Dec. 1839).
+
+
+
+
+GÄNSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Austrian musical composer, was
+born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His father, a schoolmaster and
+teacher of music, undertook his son's early education, which the boy
+continued under various masters till 1802, when he became the pupil of
+the celebrated Abbé G.J. Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and
+with his fellow-pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits,
+Gänsbacher's permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was
+during his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt,
+that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the close
+friendship which sprang up among the three young musicians, and was
+dissolved by death only, has become celebrated in the history of their
+art. But Gänsbacher was himself by no means without merit. He creditably
+filled the responsible and difficult post of director of the music at St
+Stephen's cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844);
+and his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They consist
+chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies, motets,
+offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also wrote several
+sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions of a dramatic
+kind.
+
+
+
+
+GANTÉ, a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft. It is largely
+used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has the appearance of
+a fine hessian cloth.
+
+
+
+
+GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of Dardania, and
+Callirrhoë. He was the most beautiful of mortals, and was carried off by
+the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself, or by Zeus in the form of
+an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12;
+Virgil, _Aeneid_, v. 254; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 255). By way of
+compensation, Zeus presented his father with a team of immortal horses
+(or a golden vine). Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of
+the fountains of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and
+identified by astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the
+divinity that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius
+who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When pederasty
+became common in Greece, an attempt was made to justify it and invest it
+with dignity by referring to the rape of the beautiful boy by Zeus; in
+Crete, where the love of boys was reduced to a system, Minos, the
+primitive ruler and law-giver, was said to have been the ravisher of
+Ganymede. Thus the name which once denoted the good genius who bestowed
+the precious gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar
+Latin under the form _Catamitus_. Ganymede being carried off by the
+eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor
+Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E. Veckenstedt
+(_Ganymedes_, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that Ganymede is the
+genius of intoxicating drink ([Greek: methu], mead, for which he
+postulates a form [Greek: mêdos]), whose original home was Phrygia.
+
+  See article by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. In
+  the article GREEK ART, fig. 53 (Pl. 1.) gives an illustration of
+  Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.
+
+
+
+
+GAO, GAO-GAO, or GARO, a town of French West Africa, in the Upper
+Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger, 400 m. by river
+below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The present town dates from the French
+occupation in 1900; of the ancient city there are scanty ruins, the
+chief being a truncated pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century)
+of Mahommed Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque.
+According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient times
+and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with the Egyptians.
+It is known, however, that the city of which the French settlement is
+the successor was founded by the Songhoi, probably in the 7th or 8th
+century, and became the capital of their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears
+to have been the correct name of the Songhoi city, though it was also
+known as Gogo and Kuku (Kaougha)[1]. In the 12th century Idrisi
+describes Kuku as a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and
+industry; it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao
+but to another town somewhat to the south--at that period the middle
+course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks. In the
+14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and its great
+mosque was built (c. 1325) by the Melle sovereign Kunkur Musa on his
+return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the 15th century the Songhoi
+regained power and Gao attained its greatest prosperity in the reign of
+Askia. It did not enjoy the commercial importance of Jenné nor the
+intellectual supremacy of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the
+western Sudan for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power
+the city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the _Ruma_
+of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the Tuareg, the last
+named surrendering possession to the French. The first European to reach
+Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth,
+and in 1896 by the French naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the
+headquarters of a military district. A caravan route leads from it to
+Kano and Bornu. From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.
+
+  See TIMBUKTU. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article by F.
+  Dubois in _L'Afrique française_ (January 1909).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake Chad in
+    the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the Bulala
+    dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose rule in the
+    15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The existence of the
+    state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the Bornuese it was
+    known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which persists as that of a
+    district in French Congo (see BORNU). The similarity of the name
+    Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given rise to much
+    confusion.
+
+
+
+
+GAOL, or JAIL, a prison (q.v.). The two forms of the word are due to the
+parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French respectively,
+_jaiole_ or _jaole_, and _gaiole_ or _gayolle_. The common origin is the
+med. Lat. _gabiola_, a diminutive formed from _cavea_, a hollow, a den,
+from which the English "cave" is derived. The form "gaol" still commonly
+survives in English, and is in official usage, e.g. "gaol-delivery," but
+the common pronunciation of both words, "jail," shows the real surviving
+word.
+
+
+
+
+GAON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural _Geonim_), the title given to the
+heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia, Sura and Pumbeditha.
+Though the name is far older, it is chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived
+between the close of the Talmud and the transference of the centre of
+Judaism from Asia to Europe--i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle
+of the 11th century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the
+Exilarchs (see EXILARCH) but were otherwise independent. They exercised
+wide authority and were appealed to in settlement of the social and
+religious affairs of the diaspora. To them must be assigned the
+arrangement of the main lines of the present Synagogue liturgy. Their
+chief literary activity took the form of Answers to Questions--a form
+which was extensively used in later centuries. The most noted of the
+Geonim, who will be found treated under their respective names, were
+Ahai, Amram, Semach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038,
+closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a half
+centuries.
+
+  A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the _Jewish
+  Encyclopaedia_, vol. v. p. 571.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes Alpes. Pop.
+(1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built at a height of 2418 ft.
+on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent of the Durance), in an
+agreeable position, and is dominated afar by snowy peaks on the N.E. The
+little city has the look of a Provençal town, being white. The
+17th-century cathedral church has been entirely reconstructed
+(1866-1905). In the prefecture is the tomb of the constable de
+Lesdiguières (1543-1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine
+sculptor, Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific
+and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives, which
+include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c. There are a few
+small manufactories of purely local importance. Gap is connected by
+railway with Briançon (51½ m.) and with Grenoble (85½ m.), while from
+the railway junction of Veynes (16½ m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m. by rail
+to Marseilles. The episcopal see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical
+province of Aix en Provence, is first certainly mentioned in the 6th
+century, and in 1791 was enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun
+(then suppressed).
+
+Gap is the _Vapincum_ of the Romans, and was founded by Augustus about
+14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in 1232 most of the region
+passed by marriage to the dauphins of Viennois. The town itself,
+however, remained under the rule of the bishops until 1512, when it was
+annexed to the crown of France. The bishops continued to bear the title
+of count of Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the
+Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. It was the
+birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), who first
+preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562, but then took refuge in
+Switzerland.
+
+  See J. Roman, _Histoire de la ville de Gap_ (Gap, 1892).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
+3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 11,278. It is situated
+in a rich rice-growing region, and extensive forests in its vicinity
+contain fine hardwoods. Its climate is comparatively cool and healthy.
+The principal native dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is
+the oldest town of the province.
+
+
+
+
+GARARISH (KARARISH), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling
+along the right bank of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Merawi. Many members
+of the tribe are agriculturists, others act as guides or transport
+drivers. They declare themselves kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are
+more Arab than Beja.
+
+
+
+
+GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was the son of a
+Servian peasant, who made money by exporting cattle and pigs to Austria
+and by his intelligence and wealth attained to a certain influence in
+the country. He wanted to give his son as good an education as possible,
+and therefore sent him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in
+a German school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular
+although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very quickly
+came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him a colonel and
+commander of the then just organized regular army of Servia. In 1842 he
+was called to the position of assistant to the home minister, and from
+that time until his retirement from public life in 1867 he was
+repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing himself by the
+energy and justice of his administration. But he rendered far greater
+services to his country as minister for foreign affairs. He was the
+first Servian statesman who had a political programme, and who worked to
+replace the Russian protectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate
+of all the great powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in
+1853 he was decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against
+Turkey and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in Prince
+Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853, peremptorily
+demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander Karageorgevich) his
+dismissal. But although dismissed, his personal influence in the country
+secured the neutrality of Servia during the Crimean War. He enjoyed
+esteem in France, and it was due to him that France proposed to the
+peace conference of Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to
+Servia by Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be
+replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a European
+international commission. But the agreement of the powers was not
+secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander Karageorgevich to convoke a
+national assembly, which had not been called to meet for ten years. The
+assembly was convoked for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to
+dethrone Prince Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh
+Obrenovich. When after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince
+Michael ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign
+affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that Servia
+was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution, and that
+she obtained, without war, the evacuation of all the fortresses
+garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the Servian territory, including the
+fortress of Belgrade (1867). Garashanin was preparing a general rising
+of the Balkan nations against the Turkish rule, and had entered into
+confidential arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians,
+Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. But the
+execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden resignation (at the
+end of 1867), and more especially by the assassination of Prince Michael
+a few months later (the 10th of June 1868). Although he was a
+Conservative in politics, and as such often in conflict with the leader
+of the Liberal movement, Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the
+ablest statesmen whom Servia had in the 19th century.     (C. Mi.)
+
+
+
+
+GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1740-1833), French writer and politician, was
+born at Bayonne on the 8th of September 1749. After receiving a good
+education under the direction of a relation who was a curé, and having
+been an advocate at Bordeaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained
+introductions to the most distinguished writers of the time, and became
+a contributor to the _Encyclopédie méthodique_ and the _Mercure de
+France_. He gained considerable reputation by an éloge on Michel de
+L'Hôpital in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy
+for éloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was named
+professor of history at the _Lycée_, where his lectures enjoyed an equal
+popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on literature. Being chosen a
+deputy to the states-general in 1789, he rendered important service to
+the popular cause by his narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly
+contributed to the _Journal de Paris_. Possessing strongly optimist
+views, a mild and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable
+convictions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great
+political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying out
+the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of justice in 1792,
+and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he called the _commission
+affreuse_ of communicating to Louis XVI. his sentence of death. In 1793
+he became minister of the interior. In this capacity he proved himself
+quite inefficient. Though himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most
+scandalous corruption in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably
+organized detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every
+movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order, which
+might easily have been done by a moderate display of firmness. At last,
+disgusted with the excesses which he had been unable to control, he
+resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of October he was arrested for
+Girondist sympathies but soon released, and he escaped further
+molestation owing to the friendship of Barras and, more especially, of
+Robespierre, whose literary _amour-propre_ he had been careful to
+flatter. On the 9th Thermidor, however, he took sides against
+Robespierre, and on the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the
+Convention as a member of the executive committee of public instruction.
+In 1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following year
+he became a member, then president, of the Council of the Ancients.
+Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was chosen a senator by
+Napoleon and created a count. During the Hundred Days he was a member of
+the chamber of representatives. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the
+Institute of France, but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name
+was, in 1816, deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of
+1830 he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and Political
+Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25, 1833. His writings
+are characterized by elegance, grace and variety of style, and by the
+highest kind of rhetorical eloquence; but his grasp of his subject is
+superficial, and as his criticisms have no root in fixed and
+philosophical principles they are not unfrequently whimsical and
+inconsistent. He must not be confounded with his elder brother Dominique
+(1735-1799), who was also a deputy to the states-general.
+
+  The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned,
+  _Considérations sur la Révolution Française_ (Paris, 1792); _Mémoires
+  sur la Révolution, ou exposé de ma conduite_ (1795); _Mémoires sur la
+  vie de M. Suard, sur ses écrits, et sur le XVIII^e siècle_ (1820);
+  éloges on Joubert, Kléber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished
+  persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals. Valuable
+  materials for the history of Garat's tenure of the ministry, notably
+  the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt's _Tableaux de
+  la Révolution Française_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).
+
+
+
+
+GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew of Dominique
+Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th of April 1764. Gifted
+with a voice of exceptional timbre and compass he devoted himself, from
+an early age, to the cultivation of his musical talents. On account of
+his manifesting a distaste for the legal profession, for which his
+father wished him to study, he was deprived of his allowance, but
+through the patronage of a friend he obtained the office of secretary to
+Comte d'Artois, and was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to
+the queen of France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied
+Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in concerts.
+He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he became a
+professional singer, and on account of a song which he had composed in
+reference to the misfortunes of the royal family he was thrown into
+prison. On regaining his liberty he went to Hamburg, where he at once
+achieved extraordinary success; and by his subsequent appearances in
+Paris, and his visits to Italy, Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for
+himself a reputation as a singer unequalled by any other of his own
+time. He was a keen partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the
+institution of the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of
+singing. He also composed a number of songs, many of which have
+considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris.
+
+
+
+
+GARAY, JÁNOS (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the
+10th of October 1812, at Szegszárd, in the county of Tolna. From 1823 to
+1828 he studied at Fünfkirchen, and subsequently, in 1829, at the
+university of Pest. In 1834 he brought out an heroic poem, in
+hexameters, under the title _Csatár_. After this he issued in quick
+succession various historical dramas, among which the most successful
+were _Arbócz, Országh Ilona_ and _Báthori Erzsébet_,--the first two
+published at Pest in 1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic
+journalist, and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the
+political journal _Hirnök_ (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when
+he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of
+Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, of which
+he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian literature with
+numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The first collection of his
+poems was published at Pest in 1843; and his prose tales appeared in
+1845, under the title of _Tollrajzok_ (Sketches with the Pen). His
+historical ballads and legends, styled _Arpádok_ (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed.
+1848), showed him to be a master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of
+his lyrical poems also are excellent, as, for example, _Balatoni
+Kagylók_ (Shells from the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend
+_Bosnyák Zsófia_ (Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance _Frangepán
+Kristófné_ (Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize
+of the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an
+historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title _Szent László_ (Saint
+Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863). Garay was
+professor of Hungarian language and literature to the university of Pest
+in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness he died on the 5th of
+November 1853, in great want. A collective edition of his poems was
+published at Pest the year after his death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and
+several of his poems were translated by Kertbeny.
+
+  See _Garay János Összes költeményei_ (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and
+  _Dichtungen von Johann Garay_ (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab. _gharbala_, to sift, and related
+to _ghirbal_, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin, probably
+from the Lat. _cribrum_, a sieve), originally a medieval commercial term
+in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort out, or to sift merchandize,
+such as corn, spices, &c., in order to separate what was good from the
+refuse or waste; hence to select the best of anything for retention.
+Similarly a "garbler" was an official who was appointed to sort out, or
+test the work of those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs
+offered for sale in the London markets. In this original sense the word
+is now obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, "garble" now
+means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary works,
+or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates, or
+renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.
+
+
+
+
+GARÇÃO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRÊA (1724-1772), Portuguese lyric poet,
+was the son of Philippe Corrêa da Serra, a _fidalgo_ of the royal house
+who held an important post in the foreign office; his mother was of
+French descent. The poet's health was frail, and after going through a
+Jesuit school in Lisbon and learning English, French and Italian at
+home, he proceeded in 1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a
+legal career. He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was
+created a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with D.
+Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him to live in ease
+and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit reduced him to
+poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the _Lisbon Gazette_. In 1756, in
+conjunction with Cruz e Silva and others, Garção founded the _Arcadia
+Lusitana_ to reform the prevailing bad taste in literature, identified
+with _Seicentismo_, which delighted in conceits, windy words and
+rhetorical phrases. The _Arcadia_ fulfilled its mission to some extent,
+but it lacked creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of
+inanition. Garção was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing
+the name of "Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dissertations,
+with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at its meetings. He
+lived much in the society of the English residents in Lisbon, and he is
+supposed to have conceived a passion for an English married lady which
+completely absorbed him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his
+literary activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the
+9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose displeasure
+he had incurred by his independence of character. The immediate cause of
+his incarceration would appear to have been his connexion with a love
+intrigue between a young friend of his and the daughter of a Colonel
+Elsden, but he was never brought to trial, and the matter must remain in
+doubt. After much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order
+for her husband's release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too
+late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life, Garção
+expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of forty-seven.
+
+Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment, scholarship and
+wide reading, Garção set out to raise and purify the standard of
+poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by a classical
+simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets _ad sodales_ show a
+charming personality; his vigorous and elegant odes and epistles are
+sententious in tone and reveal an inspired poet and a man chastened by
+suffering. His two comedies in hendecasyllables, the _Theatro Novo_
+(played in January 1766) and the _Assemblêa_, are excellent satires on
+the social life of the capital; and in the _Cantata de Dido_, included
+in the latter piece, the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of
+form, making this composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century
+poetry.
+
+  Garção wrote little and spent much time on the _labor limae_. His
+  works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete and
+  accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome, 1888). An
+  English version of the _Cantata de Dido_ appeared in the Academy
+  (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario
+  bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp.
+  182-184; also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899).
+       (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832), Spanish singer and
+composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of January 1775. He became a
+chorister at the cathedral of Seville, and studied music under the best
+masters of that city. At seventeen he made his début on the stage at
+Cadiz, in an operetta, in which were included songs of his own
+composition. Soon afterwards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold
+capacity of singer and composer. His reputation being established, he
+proceeded to Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in
+Paer's opera _Griselda_. Here also he was received with great applause,
+his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further
+improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself, where
+he continued his successes. His opera _Il Califo di Bagdad_ was
+favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes were
+again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera _La Morte di Tasso_
+was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was followed in 1823 by his _Il
+Fazzoletto_. In 1824 he went to London, and thence proceeded to America
+(1825) with a company of artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and
+his daughter Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran.
+In New York was produced his opera _La Figlia dell' aria_ in 1827. He
+extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the point of
+returning to Europe in order to retire from public life when he was
+robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his way to Vera Cruz.
+Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired from the stage, and
+devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He died in Paris on the 2nd of
+June 1832. His method of teaching was famous, and some of the most
+celebrated singers of the early part of the century were amongst his
+pupils. He also wrote an excellent book on the art of singing called
+_Metodo di canto_, of which the essence was subsequently incorporated by
+his son Manoel in his admirable _Traité complet de l'art du chant_
+(1847). His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in
+all, but with the exception of those quoted, and _El Poeta calculista_,
+produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the children
+already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame Viardot (1821-1910),
+worthily continued the tradition for the best singing with which his
+name had become associated.
+
+His son, MANOEL GARCIA (1805-1906), who celebrated his hundredth
+birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was born at Madrid, and
+after his father's death devoted himself to teaching. He was a professor
+at the Paris Conservatoire from 1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was
+a professor at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous
+for his invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his
+position as the greatest representative of the old "_bel canto_" style
+of singing.
+
+
+
+
+GARCÍA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787), Spanish dramatist, was
+born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734, and was educated at Salamanca.
+At Madrid he soon attracted attention by his literary arrogance and
+handsome person; and at an early age became chief of the National
+Library, a post from which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of
+his numerous enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection
+of Spanish plays entitled _Theatro Hespanol_ (1785-1786) exposed him to
+severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason. He died at
+Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying into effect his
+avowed intention of reviving the national drama. His _Agamemnón vengado_
+derives from Sophocles, his _Jaire_ is translated from Voltaire, and
+even his once famous _Raquel_, though Spanish in subject, is classic in
+form.
+
+
+
+
+GARCÍA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier and duellist, was
+a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain. He never commanded an army
+or rose to the position of a general, but he was a notable figure in the
+wars of the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, when
+personal prowess had still a considerable share in deciding the result
+of actions. His native town and its district, which lie between Talavera
+and Madrid, produced many of the most noted _conquistadores_ of America,
+including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth in the
+war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted him to shine in
+operations largely composed of night marches, escalades, surprises and
+hand-to-hand combats. The main scene of his achievements was in Italy,
+and he betook himself to it--on his own showing--not in search of glory,
+but because he had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas,
+in a street fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to
+Rome, then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation
+to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope
+Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the Romagna and
+took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier of the pope till he
+killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it necessary to pass over
+to the enemy. Now he became acquainted with the Colonnas, who
+appreciated his services. The wars between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the
+Catholic king) and Louis XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The
+Spanish general Gonsalvo de Córdoba, who knew his value, employed him
+and trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the
+frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube, till
+1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many Münchausen-like stories
+of personal prowess. It was said that he held a bridge single-handed
+against 200 Frenchmen, that he stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so
+forth. In the "Brief Summary" of his life and deeds attributed to him,
+and printed at the end of the _Chronicle of the Great Captain_,
+published in 1584 at Alcalá de Henares, he lays no claim to having done
+more than was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in
+1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of the younger
+officers of the army. His body was carried to his native town Trujillo,
+and buried in the church of Santa Maria Mayor in 1545.
+
+
+
+
+GARCÍA GUTIÉRREZ, ANTONIO (1812-1884), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812, and studied medicine in his
+native town. In 1832 he removed to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by
+translating plays of Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success,
+he was on the point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as
+the author of _El Trovador_, which was played for the first time on the
+1st of March 1836. García Gutiérrez never surpassed this first effort,
+which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement in Spain,
+and which became known all over Europe through Verdi's music. His next
+great success was _Simón Bocanegra_ (1843), but, as his plays were not
+lucrative, he emigrated to Spanish America, working as a journalist in
+Cuba and Mexico till 1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of
+his later period are a _zarzuela_ entitled _El Grumete_ (1853), _La
+Venganza catalana_ (1864) and _Juan Lorenzo_ (1865). He became head of
+the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th of August
+1884. His _Poesías_ (1840) and another volume of lyrics, entitled _Luz y
+tinieblas_ (1842), are unimportant; but the brilliant versification of
+his plays, and his power of analysing feminine emotions, give him a
+foremost place among the Spanish dramatists of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+GARD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part of the old
+province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area 2270 sq. m. It is
+bounded N. by the departments of Lozère and Ardèche, E. by the Rhone,
+which separates it from Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhône, S. by the
+Mediterranean, S.W. by Hérault and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into
+three sharply-defined regions. Its north-western districts are occupied
+by the range of the Cévennes, which on the frontier of Lozère attain a
+height of 5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its
+fruitful valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and
+the chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the mountains
+are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a dry, hilly region
+of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation of cereals, the vine
+and olive, stretches from the foot of the Cévennes over the centre of
+the department, covering about half its area. The southern portion,
+which extends to the sea, and was probably at one time covered by it, is
+a low plain with numerous lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is
+prosperous, and comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.
+
+Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E., and the
+Ardèche, the lower course of which forms part of its boundary on the N.,
+the principal rivers are the Cèze, Gard, Vidourle and Hérault. The most
+northern of these is the Cèze, which rises in the Cévennes, and after a
+course of about 50 m. in an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above
+Roquemaure. The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its
+name, is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cévennes from
+several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a length
+of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows through a
+succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the melting of the snows on
+the Cévennes is subject to inundations, which often cause great damage.
+Its waters not infrequently rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its
+bed is sometimes increased in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it
+is crossed by a celebrated Roman aqueduct--the Pont du Gard (see
+AQUEDUCT). The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near
+Le Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below
+Sommières it forms the western boundary of the department. The Hérault
+has its source and part of its course in the west of Gard. The Canal de
+Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which
+communicates with the Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the
+Grand-Roubine canal.
+
+The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; it is
+rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The cold and violent
+north-west wind known as the mistral is its worst drawback. Les Fumades
+(near Allègre) and Euzet have mineral springs. The chief grain crops are
+wheat and oats. Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed
+for its cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of
+which is of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks
+first among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the olive,
+mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated and yields
+excellent red and white wines. The department is rich in minerals, and
+the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt, zinc, lead and copper, which
+are for the most part situated in the neighbourhoods of Alais and La
+Grand'-Combe, constitute one of the chief sources of its wealth. Great
+quantities of salt are obtained from the salt marshes along the coast.
+The quarries of building and other stone employ a considerable number of
+workmen. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive,
+and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre, cotton
+and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze), liquorice,
+gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There are also breweries
+and distilleries, and important metallurgical works, the chief of which
+are those of Bessèges. The exports of Gard include coal, lignite, coke,
+asphalt, building-stone, iron, steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives,
+grapes and truffles.
+
+The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is divided into
+the arrondissements of Nîmes, Alais, Uzès and Le Vigan, with 40 cantons
+and 351 communes. The chief town is Nîmes, which is the seat of a
+bishopric of the province of Avignon and of a court of appeal. Gard
+belongs to the 15th military region, which has its headquarters at
+Marseilles, and to the académie (educational division) of Montpellier.
+Nîmes, Alais, Uzès, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Bessèges, La
+Grand'-Combe and Villeneuve-lès-Avignon are the principal places.
+Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone is crossed
+by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long built by the Pontiff
+brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with several old houses, carries on
+silk-spinning.
+
+
+
+
+GARDA, LAKE OF (the _Lacus Benacus_ of the Romans), the most easterly
+and the most extensive of the great Lombard lakes, being only surpassed
+in the Alpine region by those of Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme
+northern extremity (Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in
+1517), the whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of
+Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents the
+southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river now flows
+through a narrow trench which is separated from the lake by the long
+narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.). Nowadays the lake is fed by
+the Sarca, that flows in at its north end from the glaciers of the
+Adamello, while at the southern extremity of the lake the Mincio flows
+out, on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq.
+m., its length is 32¼ m., its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the
+height of its surface above sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth
+yet measured is 1916 ft. Its upper or northern end is narrow, but
+between Garda (E.) and Salò (W.) the lake expands gradually into a
+nearly circular basin, which at the southern extremity is divided into
+two parts by the long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the
+southern shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this
+conformation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds, which
+Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (_Georg_. ii. line 160):
+_fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino_. The most dangerous of
+these winds is the _Borea_ or _Suer_, that sweeps down from the north as
+through a funnel. In the southern portion of the lake the _Vinessa_, an
+E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The _Ora_ is a regular wind coming from
+the east which, on reaching the lake, blows from S. to N. The steep
+grey limestone crags of Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake,
+contrast strongly with the rich vegetation on the western and southern
+shores. The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to
+Salò is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that not
+merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing lemons, figs,
+mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter, and has been
+given the name of the _Riviera Benacense_. The lovely promontory of
+Sermione, at the southern end of the lake, has also an extremely
+luxuriant vegetation, while it contains many remains of buildings of
+Roman and later date, having been the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided
+here and celebrated its beauties in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat
+with paddles set in motion by horses was put on the lake, but the first
+steamer dates only from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W.
+respectively of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera
+(14¼ m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17½ m. by
+rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8¾ m. distant from each other.
+On the west shore of the lake are Salò, Toscolano, Gargnano and Limone,
+while the rugged east shore can boast only of Bardolino and Garda. At
+the northern tip of the lake, and in Tirol, is Riva, the most
+considerable town on the lake, and 15½ m. by rail from the Mori station
+on the main Brenner line.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU, COUNT (1766-1818), French general and
+diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January 1766. He entered the army
+and rose rapidly during the revolutionary wars, becoming captain in 1793.
+In May 1799 he distinguished himself by saving a division of the French
+army which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of
+Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau. He
+incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty shortly before
+the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in 1805 was appointed to be
+aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief distinction, however, was to be
+won in the diplomatic sphere. In the spring of 1807, when Russia and
+Prussia were at war with France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia
+was also engaged in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a
+mission to the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the
+east of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian
+alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; and
+Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing of that
+alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up for Gardane, and
+signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as showing the strong oriental
+trend of the emperor's policy. France was to guarantee the integrity of
+Persia, to recognize that Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians)
+belonged to the shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring
+that territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, officers
+and workmen, in the number and to the amount demanded by him. Napoleon on
+his side required Persia to declare war against Great Britain, to expel
+all Britons from her territory, and to come to an understanding with the
+Afghans with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India.
+Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long and
+dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at Teheran in
+December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian treaty at Tilsit in
+July 1807 rendered the mission abortive. Persia longed only for help
+against Russia and had no desire, when all hope of that was past, to
+attack India. The shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant
+to France a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely
+replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir John Malcolm
+to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally, however, Gardane saw
+that nothing much was to be hoped for in the changed situation of
+European affairs, and abruptly left the country (April 1809). This
+conduct was not wholly approved by Napoleon, but he named him count and
+in 1810 attached him to Masséna's army in Portugal. There, during the
+disastrous retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which
+brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no notice.
+He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny (dated April
+23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the prospects of a successful
+invasion of India is of great interest. He admitted the difficulties of
+this enterprise, but thought that a force of picked French troops, aided
+by Persians and Afghans, might under favourable conditions penetrate into
+India by way of Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were
+distracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius.
+
+  See Count Alfred de Gardane, _Mission du général Gardane en Perse_
+  (Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, _La Politique orientale de
+  Napoléon: Sébastiani et Gardane_ (Paris, 1904).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDELEGEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the right bank of
+the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main line of railway
+Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a Roman Catholic and three
+Evangelical churches, a hospital, founded in 1285, and a high-grade
+school. There are considerable manufactures, notably agricultural
+machinery and buttons, and its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was
+founded in the 10th century, and was for a long time the seat of a line
+of counts. It suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in
+1775 was burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave Louis
+I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the Mild of
+Brunswick.
+
+
+
+
+GARDEN (from O. Fr. _gardin_, mod. Fr. _jardin_; this, like our words
+"garth," a paddock attached to a building, and "yard," comes from a
+Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as _gards_ and
+O.H. Ger. _gart_, cf. Dutch _gaarde_ and Ger. _garten_), the ground
+enclosed and cultivated for the growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables
+(see HORTICULTURE). The word is also used for grounds laid out
+ornamentally, used as places of public entertainment. Such were the
+famous Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in
+zoological gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or
+streets. From the fact that Epicurus (q.v.) taught in the gardens at
+Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as [Greek:
+hoi apo tôn kêpôn] (so Diog. Laërtius x. 10); and Cicero (_De finibus_
+v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the _Horti Epicuri_. Thus as the
+"Academy" refers to the Platonic and the "Porch" ([Greek: stoa]) to the
+Stoic school, so the "Garden" is the name given to the Epicurean school
+of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as [Greek: kêpotyrannos], the
+tyrant of the garden.
+
+
+
+
+GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae, containing
+about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of the warmer
+parts of the old world. Several are grown in stoves or greenhouses for
+their handsome, sweet-scented white flowers. The flowers are developed
+singly at the end of a branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or
+salver-shaped with a long tube. The double forms of _Gardenia florida_
+(a native of China) and _G. radicans_ (a native of Japan) are amongst
+the most beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias
+are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by
+cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing
+season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy bug, green
+fly, red spider and scale-insect.
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at Carriden in
+Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the age of fourteen he
+entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, and was afterwards
+present at the battle of Ramillies, where he was wounded. He
+subsequently served in different cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was
+advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of
+colonel. He fell at the battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September
+1745. The circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's
+_Waverley_. In his early years he was distinguished for his recklessness
+and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision, as he regarded it,
+led to his conversion, and from that time he lived a life of great
+devoutness and of thorough consistency with his Christian profession. Dr
+Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk, author of an autobiography, says that he
+was "very ostentatious" about his conversion--speaks of him as weak, and
+plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col. Gardiner's
+account of his sins.
+
+  His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often
+  reprinted.
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English historian, son of Rawson
+Boddam Gardiner, was born near Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March
+1829. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+obtained a first class in _literae humaniores_. He was subsequently
+elected to fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some
+years he was professor of modern history at King's College, London, and
+devoted his life to historical work. He is the historian of the Puritan
+revolution, and has written its history in a series of volumes,
+originally published under different titles, beginning with the
+accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the third volume of the _History
+of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_) appeared in 1901. This was
+completed in two volumes by C.H. Firth as _The Last Years of the
+Protectorate_ (1909). The series is _History of England from the
+Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_, 1603-1642 (10
+vols.); _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and
+_History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660_. His treatment
+is exhaustive and philosophical, taking in, along with political and
+constitutional history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment
+during his period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original
+authorities on which his work is founded many of great value exist only
+in manuscript, and his researches in public and private collections of
+manuscripts at home, and in the archives of Simancas, Venice, Rome,
+Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is
+universally acknowledged. He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by
+the fact of his descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly
+written of it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his
+judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his
+appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of perception
+and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these qualities it will be
+enough to refer to what he says of the characters of James I., Bacon,
+Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional matters he writes with
+an insight to be attained only by the study of political philosophy,
+discussing in a masterly fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes
+of government proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a
+prominent place to everything which illustrates human progress in moral
+and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially to the
+rise and development of the idea of religious toleration, finding his
+authorities not only in the words and actions of men of mark, but in the
+writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers, whose essays indicate
+currents in the tide of public opinion. His record of the relations
+between England and other states proves his thorough knowledge of
+contemporary European history, and is rendered specially valuable by his
+researches among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound
+for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.
+
+Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years which it
+covers are a period of exceptional importance in many directions, and
+the actions and characters of the principal persons in it demand careful
+analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an exaggerated importance to some
+of the authorities which he was the first to bring to light, to see a
+general tendency in what may only be the expression of an individual
+eccentricity, to rely too much on ambassadors' reports which may have
+been written for some special end, to enter too fully into the details
+of diplomatic correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not
+the result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely
+unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly to the
+intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom picturesque, though
+in describing a few famous scenes, such as the execution of Charles I.,
+he writes with pathos and dignity. The minuteness of his narrative
+detracts from its interest; though his arrangement is generally good,
+here and there the reader finds the thread of a subject broken by the
+intrusion of incidents not immediately connected with it, and does not
+pick it up again without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his
+supreme qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of
+character; his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and
+unmoved. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without
+beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity
+and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other books,
+mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by which his
+name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting labour, a
+splendid monument of historical scholarship. His position as an
+historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862 he was given a civil list
+pension of £150 per annum, "in recognition of his valuable contributions
+to the history of England"; he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of
+Edinburgh, and Ph.D. of Göttingen, and honorary student of Christ
+Church, Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius
+professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should interfere
+with the accomplishment of his history. He died on the 24th of February
+1902.
+
+  Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner's separate works are: _Prince
+  Charles and the Spanish Marriage_ (2 vols., London, 1869);
+  _Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660_ (1st
+  ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); _Oliver Cromwell_ (London,
+  1901); _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (London, 1897); _Outline of English
+  History_ (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896); and
+  _Student's History of England_ (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891;
+  2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of papers for the
+  Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the _English Historical
+  Review_.     (W. Hu.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493-1555), English bishop and lord chancellor,
+was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of his birth as commonly
+given, 1483, seems to be about ten years too early, and surmises which
+have passed current that he was some one's illegitimate child are of no
+authority. His father is now known to have been John Gardiner, a
+substantial cloth merchant of the town where he was born (see his will,
+printed in _Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute_, i.
+329), who took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then
+a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols's _Epistles of Erasmus_, ii. 12,
+13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge, where he studied at
+Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself in the classics,
+especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted himself to the canon and
+civil law, in which subjects he attained so great a proficiency that no
+one could dispute his pre-eminence. He received the degree of doctor of
+civil law in 1520, and of canon law in the following year.
+
+Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, who made
+him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have been with him
+at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion of the celebrated
+treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and the French ambassadors
+thither. It is stated, and with great probability, that this was the
+occasion on which he was first introduced to the king's notice, but he
+does not appear to have been actively engaged in Henry's service till
+three years later. In that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very
+intimate knowledge of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas
+More were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging a
+treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army in Italy
+against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey on his important
+diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and magnificence of which
+are so graphically described by Cavendish. Among the imposing train who
+went with the cardinal--including, as it did, several noblemen and privy
+councillors--Gardiner alone seems to have been acquainted with the real
+heart of the matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar
+moment. Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with
+Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the object
+on which he had secretly set his heart--a divorce from Catherine of
+Aragon. In the course of his progress through France he received orders
+from Henry to send back his secretary Gardiner, or, as he was called at
+court, Master Stevens, for fresh instructions; to which he was obliged
+to reply that he positively could not spare him as he was the only
+instrument he had in advancing the king's "secret matter." Next year
+Gardiner, still in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along
+with Edward Fox, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to promote the
+same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion are still
+extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which he was engaged,
+they certainly give a wonderful impression of the zeal and ability with
+which he discharged his functions. Here his perfect familiarity with the
+canon law gave him a great advantage. He was instructed to procure from
+the pope a decretal commission, laying down principles of law by which
+Wolsey and Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal.
+The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not only unusual
+but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at Orvieto, and had just
+recently escaped from captivity at St Angelo at the hands of the
+imperialists. But fear of offending the emperor could not have induced
+him to refuse a really legitimate request from a king like Henry. He
+naturally referred the question to the cardinals about him; with whom
+Gardiner held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little
+browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of a
+spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the wanderer his
+way? The king and lords of England would be driven to think that God had
+taken away from the Holy See the key of knowledge, and that pontifical
+laws which were not clear to the pope himself might as well be committed
+to the flames.
+
+This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was obliged to
+be content with a general commission for Campeggio and Wolsey to try the
+cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, was quite inadequate for the
+purpose in view; and he again instructed Gardiner, while thanking the
+pope for the commission actually granted, to press him once more by very
+urgent pleas, to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was
+only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise,
+he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even be
+tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At last the
+pope--to his own bitter regret afterwards--gave what was desired on the
+express conditions named, that Campeggio was to show it to the king and
+Wolsey and no one else, and then destroy it, the two legates holding
+their court under the general commission. After obtaining this Gardiner
+returned home; but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings
+were delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once more
+to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing. The pope would
+make no further concessions, and would not even promise not to revoke
+the cause to Rome, as he did very shortly after.
+
+Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was appointed
+the king's secretary. He had been already some years archdeacon of
+Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was added to it in March 1529,
+which two years later he resigned for that of Leicester. In 1530 he was
+sent to Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the
+unlawfulness of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance
+with the new plan devised for settling the question without the pope's
+intervention. In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of
+artifice, more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In
+November 1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric
+of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was unexpected,
+and was accompanied by expressions from the king which made it still
+more honourable, as showing that if he had been in some things too
+subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking policy of his own.
+Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated boldly with his sovereign
+on some points, and Henry now reminded him of the fact. "I have often
+_squared_ with you, Gardiner," he said familiarly, "but I love you never
+the worse, as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1532,
+nevertheless, he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he
+took in the preparation of the famous "Answer of the Ordinaries" to the
+complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. On this subject
+he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own defence.
+
+His next important action was not so creditable; for he was, not
+exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but, according to
+Cranmer's own expression, "assistant" to him as counsel for the king,
+when the archbishop, in the absence of Queen Catherine, pronounced her
+marriage with Henry null and void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately
+afterwards he was sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between
+the pope and Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry
+stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most cordial
+ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause in the matter
+of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner intimated the
+appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case the pope should
+venture to proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and also one on
+behalf of Cranmer presented with it, were of Gardiner's drawing up. In
+1535 he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the king's new
+title of "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The result was his
+celebrated treatise _De vera obedientia_, the ablest, certainly, of all
+the vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an
+unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his diocese. He
+was also employed to answer the pope's brief threatening to deprive
+Henry of his kingdom.
+
+During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies in France
+and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that he had little influence
+upon the king's councils. But in 1539 he took part in the enactment of
+the severe statute of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of
+Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party.
+In 1540, on the death of Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected
+chancellor of the university of Cambridge. A few years later he
+attempted, in concert with others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon
+Archbishop Cranmer in connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and
+but for the personal intervention of the king he would probably have
+succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal supremacy,
+a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a doctrinal point of view, and
+it was suspected that he even repented his advocacy of the royal
+supremacy. He certainly had not approved of Henry's general treatment of
+the church, especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was
+frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he schooled
+himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of his own, named
+German Gardiner, whom he employed as his secretary, was put to death for
+treason in reference to the king's supremacy, and his enemies insinuated
+to the king that he himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. But
+in truth the king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer;
+for it was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious to
+prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer's
+authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy. Thus
+Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king's
+church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up
+articles against the archbishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could
+always rely on the king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining
+ground in high places, especially after the king's marriage with
+Catherine Parr; and there seems to be some truth in the story that the
+queen herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner,
+with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions in
+conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men of the Court
+were condemned at Windsor and three of them were burned. The fourth, who
+was the musician Marbeck, was pardoned by Gardiner's procurement.
+
+Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., his name was
+omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry was believed to
+have intended making him one of his executors. Under Edward VI. he was
+completely opposed to the policy of the dominant party both in
+ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The religious changes he objected
+to both on principle and on the ground of their being moved during the
+king's minority, and he resisted Cranmer's project of a general
+visitation. His remonstrances, however, were met by his own committal to
+the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his
+imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long before he
+was called before the council, and, refusing to give them satisfaction
+on some points, was thrown into the Tower, where he continued during the
+whole remainder of the reign, a period slightly over five years. During
+this time he in vain demanded his liberty, and to be called before
+parliament as a peer of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and
+given to Dr Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before
+been made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the duke
+of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the Tower
+along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into London, set them
+all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his bishopric and appointed
+lord chancellor, and he set the crown on the queen's head at her
+coronation. He also opened her first parliament and for some time was
+her leading councillor.
+
+He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of the
+work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years--to
+vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness of her
+mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant what he
+himself had written touching the royal supremacy. It is said that he
+wrote a formal _Palinodia_ or retractation of his book _De vera
+obedientia_, but it does not seem to be now extant; and the reference is
+probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday 1554, after Cardinal Pole had
+absolved the kingdom from schism. As chancellor he had the onerous task
+of negotiating the queen's marriage treaty with Philip, to which he
+shared the general repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In
+executing it, however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous
+for England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards
+should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the
+country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of
+the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high favour. How far
+he was responsible for the persecutions which afterwards arose is a
+debated question. He no doubt approved of the act, which passed the
+House of Lords while he presided there as chancellor, for the revival of
+the heresy laws. Neither is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on
+Bishop Hooper, and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not
+exactly to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The
+natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined, even
+as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were handed over to the
+secular power to be burned. Gardiner, however, undoubtedly did his best
+to persuade them to save themselves by a course which he conscientiously
+followed himself; nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission
+along with a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he
+could very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese no
+victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after his
+death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, there are
+strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane and generous.
+In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the English commissioners
+to promote peace with France; but their efforts were ineffectual. In
+October 1555 he again opened parliament as lord chancellor, but towards
+the end of the month he fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of
+November, when he died over sixty years of age.
+
+Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the subject of so
+much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular historians. That his
+virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was
+anything like the morose and narrow-minded bigot he is commonly
+represented there is nothing whatever to show. He has been called
+ambitious, turbulent, crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a
+good many other things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in
+addition to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was
+despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of him as a
+tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted to remain five
+years in prison rather than change his principles is not very clearly
+explained; and as to his being despised, we have seen already that
+neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any means despicable. The truth
+is, there is not a single divine or statesman of that day whose course
+throughout was so thoroughly consistent. He was no friend to the
+Reformation, it is true, but he was at least a conscientious opponent.
+In doctrine he adhered to the old faith from first to last, while as a
+question of church policy, the only matter for consideration with him
+was whether the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally
+justifiable.
+
+His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as a
+statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his learning
+even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part that he was allowed
+to take in the drawing up of doctrinal formularies in Henry VIII.'s time
+is not clear; but at a later date he was the author of various tracts in
+defence of the Real Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being
+written in prison, were published abroad under a feigned name.
+Controversial writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he
+had several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry VIII.'s
+ambassador.
+
+He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great interest
+especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge. He was,
+however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing the language
+introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to him and Sir Thomas
+Smith upon the subject, in which, according to Ascham, his opponents
+showed themselves the better critics, but he the superior genius. In his
+own household he loved to take in young university men of promise; and
+many whom he thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as
+bishops, ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was
+spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special abode of
+the muses.
+
+He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his effigy is
+still to be seen.     (J. Ga.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the confluence of
+Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m. below Augusta. Pop. (1890)
+5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born); (1910) 5311. It is served by the
+Maine Central railway. The site of the city is only a few feet above
+sea-level, and the Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this
+point; the water of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a
+mile, furnishes the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly
+paper, machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable
+quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by Dr
+Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement was called
+Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a town, the founder
+being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston. But in 1803, when that part
+of Pittston which lay on the W. bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as
+a separate town and new life was given to it by the grandson of the
+founder, the present name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city
+in 1849. The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a
+population of 1177 in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GARDNER, PERCY (1846-   ), English classical archaeologist, was born in
+London, and was educated at the City of London school and Christ's
+College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). He was Disney professor of
+archaeology at Cambridge from 1880 to 1887, and was then appointed
+professor of classical archaeology at Oxford, where he had a stimulating
+influence on the study of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also
+became prominent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his
+works are: _Types of Greek Coins_ (1883); _A Numismatic Commentary on
+Pausanias_ (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); _New Chapters in Greek
+History_ (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and Asia Minor;
+_Manual of Greek Antiquities_ (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd ed. 1898); _Grammar
+of Greek Art_ (1905); _Exploratio Evangelica_ (1899), on the origin of
+Christian belief; _A Historic View of the New Testament_ (1901); _Growth
+of Christianity_ (1907).
+
+His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862-   ), educated at the City of
+London school and Caius College, Cambridge (fellow, 1885), is also well
+known as an archaeologist. From 1887 to 1895 he was director of the
+British School of Archaeology at Athens, and later became professor of
+archaeology at University College, London. His publications include:
+_Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_ (1887); _Ancient Athens_ (1902);
+_Handbook of Greek Sculpture_ (1905); _Six Greek Sculptors_ (1910). He
+was elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.
+
+
+
+
+GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop.
+(1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were foreign-born; (1910
+census) 14,699. The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway.
+It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of hill country, well watered with streams
+and ponds, and includes the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of
+Fitchburg), South Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the
+state colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital, and
+the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a memorial to Levi
+Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local manufacturer of chairs, who
+invented various kinds of chair-making machinery. By far the principal
+industry of the township (dating from 1805) is the manufacture of
+chairs, the township having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the
+world; among the other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages,
+silver-ware and oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the
+township was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting
+to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from parts of
+Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden, was incorporated in
+1785, and was named in honour of Col. Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a
+patriot leader of Massachusetts, who was mortally wounded in the battle
+of Bunker Hill.
+
+  See W.D. Herrick, _History of the Town of Gardner_ (Gardner, 1878),
+  covering the years 1785-1878.
+
+
+
+
+GARE-FOWL[1] (Icelandic, _Geirfugl_; Gaelic, _Gearbhul_), the anglicized
+form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now considered extinct,
+formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish islands, the Great Auk of
+most English book-writers, and the _Alca impennis_ of Linnaeus. In size
+it was hardly less than a tame goose, and in appearance it much
+resembled its smaller and surviving relative the razor-bill (_Alca
+torda_); but the glossy black of its head was varied by a large patch of
+white occupying nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in
+place of the razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore
+eight or more deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and
+the ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise the
+coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory evidence that
+the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that of the breeding-season
+just as is ordinarily the case in other members of the family _Alcidae_
+to which it belongs. The most striking characteristic of the gare-fowl,
+however, was the comparatively abortive condition of its wings, the
+distal portions of which, though the bird was just about twice the
+linear dimensions of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same
+size as in that species--proving, if more direct evidence were wanting,
+its inability to fly.
+
+[Illustration: Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.]
+
+The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is one which
+has been repeated so often, and in books of such generally good repute
+and wide dispersal, that a successful refutation seems almost hopeless.
+This is the notion that it was a bird possessing a very high northern
+range, and consequently to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this
+error arose would take too long to tell, but the fact remains
+indisputable that, setting aside general assertions resting on no
+evidence worthy of attention, there is but a single record deserving any
+credit at all of a single example of the species having been observed
+within the Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who
+had the best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.[2]
+It is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the
+better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements have
+been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another error which,
+if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since Sir R. Owen
+unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird "has not been specially
+hunted down like the dodo and dinornis, but by degrees has become more
+scarce." If any reliance can be placed upon the testimony of former
+observers, the first part of this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the
+dodo all we know is that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at
+the time the island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had
+ceased to exist--the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture,
+and a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's acts
+it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p.
+354). The extinction of the _Dinornis_ lies beyond the range of recorded
+history. Supposing it even to have taken place at the very latest period
+as yet suggested--and there is much to be urged in favour of such a
+supposition--little but oral tradition remains to tell us how its
+extirpation was effected. That it existed after New Zealand was
+inhabited by man is indeed certain, and there is nothing extraordinary
+in the proved fact that the early settlers (of whatever race they were)
+killed and ate moas. But evidence that the whole population of those
+birds was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is wholly
+wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In Iceland there
+is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down from their lips by
+one of the most careful naturalists who ever lived, John Wolley, that
+the latest survivors of the species were caught and killed by
+expeditions expressly organized with the view of supplying the demands
+of caterers to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is
+incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of the
+Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and devastated with
+the combined objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from
+very early days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard
+Bonnycastle (_Newfoundland in 1842_, i. p. 232), was owing to "the
+ruthless trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the
+chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared through
+volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglaskér drove
+some at least of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the
+mainland, where they were exposed to danger from which they had in their
+former abode been comparatively free; yet on this rock (Eldey =
+fire-island) they were "specially hunted down" whenever opportunity
+offered, until the stock there was wholly extirpated in 1844.
+
+A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould in his _Birds
+of Great Britain_, where he says that "formerly this bird was plentiful
+in all the northern parts of the British Islands, particularly the
+Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement of the 19th century,
+however, its fate appears to have been sealed; for though it doubtless
+existed, and probably bred, up to the year 1830, its numbers annually
+diminished until they became so few that the species could not hold its
+own." Now of the Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795,
+says in his posthumously-published _Fauna Orcadensis_ that he could not
+find it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 1812 he was told,
+says Montagu (_Orn. Dict. App._), that one male only had made its
+appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully hunted,
+but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate had been
+killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen there since. As
+to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality recorded for it, and the
+last example known to have been obtained there, or in its neighbourhood,
+was that given to Fleming (_Edinb. Phil. Journ._ x. p. 96) in 1821 or
+1822, having been some time before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass.
+That the gare-fowl was not plentiful in either group of islands is
+sufficiently obvious, as also is the impossibility of its continuing to
+breed "up to the year 1830."
+
+But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors. As on the
+death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his memory as quickly as
+clouds round the setting sun, so have stories, probable as well as
+impossible, accumulated over the true history of this species, and it
+behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise more than common
+caution in sifting the truth from the large mass of error. Americans
+have asserted that the specimen which belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar
+College) was obtained by him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there
+is Macgillivray's distinct statement (_Brit. Birds_, v. p. 359) that
+Audubon procured it in London. The account given by Degland (_Orn.
+Europ._ ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his
+work by M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd
+that it deserves to be quoted in full: "Il se trouvait en assez grand
+nombre il y a une quinzaine d'années aux Orcades; mais le ministre
+presbytérien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime aux personnes
+qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a été cause de sa destruction sur ces
+îles." The same author claims the species as a visitor to the shores of
+France on the testimony of Hardy (_Annuaire normand_, 1841, p. 298),
+which he grievously misquotes both in his own work and in another place
+(_Naumannia_, 1855, p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English
+writer (_Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.
+
+John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former resorts of the
+gare-fowl, or "penguin," as it was there called, in the Newfoundland
+seas, a place where bones had before been obtained by Stuvitz, and
+natural mummies so lately as 1863 and 1864. Landing on this rock at the
+risk of his life, he brought off a rich cargo of its remains, belonging
+to no fewer than fifty birds, some of them in size exceeding any that
+had before been known. His collection was subsequently dispersed, most
+of the specimens finding their way into various public museums.
+
+  A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting the
+  gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which are
+  without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be especially
+  mentioned:--J.J.S. Steenstrup, "Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens
+  Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere
+  Udbredningskreds," _Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser_ (Copenhagen,
+  1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," _Trans. Tyneside Nat.
+  Field Club_, iv. p. 111; "Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's Researches in
+  Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1861), p. 374; W. Preyer,
+  "_Über Plautus impennis_," _Journ. für Orn._ (1862), pp. 110, 337;
+  K.E. von Baer, "Über das Aussterben der Tierarten in physiologischer
+  und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht," _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. de
+  St-Pétersb._ vi. p. 513; R. Owen, "Description of the Skeleton of the
+  Great Auk," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. p. 317; "The Gare-fowl and its
+  Historians," _Nat. Hist. Rev._ v. p. 467; J.H. Gurney, jun., "On the
+  Great Auk," _Zoologist_ (2nd ser.), pp. 1442, 1639; H. Reeks, "Great
+  Auk in Newfoundland," &c., _op. cit._ p. 1854; V. Fatio, "Sur l'Alca
+  impennis," _Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse_, ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; "On existing
+  Remains of the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1870), p. 256; J. Milne, "Relics of
+  the Great Auk," _Field_ (27th of March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875).
+  Lastly, reference cannot be omitted to the happy exercise of poetic
+  fancy with which Charles Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief
+  facts of the gare-fowl's extinction (derived from one of the
+  above-named papers) into his charming _Water Babies_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name first appears, and in this form, in the _Account of
+    Hirta_ (St Kilda) _and Rona, &c._, by the lord register, Sir George
+    M'Kenzie, of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his _Collection of
+    Voyages and Travels_ (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald's _Scotia
+    illustrata_ (1684). Martin soon after, in his _Voyage to St Kilda_,
+    spelt it "Gairfowl." Sir R. Owen adopted the form "garfowl," without,
+    as would seem, any precedent authority.
+
+  [2] The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as to
+    the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is
+    within, or at the Fiskernäs, which is without, the Arctic Circle.
+
+
+
+
+GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president of the United
+States, was born on the 19th of November 1831 in a log cabin in the
+little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. His early years
+were spent in the performance of such labour as fell to the lot of
+every farmer's son in the new states, and in the acquisition of such
+education as could be had in the district schools held for a few weeks
+each winter. But life on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he
+left home and set off to make a living in some other way. A book of
+stories of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when
+a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He decided,
+therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping across the country
+to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment from the captain of a lake
+schooner. But the captain drove him from the deck, and, wandering on in
+search of work, he fell in with a canal boatman who engaged him. During
+some months young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a
+canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on recovery, having
+resolved to attend a high school and fit himself to become a teacher, he
+passed the next four years in a hard struggle with poverty and in an
+earnest effort to secure an education, studying for a short time in the
+Geauga Seminary at Chester, Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter
+and a farmer; studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic
+Institute at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and
+finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, Garfield
+became professor of ancient languages and literature in the Eclectic
+Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen to the presidency of the
+institution.
+
+Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days of the
+Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas struggle were
+exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns of 1857 and 1858,
+he became known as an effective speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His
+reward for his services was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the
+member from Portage and Summit counties. When the "cotton states"
+seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous measures. He
+was one of the six Ohio senators who voted against the proposed
+amendment to the Federal Constitution (Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any
+constitutional amendment which should give Congress the power to abolish
+or interfere with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the
+government to coerce seceded states; defended the "Million War Bill"
+appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses; and
+when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio furnish 20,000
+soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share. He had just been
+admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of war he at once offered his
+services to the governor, and became lieutenant-colonel and then colonel
+of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, recruited largely from among his former
+students. He served in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of
+brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second
+day's fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under
+Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at Chickamauga,
+and was made a major-general of volunteers for gallantry in that battle.
+In 1862 he was elected a member of Congress from the Ashtabula district
+of Ohio, and, resigning his military commission, took his seat in the
+House of Representatives in December 1863. In Congress he joined the
+radical wing of the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of
+Confederate property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto
+denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized as a hard
+worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought him places on
+important committees--he was chairman successively of the committee on
+military affairs, the committee on banking and currency, and the
+committee on appropriations,--and his ability as a speaker enabled him
+to achieve distinction on the floor of the House and to rise to
+leadership. Between 1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of
+importance on "The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," "The
+Freedman's Bureau," "The Reconstruction of the Rebel States," "The
+Public Debt and Specie Payments," "Reconstruction," "The Currency,"
+"Taxation of United States Bonds," "Enforcing the 14th Amendment,"
+"National Aid to Education," and "the Right to Originate Revenue Bills."
+The year 1874 was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback
+issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, the
+Crédit Mobilier and the "Salary Grab," disgusted thousands of
+independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the country.
+Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion with the Crédit
+Mobilier scandal, but the charge was never proved. A Republican
+convention in his district demanded his resignation, and re-election
+seemed impossible; but he defended himself in two pamphlets, "Increase
+of Salaries" and "Review of the Transactions of the Crédit Mobilier
+Company," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. In 1876
+Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his district; and
+afterwards as one of the two representatives of the Republicans in the
+House, he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the
+dispute regarding the presidential election of 1876. When, in 1877,
+James G. Blaine was made a senator from Maine, the leadership of the
+House of Representatives passed to Garfield, and he became the
+Republican candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in
+the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, having chosen
+John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, an effort was made to
+send Garfield to the United States Senate in Sherman's place. But the
+president needed his services in the House, and he was not elected to
+the Senate until 1880.
+
+The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party must nominate a
+candidate for the presidency. General Grant had served two terms
+(1869-1877), and the unwritten law of custom condemned his being given
+another. But the "bosses" of the Republican party in three great
+States--New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois--were determined that he
+should be renominated. These men and their followers were known as the
+"stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions, one supporting
+James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John Sherman, of Ohio. When the
+convention met and the balloting began, the contest along these
+factional lines started in earnest. For eight-and-twenty ballots no
+change of any consequence was noticeable. Though votes were often cast
+for ten names, there were but two real candidates before the convention,
+Grant and Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of
+the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the
+supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the cry
+"Anything to beat Grant!" an effort was made to find some man on whom
+the opposition could unite. Such a man was Garfield. His long term of
+service in the House, his leadership of his party on its floor, his
+candidacy for the speakership, and his recent election to the United
+States Senate, marked him out as the available man. Between the casting
+of the first and the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader
+of Sherman's adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or
+two votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received
+seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire vote
+hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared nominated. During
+the campaign Garfield was subject to violent personal abuse; the fact
+that he was alleged to have received $329 from the Crédit Mobilier as a
+dividend on stock led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of "329,"
+and this number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed
+in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged "Morey letter," in
+which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion of the Chinese,
+was widely circulated and injured his candidacy in the West. That the
+charges against Garfield were not generally credited, however, is shown
+by the fact that he received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155.
+He was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.
+
+Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of composing
+the differences in his party. For his secretary of state he chose James
+G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator Roscoe Conkling
+(q.v.), the leader of the New York "stalwarts." Without consulting the
+New York senators, Garfield appointed William H. Robertson, another
+political enemy of Conkling's, to the desirable post of Collector of the
+Port of New York, and thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony.
+On the 2nd of July, while on his way to attend the commencement
+exercises at Williams College, the new president was shot in a
+Washington railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles
+J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced by the
+abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents; and on the
+19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had
+been removed on the 6th. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890
+a monument was erected by popular subscription to his memory.
+
+In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom he had seven
+children. His son, HARRY AUGUSTUS GARFIELD (b. 1863) graduated at
+Williams College in 1885, practised law in Cleveland, Ohio, in
+1888-1903, was professor of politics at Princeton University in
+1903-1908, and in 1908 became president of Williams College. Another
+son, JAMES RUDOLPH GARFIELD (b. 1865), also graduated at Williams
+College in 1885 and practised law in Cleveland; he was a Republican
+member of the Ohio Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of
+corporations, Department of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907,
+attracting wide attention by his reports on certain large industrial
+organizations, and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the
+cabinet of President Roosevelt.
+
+  President Garfield's writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were
+  published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882.     (J. B. McM.)
+
+
+
+
+GAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (_Belone_) found in nearly
+all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized by their
+long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by their jaws being
+produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed beak. About
+fifty species are known from different parts of the globe, some
+attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One species is common on the British
+coasts, and is well known by the names of "long-nose," "green-bone," &c.
+The last name is given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green
+colour of their bones, which deters many people from eating them,
+although their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The
+skipper (_Scomberesox_) and half-beak (_Hemirhamphus_), in which the
+lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the gar-pikes.
+
+
+
+
+GARGANEY[1] (North-Italian, _Garganello_), or SUMMER-TEAL, the _Anas
+querquedula_ and _A. circia_ of Linnaeus (who made, as did Willughby and
+Ray, two species out of one), and the type of Stephens's genus
+_Querquedula_. This bird is one of the smallest of the _Anatidae_, and
+has gained its common English name from being almost exclusively a
+summer-visitant to England where nowadays it only regularly resorts to
+breed in some of the East-Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it
+was found at the same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly
+larger than the common teal (_A. crecca_), the male is readily
+distinguished therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of
+which are nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks,
+while a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the eyes.
+The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars black with a white
+shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (_speculum_) greyish green bordered
+above and below by white. The female closely resembles the hen teal, but
+possesses no wing-spot. In Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very
+rare, and though it is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence
+of its occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range, and
+its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it breeds in many
+parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be common; but it ranges far
+to the eastward in Asia--even to Formosa, according to Swinhoe--and
+yearly visits India in winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in
+Norfolk arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast
+reed-beds which border the Broads--a situation rarely or never chosen by
+the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the trachea in the male
+garganey differs in form from that described in any other drake, being
+more oval and placed nearly in the median line of the windpipe, instead
+of on one side, as is usually the case.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (_Orn._, lib.
+    iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never
+    to have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being
+    invariably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous
+    as "summer-teal."
+
+
+
+
+GARGANO, MONTE (anc. _Garganus Mons_), a massive mountainous peninsula
+projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia, Italy, and belonging
+geologically to the opposite Dalmatian coast; it was indeed separated
+from the rest of Italy by an arm of the sea as late as the Tertiary
+period. The highest point (Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The
+oak forests for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely
+disappeared.
+
+
+
+
+GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE (from the Fr. _gargouille_, originally the throat
+or gullet, cf. Lat. _gurgulio_, _gula_, and similar words derived from
+root _gar_, to swallow, the word representing the gurgling sound of
+water; Ital. _doccia di grande_; Ger. _Ausguss_), in architecture, the
+carved termination to a spout which conveys away the water from the
+gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque figures. The term is applied
+more especially to medieval work, but throughout all ages some means of
+throwing the water off the roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been
+adopted, and in Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the
+washing of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the
+flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the roof
+passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved or modelled
+in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice. At Pompeii large
+numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been found which were modelled in
+the shape of various animals.
+
+
+
+
+GARHWAL, or GURWAL. 1. A district of British India, in the Kumaon
+division of the United Provinces. It has an area of 5629 sq. m., and
+consists almost entirely of rugged mountain ranges running in all
+directions, and separated by narrow valleys which in some cases become
+deep gorges or ravines. The only level portion of the district is a
+narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the
+hills and the fertile plains of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in
+the north, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet
+(25,413), Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and
+Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of the
+Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the district.
+At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and thenceforward the
+united streams bear the name of the Ganges. Cultivation is principally
+confined to the immediate vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for
+purposes of irrigation. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty
+chieftainships, each chief with his own independent fortress (_garh_).
+Nearly 500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pál, reduced all the
+minor principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal
+kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state
+of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded
+Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. For
+twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the country with a rod of iron, until a
+series of encroachments by them on British territory led to the war with
+Nepal in 1814. At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon
+were converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality was
+restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, Garhwal has
+rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop. (1901) 429,900. Two
+battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in
+the district, which also contains the military cantonment of Lansdowne.
+Grain and coarse cloth are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and
+wool are imported, the trade with Tibet being considerable. The
+administrative headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is
+the largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara, the
+terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Najibabad.
+
+2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area 4180 sq.
+m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district mentioned above, and
+its topographical features are similar. It contains the sources of both
+the Ganges and the Jumna, which are visited by thousands of Hindu
+pilgrims. The gross revenue is about £28,000, of which nearly half is
+derived from forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.
+
+
+
+
+GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was born at Nice on
+the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from home to escape a clerical
+education, but afterwards joined his father in the coasting trade. After
+joining the "Giovine Italia" he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a
+number of companions on board the frigate "Euridice," plotted to seize
+the vessel and occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's
+Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being discovered,
+Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by default on the 3rd of June
+1834. Escaping to South America in 1836, he was given letters of marque
+by the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil.
+After a series of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and
+subjected to severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining
+liberty, he renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro.
+During the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable
+companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and Menotti.
+Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to Corrientes with a
+small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but was overtaken by Admiral
+Brown, against whose fleet he fought for three days. When his ammunition
+was exhausted he burned his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo,
+he formed the Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and
+Sant' Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of Uruguay.
+Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to return to Italy upon
+receiving news of the incipient revolutionary movement. In October 1847
+he wrote to Pius IX., offering his services to the Church, whose cause
+he for a moment believed to be that of national liberty.
+
+Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword at the
+disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties with the
+Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000 strong, but shortly
+after taking the field was obliged, by the defeat of Custozza, to flee
+to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman
+republic with the defence of San Pancrazio against the French, where he
+gained the victory of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the
+saddle, although wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From
+the 3rd of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged against
+the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, dispersing an
+army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After the fall of Rome he left
+the city at the head of 4000 volunteers, with the idea of joining the
+defenders of Venice, and started on that wonderful retreat through
+central Italy pursued by the armies of France, Austria, Spain and
+Naples. By his consummate generalship and the matchless endurance of his
+men the pursuers were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly
+diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his devoted
+wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice, where the tricolor
+still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of Ravenna; the Austrians
+were seeking him in all directions, and most of his legionaries were
+captured and shot. Anita died near Comacchio, and he himself fled across
+the peninsula, being assisted by all classes of the people, to Tuscany,
+whence he escaped to Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in
+order to earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a
+trading skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and
+purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house
+thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was placed in
+command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the Austrians at Casale on the
+8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the 23rd of May, and, after a series
+of victorious fights, liberating Alpine territory as far as the frontier
+of Tirol. When about to enter Austrian territory proper his advance was,
+however, checked by the armistice of Villafranca.
+
+Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom he had been
+aided during the campaign, he was apprised, immediately after the
+wedding, of certain circumstances which caused him at once to abandon
+that lady and to start for central Italy. Forbidden to invade the
+Romagna, he returned indignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and
+Bertani he planned the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson
+of the sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the
+expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but Crispi
+succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the 5th of May 1860
+with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of 1070 strong. Calling at
+Talamone to embark arms and money, he reached Marsala on the 11th of
+May, and landed under the protection of the British vessels "Intrepid"
+and "Argus." On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was
+proclaimed at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were
+routed at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the
+6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine frigates and
+protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate. Once established
+at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to liberate Naples and march
+upon Rome, a plan opposed by the emissaries of Cavour, who desired the
+immediate annexation of Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling
+Lafarina and driving out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi
+routed the Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on
+the 20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,
+secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was fitting
+out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged the
+expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning to Messina, Garibaldi found a
+letter from Victor Emmanuel II. dissuading him from invading the kingdom
+of Naples. Garibaldi replied asking "permission to disobey." Next day he
+crossed the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August,
+accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San Giovanni and
+of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon Naples became a triumphal
+progress, which the wiles of Francesco II. were powerless to arrest. On
+the 7th of September Garibaldi entered Naples, while Francesco fled to
+Gaeta. On the 1st of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army
+40,000 strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had occupied
+the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of Bersaglieri reaching
+the Volturno in time to take part in the battle. Their presence put an
+end to the plan for the invasion of the papal states, and Garibaldi
+unwillingly issued a decree for the _plébiscite_ which was to sanction
+the incorporation of the Two Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th
+of November Garibaldi accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn
+entry into Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after
+disbanding his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the
+regular army.
+
+Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect of his
+followers by the Italian government induced him to return to political
+life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found violent
+expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile them, but the publication by
+Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi provoked a hostility which, but
+for the intervention of the king, would have led to a duel between
+Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events.
+Cavour's successor, Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular
+army; Rattazzi, who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an
+expedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his
+followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms
+against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo and gathered
+an army under the banner "Roma o morte." Rattazzi, frightened at the
+prospect of an attack upon Rome, proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily,
+sent the fleet to Messina, and instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi.
+Circumventing the Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to
+Melito with 3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and
+wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of August.
+Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once more to Caprera amidst
+general sympathy.
+
+In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded an
+enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. From England
+he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed
+command of a volunteer army and, after the defeat of the Italian troops
+at Custozza, took the offensive in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of
+July he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone,
+on the 10th at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on
+the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was
+ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply "Obbedisco" ("I
+obey") has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience
+to a command destructive of a successful leader's hopes, but documents
+now published (cf. _Corriere della sera_, 9th of August 1906) prove
+beyond doubt that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to
+evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the
+9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th of July
+to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not
+cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable.
+Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply. From the Trentino he returned to
+Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by
+the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of
+September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, he prepared
+to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the Italian
+government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding the surveillance of the
+Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, and, with the complicity of
+the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on
+the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd
+of November his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal
+troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and
+taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by
+writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and
+went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon,
+Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he
+resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera
+until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm
+induced the Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of
+£40,000 with an annual pension of £2000 be conferred upon him as a
+recompense for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by
+parliament (27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon
+the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and
+pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber
+embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time he
+succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the countess
+Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted another marriage
+with the mother of his children, Clelia and Manlio. In 1880 he went to
+Milan for the inauguration of the Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited
+Naples and Palermo, but was prevented by illness from being present at
+the 600th anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882
+his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.
+
+  See Garibaldi, _Epistolario_, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885),
+  and _Memorie autografiche_ (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation
+  by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 ed.);
+  Giuseppe Guerzoni, _Garibaldi_ (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie White
+  Mario, _Garibaldi e i suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan,
+  _Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic_ (London, 1907), which
+  contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi's early career, of the
+  events leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a
+  picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of Rome
+  and of Garibaldi's flight, with a very full bibliography; also
+  Trevelyan's _Garibaldi and the Thousand_ (1909).     (H. W. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century _chanson de geste_
+of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary
+narratives left by the _trouvères_. This local cycle of Lorraine, which
+is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers de Metz, Anséis, fils de Girbert
+and Yon, is obviously based on history, and the failure absolutely to
+identify the events recorded does not deprive the poems of their value
+as a picture of the savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries.
+The episodes are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the
+_trouvères_ to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless
+no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet been
+offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F. Settegast,
+_Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_, 1904) that these poems
+resume historical traditions going back to the Vandal irruption of 408
+and the battle fought by the Romans and the West Goths against the Huns
+in 451. The cycle relates three wars against hosts of heathen invaders.
+In the first of these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of
+Metz fight by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have
+destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in a great
+battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in Metz by the
+"Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who defers his assistance
+by the advice of the traitor Hardré. Hervis then transfers his
+allegiance to Anséis of Cologne, by whose help the invaders are
+repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the third Thierry, king of
+Moriane[1] sends to Pippin for help against four Saracen kings. He is
+delivered by a Frankish host, but falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz
+was the son of a citizen to whom the duke of Lorraine had married his
+daughter Aelis, and his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the
+_chanson_ which gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had
+desired that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when
+Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux puts
+himself forward as his rival and Hardré, Fromont's father, is slain by
+Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war that ensues between
+the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. They finally submit their
+differences to the king, only to begin their disputes once more.
+Blanchefleur becomes the wife of Pippin, while Garin remains her
+faithful servant. One of the most famous passages of the poem is the
+assassination of Begue by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying
+waste his enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs
+continue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin Paris,
+the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of Aquitaine, the last
+of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed and slain by Pippin the
+Short, king of the Franks; but the _trouvères_ had in mind no doubt the
+wars which marked the end of the Carolingian dynasty.
+
+  See _Li Romans de Garin le Loherain_, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833);
+  _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, _Popular
+  Epics of the Middle Ages_ (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot,
+  _Études d'histoire du moyen âge_ (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast,
+  _Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_ (Leipzig, 1904). A
+  complete edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first
+  volume of which, _Hervis de Mes_ (Gesellschaft für roman. Lit.,
+  Dresden), appeared in 1903.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] i.e. Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne)
+    of Savoy.
+
+
+
+
+GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known as Johannes
+Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de Garlandia, was born in
+England, though most of his life was spent in France. John Bale in his
+_Catalogus_, and John Pits, following Bale, placed him among the writers
+of the 11th century. The main facts of his life, however, are stated in
+a long poem _De triumphis ecclesiae_ contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A
+x in the British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe
+Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the point of
+view of the victories gained by the church over heretics at home and
+infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a certain John of London,
+whom it is difficult to distinguish from others of the same name; but he
+must have been in Paris in or before 1202, for he mentions as one of his
+teachers Alain de Lisle, who died in that year or the next. Garland was
+one of the professors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse,
+and remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which he
+gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the hatred of
+the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe for the professors
+of the university, who had been installed by the Catholic party. Garland
+was one of the first to fly, and the rest of his life was spent in
+Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. Garland's grammatical works
+were much used in England, and were often printed by Richard Pynson and
+Wynkyn de Worde. He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on
+mathematics and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription
+may have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus, a
+canon of Besançon in the 12th century. The treatise on alchemy,
+_Compendium alchimiae_, often printed under his name, was by a
+14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.
+
+The best known of his poems beside the "De Triumphis Ecclesiae" is
+"Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis," contained in the same MS. Among
+his other works are his "Dictionarius," a Latin vocabulary, printed by
+T. Wright in the _Library of National Antiquities_ (vol. i., 1857);
+_Compendium totius grammatices ..._, printed at Deventer, 1489; two
+metrical treatises, entitled _Synonyma_ and _Equivoca_, frequently
+printed at the close of the 15th century.
+
+  For further bibliographical information see the British Museum
+  catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae
+  aetatis ..._, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire, &c._
+  See also _Histoire litt. de la France_, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and
+  xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P.
+  Meyer, _La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois_, vol. ii. pp.
+  xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, _Lexicographie latine du
+  XII^e et du XIII^e siècles_ (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L.
+  Kingsford in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, giving a list also of the works
+  on alchemy, mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him;
+  J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906) 549.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GARLIC (O. Eng. _gárleác_, i.e. "spear-leek"; Gr. [Greek: skorodon];
+Lat. _allium_; Ital. _aglio_; Fr. _ail_; Ger. _Knoblauch_), _Allium
+sativum_, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae,
+indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, narrow, flat,
+obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of
+whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. The bulb, which is the
+only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are 10 or
+12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From these new bulbs can be procured by
+planting out in February or March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in
+a dry place. If of fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. To
+prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xix. 34)
+advises to bend the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he
+observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk.
+
+Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.). It is
+stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. The
+percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly (_Trans. Hort.
+Soc. Lond._, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, organic matter 13.38,
+and inorganic matter 1.53--that of the leaves being water 87.14, organic
+matter 11.27 and inorganic matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and
+characteristic odour and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively
+smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C3H5)2S
+(see Hofmann and Cahours, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ x. p. 320). This, when
+garlic has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity
+of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been used as an
+article of diet. It formed part of the food of the Israelites in Egypt
+(Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed by Cheops in the
+construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in Egypt, where,
+however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed (see Rawlinson's
+_Herodotus_, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by the ancient Greek and
+Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes (cf. Virg. _Ecl_. ii. 11),
+and, as Pliny tells us (_N.H._ xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen
+eulogizes it as the rustic's _theriac_ (see F. Adams's _Paulus
+Aegineta_, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century
+(see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a
+palliative of the heat of the sun in field labour. "The people in places
+where the simoon is frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (_An Account
+of the Kingdom of Caubul_, p. 140, 1815), "eat garlic, and rub their
+lips and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, to
+prevent their suffering by the simoon." "O dura messorum ilia," exclaims
+Horace (_Epod_. iii.), as he records his detestation of the popular
+esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign of vulgarity (cf.
+Shakespeare, _Coriol_. iv. 6, and _Meas. for Meas._ iii. 2). In England
+garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, but in the southern
+countries of Europe it is a common ingredient in dishes, and is largely
+consumed by the agricultural population. Garlic was placed by the
+ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at cross-roads, as a supper for
+Hecate (Theophrastus, _Characters_, [Greek: Deisidaimonias]); and
+according to Pliny garlic and onions were invocated as deities by the
+Egyptians at the taking of oaths. The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower
+Egypt, who worshipped the onion, are said to have held both it and
+garlic in aversion as food. Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic
+properties, and was of old, as still sometimes now, employed as a
+medicinal remedy. Pliny (_N.H._ xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list
+of complaints in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham
+valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen
+(_Mat. Med._ ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone.
+In the United States the bulb is given in doses of ½-2 drachms in cases
+of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. Garlic may also be prescribed
+as an extract consisting of the inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10
+grains, and as the _syrupus allii aceticus_, in doses of 1-4 drachms.
+This last preparation has recently been much extolled in the treatment
+of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.
+
+The wild "crow garlic" and "field garlic" of Britain are the species
+_Allium vineale_ and _A. oleraceum_ respectively.
+
+
+
+
+GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit, son of Brian
+Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated at Winchester and
+afterwards studied law in London. Having become a Roman Catholic, he
+went to Italy, joined the Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under
+Bellarmine and others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he
+joined the mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the
+imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the dispute
+between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the "Wisbech Stirs"
+(1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston in his resistance to any
+compromise with the civil government. His antagonism to the secular
+clergy was also shown later, when in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was
+the means of betraying to the government the "Bye Plot," contrived by
+William Watson, a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four
+vows.
+
+Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with conspicuous
+success. His life was one of concealment and disguises; a price was put
+on his head; but he was fearless and indefatigable in carrying on his
+propaganda and in ministering to the scattered Catholics, even in their
+prisons. The result was that he gained many converts, while the number
+of Jesuits in England increased during his tenure of office from three
+to forty. It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he
+is best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death, needs
+discussion in greater detail.
+
+In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII. directing that no
+person unfavourable to the Catholic religion should be allowed to
+succeed to the throne. About the same time he was consulted by Catesby,
+Tresham and Winter, all afterwards involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on
+the subject of the mission to be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to
+invade England. According to his own statement he disapproved, but he
+gave Winter a recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person
+at Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy Fawkes
+when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham when he went to Rome
+(see GUNPOWDER PLOT). The preparations for the plot had now been
+actively going forward since the beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of
+June 1605 Garnet was asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter
+upon any undertaking which should involve the destruction of the
+innocent together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the
+affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged in a
+town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according to his own
+accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the death of "not only
+innocents but friends and necessary persons for a commonwealth," and
+showed him a letter from the pope forbidding rebellion. According to Sir
+Everard Digby, however, Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief,
+replied "that they were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or
+procure stirs, but yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the
+pope's mind they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good....
+This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me, gave me
+absolute belief that the matter in general was approved, though every
+particular was not known." Both men were endeavouring to exculpate
+themselves, and therefore both statements are subject to suspicion. A
+few days later, according to Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known
+as Greenway, informed him of the whole plot "by way of confession,"
+when, as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged
+Greenway to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently, after
+his trial, Garnet said he "could not certainly affirm" that Greenway
+intended to relate the matter to him in confession.
+
+Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a matter of
+considerable controversy not only between Roman Catholics and
+Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers themselves. Father
+Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600, discusses the exact case of
+the revelation of a plot in confession. Almost all the learned doctors,
+he says, declare that the confessor may reveal it, but he adds, "the
+contrary opinion is the safer and better doctrine, and more consistent
+with religion and with the reverence due to the holy rite of
+confession." According to Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and
+defender, "If the person confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a
+priest to break the seal of confession in order to avert a great
+calamity"; but he justifies Garnet's silence by insisting that it was
+not lawful to disclose a treasonable secret to a heretical king.
+According to Garnet's own opinion a priest cognizant of treason against
+the state "is bound to find all lawful means to discover it _salvo
+sigillo confessionis_." In this connexion it is worth pointing out that
+Garnet had not thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue
+with the king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this
+case that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his
+inactivity now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that
+he was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway's
+information, he had still Catesby's earlier revelations to act upon. He
+appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent the crime, beyond
+writing to Rome in vague terms that "he feared some particular desperate
+courses," which aroused no suspicions in that quarter. At the same time
+he wrote to Father Parsons on the 4th of September that "as far as he
+could now see the minds of the Catholics were quieted."
+
+His movements immediately prior to the attempt were certainly
+suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected meeting of
+parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a pilgrimage to St
+Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started from Gothurst (now
+Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby's house in Buckinghamshire, included
+Rokewood, and stopped at the houses of John Grant and Robert Winter,
+three others of the conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for
+the prayers of the company "for some good success for the Catholic cause
+at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went on the 29th of
+October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which place it had been
+settled the conspirators were to assemble after the explosion. On the
+6th of November, Bates, Catesby's servant and one of the conspirators,
+brought him a letter with the news of the failure of the plot and
+desiring advice. On the 30th Garnet addressed a letter to the government
+in which he protested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, "as one
+who hopeth for everlasting salvation."
+
+It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and Greenway
+were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the plot; and on the
+same day Garnet removed from Coughton to Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a
+house furnished with cleverly-contrived hiding-places for the use of the
+proscribed priests. Here he remained some time in concealment in company
+with another priest, Oldcorne _alias_ Hall, but at last on the 30th of
+January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer, they
+surrendered and were taken up to London, being well treated during the
+journey by Salisbury's express orders. He was examined by the council on
+the 13th of February and frequently questioned during the following
+days, but refused to incriminate himself, and a threat to inflict
+torture had no effect upon his resolution. Subsequently Garnet and
+Oldcorne having been placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to
+communicate with one another, their conversations were overheard on
+several separate occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet
+at first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th of
+March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at the
+Guildhall on the 28th.
+
+Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having
+concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed him to
+perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property; for the law of
+England took no account of religious scruples or professional etiquette
+when they permit the execution of a preventable crime. Strangely enough,
+however, the government passed over the incriminating conversation with
+Greenway, and relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to
+support the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was
+not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more modern days.
+The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure in criminal cases
+did not then exist, and Garnet's trial, like many others, was influenced
+by the political situation, the case against him being supported by
+general political accusations against the Jesuits as a body, and with
+evidence of their complicity in former plots against the government. The
+prisoner himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false
+statements, and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of
+equivocation. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of
+equivocation to cases "of necessary defence from injustice and wrong or
+of the obtaining some good of great importance when there is no danger
+of harm to others," and he could justify his conduct in lying to the
+council by their own conduct towards him, which included treacherous
+eavesdropping and fraud, and also threats of torture. Moreover, the
+attempt of the counsel for the crown to force the prisoner to
+incriminate himself was opposed to the whole spirit and tradition of the
+law of England. He was declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of
+the irregularity and unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial
+justice was done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd
+of May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for his
+concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he had never
+approved it. The king, who had shown him favour throughout and who had
+forbidden his being tortured, directed that he should be hanged till he
+was quite dead and that the usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.
+
+Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw" was
+circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained straw
+from the scene of execution which came into the hands of one John
+Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who was present,
+developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the credence which the
+story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was commissioned by the privy
+council to discover and punish the impostors. Garnet's name was included
+in the list of the 353 Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England
+in 1880, and in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales
+compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of the
+province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is styled "a
+martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation." The passage in
+_Macbeth_ (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no doubt refers
+especially to Garnet. His _aliases_ were Farmer, Marchant, Whalley,
+Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was
+the author of a letter on the Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, _alias_ John
+Jones, in Diego Yepres's _Historia particular de la persecucion de
+Inglaterra_ (1599); a _Treatise of Schism_, a MS. treatise in reply to
+_A Protestant Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician_; a
+translation of the _Stemma Christi_ with supplements (1622); a treatise
+on the Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Of the great number of works embodying the controversy
+  on the question of Garnet's guilt the following may be mentioned, in
+  order of date: _A True and Perfect Relation of the whole Proceedings
+  against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates_ (1606, repr. 1679),
+  the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; _Apologia pro
+  Henrico Garneto_ (1610), by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the pseudonym
+  Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, _Antilogia versus
+  Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes_, in which the whole subject is well
+  treated; Henry More, _Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis_ (1660);
+  D. Jardine, _Gunpowder Plot_ (1857); J. Morris, S.J., _Condition of
+  the Catholics under James I._ (1872), containing Father Gerard's
+  narrative; J.H. Pollen, _Father Henry Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot_
+  (1888); S.R. Gardiner, _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897), in reply to
+  John Gerard, S.J., _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ (1897); J. Gerard,
+  _Contributions towards a Life of Father Henry Garnet_ (1898). See also
+  _State Trials II._, and _Cal. of State Papers Dom._, (1603-1610). The
+  original documents are preserved in the _Gunpowder Plot Book_ at the
+  Record Office.
+
+
+
+
+
+GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related minerals, many of
+which are used as gem-stones. The name probably comes from the Lat.
+_granaticus_, a stone so named from its resemblance to the pulp of the
+pomegranate in colour, or to its seeds in shape; or possibly from
+_granum_, "cochineal," in allusion to the colour of the stone. The
+garnet was included, with other red stones, by Theophrastus, under the
+name of [Greek: anthrax], while the common garnet seems to have been his
+[Greek: anthrakion]. Pliny groups several stones, including garnet,
+under the term _carbunculus_. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet
+(almandine) cut _en cabochon_, or with a smooth convex surface,
+frequently hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of
+colour, and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see ALMANDINE). The Hebrew
+word _nophek_, translated [Greek: anthrax] in the Septuagint, seems to
+have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst _bareketh_ ([Greek: smaragdos]
+of the Septuagint), though also rendered "carbuncle," was probably
+either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie,
+rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt. Though not
+extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for engraved gems, it
+was much used for this purpose by the Romans of the Empire. Flat
+polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon
+and Merovingian jewelry, the material used being almandine, or "precious
+garnet."
+
+Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the variation is
+limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates, conformable to
+the general formula R''3R'''2(SiO4)3, where R'' = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and
+R''' = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many kinds of garnet they may be
+reduced to the following six types, which may occur intermixed
+isomorphously:--
+
+  1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (_Grossularite_), Ca3Al2Si3O12.
+
+  2. Calcium-ferric garnet (_Andradite_), Ca3Fe2Si3O12.
+
+  3. Calcium-chromium garnet (_Uvarovite_), Ca3Cr2Si3O12.
+
+  4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (_Pyrope_), Mg3Al2Si3O12.
+
+  5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (_Almandine_), Fe3Al2Si3O12.
+
+  6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (_Spessartine_), Mn3Al2Si3O12.
+
+These are frequently called respectively:--(1) Lime-alumina garnet; (2)
+lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina garnet;
+(5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.
+
+The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of some of
+their elements.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic
+dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two forms
+(see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced octahedron
+occurs in some of the combinations. Cleavage obtains parallel to the
+dodecahedron, but is imperfect. The hardness varies according to
+composition from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific gravity in like manner has
+a wide range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium garnets to 4.3
+in the ferrous-aluminium species. Sir Arthur H. Church found that many
+garnets when fused yielded a product of lower density than the original
+mineral. The colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or
+even black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets
+are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur, leading
+some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really cubic. The
+refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic sections,
+viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands out in relief.
+
+  Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline schists,
+  gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and occasionally
+  in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite, garnet forms the
+  peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for industrial
+  purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits, weathered from
+  the parent rock, though in some important workings the rock is
+  quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are described under their
+  respective headings (see ALMANDINE, CINNAMON STONE, DEMANTOID and
+  PYROPE). Most of the minerals noticed in this article are of
+  scientific rather than commercial interest.
+
+  Grossularite or "gooseberry-stone," is typically a brownish-green
+  garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to
+  vesuvianite, q.v.), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is
+  related to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in
+  rose-pink dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of
+  grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov.
+  Andradite was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d'Andrada e Silva, who
+  described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian
+  garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes most
+  of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact masses,
+  sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be referred melanite,
+  a black garnet well known from the volcanic tuffs near Rome, used
+  occasionally in the 18th century for mourning jewelry. Another black
+  garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees, is called pyreneite.
+  Under andradite may also be placed topazolite, a honey-yellow garnet,
+  rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite, a brown resin-like
+  garnet, with which certain kinds of idocrase have been confused;
+  aplome, a green garnet from Saxony and Siberia; and jelletite, a green
+  Swiss garnet named after the Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed
+  the green Siberian mineral termed demantoid (q.v.), sometimes
+  improperly called olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a
+  Russian minister, Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from
+  Siberia and Canada, but though of fine colour is never found in
+  crystals large enough for gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine,
+  named after Spessart, a German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet,
+  cut for jewelry when sufficiently clear, and rather resembling
+  cinnamon-stone. It is found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines
+  in Amelia county, Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red
+  garnet, forming a fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county,
+  N.C., and has been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under
+  the name of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope,
+  and shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets
+  largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (q.v.).
+
+  Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of
+  pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes.
+  Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of
+  sandpaper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the
+  boot-trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in
+  the United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of
+  the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much of
+  the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common garnet,
+  where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent in
+  metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially, and is
+  known as a furnace-product.
+
+  It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to the
+  mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in
+  icositetrahedra.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906), English librarian and author, son of the
+learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett (1789-1850), priest-vicar of
+Lichfield cathedral and afterwards keeper of printed books at the
+British Museum, who came of a Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on
+the 27th of February 1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern
+philological research in England; his articles in the _Quarterly Review_
+(1835, 1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic
+question, and his essays in the _Transactions_ of the Philological
+Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of the
+English language. The son, who thus owed much to his parentage, was
+educated at home and at a private school, and in 1851, just after his
+father's death, entered the British Museum as an assistant in the
+library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent of the reading-room, and
+from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he was keeper of the printed books.
+In 1883 he was given the degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour
+repeated by other universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.
+
+His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the value of his
+services there, made him a well-known figure in the literary world, and
+he published much original work in both prose and verse. His chief
+publications in book-form were: in verse, _Primula_ (1858), _Io in
+Egypt_ (1859), _Idylls and Epigrams_ (1869, republished in 1892 as _A
+Chaplet from the Greek Anthology_), _The Queen and other Poems_ (1902),
+_Collected Poems_ (1893); in prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887),
+Emerson (1887), Milton (1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume
+of remarkably original and fanciful tales, _The Twilight of the Gods_
+(1888); a tragedy, _Iphigenia in Delphi_ (1890); _A Short History of
+Italian Literature_ (1898); _Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily_
+(1899); _Essays of an Ex-librarian_ (1901). He was an extensive
+contributor to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and the _Dictionary of
+National Biography_, editor of the _International Library of Famous
+Literature_, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the elaborate _English
+Literature: an illustrated Record_. So multifarious was his output,
+however, in contributions to reviews, &c., and as translator or editor,
+that this list represents only a small part of his published work. He
+was a member of numerous learned literary societies, British and
+foreign. His facility as an expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute
+generalization, together with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his
+work an authority which was universally recognized, though it sometimes
+suffered from his relying too much on his memory and his power of
+generalizing--remarkable as both usually were--in cases requiring
+greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But as an
+interpreter, whether of biography or _belles lettres_, who brought an
+unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best sense, interestingly
+and comprehensibly before a large public, and at the same time
+acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship, Dr Garnett's writing
+was always characterized by clearness, common sense and sympathetic
+appreciation. His official career at the British Museum marked an epoch
+in the management of the library, in the history of which his place is
+second only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the "sliding press"
+in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the general
+catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was resumed under
+him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes of a Dryasdust, his
+human interest in books made him an ideal librarian, and his courtesy
+and helpfulness were outstanding features in a personality of singular
+charm. The whole bookish world looked on him as a friend. Among his
+"hobbies" was a study of astrology, to which, without associating his
+name with it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the
+pseudonym of "A.G. Trent" he published in 1880 an article (in the
+_University Magazine_) on "The Soul and the Stars"--quoted in Wilde and
+Dodson's _Natal Astrology_. He satisfied himself that there was more
+truth in the old astrology than modern criticism supposed, and he had
+intended to publish a further monograph on the subject, but the
+intention was frustrated by the ill-health which led up to his death on
+the 13th of April 1906. He married (1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney
+Singleton (d. 1903), and had a family of six children; his son Edward
+(b. 1868) being a well-known literary man, whose wife translated
+Turgeneff's works into English.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, CLÉMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French economist, was born at Beuil
+(Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October 1813. Coming to Paris he studied
+at the École de Commerce, of which he eventually became secretary and
+finally a professor. In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin
+(1801-1864) the Société d'Économie politique, becoming its secretary, a
+post which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the
+Association pour la Liberté des Échanges. He also helped to establish
+and edited for many years the _Journal des économistes_ and the
+_Annuaire de l'économie politique_. Of the school of _laissez faire_, he
+was engaged during his whole life in the advancement of the science of
+political economy, and in the improvement of French commercial
+education. In 1873 he became a member of the Institute, and in 1876 a
+senator for the department in which he was born. He died at Paris on the
+25th of September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more
+important: _Traité d'économie politique_ (1845), _Richard Cobden et la
+Ligue_ (1846), _Traité des finances_ (1862), and _Principes du
+population_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821), French politician and economist,
+was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November 1754. He was educated for the
+law, and obtained when young the office of _procureur_ to the Châtelet
+in Paris. On the calling of the states-general he was elected as one of
+the _députés suppléants_ of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator
+of the department of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to
+the Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public
+life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In 1797 he
+was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800 he was prefect
+of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator and in 1808 a count.
+After the Restoration he obtained a peerage, and on the return of Louis
+XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he became minister of state and member
+of privy council, and in 1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on
+the 4th of October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his
+facile power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation
+depends rather on his later works on political economy, especially his
+admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's _Wealth
+of Nations_ (1805) and his _Histoire de la monnaie_ (2 vols., 1819),
+which contains much sound and well-arranged material. His _Abrégé des
+principes de l'écon. polit._ (1796) is a very clear and instructive
+manual. The valuable _Description géographique, physique, et politique
+du département de Seine-et-Oise_ (1802) was drawn up from his
+instructions. Other works are _De la propriété_ (1792) and _Histoire des
+banques d'escompte_ (1806).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898), French architect, was born in
+Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He was educated in a primary school,
+and it was intended that he should pursue his father's craft, that of a
+wheelwright. His mother, however, having heard that with a little
+previous study he might enter an architect's office and eventually
+become a measuring surveyor (_vérificateur_), and earn as much as six
+francs a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health
+he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing and
+mathematics at the Petite École de Dessin, in the rue de Médecine, the
+cradle of so many of the great artists of France. His progress was such
+as to justify his being sent first into an architect's office and then
+to the well-known atelier of Lebas, where he began his studies in
+preparation for the examination of the École des Beaux Arts, which he
+passed in 1842, at the age of seventeen. Shortly after his admission it
+became necessary that he should support himself, and accordingly he
+worked during the day in various architects' offices, among them in that
+of M. Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the École to the
+evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three, the
+Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture, engraving and
+music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His principal works were the
+measured drawings of the Forum of Trajan and the temple of Vesta in
+Rome, and the temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his
+travelling studentship he went to Athens and measured the temple at
+Aegina, subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its
+polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph in 1877.
+The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned by the duc de
+Luynes to make of the tombs of the house of Anjou were not published,
+owing to the death of his patron; and since Garnier's death they have
+been given to the library of the École des Beaux Arts, along with other
+drawings he made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was
+appointed surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very
+moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor Baltard
+to make two water-colour drawings of the Hôtel de Ville, to be placed in
+the album presented to Queen Victoria in 1855, on the occasion of her
+visit to Paris, proved very acceptable. These two drawings are now in
+the library at Windsor.
+
+In 1860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was announced for
+a design for a new imperial academy of music, and out of 163 competitors
+Garnier was one of five selected for a second competition, in which, by
+unanimous vote, he carried off the first prize, and the execution of the
+design was placed in his hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its
+completion by the Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the
+structure of the present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a
+cost of about 35,000,000 francs (£1,420,000). During the war the
+building was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The
+staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the
+interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been
+approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are the Casino
+at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, the Hôtel du
+Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs, those of the
+musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Massé and Duprato. In 1874 he was elected a
+member of the Institute of France, and after passing through the grades
+of chevalier, officer and commander of the Legion of Honour, received in
+1895 the rank of grand officer, a high distinction that had never before
+been granted to an architect. Charles Garnier's reputation was not
+confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of Europe,
+and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal of the Royal
+Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria. Besides his monograph
+on the temple of Aegina, he wrote several works, of which _Le Nouvel
+Opéra de Paris_ is the most valuable. For the International Exhibition
+of 1889 he designed the buildings illustrating the "History of the
+House" in all periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards
+published by him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his
+claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he
+rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the Institute
+of France, and the École des Beaux-Arts, services which in France are
+rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died on the 3rd of August
+1898.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANÇOIS [FRANCIS] (1839-1873), French officer and
+explorer, was born at St Étienne on the 25th of July 1839. He entered
+the navy, and after voyaging in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he
+obtained a post on the staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862
+was campaigning in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he
+returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of the
+natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration of
+Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion that the marquis
+de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a mission to explore the valley
+of the Mekong, but as Garnier was not considered old enough to be put in
+command, the chief authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagrée.
+In the course of the expedition--to quote the words of Sir Roderick
+Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he was
+presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of
+London--from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai 5392 m. were traversed, and
+of these 3625 m., chiefly of country unknown to European geography, were
+surveyed with care, and the positions fixed by astronomical
+observations, nearly the whole of the observations being taken by
+Garnier himself. Volunteering to lead a detachment to Talifu, the
+capital of Sultan Suleiman, the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in
+Yunnan, he successfully carried out the more than adventurous
+enterprise. When shortly afterwards Lagrée died, Garnier naturally
+assumed the command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to
+the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return to
+France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of his narrative
+was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and during the siege of Paris
+he served as principal staff officer to the admiral in command of the
+eighth "sector." His experiences during the siege were published
+anonymously in the feuilleton of _Le Temps_, and appeared separately as
+_Le Siège de Paris, journal d'un officier de marine_ (1871). Returning
+to Cochin-China he found the political circumstances of the country
+unfavourable to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China,
+and in 1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the
+waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupré, governor of
+Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a new colony in
+Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took Hanoi, the capital of
+Tongking, and on the 21st of December he was slain in fight with the
+Black Flags. His chief fame rests on the fact that he originated the
+idea of exploring the Mekong, and carried out the larger portion of the
+work.
+
+  The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as _Voyage
+  d'exploration en Indo-Chine effectué pendant les années 1866, 1867 et
+  1868, publié sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec le concours
+  de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel_ (2 vols.). An account of
+  the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen is given in the _Bulletin de la
+  Soc. de Géog._ (1874). His _Chronique royale du Cambodje_, was
+  reprinted from the _Journal Asiatique_ in 1872. See _Ocean Highways_
+  (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh Clifford, _Further
+  India_, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545-c. 1600), French tragic poet, was born at Ferté
+Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his first work while still a
+law-student at Toulouse, where he won a prize (1565) in the _jeux
+floraux_. It was a collection of lyrical pieces, now lost, entitled
+_Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier_ (1565). After some practice at
+the Parisian bar, he became conseiller du roi au siège présidial et
+sénéchaussée of Le Maine, his native district, and later
+lieutenant-général criminel. His friend Lacroix du Maine says that he
+enjoyed a great reputation as an orator. He was a distinguished
+magistrate, of considerable weight in his native province, who gave his
+leisure to literature, and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized
+by his own generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600.
+
+In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of dramatists
+who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these productions there is
+little that is strictly dramatic except the form. A tragedy was a series
+of rhetorical speeches relieved by a lyric chorus. His pieces in this
+manner are _Porcie_ (published 1568, acted at the hôtel de Bourgogne in
+1573), _Cornélie_ and _Hippolyte_ (both acted in 1573 and printed in
+1574). In _Porcie_ the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the
+subject of an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death
+of the nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group
+of tragedies--_Marc-Antoine_ (1578), _La Troade_ (1579), _Antigone_
+(acted and printed 1580)--shows an advance on the theatre of Étienne
+Jodelle and Jacques Grévin, and on his own early plays, in so much that
+the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance of action, though
+this is accomplished by the plan of joining together two virtually
+independent pieces in the same way.
+
+In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces _Bradamante_ and _Les
+Juives_. In _Bradamante_, which alone of his plays has no chorus, he cut
+himself adrift from Senecan models, and sought his subject in Ariosto,
+the result being what came to be known later as a tragi-comedy. The
+dramatic and romantic story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands,
+though even there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the
+stage. The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic
+interest in the manner of Corneille. _Les Juives_ is the pathetic story
+of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the Jewish king Zedekiah
+and his children. The Jewish women lamenting the fate of their children
+take a principal part in this tragedy, which, although almost entirely
+elegiac in conception, is singularly well designed, and gains unity by
+the personality of the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French
+tragedies of the 16th and 17th centuries it is, with _Athalie_, the best
+constructed with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual
+representation is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is,
+in fact, visually conceived.
+
+Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of his
+century and the precursor of the great achievements of the next.
+
+  The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, 4
+  vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found in
+  Émile Faguet, _La Tragédie française au XVI^e siècle_ (1883, pp.
+  183-307).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER-PAGÈS, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841), French politician, was
+born at Marseilles on the 27th of December 1801. Soon after his birth
+his father Jean François Garnier, a naval surgeon, died, and his mother
+married Simon Pagès, a college professor, by whom she had a son. The
+boys were brought up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pagès.
+Étienne found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and
+then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study law, and
+made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of the Restoration, he
+joined various democratic societies, notably the _Aide-toi, le ciel
+t'aidera_, an organization for purifying the elections. He took part in
+the revolution of July 1830; became secretary of the _Aide-toi, le ciel
+t'aidera_, whose propaganda he brought into line with his
+anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831 was sent from Isère to the chamber
+of deputies. He was concerned in the preparation of the _Compte rendu_
+of 1832, and advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker,
+and his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked
+influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on the 23rd
+of June 1841.
+
+His half-brother, LOUIS ANTOINE GARNIER-PAGÈS (1803-1878), fought on the
+barricades during the revolution of July 1830, and after Étienne's death
+was elected to the chamber of deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter
+of reform, and was a leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet
+fixed for the 22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional
+government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the 5th of March
+1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred great unpopularity by
+the imposition of additional taxes. He was a member of the Constituent
+Assembly and of the Executive Commission. Under the Empire he was
+conspicuous in the republican opposition and opposed the war with
+Prussia, and after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the
+Government of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the
+National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into private
+life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He wrote _Histoire
+de la révolution de 1848_ (1860-1862); _Histoire de la commission
+exécutive_ (1869-1872); and _L'Opposition et l'empire_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now particularly
+used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from the O. Fr. _garnisant_
+or _guarnissant_, participle of _garnir_, _guarnir_, to furnish, equip.
+This is of Teutonic origin, the base being represented in O. Eng.
+_warnian_, to take warning, beware, and Ger. _warnen_, to warn, Eng.
+_warn_; the original sense would be to guard against, fortify, hence
+equip or fit out. The meaning of "warn" is seen in the law term
+"garnishee," a person who owes money to or holds money belonging to
+another and is "warned" by order of the court not to pay it to his
+immediate creditor but to a third person who has obtained final judgment
+against that creditor. (See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; BANKRUPTCY.)
+
+
+
+
+GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of
+Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a tribe of
+doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom it is almost
+entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section of the great Bodo
+tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of Assam. According to
+the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117. In the 18th century they are
+mentioned as being frequently in conflict with the inhabitants of the
+plains below their hills, and in 1790 the British government first tried
+to reduce them. No permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the
+Garos were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were
+again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in 1861,
+but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was now posted
+among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the district was
+constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was committed against a
+native on the survey staff, there was little opposition when an
+expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the whole district into
+submission, and there were thereafter no further disturbances.
+
+The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which here
+run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that river
+debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great sweep to the
+south. The administrative headquarters are at Tura. The area of the
+district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 138,274, showing an
+increase of 14% in the decade. The American missionaries maintain a
+small training school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were
+entirely destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in
+the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures. Coal in
+large quantities and petroleum are known to exist. The chief exports are
+cotton, timber and forest products. Trade is small, though the natives,
+according to their own standard, are prosperous. They are fair
+agriculturists. Communications within the district are by cart-roads,
+bridle-paths and native tracks.
+
+
+
+
+GARONNE (Lat. _Garumna_), a river of south-western France, rising in the
+Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the
+Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents, one of which has a
+subterranean course of 2½ m., disappearing in the sink known as the Trou
+du Taureau ("bull's hole") and reappearing at the Goueil de Jouéou.
+After a course of 30 m. in Spanish territory, during which it flows
+through the fine gorge called the Vallée d'Aran, the Garonne enters
+France in the department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of
+the Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At Montréjeau
+it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at this point the
+vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn abruptly east, flowing in a
+wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint Martory it gives off the irrigation
+canal of that name. At this point the Garonne enters a fertile plain,
+and supplies the motive power to several mills. It is joined on the
+right by various streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the
+Salat, at whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize
+and the Ariège (both names signifying "river"). From Toulouse the
+Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern border of the
+plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the principal streams
+being the Save, the Gers and the Baïse. On its right hand the Garonne is
+swelled by its two chief tributaries, the Tarn, near Moissac, and the
+Lot, below Agen; farther down it is joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and
+on the left by the Ciron. Between Toulouse and Castets, 33½ m. above
+Bordeaux, and the highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend,
+the river is accompanied at a distance of from a ½ to 3 m. by the
+so-called "lateral canal" of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856. This
+canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches, one of
+which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn. From Toulouse
+to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of the Garonne, crossing
+the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while another magnificent aqueduct
+of twenty-three arches carries it at Agen from the right to the left
+bank of the river. It has a fall of 420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is
+navigable for vessels having the maximum dimensions of 98½ ft. length,
+19 ft. breadth and 6½ ft. draught. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly
+in agricultural produce and provisions, building materials, wood and
+industrial products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du
+Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the Garonne
+begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160 yds. broad at Agen
+increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its great commercial port. From
+here it flows with ever increasing width between two flat shores to the
+Bec d'Ambès (15½ m.), where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with
+the Dordogne to form the vast estuary known as the Gironde. The
+triangular peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers is
+called Entre-deux-mers ("between two seas") and is famous for its wines.
+The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 sq. m. Floods are of
+common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. The most disastrous
+occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the flood level at Castets
+attained the record height of 42½ ft. above low-water mark.
+
+
+
+
+GARRET (from the O. Fr. _garite_, modern _guérite_, a watch-tower,
+connected ultimately with "guard" and "ward"), properly a small look-out
+tower built on a wall, and hence the name given to a room on the top
+storey of a building, the sloping ceiling of which is formed by the
+roof.
+
+
+
+
+GARRETT, JOÃO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITÃO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE
+ALMEIDA-GARRETT (1799-1854), perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since
+Camoens, was of Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the
+Quinta do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French
+invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett made
+his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early age under
+the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of Bocage. Going to the
+university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon earned notoriety by the precocity
+of his talents and his fervent Liberalism, and there he gained his first
+oratorical and literary successes. His tragedy _Lucrecia_ was played
+there in February 1819, and during this period he also wrote _Merope_ as
+well as a great part of _Cato_, all these plays belonging to the
+so-called classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he
+proceeded to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married D. Luiza
+Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal separation took
+place in 1839.
+
+The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of 1820 reached
+its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal by order of the
+Absolutist ministry then in power, and went to England. He became
+acquainted with the masterpieces of the English and German romantic
+movements during his stay abroad.
+
+Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at Havre the
+poem "Camões," which destroyed the influence of the worn-out classical
+and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following year composed the patriotic
+poem "D. Branca," or "The Conquest of the Algarve." He was permitted to
+return to Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism.
+With the publication of _O Portuguez_, he raised the tone of the press,
+exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language then unknown
+in political controversy, and he introduced the "feuilleton." But his
+defence of Liberal principles brought him three months' imprisonment,
+and when D. Miguel was proclaimed absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828,
+Garrett had again to leave the country. In London, where he sought
+refuge, he continued his adhesion to romanticism by publishing
+_Adozinda_ and _Bernal-Francez_, expansions of old folk-poems, which met
+with the warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson. He
+spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, Warwick and London,
+engaged in writing poetry and political pamphlets, and by these and by
+his periodicals he did much to unite the Portuguese _émigrés_ and to
+keep up their spirit amid their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning
+that an expedition was being organized in France for the liberation of
+Portugal, Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a
+volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira, whence
+he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal government. Here he
+became a co-operator with the statesman Mousinho da Silveira, and
+assisted him in drafting those laws which were to revolutionize the
+whole framework of Portuguese society, this important work being done
+far from books and without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote
+some of the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into _Flores sem
+Fructo_. He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on
+the 8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the
+siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the
+historical romance _Arco de Sant' Anna_, descriptive of the city in the
+reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the Home and
+Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted many important
+royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and commercial codes. In the
+following November he was despatched as secretary to the marquis on a
+diplomatic mission to foreign courts, which involved him in much
+personal hardship. In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to
+return home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of
+public instruction.
+
+In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and chargé d'affaires at
+Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most difficult
+circumstances, for which he received no thanks and little pay. When he
+got back, the government employed him to draw up a proposal for the
+construction of a national theatre and for a conservatoire of dramatic
+art, of which he became the head. He instituted prizes for the best
+plays, himself revising nearly all that were produced, and a school of
+dramatists and actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he
+proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects from
+Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the _Auto de Gil Vicente_,
+considering that the first step towards the recreation of the Portuguese
+drama was to revive the memory of its founder, and he followed this up
+in 1842 by the _Alfageme de Santarem_, dealing with the Holy Constable,
+and in 1843 by _Frei Luiz de Sousa_, one of the few great tragedies of
+the 19th century, a work as intensely national as _The Lusiads_. The
+story, which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being
+simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. João de Portugal, who
+was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns, years
+afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and the mother
+of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the pair separate and enter
+religion, and Manoel becomes the famous chronicler, _Frei Luiz de Sousa_
+(q.v.). The characters live and move, especially Telmo, the old servant,
+who would never believe in the death of his former master D. João, and
+the consumptive child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere
+of impending disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the
+return of D. João and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the
+language is Portuguese of the best.
+
+Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as an orator. In
+that year he delivered many notable discourses in defence of liberal
+ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright bill, which, when it
+became law in 1851, served as a precedent for similar legislation in
+England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his famous speech known as _Porto
+Pyreu_, in which he skilfully turned the well-known anecdote of the "mad
+Athenian" against his opponents. While attending with assiduity to his
+duties as a deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama _D. Filippa de
+Vilhena_, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for
+representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the session of
+1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his speech against the
+law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to Santarem resulted in his
+prose masterpiece _Viagens na minha terra_, at once a novel and a
+miscellany of literary, political and philosophic criticism, written
+without plan or method, easy, jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part
+in the civil war that followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but
+continued his literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy _A Sobrinha
+do Marquez_, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an historical
+memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of the year 1850 in
+finishing his _Romanceiro_, a collection of folk-poetry of which he was
+the first to perceive the value; and in June 1851 he was created a
+viscount. In the following December he drew up the additional act to the
+constitutional charter, and his draft was approved by the ministers at a
+cabinet meeting in his house. Further, he initiated the _Conselho
+Ultramarino_; and the _Law of the Misericordias_, with its preamble,
+published in 1852, was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became
+for a short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out
+_Folhas Cahidas_, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion and
+exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said: "if Camoens had
+written love verses at Garrett's age, he could not have equalled him."
+His final literary work was a novel, _Helena_, which he left unfinished,
+and on the 10th of February 1854 he made his last notable speech in the
+House. He died on the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903
+his remains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos at
+Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet, novelist,
+journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark of Rebello da
+Silva: "Garrett was not a man of letters only but an entire literature
+in himself."
+
+Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a deep
+sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular capacity
+for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able jurist, he was
+bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic temperament
+explains his many-sided activity, his expansive kindliness, his
+seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism, his aristocratic
+pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism, and the ingenuousness that
+absolves him from many faults in an irregular life. From his rich
+artistic nature sprang his profound, sincere, sensual and melancholy
+lyrics, the variety and perfection of his scenic creations, the
+splendour of his eloquence, the truth of his comic vein, the elegance of
+his lighter compositions. Two books stand out in bold relief from among
+his writings: _Folhas Cahidas_, and that tragedy of fatality and pity,
+_Frei Luiz de Sousa_, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the
+truest realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection
+of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several
+editions.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gomes de Amorim, _Garrett, memorias biographicas_ (3
+  vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa
+  en el siglo XIX_ (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr Theophilo Braga,
+  _Garrett e o romantismo_ (Oporto, 1904), and _Garrett e os dramas
+  romanticos_ (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; Innocencio da
+  Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. iii. pp. 309-316,
+  and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See _Revue encyclopédique Larousse_, No. 284,
+  for a bibliography of the foreign translations of Garrett. _Frei Luiz
+  de Sousa_ was translated by Edgar Prestage under the title _Brother
+  Luiz de Sousa_ (London, 1909).     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GARRETTING, properly Galletting, a term in architecture for the process
+in which the "gallets" or small splinters of stone are inserted in the
+joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints; they are stuck in
+while the mortar is wet.
+
+
+
+
+GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical manager, was
+descended from a good French Protestant family named Garric or Garrique
+of Bordeaux, which had settled in England on the revocation of the Edict
+of Nantes. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella
+Clough, the daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a
+recruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford on
+the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had made his home at
+Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731 rejoined his regiment at
+Gibraltar. This kept him absent from home for many years, during which
+letters were written to him by "little Davy," acquainting him with the
+doings at Lichfield. When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a
+short visit to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine
+merchant. On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had
+previously been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was,
+largely by the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the
+ecclesiastical court, sent with his brother George to the "academy" at
+Edial, just opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by
+seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary was, however,
+closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of March 1736/7 both Johnson
+and Garrick left Lichfield for London--Johnson, as he afterwards said,
+"with twopence halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick "with
+three-halfpence in his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy
+of _Irene_, was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however,
+before the end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John
+Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain Garrick
+died about a month after David's arrival in London. Soon afterwards, his
+uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having left David a sum of £1000, he
+and his brother entered into partnership as wine merchants in London and
+Lichfield, David taking up the London business. The concern was not
+prosperous--though Samuel Foote's assertion that he had known Garrick
+with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine
+merchant need not be taken literally--and before the end of 1741 he had
+spent nearly half of his capital.
+
+His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried his hand
+both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. His first
+dramatic piece, _Lethe_, or _Aesop in the Shades_, which he was
+thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound transcript to
+King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played at Drury Lane on the
+15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known frequenter of theatrical
+circles. His first appearance on the stage was made in March 1741,
+_incognito_, as harlequin at Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill,
+having allowed him to take his place during a few scenes of the
+pantomime entitled _Harlequin Student_, or _The Fall of Pantomime with
+the Restoration of the Drama_. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party
+of players from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first
+part as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan (in
+Southerne's _Oroonoko_). His success in this and other parts determined
+his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he made his appearance at
+Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and gained the most enthusiastic
+applause. Among the audience was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock,
+early in the same year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so
+rapidly to pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his
+brother at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal
+from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on the
+part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration, were
+ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had added to his
+popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, like Horace Walpole, at
+first held out against the _furore_) declared, was "horn-mad" about him.
+Before his Richard had exhausted its original effect, he won new
+applause as Aboan, and soon afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway's
+_Venice Preserved_, as well as in several comic characters (including
+that of Bayes). Glover ("Leonidas") attended every performance; the
+duke of Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other
+members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the first six
+months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen characters of all
+kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared in his own name. Pope
+went to see him three times during his first performances, and
+pronounced that "that young man never had his equal as an actor, and he
+will never have a rival." Before next spring he had supped with "the
+great Mr Murray, counsellor," and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope
+through Murray's introduction, while he was dining with Halifax,
+Sandwich and Chesterfield. "There was a dozen dukes of a night at
+Goodman's Fields," writes Horace Walpole. Garrick's farce of _The Lying
+Valet_, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at this time
+brought out with so much success that he ventured to send a copy to his
+brother.
+
+His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent Garden and
+Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the manager of Goodman's
+Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick was engaged by Fleetwood for
+Drury Lane for the season of 1742. In June of that year he went over to
+Dublin, where he found the same homage paid to his talents as he had
+received from his own countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg)
+Woffington, of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. (His
+claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is still _sub
+judice_. There remains some obscurity as to the end of their liaison.)
+From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at Drury Lane, after which
+he again went over to Dublin. Here he remained during the whole season,
+as joint-manager with Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the
+Theatre Royal in Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short
+engagement with Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances
+under a management not his own. With the close of that season
+Fleetwood's patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and
+Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the
+theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing £8000 as
+two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747 it was opened with a
+strong company of actors, Johnson's prologue being spoken by Garrick,
+while the epilogue, written by him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The
+negotiations involved Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who
+appears to have had a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part
+himself till his performance of Archer in the _Beaux' Stratagem_, a
+month after the opening. For a time at least "the drama's patrons" were
+content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the end Garrick
+had to "please" them, like most other managers, by gratifying their love
+of show. Garrick was surrounded by many players of eminence, and he had
+the art, as he was told by Mrs Clive, "of contradicting the proverb that
+one cannot make bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more
+difficult, making actors and actresses without genius." He had to
+encounter very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had
+distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was involved in
+frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their fellows did he, so far
+as it appears, show that jealousy of real merit from which so many great
+actors have been unable to remain free. For the present he was able to
+hold his own against all competition. The naturalness of his acting
+fascinated those who, like Partridge in _Tom Jones_, listened to
+nature's voice, and justified the preference of more conscious critics.
+To be "pleased with nature" was, as Churchill wrote, in the _Rosciad_
+(1761),[1] to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the
+sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his fellows,
+Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour in both voice
+and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound. "It seemed," wrote
+Richard Cumberland, "as if a whole century had been stepped over in the
+passage of a single scene; old things were done away, and a new order at
+once brought forward, bright and luminous, and clearly destined to
+dispel the barbarisms of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously
+devoted to the illusions of imposing declamation." Garrick's French
+descent and his education may have contributed to give him the vivacity
+and versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had
+given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic power of
+wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, comedy and
+farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a modern actor of high
+rank; it includes not less than seventeen Shakespearian parts. As a
+manager, though he committed some grievous blunders, he did good service
+to the theatre and signally advanced the popularity of Shakespeare's
+plays, of which not less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane
+under his management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and he is
+credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of _Macbeth_.
+On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick's production of
+_Hamlet_ in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane even by the galleries,
+"though without their favourite acquaintances the gravediggers." Among
+his published adaptations are an opera, _The Fairies_ (from _Midsummer
+Night's Dream_) (1755); an opera _The Tempest_ (1756); _Catherine and
+Petruchio_ (1758); _Florizel and Perdita_ (1762). But not every
+generation has the same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best
+honoured. Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a
+manager, but he refused Home's _Douglas_, and made the wrong choice
+between _False Delicacy_ and _The Good Natur'd Man_. For the rest, he
+purified the stage of much of its grossness, and introduced a relative
+correctness of costume and decoration unknown before. To the study of
+English dramatic literature he rendered an important service by
+bequeathing his then unrivalled collection of plays to the British
+Museum.
+
+After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful but
+reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married Mademoiselle
+Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who had attracted admiration
+at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, and had come to England early in
+1746, where her modest grace and the rumours which surrounded her
+created a _furore_, and where she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl
+and countess of Burlington. Garrick, who called her "the best of women
+and wives," lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton,
+acquired by him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in
+Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick's quarrel with Barry,
+the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in the favour of the
+public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited Paris, where they were
+cordially received and made the acquaintance of Diderot and others at
+the house of the baron d'Holbach. It was about this time that Grimm
+extolled Garrick as the first and only actor who came up to the demands
+of his imagination; and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by
+Garrick's visit that Diderot first gave expression to the views
+expounded in his _Paradoxe sur le comédien_. After some months spent in
+Italy, where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the
+autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April 1765.
+Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her husband until
+1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor Castle.
+
+Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the
+management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare
+celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which ended in dismal
+failure, though he composed an "Ode upon dedicating a building and
+erecting a Statue to Shakespeare" on the occasion. (See, _inter alia,
+Garrick's Vagary, or England Run Mad; with particulars of the Stratford
+Jubilee_, 1769.) Of his best supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with
+whom he had been reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired
+in 1769; but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre.
+He sold his share in the property in 1776 for £35,000, and took leave of
+the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters--Hamlet, Lear,
+Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian parts; Lusignan in _Zara_,
+Aaron Hill's adaptation of Voltaire's _Zaire_; and Kitely in his own
+adaptation of Ben Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_; Archer in
+Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_; Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's
+_Alchemist_; Sir John Brute in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Leon in
+Fletcher's _Rule a Wife and have a Wife_. He ended the series, as Tate
+Wilkinson says, "in full glory" with "the youthful Don Felix" in Mrs
+Centlivre's _Wonder_ on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the
+20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at the foot of
+Shakespeare's statue with imposing solemnities. An elegy on his death
+was published by William Tasker, poet and physiognomist, in the same
+year.
+
+In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his later years
+he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary mobility of
+his whole person, and his power of as it were transforming himself at
+will, are attested by many anecdotes and descriptions, but the piercing
+power of his eye must have been his most irresistible feature.
+
+Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks on Garrick
+and his doings many are scattered through the pages of Boswell, spoke
+warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his friend's conversation,
+as well as of his liberality and kindness of heart; while to the great
+actor's art he paid the exquisite tribute of describing Garrick's sudden
+death as having "eclipsed the gaiety of nations, and impoverished the
+public stock of harmless pleasure." But the most discriminating
+character of Garrick, slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by
+Goldsmith in his poem of _Retaliation_. Beyond a doubt he was not
+without a certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager
+temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not cast in a
+heroic mould, he must have been one of the most amiable of men. Garrick
+was often happy in his epigrams and occasional verse, including his
+numerous prologues and epilogues. He had the good taste to recognize,
+and the spirit to make public his recognition of, the excellence of
+Gray's odes at a time when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His
+dramatic pieces, _The Lying Valet_, adapted from Motteux's _Novelty
+Lethe_ (1740), _The Guardian_, _Linco's Travels_ (1767), _Miss in her
+Teens_ (1747), _Irish Widow_, &c., and his alterations and adaptations
+of old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge of
+stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action; but he
+cannot be said to have added one new or original character to the drama.
+He was joint author with Colman of _The Clandestine Marriage_ (1766), in
+which he is said to have written his famous part of Lord Ogleby. The
+excellent farce, _High Life below Stairs_, appears to have been wrongly
+attributed to Garrick, and to be by James Townley. His _Dramatic Works_
+(1798) fill three, his _Poetic_ (1735) two volumes.
+
+Garrick's _Private Correspondence_ (published in 1831-1832 with a short
+memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes his extensive _Foreign
+Correspondence_ with distinguished French men and women, and the notices
+of him in the memoirs of Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D'Arblay,
+and above all in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, bear testimony to his many
+attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in the
+  Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of all
+  kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe's
+  _Bibliographical History of English Theatrical Literature_ (1887). The
+  earlier biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801)
+  and by the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter
+  a work of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to
+  dates; and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his
+  verses is furnished by Joseph Knight's valuable Life (1894). A memoir
+  of Garrick is included in a volume of French _Memoirs of Mlle Clairon
+  and others_, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and an
+  Italian _Biografia di Davide Garrick_ was published by C. Blasis at
+  Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald's _Life_ (2 vols., 1868; new
+  edition, 1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with
+  additions, among Sir Theodore Martin's _Monographs_ (1906). A
+  delightful essay on Garrick appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (July
+  1868), directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick's
+  acting in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (_Verm. Schriften_,
+  iii., Göttingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of
+  Garrick's labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, _David
+  Garrick als Shakespeare-Darsteller_, &c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons'
+  _Garrick, and his Circle_ and _Some unpublished Correspondence of
+  David Garrick_, ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting
+  additions to the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by
+  James Smyth, _David Garrick_ (1887). T.W. Robertson's play _David
+  Garrick_, first acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir
+  Charles Wyndham, is of course mere fiction.
+
+  As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The _Connoisseur_
+  (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon was preferred
+  by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain from the hand of Hogarth,
+  including the famous picture of Garrick as Richard III. The portraits
+  by Reynolds include the celebrated "Garrick between Tragedy and
+  Comedy." Zoffany's are portraits in character. Roubiliac's statue of
+  Shakespeare, for which Garrick sat, and for which he paid the sculptor
+  three hundred guineas, was originally placed in a small temple at
+  Hampton, and is now in the entrance hall at the British Museum.
+       (R. Ca.; A. W. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the subsequent _Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers_,
+    Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick
+    to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however, Garrick
+    requited by good-humoured kindness.
+
+
+
+
+GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879), the American anti-slavery leader,
+was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 10th of December
+1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The
+father, Abijah, a sea-captain, went away from home when William was a
+child, and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The
+mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of
+high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. She died in
+1823. William had a taste for books, and made the most of his limited
+opportunities. His mother first set him to learn the trade of a
+shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815, at Baltimore,
+Maryland, and, when she found that this did not suit him, let him try
+his hand at cabinet-making (at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him
+no better. In October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was
+made more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen,
+proprietor of the Newburyport _Herald_, to learn the trade of a printer.
+He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write
+anonymously for the _Herald_. His communications won the commendation of
+the editor, who had not at first the slightest suspicion that he was the
+author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. A series of
+political essays, written by him for the Salem _Gazette_, was copied by
+a prominent Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to
+the Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts.
+His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his
+ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of the _Herald_, when
+temporarily called away from his post, left the paper in his charge.
+
+The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many another poor
+boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the college. He was full
+of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of the Greeks to throw off the
+Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest sympathy, and at one time he seriously
+thought of entering the West Point Academy and fitting himself for a
+soldier's career. His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the
+publication of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the
+_Free Press_, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was "Our
+Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was full of
+spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy place and
+the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston, where, after
+working for a time as a journeyman printer, he became the editor of the
+_National Philanthropist_, the first journal established in America to
+promote the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors. His
+work in this paper was highly appreciated by the friends of temperance,
+but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end
+of the year. In 1828 he was induced to establish the _Journal of the
+Times_ at Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy
+Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper, though
+attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was too far ahead
+of public sentiment on moral questions to win a large support. In Boston
+he had met Benjamin Lundy (q.v.), who had for years been preaching the
+abolition of slavery. Garrison had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals,
+and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery
+question. Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper,
+entitled _The Genius of Universal Emancipation_, and he resolved to go
+to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship. With
+this object in view he walked from Boston to Bennington, through the
+frost and snow of a New England winter, a distance of 125 m. His mission
+was successful. Garrison was deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal
+and devotion, and he resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter
+to the work of abolishing slavery.
+
+In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn of 1829,
+and thenceforth the _Genius_ was published weekly, under the joint
+editorship of the two men. It was understood, however, that Garrison
+would do most of the editorial work, while Lundy would spend most of his
+time in lecturing and procuring subscribers. On one point the two
+editors differed radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and
+Garrison of immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the
+idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized somewhere
+beyond the limits of the United States; the latter held that they should
+be emancipated on the soil of the country, with all the rights of
+freemen. In view of this difference it was agreed that each should speak
+on his own individual responsibility in the paper, appending his initial
+to each of his articles for the information of the reader. It deserves
+mention here that Garrison was then in utter ignorance of the change
+previously wrought in the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth
+Heyrick's pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual
+emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the duty of
+immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was perfectly
+manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and denounce the evils
+of slavery, while responsibility for the system was placed upon former
+generations, and the duty of abolishing it transferred to an indefinite
+future. His demand for immediate emancipation fell like a tocsin upon
+the ears of slaveholders. For general talk about the evils of slavery
+they cared little, but this assertion that every slave was entitled to
+instant freedom filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for
+they saw that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the
+proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The _Genius_, now that it
+had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a paper to be
+feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one of the centres of the
+domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic Garrison heaped the
+strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in Newburyport having taken a
+cargo of slaves from Baltimore to New Orleans, he characterized the
+transaction as an act of "domestic piracy," and avowed his purpose to
+"cover with thick infamy" those engaged therein. He was thereupon
+prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted in
+costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His imprisonment
+created much excitement, and in some quarters, in spite of the
+pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of indignant comment in
+public as well as private. The excitement was fed by the publication of
+two or three striking sonnets, instinct with the spirit of liberty,
+which Garrison inscribed on the walls of his cell. One of these,
+_Freedom of Mind_, is remarkable for freshness of thought and terseness
+of expression.
+
+John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry Clay to pay
+Garrison's fine and thus release him from prison. To the credit of the
+slaveholding statesman it must be said that he responded favourably, but
+before he had time for the requisite preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a
+philanthropic merchant of New York, contributed the necessary sum and
+set the prisoner free after an incarceration of seven weeks. The
+partnership between Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual
+consent, and the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in
+which, upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of
+immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African colonization. He
+was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore, that a movement against
+slavery resting upon any less radical foundation than this would be
+ineffectual. He first proposed to establish his paper at Washington, in
+the midst of slavery, but on returning to New England and observing the
+state of public opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little
+could be done at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending
+her influence, through political, commercial, religious and social
+channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore, to
+publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus, set
+himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by means of
+lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the North. It was
+an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and indifference to his wrongs
+were almost universal. In Boston, then a great cotton mart, he tried in
+vain to procure a church or vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and
+thereupon announced in one of the daily journals that if some suitable
+place was not promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of
+infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844), who had
+previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor of a
+Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small hall; and,
+no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully, and
+delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which he unfolded
+his principles and plans. He visited privately many of the leading
+citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and merchants, and besought
+them to take the lead in a national movement against slavery; but they
+all with one consent made excuse, some of them listening to his plea
+with manifest impatience. He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His
+conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and dangers
+of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contemplated movement,
+was intensified by opposition, and he resolved to go forward, trusting
+in God for success.
+
+On the 1st of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and without a
+single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp (1804-1843) issued the
+first number of the _Liberator_, avowing their "determination to print
+it as long as they could subsist on bread and water, or their hands
+obtain employment." Its motto was, "Our country is the world--our
+countrymen are mankind"; and the editor, in his address to the public,
+uttered the words which have become memorable as embodying the whole
+purpose and spirit of his life: "I am in earnest--I will not
+equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single inch--and I
+will be heard." Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison and his
+brave partner, who died long before the end of the conflict, made their
+bed on the floor of the room, "dark, unfurnished and mean," in which
+they printed their paper, and where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston,
+in compliance with the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South
+Carolina, "ferreted them out" in "an obscure hole," "their only visible
+auxiliary a negro boy." But the paper founded under such inauspicious
+circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived to record not only
+President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipation, but the adoption of an
+amendment to the constitution of the United States for ever prohibiting
+slavery. It was the beginning and the nucleus of an agitation that
+eventually pervaded and filled every part of the country. Other
+newspapers were afterwards established upon the same principles;
+anti-slavery societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate
+emancipation, sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into
+political parties, into the press, and into legislative and
+ecclesiastical assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking
+alarm from the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to
+slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safeguards of
+the system, seceded from the Union and set up a separate government.
+
+Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone. He knew
+that the national government had no power over the system in any state,
+though it could abolish it at the national capital, and prohibit it in
+the territories. He thought it should bring its moral influence to bear
+in favour of abolition; but neither he nor his associates ever asked
+Congress to exercise any unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine
+the moral influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel
+upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern churches
+and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of Christianity to bear
+against the slave system, and to advocate the rights of the slaves to
+immediate and unconditional freedom. He was a man of peace, hating war
+not less than he did slavery; but he warned his countrymen that if they
+refused to abolish slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner
+or later ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be
+overthrown, if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society
+organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his
+principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which adopted its
+constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this year Garrison issued
+his _Thoughts on African Colonization_, in which he showed by ample
+citations from official documents that the American Colonization Society
+was organized in the interest of slavery, and that in offering itself to
+the people of the North as a practical remedy for that system it was
+guilty of deception. His book, aided by others taking substantially the
+same view, smote the society with a paralysis from which it never
+recovered. Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having
+succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its character
+and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New England Anti-Slavery
+Society to visit England for the purpose of counteracting their
+influence. He went in the spring of 1833, when he was but twenty-seven
+years of age, and was received with great cordiality by British
+Abolitionists, some of whom had heard of his bold assaults upon American
+slavery, and had seen a few numbers of the _Liberator_. The struggle for
+emancipation in the West Indies was then at the point of culmination;
+the leaders of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled
+in London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and
+treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with him a
+"protest" against the American Colonization Society, signed by
+Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney, William Evans, S.
+Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper, Daniel O'Connell and
+others, in which they declared their deliberate judgment that "its
+precepts were delusive," and "its real effects of the most dangerous
+nature." He also received assurances of the cordial sympathy of British
+Abolitionists with him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He
+gained a hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the
+confidence of those whom he addressed by his evident earnestness,
+sincerity and ability.
+
+Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people and press of
+the United States at the outset, and when he returned home in September
+with the "protest" against the Colonization Society, and announced that
+he had engaged the services of George Thompson as a lecturer against
+American slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The
+American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of that year
+(1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its principles and
+purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added fresh fuel to the public
+excitement, and when Thompson came over in the next spring, the
+hostility to the cause began to manifest itself in mobs organized to
+suppress the discussion of the slavery question. Now began what Harriet
+Martineau called "the martyr age in America." In the autumn of 1835
+Thompson was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly
+for England. Just before his departure the announcement that he would
+address the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society of Boston created "a mob of
+gentlemen of property and standing," from which, if he had been present,
+he could hardly have escaped with his life. The whole city was in an
+uproar. Garrison, almost denuded of his clothing, was dragged through
+the streets with a rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great
+difficulty, and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be
+secretly removed from the city.
+
+Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the North, and
+many men of influence, both in the church and in the state, were won to
+the cause. Garrison, true to his original purpose, never faltered or
+turned back. The Abolitionists of the United States were a united body
+until 1839-1840, when divisions sprang up among them. Garrison
+countenanced the activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of
+allowing them to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and
+appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed in the
+political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was opposed
+upon social and religious grounds. Then there were some who thought
+Garrison dealt too severely with the churches and pulpits for their
+complicity with slavery, and who accused him of a want of religious
+orthodoxy; indeed, according to the standards of his time he was
+decidedly heterodox, though he had an intensely religious nature and was
+far from being an infidel, as he was often charged with being. He was,
+moreover, not only a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political
+systems based on force. "As to the governments of this world," he said,
+"whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove that in
+their essential elements, as at present administered, they are all
+anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom be brought into
+conformity with the will of God; that they cannot be maintained except
+by naval and military power to carry them into effect; that all their
+penal enactments, being a dead letter without any army to carry them
+into effect, are virtually written in human blood; and that the
+followers of Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor,
+power, and emolument--at the same time 'submitting to every ordinance of
+man for the Lord's sake' and offering no physical resistance to any of
+their mandates, however unjust or tyrannical." These views were very
+distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt that Garrison greatly injured
+abolitionism by causing it to be associated in men's minds with these
+unpopular views on other subjects. The dissentients from his opinions
+determined to form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in
+working by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These
+differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-Slavery
+Society in 1840, and to the formation of the "Liberty Party" (q.v.) in
+politics. (See BIRNEY, JAMES G.) The two societies sent their delegates
+to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840, and Garrison
+refused to take his seat in that body, because the women delegates from
+the United States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years
+served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the
+constitution of the United States as a shield and support of slavery;
+and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came to the
+conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and that it was
+therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The Southern states had
+greatly enlarged representation in Congress on account of their slaves,
+and the national government was constitutionally bound to assist in the
+capture of fugitive slaves, and to suppress every attempt on their part
+to gain their freedom by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison,
+adopting a bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution
+as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and chose as his
+motto, "No union with slaveholders."
+
+One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by strained
+interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others, admitting that
+they were immoral, felt themselves obliged, notwithstanding, to support
+the constitution in order to avoid what they thought would be still
+greater evils. The American Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was
+the president from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this
+period the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which was
+greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the field of
+politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his convictions. On
+the other hand, he always had the highest respect for every earnest and
+faithful opponent of slavery, however far their special views might
+differ. When in 1861 the Southern states seceded from the Union and took
+up arms against it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the
+struggle, that the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery
+clauses, and that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure
+foundations of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore
+ceased from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to the
+task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable event. His
+services at this period were recognized and honoured by President
+Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole country knew that the
+agitation which made the abolition of slavery feasible and necessary was
+largely due to his uncompromising spirit and indomitable courage.
+
+In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being
+abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled a
+dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting that it had
+become _functus officiis_, and that whatever needed to be done for the
+protection of the freedmen could best be accomplished by new
+associations formed for that purpose. The _Liberator_ was discontinued
+at the end of the same year, after an existence of thirty-five years. He
+visited England for the second time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he
+was received with distinguished honours, public as well as private. In
+1877, when he was there for the last time, he declined every form of
+public recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston, after a most
+impressive funeral service, four days later. In 1843 a small volume of
+his _Sonnets and other Poems_ was published, and in 1852 appeared a
+volume of _Selections from his Writings and Speeches_. His wife, Helen
+Eliza Benson, died in 1876. Four sons and one daughter survived them.
+
+Garrison's son, WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON (1838-1909), was a prominent
+advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's suffrage, and of the
+repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an opponent of imperialism;
+another son, WENDELL PHILLIPS GARRISON (1840-1907), was literary editor
+of the New York _Nation_ from 1865 to 1906.
+
+  The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the account
+  given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson (reprinted
+  from his _Garrison: an Outline of his Life_, New York, 1879). The
+  writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist, editor, and an
+  intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the _Liberator_ during
+  Garrison's absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor or an
+  associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil War,
+  the New York _Tribune_ and the New York _Evening Post_. He also
+  published an excellent brief biography in _William Lloyd Garrison and
+  his Times_ (Boston, 1880).
+
+  The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and candid
+  work of his sons, W.P. and F.J. Garrison, _William Lloyd Garrison
+  1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children_ (4 vols., New
+  York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student of the
+  anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith's _The Moral Crusader:
+  a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison_ (New York, 1892) is a
+  brilliant sketch.
+
+
+
+
+GARRISON, originally a term for stores or supplies, also a defence or
+protection, now confined in meaning to a body of troops stationed in a
+town or fortress for the purpose of defence. In form the word is derived
+from O. Fr. _garison_, modern _guérison_, from _guérir_, to furnish with
+stores, to preserve, but in its later meaning it has been confused with
+the Fr. _garnison_, the regular word for troops stationed for purposes
+of defence. In English "garnison" was used till the 16th century, when
+"garrison" took its place. In the British army "garrison troops,"
+especially "garrison artillery," are troops trained and employed for
+garrison work as distinct from field operations.
+
+
+
+
+GARROTE (Spanish for "cudgel"), an appliance used in Spain and Portugal
+for the execution of criminals condemned to death. The criminal is
+conducted to the place of execution (which is public) on horseback or in
+a cart, wearing a black tunic, and is attended by a procession of
+priests, &c. He is seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by
+an iron collar (the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever
+dislocates his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column
+at the base of the brain. (See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) Originally a stout
+cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal, who was seated
+in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and the neck a stick was
+inserted (hence the name) and twisted till strangulation ensued.
+
+"Garrotting" is the name given in England to a form of robbery with
+violence which became rather common in the winter of 1862-1863. The
+thief came up behind his victim, threw a cord over his head, and
+tightened it nearly to strangulation point, while robbing him. An act of
+1863, imposing the penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude
+for this offence, had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely.
+At any rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of any
+sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the penalty, that
+view has always been taken by the English judges who had experience of
+such cases.
+
+
+
+
+GARRUCHA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Almeria;
+on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of the river Antas. Pop.
+(1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha, which is defended by an ancient
+castle, affords shelter to large ships, and is the natural outlet for
+the commerce of a thriving agricultural and mining district. Despite its
+small size and the want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a
+considerable trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit,
+&c. Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and
+clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons
+entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and in the
+same year the value of the exports reached £478,000, and that of the
+imports £128,000. Both imports and exports trebled their value in the
+ten years 1892-1902.
+
+
+
+
+GARSTON, a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of Lancashire,
+England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool. Pop. (1891) 13,444;
+(1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the London & North Western
+railway company, employ most of the working population. There is about a
+mile of quayage, with special machinery for the shipping of coal, which
+forms the chief article of export.
+
+
+
+
+GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician and poet, was born of a
+good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in
+1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and
+became a member of the College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he
+delivered the Harveian oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating
+from some ten years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of
+the sick poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In
+1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, _The Dispensary_, in six cantos,
+which had an instant success, passing through three editions within a
+year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and their allies among the
+physicians. The poem has little interest at the present day, except as a
+proof that the heroic couplet was written with smoothness and polish
+before the days of Pope. Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and
+became the leading physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the
+Tories. In 1714 he was knighted by George I. and he died on the 18th of
+January 1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work _The
+Dispensary_ and _Claremont_, a moral epistle in verse. He made a Latin
+oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the _Life of Otho_ in
+the fifth volume of Dryden's Plutarch. In 1717 he edited a translation
+of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, himself supplying the fourteenth and part of
+the fifteenth book.
+
+
+
+
+GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the Indus on
+the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla. In accordance
+with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together with Yatung and Gyantse,
+was thrown open to British trade. On the return of the column from Lhasa
+in that year Gartok was visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who
+found only a few dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in
+the midst of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between
+Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place.
+
+
+
+
+GARY, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern end of
+Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, Ill. Pop. (1910 census)
+16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore &
+Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wabash,
+and (for freight only) the Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the
+Indiana Harbor Belt railways, and by several steamship lines plying the
+Great Lakes. There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but
+the city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the
+time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps intersected from
+east to west by the Grand Calumet and the Little Calumet rivers, small
+streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S. of the lake shore. In 1906 the
+United States Steel Corporation bought this tract to establish on it a
+great industrial community, as direct water connexion with the Lake
+Superior ore region was possible, and it was comparatively accessible to
+West Virginia coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad
+facilities. The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town
+in June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate
+system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution of
+water, gas and electricity. The water-supply is taken from the lake at a
+point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public utilities the
+Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about 500 dwellings, two
+hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small patch of land, now within the
+limits of the city, has been from the beginning in the hands of private
+owners, but the remainder of the lots (except those already sold) are
+owned by the Steel Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions
+intended to prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide
+improvement of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating
+drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been dredged out into
+a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel Corporation, covering
+about 1200 acres. All the machinery in this great plant is driven by
+electricity from generators whose motive power is supplied by the
+combustion of gases from the blast furnaces. From the same sources is
+also supplied the electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is
+operated by three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000
+horse-power capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in
+honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of
+directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United States
+Steel Corporation.
+
+
+
+
+GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation of
+matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous product
+formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other carbonaceous
+matter (see below, section _Gas Manufacture_; for gas engines see the
+separate heading GAS ENGINE).
+
+_The Gaseous State._--Matter is studied under three physical
+phases--solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes
+grouped as "fluids." The study of the physical properties of fluids in
+general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and their
+applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special science
+dealing with the physical properties of gases is named pneumatics.
+
+The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our atmosphere.
+Though practically invisible, it appeals in its properties to other of
+our senses, so that the evidences of its presence are manifold. Thus we
+feel it in its motion as wind, and observe the dynamical effects of this
+motion in the quiver of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It
+offers resistance to the passage of bodies through it, destroying their
+motion and transforming their energy--as is betrayed to our hearing in
+the whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.
+
+The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids may be
+stated in dynamical language thus:--solids can sustain a longitudinal
+pressure without being supported by a lateral pressure; fluids cannot.
+Hence any region of space enclosed by a rigid boundary can be easily
+filled with a fluid, which then takes the form of the bounding surface
+at every point of it. But here we distinguish between fluids according
+as they are gases or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the
+region, however small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the
+remainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the other
+hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the region.
+Remove any portion and a part of the space will be left unoccupied by
+liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then otherwise conditioned than by
+the form of the wall or bounding surface of the region; and if the
+portion of the wall not in contact with the liquid is removed the form
+and quantity of the liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be
+kept in an open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of
+Sir Oliver Lodge: "A solid has volume and shape; a liquid has volume,
+but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape."
+
+It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a "vapour." The latter
+possesses the physical property stated above which distinguishes a gas
+from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being readily condensible to
+a liquid, either by lowering the temperature or moderately increasing
+the pressure. The study of the effects of pressure and temperature on
+many gases led to the introduction of the term "permanent gases" to
+denote gases which were apparently not liquefiable. The list included
+hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases
+have been liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term
+meaningless (see LIQUID GASES). The term "perfect gas" is applied to an
+imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation of
+molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which any molecule
+is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally small compared with
+the time during which it traverses its mean free path. It serves as a
+means of research, more particularly in mathematical investigations, the
+simple laws thus deduced being subsequently modified by introducing
+assumptions in order to co-ordinate actual experiences.
+
+The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance, in Greek
+cosmology, "air" ([Greek: pneuma]) was one of the fundamental elements.
+The alchemists used such terms as _spiritus_, _flatus_, _halitus_,
+_aura_, _emanatio nubila_, &c., words implying a "wind" or "breath." The
+word "gas" was invented by J.B. van Helmont in his _Ortus medicinae_,
+posthumously published in 1648, in the course of his description of the
+gas now known as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning
+yielded a "spirit," which he named _spiritus sylvestris_ on account of
+its supposed untamable nature ("Gas sylvestre sive incoërcibile, quod in
+corpus cogi non potest visibile"); and he invented the word "gas" in the
+expression: "... this spirit, hitherto unknown, ... I call by a new name
+_gas_" ("hunc spiritum, incognitum hactenus, novo nomine _gas_ voco").
+The word was suggested by the Gr. [Greek: chaos], chaos, for he also
+writes: "I have called this spirit _gas_, it being scarcely
+distinguishable from the Chaos of the ancients" ("halitum illum _Gas_
+vocavi, non longe a Chao veterum secretum"). The view that the word was
+suggested by the Dutch _geest_, spirit, is consequently erroneous. Until
+the end of the 18th century the word "air," qualified by certain
+adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known--a custom due
+in considerable measure to the important part which common air played in
+chemical and physical investigations.
+
+The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: the physical
+and the chemical. The former investigates essentially general
+properties, such as the weight and density, the relation between
+pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric and thermometric
+properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, viscosity, electrical
+and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally properties independent of
+composition. These subjects are discussed in the articles DENSITY;
+THERMOMETRY; CALORIMETRY; DIFFUSION; CONDUCTION OF HEAT; and
+CONDENSATION OF GASES. The latter has for its province the preparation,
+collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations in
+which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. The
+historical development of the chemistry of gases--pneumatic
+chemistry--is treated in the article CHEMISTRY; the technical analysis
+of gaseous mixtures is treated below under _Gas Analysis_. Connecting
+the experimental study of the physical and chemical properties is the
+immense theoretical edifice termed the kinetic theory of gases. This
+subject, which is discussed in the article MOLECULE, has for its purpose
+(1) the derivation of a physical structure of a gas which will agree
+with the experimental observations of the diverse physical properties,
+and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical
+composition.
+
+_Gas Analysis._--The term "gas analysis" is given to that branch of
+analytical chemistry which has for its object the quantitative
+determination of the components of a gaseous mixture. The chief
+applications are found in the analysis of flue gases (in which much
+information is gained as to the completeness and efficiency of
+combustion), and of coal gas (where it is necessary to have a product of
+a definite composition within certain limits). There are, in addition,
+many other branches of chemical technology in which the methods are
+employed. In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is
+absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume noted, or it
+is absorbed in water and the amount determined by titration with a
+standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult and tedious, and
+consequently the laboratory methods are not employed in technology,
+where time is an important factor and moderate accuracy is all that is
+necessary. In this article an outline of the technical practice will be
+given.
+
+The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a series of
+absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring vessel is that
+devised by W. Hempel. It consists of two vertical tubes provided with
+feet and connected at the bottom by flexible rubber tubing. One tube,
+called the "measuring tube," is provided with a capillary stopcock at
+the top and graduated downwards; the other tube, called the "level
+tube," is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube is
+completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes, raising
+the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock, which is then
+turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock, by means of a fine tube
+which has been previously filled with water or in which the air has been
+displaced by running the gas through. By opening the stopcock and
+lowering the level tube any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated
+over. In cases where a large quantity of gas, i.e. sufficient for
+several tests, is to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a
+large bottle.
+
+[Illustration: (By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.)
+
+  FIG. 1.
+
+  FIG. 2.]
+
+The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by bringing
+the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading the graduation on
+the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors associated with
+recording the coincidence of a graduation with a meniscus. The
+temperature and atmospheric pressure are simultaneously noted. If the
+tests be carried out rapidly, the temperature and pressure may be
+assumed to be constant, and any diminution in volume due to the
+absorption of a constituent may be readily expressed as a percentage.
+If, however, the temperature and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced
+to 0° and 760 mm. by means of the formula V0 = V(P-p)/(1 + .00366t)760,
+in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric pressure, p the
+vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the experiment. This
+reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.
+
+Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs. 1 and 2. The
+simpler form consists of two bulbs connected at the bottom by a wide
+tube. The lower bulb is provided with a smaller bulb bearing a capillary
+through which the gas is led to the apparatus, the higher bulb has a
+wider outlet tube. The arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand.
+Sometimes the small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette
+varies with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which
+remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other cases a
+composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the absorbent is
+protected by a second pipette containing water. In the case of solid
+reagents, e.g. phosphorus, the absorbing bulb has a tubulure at the
+bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing liquid is brought to the outlet
+of the capillary by tilting or by squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the
+wide end, and the liquid is maintained there by closing with a clip. The
+capillary is connected with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously
+filled with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the
+level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas passes
+into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the pipette being
+shaken from time to time. It is then run back into the measuring tube by
+lowering the level tube, the stopcock is closed, and the volume noted.
+The operation is repeated until there is no further absorption.
+
+The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are to be
+estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases where
+titration methods are not employed, the general order is as follows:
+carbon dioxide, olefines, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and
+nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is particularly applicable to
+coal-gas. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by a potash solution containing one
+part of potash to between two and three of water; the stronger solution
+absorbs about 40 volumes of the gas. The olefines--ethylene, &c.--are
+generally absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding
+sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which solidifies
+when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed. Oxygen is absorbed
+by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated pipette filled with water.
+The temperature must be above 18°; and the absorption is prevented by
+ammonia, olefines, alcohol, and some other substances. An alkaline
+solution of pyrogallol is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs
+oxygen, becoming black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the
+solution immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a
+solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in
+ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as carbon
+dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash; when large in
+amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal cuprous chloride and the
+residue burned. Hydrogen may be estimated by absorption by heated
+palladium contained in a capillary through which the gas is passed, or
+by exploding (under reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and
+measuring the diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of
+hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas is
+contained over water, and is improved by using mercury. Methane cannot
+be burnt in this way even when there is much hydrogen present, and
+several other methods have been proposed, such as mixing with air and
+aspirating over copper oxide heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen
+and burning in a platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide
+formed being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water,
+such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur
+dioxide, &c., are estimated by passing a known volume of the gas through
+water and titrating the solution with a standard solution. Many types of
+absorption vessel are in use, and the standard solutions are generally
+such that 1 c.c. of the solution corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under
+normal conditions.
+
+[Illustration: (By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.)
+
+  FIG. 3.]
+
+Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the commonest
+is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in the graduated
+cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a water jacket and
+provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is connected by a
+capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of absorbing vessels,
+the connexion being effected by stopcocks. These vessels consist of two
+vertical cylinders joined at the bottom by a short tube. The cylinder in
+direct communication with the capillary is filled with glass tubes so as
+to expose a larger surface of the absorbing solution to the gas. The
+other cylinder is open to the air and serves to hold the liquid ejected
+from the absorbing cylinder. Any number of bulbs can be attached to the
+horizontal capillary; in the form illustrated there are four, the last
+being a hydrogen pipette in which the palladium is heated in a
+horizontal tube by a spirit lamp. At the end of the horizontal tube
+there is a three-way cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To
+use the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with water by
+raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels are then about half
+filled with the absorbents, and, by opening the cocks and aspirating,
+the liquid is brought so as completely to fill the bulbs nearer the
+capillary. The cocks are then closed. By opening the three-way cock to
+the supply of the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any
+desired amount can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is
+effected by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the
+levelling bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions
+pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.
+
+  Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by Scheele,
+  Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and others, the
+  methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who began his researches
+  in 1838. He embodied his results in his classical _Gasometrische
+  Methoden_ (1857, second edition 1877), a work translated into English
+  by H. Roscoe. Clemens Winkler contributed two works, _Anleitung zur
+  chemischen Untersuchung der Industriegase_ (1876-1877) and _Lehrbuch
+  der technischen Gasanalyse_ (2nd ed., 1892), both of which are very
+  valuable for the commercial applications of the methods. W. Hempel's
+  researches are given in his _Neue Methode zur Analyse der Gase_ (1880)
+  and _Gasanalytische Methoden_ (1890, 3rd ed. 1900).
+
+
+GAS MANUFACTURE
+
+  Historical.
+
+1. _Illuminating Gas._--The first practical application of gas distilled
+from coal as an illuminating agent is generally ascribed to William
+Murdoch, who between the years of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the
+possibility of making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on
+a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton, dean of Kildare,
+filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained by the distillation of
+coal, and showed that on pricking the bladders and applying a light to
+the escaping gas it burnt with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen
+Hales published the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of
+Newcastle coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean
+Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the university of
+Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at Maestricht, made
+experiments on distilling gas from coal with the view of obtaining a
+permanent gas sufficiently light for filling balloons, and in 1785
+experimentally lighted his lecture room with gas so obtained as a
+demonstration to his students, but no commercial application was made of
+the fact. Lord Dundonald, in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the
+production of tar and oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and
+even used it for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from
+these facts that, prior to Murdoch's experiments, it was known that
+illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation of
+coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792, and which
+culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt & Co.'s engine works
+at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, undoubtedly demonstrated the
+practical possibility of making the gas on a large scale, and burning it
+in such a way as to make coal-gas the most important of the artificial
+illuminants. An impression exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch's early
+experiments were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who
+first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as has been
+shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained from coal by
+distillation was known a century before Murdoch made his experiments,
+and the most that can be claimed for him is that he made the first
+successful application of it on a practical scale.
+
+In 1799 a Frenchman named Philippe Lebon took out a patent in Paris for
+making an illuminating gas from wood, and gave an exhibition of it in
+1802, which excited a considerable amount of attention on the European
+continent. It was seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer
+for his secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined,
+and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how the gas
+could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering this, he in 1803
+exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick a series of experiments
+with lighting gas made from wood and from coal. Looking upon London as a
+promising field for enterprise, he came over to England, and at the
+commencement of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave
+demonstrations of his process. He then proceeded to float a company,
+and in 1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall
+Mall, whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the
+National Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million
+sterling. This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of his
+priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming to
+parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in getting it
+passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter being granted later
+in 1812, the company was called the Chartered Gas Light and Coke
+Company, and was the direct forerunner of the present London Gas Light
+and Coke Company. During this period Frederick C. Accum (1769-1838), Dr
+W. Henry and S. Clegg did so much by their writings and by the
+improvements they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and
+burning of coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected
+with the subject.
+
+
+  The growth of gas lighting.
+
+In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the streets of
+Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it became common in
+London. After this so rapid was the progress of this new mode of
+illumination that in the course of a few years it was adopted by all the
+principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting streets as well as
+shops and public edifices. In private houses it found its way more
+slowly, partly from an apprehension of danger attending its use, and
+partly from the discomfort which was experienced in many cases through
+the gas being distributed without purification, and to the careless and
+imperfect manner in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was
+during the last four decades of the 19th century that the greatest
+advance was made, this period having been marked not only by many
+improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a complete
+revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the production of light.
+In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of 3.2 candles illuminating
+power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle gas, was looked upon as the
+most perfect burner of the day, and little hope was entertained that any
+burner capable of universal adoption would surpass it in its power of
+developing light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the
+century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric burner
+yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand for the
+consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day, by supplying gas at
+an increased pressure, a light of ten times the power may be obtained.
+Since the advent of the incandescent mantle, the efficiency of which is
+dependent upon the heating power of the gas more than on its
+illuminating power, the manufacture of coal gas has undergone
+considerable modifications.
+
+
+    Coals used for gas-making.
+
+  Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a process of
+  destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition (see
+  COAL), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen, known as
+  bituminous coal, that can with advantage be utilized in gas
+  manufacture. Coals of this character are obtained in England from the
+  Newcastle and Durham field, South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley
+  districts, and an idea of their ultimate composition may be derived
+  from the following  table:--
+
+    +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+
+    |                          |Carbon.|Hydro-|Sulphur.|Nitro-|Oxygen.| Ash. |Moist-|
+    |                          |       | gen. |        | gen. |       |      | ure. |
+    +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+
+    | Newcastle gas coal       | 82.16 | 4.83 |  1.00  | 1.23 |  6.82 | 3.20 | 0.76 |
+    | Durham gas coal          | 84.34 | 5.30 |  0.73  | 1.73 |  4.29 | 2.42 | 1.14 |
+    | South Yorkshire silkstone| 80.46 | 5.09 |  1.66  | 1.67 |  6.79 | 3.30 | 1.03 |
+    | Derbyshire silkstone     | 76.96 | 5.04 |  2.39  | 1.77 |  6.92 | 3.28 | 3.64 |
+    | Barnsley gas coal        | 75.64 | 4.94 |  2.84  | 1.65 |  7.25 | 4.28 | 3.40 |
+    +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+
+
+  Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total
+  amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials
+  which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of
+  the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the
+  ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value
+  for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily
+  arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal,
+  however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple
+  hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin
+  series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen,
+  nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
+
+
+    Destructive distillation of coal.
+
+  On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive
+  distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the
+  products will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in
+  the retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its
+  distribution in the retort, with the length of time the distillation
+  has been going on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or
+  less complex nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low
+  temperature, the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of
+  light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin hydrocarbons
+  are present in the original coal. These paraffins, under the influence
+  of heat, split up into simpler members of the same series and into
+  olefines; and if we imagine the action in its simplest form, we should
+  have the gases, as they were evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and
+  ethylene. These have now to pass down the heated retort on their way
+  to the ascension pipe, and the contact with the heated sides of the
+  retort, and the baking from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an
+  infinity of changes. Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up
+  into ethylene and hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and
+  acetylene, and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene,
+  styrolene, retene, &c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time
+  loses some hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed
+  by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the
+  hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances
+  containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation of
+  the phenols in the tar.
+
+  There is very little doubt that the general course of the
+  decompositions follows these lines; but any such simple explanation of
+  the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that,
+  instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed in
+  the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort, in
+  practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the
+  vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these to
+  such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the retort
+  at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already formed
+  into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the former into
+  higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon of definite
+  composition, it would be theoretically possible to decompose it
+  entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane, and, by rapidly
+  removing these from the heating zone before any secondary actions took
+  place, to prevent formation of tar. But any such ideal is hopeless in
+  practice, as the coal is not a definite compound, and it is impossible
+  to subject it to a fixed temperature.
+
+
+    Effect of temperature in the retort.
+
+  If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000° C. when the charge of
+  coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from
+  about 800° C. close to the walls, to about 400° C. in the centre of
+  the coal; and in the same way, in the space above the coal, the
+  products which come in contact with the sides of the retort are heated
+  to 1000° C., whilst the gas near the coal is probably heated to only
+  600° C. Moreover, the gases and vapours in the retort are subjected to
+  a period of heating which varies widely with the distance from the
+  mouth of the retort of the coal that is undergoing carbonization. The
+  gas developed by the coal near the mouth of the retort is quickly
+  washed out into the ascension pipe by the push of the gas behind, and
+  the period for which it has been exposed to the radiant heat from the
+  walls of the retort is practically nil; whilst the gas evolved in the
+  portion of the retort farthest from the mouthpiece has only its own
+  rate of evolution to drive it forward, and has to traverse the longest
+  run possible in the retort, exposed during the whole of that period to
+  radiant heat and to contact with the highly heated surface of the
+  retort itself. Hence we find that the tar is formed of two distinct
+  sets of products, the first due to incomplete decomposition and the
+  second to secondary reactions due to the products of the decomposition
+  being kept too long in the zone of heat.
+
+  Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as
+  examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent the
+  second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great loss to
+  the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of benzene
+  carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only useless in
+  the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble, because
+  any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden changes of
+  temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes, whilst
+  their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large proportion of
+  the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these secondary
+  products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heating, to
+  simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and such bodies
+  as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability that, when
+  once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose them by heat,
+  short of the temperature which breaks them up into methane, carbon and
+  hydrogen.
+
+  The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal combining
+  with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen becoming
+  distributed amongst all three classes of products. The following table
+  will give an approximate idea of the proportions which go to each:--
+
+                                            Per cent.
+
+    Nitrogen as ammonia                       14.50
+       "     as cyanogen                       1.56
+       "     free in gas and combined in tar  35.26
+       "     remaining in coke                48.68
+                                             ------
+                                             100.00
+
+  The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort
+  upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the
+  temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal
+  increases; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease
+  in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found,
+  in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal
+  were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the
+  highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the
+  following results as to yield and illuminating power:--
+
+    +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+
+    |                 | Cubic ft. of|Illuminating|  Total  |
+    |  Temperature.   | Gas per ton.|   Power,   | Candles |
+    |                 |             |  Candles.  | per ton.|
+    +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+
+    | 1. Dull red     |    8,250    |    20.5    | 33.950  |
+    | 2. Hotter       |    9,693    |    17.8    | 34.510  |
+    | 3.    "         |   10,821    |    16.7    | 36.140  |
+    | 4. Bright orange|   12,006    |    15.6    | 37.460  |
+    +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+
+
+    _Composition of the Gas._
+
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                 |     1.    |     2.    |     4.    |
+    |                 | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Hydrogen        |   38.09   |   43.77   |   48.02   |
+    | Marsh gas       |   42.72   |   34.50   |   30.70   |
+    | Olefines        |    7.55   |    5.83   |    4.51   |
+    | Carbon monoxide |    8.72   |   12.50   |   13.96   |
+    | Nitrogen        |    2.92   |    3.40   |    2.81   |
+    |                 +-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                 |  100.00   |  100.00   |  100.00   |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power shows
+  that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4. From
+  this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the
+  hydrocarbons--the olefines and marsh gas series--gradually break up,
+  depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating hydrogen,
+  the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of
+  temperature.
+
+  The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by
+  alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation
+  takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the volume
+  of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the tar,
+  whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly rises,
+  and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a caking
+  coal Wright obtained the following results:--
+
+    +--------------+------------------+
+    | Yield of Gas | Specific Gravity |
+    |   per ton,   |     of Tar.      |
+    |   Cub. ft.   |                  |
+    +--------------+------------------+
+    |     6,600    |      1.086       |
+    |     7,200    |      1.120       |
+    |     8,900    |      1.140       |
+    |    10,162    |      1.154       |
+    |    11,700    |      1.206       |
+    +--------------+------------------+
+
+  Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity
+  was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from
+  28.89 to 64.08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha and
+  light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene oils
+  doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also begins to
+  show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches 10,000
+  cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized.
+
+  In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main
+  characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into--(a)
+  Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (b) liquids, consisting of
+  the tar and ammoniacal liquor; and (c) gases, consisting of the
+  unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are
+  approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as
+  follows:--
+
+    10,000 cub. ft. of gas =  380  lb. =  17.0 per cent.
+    10 gallons of tar      =  115   "  =   5.1    "
+    Gas liquor[1]          =  177   "  =   7.9    "
+    Coke                   = 1568   "  =  70.0    "
+                             ----        -----
+                             2240        100.0
+
+
+    Solid products.
+
+  The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it
+  contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind as
+  ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a great extent,
+  existed in the sap that filled the cells of the plant from which the
+  coal was formed. The retort carbon formed as a dense deposit on the
+  crown of the retort by the action of the high temperature on the
+  hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in a very pure form, and, on account
+  of its density, is largely used for electrical purposes.
+
+
+    Liquid products.
+
+  The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar
+  and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous coal is a
+  black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific gravity from 1.1 to
+  1.2. The ultimate composition of tar made in the London Gas Works is
+  approximately as follows:--
+
+    Carbon       77.53
+    Hydrogen      6.33
+    Nitrogen      1.03
+    Sulphur       0.61
+    Oxygen       14.50
+                ------
+                100.00
+
+  These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of
+  compounds (see COAL TAR), and its value as a by-product may be
+  gathered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields--(1)
+  benzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most of
+  the coal-tar colours, can be derived; (2) carbolic acid, from which
+  picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the
+  bitter flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable
+  disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the
+  "Albo-carbon" employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch,
+  extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthracene
+  and saccharin can be extracted.
+
+  The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal is
+  the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing
+  ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and
+  partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It contains, as its
+  principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic acid
+  and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are decomposed on
+  boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and partly combined with
+  stronger acids to form compounds which require to be acted upon by a
+  strong alkali before the ammonia contained in them can be liberated.
+  The ammonia in the first class of compounds is technically spoken of
+  as "free"; that present in the latter as "fixed." The following
+  analysis by L.T. Wright will give an idea of the relative quantities
+  in which these compounds exist in the liquor:--
+
+                               Grammes per litre.
+
+           / Ammonium sulphide        3.03
+    Free  <  Ammonium carbonate      39.16
+           \ Ammonium chloride       14.23
+           / Ammonium thiocyanate     1.80
+    Fixed <  Ammonium sulphate        0.19
+           | Ammonium thiosulphate    2.80
+           \ Ammonium ferrocyanide    0.41
+
+  From a scientific point of view, the term "free" is absolutely
+  incorrect, and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that
+  in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on
+  simply boiling the liquor.
+
+
+    Gaseous products.
+
+  The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, and
+  which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite compound,
+  but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some of which are reduced
+  to the lowest limit, in order to develop as fully as possible the
+  light-giving properties of the most important constituents of the gas.
+  The following analysis gives a fair idea of the composition of an
+  average sample of gas made from coal, purified but without
+  enrichment:--
+
+    Hydrogen                  52.22
+    Unsaturated hydrocarbons   3.47
+    Saturated hydrocarbons    34.76
+    Carbon monoxide            4.23
+    Carbon dioxide             0.60
+    Nitrogen                   4.23
+    Oxygen                     0.49
+                             ------
+                             100.00
+
+  These constituents may be divided into--(a) light-yielding
+  hydrocarbons, (b) combustible diluents and (c) impurities. The
+  hydrocarbons, upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends,
+  are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and
+  unsaturated, according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine
+  in potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed
+  "unsaturated," but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous
+  members of the "saturated" series of hydrocarbons. They may be
+  separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has
+  the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The
+  chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylene,
+  C2H4, butylene, C4H8, acetylene, C2H2, benzene, C6H6, and naphthalene,
+  C10H8, and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane, CH4,
+  and ethane, C2H6.
+
+  The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to the
+  hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the illuminating
+  value depended upon the amount of ethylene present. This, however, is
+  manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of ethylene mixed with
+  96% of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen should give 16- to
+  17-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of ethylene and 90% of
+  hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876 M.P.E. Berthelot came to
+  the conclusion that the illuminating value of the Paris coal gas was
+  almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But here again another mistaken
+  idea arose, owing to a faulty method of estimating the benzene, and
+  there is no doubt that methane is one of the most important of the
+  hydrocarbons present, when the gas is burnt in such a way as to evolve
+  from it the proper illuminating power, whilst the benzene vapour,
+  small as the quantity is, comes next in importance and the ethylene
+  last. It is the combined action of the hydrocarbons which gives the
+  effect, not any one of them acting alone.
+
+  The series of operations connected with the manufacture and
+  distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation,
+  condensation, exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing,
+  dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains
+  whence the consumer's supply is drawn.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of Works.]
+
+
+    Site of gas works.
+
+  The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local
+  circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready
+  means of transport available, and for this reason the works should be
+  built upon the banks of a navigable river or canal, and should have a
+  convenient railway siding. By this means coal may be delivered direct
+  to the store or retort-house, and in the same way residual products
+  may be removed. The fact that considerable area is required and that
+  the works do not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions,
+  and although economy of space should be considered, arrangements
+  should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works whose
+  daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is usual
+  to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit to the
+  size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas is dealt
+  with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is reached. From
+  the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4) it will be possible
+  to gain an idea of the order in which the operations in gas
+  manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Cross Section of Retorts.]
+
+
+    Retorts.
+
+  The retorts in which the coal is carbonized are almost universally
+  made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old
+  single-ended retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given way to
+  a more economical construction known as doubles, double-ended, or
+  "through" retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft. long, and as it is
+  found inconvenient to produce this length in one piece, they are
+  manufactured in three sections, the jointing together of which demands
+  great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at one end to take an
+  iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally employed for retorts are
+  known as "D-shaped," "oval" and "round" (fig. 5). The "D" form is
+  mostly adopted owing to its power of retaining its shape after long
+  exposure to heat, and the large amount of heating surface it presents
+  at its base. The life of this retort is about thirty working months. A
+  cast iron mouthpiece and lid is bolted to the exterior end of each
+  retort, the mouthpiece carrying a socket end to receive the ascension
+  pipe, through which the gas passes on leaving the retort. The retorts
+  are heated externally and are set in an arch, the construction
+  depending upon the number of retorts, which varies from three to
+  twelve. The arch and its retorts is termed a bed or setting, and a row
+  of beds constitutes a bench. It is usual to have a separate furnace
+  for each setting, the retorts resting upon walls built transversely in
+  the furnace.
+
+  The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the "direct
+  firing" or by the "regenerative" system, the latter affording marked
+  advantages over the former method, which is now becoming extinct. In
+  the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
+  nitrogen is produced by passing air through incandescent gas coke in a
+  generator placed below the bench of retorts, and the heating value of
+  the gases so produced is increased in most cases by the admixture of a
+  small proportion of steam with the primary air supply, the steam being
+  decomposed by contact with the red-hot coke in the generator into
+  water gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (see FUEL:
+  _Gaseous_). The gases so formed vary in proportion with the
+  temperature of the generator and the amount of steam, but generally
+  contain 32 to 38% of combustible gas, the remainder being the residual
+  nitrogen of the air and carbon dioxide. These gases enter the
+  combustion chamber around the retorts at a high temperature, and are
+  there supplied with sufficient air to complete their combustion, this
+  secondary air supply being heated by the hot products of combustion on
+  their way to the exit flue. This method of firing results in the
+  saving of about one-third the weight of coke used in the old form of
+  furnace per ton of coal carbonized, and enables higher temperatures to
+  be obtained, the heat being also more equally distributed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Regenerative Setting.]
+
+  There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative
+  principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the
+  general arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is
+  charged at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are
+  placed fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air
+  necessary for the partial combustion of the coke to "producer" gas
+  enters between these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to
+  the combustion chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary
+  air is admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been
+  already heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes
+  place at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on
+  rising are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round
+  the retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are
+  conducted down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and
+  shaft. The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the
+  circulation of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is
+  regulated by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the
+  "producer" and "spent" gases this amount can be readily gauged.
+
+  Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical
+  position, and the advantages of the one over the other is a question
+  upon which almost every gas engineer has his own views.
+
+
+    Charging and drawing.
+
+  The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has
+  rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal
+  retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the practice to carry
+  out such operations entirely by hand, men charging the retorts either
+  by means of shovel or hand-scoop, and the coke produced being
+  withdrawn with hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works
+  adhere to this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by
+  either compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two
+  cases a scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the
+  travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over;
+  the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over
+  in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that
+  as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side
+  of the retort. With "through" retorts charging machines feed the
+  retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about 1½
+  cwt., entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that
+  the total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six
+  hours to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The
+  machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the
+  retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging machines
+  travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power is
+  transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of more
+  recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine, in
+  which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high
+  speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is
+  sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 20-ft.
+  retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed
+  throughout the length of the retort.
+
+  For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either
+  compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being made
+  to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With this
+  method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge
+  several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a
+  telescopic ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before
+  it and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as
+  one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of
+  machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original cost
+  of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the retorts
+  brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the fact that the
+  coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is clear that the
+  suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order to facilitate
+  the work presented great inducements to the gas manager. The object
+  aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to play the part
+  of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the retorts being
+  inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal used; this
+  angle is between 28° and 34°. The coal, previously elevated to
+  hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are so arranged
+  that they can travel from end to end of the retort-house and feed the
+  coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be charged, an iron stop
+  or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece, and the door closed. The
+  shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece, and the stop or door, which
+  retains the coal in the chamber, is released; the coal is then
+  discharged into the retort, and rushing down the incline, is arrested
+  by the barrier, and banks up, forming a continuous backing to the coal
+  following. By experience with the class of coal used and the
+  adjustment of the stops in the shoot, the charge can be run into the
+  retort to form an even layer of any desired depth. For the withdrawal
+  of the residual coke at the end of the carbonization, the lower
+  mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier removed and the coke in the
+  lower part of the retort is "tickled" or gently stirred with an iron
+  rod to overcome a slight adhesion to the retort; the entire mass then
+  readily discharges itself. Guides are placed in front of the retort to
+  direct its course to the coke hoppers or conveyer below, and to
+  prevent scattering of the hot material. This system shows a greater
+  economy in the cost of carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and
+  the wear and tear of the mechanical appliances involved have so far
+  prevented its very general adoption.
+
+  The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with by
+  Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke, the low
+  illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage to the retort
+  itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distillation, it was
+  quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 20th century, however,
+  the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at Exeter, Messrs
+  Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr Bueb in Germany showed such
+  encouraging results that the idea of the vertical retort again came to
+  the front, and several systems were proposed and tried. The cause of
+  the failure of Murdoch's original vertical retort was undoubtedly that
+  it was completely filled with coal during charging, with the result
+  that the gas liberated from the lower portions of the retort had to
+  pass through a deep bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the
+  gas, destroyed the illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that
+  the question of rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly
+  formed, from the influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort
+  and residual coke, is one of the most important in gas manufacture.
+
+  In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the
+  coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit
+  the introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free
+  channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly
+  heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In the
+  case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced, but
+  with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly
+  approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the gas
+  per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives the
+  following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the
+  same coal but by different methods of carbonization:--
+
+    Vertical Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft.
+    Inclined    "     584         "          "          "
+    Horizontal  "     570         "          "          "
+
+  Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be
+  decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort or
+  whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular and
+  short intervals; by this latter means (the characteristic feature of
+  the Settle-Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process
+  of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact
+  with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume and
+  value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.
+
+
+    Hydraulic main.
+
+  From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hydraulic
+  main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal
+  position and supported by columns upon the top of the retort stack,
+  and through it is maintained a slow but constant flow of water, the
+  level of which is kept uniform. The ascension pipe dips about 2 in.
+  into the liquid, and so makes a seal that allows of any retort being
+  charged singly without the risk of the gas produced from the other
+  retorts in the bench escaping through the open retort. Coal gas,
+  being a mixture of gases and vapours of liquids having very varying
+  boiling points, must necessarily undergo physical changes when the
+  temperature is lowered. Vapours of liquids of high boiling point will
+  be condensed more quickly than those having lower boiling points, but
+  condensation of each vapour will take place in a definite ratio with
+  the decrease of temperature, the rate being dependent upon the boiling
+  point of the liquid from which it is formed. The result is that from
+  the time the gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to deposit
+  condensation products owing to the decrease in temperature.
+  Condensation takes place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece
+  leading to the hydraulic main, and to a still greater extent in the
+  hydraulic main itself where the gas has to pass through water.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hydraulic Main.]
+
+  Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are frequently cleared by an
+  instrument called an "auger," whilst the arch pipe is fitted with hand
+  holes through which it may be easily cleared in case of stoppage. The
+  most soluble of the constituents of crude coal gas is ammonia, 780
+  volumes of which are soluble in one volume of water at normal
+  temperature and pressure, and the water in the hydraulic main absorbs
+  a considerable quantity of this compound from the gas and helps to
+  form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst, although the liquor is well
+  agitated by the gas bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar
+  from liquor is effected by gravitation. The liquor is run off at a
+  constant rate from the hydraulic main to the store tank, and the gas
+  passes from the top of the hydraulic main to the foul main.
+
+
+    Condensation.
+
+  The gas as it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature of
+  from 130° to 150° F., and should now be reduced as nearly as possible
+  to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The operation of
+  efficient condensing is not by any means as simple as might be
+  supposed. The tar and liquor when condensed have a dissolving action
+  on various valuable light-giving constituents of the gas, which in the
+  ordinary way would not be deposited by the lowering of temperature,
+  and for this reason the heavy tar, and especially that produced in the
+  hydraulic main, should come in contact with the gas as little as
+  possible, and condensation should take place slowly.
+
+  The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and upon
+  which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphthalene: this
+  compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on cooling to a solid
+  which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes, and the trouble
+  caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in the district
+  supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of carbonization
+  the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and gas managers of
+  to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the gas a difficult
+  problem to solve. It was for some time debated as to whether
+  naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value of the gas, and
+  whether an endeavour should be made to carry it to the point of
+  combustion; but it is now acknowledged that it is a troublesome
+  impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better. Gas leaves
+  the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity for holding
+  that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence of water vapour.
+  The condenser, by effecting the condensation of water vapour, also
+  brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene, apart from that
+  which naturally condenses owing to reduction of temperature.
+
+  Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the
+  former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and so
+  placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected at
+  the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than air,
+  owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be more
+  easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is usual to
+  arrange that the water passes through a large number of small pipes
+  contained in a larger one through which the gas flows, and as it
+  constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked by naphthalene,
+  the so-called reversible condenser, in which the stream of gas may be
+  altered from time to time and the walls of the pipes cleaned by
+  pumping tar over them, is a decided advance.
+
+  The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers
+  to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact
+  with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the
+  latter being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to
+  replace in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves
+  out; and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene
+  and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered.
+
+
+    Exhauster.
+
+  The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the
+  purpose of drawing the gas from the hydraulic main through the
+  condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying vessels to the
+  holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts under a slight vacuum, the
+  amount of gas produced is increased by about 12%, and is of better
+  quality, owing to its leaving the heated retort more quickly. A
+  horizontal compound steam-engine is usually employed to drive the
+  exhauster.
+
+  At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already
+  undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet
+  remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia,
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide. Ammonia
+  is of considerable marketable value, and even in places where the
+  local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed, it is
+  extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and its
+  complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parliament. As
+  nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted, but most gas
+  companies are now exempt from having to purify the gas from sulphur
+  compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen. Cyanogen compounds also
+  are present in the gas, and in large works, where the total quantity
+  is sufficient, their extraction is effected for the production of
+  either prussiate or cyanide of soda.
+
+  Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this point to
+  be about
+
+                         per cent. by vol.
+
+    Hydrogen             from 42      to 53
+    Methane                "  32      "  39
+    Carbon monoxide        "   3      "  10
+    Hydrocarbons--
+      Gases                "   2.5    "   4.5
+      Light condensable
+        vapours            "   0.5    "   1.2
+    Carbon dioxide         "   1.1    "   1.8
+    Nitrogen               "   1.0    "   5.0
+    Sulphuretted hydrogen  "   1.0    "   2.0
+    Ammonia                "   0.5    "   0.95
+    Cyanogen               "   0.05   "   0.12
+    Carbon disulphide      "   0.02   "   0.035
+    Naphthalene            "   0.005  "   0.015
+
+
+    Washers.
+
+  It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the
+  extraction of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the gas is now
+  washed with water and ammoniacal liquor. The process is termed washing
+  or scrubbing, and is carried out in various forms of apparatus, the
+  efficiency of which is dependent upon the amount of contact the
+  apparatus allows between the finely divided gas and water in a unit
+  area and the facility with which it may be cleared out. The "Livesey"
+  washer, a well-known type, is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas
+  enters in the centre, and to make its escape again it has to pass into
+  long wrought iron inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth
+  of an inch in diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through
+  the washer, and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations,
+  drives the liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to
+  agitation by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into
+  close contact with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in
+  series according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.
+
+
+    Scrubbers.
+
+  The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed a
+  "scrubber," which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards ¼ in.
+  thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together; water is
+  caused to flow down over the surface of these boards, the object being
+  to break up the gas as much as possible and bring it into close
+  contact with the water. In this wet purifying apparatus the gas is
+  almost wholly freed from ammonia and from part of the sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide are also
+  partially extracted.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Purifier.]
+
+
+    Purifiers.
+
+  The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known as
+  "dry purifiers" (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with
+  ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of grids (fig.
+  9), and covered with the purifying material B to a depth of about 6
+  in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes being proportional
+  to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas enters at the bottom by
+  the pipe C, the inlet being protected from any falling material by the
+  cover D; it forces its way upwards through all the trays until,
+  reaching the lid or cover E, it descends by the exit tube F, which
+  leads to the next purifier. The edges of the lid dip into an external
+  water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is prevented from escaping.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Purifier Grid.]
+
+  When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well as from
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the removal of
+  carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphur compounds,
+  whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served to remove the
+  last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than four lime
+  purifiers were employed, and as the one which was first in the series
+  became exhausted, i.e. began to show signs of allowing carbon dioxide
+  to pass through it unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh slaked lime
+  and made the last of the series, the one which was second becoming
+  first, and this procedure went on continuously. This operation was
+  necessitated by the fact that carbon dioxide has the power of breaking
+  up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime, so that until all carbon
+  dioxide is absorbed with the formation of calcium carbonate, the
+  withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannot proceed, whilst since it is
+  calcium sulphide formed by the absorption of sulphuretted hydrogen by
+  the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour of carbon disulphide,
+  purification from the latter can only be accomplished after the
+  necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The foul gas leaving the
+  scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30 grains of sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide and 200 grains of carbon
+  dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the first purifier, which
+  contains calcium thiocarbonate and other combinations of calcium and
+  sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted hydrogen and disulphide
+  vapour have practically no action upon the material, but the carbon
+  dioxide immediately attacks the calcium thiocarbonate, forming calcium
+  carbonate with the production of carbon disulphide vapour, which is
+  carried over with the gas into the second box. In the connexion
+  between the first and the second box the gas is found to contain 500
+  grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per
+  100 cub. ft., but no trace of carbon dioxide. In the second box the
+  formation of calcium thiocarbonate takes place by the action of carbon
+  disulphide upon the calcium sulphide with the liberation of
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, which is carried over to the third purifier.
+  The gas in the connecting pipe between the second and third purifier
+  will be found to contain 400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20
+  grains of carbon disulphide. The contents of the third box, being
+  mostly composed of slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming
+  calcium sulphide, and practically remove the remaining impurities, the
+  outlet gas showing 20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of
+  carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of
+  iron then removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be
+  noticed that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities
+  is actually increased between the purifiers--in fact, the greater
+  amount of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon
+  disulphide,--but it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the
+  disturbing element, inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of
+  sulphur and calcium; consequently it is a paramount object in this
+  system to prevent this latter impurity finding its way through the
+  first box of the series. The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide
+  in the gas between the first two boxes is generally the signal for a
+  new clean purifier being put into action, and the first one shut off,
+  emptied and recharged with fresh lime, the impregnated material being
+  sometimes sold for dressing certain soils.
+
+  The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the lime
+  purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted
+  hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide
+  for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of free
+  sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon removing
+  the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmosphere the
+  sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen of the
+  air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur, and with
+  moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron. This
+  revivification can be carried on a number of times until the material
+  when dry contains about 50% of free sulphur and even occasionally 60%
+  and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of sulphuric acid to be
+  used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see SULPHURIC ACID).
+
+  Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort carbon,
+  which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases preparing
+  from their spent purifying material pure chemical products which are
+  in great demand. The most important of these is sulphate of ammonia,
+  which is used for agricultural purposes as a manure, and is obtained
+  by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid and crystallizing out the
+  ammonium sulphate produced. To do this, saturated ammoniacal liquor is
+  decomposed by lime in the presence of steam, and the freed ammonia is
+  passed into strong sulphuric acid, the saturated solution of ammonium
+  sulphate being carefully crystallized. The market value of the salt
+  varies, but an average figure is £12 per ton, whilst the average yield
+  is about 24 lb. of salt per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the
+  sulphuric acid is usually manufactured on the spot from the spent
+  oxide, so that the sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is
+  considered an undesirable impurity, plays a valuable part in the
+  manufacture of an important by-product.
+
+  Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas, from the
+  spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gas works now
+  produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest developments in
+  the gas chemical industry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Gasholder.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cup and Grip.]
+
+
+    Gasholder.
+
+  The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as a
+  gasometer), which may be either single lift, i.e. a simple bell
+  inverted in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the telescopic
+  principle, in which case much ground space is saved, as a holder of
+  much greater capacity can be contained in the same-sized tank. The
+  tank for the gasholder is usually made by excavating a circular
+  reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than the proposed holder. A
+  banking is allowed to remain in the centre, as shown in fig. 10, which
+  is known as the "dumpling," this arrangement not only saving work and
+  water, but acting as a support for the king post of a trussed holder
+  when the holder is empty. The tank must be water-tight, and the
+  precaution necessary to be taken in order to ensure this is dependent
+  upon the nature of the soil; it is usual, however, for the tanks to be
+  lined with concrete. Where the conditions of soil are very bad, steel
+  tanks are built above ground, but the cost of these is much greater.
+  The holder is made of sheet iron riveted together, the thickness
+  depending upon the size of the holder. The telescopic form consists of
+  two or more lifts which slide in one another, and may be described as
+  a single lift holder encircled by other cylinders of slightly larger
+  diameter, but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows the general
+  construction. Gas on entering at A causes the top lift to rise; the
+  bottom of this lift being turned up all round to form a cup, whilst
+  the top of the next lift is turned down to form a so-called grip, the
+  two interlock (see fig. 11), forming what is known as the hydraulic
+  cup. Under these conditions the cup will necessarily be filled with
+  water, and a seal will be formed, preventing the escape of gas. A
+  guide framing is built round the holder, and guide rollers are fixed
+  at various intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at the
+  bottom of the cup guide rollers are also fixed (fig. 11). In the year
+  1892 the largest existing gasholder was built at the East Greenwich
+  works of the South Metropolitan Gas Company; it has six lifts, its
+  diameter is 293 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft. high. The
+  capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.
+
+
+    Governor.
+
+  The governor consists usually of a bell floating in a cast iron tank
+  partially filled with water, and is in fact a small gasholder, from
+  the centre of which is suspended a conical valve controlling the gas
+  inlet and closing it as the bell fills. Any deviation in pressure will
+  cause the floating bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the
+  inlet will be decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.
+
+
+    Enrichment.
+
+  The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16
+  candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate,
+  while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an
+  enormous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of
+  the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to
+  the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for
+  producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the ordinary gas,
+  thereby enriching it, but as the supply became limited and the price
+  prohibitive, other methods were from time to time advocated to replace
+  its use in the enrichment of illuminating gas. These may be classified
+  as follows:--
+
+  1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained by
+  decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.
+
+  2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing crude
+  oils by heat.
+
+  3. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with the
+  vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.
+
+  4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly
+  carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons
+  through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydrocarbon
+  gases.
+
+
+    Enrichment by tar.
+
+  Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for the production
+  and enrichment of gas, and to do this two methods may be adopted:--
+
+  (a) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards using the
+  whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas.
+
+  (b) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the gas
+  and vapours through superheaters.
+
+  If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself is
+  that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends rapidly
+  to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful attempt to
+  make use of certain portions of the liquid products of distillation of
+  coal before condensation by the second method was the Dinsmore
+  process, in which the coal gas and vapours which, if allowed to cool,
+  would form tar, were made to pass through a heated chamber, and a
+  certain proportion of otherwise condensible hydrocarbons was thus
+  converted into permanent gases. Even with a poor class of coal it was
+  claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 21-candle gas could be made by
+  this process, whereas by the ordinary process 9000 cub. ft. of
+  15-candle gas would have been produced. This process, although
+  strongly advocated by the gas engineer who experimented with it, was
+  never a commercial success. The final solution of the question of
+  enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons derived from tar may be arrived at
+  by a process which prevents the formation of part of the tar during
+  the carbonization of the coal, or by the process devised by C.B. Tully
+  and now in use at Truro, in which tar is injected into the
+  incandescent fuel in a water-gas generator and enriches the water gas
+  with methane and other hydrocarbons, the resulting pitch and carbon
+  being filtered off by the column of coke through which the gas passes.
+
+
+    Enrichment by oil gas.
+
+  The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spraying
+  oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization; but
+  experience soon showed that this was not an economical method of
+  working, and that it was far better to decompose the liquid
+  hydrocarbon in the presence of the diluents which are to mingle with
+  it and act as its carrier, since, if this were done, a higher
+  temperature could be employed and more of the heavier portions of the
+  oil converted into gas, without at the same time breaking down the
+  gaseous hydrocarbons too much. In carburetting poor coal gas with
+  hydrocarbons from mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal
+  is undergoing distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier
+  stages, but towards the end of the operation the gas is very poor in
+  illuminants, the methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and
+  the increase in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a
+  coal requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the
+  gas at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the
+  following results:--
+
+    _Time after beginning Distillation._
+
+    +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+    |                        |    10    |   1 hour   |  3 hours   |  5 hours   |
+    |                        | minutes. | 30 minutes.| 25 minutes.| 35 minutes.|
+    +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+    | Sulphuretted hydrogen  |   1.30   |    1.42    |    0.49    |    0.11    |
+    | Carbon dioxide         |   2.21   |    2.09    |    1.49    |    1.50    |
+    | Hydrogen               |  20.10   |   38.33    |   52.68    |   67.12    |
+    | Carbon monoxide        |   6.19   |    5.66    |    6.21    |    6.12    |
+    | Saturated hydrocarbons |  57.38   |   44.03    |   33.54    |   22.58    |
+    | Unsaturated     "      |  10.62   |    5.98    |    3.04    |    1.79    |
+    | Nitrogen               |   2.20   |    2.47    |    2.55    |    0.78    |
+    +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+  This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take place
+  in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal. In
+  carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort, many
+  of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours, it
+  would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas is
+  being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension a
+  much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being
+  supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any further
+  quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would have to be
+  completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the temperature
+  necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality of the gas
+  given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation has gone on
+  for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled off and the
+  temperature of the retort has reached its highest point, and this is
+  the best time to feed in the oil.
+
+  Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the
+  production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the
+  "Young" or "Peebles" process, which depends on the principle of
+  washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means of oil
+  which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this way it
+  is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent gases are
+  allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this treatment
+  considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed gases are
+  also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again driven out
+  by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas obtained by the Young
+  process, when tested by itself in the burners most suited for its
+  combustion, gives on the photometer an illuminating value averaging
+  from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed, and quite correctly,
+  that the enriching power of the gas is considerably greater. This is
+  accounted for by the fact that it is impossible to construct a burner
+  which will do justice to a gas of such illuminating power.
+
+  The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal gas
+  are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as much
+  plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that
+  although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal
+  gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the
+  large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of
+  such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect
+  mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in
+  the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide
+  variations in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.
+
+
+    Enrichment by volatile hydrocarbons.
+
+  The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known, a
+  large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being due
+  to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried in suspension.
+  For many years the price of benzol has been falling, owing to the
+  large quantities produced in the coke ovens, and at its present price
+  it is by far the cheapest enriching material that can be obtained.
+  Hence at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so it is
+  used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized and
+  its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite
+  illuminating power.
+
+
+    Enrichment by carburetted water gas.
+
+  One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now is by
+  means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas. When steam
+  acts upon carbon at a high temperature the resultant action may be
+  looked upon as giving a mixture of equal volumes of hydrogen and
+  carbon monoxide, both of which are inflammable but non-luminous gases.
+  This water gas is then carburetted, i.e. rendered luminous by passing
+  it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat, the mixture
+  being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22 to 25 candles.
+  This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its illuminating value
+  to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is heated to incandescence
+  by an air blast in a generator lined with fire-brick, and the heated
+  products of combustion as they leave the generator and enter the
+  superheaters are supplied with more air, which causes the combustion
+  of carbon monoxide present in the producer gas and heats up the
+  fire-brick baffles with which the superheater is filled. When the
+  necessary temperature of the fuel and superheater has been reached,
+  the air blast is cut off, and steam is blown through the generator,
+  forming water gas, which meets the enriching oil at the top of the
+  first superheater, called the carburettor, and carries the vapours
+  with it through the main superheaters, where the fixing of the
+  hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advantage of this apparatus is
+  that a low temperature can be used for fixing owing to the enormous
+  surface for superheating, and thus to a great extent the deposition of
+  carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has been very generally
+  adopted in Great Britain as well as in America, and practically all
+  carburetted water-gas plants are founded upon the same set of actions.
+  Important factors in the use of carburetted water gas for enrichment
+  are that it can be made with enormous rapidity and with a minimum of
+  labour; and not only is the requisite increase in illuminating power
+  secured, but the volume of the enriched gas is increased by the bulk
+  of carburetted water gas added, which in ordinary English practice
+  amounts to from 25 to 50%. The public at first strongly opposed its
+  introduction on the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon
+  monoxide, which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%.
+  Still when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal
+  gas, containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the
+  percentage of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%,
+  which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.
+
+  A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the
+  gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas
+  obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or
+  non-luminous water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works,
+  non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through the
+  retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas and
+  coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol vapour,
+  a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is distinctly
+  more economical than the use of carburetted water gas. In 1896 Karl
+  Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of making water gas
+  which entirely altered the whole aspect of the industry. In all the
+  attempts to make water gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the
+  fuel had been obtained by "blowing" so deep a bed of fuel that carbon
+  monoxide and the residual nitrogen of the air formed the chief
+  products, this mixture being known as "producer" gas. In the Dellwik
+  process, however, the main point is the adjustment of the air supplied
+  to the fuel in the generator in such a way that carbon dioxide is
+  formed instead of carbon monoxide. Under these conditions producer gas
+  ceases to exist as a by-product, and the gases of the blow consist
+  merely of the incombustible products of complete combustion, carbon
+  dioxide and nitrogen, the result being that more than three times the
+  heat is developed for the combustion of the same amount of fuel, and
+  nearly double the quantity of water gas can be made per pound of fuel
+  than was before possible. The runs or times of steaming can also be
+  continued for longer periods. The possibility of making from 60,000 to
+  70,000 cub. ft. of water gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik
+  generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft. per ton made by
+  previous processes reduces the price of water gas to about 3½d. per
+  thousand, so that the economic value of using it in admixture with
+  coal gas and then enriching the mixture by any cheap carburetting
+  process is manifest. The universal adoption of the incandescent mantle
+  for lighting purposes has made it evident that the illuminating value
+  of the gas is a secondary consideration, and the whole tendency now is
+  to do away with enrichment and produce a gas of low-candle power but
+  good heating power at a cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent
+  lighting. (See also LIGHTING: _Gas_.)     (V. B. L.)
+
+2. _Gas for Fuel and Power_--The first gas-producers, which were built
+by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and by C.G.C. Bischof at
+Mägdesprung (both in Germany), consisted of simple perpendicular shafts
+of masonry contracted at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate
+for the coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought iron
+casing, are even now used to a great extent. Sometimes the purpose of a
+gas-producer is attained in a very simple manner by lowering the grate
+of an ordinary fireplace so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is
+maintained in the fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great
+body of coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace,
+and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed
+immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper part of the
+furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monoxide which later on, on
+the spot where the greatest heat is required, is burned into dioxide by
+admitting fresh air, preferably pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive
+arrangement has the further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized
+immediately after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But
+it is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to
+those cases where all the space round the furnace is required for
+manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar purposes.
+In these cases the producers are arranged outside the iron-works,
+glass-works, &c., in an open yard where all the manipulations of feeding
+them with coal, of stoking, and of removing the ashes are performed
+without interfering with the work inside. But care must always be taken
+to place the producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward
+tendency, in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is
+to be burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various means. The
+gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens Brothers, from 1856 onwards,
+were provided with a kind of brick chimney; on the top of this there was
+a horizontal iron tube, continued into an iron down-draught, and only
+from this the underground flues were started which sent the gas into the
+single furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down by
+the action of the air, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the gas out of
+the producer, but it has various drawbacks and has been abandoned in all
+modern constructions. Where the "natural draught" is not sufficient, it
+is aided either by blowing air under the grate or else by suction at the
+other end.
+
+We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-producers
+producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied in
+practice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12[2]--Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lürmann's Producer.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 14 and 15.--Liegel's Producer.]
+
+  The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds have
+  been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in fig. 12. A is
+  the charging-hole; B, the inclined front wall, consisting of a cast
+  iron plate with fire-brick lining; C, the equally inclined
+  "step-grate"; D, a damper by which the producer may be isolated in
+  case of repairs; E, a water-pipe, by which the cinders at the bottom
+  may be quenched before taking away; the steam here formed rises into
+  the producer where it forms some "semi-water gas" (see FUEL:
+  _Gaseous_). Openings like that shown at G serve for introducing a
+  poker in order to clean the brickwork from adhering slags. H is the
+  gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft. high;
+  JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch mentioned
+  above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means of the
+  gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch JJ much of the tar
+  and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance where
+  bituminous coal is employed for firing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Taylor's Producer.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Dowson Gas Plant.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Mond Gas Plant.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Mond Gas Plant.]
+
+  This as well as most other descriptions of gas-producers, is not
+  adapted to being worked with such coal as softens in the heat and
+  forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sinking
+  of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be
+  non-bituminous coal, anthracite or coke, or at least so much of these
+  materials should be mixed with ordinary coal that no semi-solid cakes
+  of the kind just described are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work
+  with coal softening in the fire, Lürmann's producer may be employed,
+  which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-producer of the ordinary
+  kind, which during regular work is filled with the coke formed in the
+  horizontal retort E. The door _b_ serves for removing the slags and
+  ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not fall through the
+  grate. The hot producer-gas formed in V is passed round the retort E
+  in the flues n2 n2, and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace
+  where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary
+  bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation by the
+  heat communicated through the flues n2 n2 and is thus converted into
+  coke. The gases formed during this process pass into the upper portion
+  of V and get mixed with the producer-gas formed in the lower portion.
+  From time to time, as the level of the coke in V goes down, some of
+  the freshly formed coke in E is pushed into V, whereby the level of
+  the coke in V should assume the shape shown by the dotted line _l ...
+  m_. If the level became too low, such as is shown by the dotted line
+  x ... y, the working of the producer would be wrong, as in this case
+  the layer of coke at the front side would be too low, and carbon
+  dioxide would be formed in lieu of monoxide.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Blass' Gas Plant.]
+
+  Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel's producer, the special object of which is
+  to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty slag on
+  combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding the
+  up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they be
+  removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes. To
+  obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat than
+  is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer being
+  pre-heated in the channels e, e. The inside shape of the producer is
+  such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped, as it widens
+  out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion, where the ashes are
+  already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through which the air
+  ascends. The grate b retains any small pieces of fuel, but allows the
+  liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues c, c prevent the
+  brickwork from being melted.
+
+  One of the best-known gas-producers for working with compressed air
+  from below is Taylor's, shown in fig. 16. A is the feeding-hopper, on
+  the same principle as is used in blast-furnaces. L is the
+  producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-holes B1 to B4,
+  passing through the brick lining M. F is the contracted part, leading
+  to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the doors D. An injector I,
+  worked by means of the steam-pipe J, forces air through K into F. The
+  circular grate G can be turned round K by means of the crank E from
+  the outside. This is done, without interfering with the blast, in
+  order to keep the fuel at the proper level in L, according to the
+  indications of the burning zone, as shown through the peep-holes B1 to
+  B4. The ashes collecting at the bottom are from time to time removed
+  by the doors D. As the steam, introduced by J, is decomposed in the
+  producer, we here obtain a "semi-water gas," with about 27% CO and 12%
+  H2.
+
+  Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer, together with the arrangements
+  for purifying the gas for the purpose of working a gas engine. _a_ is
+  a vertical steam boiler, heated by a central shaft filled with coke,
+  with superheating tubes _b_ passing through the central shaft. _c_ is
+  the steam-pipe, carrying the dry steam into the air-injector _d_. This
+  mixture of steam and air enters into the gas-producer _e_ below the
+  fire-grate _f_. _g_ is the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which is
+  usually employed in this kind of producer. _h_, _h_ are cooling-pipes
+  for the gas where most of the undecomposed steam (say 10% of the whole
+  employed in _d_) is condensed. _i_ is a hydraulic box with water seal;
+  _j_, a coke-scrubber; _k_, a filter; _l_, a sawdust-scrubber; _m_,
+  inlet of gas-holder; _n_, gas-holder; _o_, outlet of same; _p_, a
+  valve with weighted lever to regulate the admission of steam to the
+  gas-producer; _q_, the weight which actuates the lever automatically
+  by the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder. In practical work
+  about ¾ lb. of steam is decomposed for each pound of anthracite
+  consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon dioxide is found in the
+  resulting gas. The latter has an average calorific power of 1732
+  calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U. per cubic foot, at 0° and 760
+  mm.
+
+  The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and 19. The gases produced in the
+  generators G are passed through pipes _r_ into washers W, in which
+  water is kept in violent motion by means of paddle-wheels. The spray
+  of water removes the dust and part of the tar and ammonia from the
+  gases, much steam being produced at the same time. This water is
+  withdrawn from time to time and worked for the ammonia it contains.
+  The gases, escaping from W at a temperature of about 100° C., and
+  containing much steam, pass though _g_ and _a_ into a tower, fed with
+  an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the tank _s_, which is spread
+  into many drops by the brick filling of the tower. This liquid is a
+  strong solution of ammonium sulphate, containing about 2.5% free
+  sulphuric acid which absorbs nearly all the ammonia from the gases,
+  without dissolving much of the tarry substances. Most of the liquor
+  arriving at the bottom, after mechanically separating the tar, is
+  pumped back into _s_, but a portion is always withdrawn and worked for
+  ammonium sulphate. When escaping from the acid tower, the gas contains
+  about 0.013% NH3, and has a temperature of about 80° C. and is
+  saturated with aqueous vapour. It is passed through _c_ into a second
+  tower B, filled with blocks of wood, where it meets with a stream of
+  comparatively cold water. At the bottom of this the water runs away,
+  its temperature being 78° C.; at the top the gas passes away through
+  _d_ into the distributing main. The hot water from B, freed from tar,
+  is pumped into a third tower C, through which cold air is forced by
+  means of a Root's blower by the pipe _w_. This air, after being heated
+  to 76° C., and saturated with steam in the tower C, passes through _l_
+  into the generator G. The water in C leaves this tower cold enough to
+  be used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the steam originally
+  employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, leaving only
+  one-third to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the steam-engine. The
+  gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6 × 12 ft., several of
+  them being erected in series. The introduction of the air and the
+  removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The bottom is
+  formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The air enters
+  just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The Mond gas in
+  the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10% monoxide, 23% hydrogen,
+  3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen. The yield of ammonium sulphate is 75
+  lb. from a ton of coal (slack with 11.5% ashes and 55% fixed carbon).
+
+  One of the best plants for the generation of _water-gas_ is that
+  constructed by E. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the valve V at
+  D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes away at the bottom
+  through A. The pressure of the gas should not be such that it could
+  get into the pipe conveying the air-blast, by which an explosive
+  mixture would be formed. This is prevented by the water-cooled damper
+  S, which always closes the air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and
+  vice versa. Below the entry W of the air-blast there is a throttle
+  valve _d_ which is closed as soon as the damper S opens the gas canal;
+  thus a second security against the production of a mixture of air and
+  gas is afforded. The water-cooled ring channel K protects the bottom
+  outlet of the generator and causes the cinders to solidify, so that
+  they can be easily removed. But sometimes no such cooling is effected,
+  in which case the cinders run away in the liquid form. Below K the
+  fuel is lying in a conical heap, leaving the ring channel A free.
+  During the period of hot-blowing (heating-up) S is turned so that the
+  air-blast communicates with the generator; _d_ and G are open; _g_
+  (the damper connected with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the
+  period of gas-making G and _d_ are closed, S now closes the air-blast
+  and connects the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas
+  passes from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet _w_ being
+  under a pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of
+  the valves and dampers are automatically performed in the proper order
+  by means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards t and
+  shaft _v_. This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for
+  starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to open
+  and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible on the
+  part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged that, when
+  the cone e2 opens, e1 is shut, and vice versa, thus no more gas can
+  escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that which is
+  contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up gas
+  (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it is
+  at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some place
+  where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for 10 or 11
+  minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7 to 1.5% carbon
+  dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64 to 66% nitrogen, and
+  has a heating value of 950 calories per cub. metre. The water-gas
+  itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an average composition of 3.3%
+  carbon dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide, 0.4% methane, 48.6% hydrogen,
+  3.7% nitrogen, and a heating value of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1
+  kilogram coke yields 1.13 cub. metre water-gas and 3.13 Siemens gas.
+  100 parts coke (of 7000 calories) furnish 42% of their heat value as
+  water-gas and 42% as Siemens gas.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Dellwik-Fleischer Producer.]
+
+  Lastly we give a section of the Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig.
+  21). The feeding-hoppers A are alternately charged every half-hour, so
+  that the layer of fuel in the generator always remains 4 ft. deep. B
+  is the chimney-damper, C the grate, D the door for removing the slags,
+  E the ash-door, F the inlet of the air-blast, G the upper, G1 the
+  lower outlet for the water-gas which is removed alternately at top and
+  bottom by means of an outside valve, steam being always admitted at
+  the opposite end. The blowing-up generally lasts 1¾ minutes, the
+  gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The air-blast works under a pressure of 8
+  or 9 in. below the grate, or 4 to 4½ in. above the coke. The
+  blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18% carbon dioxide and 1.5% oxygen, with
+  mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas shows 4 to 5% carbon
+  dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0.8% methane, 48 to 51% hydrogen, 4 or
+  5% nitrogen. About 2.5 cub. metres is obtained per kilogram of best
+  coke.
+
+  See Mills and Rowan, _Fuel and its Application_ (London, 1889); Samuel
+  S. Wyer, _Producer-Gas and Gas-Producers_, published by the
+  _Engineering and Mining Journal_ (New York); F. Fischer, _Chemische
+  Technologie der Brennstoffe_ (1897-1901); _Gasförmige Heizstoffe_, in
+  Stohmann and Kerl's _Handbuch der technischen Chemie_, 4th edition,
+  iii. 642 et seq.     (G. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water.
+
+  [2] Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from
+    Lunge's _Coal-tar and Ammonia_, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u.
+    Sohn.
+
+
+
+
+GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535-1577), English poet, eldest son of Sir John
+Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born probably between 1530
+and 1535. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and on leaving
+the university is supposed to have joined the Middle Temple. He became
+a member of Gray's Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show
+of evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in 1548 under
+very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt that his escapades
+were notorious, and that he was imprisoned for debt. George Whetstone
+says that Sir John Gascoigne disinherited his son on account of his
+follies, but by his own account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to
+pay the debts contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558
+and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at
+Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being "a defamed person and
+noted for manslaughter," "a common Rymer and a deviser of slaunderous
+Pasquelles," "a notorious ruffianne," an atheist and constantly in debt.
+His poems, with the exception of some commendatory verses, were not
+published before 1572, but they were probably circulated in MS. before
+that date. He tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to
+write on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were
+acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow of William
+Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet, Nicholas Breton. In 1568
+an inquiry into the disposition of William Breton's property with a view
+to the protection of the children's rights was instituted before the
+lord mayor, but the matter was probably settled in a friendly manner,
+for Gascoigne continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had
+from his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the
+Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to Brill,
+which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He
+obtained a captain's commission, and took an active part in the
+campaigns of the next two years, during which he acquired a profound
+dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration for William of Orange, who
+had personally intervened on his behalf in a quarrel with his colonel,
+and secured him against the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits
+to a lady at the Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of
+Valkenburg by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn
+of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his
+adventures, "The Fruites of Warres" (printed in the edition of 1575) and
+"Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande." In 1575 he had a share in devising
+the masques, published in the next year as _The Princely Pleasures at
+the Courte at Kenelworth_, which celebrated the queen's visit to the
+Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech
+before Elizabeth, and presented her with the _Pleasant Tale of Hemetes
+the Heremite_[1] in four languages. Most of his works were actually
+published during the last years of his life, after his return from the
+wars. He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of
+George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whetstone wrote a
+long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled "A Remembrance of the
+wel-imployed life and godly end of George Gaskoigne, Esquire."
+
+His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short critical
+treatise, "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse
+or ryme in English, written at the request of Master Edouardo
+Donati,"[2] prefixed to his _Posies_ (1575). He acknowledged Chaucer as
+his master, and differed from the earlier poets of the school of Surrey
+and Wyatt chiefly in the added smoothness and sweetness of his verse.
+His poems were published in 1572 during his absence in Holland,
+surreptitiously, according to his own account, but it seems probable
+that the "editor" who supplied the running comment was none other than
+Gascoigne himself. _A hundreth Sundrie Floures bound up in one small
+Posie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne outlandish Gardens
+of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and others; and partely by
+Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes in Englande, Yelding
+Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and moral discourse, bothe
+pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling noses of learned
+Readers_, was followed in 1575 by an authorized edition, _The Posies of
+G.G. Esquire_ ... (not dated).
+
+Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a pioneer in
+more than one direction. In 1576 he published _The Steele Glas_,
+sometimes called the earliest regular English satire. Although this poem
+is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is written in the spirit of _Piers
+Plowman_. Gascoigne begins with a comparison between the sister arts of
+Satire and Poetry, and under a comparison between the old-fashioned
+"glas of trustie steele," and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he
+takes as a symbol of the "Italianate" corruption of the time, he attacks
+the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee
+landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the
+restoration of the feudal ideal.[3]
+
+His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at Gray's Inn,
+both _Jocasta_ (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed by Francis
+Kinwelmersh) and _Supposes_ being played there in 1566. _Jocasta_ was
+said by J.P. Collier (_Hist. of Dram. Poetry_ iii. 8) to be the "first
+known attempt to introduce a Greek play upon the English stage," but it
+turns out that Gascoigne was only very indirectly acquainted with
+Euripides. His play is a literal version of Lodovico Dolce's _Giocasta_,
+which was derived probably from the _Phoenissae_ in the Latin
+translation of R. Winter. _Supposes_,[4] a version of Ariosto's _I
+Suppositi_, is notable as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian
+comedy, and moreover, as "the earliest play in English prose acted in
+public or private." Udal's _Ralph Roister Doister_ had been inspired
+directly by Latin comedy; _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ was a purely native
+product; but _Supposes_ is the first example of the acclimatization of
+the Italian models that were to exercise so prolonged an influence on
+the English stage. A third play of Gascoigne's, _The Glasse of
+Government_ (published in 1575), is a school drama of the "Prodigal Son"
+type, familiar on the continent at the time, but rare in England. It is
+defined by Mr C.H. Herford as an attempt "to connect _Terentian
+situation_ with a _Christian moral_ in a picture of _school life_," and
+it may be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama of
+university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at Antwerp,
+and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva and Heidelberg
+respectively.
+
+_The Spoyle of Antwerpe_, written by an eyewitness of the sack of the
+city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne, but although a
+George Gascoigne was employed in that year to carry letters for
+Walsingham, internal evidence is against Gascoigne's authorship. A
+curious editorial preface by Gascoigne to Sir Humphrey Gilbert's
+_Discourse of a Discoverie for a new Passage to Cataia_ (1576) has led
+to the assertion that Gascoigne printed the tract against its author's
+wish, but it is likely that he was really serving Gilbert, who desired
+the publication, but dared not avow it. The _Wyll of the Devill_ ...
+(reprinted for private circulation by Dr F.J. Furnivall, 1871), an
+anti-popish tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne,
+is almost certainly by another hand.
+
+  Gascoigne's works not already mentioned include: "G. G. in
+  commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie," prefixed to _The Noble Art
+  of Venerie or Hunting_ (1575); _The Complaynte of Phylomene, bound up
+  with The Steele Glas_ (1576); _The Droomme of Doomes-day_ (1576), a
+  prose compilation from various authors, especially from the _De
+  contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis_ of Pope Innocent
+  III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?); _A Delicate
+  Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes ..._ (1576), a free version of St
+  Augustine's _De ebrietate_. _The Posies_ (1572) included _Supposes_,
+  _Jocasta_, _A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F[erdinando]
+  J[eronimi]_, in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly
+  autobiographical _Don Bartholomew of Bath_, and miscellaneous poems.
+  Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were supposed
+  to be concealed under fictitious names in _The Adventures of Master F.
+  J._, and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the names are
+  disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive collection, _The
+  Whole Workes of G. G._ ... appeared in 1587. In 1868-1870 _The
+  Complete Poems of G. G._ ... were edited for the Roxburghe Library by
+  Mr W.C. Hazlitt. In his _English Reprints_ Prof. E. Arber included
+  _Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele Glas_ and the _Complaynt of
+  Philomene_. _The Steele Glas_ was also edited for the _Library of
+  English Literature_, by Henry Morley, vol. i. p. 184 (1889). A new
+  edition, _The Works of George Gascoigne_ (The Cambridge English
+  Classics, 1907, &c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe. See also _The Life
+  and Writings of George Gascoigne_, by Prof. Felix E. Schelling
+  (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in Philology, vol.
+  ii. No. 4 [1894]); C.H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of
+  England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 149-164 (1886);
+  C.H. Herford, "Gascoigne's Glasse of Government," in _Englische
+  Studien_, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &c.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Printed in 1579 in a pamphlet called _The Paradoxe_, the author
+    of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne's name.
+
+  [2] Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_
+    (1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_
+    (1904).
+
+  [3]  "Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele
+        But foure estates, to serve each country soyle,
+        The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest.
+        The King should care for al the subjects still,
+        The Knight should fight, for to defend the same,
+        The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease,
+        And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves."--
+
+          (Arber's ed. p. 57.)
+
+  [4] The influence of this play on the Shakespearian _Taming of the
+    Shrew_ is dealt with by Prof. A.H. Tolman in _Shakespeare's Part in
+    the Taming of the Shrew_ (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v. No.
+    4, pp. 215, 216, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1350-1419), chief justice of England in the
+reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition testify to the fact that
+he was one of the great lawyers who in times of doubt and danger have
+asserted the principle that the head of the state is subject to law, and
+that the traditional practice of public officers, or the expressed voice
+of the nation in parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part
+of the legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a
+descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his birth is
+uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he practised as an
+advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. On the banishment
+of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was appointed one of his attorneys, and
+soon after Henry's accession to the throne was made chief justice of the
+court of king's bench. After the suppression of the rising in the north
+in 1405, Henry eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence
+upon Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas
+Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he absolutely
+refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be tried by their
+peers. Although both were afterwards executed, the chief justice had no
+part in the transaction. It has been very much doubted, however, whether
+Gascoigne could have displayed such independence of action without
+prompt punishment or removal from office following. The oft-told tale of
+his committing the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as
+unauthentic, though it is both picturesque and characteristic. The judge
+had directed the punishment of one of the prince's riotous companions,
+and the prince, who was present and enraged at the sentence, struck or
+grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne immediately committed him to
+prison, using firm and forcible language, which brought him to a more
+reasonable mood, and secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence.
+The king is said to have approved of the act, but there appears to be
+good ground for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post
+or resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, and
+was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire. Some
+biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412, but this is
+clearly disproved by Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_; and although it
+is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long under Henry V., it is
+not absolutely impossible that the scene in the fifth act of the second
+part of Shakespeare's _Henry IV._ has some historical basis, and that
+the judge's resignation was voluntary.
+
+
+
+
+GASCONY (_Wasconia_), an old province in the S.W. of France. It takes
+its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in 580 and 587 crossed
+the Pyrenees and invaded the district known to the Romans as
+Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque, the national language of the
+Vascones, took root only in a few of the high valleys of the Pyrenees,
+such as Soule and Labourd; in the plains Latin dialects prevailed,
+Gascon being a Romance language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia
+was substituted for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily
+recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602 they
+consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but in reality they
+remained independent. They even appointed national dukes, against whom
+Charlemagne had to fight at the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke
+Lupus II. made his submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to
+establish Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known:
+Séguin (Sighivinus), William (Guillaume), and Arnaud (Arnaldus). They
+were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed to the Normans.
+After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of Gascony falls into the
+profoundest obscurity. The lists of the 10th-century dukes prepared by
+ancient and modern historians can only be established by means of
+hypotheses based in many cases on spurious documents (e.g. the charter
+of Alaon), and little confidence can be placed in them. During this
+troubled period Gascony was from time to time attached to one or other
+of the other Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope
+of the Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as
+forming part of France, from which it has never been separated. Disputed
+in the 11th century by the counts of Poitiers, who were also dukes of
+Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the duchy finally passed to
+the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the title of duke of Gascony was
+merged in that of duke of Aquitaine and disappeared. In the feudal
+period Gascony comprised a great number of countships (including
+Armagnac, Bigorre, Fézensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships
+(including Béarn, Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd
+and Maremne), and seigneuries (e.g. Albret, &c.). From the
+ecclesiastical point of view, it corresponded nearly to the
+archbishopric of Auch.
+
+From about 1073 to 1137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of Aquitaine
+and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave the first charter
+of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the duchy was weakened by the
+increasing independence of its great feudatories, especially the
+viscounts of Béarn and the counts of Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her
+father's death, Eleanor, the daughter and heiress of Duke William X.,
+married the king of France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine
+Gascony passed under his direct rule. In 1151, however, this marriage
+was annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou, who
+three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus was the house
+of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh bone of contention
+was thrown between the kings of England and of France. Having
+established himself in the duchy by force of arms, Henry handed it over
+to his son Richard, against whom many of the great Gascon lords
+revolted, and from Richard it passed to his brother John. The crusade
+against the Albigenses was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a
+new impetus to the process of disintegration which was already at work
+in the duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the
+neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive; and the
+house of Béarn was growing in strength. Gascony served Henry III. as
+headquarters during his two short and disastrous wars (1230 and 1242)
+with Louis IX., and in 1259 he did homage for it to this king; his son,
+Edward I., lost and then regained the duchy.
+
+During the Hundred Years' War Gascony was obviously a battle-field for
+the forces of England and of France. The French seized the duchy, but,
+aided by the rivalry between the powerful houses of Foix and Armagnac,
+Edward III. was able to recover it, and by the treaty of Bretigny in
+1360 John II. recognized the absolute sovereignty of England therein.
+Handed over as a principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it
+was used by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in
+which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles. The renewal
+of the war between England and France, which took place in 1369, was due
+in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of Gascony, and during its
+course the position of the English was seriously weakened, the whole of
+the duchy save a few towns and fortresses being lost; but the victories
+of Henry V. in northern France postponed for a time the total expulsion
+of the foreigner. This was reserved for the final stage of the war and
+was one result of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing
+the capture of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from
+the duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered severely
+from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or misruled
+without restraint.
+
+The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the royal
+authority in the duchy, although this was not really accomplished until
+the close of the 15th century when the house of Armagnac was overthrown.
+It was by means of administrative measures that these kings attained
+their object. Gascony was governed on the same lines as other parts of
+France and from the time of Henry IV., who was prince of Béarn, and who
+united his hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very
+slightly from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired
+the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation was
+largely accepted in Béarn, but not in other parts of Gascony. The wars
+of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of some of the
+military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made some slight changes
+in its government. As may be surmised the boundaries of Gascony varied
+from time to time, but just before the outbreak of the Revolution they
+were the Atlantic Ocean, Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from
+east to west the duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m.
+
+At the end of the _ancien régime_ Gascony was united with Guienne to
+form a great military government. After the division of France into
+departments, Gascony, together with Béarn, French Navarre and the Basque
+country, formed the departments of Basses-Pyrénées, Landes,
+Hautes-Pyrénées and Gers. Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements
+and cantons of the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariège
+and Tarn-et-Garonne.
+
+  See Arnaud Oïhénart, _Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, tam Ibericae quam
+  Aquitanicae_ (1637); L'Abbé Monlezun, _Histoire de la Gascogne_
+  (1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited
+  documents; and Jean de Jaurgain, _La Vasconie, étude historique et
+  critique sur les origines ... du duché de Gascogne ... et des grands
+  fiefs du duché de Gascogne_ (1898-1902), a learned and ingenious work,
+  but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last work was
+  rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his _Études sur le règne de Hugues
+  Capet_ (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also Barrau-Dihigo, "La
+  Gascogne," a bibliography of manuscript sources and of printed works
+  published in the _Revue de synthèse historique_ (1903).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+GAS ENGINE. A gas engine is a heat engine in which the working fluid is
+atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It differs from a
+hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given to the working fluid
+by combustion within the motive power cylinder. In most gas engines--in
+fact, in all those at present on the market--the working fluid and the
+fuel that supplies it with heat are mixed with each other before the
+combustion of the fuel. The fuel--which in the steam and in most hot-air
+engines is burned in a separate furnace--is, in the gas engine,
+introduced directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is,
+indeed, part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an
+internal combustion engine using gaseous fuel.
+
+  The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when Dr N.A.
+  Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive use, but long
+  before that year inventors had been at work, attempting to utilize gas
+  for producing motive power. The first proposal made in Great Britain
+  is found in Street's Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where an explosion
+  engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by vaporizing spirits
+  of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing the vapour with air in
+  a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a piston by the explosion
+  produced. Most of the early engines were suggested by the fact that a
+  mixture of an inflammable gas and atmospheric air gives an explosion
+  when ignited--that is, produces pressure which can be applied in a
+  cylinder to propel a piston. Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine
+  in which the gas and air were raised to a pressure above that of the
+  atmosphere before use in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be
+  clear in his ideas.
+
+  Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a paper
+  read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled, "On the
+  Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power in Machinery,
+  with a description of an Engine which is moved by the pressure of the
+  Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions of Hydrogen Gas and
+  Atmospheric Air." In that paper the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine
+  of his invention constructed to operate on the explosion vacuum
+  method. This engine was stated to run with perfect regularity at 60
+  revolutions per minute, consuming 17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per
+  hour. The hydrogen explosion, however, does not seem to have been
+  noiseless, because Mr Cecil states that in building a larger engine
+  "... to remedy the noise which is occasioned by the explosion, the
+  lower end of the cylinder A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may
+  be enclosed in a large air-tight vessel." Mr Cecil also mentions
+  previous experiments at Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at
+  his lectures on mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a
+  mixture of gas and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place
+  from atmospheric pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have
+  operated an engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil
+  appear to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.
+
+  Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill a
+  closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he
+  condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine by
+  exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was evidently
+  suggested by Watt's condensing steam engine, flame being employed
+  instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown's engine is said to have
+  been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat on the Thames, and
+  propel a road carriage. L.W. Wright in 1833 described an explosion
+  engine working at atmospheric pressure and exploding on both sides of
+  the piston. The cylinder is shown as water-jacketed. In William
+  Barnett's engine of 1838 two great advances were made. The engine was
+  so constructed that the mixture of gas and air was compressed to a
+  considerable extent in the motor cylinder before ignition. The method
+  of igniting the compressed charge was also effective. The problem of
+  transferring a flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure
+  is much in excess of that of the external air was solved by means of a
+  hollow plug cock having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one
+  position the hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet
+  issuing within it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned
+  within the hollow. The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it
+  closed to the external air and opened to the engine cylinder; the
+  flame continued to burn with the air contained in the cock, until the
+  compressed inflammable mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder
+  and ignited at the flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the
+  one adopted by Otto about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the
+  credit of being the first to realize clearly the great idea of
+  compression before explosion in gas engines, and to show one way of
+  carrying out the idea in practice. Barnett appears to have constructed
+  an engine, but he attained no commercial success. Several attempts to
+  produce gas engines were made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all
+  failures. Several valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an
+  American, described a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture
+  by raising a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857
+  Barsanti and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the
+  explosion propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work
+  was done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial
+  vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never came into
+  commercial use, although the fundamental idea was good.
+
+  Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental
+  stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was
+  attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor of
+  the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The piston,
+  moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy stored in the
+  fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and air at the
+  ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke the valves closed,
+  and an explosion, caused by an electric spark, propelled the piston to
+  the end of its stroke. On the return stroke the burnt gases were
+  discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts. These operations were
+  repeated on both sides of the piston, and the engine was thus
+  double-acting. Four hundred of these engines were said to be at work
+  in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works Company Limited built and
+  sold one hundred of them in Great Britain. They were quiet, and smooth
+  in running; the gas consumption, however, was excessive, amounting to
+  about 100 cub. ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical
+  ignition also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by
+  the introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success
+  was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their
+  free-piston engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine
+  was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but Otto
+  succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the engine in a
+  very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed a practical
+  clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one direction but
+  engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the other; it consisted
+  of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets--the same clutch, in fact, as has
+  since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles. This engine consumed
+  about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power per hour--less than
+  half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands were made and sold, but
+  its strange appearance and unmechanical operation raised many
+  objections. Several inventors meanwhile again advocated compression of
+  the gaseous mixture before ignition, among them being Schmidt, a
+  German, and Million, a Frenchman, both in 1861.
+
+  To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of proposing,
+  with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now widely used in
+  compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published in Paris in 1862, he
+  stated that to obtain economy with an explosion engine four conditions
+  are requisite: (1) The greatest possible cylinder volume with the
+  least possible cooling surface; (2) the greatest possible rapidity of
+  explosion; (3) the greatest possible expansion; and (4) the greatest
+  possible pressure at the beginning of the expansion. The sole
+  arrangement capable of satisfying these conditions he stated would be
+  found in an engine operating as follows: (1) Suction during an entire
+  out-stroke of the piston; (2) compression during the following
+  in-stroke; (3) ignition at the dead point, and expansion during the
+  third stroke; (4) forcing out of the burnt gases from the cylinder on
+  the fourth and last return stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly
+  contemplated, in theory at least, the engine produced by Dr Otto
+  fourteen years later. He did not, however, put his engine into
+  practice, and probably had no idea of the practical difficulties to be
+  overcome before realizing his conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto
+  belongs the honour of independently inventing the same cycle, now
+  correctly known as the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all
+  practical difficulties and making the gas engine of world-wide
+  application. This he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly
+  surpassed all others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is
+  manufactured over the whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr
+  Otto used low compression, only about 30 lb. per sq. in. above
+  atmosphere. Year by year compression was increased and greater power
+  and economy were obtained, and at present compressions of more than
+  100 lb. per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.
+
+The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improvement in
+detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to be used with
+safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in dimensions and
+power. In the same period light and heavy oil engines have been
+developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see OIL ENGINE).
+
+Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working process,
+into three well-defined types:--
+
+(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous
+compression.
+
+(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous compression.
+
+(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous compression.
+
+For practical purposes engines of the first type may be disregarded. Gas
+engines without compression are now considered to be much too wasteful
+of gas to be of commercial importance. Those of the second type have
+never reached the stage of extended commercial application; they are
+scientifically interesting, however, and may take an important place in
+the future development of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir
+William Siemens with regard to them have not been realized, although he
+spent many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also devoted
+much thought and work to this second type may be mentioned Brayton
+(1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883); Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889);
+and Diesel (1892). Diesel's engines are proving successful as oil
+engines but have not been introduced as gas engines.
+
+  The working cycles of the three types are as follows:--
+
+  _First Type._--Four operations.
+
+    (a) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmospheric
+          pressure.
+    (b) Exploding the charge.
+    (c) Expanding after explosion.
+    (d) Expelling the burnt gases.
+
+  _Second Type._--Five operations.
+
+    (a) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at
+          atmospheric pressure.
+    (b) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver.
+    (c) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of
+          flame, at the pressure of compression.
+    (d) Expanding after admission.
+    (e) Expelling the burnt gases.
+
+  _Third Type._--Five operations.
+
+    (a) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric
+          pressure.
+    (b) Compressing the charge into a combustion space.
+    (c) Exploding the charge.
+    (d) Expanding after explosion.
+    (e) Expelling the burnt gases.
+
+  In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished by
+  the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for the
+  cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete
+  rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its
+  replacement by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at
+  atmospheric temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be
+  repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air
+  engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working fluid
+  to heat or cool through metal surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.]
+
+_Four-cycle Engines._--Otto-cycle engines belong to the third type,
+being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture is compressed
+previous to explosion. Fig. 1 is a side elevation, fig. 2 is a sectional
+plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine built about 1892 by
+Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were the original makers of Otto
+engines in Great Britain. In external appearance it somewhat resembles a
+modern high-pressure steam engine, of which the working parts are
+exceedingly strong. In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal
+and open-ended, works a long trunk piston, the front end of which
+carries the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel
+large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the piston
+through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is considerably
+longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full in leaves a space
+into which it does not enter. This is the combustion space, in which the
+charge is first compressed and then burned. On the forward stroke, the
+piston A (fig. 2) takes into the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air
+at atmospheric pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into
+the space Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then
+ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a high
+pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under the pressure of
+the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust valve is opened,
+discharges the products of combustion. The engine is then ready to go
+through the same cycle of operations. It thus takes four strokes or two
+revolutions of the shaft to complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being
+used alternately as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at
+full load, thus gives one impulse for every two revolutions. The valves,
+which are all of the conical-seated lift type, are four in
+number--charge inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting valve, and exhaust
+valve. The igniting valve is usually termed the timing valve, because it
+determines the time of the explosion. Since the valves have each to act
+once in every two revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams or
+eccentrics placed directly on the crank shaft. The valve shaft D is
+driven at half the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by means of
+the skew or worm gear E, one wheel of which is mounted on the crank
+shaft and the other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accomplished by
+means of a metal tube heated to incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the
+proper moment the ignition or timing valve is opened, and the mixed gas
+and air under pressure being admitted to the interior of the tube, the
+inflammable gases come into contact with the incandescent metal surface
+and ignite; the flame at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its
+contents, thus producing the motive explosion.
+
+  The working parts are as follows:--A the piston, B the connecting rod,
+  C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing, F
+  the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve cam,
+  I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the
+  charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N
+  lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P
+  timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, R igniting tube, S
+  governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating
+  ignition tube. On the first forward or charging stroke the charge of
+  gas and air is admitted by the inlet valve I, which is operated by the
+  lever J from the cam K, on the valve shaft D. The gas supply is
+  admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift valve L, which is also
+  operated by the lever and link N from the cam M, controlled, however,
+  by the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates either to admit
+  gas wholly, or to cut it off completely, so that the variation in
+  power is obtained by varying the number of the explosions.
+
+  Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built further modifications
+  have been made, principally in the direction of dispensing with or
+  diminishing port space, that is, so arranging the ports that the
+  compression space is not broken up into several separate chambers. In
+  this way the cooling surface in contact with the intensely hot gases
+  is reduced to a minimum. This is especially important when high
+  compressions are used, as then the compression space being small, the
+  port spaces form a large proportion of the total space. For maximum
+  economy it is necessary to get rid of port space altogether; this is
+  done by making the lift valves open directly into the compression
+  space. This arrangement can be readily made in small- and medium-sized
+  engines, but in the larger engines it becomes necessary to provide
+  ports, so as to allow the valves to be more easily removed for
+  cleaning.
+
+The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J.E. Dowson for the
+production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke by the action of
+air mixed with steam, soon led to the development of larger and larger
+Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained consisted of a mixture of carbon
+monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having
+a lower heating value of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot.
+With this gas these engines used about 1 lb. of anthracite per b.h.p.
+per hour.
+
+From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first placed on
+the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in 1894, but then
+presenting many difficulties which were not removed till about nine
+years later when Dowson and others placed effective suction plants in
+use in considerable numbers. Such suction plants are now built by all
+the leading gas engine constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500
+i.h.p.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.]
+
+Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros. also attacked the problem of the
+bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are now at work for
+powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B.H. Thwaite demonstrated that
+the so-called waste gas from blast furnaces could be used in gas
+engines, and this undoubtedly led to the design and construction of the
+very large gas engines now becoming common both in Europe and in
+America. It appears from Thwaite's experiments that the surplus gas from
+the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at least
+three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day and night, and
+it is calculated that in America nearly three million horse-power is
+available from this source. Thwaite's system was put into operation in
+1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works, and it was also successfully applied
+near Barrow-in-Furness. For many reasons the system did not take
+immediate root in England, but in 1898 the Société Cockerill of Seraing
+near Liège applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to
+utilize blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at 105
+revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an engine giving
+600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for driving a blowing
+cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single cylinder of 51.2 in.
+diameter and a piston stroke of 55.1 in. About 1900 the Gasmotoren
+Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four
+cylinders each 33 in. diameter and 39.3 in. stroke, speed 135
+revolutions per minute. It was coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley
+Bros. Ltd. took up the large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p.
+engine by them was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.'s works, Winnington,
+in 1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke, and
+it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.]
+
+Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single acting
+open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the larger engines
+closed cylinders of the double acting type are used. The engine then
+closely resembles a double acting steam engine. It has a cylinder cover
+with packing box of a special type, and, in addition to the water jacket
+surrounding the cylinder and combustion spaces, the piston and piston
+rod are hollow and cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such
+a double acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then
+two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft is
+occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding revolution
+gets two power impulses. For still larger engines two such double acting
+cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that one piston rod runs through
+two pistons and connects to a slide in front and to one crank pin by a
+connecting rod. Such an engine gives two power impulses for every
+revolution of the crank shaft. The greatest power developed in one
+double acting cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder
+of 45¼ in. diameter by 51¼ in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per
+minute gives 1100 i.h.p.
+
+_Two-Cycle Engine._--While the Otto or four-cycle engine was developing
+as above described, inventors were hard at work on the two-cycle engine.
+In Britain this work fell mostly upon Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while
+on the continent of Europe the most persevering and determined worker
+was Koerting.
+
+Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876. His first
+patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the air pressure
+vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of 1878, and the engine there
+described was exhibited at the Royal Agricultural Show at Kilburn,
+London, 1879. In it a pump compressed a mixture of air and gas into a
+reservoir, from which it entered the motor cylinder during the first
+part of its stroke. After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum
+igniter, the piston was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on
+the return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first
+compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for each
+revolution of the crank shaft. It had difficulties, however, which
+prevented it from reaching the market.
+
+The particular type of engine now widely known as operating on the Clerk
+cycle was patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One of the earliest of
+these engines was set up at Lord Kelvin's laboratory at the Glasgow
+university and used for the purpose of driving a Siemens dynamo and
+supplying his house with electric light. The engine was first exhibited
+in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881 and the London Smoke
+Abatement Exhibition of the same year. In this engine the charge was not
+compressed by a separate pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was used,
+but its function was to act merely as a displacer to take in a mixture
+of gas and air and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low a
+pressure as possible, in such a way that the entering charge displaced
+the exhaust gases through ports which were opened by the overrunning of
+the piston. The motor piston thus timed and controlled the exhaust
+discharge, and gave a power impulse for every revolution of the crank.
+Engines of the Clerk type were built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of
+Glasgow, the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia, U.S.A., the Campbell
+Gas Engine Co., and a modification was made and sold in considerable
+numbers by the Stockport Company. The lapsing of the Otto patent,
+however, in 1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time,
+although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an
+ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine. This
+two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for motor launch
+work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for large gas engines up to
+about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs Koerting of Hanover.
+
+  The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan
+  at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders--a power cylinder A and a
+  displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder is to
+  take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it to the
+  power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of the
+  previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end of the
+  motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates with the
+  displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift valve which
+  opens into the compression space from a chamber communicating by a
+  pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-end of the motor cylinder
+  are placed V-shaped ports E which open to the atmosphere by an exhaust
+  pipe. The outward travel of the motor piston C causes it to overrun
+  these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and allows the pressure in the
+  cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action of the engine is as
+  follows:--The displacer piston D on its forward movement draws in its
+  charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with reference to the motor
+  piston C that it has returned a small portion of its stroke just when
+  the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports. The overrunning of the
+  exhaust ports at once causes the pressure in the cylinder to fall to
+  atmosphere, and then the pressure in the displacer overcomes the
+  pressure in the motor cylinder and opens the lift valve, when the
+  charge flows in to the motor cylinder through the conical compression
+  space and displaces the exhaust gases through the ports E, while it
+  fills up the cylinder A with the inflammable charge. The exhaust gases
+  are sufficiently displaced and the fresh charge introduced into the
+  cylinder by the time the motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E
+  on the out-stroke and closed them on the return stroke. The two
+  cylinders are so proportioned that the exhaust gases are expelled as
+  completely as possible and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without
+  any material part of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless
+  the proportions are carefully made such an escape is possible. The
+  relative operations of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D
+  are secured by advancing the crank of the displacer about a right
+  angle compared to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke
+  compresses the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when
+  compression is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F.
+  This produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward
+  until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of operations
+  one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank. The
+  motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual manner,
+  but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the gases are
+  never hot.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1881.]
+
+  Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was taken out
+  in 1877 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents of 1879-1880
+  were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second cylinder was used.
+  The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed by a cover and
+  packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas and air into a
+  reservoir at a few lb. above atmosphere. The motor piston was arranged
+  to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but the exhaust
+  discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift valve controlled
+  the overrun ports and determined when the exhaust should be
+  discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at the end of the stroke
+  the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was admitted by a lift
+  valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining exhaust gases and fill
+  the cylinder with charge. This mixture was compressed into a space at
+  the end of the cylinder and ignited by means of a flame ignition
+  device. Robson's engine was built in considerable numbers by Messrs
+  Tangye of Birmingham, the first exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at
+  the end of 1880. The modern Day engine closely resembles the Robson
+  engine so far as its broad operations are concerned.
+
+  Atkinson's work on the gas engine was begun in 1878, his first patent
+  being No. 3212 of 1879. The engine described in that patent somewhat
+  resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at Kilburn. Atkinson
+  was ingenious and persevering in the invention of two-cycle engines.
+  Two of his engines were made in considerable numbers. The first was
+  known as the "Differential" engine, exhibited at the Inventions
+  Exhibition, London, in 1885. A later engine produced by him was called
+  the "Cycle" engine, and it proved to be the most economical of all the
+  motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of motors for electric
+  lighting in 1888-1889. Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his
+  ingenious contrivances are now at work on the well-known engines of
+  that firm.
+
+Four-cycle engines now practically monopolize the field of the smaller
+internal combustion engines, and very large engines are also constructed
+on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, however, compete
+strongly with the four-cycle for large gas engines using blast furnace
+gas. Koerting engines on the Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000
+i.h.p. per double acting motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this
+method gives two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & Platt build a
+Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of their
+construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and 40½ in. stroke
+gives 700 b.h.p.
+
+  Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders of a
+  Mather & Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power cylinder
+  section is shown above that of the pump cylinders, but it is to be
+  understood that both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane as in
+  the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The Koerting engine, however, is
+  double acting, whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The power
+  cylinder A has a power piston A¹ and compression spaces A²A³. At the
+  centre of the cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the
+  atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A¹ at both ends of the
+  stroke. A^4 and A^5 are inlet valves for gas and air. The single
+  acting pump cylinders BB¹ supply the air required for the charge, and
+  the double acting gas cylinder CC¹ supplies the gas. Both gas and air
+  are led from these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet valves
+  A^4 A^5. The air pump pistons are lettered B²B³ and the gas pump
+  piston C². The main crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of the
+  power piston A¹, and the pump crank F to the trunk air pump piston B²
+  which drives the other air pump piston B³ and the gas pump piston C²
+  by a piston rod passing through all three. The gas mixture is not made
+  until the inlet valves A^4 A^5 are reached, so that no explosive
+  mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder A. The air is
+  first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge some of the hot
+  gases, and when the gas is also admitted the contents of the cylinder
+  are cooled to some extent. The action of the engine is exactly as
+  described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and the arrangement of the
+  two cranks at about right angles to each other is also similar. The
+  exhaust is discharged through the ports E, and the incoming charge
+  fills the cylinder in the same way as in the Clerk engine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Longitudinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine
+  (Koerting-Clerk), new type, by Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.]
+
+  Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechelhäuser,
+  operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan at
+  fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A¹A², A¹ being operated
+  by a centre and A² by two outside cranks, side rods, and cross head;
+  the pistons A¹A² thus move in opposite directions and give an
+  effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the air and gas
+  pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas on the other.
+  A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from the pump and to
+  the power cylinder by ports C¹; a similar chamber D opens to a gas
+  reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power cylinder by ports
+  D¹. The exhaust ports E are provided at the other end of the cylinder.
+  When the front piston overruns the exhaust ports E the pressure within
+  the power cylinder falls to atmosphere; the back piston then opens the
+  air ports C¹ and air under slight pressure flows in, to be followed a
+  little later by gas under slight pressure from the gas ports D¹. In
+  this way the power cylinder A is charged with gas and air mixture at
+  each stroke, and when the pistons A¹A² approach each other the charge
+  is compressed into the space between and then ignited by the electric
+  spark. The pistons are then forced apart and perform their power
+  stroke. The Oechelhäuser engine, which is built in Great Britain by
+  Messrs Beardmore of Glasgow, has attained considerable success in
+  driving blowing pumps for blast furnaces, in producing electric light,
+  and in driving iron rolling mills.
+
+  Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be
+  seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in 1908 by Mr
+  R.E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large
+  gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Arrangement of Oechelhäuser Gas Engine.]
+
+  Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate of
+  23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer, 59 motors, total, 69,790 h.p.;
+  the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p.; Gebrüder Koerting,
+  198, total 165,760 h.p.; Société Alsacienne, 55, total 23,410 h.p.;
+  Société John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Société Suisse,
+  Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken,
+  Augsburg and Nürnberg, 215, total 256,240 h.p. The mean power of each
+  gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer and the Augsburg and
+  Nürnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p. It is stated that in one
+  factory there are gas engines representing a total output of 35,000
+  h.p. These European large gas engines thus give nearly 575,000 h.p.
+  between them.
+
+  The installation of large gas engines has made considerable progress
+  in America. Mr E.L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p. was at work or
+  in construction in the United States in 1908. The first large engines
+  were installed at the works of the Lackawanna Steel Co., Buffalo, New
+  York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk type, and were built by the De
+  La Vergne Co. of New York. They included 16 blowing engines, each of
+  2000 h.p., and 8 engines of 1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce
+  electric light. This large power plant was started in 1902. The
+  Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also built large engines, several
+  of which are in operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel
+  Co. These Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type,
+  having two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the
+  cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow
+  Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with
+  cylinders of 42 in. diameter and 54 in. stroke. The English
+  Westinghouse Co. have also designed large gas engines, and they
+  exhibited a very interesting vertical multiple cylinder gas engine
+  having four cranks and eight single-acting cylinders, four pairs, in
+  tandem, at the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750 h.p.,
+  and the pistons were not watered.
+
+  Over two million horse-power of the smaller gas engines are now at
+  work in the world, and certainly above one million horse-power of
+  petrol motors.
+
+The application of large gas engines to marine work, the compounding of
+the gas engine, and many other matters are being strenuously pursued.
+Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels used for towing
+purposes in which the vessel is driven by gas engines operated by means
+of suction gas-producers consuming anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and
+Messrs Beardmore in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs,
+and both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thornycroft to a
+gas launch which has been tested in the Solent, and Beardmore to an old
+gunboat, the "Rattler." The "Rattler" was fitted with five-cylinder Otto
+cycle engines and suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has
+sailed some 1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to
+be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas engines
+can be installed on board ship, but progress is being made, and without
+doubt all difficulties will be ultimately surmounted and gas power
+successfully applied to ships for both large and small power.
+
+The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have been displaced
+by electrical ignition of both high and low tension types; all large gas
+engines are ignited electrically and generally by more than one igniter
+per cylinder.
+
+The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as to keep
+up continuity of impulses by the method either of throttling the charge
+inlet or by varying the point of admission of gas alone or air and gas
+mixed.
+
+It may be said, indeed, without exaggeration, that the whole world is
+now alive to the possibilities of the internal-combustion motor, and
+that progress will be more and more rapid. This motor has almost
+fulfilled the expectations of those engineers who have devoted a large
+part of their lives to its study and advancement. They are looking
+forward now to the completion of the work begun so many years ago, and
+expect, at no distant date, to find the internal-combustion motor
+competing with the steam engine even in its latest form, the steam
+turbine, on sea as vigorously as it does at present on land.
+
+  _Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines._--The Otto and Clerk type
+  engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and two-cycle,
+  because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to complete the
+  power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk engine two
+  strokes complete the cycle.
+
+  Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of the
+  total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the explosion
+  and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency may be defined
+  as the proportion of the total heat of combustion which appears as
+  work given out by the engine available for overcoming external
+  resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the effective
+  efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas engines the
+  indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by tests of Otto
+  engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated thermal
+  efficiencies of from 35% to 37% are often obtained. Some experimenters
+  claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher than ordinary
+  best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared to show this
+  advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal efficiency, the
+  brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency, together with
+  other particulars such as engine dimensions, types and names of
+  experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal efficiency has also
+  increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically one-third of the whole
+  heat of combustion is obtained by these engines in effective work
+  available for all motive power purposes.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle
+  Engines from 1882 to 1908._
+
+    +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+
+    |   |Mechanical |     Names of     |      |   Dimensions  | Indicated |   Brake   |     Type of      |
+    |No.|Efficiency.|  Experimenters.  | Year.|   of Engine.  |  Thermal  |  Thermal  |     Engine.      |
+    |   |           |                  |      |               |Efficiency.|Efficiency.|                  |
+    +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+
+    |   | Per cent. |                  |      | Diam. Stroke. | Per cent. | Per cent. |                  |
+    | 1 |   87.6    | Slaby            | 1882 |  6.75"×13.7"  |   16      |    14     | Deutz            |
+    | 2 |   84.2    | Thurston         | 1884 |  8.5" ×14"    |   17      |    14.3   | Crossley         |
+    | 3 |   86.1    | Society of Arts  | 1888 |  9.5" ×18"    |   22      |    18.9   | Crossley         |
+    | 4 |   80.9    | Society of Arts  | 1888 |  9.02"×14"    |   21      |    17     | Griffin (6-cycle)|
+    | 5 |   87.3    | Kennedy          | 1888 |  7.5" ×15"    |   21      |    18.3   | Beck (6-cycle)   |
+    | 6 |   82.0    | Capper           | 1892 |  8.5" ×18"    |   22.8    |    17.4   | Crossley         |
+    | 7 |   87.0    | Robinson         | 1898 | 10"   ×18"    |   28.7    |    25     | National         |
+    | 8 |   83      | Humphrey         | 1900 | 26"   ×36"    |   31      |    25.7   | Crossley         |
+    | 9 |   81.7    | Witz             | 1900 | 51.2" ×55.13" |   28      |   22.9    | Cockerill        |
+    |10 |   85.5    | Inst. Civil. Eng.| 1905 | 14"   ×22"    |   35[1]   |   29.9    | National         |
+    |11 |   77.1    | Burstall         | 1907 | 16"   ×24"    |   41.5[2] |   32      | Premier          |
+    |12 |   87.5    | Hopkinson        | 1908 | 11.5" ×21"    |   36.8    |   32.2    | Crossley         |
+    +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+
+
+  _Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines._--It has been found that
+  two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to
+  obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the
+  thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical
+  difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in
+  indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16.4% attained in 1884
+  to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the same
+  period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not so well
+  established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have been so
+  far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests than those of
+  the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table that the
+  mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%, while in the
+  later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75%.
+
+  _Standards of Thermal Efficiency_.--To set up an absolute standard of
+  thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner the
+  physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous
+  explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous
+  explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of Europe,
+  and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of Mallard and Le
+  Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and Bairstow and
+  Alexander. From these and other experiments it is possible to measure
+  approximately the internal energy or the specific heats of the gases
+  of combustion at very high temperatures, such as 2000° C.; and to
+  advance the knowledge on the subject a committee of the British
+  Association was formed at Leicester in 1907. Recognizing, in 1882,
+  that it was impossible to base any standard cycle of efficiency upon
+  the then existing knowledge of gaseous explosions Dugald Clerk
+  proposed what is called the air standard. This standard has been used
+  for many years, and it was officially adopted by a committee of the
+  Institution of Civil Engineers appointed in 1903, this committee's two
+  reports, dated March 1905 and December 1905, definitely adopting the
+  air-standard cycle as the standard of efficiency for internal
+  combustion engines. This standard assumes that the working fluid is
+  air, that its specific heat is constant throughout the range of
+  temperature, and that the value of the ratio between the specific heat
+  at constant volume and constant pressure is 1.4. The air-standard
+  efficiency for different cycles will be found fully discussed in the
+  report of that committee, but space here only allows of a short
+  discussion of the various cycles using compression previous to
+  ignition.
+
+  TABLE II.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle
+  Engines from 1884 to 1908_.
+
+    +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+
+    |Mechanical |    Name of    |      | Dimensions  | Indicated |   Brake   |   Type of    |
+    |Efficiency.| Experimenter. | Year.|  of Motor   |  Thermal  |  Thermal  |    Engine.   |
+    |           |               |      | Cylinders.  |Efficiency.|Efficiency.|              |
+    +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+
+    | Per cent. |               |      |Diam. Stroke.| Per cent. | Per cent. |              |
+    |     84    | Garrett       | 1884 |  9" ×  20"  |    16.4   |    14     | Clerk-Sterne |
+    |     ..    | Stockport Co. | 1884 |  ..    ..   |     ..    |    11.2   | Andrews & Co.|
+    |     83    | Clerk         | 1887 |  9" ×  15"  |    20.2   |    16.9   | Clerk-Tangye |
+    |     ..    | Atkinson      | 1885 |  7½"   ..   |     ..    |    15     | Atkinson     |
+    |     75    | Meyer         | 1903 | 26-5/8" ×   |    38     |    29     | Oechelhäuser |
+    |           |               |      |    (2"×37½")|           |           |              |
+    |     75    | Mather & Platt| 1907 |  ..    ..   |    30.6   |    23     | Koerting     |
+    +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+
+
+  For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic cycles, and
+  each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible for the
+  conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as cycles of (1)
+  constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3) constant volume.
+
+  The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat is
+  added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compression is
+  assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from the lowest
+  to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant temperature,
+  so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant temperature,
+  which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The heat supply is
+  stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adiabatically expands
+  until the temperature falls to the lowest temperature. A compression
+  operation then takes place at the lowest temperature, so that the
+  necessary heat is discharged by isothermal compression at the lower
+  temperature. It will be recognized that this is the Carnot cycle, and
+  the efficiency E is the maximum possible between the temperature
+  limits in accordance with the well-known second law of
+  thermo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T - T^1)/T = 1 - T^1/T, where
+  T is the absolute temperature at which heat is supplied and T^1 the
+  absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.
+
+  It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression are
+  here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that if t
+  be the temperature before compression and t_c the temperature after
+  compression, then E = 1 - t/t_c. This equation in effect says that
+  thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the
+  temperatures before and after compression.
+
+  The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to the
+  working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic
+  compression raises the pressure--not the temperature--from the lower
+  to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is added
+  while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure. The
+  temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume. When
+  the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and reduces the
+  pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower point.
+  Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature. The heat
+  in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower pressure but at
+  diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this case also that E = 1
+  - t/t_c, that is, that although the maximum temperature of the working
+  fluid is higher than the temperature of compression and the
+  temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion is higher than the lower
+  temperature, yet the proportion of heat convertible into work is
+  determined here also by the ratio of the temperatures before and after
+  compression.
+
+  The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required is
+  added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle
+  adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the
+  working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added while
+  the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which the fluid is
+  diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion reduces the pressure
+  and temperature of the working fluid until the volume is the same as
+  the original volume before compression, and the necessary heat is
+  discharged from the cycle at constant volume during falling
+  temperature. Here also it can be shown that the thermal efficiency
+  depends on the ratio between the temperature before compression and
+  the temperature after compression. It is as before E = 1 - t/t_c.
+  Where t is the temperature and v the volume before compression, and
+  t_c the temperature and v_c the volume after adiabatic compression, it
+  can be shown that (vc/v)^([gamma]-1) = t/t_c, so that E may be written
+
+             /vc\^([gamma]-1)
+    E = 1 - ( -- ) ,
+             \v /
+
+  and if v_c/v = 1/r, the compression ratio, then
+
+             /1\^([gamma]-1)
+    E = 1 - ( --) .
+             \r/
+
+  Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature, constant
+  pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency depends only on
+  the ratio of the maximum volume before compression to the volume after
+  compression; and, given this ratio, called 1/r, which does not depend
+  in any way upon temperature determinations but only upon the
+  construction and valve-setting of the engine, we have a means of
+  settling the ideal efficiency proper for the particular engine. Any
+  desired ideal efficiency may be obtained from any of the cycles by
+  selecting a suitable compression ratio. Table III., giving the
+  theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of
+  constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a compression
+  ratio of ½ to 1/100th. Such compression ratios as
+
+  TABLE III.--_Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical
+  Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume._
+
+    1/r        E    |  1/7      0.55
+    1/2      0.026  |  1/10     0.61
+    1/3      0.36   |  1/20     0.70
+    1/4      0.43   |  1/100    0.85
+    1/5      0.48   |
+
+  100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value in
+  constant volume engines ranges from 1/5th to 1/7th. In the Diesel
+  engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is usually
+  1/12th. As the value of 1/r increases beyond certain limits, the
+  effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes, because the
+  temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the maximum
+  temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression of 1/100th
+  raises the temperature of air from 17° C. to about 1600° C, and as
+  2000° C. is the highest available explosion temperature for ordinary
+  purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work would be
+  possible from an engine using such compressions, apart from other
+  mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized that constant
+  pressure and constant volume engines have the same thermal efficiency
+  for similar range of compression temperature, but Prof. H.L. Callendar
+  first pointed out the interesting fact that a Carnot cycle engine is
+  equally dependent upon the ratio of the temperature before and after
+  compression, and that its efficiency for a given compression ratio is
+  the same as the efficiencies proper for constant pressure and constant
+  volume engines. Prof. Callendar demonstrated this at a meeting of the
+  Institution of Civil Engineers Committee on thermal standards in 1904.
+  The work of this committee, together with Clerk's investigations,
+  prove that in modern gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may be taken that
+  the best result possible in practice is given by multiplying the
+  air-standard value by .7. For instance, an engine with a compression
+  ratio of one-third has an air-standard efficiency of 0.36, and the
+  actual indicated efficiency of a well-designed engine should be .36
+  multiplied by .7 = 0.25. If, however, the compression ratio be raised
+  to one-fifth, then the air-standard value .48 multiplied by .7 gives
+  .336. The ideal efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to
+  be about 20% short of the air-standard values given.     (D. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst. C.E.
+    Committee's values.
+
+  [2] This value is, in the author's view, too high; probably due to
+    indicator error.
+
+
+
+
+GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (1810-1865), English novelist and
+biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810 in Lindsay Row,
+Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way for Cheyne Walk. Her
+father, William Stevenson (1772-1829), came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and
+had been successively Unitarian minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper
+for students at Edinburgh, editor of the _Scots Magazine_, and
+contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, before he received the post of
+Keeper of the Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death.
+His first wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell's mother. She was a
+Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county the family
+name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs Stevenson died a
+month after her daughter was born, and the babe was carried into
+Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her
+childhood was spent in the pleasant environment that she has idealized
+in _Cranford_. At fifteen years of age she went to a boarding-school at
+Stratford-on-Avon, kept by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her
+seventeenth year. Then came occasional visits to London to see her
+father and his second wife, and after her father's death in 1829 to her
+uncle, Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in
+Newcastle-on-Tyne In the family of William Turner, a Unitarian minister,
+and a third in Edinburgh. On the 30th of August 1832 she was married in
+the parish church of Knutsford to William Gaskell, minister of the
+Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Manchester, and the author of many
+treatises and sermons in support of his own religious denomination. Mr
+Gaskell held the chair of English history and literature in Manchester
+New College.
+
+Henceforth Mrs Gaskell's life belonged to Manchester. She and her
+husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street, and finally
+in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life began with poetry. She
+and her husband aspired to emulate George Crabbe and write the annals of
+the Manchester poor. One poetic "Sketch," which appeared in _Blackwood's
+Magazine_ for January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this
+ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband and
+wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to become a
+successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side with those of
+greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished Unitarian divine,
+whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all but forgotten. In her
+earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly occupied with domestic
+duties--she had seven children--and philanthropic work among the poor.
+Her first published prose effort was probably a letter that she
+addressed to William Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume
+entitled _Visits to Remarkable Places_. She then told the legend of
+Clopton Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and
+Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published in
+1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been commenced
+until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs Gaskell visited North
+Wales, where their only son "Willie" died of scarlet fever at the age of
+ten months, and it was, it is said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her
+sorrow that her husband suggested a long work of fiction, and _Mary
+Barton_ was begun. There were earlier short stories in _Howitt's
+Journal_, where "Libbie Marsh's Three Eras" and "The Sexton's Hero"
+appeared in 1847. But it was _Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life_
+that laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell's literary career. It was
+completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it unread. It
+was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the manuscript for a year
+without reading it or communicating with the author. A reminder,
+however, led to its being sought for, considered and accepted, the
+publishers agreeing to pay the author £100 for the copyright. It was
+published anonymously in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide
+popularity, and its author secured first the praise and then the
+friendship of Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in
+1850 to become a contributor to his new magazine _Household Words_, and
+here the whole of _Cranford_ appeared at intervals from December 1851 to
+May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted in the "World's Classics"
+edition (1907), that was published in _All the Year Round_ for November
+1863. Earlier than this, indeed, for the very first number of _Household
+Words_ she had written "Lizzie Leigh." Mrs Gaskell's second book,
+however, was _The Moorland Cottage_, a dainty little volume that
+appeared at Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the
+Christmas number of _Household Words_ for 1853 appeared "The Squire's
+Story," reprinted in _Lizzie Leigh and other Tales_ in 1865. In 1853
+appeared another long novel, _Ruth_, and the incomparable _Cranford_.
+This last--now the most popular of her books--is an idyll of village
+life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knutsford and its people.
+In _Ruth_, which first appeared in three volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to
+a delicate treatment of a girl's betrayal and her subsequent rescue.
+Once more we are introduced to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the
+little Unitarian chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in
+early years. In 1855 _North and South_ was published. It had previously
+appeared serially in _Household Words_. Then came--in 1857--the _Life of
+Charlotte Brontë_, in two volumes. Miss Brontë, who had enjoyed the
+friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged visits, died in March 1855.
+Two years earlier she had begged her publishers to postpone the issue of
+her own novel _Villette_ in order that her friend's _Ruth_ should not
+suffer. This biography, by its vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy
+and indeed tragic story of the three Brontë sisters, greatly widened the
+interest in their writings and gave its author a considerable place
+among English biographers. But much matter was contained in the first
+and second editions that was withdrawn from the third. Certain
+statements made by the writer as to the school of Charlotte Brontë's
+infancy, an identification of the "Lowood" of _Jane Eyre_ with the
+existing school, and the acceptance of the story of Bramwell Brontë's
+ruin having been caused by the woman in whose house he had lived as
+tutor, brought threats of libel actions. Apologies were published, and
+the third edition of the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by
+"another hand." The book in any case remains one of the best biographies
+in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then popular
+novel, _Mabel Vaughan_, was also included in her work of this year 1857,
+but no further book was published by her until 1859, when, under the
+title of _Round the Sofa_, she collected many of her contributions to
+periodical literature. _Round the Sofa_ appeared in two volumes, the
+first containing only "My Lady Ludlow," the second five short stories.
+These stories reappeared the same year in one volume as _My Lady Ludlow
+and other Tales_. In the next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of
+short stories, entitled _Right at Last and other Tales_. The title story
+had appeared two years earlier in _Household Words_ as "The Sin of a
+Father." In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by Colonel
+Vecchj, translated from the Italian--_Garibaldi and Caprera_, and in
+1863 she published her last long novel, _Sylvia's Lovers_, dedicated "to
+My dear Husband by her who best knows his Value." After this we have--in
+1863--a one-volume story, _A Dark Night's Work_, and in the same year
+_Cousin Phyllis and other Tales_ appeared. Reprinted short stories from
+_All the Year Round_, _Cornhill Magazine_, and other publications, tend
+to lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during her
+lifetime. _The Grey Woman and other Tales_ appeared in 1865.
+
+Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn, Alton,
+Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the profits of her
+writings as a present for her husband. She was buried in the little
+graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church. Her unfinished novel _Wives
+and Daughters_ was published in two volumes in 1866.
+
+Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her death.
+_Cranford_ has been published in a hundred forms and with many
+illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic. Scarcely less
+recognition is awarded to the _Life of Charlotte Brontë_, which is in
+every library. The many volumes of novels and stories seemed of less
+secure permanence until the falling in of their copyrights revealed the
+fact that a dozen publishers thought them worth reprinting. The most
+complete editions, however, are the "Knutsford Edition," edited with
+introductions by A.W. Ward, in eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the
+"World's Classics" edition, edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes
+(Henry Froude, 1908).
+
+  There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the
+  publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical
+  introduction to the "Knutsford" _Mary Barton_ by A.W. Ward; the
+  _Letters of Charles Dickens_; _Women Writers_, by C.J. Hamilton,
+  second series; _H.B. Stowe's Life and Letters_, edited by Annie
+  Fields; _Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher_; _Mrs Gaskell and Knutsford_,
+  by G.A. Payne; _Cranford_, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie;
+  _Écrivains modernes de l'Angleterre_, by Émile Montégut.
+       (C. K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4
+       "G" to "Gaskell, Elizabeth"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2011 [EBook #37160]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<h2>THE ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</h2>
+
+<h2>A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION</h2>
+
+<h3>ELEVENTH EDITION</h3>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME XI SLICE IV<br /><br />
+G to Gaskell Elizabeth</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">G</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">GALLUPPI, PASQUALE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">GABBRO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">GALLUS, CORNELIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">GABEL, KRISTOFFER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">GABELLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126"> GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">GABERDINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">GALOIS, EVARISTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">GABES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">GALSTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">GABII</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">GABINIUS, AULUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">GALT, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">GABION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131"> GALT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">GABLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">GALTON, SIR FRANCIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">GALUPPI, BALDASSARE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">GALVANI, LUIGI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">GABLETS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135"> GALVANIZED IRON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">GABLONZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136"> GALVANOMETER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">GABORIAU, ÉMILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">GALVESTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">GABRIEL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">GALWAY</a> (county of Ireland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">GABRIEL HOUNDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">GALWAY</a> (town of Ireland)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">GABRIELI, GIOVANNI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">GAMA, VASCO DA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">GABUN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">GAMALIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">GACE BRULÉ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">GAMBETTA, LÉON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">GAMBIA</a> (river of West Africa)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">GAD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">GAMBIA</a> (country of West Africa)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">GADAG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">GADARA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">GAMBIER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">GADDI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">GAMBOGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">GADE, NIELS WILHELM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">GAMBRINUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">GADOLINIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149"> GAME</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">GAME LAWS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">GADSDEN, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">GAMES, CLASSICAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">GADWALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">GAMING AND WAGERING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">GAEKWAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">GAMUT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">GAETA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154"> GANDAK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">GAETANI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">GANDAMAK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">GAETULIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">GANDERSHEIM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">GANDHARVA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">GAGE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">GANDÍA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">GAGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar159">GANDO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar160">GANESA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">GAHANBAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar161">GANGES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar162">GANGOTRI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar163">GANGPUR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">GAILLAC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar164">GANGRENE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar165">GANILH, CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">GAINESVILLE</a> (Florida, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar166">GANJAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">GAINESVILLE</a> (Texas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar167">GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar168">GANNET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">GAINSBOROUGH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar169">GANODONTA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">GAIRDNER, JAMES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar170">GANS, EDUARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">GAIRLOCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar171"> GÄNSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">GAISERIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar172">GANTÉ</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">GAISFORD, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar173">GANYMEDE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">GAIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar174">GAO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">GAIUS CAESAR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar175">GAOL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">GALAGO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar176">GAON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">GALANGAL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar177">GAP</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">GALAPAGOS ISLANDS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar178">GAPAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">GALASHIELS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar179">GARARISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">GALATIA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar180">GARASHANIN, ILIYA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar181">GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">GALATINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar182">GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">GALATZ</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar183"> GARAY, JÁNOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">GALAXY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar184">GARBLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS</a> (Roman general and orator)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar185">GARÇÃO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRÊA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS</a> (Roman emperor)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar186">GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">GALBANUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar187"> GARCÍA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">GALCHAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar188">GARCÍA DE PAREDES, DIEGO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">GALE, THEOPHILUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar189">GARCÍA GUTIÉRREZ, ANTONIO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">GALE, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar190">GARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">GALE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar191">GARDA, LAKE OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar192">GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">GALEN, CLAUDIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar193">GARDELEGEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">GALENA</a> (Illinois, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar194">GARDEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">GALENA</a> (Kansas, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar195">GARDENIA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">GALENA</a> (ore of lead)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar196">GARDINER, JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">GALEOPITHECUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar197">GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">GALERIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar198"> GARDINER, STEPHEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">GALESBURG</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar199">GARDINER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">GALG&#256;CUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar200">GARDNER, PERCY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">GALIANI, FERDINANDO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar201">GARDNER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">GALICIA</a> (crownland of Austria)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar202">GARE-FOWL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">GALICIA</a> (province of Spain)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar203">GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar204">GAR-FISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">GALILEE</a> (province of Palestine)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar205">GARGANEY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">GALILEE</a> (architectural term)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar206">GARGANO, MONTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">GALILEE, SEA OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar207">GARGOYLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">GALILEO GALILEI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar208">GARHWAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">GALION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar209">GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar210">GARIN LE LOHERAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">GALL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar211">GARLAND, JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">GALLABAT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar212">GARLIC</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">GALLAIT, LOUIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar213">GARNET, HENRY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">GALLAND, ANTOINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar214">GARNET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">GALLARATE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar215">GARNETT, RICHARD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">GALLARS, NICOLAS DES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar216">GARNIER, CLÉMENT JOSEPH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">GALLAS, MATTHIAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar217">GARNIER, GERMAIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">GALLAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar218">GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">GALLATIN, ALBERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar219">GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar220">GARNIER, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">GALLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar221">GARNIER-PAGÈS, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar222">GARNISH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">GALLERY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar223">GARO HILLS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">GALLEY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar224">GARONNE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">GALLIA CISALPINA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar225">GARRET</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">GALLIC ACID</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar226">GARRETT, JOÃO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITÃO DE ALMEIDA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">GALLICANISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar227">GARRETTING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar228">GARRICK, DAVID</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar229">GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar230">GARRISON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar231">GARROTE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">GALLIPOLI</a> (Italy)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar232">GARRUCHA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">GALLIPOLI</a> (Turkey)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar233">GARSTON</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">GALLIPOLIS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar234">GARTH, SIR SAMUEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar235">GARTOK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">GALLIUM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar236">GARY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">GALLON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar237">GAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">GALLOWAY, JOSEPH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar238">GASCOIGNE, GEORGE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">GALLOWAY, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar239">GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">GALLOWAY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar240">GASCONY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">GALLOWS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar241">GAS ENGINE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">GALLS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar242">GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page377" id="page377"></a>377</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold f200">G<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an
+invention of the Romans, who had previously converted
+the third symbol of the alphabet into a representative
+of a <i>k</i>-sound (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">C</a></span>). Throughout the whole of Roman
+history C remained as the symbol for G in the abbreviations
+C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
+to Plutarch (<i>Roman Questions</i>, 54, 59) the symbol for G was
+invented by Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> This probably
+means that he was the first person to spell his cognomen
+RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to occupy the seventh place
+in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been taken by Z,
+because between 450 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and 350 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the z-sounds of Latin
+passed into <i>r</i>, names like <i>Papisius</i> and <i>Fusius</i> in that period
+becoming Papirius and Furius (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Z</a></span>), so that the letter z had
+become superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus
+Capella <i>z</i> was removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius
+Claudius Caecus in 312 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> To Claudius the insertion of G into
+the alphabet is also sometimes ascribed.</p>
+
+<p>In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the
+lower lip of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line <img style="width:18px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377a.jpg" alt="" />,
+but <img style="width:17px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377b.jpg" alt="" /> and <img style="width:14px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377c.jpg" alt="" /> are found also in republican times. In the earliest
+Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the
+form is <img style="width:17px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img377d.jpg" alt="" /> written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom
+lip of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a
+diacritical mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is
+represented by K. The use of the new form was not firmly
+established till after the middle of the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span></p>
+
+<p>In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop
+(as in <i>gig</i>) in classical times. Later, before <i>e</i>, <i>g</i> passed into a
+sound like the English <i>y</i>, so that words begin indifferently with
+<i>g</i> or <i>j</i>; hence from the Lat. <i>generum</i> (accusative) and <i>Ianuarium</i>
+we have in Ital. <i>genero</i> and <i>Gennajo</i>, Fr. <i>gendre</i> and <i>janvier</i>.
+In the ancient Umbrian dialect <i>g</i> had made this change between
+vowels before the Christian era, the inhabitant of <i>Iguvium</i> (the
+modern Gubbio) being in the later form of his native speech
+<i>Iuvins</i>, Lat. <i>Iguvinus</i>. In most cases in Mid. Eng. also <i>g</i> passed
+into a <i>y</i> sound; hence the old prefix <i>ge</i> of the past participle
+appears only as <i>y</i> in <i>yclept</i> and the like. But <i>ng</i> and <i>gg</i>
+took a different course, the <i>g</i> becoming an affricate d<i>&#7827;</i> (<i>dzh</i>), as
+in <i>singe</i>, <i>ridge</i>, <i>sedge</i>, which in English before 1500 were <i>senge</i>,
+<i>rigge</i>, <i>segge</i>, and in Scotch are still pronounced <i>sing</i>, <i>rig</i>, <i>seg</i>.
+The affricate in words like <i>gaol</i> is of French origin (<i>geôle</i>),
+from a Late Lat. <i>gabiola</i>, out of <i>caveola</i>, a diminutive of the
+Lat. <i>cavea</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay
+down rules for the pronunciation of English <i>g</i>; thus there are
+in the language five words <i>Gill</i>, three of which have the <i>g</i> hard,
+while two have it soft: viz. (1) <i>gill</i> of a fish, (2) <i>gill</i>, a ravine,
+both of which are Norse, and (3) <i>Gill</i>, the surname, which is
+mostly Gaelic = White; and (4) <i>gill</i> a liquid measure, from
+O. Fr. <i>gelle</i>, Late Lat. <i>gella</i> in the same sense, and (5) <i>Gill</i>, a
+girl&rsquo;s name, shortened from <i>Gillian</i>, <i>Juliana</i> (see Skeat&rsquo;s <i>Etymological
+Dictionary</i>). No one of these words is of native origin;
+otherwise the initial <i>g</i> would have changed to <i>y</i>, as in Eng.
+<i>yell</i> from the O. Eng. <i>gellan</i>, <i>giellan</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABBRO,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks,
+holocrystalline and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting
+essentially of a basic plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian
+minerals (such as augite, hornblende, hypersthene
+and olivine). The name was given originally in north Italy to
+certain coarsely crystalline dark green rocks, some of which are
+true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The gabbros are the
+plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the dolerites, basalts
+and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite) with which they
+agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute structure.
+Of their minerals felspar Is usually the most abundant, and is
+principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs
+in some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others.
+The felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being
+for the most part short and broad, with rather irregular or
+rounded outlines. Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these
+rocks it is often accompanied by pericline twinning by which the
+broad or narrow albite plates are cut transversely by many thin,
+bright and dark bars as seen in polarized light. Equally
+characteristic of the gabbros is the alteration of the felspars to
+cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite. These are compact,
+tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and usually a
+greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by
+the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote,
+with garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite,
+amphibole, serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals.
+The augite is usually brown, but greenish, violet and colourless
+varieties may occur. Hypersthene, when present, is often strikingly
+pleochroic in colours varying from pink to bright green.
+It weathers readily to platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are
+soft and yield low polarization colours. The olivine is colourless
+in itself, but in most cases is altered to green or yellow serpentine,
+often with bands of dark magnetite granules along its cleavages
+and cracks. Hornblende when primary is often brown, and may
+surround augite or be perthitically intergrown with it; original
+green hornblende probably occurs also, though it is more
+frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by no
+means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many
+of them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown
+with felspar as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals
+may be mentioned apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, picotite and
+garnet.</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the
+minerals of these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the
+occurrence of small black or dark brown enclosures often regularly
+arranged parallel to certain crystallographic planes. Reflection
+of light from the surfaces of these minute enclosures produces a
+shimmering or <i>Schiller</i>. In augite or hypersthene the effect is
+that the surface of the mineral has a bronzy sub-metallic appearance,
+and polished plates seen at a definite angle yield a bright
+coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of the felspars may
+exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in the Labrador
+spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious stone.
+In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but branching
+growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as
+&ldquo;schillerization&rdquo;; its origin has been much discussed, some
+holding that it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures
+as original.</p>
+
+<p>In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement
+of the minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which
+the others grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with
+olivine, may be enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene,
+sometimes with a later growth of biotite, while the felspars
+occupy the interspaces between the clusters of ferromagnesian
+minerals. In some cases there are borders around olivine consisting
+of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic pyroxene
+(kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may
+occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where
+olivine is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical
+resorption at a late stage in the solidification of the rock. In
+some gabbros and norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende
+are found around both hypersthene and diallage where these
+are in contact with felspar. Typical orbicular structure such
+as characterizes some granites and diorites is rare in the
+gabbros, though it has been observed in a few instances in
+Norway, California, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase
+felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is
+enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases.
+When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into
+ophitic diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page378" id="page378"></a>378</span>
+felspar in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can
+be observed in some of the rocks of this series, and is characterized
+by the occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in
+ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars
+predominate.</p>
+
+<p>These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class
+which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral
+composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase
+and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and
+hypersthene, and troctolite of plagioclase and olivine,
+we must add to these olivine-gabbro and olivine-norite
+in which that mineral occurs in addition to
+those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are
+distinctly rare, except when the hornblende has been
+developed from pyroxene by pressure and shearing,
+but many rocks may be described as hornblende- or
+biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain
+these ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase,
+augite and hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro
+and quartz-norite (containing primary quartz or micropegmatite)
+and orthoclase-gabbro (with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite
+has been given to gabbros in which the felspar is mainly anorthite;
+many of them also contain hypersthene or enstatite and olivine, while
+allivalites are anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals
+occur in nearly equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating
+olivine, anorthite felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro
+there are often masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral,
+for example, felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks
+(pyroxenites and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peridotites).
+Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with
+pyroxene or olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and
+anorthosite masses.</p>
+
+<p>Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of individual
+crystals several inches in length; such a type often form
+dikes or veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-pegmatite.
+Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been
+distinguished as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence
+of sheared, foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the
+minerals have a parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken
+down by pressure into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish
+fibrous or bladed amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine.
+The diallage may be present as rounded or oval crystals around
+which the crushed felspar has flowed (augen-gabbro); or the whole
+rock may have a well-foliated structure (hornblende-schists and
+amphibolites). Very often a mass of normal gabbro with typical
+igneous character passes at its margins or along localized zones into
+foliated rocks of this kind, and every transition can be found between
+the different types. Some authors believe that the development of
+saussurite from felspar is also dependent on pressure rather than on
+weathering, and an analogous change may affect the olivine, replacing
+it by talc, chlorite, actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes
+of the latter type have been described from Switzerland under the
+name allalinites.</p>
+
+<p>Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor
+occurring in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread.
+In Great Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland,
+Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the
+Lizard (Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David&rsquo;s
+(Wales). Most of these occur along with troctolites, norites, serpentine
+and peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-gabbros
+is found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur
+and there are sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series
+of basaltic lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts
+in early Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros
+are the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the
+basalts which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites
+which consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such
+as those of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more
+or less foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists
+and amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the
+Harz Mountains, Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest.
+Many outcrops of similar rocks have been traced in the northern
+zones of the Alps, often with serpentine and hornblende-schist.
+They occupy considerable tracts of country in Norway and Sweden,
+as for instance in the vicinity of Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian
+Alps, Dauphiné and Tuscany are other European localities for gabbro.
+In Canada great portions of the eastern portion of the Dominion are
+formed of gabbros, norite, anorthosite and allied rock types. In
+the United States gabbros and norites occur near Baltimore and near
+Peekskill on the Hudson river. As a rule each of these occurrences
+contains a diversity of petrographical types, which appear also in
+certain of the others; but there is often a well-marked individuality
+about the rocks of the various districts in which gabbros are
+found.</p>
+
+<p>From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance.
+They are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too
+dark in colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as
+building stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be
+compared for beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segregations
+of iron ores are found in connexion with many of them
+(Norway and Sweden) and are sometimes mined as sources of the
+metal.</p>
+
+<p>Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision
+and show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They
+have low silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime
+distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and
+the peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited
+here.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">SiO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">TiO<span class="su">2</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">Ab<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">FeO</td> <td class="tcc allb">Fe<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span></td> <td class="tcc allb">MgO</td> <td class="tcc allb">CaO</td> <td class="tcc allb">Na<span class="su">2</span>O</td> <td class="tcc allb">K<span class="su">2</span>O</td> <td class="tcc allb">H<span class="su">2</span>O</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">I.</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.63</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.75</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.18</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.03</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.33</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.89</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.81</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">II.</td> <td class="tcc rb">49.90</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">7.81</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.08</td> <td class="tcr rb">14.48</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.69</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.55</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.46</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">III.</td> <td class="tcc rb">45.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">22.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.51</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.71</td> <td class="tcr rb">11.16</td> <td class="tcr rb">9.26</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.54</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">IV.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">46.24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">29.85</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.30</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.41</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">16.24</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.98</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">0.18</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>I. Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg; II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony;
+III. Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall; IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the
+Seine river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. S. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABEL, KRISTOFFER<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was
+born at Glückstadt, on the 6th of January 1617. His father,
+Wulbern, originally a landscape painter and subsequently
+recorder of Glückstadt, was killed at the siege of that fortress
+by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffer is first heard of in 1639,
+as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick.
+When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III.,
+Gabel followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and
+man of business. Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence
+considerable financial ability and uncommon shrewdness, had
+great influence over the irresolute king. During the brief interval
+between King Charles X.&rsquo;s first and second attack upon Denmark,
+Gabel was employed in several secret missions to Sweden; and he
+took a part in the intrigues which resulted in the autocratic
+revolution of 1660 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denmark</a></span>: <i>History</i>). His services on
+this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not the
+originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief intermediary
+between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in
+the mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in
+Denmark. His activity on this occasion won the king&rsquo;s lifelong
+gratitude. He was enriched, ennobled, and in 1664 made governor
+of Copenhagen. From this year must be dated his open and
+official influence and power, and from 1660 to 1670 he was the
+most considerable personage at court, and very largely employed
+in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick III. died,
+in February 1670, Gabel&rsquo;s power was at an end. The new ruler,
+Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in
+from every quarter. When, on the 18th of April 1670, he was
+dismissed, nobody sympathized with the man who had grown
+wealthy at a time when other people found it hard to live. He
+died on the 13th of October 1673.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Carl Frederik Bricka, <i>Dansk. Biograf. Lex.</i> art &ldquo;Gabel&rdquo;
+(Copenhagen, 1887, &amp;c.); <i>Danmarks Riges Historie</i> (Copenhagen,
+1897-<span class="correction" title="amended from 1005">1905</span>1905), vol. v.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1807-1874), German
+linguist and ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the 13th of
+October 1807, was the only son of Hans Karl Leopold von der
+Gabelentz, chancellor and privy-councillor of the duchy of
+Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he attended the gymnasium of
+his native town, where he had Matthiae (the eminent Greek
+scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius Löbe
+for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work,
+he carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the
+latter language continued especially to engage his attention
+during his undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the
+universities of Leipzig and Göttingen. In 1830 he entered the
+public service of the duchy of Altenburg, where he attained to the
+rank of privy-councillor in 1843. Four years later he was chosen
+to fill the post of <i>Landmarschall</i> in the grand-duchy of Weimar,
+and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort parliament, and represented
+the Saxon duchies on the commission for drafting an
+imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same year
+he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned
+office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was
+president of the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but
+in the latter year he withdrew entirely from public life, that he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page379" id="page379"></a>379</span>
+might give undivided attention to his learned researches. He
+died on his estate of Lemnitz, in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3rd of
+September 1874.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than
+eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and
+elegance. But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition
+than for the higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge
+to the genuine advancement of linguistic science. Immediately
+after quitting the university, he followed up his Chinese
+researches by a study of the Finno-Ugrian languages, which
+resulted in the publication of his <i>Éléments de la grammaire
+mandchoue</i> in 1832. In 1837 he became one of the promoters,
+and a joint-editor, of the <i>Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes</i>,
+and through this medium he gave to the world his
+<i>Versuch einer mordwinischen Grammatik</i> and other valuable contributions.
+His <i>Grundzüge der syrjänischen Grammatik</i> appeared
+in 1841. In conjunction with his old school friend, Julius Löbe,
+he brought out a complete edition, with translation, glossary
+and grammar, of Ulfilas&rsquo;s Gothic version of the Bible (1843-1846);
+and from 1847 he began to contribute to the <i>Zeitschrift der
+deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft</i> the fruits of his researches
+into the languages of the Swahilis, the Samoyedes, the Hazaras,
+the Aimaks, the Formosans and other widely-separated tribes.
+The <i>Beiträge zur Sprachenkunde</i> (1852) contain Dyak, Dakota,
+and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a <i>Grammatik
+u. Wörterbuch der Kassiasprache</i>, and in 1860 a treatise in universal
+grammar (<i>Über das Passivum</i>). In 1864 he edited the Manchu
+translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king,
+along with a dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work
+which constitutes his most important contribution to philology,
+<i>Die melanesischen Sprachen nach ihrem grammatischen Bau
+und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den malaiisch-polynesischen
+Sprachen untersucht</i> (1860-1873). It treats of the
+language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands,
+New Caledonia, &amp;c., and shows their radical affinity with the
+Polynesian class. He also contributed most of the linguistic
+articles in Pierer&rsquo;s <i>Conversations-Lexicon</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABELLE<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (French, from the Med. Lat. <i>gabulum</i>, <i>gablum</i>,
+a tax, for the origin of which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gavelkind</a></span>), a term which,
+in France, was originally applied to taxes on all commodities,
+but was gradually limited to the tax on salt. In process of time
+it became one of the most hated and most grossly unequal
+taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all supporters
+of reform, it was not abolished until 1790. First imposed in 1286,
+in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made
+a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly,
+it was made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged
+every individual above the age of eight years to purchase weekly a
+minimum amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted,
+it was levied uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the
+greater part of its history the price varied in different provinces.
+There were five distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows:
+(<i>a</i>) the <i>Pays de grandes gabelles</i>, in which the tax was heaviest;
+(<i>b</i>) the <i>Pays de petites gabelles</i>, which paid a tax of about half
+the rate of the former; (<i>c</i>) the <i>Pays de salines</i>, in which the tax
+was levied on the salt extracted from the salt marshes; (<i>d</i>) the
+<i>Pays rédimés</i>, which had purchased redemption in 1549; and
+(<i>e</i>) the <i>Pays exempts</i>, which had stipulated for exemption on
+entering into union with the kingdom of France. <i>Greniers
+à sel</i> (dating from 1342) were established in each province, and to
+these all salt had to be taken by the producer on penalty of
+confiscation. The <i>grenier</i> fixed the price which it paid for the
+salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.J. Clamagéran, <i>Histoire de l&rsquo;impôt en France</i> (1876); A.
+Gasquet, <i>Précis des institutions politiques de l&rsquo;ancienne France</i> (1885);
+Necker, <i>Compte rendu</i> (1781).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABERDINE,<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gabardine</span>, any long, loose over-garment,
+reaching to the feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made
+of coarse material, commonly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims,
+beggars and almsmen. The Jews, conservatively attached to
+the loose and flowing garments of the East, continued to wear
+the long upper garment to which the name &ldquo;gaberdine&rdquo; could
+be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common form as worn
+by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, <i>e.g.</i> in
+Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-coat
+very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race.
+The fact that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to
+engage in handicrafts also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form
+of dress unfitted for manual labour. The idea of the &ldquo;gaberdine&rdquo;
+being enforced by law upon the Jews as a distinctive garment
+is probably due to Shakespeare&rsquo;s use in the <i>Merchant of Venice</i>,
+I. iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged to wear generally
+on the outer garment was the badge. This was first enforced
+by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The &ldquo;badge&rdquo; (Lat.
+<i>rota</i>; Fr. <i>rouelle</i>, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of
+cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times.
+In France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it
+took the form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of
+yellow. In Edward I.&rsquo;s reign it was made in the shape of the
+Tables of the Law (see the <i>Jewish Encyclopedia</i>, s.v. &ldquo;Costume&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Badge&rdquo;). The derivation of the word is obscure. It
+apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms <i>gauverdine</i>, <i>galvardine</i>,
+and thence into Ital. as <i>gavardina</i>, and Span. <i>gabardina</i>,
+a form which has influenced the English word. The <i>New English
+Dictionary</i> suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger. <i>wallevart</i>,
+pilgrimage. Skeat (<i>Etym. Dict.</i>, 1898) refers it to Span. <i>gaban</i>,
+coat, cloak; <i>cabaña</i>, hut, cabin.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABES<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span>, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same
+name, and 70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the
+Tacape of the Romans and consists of an open port and European
+quarter and several small Arab towns built in an oasis of date
+palms. This oasis is copiously watered by a stream called the
+Wad Gabes. The European quarter is situated on the right bank
+of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent are the Arab towns
+of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns are built
+largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins
+of Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern
+Tunisia. The population of the oasis is about 20,000, including
+some 1500 Europeans. There is a considerable export trade in
+dates.</p>
+
+<p>Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is
+intimately connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire
+to create a Saharan sea by making a channel from the Mediterranean
+to these shats (large salt lakes below the level of the sea).
+Roudaire proposed to cut a canal through the belt of high ground
+between Gabes and the shats, and fixed on Wad Melah, a spot
+10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sahara</a></span>).
+The company formed to execute his project became simply an
+agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created
+an oasis of olive and palm trees.</p>
+
+<p>The Gulf of Gabes, the <i>Syrtis Minor</i> of the ancients, is a semi-circular
+shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m.
+across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern
+shore, to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The
+waters of the gulf abound in fish and sponge.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABII<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span>, an ancient city of Latium, between 12 and 13 m. E. of
+Rome, on the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known
+as the Via Gabina. The part played by it in the story of the
+expulsion of the Tarquins is well known; but its importance
+in the earliest history of Rome rests upon other evidence&mdash;the
+continuance of certain ancient usages which imply a period of
+hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption of the
+<i>cinctus Gabinus</i> by the consul when war was to be declared.
+We hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tarquinius
+Superbus, the original text of which, written on a bullock&rsquo;s
+skin, was said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant
+in his day. Its subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear
+of it again in the 1st century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> as a small and insignificant
+place, though its desolation is no doubt exaggerated by the poets.
+From inscriptions we learn that from the time of Augustus or
+Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal organization. Its baths
+were well known, and Hadrian, who was responsible for much of
+the renewed prosperity of the small towns of Latium, appears to
+have been a very liberal patron, building a senate-house (<i>Curia</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page380" id="page380"></a>380</span>
+<i>Aelia Augusta</i>) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd century Gabii
+practically disappears from history, though its bishops continue to
+be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of the 9th.
+The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the
+citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of
+Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south.
+The most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple,
+generally attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front
+and six on each side. The plan is interesting, but the style of
+architecture was apparently mixed. To the east of the temple
+lay the Forum, where excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton
+in 1792. All the objects found were placed in the Villa Borghese,
+but many of them were carried off to Paris by Napoleon, and
+still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts are especially
+numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus, Diana,
+Nemesis, &amp;c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus,
+Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and
+Sabina, M. Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius
+and others. The inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal
+matters.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See E.Q. Visconti, <i>Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana</i>
+(Rome, 1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in <i>Papers of the British
+School at Rome</i>, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in <i>Bull. Com.</i> (1903),
+321 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABINIUS, AULUS,<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span> Roman statesman and general, and
+supporter of Pompey, a prominent figure in the later days of the
+Roman republic. In 67 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when tribune of the people, he
+brought forward the famous law (<i>Lex Gabinia</i>) conferring upon
+Pompey the command in the war against the Mediterranean
+pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute control
+over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other
+measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors
+in Rome were made non-actionable (as a check on the corruption
+of the senate) and the senate was ordered to give audience to
+foreign envoys on certain fixed days (1st of Feb.-1st of March).
+In 61 Gabinius, then praetor, endeavoured to win the public
+favour by providing games on a scale of unusual splendour,
+and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not without suspicion
+of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius Clodius
+in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went
+as proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus
+in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced
+important changes in the government of Judaea, and
+rebuilt several towns. During his absence in Egypt, whither he
+had been sent by Pompey, without the consent of the senate,
+to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria had been
+devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had
+again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the
+high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order,
+and in 54 handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius
+Crassus. The knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered
+heavy losses during the disturbances in Syria, were greatly
+embittered against Gabinius, and, when he appeared in the senate
+to give an account of his governorship, he was brought to trial
+on three counts, all involving a capital offence. On the charge
+of <i>majestas</i> (high treason) incurred by having left his province for
+Egypt without the consent of the senate and in defiance of the
+Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that the judges were
+bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked Gabinius
+with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as
+little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy.
+On the second charge, that of <i>repetundae</i> (extortion during the
+administration of his province), with especial reference to the
+10,000 talents paid by Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found
+guilty, in spite of evidence offered on his behalf by Pompey and
+witnesses from Alexandria and the eloquence of Cicero, who had
+been induced to plead his cause. Nothing but Cicero&rsquo;s wish to
+do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to take up what
+must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted that the
+half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to
+Gabinius&rsquo;s condemnation. The third charge, that of <i>ambitus</i>
+(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship),
+was consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his
+property was confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war,
+he was recalled by Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took
+no active part against his old patron Pompey. After the battle
+of Pharsalus, he was commissioned to transport some recently
+levied troops to Illyricum. On his way thither by land, he was
+attacked by the Dalmatians and with difficulty made his way
+to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended himself
+against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus
+Octavius, but in a few months died of illness (48 or the beginning
+of 47).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63;
+Plutarch, <i>Pompey</i>, 25. 48; Josephus, <i>Antiq.</i> xiv. 4-6; Appian,
+<i>Illyrica</i>, 12, <i>Bell. Civ.</i> ii. 24. 59; Cicero, <i>ad Att.</i> vi. 2, <i>ad Q. Fratrem</i>,
+ii. 13, <i>Post reditum in senatu</i>, 4-8, <i>Pro lege Manilia</i>, 17, 18, 19;
+exhaustive article by Bähr in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine
+Encyclopädie</i>; and monograph by G. Stocchi, <i>Aulo Gabinio e i suoi
+processi</i> (1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABION<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> (a French word derived through Ital. <i>gabbione</i>,
+<i>gabbia</i>, from Lat. <i>cavea</i>, a cage), a cylindrical basket without
+top or bottom, used in revetting fortifications and for numerous
+other purposes of military engineering. The gabion is filled
+with earth when in position. The ordinary brushwood gabion in
+the British service has a diameter of 2 ft. and a height of 2 ft. 9 in.
+There are several forms of gabion in use, the best known being
+the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron or steel
+band gabion.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABLE,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the
+level of the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is
+a southern English form of the Scottish <i>g&#257;vel</i>, or of an O. Fr.
+word <i>gable</i> or <i>jable</i>, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian
+<i>gafl</i>. In other Teutonic languages, similar words, such as
+Ger. <i>Gabel</i> and Dutch <i>gaffel</i>, mean &ldquo;fork,&rdquo; cf. Lat. <i>gabalus</i>,
+gallows, which is Teutonic in origin; &ldquo;gable&rdquo; is represented
+by such forms as Ger. <i>Giebel</i> and Dutch <i>gevel</i>. According to the
+<i>New English Dictionary</i> the primary meaning of all these words
+is probably &ldquo;top&rdquo; or &ldquo;head,&rdquo; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="kephalê">&#954;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#942;</span>, and refers to the
+forking timbers at the end of a roof. The gable corresponds to
+the pediment in classic buildings where the roof was of low pitch.
+If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall so that the
+purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden by a
+&ldquo;barge board,&rdquo; but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of
+the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle
+ages the gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was
+crowned by coping stones properly weathered on both sides to
+throw off the rain. In the 16th century in England variety was
+given to the outline of the gable by a series of alternating semi-circular
+and ogee curves. In Holland, Belgium and Scotland a
+succession of steps was employed, which in the latter country are
+known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and the
+Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables
+assume very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character,
+and they are sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or
+three storeys. Designs of a similar rococo character are found in
+England, but only in crestings such as those which surmount the
+towers of Wollaton and the gatehouse of Hardwick Hall.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gabled Towers</i>, in architecture, are those towers which are
+finished with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex.
+Many of the German Romanesque towers are gabled.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1786-1853), German Hegelian
+philosopher, son of J.P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th
+of July 1786, at Altdorf in Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied
+his father to Jena, where he completed his studies in philosophy
+and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple of Hegel. After
+holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821
+appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830
+general superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel
+in the Berlin chair. He died at Teplitz on the 13th of September
+1853. His works include <i>Lehrbuch d. philos. Propädeutik</i> (1st
+vol., Erlangen, 1827), a popular exposition of the Hegelian
+system; <i>De verae philosophiae erga religionem Christianam pietate</i>
+(Berlin, 1836), and <i>Die Hegel&rsquo;sche Philosophie</i> (<i>ib.</i>, 1843), a
+defence of the Hegelian philosophy against Trendelenburg.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page381" id="page381"></a>381</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> (1753-1826), German Protestant
+theologian of the school of J.J. Griesbach and J.G. Eichhorn,
+was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In
+1772 he entered the university of Jena as a theological student.
+In 1776 he was on the point of abandoning theological pursuits,
+when the arrival of Griesbach inspired him with new ardour.
+After having been successively <i>Repetent</i> in Göttingen and teacher
+in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia) and Altdorf
+(Bavaria), he was, in 1785, appointed second professor of theology
+in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a chair
+in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he
+died on the 17th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published
+(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of
+Eichhorn&rsquo;s <i>Urgeschichte</i>; this was followed, two years afterwards,
+by a supplement entitled <i>Neuer Versuch über die mosaische
+Schöpfungsgeschichte</i>. He was also the author of many essays
+which were characterized by much critical acumen, and which had
+considerable influence on the course of German thought on
+theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was
+editor of the <i>Neuestes theologisches Journal</i>, first conjointly with
+H.K.A. Hänlein (1762-1829), C.F. von Ammon (1766-1850)
+and H.E.G. Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to
+1804 of the <i>Journal für theologische Litteratur</i>; and from 1805
+to 1811 of the <i>Journal für auserlesene theologische Litteratur</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and
+a memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schröter.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABLETS<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (diminutive of &ldquo;gable&rdquo;), in architecture, triangular
+terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English
+and Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally
+terminated in pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally
+plain, and very sharp in pitch. In the Decorated period they
+are often enriched with panelling and crockets. They are
+sometimes finished with small crosses, but of oftener with finials.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABLONZ<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> (Czech, <i>Jablonec</i>), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
+94 m. N.E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly
+German. It is the chief seat of the glass pearl and imitation
+jewelry manufacture, and has also an important textile industry,
+and produces large quantities of hardware, papier mâché and
+other paper goods.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABORIAU, ÉMILE<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1833-1873), French novelist, was born
+at Saujon (Charente Inférieure) on the 9th of November 1833.
+He became secretary to Paul Féval, and, after publishing some
+novels and miscellaneous writings, found his real gift in <i>L&rsquo;Affaire
+Lerouge</i> (1866), a detective novel which was published in the
+<i>Pays</i> and at once made his reputation. The story was produced
+on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels dealing with the
+annals of the police court followed, and proved very popular.
+Among them are: <i>Le Crime d&rsquo;Orcival</i> (1867), <i>Monsieur Lecoq</i>
+(1869), <i>La Vie infernale</i> (1870), <i>Les Esclaves de Paris</i> (1869),
+<i>L&rsquo;Argent des autres</i> (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th
+of September 1873.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABRIEL<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Gavriel">&#1490;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497;&#1488;&#1500;</span>, man of God), in the Bible, the
+heavenly messenger (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Angel</a></span>) sent to Daniel to explain the
+vision of the ram and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction
+of the Seventy Weeks (Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also
+employed to announce the birth of John the Baptist to Zacharias,
+and that of the Messiah to the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 19, 26).
+Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke i. 19; Rev.
+viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian writers
+generally speak of him as an archangel. In the <i>Book of Enoch</i>
+&ldquo;the four great archangels&rdquo; are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael,
+and Gabriel, who is set over &ldquo;all the powers&rdquo; and shares the
+work of intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish
+literature of the later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to
+the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan, he was the man who showed the
+way to Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is
+affirmed that he, along with Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah
+and the Metatron, buried the body of Moses. In the Targum on
+2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who destroyed the
+host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still later period
+he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire, thunder, the
+ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes. In the
+Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium
+of divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan interpreters,
+he it is who is referred to by the appellations &ldquo;Holy
+Spirit&rdquo; and &ldquo;Spirit of Truth.&rdquo; He is specially commemorated
+in the calendars of the Greek, Coptic and Armenian churches.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABRIEL HOUNDS,<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> a spectral pack supposed in the North of
+England to foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend
+is that they are the souls of unbaptized children wandering
+through the air till the day of judgment. They are also sometimes
+called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A very prosaic explanation
+of this nocturnal noise is given by J.C. Atkinson in
+his <i>Cleveland Glossary</i> (1868). &ldquo;This,&rdquo; he writes, &ldquo;is the name
+for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling
+the cry of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large
+flocks of wild geese which chance to be flying by night.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further Joseph Lucas, <i>Studies in Nidderdale</i> (1882), pp.
+156-157.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABRIELI, GIOVANNI<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> (1557-1612?), Italian musical composer,
+was born at Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle
+Andrea, a distinguished musician of the contrapuntal school
+and organist of St Mark&rsquo;s. He succeeded Claudio Merulo as
+first organist of the same church in 1585, and died at Venice
+either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his compositions
+for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices, and is
+important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony.
+It was probably for this reason that he made a special point of
+combining voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders
+of choral and orchestral composition. Among his pupils was
+Heinrich Schütz; and the church of St Mark, from the time of
+the Gabrielis onwards down to that of Lotti, became one of the
+most important musical schools in Europe.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Winterfeld, <i>Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit</i> (1834).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GABUN,<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the
+colonies forming French Congo (<i>q.v.</i>). It derives its designation
+from the settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabão. The
+Gabun, in reality an estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of
+the equator. At the entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa
+Clara on the N. and Cape Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it
+has a width of about 10 m. It maintains a breadth of some 7 m.
+for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it contracts into what is
+known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2 or 3 m.
+from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is
+the chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun
+was discovered by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the
+15th century, and was named from its fanciful resemblance to a
+<i>gabão</i> or cabin. On the small island of Koniké, which lies about
+the centre of the estuary, scanty remains of a Portuguese fort have
+been discovered. The three principal tribes in the Gabun are the
+Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GACE BRULÉ<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (d. <i>c.</i> 1220), French <i>trouvère</i>, was a native of
+Champagne. It has generally been asserted that he taught
+Thibaut of Champagne the art of verse, an assumption which is
+based on a statement in the <i>Chroniques de Saint-Denis</i>: &ldquo;Si
+fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brulé les plus belles chançons et
+les plus délitables et melodieuses qui onque fussent oïes.&rdquo; This
+has been taken as evidence of collaboration between the two
+poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those
+of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known.
+Paulin Paris, in the <i>Histoire littéraire de la France</i> (vol. xxiii.),
+quotes a number of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace&rsquo;s songs.
+Gace is the author of the earliest known <i>jeu parti</i>. The interlocutors
+are Gace and a count of Brittany who is identified with
+Geoffrey of Brittany, son of Henry II. of England. Gace appears
+to have been banished from Champagne and to have found
+refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a contract between
+Gatho Bruslé (Gace Brulé) and the Templars for a piece of land
+in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1220, at
+the latest in 1225.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Gédéon Busken Huet, <i>Chansons de Gace Brulé</i>, edited for the
+Société des anciens textes français (1902), with an exhaustive introduction.
+Dante quotes a song by Gace, <i>Ire d&rsquo;amor qui en mon cuer
+repaire</i>, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre
+(<i>De vulgari eloquentia</i>, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page382" id="page382"></a>382</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1800-1885), Belgian man of
+letters, was born in Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered
+the administration of the royal archives in 1826, and was appointed
+director-general, a post which he held for fifty-five years.
+During this long period he reorganized the service, added to the
+records by copies taken in other European collections, travelled
+for purposes of study, and carried on a wide correspondence
+with other keepers of records, and with historical scholars. He
+also edited and published many valuable collections of state
+papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the
+<i>Annuaire de l&rsquo;académie royale de Belgique</i> by Ch. Piot in 1888,
+pp. 220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of
+several historical writings, of which the best known are <i>Don
+Carlos et Philippe II</i> (1867), <i>Études et notices historiques concernant
+l&rsquo;histoire des Pays-Bas</i> (1863), <i>Histoire de la Belgique
+au commencement du XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1880), <i>Histoire politique et
+diplomatique de P.P. Rubens</i> (1877), all published at Brussels.
+His chief editorial works are the <i>Actes des états généraux des
+Pays-Bas 1576-1585</i> (Brussels, 1861-1866), <i>Collection de documents
+inédits concernant l&rsquo;histoire de la Belgique</i> (Brussels, 1833-1835),
+and the <i>Relations des ambassadeurs Vénitiens sur Charles
+V et Philippe II</i> (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels
+on the 24th of December 1885.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAD,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a &ldquo;seer&rdquo; (cp.
+1 Sam. ix. 9), who was a companion of David from his early days.
+He is first mentioned in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David
+to take refuge in Judah, and appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 seq.
+to make known Yahweh&rsquo;s displeasure at the numbering of the
+people. Together with Nathan he is represented in post-exilic
+tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of the temple
+(2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to have
+written an account of David&rsquo;s deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a
+history of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the
+lines of later prophetic ideas is far from improbable.</p>
+
+<p>2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah&rsquo;s maid; a tribe of Israel
+(Gen. xxx. 11). The name is that of the god of &ldquo;luck&rdquo; or
+fortune, mentioned in Isa. lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several
+names of places, <i>e.g.</i> Baal-Gad (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7), and
+possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and Nahal-Gad.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the name
+is played on: &ldquo;Gad, a plundering troop (<i>g&#277;dûd</i>) shall plunder him
+(<i>yegudennu</i>), but he shall plunder at their heels.&rdquo; There are no
+traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest
+references to the name is the statement on the inscription of
+Mesha, king of Moab (about 850 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), that the &ldquo;men of Gad&rdquo;
+had occupied Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the
+king of Israel had fortified the city. This is in the district
+ascribed to Reuben, with which tribe the fortunes of Gad were
+very closely connected. In Numbers xxxii. 34 sqq., the cities
+of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of Heshbon; in Joshua
+xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north; while other texts
+present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled with either
+passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and
+Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That
+Gad, at one time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah
+and Nebo would follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of
+the Targums be accepted, &ldquo;and he looked out the first part for
+himself, because there was the portion of the buried law-giver.&rdquo;
+It is certain, however, that, at a late period, this tribe was localized
+chiefly in Gilead, in the district which now goes by the name of
+Jebel Jil&lsquo;&#257;d. The traditions encircling this district point, it
+would seem, to the tribe having been of Aramaean origin (see the
+story of Jacob); at all events its position was extremely exposed,
+and its population at the best must have been a mixed one.
+Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding nomads
+of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives the
+tribe a character for bravery, and David&rsquo;s men of Gad (1 Chron.
+xii. 8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by
+name (the geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad
+enters into the lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of
+Ammon and Moab it must have played some part. It followed
+Jeroboam in the great revolt against the house of David, and its
+later fortunes until 734 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> (1 Chron. v. 26) would be those of
+the northern kingdom.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See, for a critical discussion of the data, H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bib.</i>
+cols. 1579 sqq.; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gilead</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Manasseh</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Reuben</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See G.B. Gray, <i>Heb. Proper Names</i>, pp. 134 seq., 145.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADAG,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Garag</span>, a town of British India, in the Dharwar
+district of Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901)
+30,652. It is an important railway junction on the Southern
+Mahratta system, with a growing trade in raw cotton, and also
+in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are factories for
+ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town
+contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit
+fine carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence
+of Gadag as early as the 10th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADARA,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital
+of Peraea, and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris.
+It was a Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin.
+The earliest recorded event in its history is its capture by
+Antiochus III. of Syria in 218 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; how long it may have
+existed before this date is unknown. About twenty years later
+it was besieged for ten months by Alexander Jannaeus. It was
+restored by Pompey, and in 30 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> was presented by Augustus
+to Herod the Great; on Herod&rsquo;s death it was reunited to Syria.
+The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions
+as have been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and
+wealthy classes were probably Greek, the common people being
+Hellenized and Judaized Aramaeans. The community was
+Hellenistically organized, and though dependent on Syria and
+acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was governed by a
+democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In the
+Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine
+period it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was
+renowned for its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and
+show the remains of bath-houses. The temperature of the
+springs is 110° F. This town was the birthplace of Meleager the
+anthologist. There is a confusion in the narrative of the healing
+of the demoniac between the very similar names <i>Gadara</i>, <i>Gerasa</i>
+and <i>Gergesa</i>; but the probabilities, both textual and geographical,
+are in favour of the reading of Mark (<i>Gerasenes</i>, ch. v. 1, revised
+version); and that the miracle has nothing to do with Gadara,
+but took place at <i>Kersa</i>, on the eastern shore of the Sea of Galilee.</p>
+
+<p>Gadara is now represented by <i>Umm Kais</i>, a group of ruins
+about 6 m. S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the
+sea-level. There are very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in
+the neighbourhood. There are the remains of two theatres and
+(probably) a temple, and many heaps of carved stones, representing
+ancient buildings of various kinds. The walls are, or were,
+traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also the remains of
+a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying the ruins
+by quarrying building material out of them.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADDI.<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> Four painters of the early Florentine school&mdash;father,
+son and two grandsons&mdash;bore this name.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Gaddo Gaddi</span> was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend
+of Cimabue, and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and
+death have been given as 1239 and about 1312; these are probably
+too early; he may have been born towards 1260, and may have
+died in or about 1333. He was a painter and mosaicist, is said
+to have executed the great mosaic inside the portal of the
+cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the Virgin,
+and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside
+the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to
+the legend of the foundation of that church; their date is probably
+1308. In the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also
+executed the mosaics of the choir, and those of the front representing
+on a colossal scale God the Father, with many other
+figures; likewise an altarpiece in the church of S. Maria Novella,
+Florence; these works no longer exist. It is ordinarily held that
+no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo Gaddi is now
+extant. Messrs Crowe &amp; Cavalcaselle, however, consider that
+the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance
+in style to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi,
+representing incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page383" id="page383"></a>383</span>
+and especially 5, which shows Francis stripping himself, and
+protected by the bishop), that those frescoes likewise may, with
+considerable confidence, be ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant
+mosaics are attributed to him, but without full authentication.
+This artist laid the foundation of a very large fortune, which
+continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a highly distinguished
+worldly position.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Taddeo Gaddi</span> (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo,
+was born in Florence, and is usually said to have been one of
+Giotto&rsquo;s most industrious assistants for a period of 24 years.
+This can hardly be other than an exaggeration; it is probable
+that he began painting on his own account towards 1330, when
+Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded as a merchant, and
+had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a painter,
+mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the Baroncelli
+(now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce, the
+&ldquo;Virgin and Child between Four Prophets,&rdquo; on the funeral
+monument at the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in
+the legend of the Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the
+Temple up to the Nativity. In the subject of the &ldquo;Presentation
+of the Virgin in the Temple&rdquo; are the two heads traditionally
+accepted as portraits of Gaddo Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at
+any rate, are not likely to be portraits of those artists from the
+life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are the &ldquo;Eight Virtues.&rdquo;
+In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo, the &ldquo;Virgin
+and Child,&rdquo; and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the Naples
+gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the &ldquo;Virgin enthroned along
+with Four Saints,&rdquo; the &ldquo;Baptism of Jesus,&rdquo; and his &ldquo;Deposition
+from the Cross&rdquo;; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near
+Poggibonsi, an altarpiece dated 1355, the &ldquo;Virgin and Child
+enthroned amid Angels.&rdquo; A series of paintings, partly from the
+life of St Francis, which Taddeo executed for the presses in S.
+Croce, are now divided between the Florentine Academy and the
+Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken from or founded
+on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have ascribed
+their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant
+in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings,
+which have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most
+eminent successors of Giotto; it may be said that he continued
+working up the material furnished by that great painter, with
+comparatively feeble inspiration of his own. His figures are
+vehement in action, long and slender in form; his execution
+rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are generally
+ascribed the celebrated frescoes&mdash;those of the ceiling and left
+or western wall&mdash;in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church
+of S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to considerable
+doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the
+designs for the ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also
+are the three pictures ascribed to him in the National Gallery,
+London. In mosaic he has left some work in the baptistery of
+Florence. As an architect he supplied in 1336 the plans for the
+present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original (not the present)
+Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church of
+Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto&rsquo;s death the work
+of the unrivalled Campanile.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Agnolo Gaddi</span>, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo;
+the date of his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350
+is nearer the mark. He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by
+his father, and a merchant as well; in middle age he settled down
+to commercial life in Venice, and he added greatly to the family
+wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396. His paintings
+show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced
+in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra&rsquo; Fossi, Florence,
+represents the &ldquo;Resurrection of Lazarus.&rdquo; Another probably
+youthful performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di
+Prato&mdash;legends of the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed
+upon St Thomas, and brought to Prato in the 11th century by
+Michele dei Dagomari; the &ldquo;Marriage of Mary&rdquo; is one of the
+best of this series, the later compositions in which have suffered
+much by renewals. In S. Croce he painted, in eight frescoes,
+the legend of the Cross, beginning with the archangel Michael
+giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and ending
+with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters
+Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself.
+Agnolo composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more
+dignity and individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold
+colourist; the general effect is laudably decorative, but the
+drawing is poor, and the works show best from a distance.
+Various other productions of this master exist, and many have
+perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the celebrated treatise
+on painting, was one of his pupils.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Giovanni Gaddi</span>, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of
+promise. He died young in 1383.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as
+to the Gaddi. Other notices appear here and there&mdash;such as
+<i>La Cappella de&rsquo; Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze</i>, by G. Ajazzi
+(1845).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADE, NIELS WILHELM<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> (1817-1890), Danish composer,
+was born at Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 1817, his father
+being a musical instrument maker. He was intended for his
+father&rsquo;s trade, but his passion for a musician&rsquo;s career, made
+evident by the ease and skill with which he learnt to play upon
+a number of instruments, was not to be denied. Though he
+became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and in the
+elements of theory under Weyse and Berggreen, he was to a great
+extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in
+the great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the
+court band. In 1840 his <i>Aladdin</i> and his overture of <i>Ossian</i>
+attracted attention, and in 1841 his <i>Nachklänge aus Ossian</i>
+overture gained the local musical society&rsquo;s prize, the judges
+being Spohr and Schneider. This work also attracted the notice
+of the king, who gave the composer a stipend which enabled him
+to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the Gewandhaus
+concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn&rsquo;s absence, and on
+the latter&rsquo;s death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the
+outbreak of the Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where
+he was appointed organist and conductor of the Musik-Verein.
+In 1852 he married a daughter of the composer J.P.E. Hartmann.
+He became court conductor in 1861, and was pensioned by the
+government in 1876&mdash;the year in which he visited Birmingham
+to conduct his <i>Crusaders</i>. This work, and the <i>Frühlingsfantasie</i>,
+the <i>Erlkönigs Tochter</i>, <i>Frühlingsbotschaft</i> and <i>Psyche</i> (written for
+Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide popularity. Indeed,
+they represent the strength and the weakness of Gade&rsquo;s musical
+ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the best of
+which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato
+pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his
+music is highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather
+than dramatic and effective. Much of the pianoforte music,
+<i>Aquarellen</i>, <i>Spring Flowers</i>, for instance, enjoyed a considerable
+vogue, as did the <i>Novelletten</i> trio; but Gade&rsquo;s opera <i>Mariotta</i>
+has not been heard outside the Copenhagen opera house. He
+died at Copenhagen on the 21st of December 1890.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADOLINIUM<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157.3), one of the
+rare earth metals (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Erbium</a></span>). The element was discovered
+in 1880 in the mineral samarskite by C. Marignac (<i>Comptes
+rendus</i>, 1880, 90, p. 899; <i>Ann. chim. phys.</i>, 1880 [5] 20, p. 535).
+G. Urbain (<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1905, 140, p. 583) separates the
+metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of nickel and gadolinium.
+The salts show absorption bands in the ultra-violet. The oxide
+Gd<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> (1724-1805), American patriot,
+was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father,
+Thomas Gadsden, was for a time the king&rsquo;s collector for the
+port of Charleston. Christopher went to school near Bristol, in
+England, returned to America in 1741, was afterwards employed
+in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a merchant and
+planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an artillery
+company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a
+member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously
+from 1760 to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp
+Act Congress of 1765 and in the Continental Congress in 1774-1776.
+In February 1776 he was placed in command of all the
+military forces of South Carolina, and in October of the same
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page384" id="page384"></a>384</span>
+year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was taken into
+the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising out
+of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his
+command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in
+1780, when Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about
+three months following this event he was held as a prisoner on
+parole within the limits of Charleston; then, because of his
+influence in deterring others from exchanging their paroles for
+the privileges of British subjects, he was seized, taken to St
+Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would not give another
+parole to those who had violated the former agreement affecting
+him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In
+1782 Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature;
+he was also elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground
+that he was too old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the
+convention which ratified for South Carolina the Federal constitution;
+and in 1790 he was a member of the convention which
+framed the new state constitution. He died in Charleston on the
+28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor Thomas
+Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature
+improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was
+hostile to the British administration. He was an ardent leader
+of the opposition to the Stamp Act, advocating even then a
+separation of the colonies from the mother country; and in
+the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed the situation on
+the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and urged an immediate
+attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be
+defeated before receiving reinforcements.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADSDEN, JAMES<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (1788-1858), American soldier and diplomat,
+was born at Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788, the
+grandson of Christopher Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806,
+became a merchant in his native city, and in the war of 1812
+served in the regular U.S. Army as a lieutenant of engineers.
+In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with the rank of captain,
+as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In October 1820
+he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with the
+rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the
+establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From
+August 1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his
+appointment not being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army
+and became a planter in Florida. He served in the Territorial
+legislature, and as Federal commissioner superintended in 1823
+the removal of the Seminole Indians to South Florida. In 1832
+he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty which provided for their
+removal within three years to lands in what is now the state of
+Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move, hostilities again
+broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was
+quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February
+to April 1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice
+planter, and was president of the South Carolina railway.
+In 1853 President Franklin Pierce appointed him minister to
+Mexico, with which country he negotiated the so-called &ldquo;Gadsden
+treaty&rdquo; (signed the 30th of December 1853), which gave to the
+United States freedom of transit for mails, merchandise and
+troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided for a
+readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of
+Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m.
+of land, since known as the &ldquo;Gadsden Purchase,&rdquo; in what is
+now New Mexico and Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the
+treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which bound the United States
+to prevent incursions of Indians from the United States into
+Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by such
+Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United
+States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of
+the treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the
+30th of June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired
+from his post. The boundary line between Mexico and the
+&ldquo;Gadsden Purchase&rdquo; was marked by joint commissions appointed
+in 1855 and 1891, the second commission publishing its
+report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South Carolina, on
+the 25th of December 1858.</p>
+
+<p>An elder brother, <span class="sc">Christopher Edwards Gadsden</span> (1785-1852),
+was Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in
+1839-1852.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GADWALL,<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> a word of obscure origin,<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the common English
+name of the duck, called by Linnaeus <i>Anas strepera</i>, but considered
+by many modern ornithologists to require removal from
+the genus <i>Anas</i> to that of <i>Chaulelasmus</i> or <i>Ctenorhynchus</i>, of
+either of which it is almost the sole species. Its geographical
+distribution is almost identical with that of the common wild duck
+or mallard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Duck</a></span>), since it is found over the greater part of
+the northern hemisphere; but, save in India, where it is one of
+the most abundant species of duck during the cold weather, it is
+hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern parts of
+the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare than
+otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed,
+greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance
+on the water is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated
+form and elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler
+even at such a distance as hinders him from seeing its very
+distinct plumage. In coloration the two sexes appear almost
+equally sombre; but on closer inspection the drake exhibits a
+pencilled grey coloration and upper wing-coverts of a deep
+chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly clad partner.
+She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour, but has,
+like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure white,
+presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most
+readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The
+gadwall is a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the
+few that have been induced, by the protection afforded them in
+certain localities, to resume the indigenous position they once
+filled, but had, through the draining and reclaiming of marshy
+lands, long since abandoned. In regard to the present species,
+this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew Fountaine, on whose
+property, in West Norfolk and its immediate neighbourhood,
+the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing numbers.
+It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for the
+table.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The <i>New English Dictionary</i> has nothing to say. Webster gives
+the etymology <i>gad well</i> = go about well. Dr R.G. Latham suggested
+that it was taken from the syllables <i>quedul</i>, of the Lat. <i>querquedula</i>,
+a teal. The spelling &ldquo;gadwall&rdquo; seems to be first found in Willughby
+in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later writers; but
+Merrett, in 1667, has &ldquo;gaddel&rdquo; (<i>Pinax rerum naturalium Britannicarum</i>,
+p. 180), saying that it was so called by bird-dealers. The
+synonym &ldquo;gray,&rdquo; given by Willughby and Ray, is doubtless derived
+from the general colour of the species, and has its analogue in the
+Icelandic <i>Gráönd</i>, applied almost indifferently, or with some distinguishing
+epithet, to the female of any of the freshwater ducks, and
+especially to both sexes of the present, in which, as stated in the text,
+there is comparatively little conspicuous difference of plumage in
+drake and duck.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAEKWAR,<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Guicowar</span>, the family name of the Mahratta
+rulers of Baroda (<i>q.v.</i>) in western India, which has been converted
+by the English into a dynastic title. It is derived from the
+vernacular word for the cow, but it is a mistake to suppose that
+the family are of the cowherd caste; they belong to the upper class
+of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a Rajput origin. The
+dynasty was founded by a succession of three warriors, Damaji I.,
+Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta supremacy
+throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 18th century. The
+present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAETA<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> (anc. <i>Caietae Portus</i>), a seaport and episcopal see of
+Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is
+53 m. W.N.W. by rail via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It
+occupies a lower projecting point of the promontory which forms
+the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The tomb of Munatius
+Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caietae Portus</a></span>),
+is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the extensive
+earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is
+well sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial importance,
+being mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the
+suburb of Elena (formerly Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369.
+Above the town is a castle erected by the Angevin kings, and
+strengthened at various periods. The cathedral of St Erasmus
+(S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page385" id="page385"></a>385</span>
+860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the
+interior has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of
+the cathedral is a candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the
+end of the 13th century, consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief,
+with 24 representations from the life of Christ, and 24 of the
+life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, <i>Storia dell&rsquo; arte Italiana</i>, iii.
+Milan, 1904, 642 seq.). The cathedral possesses three fine
+<i>Exultet</i> rolls, with miniatures dating from the 11th to the beginning
+of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the banner sent
+by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto.
+The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527,
+is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close
+to that of La Trinità is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical
+fissure from 6 to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level.
+Over the chasm is a chapel <i>del Crocefisso</i>, the mountain having
+split, it is said, at the death of Christ.</p>
+
+<p>During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi
+and Naples, would seem to have established itself as a practically
+independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with
+the Levant. Its history, however, is obscure until, in 823, it
+appears as a lordship ruled by hereditary <i>hypati</i> or consuls.
+In 844 the town fell into the hands of the Arabs, but four years
+later they were driven out with help supplied by Pope Leo IV.
+In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who gave
+it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long
+claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the <i>hypatus</i> John
+(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he
+established as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman
+emperors. In the 11th century the duchy fell into the hands of
+the Norman counts of Aversa, afterwards princes of Capua, and
+in 1135 it was definitively annexed to his kingdom by Roger of
+Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage as late as 1229.</p>
+
+<p>In military history the town has played a conspicuous part.
+Its fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On
+the 30th of September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months&rsquo;
+siege, by the Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August
+1734 it was taken, after a siege of four months, by French,
+Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles
+of Naples. The fortifications were again strengthened; and
+in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On the 18th
+of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the
+French under Masséna; and on the 18th of July 1815 it capitulated,
+after a three months&rsquo; siege, to the Austrians. In November
+1848 Pope Pius IX., after his flight in disguise from Rome,
+found a refuge at Gaeta, where he remained till the 4th of September
+1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the scene of the last stand
+of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of United Italy. Shut
+up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi&rsquo;s occupation
+of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen
+Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th
+of February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having
+made bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to
+capitulate.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.B. Federici, <i>Degli antichi duchi, consoli o ipati della città
+di Gaeta</i> (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d&rsquo; Aragona, <i>Mem. stor.
+della città di Gaeta</i> (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, <i>Il Golfo di Gaeta</i>
+(Novara, 1876).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAETANI,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Caetani</span>, the name of the oldest of the Roman
+princely families which played a great part in the history of the
+city and of the papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin,
+and the founder of the house is said to be one Dominus Constantinus
+Cagetanus, who flourished in the 10th century, but
+the family had no great importance until the election of Benedetto
+Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1294, when they at once
+became the most notable in the city. The pope conferred
+on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato
+(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles
+II. of Anjou created the pope&rsquo;s brother count of Caserta.
+Giordano Loffredo Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna
+dell&rsquo; Aquila, heiress of the counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297
+added the name of Aquila to his own, and his grandson Giacomo
+acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and Gioia. The Gaetani
+proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to protect
+Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th
+centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturbances
+in Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to
+civil war. They also played an important rôle as Neapolitan
+nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in his attempt to crush the great
+Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the Gaetani fiefs and gave
+them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (<i>q.v.</i>); but they afterwards
+regained them.</p>
+
+<p>At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (1) Gaetani, princes
+of Teano and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello
+Gaetani, whose grandson, Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted
+the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in 1503, the marquisate
+of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus V. in 1585.
+In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by
+marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the
+principality of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house,
+Onorato Gaetani, 14th duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano,
+duke of San Marco, marquis of Cisterna, &amp;c., is a senator of the
+kingdom of Italy, and was minister for foreign affairs for a short
+time. (2) Gaetani dell&rsquo; Aquila d&rsquo;Aragona, princes of Piedimonte,
+and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by Onorato Gaetani dell&rsquo;
+Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and Morcone, lord of
+Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname of
+Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani,
+duke of Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural
+daughter of King Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Laurenzana,
+in the kingdom of Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani
+by his marriage in 1606 with Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of
+Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte was raised to a
+principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the house is
+Nicola Gaetani dell&rsquo; Aquila d&rsquo;Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of
+Piedimonte and 12th duke of Laurenzana.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. von Reumont, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Berlin, 1868); F.
+Gregorovius, <i>Geschichte der Stadt Rom</i> (Stuttgart, 1872); <i>Almanach
+de Gotha</i> (1907 and 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAETULIA,<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> an ancient district in northern Africa, which in
+the usage of Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of
+the southern slopes of Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the
+Atlantic, and the oases in the northern part of the Sahara.
+They were always distinguished from the Negro people to the
+south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber race
+which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and
+Mauretania (<i>q.v.</i>). The tribes to be found there at the present
+day are probably of the same race, and retain the same wandering
+habits; and it is possible that they still bear in certain places
+the name of their Gaetulian ancestors (see Vivien St Martin,
+<i>Le Nord de l&rsquo;Afrique</i>, 1863). A few only seem to have mingled
+with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus interpret
+Ptolemy&rsquo;s allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were noted
+for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000
+foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh
+and milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name
+is that of the purple dye which became famous from the time of
+Augustus onwards, and was made from the purple fish found on
+the coast, apparently both in the Syrtes and on the Atlantic.</p>
+
+<p>We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>), when, as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name
+of Rome. They took part with Jugurtha against Rome; but
+when we next hear of them they are in alliance with Caesar
+against Juba I. (<i>Bell. Afr.</i> 32). In 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Augustus seems to
+have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together with his
+kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling
+the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred
+the Roman residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been
+inflicted on them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the
+surname Gaetulicus) in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 6 that they submitted to the king.
+After Mauretania became a Roman province in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 40, the
+Roman governors made frequent expeditions into the Gaetulian
+territory to the south, and the official view seems to be expressed
+by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as the
+Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page386" id="page386"></a>386</span>
+Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but
+inscriptions prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops
+of the empire, and it may be assumed that the country passed
+within the sphere of Roman influence, though hardly within the
+pale of Roman civilization.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For bibliography see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Africa, Roman</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1836-&emsp;&emsp;), American financier,
+was born at De Ruyter, Madison county, New York, on the 28th
+of June 1836. He was educated at an academy at Rome, New
+York, where at the age of seventeen he became a bank clerk.
+In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as book-keeper
+in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house
+of the Merchant&rsquo;s Loan and Trust Company, of which he was
+cashier in 1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively
+assistant cashier (1868), vice-president (1882), and president
+(1891) of the First National Bank of Chicago, one of the strongest
+financial institutions in the middle west. He was chosen in 1892
+president of the board of directors of the World&rsquo;s Columbian
+Exposition, the successful financing of which was due more to him
+than to any other man. In politics he was originally a Republican,
+and was a delegate to the national convention of the
+party in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884,
+however, he supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency,
+and came to be looked upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President
+Cleveland, after his second election, offered Gage the post of
+secretary of the treasury, but the offer was declined. In the
+&ldquo;free-silver&rdquo; campaign of 1896 Gage laboured effectively for
+the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897 until
+January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets
+successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From
+April 1902 until 1906 he was president of the United States
+Trust Company in New York City. His administration of the
+treasury department, through a more than ordinarily trying
+period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking toward
+the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater
+flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the
+relations between the government and the National banks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAGE, THOMAS<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1721-1787), British general and governor
+of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born
+in 1721. He entered the army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders
+and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel
+in the 44th foot in March 1751. In 1754 he served in America,
+and he took part in the following year in General Braddock&rsquo;s
+disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new
+regiment, and served in Amherst&rsquo;s operations against Montreal.
+He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general
+in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the
+British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general.
+In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts,
+and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the
+Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the
+execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culminated
+in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April at Lexington
+initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle
+of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William)
+Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782,
+and died on the 2nd of April 1787.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAGE,<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span> a pledge, something deposited as security for the
+performance of an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure
+to carry it out. The word also appears in &ldquo;engage,&rdquo; and is
+taken from the O. Fr., as are &ldquo;wage,&rdquo; payment for services,
+and &ldquo;wager,&rdquo; bet, stake, from the collateral O. Fr. <i>waige</i>. These
+two words are from the Low Lat. <i>wadiare</i>, <i>vadiare</i>, to pledge,
+<i>vadium</i>, classical Lat. <i>vas</i>, <i>vadis</i>, but may be from the old Teutonic
+cognate base seen in Gothic <i>wadi</i>, a pledge (cf. Ger. <i>wetten</i>, to
+wager); this Teutonic base is seen in Eng. &ldquo;wed,&rdquo; to marry,
+<i>i.e.</i> to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth, <i>gawadjon</i>, to betrothe).
+A particular form of giving a &ldquo;gage&rdquo; or pledge was that of
+throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a judicial
+combat, the glove being the &ldquo;pledge&rdquo; that the parties would
+appear on the field; hence the common phrase &ldquo;to throw down
+the gage of defiance&rdquo; for any challenge (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Glove</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wager</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST,<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron von</span> (1766-1852),
+German statesman and political writer, was born at
+Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the 25th of January 1766.
+After studying law at the universities of Leipzig and Göttingen,
+he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg, whom
+in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards
+appointed the prince&rsquo;s envoy at Paris, where he remained till
+the decree of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left
+side of the Rhine to serve any other state than France, compelled
+him to resign his office (1811). He then retired to Vienna, and
+in 1812 he took part in the attempt to excite a second insurrection
+against Napoleon in Tirol. On the failure of this attempt he left
+Austria and joined the headquarters of the Prussian army (1813),
+and became a member of the board of administration for north
+Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator of the Orange
+principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king of
+the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister.
+In 1815 he represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded
+in obtaining for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation
+of territory. From 1816 to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy
+at the German diet, but was recalled, at the instance of Metternich,
+owing to his too independent advocacy of state constitutions.
+In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at Hornau, near
+Höchst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first
+chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take
+an active share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of
+his country. He retired from public life in 1848, and died at
+Hornau on the 22nd of October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote
+a history of the German nation (Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols.,
+Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several other books on subjects
+connected with history and social and political science. Of
+most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, <i>Mein
+Anteil an der Politik</i>, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).</p>
+
+<p>Of Hans Christoph von Gagern&rsquo;s sons three attained considerable
+eminence:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Friedrich Balduin</span>, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the
+eldest, was born at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He
+entered the university of Göttingen, but soon left, and, taking
+service in the Austrian army, took part in the Russian campaign
+of 1812, and fought in the following year at Dresden, Kulm and
+Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took part in the
+campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at Heidelberg,
+was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of
+the German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took
+part in the Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being
+promoted to the rank of general, was sent on an important
+mission to the Dutch East Indies to inquire into the state of
+their military defences. In 1847 he was appointed governor at
+the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the spring
+of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the revolutionary
+troubles he accepted the invitation of the government
+of Baden to take the command against the insurgent &ldquo;free
+companies&rdquo; (<i>Freischaaren</i>). At Kandern, on the 20th of April,
+he made a vain effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was
+about to order his troops to attack when he was mortally wounded
+by the bullets of the insurgents. His <i>Life</i>, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg
+and Leipzig, 1856-1857), was written by his brother Heinrich
+von Gagern.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Heinrich Wilhelm August</span>, Freiherr von Gagern (1799-1880),
+the third son, was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August
+1799, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an
+officer in the service of the duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo.
+Leaving the service after the war, he studied jurisprudence at
+Heidelberg, Göttingen and Jena, and in 1819 went for a while
+to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his official
+career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832
+was elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities
+he had proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the
+<i>Burschenschaft</i>, and he now threw himself into open opposition
+to the unconstitutional spirit of the Hessian government, an
+attitude which led to his dismissal from the state service in 1833.
+Henceforth he lived in comparative retirement, cultivating a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page387" id="page387"></a>387</span>
+farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and occasionally publishing
+criticisms of public affairs, until the February revolution
+of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active political
+life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian
+administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation
+of a united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the
+preliminary convention (<i>Vorparlament</i>) of Frankfort he deeply
+impressed the assemblies with the breadth and moderation of
+his views; with the result that when the German national
+parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first president.
+His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist
+party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was
+he who was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a
+united empire with a common parliament, and in carrying the
+election of the Archduke John as regent. With the growing
+split between the Great Germans (<i>Grossdeutschen</i>), who wished
+the new empire to include the Austrian provinces, and the Little
+Germans (<i>Kleindeutschen</i>), who realized that German unity could
+only be attained by excluding them, his position was shaken.
+On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian
+members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the
+imperial ministry, and on the 18th he introduced a programme
+(known as the <i>Gagernsche Programm</i>) according to which Austria
+was to be excluded from the new federal state, but bound to it
+by a treaty of union. After a severe struggle this proposal was
+accepted; but the academic discussion on the constitution
+continued for weary months, and on the 20th of May, realizing
+the hopelessness of coming to terms with the ultra-democrats,
+Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted to
+influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the
+national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt
+parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good
+results from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from
+the contest, and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-Holstein
+government, took part in the Danish War of 1850.
+After the war he retired into private life at Heidelberg. In 1862,
+misled by the constitutional tendency of Austrian politics, he
+publicly declared in favour of the Great German party. In 1864
+he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring in 1872 when
+the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd
+of May 1880.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Maximilian</span>, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest
+son, was born at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to
+1848 he was a government official in Nassau; in that year he
+became a member of the German national parliament and under-secretary
+of state for foreign affairs. Throughout the revolutionary
+years he supported his brother&rsquo;s policy, became a member
+of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the national
+movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In
+1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service
+as court and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign
+affairs. In 1871 he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life
+member of the Upper Chamber (<i>Herrenhaus</i>). He died at
+Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Allgemeine deutsche Biographie</i>, Band viii. p. 301, &amp;c. (1878)
+and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAHANBAR,<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated
+by the Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond
+with the six periods of creation: (1) <i>Maidhyozaremaya</i> (mid
+spring), (2) <i>Maidhyoshema</i> (midsummer), (3) <i>Paitishahya</i> (season
+of corn), (4) <i>Ayathrema</i> (season of flocks), (5) <i>Maidhyarya</i> (winter
+solstice), (6) <i>Hamaspathmaedha</i> (festival of sacrifices).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1642-1715), French
+genealogist, antiquary and collector, was the son of Aimé de
+Gaignières, secretary to the governor of Burgundy, and was
+born on the 30th of December 1642. He became écuyer (esquire)
+to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards to Louis Joseph&rsquo;s
+aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed governor
+of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to
+make a collection of original materials for history generally, and,
+in particular, for that of the French church and court. He
+brought together a large collection of original letters and other
+documents, together with portraits and prints, and had copies
+made of a great number of the most curious antiquarian objects,
+such as seals, tombstones, stained glass, miniatures and tapestry.
+In 1711 he presented the whole of his collections to the king.
+The bulk of them is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale
+at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian library at Oxford.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G. Duplessis, <i>Roger de Gaignières</i> (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle,
+<i>Cabinet des manuscrits</i>, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, <i>Les Portraits
+aux crayon des XVI<span class="sp">e</span> et XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i> (Paris, 1884); Ch. de
+Grandmaison, <i>Gaignières, ses correspondants et ses collections de
+portraits</i> (Niort, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1755-1829), French hellenist, was
+born in Paris on the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed
+deputy, and in 1792 titular professor at the Collège de France.
+During the Revolution he quietly performed his professional
+duties, taking no part in politics, although he possessed the
+faculty of ingratiating himself with those in authority. In 1815
+he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in the royal
+library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other
+conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies.
+Gail imagined that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle
+his learning and professional success, and there was a standing
+quarrel between him and his literary opponents, the most distinguished
+of whom was P.L. Courier. He died on the 5th of
+February 1829. Without being a great Greek scholar, Gail was
+a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was devoted to
+his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for having
+rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during the
+troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail&rsquo;s published
+works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of
+Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828).
+He also wrote a number of elementary educational works, based
+on the principles of the school of Port Royal. His communications
+to the Académie des Inscriptions being coldly received and
+seldom accorded the honour of print, he inserted them in a vast
+compilation in 24 volumes, which he called <i>Le Philologue</i>, containing
+a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek grammar, geography,
+archaeology, and various authors.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See &ldquo;Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.,&rdquo; in
+<i>Mém. de l&rsquo;Acad. des Inscriptions</i>, ix.; the articles in <i>Biographie
+universelle</i> (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>
+(by C.F. Bähr); a list of his works will be found in J.M.
+Quérard, <i>La France littéraire</i> (1829), including the contents of the
+volumes of <i>Le Philologue</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAILLAC,<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> a town of south-western France, capital of an
+arrondissement in the department of Tarn, on the right bank of
+the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi on the railway from that city to
+Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388; commune, 7535. The
+churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from the 13th
+and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There
+are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen,
+of the Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors.
+The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal
+of first instance, and a communal college. Its industries include
+the manufacture of lime and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-sawing
+and flour-milling are also carried on; it has a considerable
+trade in grain, flour, vegetables, dried plums, anise, coriander,
+&amp;c., and in wine, the white and red wines of the arrondissement
+having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round the Benedictine
+abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (1726-1806), French historian,
+was born at Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the
+bar, but after finishing his studies adopted a literary career,
+ultimately devoting his chief attention to history. He was
+already a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres
+(1760), when, after the publication of the three first
+volumes of his <i>Histoire de la rivalité de la France et d&rsquo;Angleterre</i>,
+he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when
+Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third
+class (<i>Académie française</i>) in 1803. For forty years he was the
+intimate friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He
+died at St Firmin, near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806.
+Gaillard is painstaking and impartial in his statement of facts,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page388" id="page388"></a>388</span>
+and his style is correct and elegant, but the unity of his narrative
+is somewhat destroyed by digressions, and by his method of
+treating war, politics, civil administration, and ecclesiastical
+affairs under separate heads. His most important work is his
+<i>Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l&rsquo;Angleterre</i> (in 11 vols.,
+1771-1777); and among his other works may be mentioned
+<i>Essai de rhétorique française, à l&rsquo;usage des jeunes demoiselles</i>
+(1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the author;
+<i>Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne</i> (1757); <i>Histoire de François I<span class="sp">er</span></i>
+(7 vols., 1776-1779); <i>Histoire des grandes querelles entre Charles V.
+et François I<span class="sp">er</span></i> (2 vols., 1777); <i>Histoire de Charlemagne</i> (2 vols.,
+1782); <i>Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l&rsquo;Espagne</i> (8 vols.,
+1801); <i>Dictionnaire historique</i> (6 vols., 1789-1804), making part
+of the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i>; and <i>Mélanges littéraires</i>, containing
+<i>éloges</i> on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille,
+La Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAINESVILLE,<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Alachua county,
+Florida, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890)
+2790; (1900) 3633, of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413;
+(1910) 6183. Gainesville is served by the Atlantic Coast Line,
+the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa &amp; Jacksonville railways,
+and is an important railway junction. It is the seat of the
+University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City in
+1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university includes
+a school of language and literature, a general scientific
+school, a school of agriculture, a technological school, a school of
+pedagogy, a normal school, and an agricultural experiment
+station. In 1908 the university had 15 instructors and 103
+students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference and Chautauqua
+is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter resort, and its
+climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by pulmonary
+troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne&rsquo;s
+Prairie, Newman&rsquo;s Lake, the Devil&rsquo;s Mill Hopper and other
+objects of interest. The surrounding country produces Sea
+Island cotton, melons, citrus and other fruits, vegetables and
+naval stores. About 15 m. W. of the city there is a rich phosphate
+mining district. The city has bottling works, and manufactures
+fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &amp;c. The municipality owns and
+operates the water-works; the water-supply comes from a spring
+2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles that of the
+Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the
+famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here
+about 1850; and Gainesville, named in honour of General E.P.
+Gaines, was incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered
+as a city in 1907.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAINESVILLE,<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Cooke county,
+Texas, U.S.A., about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m.
+N. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes
+and 269 foreign-born); (1910) 7624. The city is served by
+the Gulf, Colorado &amp; Santa Fé, and the Missouri, Kansas &amp;
+Texas railways, and by an interurban electric railway. Gainesville
+is a trading centre and market for the surrounding country,
+in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are grown
+and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for
+the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city
+has cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manufactures
+are cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks,
+canned goods, foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery
+products. Gainesville was settled about 1851, was incorporated
+in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879; it was named in
+honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines (1777-1849),
+who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a
+brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of
+major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of
+Fort Erie in August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the
+operations against the Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he
+was in command of the Southern Military District) and in 1836
+and during the Mexican War commanded the department of the
+South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> (1727-1788), English painter,
+one of the greatest masters of the English school in portraiture,
+and only less so in landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in
+the spring of 1727. His father, who carried on the business of a
+woollen crape-maker in that town, was of a respectable character
+and family, and was noted for his skill in fencing; his mother
+excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged her son in the use
+of the pencil. There were nine children of the marriage, two of
+the painter&rsquo;s brothers being of a very ingenious turn.</p>
+
+<p>At ten years old, Gainsborough &ldquo;had sketched every fine tree
+and picturesque cottage near Sudbury,&rdquo; and at fourteen, having
+filled his task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and
+sketched the portrait of a man whom he had detected on the
+watch for robbing his father&rsquo;s orchard, he was allowed to follow
+the bent of his genius in London, with some instruction in
+etching from Gravelot, and under such advantages as Hayman,
+the historical painter, and the academy in St Martin&rsquo;s Lane could
+afford. Three years of study in the metropolis, where he did some
+modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two years in
+the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young
+lady of many charms, including an annuity of £200, married her
+after painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age
+of twenty, became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being
+£6 a year. The annuity was reported to come from Margaret&rsquo;s
+real (not her putative) father, who was one of the exiled Stuart
+princes or else the duke of Bedford. She was sister of a young
+man employed by Gainsborough&rsquo;s father as a traveller. At
+Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was &ldquo;chiefly in the face-way&rdquo;;
+his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often
+rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society
+of Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many
+landscapes with an attention to details which his later works
+never exhibited, or from joining a musical club and entertaining
+himself and his fellow-townsmen by giving concerts. As he
+advanced in years he became ambitious of advancing in reputation.
+Bath was then the general resort of wealth and fashion,
+and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he removed
+with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their marriage.
+His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he
+gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40
+guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he
+rapidly developed beyond the comparatively plain and humdrum
+quality of his Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at
+this period were the authors Sterne and Richardson, and the
+actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick. Meanwhile he contributed
+both portraits and landscapes to the annual exhibitions in
+London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to play the
+viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His house
+harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians.
+He haunted the green-room of Palmer&rsquo;s theatre, and painted
+gratuitously the portraits of many of the actors: he constantly
+gave away his sketches and landscapes. In the summer of 1774,
+having already attained a position of great prosperity, he took
+his departure for London, and fixed his residence at Schomberg
+House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still standing, for a part of
+which the artist paid £300 a year.</p>
+
+<p>Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he
+received a summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he
+divided with West the favour of the court, and with Reynolds
+the favour of the town. Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin,
+Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu, Mrs Siddons, Clive,
+Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who sat to
+him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited,
+were commended, and were year after year returned to him,
+&ldquo;till they stood,&rdquo; says Sir William Beechey, &ldquo;ranged in long
+lines from his hall to his painting-room.&rdquo; Gainsborough was a
+member of the Royal Academy, one of the original 36 elected in
+1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with the position assigned
+on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the three princesses,
+he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never afterwards
+exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the
+business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibition
+in his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while
+witnessing the trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary
+chill at the back of his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page389" id="page389"></a>389</span>
+(or, as some say, a malignant wen) which proved fatal on the
+2nd of August of the same year. He lies buried at Kew.</p>
+
+<p>Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive
+to the point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish
+likings, a lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough
+embodiment of the artistic temperament; delighting in nature
+and &ldquo;the look of things,&rdquo; insatiable in working, fond of music
+and the theatre hardly less than of painting&mdash;a warm, rich personality,
+to whom severe principle was perhaps as foreign as deliberate
+wrong-doing. The property which he left at his death was
+not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the musician
+Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of mental
+aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried.
+Mrs Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, survived
+her husband ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that
+Gainsborough, if he ever had a tiff with her, would write a pacifying
+note, confiding it to his dog Fox, who delivered it to the lady&rsquo;s
+pet spaniel Tristram. The note was worded as in the person of
+Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied in the best of
+humours, as from Tristram to Fox.</p>
+
+<p>Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest
+portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance;
+but Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation.
+It is difficult to say which stands the higher of
+the two, although Reynolds may claim to have worked with a
+nearer approach to even and demonstrable excellence. In grace,
+spirit, and lightness of insight and of touch, Gainsborough is
+peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight for the most part,
+and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree masterly; and
+his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted than
+his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of &ldquo;Lady
+Ligonier,&rdquo; &ldquo;Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire,&rdquo; &ldquo;Master
+Buttall (the Blue Boy),&rdquo; now in Grosvenor House, &ldquo;Mrs Sheridan
+and Mrs Tickell,&rdquo; &ldquo;Orpin, the parish clerk&rdquo; (National Gallery),
+&ldquo;the Hon. Mrs Graham&rdquo; (Scottish National Gallery), his own
+portrait (Royal Academy), &ldquo;Mrs Siddons&rdquo; (National Gallery);
+also &ldquo;the Cottage Door,&rdquo; &ldquo;the Market Cart,&rdquo; &ldquo;the Return from
+Harvest,&rdquo; &ldquo;the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm&rdquo; (destroyed
+by fire), and &ldquo;Waggon and Horses passing a Brook&rdquo; (National
+Gallery&mdash;this was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast
+number of drawings and sketches.</p>
+
+<p>A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual
+works by Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics
+as a painter.</p>
+
+<p>Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at
+Ipswich, were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston.
+His first great hit was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord
+Nugent. With a likeness of Mr Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided
+advance in artistic type, and his style became fixed towards
+1768. The date of the &ldquo;Blue Boy&rdquo; is somewhat uncertain:
+most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark.
+This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is
+said that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting
+a dictum of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour
+unsuitable for the main light of a work. But, if the picture was
+produced before 1778, the date of Reynolds&rsquo;s dictum, this long-cherished
+and often-repeated tradition must be given up. A
+full-length of the duke of Norfolk was perhaps the latest work
+to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait of Elizabeth,
+duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance, has
+aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not
+long after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed
+&ldquo;the Duchess of Devonshire,&rdquo; does really represent that lady,
+is by no means certain. It was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in
+London immediately after it had been purchased by Messrs
+Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a long time
+elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New
+York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through
+the agency of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the
+American detectives working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold
+to Mr Pierpont Morgan.</p>
+
+<p>Gainsborough&rsquo;s total output of paintings exceeded 300,
+including 220 portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and
+3 in aquatint. At the date of his death 56 paintings remained
+on hand: these, along with 148 drawings, were then exhibited.
+In his earlier days he made a practice of copying works by
+Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration), Titian,
+Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not
+in a spirit of servile reproduction.</p>
+
+<p>Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential element
+of portraiture&mdash;truthful likeness. In process of time he
+advanced in the rendering of immediate expression, while he
+somewhat receded in general character. He always made his
+sitters look pleasant, and, after a while, distinguished. Unity
+of impression is one of the most marked qualities in his work;
+he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he wrought
+at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very wilful
+some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result.
+He painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later
+years. For portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft.
+long; there was but little light in his painting-room, and he
+often worked in the evenings. He kept his landscape work
+distinct from his portraiture, not ever adding to the latter a fully
+realized landscape background; his views he never signed or
+dated&mdash;his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are constantly
+cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
+scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming
+rain, or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his
+landscapes is somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-groups
+or in portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plaintive
+than mirthful. It should be acknowledged that, whether
+in portraiture or in landscape, the painter&rsquo;s mannerisms of
+execution increased in process of time&mdash;patchings of the brush,
+tufty foliage, &amp;c.; some of his portraits are hurried and flimsy,
+with a minimum of solid content, though not other than artistic
+in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:&mdash;&ldquo;What makes the
+difference between man and man is real performance, and not
+genius or conception.&rdquo; &ldquo;I don&rsquo;t think it would be more ridiculous
+for a person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours
+smelt offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is
+just as material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and
+drawing of a picture.&rdquo; &ldquo;The eye is the only perspective-master
+needed by a landscape-painter.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor
+of Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the
+artist&rsquo;s fortunes at starting, published A <i>Sketch of the Life and
+Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough</i>. He had quarrelled with the
+painter at Bath, partly because the latter had undertaken to do a
+portrait of him as a gift, and then neglected the work, and finally,
+in a huff, bundled it off only half done. The crucial question here is
+whether or not Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform
+any such gratuitous work, and this point has been contested. Thicknesse&rsquo;s
+book is in part adverse to Gainsborough, and more particularly
+so to his wife. Reynolds&rsquo;s &ldquo;Lecture&rdquo; on Gainsborough,
+replete with critical insight, should never be lost sight of as a leading
+document. In 1856 a heedfully compiled <i>Life of Thomas Gainsborough</i>
+was brought out by T.W. Fulcher. This was the first
+substantial work about him subsequent to Allan Cunningham&rsquo;s
+lively account (1829) in his <i>Lives of the Painters</i>. Of late years a
+great deal has been written, mainly but not by any means exclusively
+from the critical or technical point of view:&mdash;Sir Walter Armstrong
+(two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur Bell (1902); Sir W.M.
+Conway, <i>Artistic Development of Reynolds and Gainsborough</i> (1886);
+Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G.M. Brock-Arnold (1881).
+G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in Germany (1904)
+under the title <i>Gainsborough</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. M. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAINSBOROUGH,<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> a market town in the W. Lindsey or
+Gainsborough parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England;
+on the right (E.) bank of the Trent. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 17,660. It is served by the Lincoln-Doncaster joint line
+of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, by which it
+is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central railway.
+The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century,
+excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish
+churches are modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged
+in the 16th, is a picturesque building, forming three
+sides of a quadrangle, partially timber-framed, but having a
+beautiful oriel window and other parts of stone. There is also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page390" id="page390"></a>390</span>
+a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific institute occupy
+part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar school
+(founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other
+schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church
+of England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water
+on the Trent and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-founding
+are carried on, and there are manufactures of linseed
+cake, and agricultural and other machinery.</p>
+
+<p>Gainsborough (<i>Gegnesburh</i>) was probably inhabited by the
+Saxons on account of the fishing in the Trent. The <i>Saxon
+Chronicle</i> states that in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed
+here and subjugated the inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not
+a chartered borough, was probably one by prescription, for
+mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The privilege of
+the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor,
+Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed
+to Ralph de Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a
+Wednesday market, but there is no extant grant before 1258,
+when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market to William de
+Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward I.
+in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints&rsquo; Day, and the
+seven preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III.
+granted to John Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day
+and morrow of St James the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592
+granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two fairs, to begin on Easter
+Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting three days.
+Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to nine
+days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are
+Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and
+Wednesday after the 20th of October.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Adam Stark, <i>History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh</i> (London,
+1843).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAIRDNER, JAMES<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (1828-&emsp;&emsp;), English historian, son of
+John Gairdner, M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of
+March 1828. Educated in his native city, he entered the Public
+Record Office in London in 1846, becoming assistant keeper of
+the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner&rsquo;s valuable and painstaking
+contributions to English history relate chiefly to the
+reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the
+&ldquo;Rolls Series&rdquo; he edited <i>Letters and Papers illustrative of the
+Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII.</i> (London, 1861-1863), and
+<i>Memorials of Henry VII.</i> (London, 1858); and he succeeded
+J.S. Brewer in editing the <i>Letters and Papers</i>, foreign and
+domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII. (London, 1862-1905).
+He brought out the best edition of the <i>Paston Letters</i> (London,
+1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a valuable
+introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the <i>Historical
+collections of a Citizen of London</i> (London, 1876), and <i>Three
+15th-century Chronicles</i> (London, 1880). His other works include
+excellent monographs on <i>Richard III.</i> (London, 1878, new and
+enlarged edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on <i>Henry VII.</i> (London,
+1889, and subsequently); <i>The Houses of Lancaster and York</i>
+(London, 1874, and other editions); <i>The English Church in the
+16th century</i> (London, 1902); <i>Lollardy and the Reformation in
+England</i> (1908); and contributions to the <i>Encyclopaedia
+Britannica</i>, the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, the <i>Cambridge
+Modern History</i>, and the <i>English Historical Review</i>. Gairdner
+received the honorary degree of LL.D. from the university of
+Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAIRLOCH<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Gaelic <i>geàrr</i>, short), a sea loch, village and
+parish in the west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland.
+Pop. of parish (1901) 3797. The parish covers a large district
+on the coast, and stretches inland beyond the farther banks
+of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies within its bounds. It
+also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in the loch, and
+Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646 acres.
+The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in
+Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross,
+Gairloch has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th
+century. Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little
+glen of the same name, lying close to the village, is the chief
+seat of the Gairloch branch of the clan Mackenzie. William
+Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic poet, who was schoolmaster of
+Gairloch, of which his mother was a native, was buried in the
+old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAISERIC,<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Genseric</span> (<i>c.</i> 390-477), king of the Vandals,
+was a son of King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390.
+Though lame and only of moderate stature, he won renown as a
+warrior, and became king on the death of his brother Gonderic
+in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host of Vandals from Spain
+into Roman Africa, and took possession of Mauretania. This
+step is said to have been taken at the instigation of Boniface,
+the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented of
+his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending
+Hippo Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months
+Gaiseric raised the siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced
+to fly to Italy, and the city afterwards fell into the hands of the
+Vandals. Having pillaged and conquered almost the whole of
+Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a treaty with the
+emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed to
+retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long,
+and in October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the
+capital of his kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric
+at this time first actually assumed the title of king. In religious
+matters he was an Arian, and persecuted the members of the
+orthodox church in Africa, although his religious policy varied with
+his relations to the Roman empire. Turning his attention in
+another direction he built a fleet, and the ravages of the Vandals
+soon made them known and feared along the shores of the Mediterranean.
+&ldquo;Let us make,&rdquo; said Gaiseric, &ldquo;for the dwellings of
+the men with whom God is angry,&rdquo; and he left the conduct of
+his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he
+led an expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen
+days his troops were permitted to plunder, and then returned
+to Africa laden with spoil. He also carried with him many
+captives, including the empress Eudoxia, who is said to have
+invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two attempts
+to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus,
+in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years
+later; but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius
+of Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought
+Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule,
+and even extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia
+Minor. Having made peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in
+476, he died on the 25th of January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel
+and cunning man, possessing great military talents and superior
+mental gifts. Though the effect of his victories was afterwards
+neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his name long remained
+the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said to be
+derived from <i>gais</i>, a javelin, and <i>reiks</i>, a king.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vandals</a></span>; also T. Hodgkin, <i>Italy and her Invaders</i>, vol. ii.
+(London, 1892); E. Gibbon, <i>Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</i>
+(ed. J.B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, <i>Geschichte der Vandalen</i>
+(Leipzig, 1901); and F. Martroye, <i>Genseric; La Conquête vandale
+en Afrique</i> (Paris, 1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAISFORD, THOMAS<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (1779-1855), English classical scholar,
+was born at Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779.
+Proceeding to Oxford in 1797, he became successively student
+and tutor of Christ Church, and was in 1811 appointed regius
+professor of Greek in the university. Taking orders, he held
+(1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in Oxfordshire, and
+other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with his professorship.
+From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he
+was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and
+principal delegate of the University Press he was instrumental
+in securing the co-operation of distinguished European scholars
+as collators, notably Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous
+contributions to Greek literature may be mentioned, Hephaestion&rsquo;s
+<i>Encheiridion</i> (1810); <i>Poëtae Graeci minores</i> (1814-1820);
+Stobaeus&rsquo; <i>Florilegium</i> (1822); <i>Herodotus</i>, with variorum notes
+(1824); Suidas&rsquo; <i>Lexicon</i> (1834); <i>Etymologicon magnum</i> (1848);
+Eusebius&rsquo;s <i>Praeparatio</i> (1843) and <i>Demonstratio evangelica</i>
+(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were
+founded at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page391" id="page391"></a>391</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAIUS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history
+very little is known. It is impossible to discover even his full
+name, Gaius or Caius being merely the personal name (praenomen)
+so common in Rome. From internal evidence in his works it may
+be gathered that he flourished in the reigns of the emperors
+Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
+His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180,
+at the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and
+its government the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some
+provincial town, and hence we find no contemporary notices of
+his life or works. After his death, however, his writings were
+recognized as of great authority, and the emperor Valentinian
+named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus and
+Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be followed
+by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these jurists
+accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the <i>Institutes</i>, which are a complete exposition of the
+elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the
+<i>Edicts of the Magistrates</i>, of <i>Commentaries on the Twelve Tables</i>,
+and on the important <i>Lex Papia Poppaea</i>, and several other
+works. His interest in the antiquities of Roman law is apparent,
+and for this reason his work is most valuable to the historian of
+early institutions. In the disputes between the two schools of
+Roman jurists he generally attached himself to that of the
+Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius Capito, of
+whose life we have some account in the <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus, and to
+advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules,
+and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of
+Gaius occur in the <i>Digest</i> of Justinian, and so acquired a
+permanent place in the system of Roman law; while a comparison
+of the <i>Institutes</i> of Justinian with those of Gaius shows
+that the whole method and arrangement of the later work were
+copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous passages are
+word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of the
+period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and
+Justinian, the <i>Institutes</i> of the former had been the familiar textbook
+of all students of Roman law.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in
+1816, a manuscript was discovered by B.G. Niebuhr in the
+chapter library of Verona, in which certain of the works of St
+Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved
+to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest
+has, however, been deciphered and the text is now fairly complete.
+This discovery has thrown a flood of light on portions of the
+history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure.
+Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in
+the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of
+the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be
+traced &ldquo;survivals&rdquo; from the most primitive times, which
+provide the science of comparative law with valuable illustrations,
+which may explain the strange forms of legal procedure found in
+other early systems. Another circumstance which renders the
+work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that
+of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions were
+tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions given by the
+praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to whom he
+referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae
+it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history
+of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the
+ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the
+equitable jurisdiction of the praetors, and made applicable to new
+conditions, and brought into harmony with the notions and the
+needs of a more developed society. It is clear from evidence of
+Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set of
+courts administering, as in England previous to the Judicature
+Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by
+the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the
+work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Institutes</i> of Gaius are divided into four books&mdash;the first
+treating of persons and the differences of the status they may
+occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the
+modes in which rights over them may be acquired, including the
+law relating to wills; the third of intestate succession and of
+obligations; the fourth of actions and their forms.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are several carefully prepared editions of the <i>Institutes</i>,
+starting from that of Göschen (1820), down to that of Studemund
+and Krüger (1900). The most complete English edition is that of
+E. Poste, which includes beside the text an English translation and
+copious commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of
+actions mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive
+societies will be found in Sir H. Maine&rsquo;s <i>Early Institutions</i>, cap. 9.
+For further information see M. Glasson, <i>Étude sur Gaius et sur le
+jus respondendi</i>; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Roman Law</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAIUS CAESAR<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 12-41), surnamed <span class="sc">Caligula</span>, Roman
+emperor from 37-41, youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina
+the elder, was born on the 31st of August <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 12. He was
+brought up in his father&rsquo;s camp on the Rhine among the soldiers,
+and received the name Caligula from the <i>caligae</i>, or foot-soldiers&rsquo;
+boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his father to
+Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was
+summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed
+to escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius
+by Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards,
+which was probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the
+throne amidst the rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred
+the imperial power upon him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus,
+the grandson of the preceding emperor, had been designated as
+his co-heir. He entered on his first consulship in July 37. For
+the first eight months of his reign he did not disappoint the
+popular expectation; but after his recovery from a severe illness
+his true character showed itself. His extravagance, cruelty and
+profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption that
+he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his
+conduct was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up,
+and the ideas of sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to
+pose as a monarch of the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his exhausted
+treasury he put to death his wealthy subjects and
+confiscated their property; even the poor fell victims to his
+thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a consulship
+upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should be
+offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole
+Roman people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a
+single stroke. In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally
+to punish the Germans for having invaded Roman territory, but in
+reality to get money by plunder and confiscation. Before leaving,
+he led his troops to the coast opposite Britain, and ordered them
+to pick up shells on the seashore, to be dedicated to the gods at
+Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return he entered Rome
+with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were built,
+statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood instituted
+to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new
+forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole
+Rome was free from internal disturbances during his reign;
+some insignificant conspiracies were discovered and rendered
+abortive. A personal insult to Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a
+praetorian cohort, led to Caligula&rsquo;s assassination on the 24th of
+January 41.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Suetonius, <i>Caligula</i>; Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius
+lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, <i>The Tragedy of the Caesars</i> (3rd ed.,
+1892); H.F. Pelham in <i>Quarterly Review</i> (April, 1905); H. Willrich,
+<i>Beiträge zur alten Geschichte</i> (1903); H. Schiller, <i>Geschichte der
+römischen Kaiserzeit</i>, i. pt. 1; J.B. Bury, <i>Student&rsquo;s Hist. of the
+Roman Empire</i> (1893); Merivale, <i>History of the Romans under the
+Empire</i>, ch. 48; H. Furneaux&rsquo;s <i>Annals</i> of Tacitus, ii. (introduction).
+Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L. Quidde,
+<i>Caligula</i>. <i>Eine Studie über römischen Cäsarenwahnsinn</i> and an
+anonymous supplement, <i>1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar?</i>
+(both 1894); and a reply, <i>Fin-de-Siècle-Geschichtsschreibung</i>, by
+G. Sommerfeldt (1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALAGO,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> the Senegal name of the long-tailed African representatives
+of the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as
+their technical designation. Till recently the galagos have
+been included in the family <i>Lemuridae</i>; but this is restricted to
+the lemurs of Madagascar, and they are now classed with the
+lorises and pottos in the family <i>Nycticebidae</i>, of which they form
+the section <i>Galaginae</i>, characterized by the great elongation of the
+upper portion of the feet (tarsus) and the power of folding the
+large ears. Throughout the greater part of Africa south of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page392" id="page392"></a>392</span>
+Sahara galagos are widely distributed in the wooded districts,
+from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far
+south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are very active at
+night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When they
+descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by
+jumping with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little
+animals, varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a
+rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails.
+There are several species, of which <i>G. crassicaudatus</i> from
+Mozambique is the largest; together with <i>G. garnetti</i> of Natal,
+<i>G. agisymbanus</i> of Zanzibar, and <i>G. monteiroi</i> of Angola, this
+represents the subgenus <i>Otolemur</i>. The typical group includes
+<i>G. senegalensis</i> (or <i>galago</i>) of Senegal, <i>G. alleni</i> of West and
+Central Africa, and <i>G. moholi</i> of South Africa; while <i>G. demidoffi</i>
+of West and Central Africa and <i>G. anomurus</i> of French Congoland
+represent the subgenus <i>Hemigalago</i>.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALANGAL<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span>, formerly written &ldquo;galingale,&rdquo; and sometimes
+&ldquo;garingal,&rdquo; <i>rhizoma galangae</i> (Arab. <i>Kholínjan</i>;<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> Ger. <i>Galgantwurzel</i>;
+Fr. <i>Racine de Galanga</i>), a drug, now obsolete, with an
+aromatic taste like that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser
+galangal root, <i>radix galangae minoris</i>, the ordinary galangal of
+commerce, is the dried rhizome of <i>Alpinia officinarum</i>, a plant of
+the natural order Zingiberaceae, growing in the Chinese island of
+Hainan, where it is cultivated, and probably also in the woods of
+the southern provinces of China. The plant is closely allied to
+<i>Alpinia calcarata</i>, the rhizome of which is sold in the bazaars of
+some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems attain a
+length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate and
+light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with
+red veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses,
+sometimes more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow
+horizontally, and are ¾ in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to
+have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to
+have been first introduced into Europe by Arabian physicians.
+It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn Khurdádbah, an Arabian
+geographer who flourished in the latter half of the 9th century,
+and &ldquo;gallengar&rdquo; (gallingale or galangal) is one of the ingredients
+in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a &ldquo;wen salve&rdquo; (see O. Cockayne,
+<i>Saxon Leechdoms</i>, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at present
+in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem
+in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still
+employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in
+Russia, where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring
+for liqueurs.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Apparently derived from the Chinese <i>Kau-liang-Kiang</i>, <i>i.e.</i>
+Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after
+the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called Kau-liang
+(see F. Porter Smith, <i>Contrib. to the Materia Medica ... of
+China</i>, p. 9, 1871).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALAPAGOS ISLANDS<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span>, an archipelago of five larger and ten
+smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator.
+The nearest island to the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of
+Ecuador, to which country they belong. The name is derived
+from <i>galápago</i>, a tortoise, on account of the giant species, the
+characteristic feature of the fauna. The islands were discovered
+early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave them their
+present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names
+of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for
+whom the group formed a convenient retreat.</p>
+
+<p>The larger members of the group, several of which attain an
+elevation of 2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m.
+long, 28 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and
+an extreme elevation of 5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina,
+Indefatigable or Santa Cruz, Chatham or San Cristobal, James
+or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa Maria. The total land
+area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that of the West
+Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters,
+a few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence
+that the archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The
+number of main craters may be about twenty-five, but there
+are very many small eruptive cones on the flanks of the old
+volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on Chatham with
+some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed
+huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other
+officials of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in
+1832, when General Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island,
+naming it in honour of Juan José Flores, president of Ecuador.
+A governor has been appointed since 1885, some importance
+being foreseen for the islands in connexion with the cutting of the
+Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to Australia opened
+up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of the
+group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets
+numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no
+doubt escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild
+cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs&mdash;the last large and
+fierce&mdash;which occur abundantly on most of the islands have
+escaped from domestication.</p>
+
+<p>The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a
+dense barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable
+thicket of tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended,
+give place to taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered
+with orchids and trailing moss (<i>orchilla</i>), and from which creepers
+hang down interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low
+grounds are parched and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of
+Peruvian cactus and stunted shrubs, and a most uninviting shore.
+The contrast between this low zone and the upper zone of rich
+vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously marked. From July
+to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and give
+moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry.
+Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does
+not occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water
+is scarce. Though the islands are under the equator, the climate
+is not intensely hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the
+Antarctic sea, which, having followed the coast of Peru as far as
+Cape Blanco, bear off to the N.W. towards and through the
+Galapagos. The mean temperature of the lower zone is about
+71° F., that of the upper from 66° to 62°.</p>
+
+<p>The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to
+Ecuador, on account of the guano and the orchilla moss found
+on them and exported to Europe. Except on Charles Island,
+where settlement has existed longest, little or no influence of
+the presence of man is evident in the group; still, the running
+wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the vegetation, especially
+goats, must in a comparatively short period greatly modify the
+biological conditions of the islands.</p>
+
+<p>The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so
+distinctly oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief importance
+to this archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in
+the &ldquo;Beagle.&rdquo; The Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare advantage
+from its isolated situation, and from the fact that its
+history has never been interfered with by any aborigines of the
+human race. Of the seven species of giant tortoises known to
+science (although at the discovery of the islands there were
+probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to its
+own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two
+species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the
+birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while
+more than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the
+flora is unknown elsewhere.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific
+investigators&mdash;by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and
+the naturalists of the &ldquo;Albatross,&rdquo; between 1888 and 1891; and in
+1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially undertaken
+at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very complete
+collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions,
+been brought together; but their examination does not materially
+change the facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin,
+from the evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he
+&ldquo;no doubt would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded
+by Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which
+we are acquainted now&rdquo; (Günther). His conclusions were that the
+group &ldquo;has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have
+its members been at any time closer together&rdquo;; and that the character
+of the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over
+from America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where
+in their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees
+and ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page393" id="page393"></a>393</span>
+exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists
+that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from
+subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large
+island mass into a number of islets, wherein the separated species
+became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these
+giant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former
+land connexion with the continent of America may be sustained.
+&ldquo;Nearly all authorities agree that it is not probable that they have
+crossed the wide sea between the Galapagos Islands and the American
+continent, although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to
+swim, they can float on the water. If their ancestors had been
+carried out to sea once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as
+the Galapagos Islands&rdquo; (Wallace), &ldquo;they must have been numerous
+on the continent&rdquo; (Rothschild and Hartert). No remains, and of
+course no living species, of these tortoises are known to exist or have
+existed on the mainland. Rothschild and Hartert think &ldquo;it is
+more natural to assume the disappearance of a great stock of animals,
+the remains of which have survived, ... than to assume the disappearance
+in comparatively recent times (<i>i.e.</i> in the Eocene period
+or later) of enormous land masses.&rdquo; Past elevations of land, however
+(and doubtless equally great subsidences) have taken place in
+South America since the Eocene, and the conclusion that extensive
+areas of land have subsided in the Indian Ocean has long been based
+on a somewhat similar distribution of giant tortoises in the Mascarene
+region.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Darwin, <i>Voyage of the &ldquo;Beagle&rdquo;</i>; O. Salvin, &ldquo;On
+the Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i>
+part ix. (1876); Sclater and Salvin, &ldquo;Characters of New Species
+collected by Dr Habel in the Galapagos Islands,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Zool. Soc.
+London</i>, 1870, pp. 322-327; A.R. Wallace, <i>Geographical Distribution
+of Animals</i> (New York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, <i>Ein Besuch
+der Galapagos Inseln</i> (Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in <i>Geographical
+Journal</i>, vi. 560 (1895); W.L. and P.L. Sclater, <i>The Geography of
+Mammals</i> (London, 1899); Ridgway, &ldquo;Birds of the Galapagos
+Archipelago,&rdquo; <i>Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.</i> vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897);
+Baur, &ldquo;New Observations on the Origin of the Galapagos Islands,&rdquo;
+<i>Amer. Nat.</i> (1897), pp. 661-680, 864-896; A. Agassiz, &ldquo;The Galapagos
+Islands,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool.</i> vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Günther,
+<i>Proc. Linn. Soc.</i> (London (President&rsquo;s Address), October 1898),
+pp. 14-29 (with bibliography from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-tortoises);
+Rothschild and Hartert, &ldquo;Review of the Ornithology
+of the Galapagos Islands,&rdquo; <i>Novitates zoologicae</i>, vi. pp. 85-205;
+B.L. Robinson, &ldquo;Flora of the Galapagos Islands,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Amer.
+Acad. of Arts and Sciences</i>, xxxviii. (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALASHIELS,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on
+Gala Water, within a short distance of its junction with the
+Tweed, 33½ m. S.S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.
+The town stretches for more than 2 m. along both banks of the
+river, the mills and factories occupying the valley by the stream,
+the villas and better-class houses the high-lying ground on either
+side. The principal structures include the municipal buildings,
+corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market cross. The
+town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council, and,
+along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border)
+group of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures,
+dating from the close of the 16th century, are the most
+important in Scotland, though now mainly confined to the weaving
+of tweeds. Other leading industries are hosiery, tanning
+(with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and brass founding,
+engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built for
+the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.),
+it became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the
+Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose
+peel-tower was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created
+into a burgh of barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts&rsquo; Work
+begins near the town and passes immediately to the west. Clovenfords,
+3½ m. W., is noted for the Tweed vineries, which are heated
+by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply the London market throughout
+the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is Ashestiel, where Sir
+Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he wrote his most
+famous poems and began <i>Waverley</i>, and which he left for Abbotsford.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALATIA.<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman
+<i>Gallograecia</i>) this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples
+to a large inland district of Asia Minor since its occupation by
+Gaulish tribes in the 3rd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Bounded on the N. by
+Bithynia and Paphlagonia, W. by Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and
+Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the greater part of the
+modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus eastwards to
+Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra southwards
+to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including the
+plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history),&mdash;a
+rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad.</p>
+
+<p>Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here
+ranging from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographically
+into two parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak),&mdash;a
+small eastern district lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije
+Irmak, the principal affluent of the Halys, and a large western
+region drained almost entirely by the Sangarius (Sakaria) and its
+tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists of a series of plains
+with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare hills. But the greater
+part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating uplands, intersected
+by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast level waste of
+treeless (anc. <i>Axylon</i>) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia; these
+uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage
+for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart,
+and the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general
+condition and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient
+as in modern times.</p>
+
+<p>The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+They numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men,
+the rest being doubtless women and children; and not long after
+their arrival we find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi,
+Tolistobogii and Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate
+sphere of operations. They had split off from the army which
+invaded Greece under Brennus in 279 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and, marching into
+Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed over to Asia at
+the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required help in
+his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were the
+scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country,
+as allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious
+check, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted
+several severe defeats upon them, and about 232 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> forced
+them to settle permanently in the region to which they gave their
+name. Probably they already occupied parts of Galatia, but
+definite limits were now fixed and their right to the district was
+formally recognized. The tribes were settled where they afterwards
+remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the Tolistobogii
+round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The constitution
+of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably to
+Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr.
+<span class="grk" title="tetrarchiai">&#964;&#949;&#964;&#961;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#943;&#945;&#953;</span>), each governed by a chief (&ldquo;tetrarch&rdquo;) of its own
+with a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in
+cases of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn
+from the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place called
+Drynemeton. But the power of the Gauls was not yet broken.
+They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in their wars with
+Antiochus, and after Attalus&rsquo; death their raids into W. Asia
+Minor forced Rome in 189 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to send an expedition against them
+under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson.
+Henceforward their military power declined and they fell at times
+under Pontic ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by
+the Mithradatic wars, in which they heartily supported Rome.
+In the settlement of 64 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Galatia became a client-state of
+the empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs
+(wrongly styled &ldquo;tetrarchs&rdquo;) were appointed, one for each tribe.
+But this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one
+of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and
+Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and
+was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the
+death of the third king Amyntas in 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, Galatia was incorporated
+by Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces
+were more enthusiastically loyal.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the
+arrival of the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited
+by Phrygians, and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians
+and other native races. This native population remained, and
+constituted the majority of the inhabitants of the rural parts
+and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were left in
+possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, <i>B.G.</i> i. 31) on
+condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page394" id="page394"></a>394</span>
+took the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the
+arts and crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands.
+They were henceforth ranked as &ldquo;Galatians&rdquo; by the outside
+world equally with their overlords, and it was from their numbers
+that the &ldquo;Galatian&rdquo; slaves who figure in the markets of the
+ancient world were drawn. The conquerors, who were few in
+number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not in the
+towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their castles
+kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With the
+decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with
+the natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation
+was accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became
+as complete as that of the Normans with the Saxons in England,
+but they gave to the mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and
+long retained their national characteristics and social customs,
+as well as their language (which continued in use, side by side
+with Greek, in the 4th century after Christ). In the 1st century,
+when St Paul made his missionary journeys, even the towns
+Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were few) were not
+Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and trade,
+was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected
+by Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought
+begin to appear in the towns only in the later 2nd century.
+In the rustic parts a knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the
+3rd century; but only in the 4th and 5th centuries, after the
+transference of the centre of government first to Nicomedia and
+then to Constantinople placed Galatia on the highway of imperial
+communication, was Hellenism in its Christian form gradually
+diffused over the country. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ancyra</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pessinus</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gordium</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+included the greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz.
+Galatia Proper, part of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia,
+Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia, part of Lycaonia (including
+Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly 100 years it was the
+frontier province, and the changes in its boundaries are an
+epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the Euphrates, one
+client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in 6-5
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>; Sebastopolis, 3-2 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; Amasia, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1-2; Comana, <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+34-35,&mdash;together forming Pontus Galaticus,&mdash;the Pontic kingdom
+of Polemon, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 70 Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 17) with
+Armenia Minor became the centre of the forward movement and
+Galatia lost its importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a
+vast double governorship until <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 114 (probably), when Trajan
+separated the two parts, making Galatia an inferior province of
+diminished size, while Cappadocia with Armenia Minor and
+Pontus became a great consular military province, charged with
+the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian&rsquo;s reorganization
+Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the name
+retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia
+of Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the
+addition of a few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia
+Prima and Secunda or Salutaris, the division indicating the
+renewed importance of Galatia in the Byzantine empire. After
+suffering from Persian and Arabic raids, Galatia was conquered
+by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed to the
+Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.</p>
+
+<p>The question whether the &ldquo;Churches of Galatia,&rdquo; to which St
+Paul addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or
+southern part of the province has been much discussed, and in
+England Prof. Sir W.M. Ramsay has been the principal advocate
+of the adoption of the South-Galatian theory, which maintains
+that they were the churches planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and
+Antioch (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Galatians</a></span>). In the present writer&rsquo;s opinion this is
+supported by the study of the historical and geographical facts.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Van Gelder, <i>De Gallis in Graecia et Asia</i> (1888);
+Staehelin, <i>Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater</i> (1897); Perrot, <i>De Galatia
+prov. Rom.</i> (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, <i>Histor. Geogr.</i> (1890), <i>St Paul</i>
+(1898), and Introd. to <i>Histor. Commentary on Galatians</i> (1899).
+For antiquities generally, Perrot, <i>Explor. archéol. de la Galatie</i> (1862);
+K. Humann and O. Puchstein, <i>Reisen in Kleinasien</i> (1890); Koerte,
+<i>Athen. Mitteilungen</i> (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, <i>Journ. of
+Hellenic Studies</i> (1899); and Anderson, <i>Map of Asia Minor</i> (London,
+Murray, 1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. G. C. A.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
+attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above
+statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
+on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.&mdash;Ed. <i>E.B.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE,<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> one of the books of the New
+Testament. This early Christian scripture is one of the books
+militant in the world&rsquo;s literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his
+propaganda was no accident in its history; it originated in a
+controversy, and the varying views of the momentous struggle
+depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally determined, from
+time to time, the conception of the epistle&rsquo;s aim and date.
+Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be
+given here. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>.) It must suffice to say that to the present
+writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not
+with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of
+Acts xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra,
+Derbe and Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian <span class="grk" title="chôra">&#967;&#974;&#961;&#945;</span> with
+Phrygia upon the other.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a> A further visit to the latter country is
+mentioned, upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to
+whom the epistle was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the
+most part (iv. 8) of pagan birth, belonging to the northern
+section of the province, perhaps mainly in its south-western
+district adjoining Bithynia and the province of Asia. The scanty
+allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as any objection
+to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical difficulty.
+The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all does
+the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that
+the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>,
+was Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and
+inscriptions indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated
+throughout the province did not exclude the infusion either of
+Greek religious conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree
+of elementary Greek culture needful for the understanding of
+Galatians cannot be shown to have been foreign to the inhabitants
+of north Galatia. So far as any trustworthy evidence
+is available, such Hellenic notions as are presupposed in this
+epistle might well have been intelligible to the Galatians of the
+northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance with Roman
+jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends (<i>Über
+röm. Recht im Galaterbrief</i>, 1895), not merely that Paul must have
+acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle
+there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of
+Roman law was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.</p>
+
+<p>The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after
+the period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the <i>terminus ad quem</i> is
+more difficult to fix.<a name="fa2e" id="fa2e" href="#ft2e"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The composition may be placed (cf. the
+present writer&rsquo;s <i>Historical New Testament</i>, pp. 124 f. for details)
+either during the earlier part of Paul&rsquo;s residence at Ephesus
+(Acts xix. 1, 10, so most editors and scholars), or on his way from
+Ephesus to Corinth, or at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek,
+Salmon).</p>
+
+<p>The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page395" id="page395"></a>395</span>
+but the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul
+undertaken some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe.
+When he composed this letter, he had visited the churches twice.
+On the former of these visits (iv. 13 <span class="grk" title="to proteron">&#964;&#8056; &#960;&#961;&#972;&#964;&#949;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>), though
+broken down by illness (2 Cor. xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically
+welcomed, and the immediate result of his mission was
+an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5, iv. 14 f.). The local
+Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But they failed to
+maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7, v. 21) the
+apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due to
+discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence
+in some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective.
+Otherwise, this second visit is left in the shadow.<a name="fa3e" id="fa3e" href="#ft3e"><span class="sp">3</span></a> So far as it
+was accompanied by warnings, these were evidently general
+rather than elicited by any definite and imminent peril to the
+churches. Not long afterwards, however, some judaizing
+opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous anonymity of
+the <span class="grk" title="tines">&#964;&#953;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span> in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by one prominent and
+influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance among the
+Galatians, promulgating a &ldquo;gospel&rdquo; which meant fidelity to, not
+freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament,
+they represented Paul&rsquo;s gospel as an imperfect creed which
+required to be supplemented by legal exactitude,<a name="fa4e" id="fa4e" href="#ft4e"><span class="sp">4</span></a> including
+ritual observance (iv. 10) and even circumcision,<a name="fa5e" id="fa5e" href="#ft5e"><span class="sp">5</span></a> while at the
+same time they sought to undermine his authority<a name="fa6e" id="fa6e" href="#ft6e"><span class="sp">6</span></a> by pointing
+out that it was derived from the apostles at Jerusalem and
+therefore that his teaching must be open to the checks and tests
+of that orthodox primitive standard which they themselves
+claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic privileges
+was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory
+upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).</p>
+
+<p>When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had
+evidently not yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised.
+It was not too late to arrest the Galatians on their downward
+plane, and the apostle, unable or unwilling to re-visit them,
+despatched this epistle. How or when the information came to
+him, we do not know. But the gravity of the situation renders
+it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time in writing
+to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from
+allusions like those in i. 6 (<span class="grk" title="tacheôs">&#964;&#945;&#967;&#941;&#969;&#962;</span> and <span class="grk" title="metatithesthe">&#956;&#949;&#964;&#945;&#964;&#943;&#952;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#949;</span>&mdash;the lapse
+still in progress), we may conclude that the interval between the
+reception of the news and the composition of the letter must have
+been comparatively brief.</p>
+
+<p>After a short introduction<a name="fa7e" id="fa7e" href="#ft7e"><span class="sp">7</span></a> (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual
+word of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical
+vindication<a name="fa8e" id="fa8e" href="#ft8e"><span class="sp">8</span></a> of his apostolic independence, which, developed
+negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main
+sections in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he
+drifts over from an account of this interview with Peter into a
+sort of monologue upon the incompatibility of the Mosaic law
+with the Christian gospel (ii. 15-21),<a name="fa9e" id="fa9e" href="#ft9e"><span class="sp">9</span></a> and this starts him afresh
+upon a trenchant expostulation and appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding
+the alternatives of law and spirit. Faith dominates this section;
+faith in its historical career and as the vantage-ground of
+Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be merely a
+provisional episode<a name="fa10e" id="fa10e" href="#ft10e"><span class="sp">10</span></a> culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28) as a
+message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The
+genuine &ldquo;sons of Abraham&rdquo; are not legalistic Jewish Christians
+but those who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate
+outburst then follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the
+apostle essays, with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity
+over legalism as the free and final religion for men, applying
+this to the moral situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12).
+This conception of freedom then leads him to define the moral
+responsibilities of the faith (v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent
+misconception and to enforce the claims of the gospel upon the
+individual and social life of the Galatians. The epilogue (vi.
+11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt, emphatic sentences,
+the main points of the epistle.</p>
+
+<p>The allusion in vi. 11 (<span class="grk" title="idete pêlikois hymin grammasin egrapsa
+tê emê cheiri">&#7988;&#948;&#949;&#964;&#949; &#960;&#951;&#955;&#943;&#954;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#8017;&#956;&#8150;&#957; &#947;&#961;&#940;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#957; &#7956;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#968;&#945; &#964;&#8135; &#7952;&#956;&#8135; &#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#943;</span>) is to the large bold size<a name="fa11e" id="fa11e" href="#ft11e"><span class="sp">11</span></a> of the letters in Paul&rsquo;s
+handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are
+matters of dispute. It is &ldquo;a sensational heading&rdquo; (Findlay),
+but it may either refer<a name="fa12e" id="fa12e" href="#ft12e"><span class="sp">12</span></a> to the whole epistle (so Augustine,
+Chrysostom, &amp;c., followed by Zahn) or, as most hold (with
+Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18). Paul commonly dictated his
+letters. His use of the autograph here may have been to prevent
+any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal emphasis of his
+message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians knew his
+handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript from a
+feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize that,
+after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating
+them like children, &ldquo;playfully hinting that surely the large
+letters will touch their hearts&rdquo; (so Deissmann, <i>Bible-Studies</i>
+(1901), 346 f.).</p>
+
+<p>The earliest allusion to the epistle<a name="fa13e" id="fa13e" href="#ft13e"><span class="sp">13</span></a> is the notice of its inclusion
+in Marcion&rsquo;s canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be
+heard in Justin Martyr&rsquo;s <i>Dial.</i> xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known
+to Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of
+its popularity multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the
+Ophites to Irenaeus and the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory&rsquo;s
+<i>Canon and Text of N.T.</i>, 1907, pp. 201-203). It is no longer
+necessary for serious criticism to refute the objections to its
+authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain quarters;<a name="fa14e" id="fa14e" href="#ft14e"><span class="sp">14</span></a>
+as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar&rsquo;s commentaries,
+&ldquo;to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism.&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page396" id="page396"></a>396</span>
+Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion
+(cf. Tert. <i>Adv. Marc.</i> 2-4) removed what he judged to be some
+interpolations, but van Manen&rsquo;s attempt to prove that Marcion&rsquo;s
+text is more original than the canonical (<i>Theolog. Tijdschrift</i>,
+1887, 400 f. 451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen&rsquo;s refutation
+in <i>Die Einheitlichkeit der paulin</i>. <i>Briefe</i>, 1894, pp. 100 f. and
+Zahn&rsquo;s <i>Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons</i>, ii. 409 f.), and little or no
+weight attaches to the attempts made (<i>e.g.</i> by J.A. Cramer) to
+disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even
+D. Völter, who applies this method to the other Pauline epistles,
+admits that Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a
+literary unity (<i>Paulus und seine Briefe</i>, 1905, pp. 229-285). The
+frequent roughnesses of the traditional text suggest, however, that
+here and there marginal glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a
+(<span class="grk" title="to gar Sina oros estin en tê Arabia">&#964;&#8056; &#947;&#8048;&#961; &#931;&#953;&#957;&#8118; &#8004;&#961;&#959;&#962; &#7952;&#963;&#964;&#8054;&#957; &#7952;&#957; &#964;&#8135; &#7944;&#961;&#945;&#946;&#943;&#8115;</span>) probably represents
+the explanatory and prosaic gloss of a later editor, as many
+scholars have seen from Bentley (<i>Opuscula philologica</i>, 1781, pp.
+533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S. Baljon and C.
+Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and unpremeditated,
+&ldquo;one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine
+and inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood,
+such as may often have been seen by his Galatians&rdquo; (J.
+Macgregor). But there is a certain rhythmical balance, especially
+in the first chapter (cf. J. Weiss, <i>Beiträge zur paulin. Rhetorik</i>,
+1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere the rush and flow of feeling carry
+with them some care for rhetorical form, in the shape of
+antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might more or less
+unconsciously retain.<a name="fa15e" id="fa15e" href="#ft15e"><span class="sp">15</span></a> All through, the letter shows the breaks
+and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis.
+Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument,
+are its most characteristic features.<a name="fa16e" id="fa16e" href="#ft16e"><span class="sp">16</span></a> The trenchant remonstrances
+and fiery outbursts make it indeed &ldquo;read like a
+dithyramb from beginning to end.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Of more modern editions in English, the most
+competent are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic
+and grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869),
+J.B. Lightfoot (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and
+F. Rendall (<i>Expositor&rsquo;s Greek Testament</i>, 1903) on the Greek text;
+Dr Sanday (in Ellicott&rsquo;s <i>Commentary</i>, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor
+(Edinburgh, 1879), B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (<i>Pulpit
+Comment.</i>, 1885), Dr Agar Beet (London, 1885, &amp;c.), Dr W.F.
+Adeney (<i>Century Bible</i>), Dr E.H. Perowne (<i>Cambridge Bible</i>, 1890)
+and Dr James Drummond (<i>Internat. Handbooks to N.T.</i>, 1899) also
+comment on the English text. The editions of Lightfoot and
+Jowett are especially valuable for their subsidiary essays, and Sir
+W.M. Ramsay&rsquo;s <i>Historical Commentary on Galatians</i> (1899) contains
+archaeological and historical material which is often illuminating.
+The French editions are few and minor, those by A. Sardinoux
+(Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being adequate, however. In
+Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by F. Sieffert
+(in Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Comment.</i>, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed., 1907); these
+supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott (1834), A.
+Wieseler (Göttingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859), J.C.K. von
+Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd ed.,
+<i>Hand.-Commentar</i>, 1892), and Zöckler (2nd ed., 1894) may still be
+consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s commentary (1852)
+discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the
+standpoint of Baur&rsquo;s criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed.,
+1894) and W. Bousset (<i>in Die Schriften des N.T.</i>, 2nd ed., 1907) are
+more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843),
+F.X. Reithmayr (1865), A. Schäfer (Münster, 1890) and F. Cornely
+(1892, also in <i>Cursus scripturae sacrae</i>, 1907) are the most satisfactory
+modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it
+should not be forgotten that the 16th century produced the <i>Literalis
+expositio</i> of Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre
+Barahona (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition
+of Luther (Latin, 1519, &amp;c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After
+Calvin and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (<i>Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe
+an die Gal. u. Römer Christen</i>, 1831) was perhaps the most independent
+interpreter. For the patristic editions, see the introductory
+sections in Zahn and Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle
+is admirably expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten
+(<i>Das Evangelium Paulus</i>, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (<i>St Paul&rsquo;s
+Conception of Christianity</i>, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay
+(<i>Expositor&rsquo;s Bible</i>). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (<i>Galat. und
+Apostelgeschichte</i>, 1882) and M. Thomas (<i>Mélanges d&rsquo;histoire et
+de litt. religieuse</i>, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H.
+Askwith&rsquo;s essay (<i>Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date</i>,
+1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S.
+Wood (<i>Studies in St Paul&rsquo;s Epistle to the Galatians</i>, 1887) criticizes
+Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all biographies
+of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in works
+like Sabatier&rsquo;s <i>The Apostle Paul</i> (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon&rsquo;s <i>Story of
+St Paul</i> (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw&rsquo;s <i>The Pauline Epistles</i> (2nd ed.,
+pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, <i>Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli</i> (1902), i.
+pp. 111 f., and Volkmar&rsquo;s <i>Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum Galaterbrief</i>
+(1887), to which may be added a series of papers by Haupt in <i>Deutsche
+Evang.-Blätter</i> (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183, 238-259, and an earlier
+set by Hilgenfeld in the <i>Zeitschrift für wiss. Theologie</i> (&ldquo;Zur Vorgeschichte
+des Gal.&rdquo; 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866, pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.).
+Other monographs and essays have been noted in the course of this
+article. See further under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Paul</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Mt.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which
+lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are
+stated in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still
+a matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent
+dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the
+archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the
+north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia
+as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English
+reader in P.W. Schmiedel&rsquo;s exhaustive article in <i>Encycl. Biblica</i>
+(1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Student&rsquo;s Life of Paul</i> (1902),
+pp. 260-272. Schmiedel&rsquo;s arguments are mainly directed against
+Sir W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A.
+Steinmann, takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian
+side of the controversy (<i>Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes</i>, Münster,
+i. W., 1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert
+and Zöckler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman,
+Prof. Valentine Weber.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2e" id="ft2e" href="#fa2e"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory
+is to put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous
+with, if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in <i>The
+Date of St Paul&rsquo;s Epistle to the Galatians</i> (1906).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3e" id="ft3e" href="#fa3e"><span class="fn">3</span></a> It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
+were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten,
+Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsäcker) or whether they
+are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and
+Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the
+opening of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul
+seems to have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians&rsquo;
+defection.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4e" id="ft4e" href="#fa4e"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in
+ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5e" id="ft5e" href="#fa5e"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The critical dubiety about <span class="grk" title="oude">&#959;&#8016;&#948;&#941;</span> in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn&rsquo;s excursus and
+Prof. Lake in <i>Expositor</i>, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws a slight doubt
+on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that the agitators had
+quoted Paul&rsquo;s practice as an authoritative sanction of the rite.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6e" id="ft6e" href="#fa6e"><span class="fn">6</span></a> This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word <span class="grk" title="oi dokountes">&#959;&#7985; &#948;&#959;&#954;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#962;</span>
+(&ldquo;those of repute,&rdquo; ii. 6), while other echoes of their talk can be
+overheard in such phrases as &ldquo;we are Abraham&rsquo;s seed&rdquo; (iii. 16),
+&ldquo;sinners of Gentiles&rdquo; (ii. 15) and &ldquo;Jerusalem which is our mother&rdquo;
+(iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of &ldquo;seeking to please
+men&rdquo; (i. 10) and &ldquo;preaching circumcision&rdquo; (v. 11).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7e" id="ft7e" href="#fa7e"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Not only is the address &ldquo;to the churches of Galatia&rdquo; unusually
+bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was
+on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to concentrate
+attention upon his personal commission. Yet the <span class="grk" title="hêmeis">&#7969;&#956;&#949;&#8150;&#962;</span> of
+i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8e" id="ft8e" href="#fa8e"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Cf. Hausrath&rsquo;s <i>History of the N.T. Times</i> (iii. pp. 181-199), with
+the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that &ldquo;Paul stands before us like an
+ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and
+shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy
+to be called Imperator.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9e" id="ft9e" href="#fa9e"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Cf. T.H. Green&rsquo;s <i>Works</i>, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the indirect
+abstract of the speech&rsquo;s argument, but in verses 18-21 the apostle,
+carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he dictates
+to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10e" id="ft10e" href="#fa10e"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
+(cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy
+for the evil <i>yezer</i> of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, it
+is an aggravation.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11e" id="ft11e" href="#fa11e"><span class="fn">11</span></a> According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
+use of his son, <span class="grk" title="idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin">&#7984;&#948;&#943;&#8115; &#967;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#8054; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#956;&#949;&#947;&#940;&#955;&#959;&#953;&#962; &#947;&#961;&#940;&#956;&#956;&#945;&#963;&#953;&#957;</span> (cf. Field&rsquo;s <i>Notes
+on Translation of the New Testament</i>, p. 191). If the point of
+Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot have contemplated
+copies of the epistle being made. He must have assumed
+that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 Thess.
+iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, <i>Johannine Grammar</i>, pp. 530-532).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12e" id="ft12e" href="#fa12e"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For <span class="grk" title="egrapsa">&#7956;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#968;&#945;</span>, the epistolary aorist, at the close of a letter, cf.
+Xen. <i>Anab.</i> i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) and Lucian,
+<i>Dial. Meretr.</i> x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13e" id="ft13e" href="#fa13e"><span class="fn">13</span></a> Hermann Schulze&rsquo;s attempt to bring out the filiation of the
+later N.T. literature to Galatians (<i>Die Ursprünglichkeit des Galaterbriefes</i>,
+Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of the literary
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14e" id="ft14e" href="#fa14e"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Cf. especially J. Gloe&rsquo;s <i>Die jüngste Kritik des Galaterbriefes</i>
+(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon&rsquo;s reply to Steck and Loman (<i>Exeg.-kritische
+verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal.</i>, 1889). The
+English reader may consult Schmiedel&rsquo;s article (already referred
+to) and Dr R.J. Knowling&rsquo;s <i>The Testimony of St Paul to Christ</i>
+(1905), 28 f.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15e" id="ft15e" href="#fa15e"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,
+<i>Die Rhythmen der asianischen und römischen Kunstprosa</i> (1905),
+pp. 43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into
+unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 (<span class="grk" title="emoi men ouk oknêron,
+hymin d&rsquo; asphales">&#7952;&#956;&#959;&#8054; &#956;&#8050;&#957; &#959;&#965;&#954; &#8000;&#954;&#957;&#951;&#961;&#972;&#957;, &#8017;&#956;&#8150;&#957; &#948;&#8125; &#7936;&#963;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#941;&#962;</span>) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence
+of Menander.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16e" id="ft16e" href="#fa16e"><span class="fn">16</span></a> This affects even the vocabulary which has also &ldquo;einen gewissen
+vulgären Zug&rdquo; (Nägeli, <i>Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus</i>, 1905,
+pp. 78-79).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALATINA,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce,
+from which it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop.
+(1901) 12,917 (town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable
+for the fine Gothic church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by
+Raimondello del Balzo Orsini, count of Soleto, with a fine portal
+and rose-window. The interior contains frescoes by Francesco
+d&rsquo; Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the fine mausoleum of the
+son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported by four columns,
+with his statue beneath it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALATZ<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (<i>Gala&#355;ii</i>), a city of Rumania, capital of the department
+of Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m.
+W. by N. of its mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including
+12,000 Jews. The Danube is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of
+Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E. Galatz is built on a slight
+eminence among the marshes which line the intervening shore
+and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the shallow
+mere called Lake Bratych (<i>Brate&#351;ul</i>), more than 50 sq. m. in
+extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th
+century, of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved
+streets and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every
+year, the city improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays
+were constructed along the Danube; electric tramways were
+opened in the main streets, which were lighted by gas or
+electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher, or north-western
+part of the city, which is the more open and comfortable,
+contains many of the chief buildings. These include the prefecture,
+consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals
+and the offices of the international commission for the control of
+the Danube (<i>q.v.</i>). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at
+Galatz. There are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and
+other churches; the most interesting being the cathedral, and
+St Mary&rsquo;s church, in which is the tomb of the famous Cossack
+chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been rifled of its contents
+by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and the headquarters
+of the III. army corps, protected by a line of fortifications which
+extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as the Sereth line.
+But the main importance of the city is commercial. Galatz is the
+chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three waterways,
+the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual
+volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways
+which intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles,
+machinery, and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a
+large trade in petroleum and salt, Galatz ranks first among
+Rumanian cities in its export of timber, and second to Braila in
+its export of grain. It possesses many saw-mills, paste-mills,
+flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and petroleum refineries;
+manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap and candles.
+Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but cargoes
+consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at
+Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the
+principal owners being British.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALAXY,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> properly the <span class="sc">Milky Way</span>, from the Greek name
+<span class="grk" title="ho galaxias">&#8001; &#947;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#958;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>, sc. <span class="grk" title="kyklos">&#954;&#973;&#954;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, from <span class="grk" title="gala">&#947;&#940;&#955;&#945;</span>, milk, cf. the Lat. <i>via lactea</i> (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Star</a></span>). The word is more generally employed in its figurative or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page397" id="page397"></a>397</span>
+transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant or distinguished
+persons or objects.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS,<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> Roman general and orator.
+He served under Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian
+War. As praetor in 151 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> in farther Spain he made himself
+infamous by the treacherous murder of a number of Lusitanians,
+with their wives and children, after inducing them to surrender
+by the promise of grants of land. For this in 149 he was brought
+to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by holding up his
+little children before the people to gain their sympathy. He was
+consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an
+eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in
+Cicero&rsquo;s opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His
+speeches, however, were almost forgotten in Cicero&rsquo;s time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Livy xlv. 35; Appian, <i>Hisp.</i> 58-60; Cicero, <i>De orat.</i> i. 53, iii. 7;
+Brutus 21.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> Roman emperor (June <span class="scs">A.D.</span>
+68 to January 69), born near Terracina, on the 24th of December
+5 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth,
+but unconnected either by birth or by adoption with the first six
+Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of
+remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and
+Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, vi. 20;
+Suetonius, <i>Galba</i>, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he acquired
+a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany,
+Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and
+impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation
+of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served
+Claudius. For the first half of Nero&rsquo;s reign he lived in retirement,
+till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of
+Hispania Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68 Galba was informed
+of Nero&rsquo;s intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of
+Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first inclined to follow the
+example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter
+renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus,
+the praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived
+Galba&rsquo;s spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the
+legate of the senate and Roman people; after the murder of
+Nero, he assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for
+Rome. At first he was welcomed by the senate and the party of
+order, but he was never popular with the soldiers or the people.
+He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by scornfully refusing
+to pay them the reward promised in his name, and disgusted the
+mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His
+advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in
+the hands of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of
+Germany, who demanded that the senate should choose another
+emperor, first made him aware of his own unpopularity and the
+general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he
+adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi
+Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His
+choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a
+sign of fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the
+usual donative was not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly
+governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba&rsquo;s earliest supporters,
+disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into
+communication with the discontented praetorians, and was
+adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to
+meet the rebels&mdash;he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a
+litter&mdash;was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near the
+Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial administration
+he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due
+either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the
+growing infirmities of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would
+have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been
+emperor (&ldquo;omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, <i>Histories</i>, i. 7-49;
+Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, <i>Civil War and
+Rebellion in the Roman Empire, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 69-70</i> (1908); W.A. Spooner,
+<i>On the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius</i> in Introd. to his edition
+(1891) of the <i>Histories</i> of Tacitus.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALBANUM<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> (Heb. <i>Helben&#257;h</i>; Gr. <span class="grk" title="chalbanê">&#967;&#945;&#955;&#946;&#940;&#957;&#951;</span>), a gum-resin, the
+product of <i>Ferula galbaniflua</i>, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps
+also of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or
+soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or
+occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or
+greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a
+peculiar, somewhat musky odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212.
+It contains about 8% of terpene; about 65% of a resin which
+contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a very small
+quantity of the colourless crystalline substance <i>umbelliferone</i>,
+C<span class="su">9</span>H<span class="su">6</span>O<span class="su">3</span>. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In Exodus
+xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the making
+of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in
+medicine, and Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary
+curative powers, concluding his account of it with the
+assertion that &ldquo;the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium
+is sufficient to kill a serpent.&rdquo; The drug is occasionally given
+in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It
+has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a
+volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolescent.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALCHAS,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana,
+Kohistan and Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu
+Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, are identified with the <i>Calcienses
+populi</i> of the lay Jesuit Benedict Goes, who crossed the Pamir
+in 1603 and described them as &ldquo;of light hair and beard like the
+Belgians.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;Galcha,&rdquo; which has been explained as
+meaning &ldquo;the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the
+mountains,&rdquo; in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik
+family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably
+simply the Persian <i>galcha</i>, &ldquo;clown&rdquo; or &ldquo;rustic,&rdquo; in reference to
+their uncouth manners. The Galchas conform physically to
+what has been called the &ldquo;Alpine or Celtic European race,&rdquo; so
+much so that French anthropologists have termed them &ldquo;those
+belated Savoyards of Kohistan.&rdquo; D&rsquo;Ujfalvy describes them as
+tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks, black,
+chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, never
+oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face and
+round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas
+represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through
+Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The
+Galchas for the most part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Robert Shaw, &ldquo;On the Galtchah Languages,&rdquo; in <i>Journ. As.
+Soc. Bengal</i>, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, <i>Tribes
+of the Hindoo-Koosh</i> (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone,
+<i>An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul</i> (1815); <i>Bull. de la
+société d&rsquo;anthropologie de Paris</i> (1887); Charles Eugene D&rsquo;Ujfalvy
+de Mezoe-Koevesd, <i>Les Aryens</i> (1896), and in <i>Revue d&rsquo;anthropologie</i>
+(1879), and <i>Bull. de la soc. de géogr.</i> (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,
+<i>Races of Europe</i> (New York, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALE, THEOPHILUS<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> (1628-1678), English nonconformist
+divine, was born in 1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where
+his father was vicar. In 1647 he was entered at Magdalen College,
+Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652.
+In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor of his college. He remained
+some years at Oxford, discharging actively the duties of tutor,
+and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester cathedral.
+In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and was
+ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he
+accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy,
+returning to England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he
+passed in London as assistant to John Rowe, an Independent
+minister who had charge of an important church in Holborn;
+Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in the following year.
+His principal work, <i>The Court of the Gentiles</i>, which appeared in
+parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse of miscellaneous
+philosophical learning. It resembles the <i>Intellectual
+System</i> of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work
+both in general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale&rsquo;s
+endeavour (based on a hint of Grotius in <i>De veritate</i>, i. 16) is to
+prove that the whole philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or
+mangled reproduction of Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth
+referred the Democritean doctrine of atoms to Moses as the
+original author, so Gale tries to show that the various systems of
+Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. Like so
+many of the learned works of the 17th century, the <i>Court of the</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page398" id="page398"></a>398</span>
+<i>Gentiles</i> is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is
+rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical
+discrimination.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His other writings are: <i>A True Idea of Jansenism</i> (1669); <i>Theophil,
+or a Discourse of the Saint&rsquo;s Amitie with God in Christ</i> (1671);
+<i>Anatomie of Infidelitie</i> (1672); <i>Idea theologiae</i> (1673); <i>Philosophia
+generalis</i> (1676).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALE, THOMAS<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and
+antiquarian, was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated
+at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which
+he became a fellow. In 1666 he was appointed regius professor
+of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high master of St Paul&rsquo;s school,
+in 1676 prebendary of St Paul&rsquo;s, in 1677 a fellow of the Royal
+Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York on the 7th
+(or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, <i>Opuscula
+mythologica, ethica, et physica</i>, and editions of several Greek and
+Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old
+works bearing on Early English history, entitled <i>Historiae
+Anglicanae scriptores</i> and <i>Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae,
+Anglo-Danicae scriptores XV</i>. He was the author of the inscription
+on the London Monument in which the Roman Catholics
+were accused of having originated the great fire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.E.B. Mayor, <i>Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne</i>, 448-450.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALE.<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from
+Dan. <i>gal</i>, mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense
+of boisterous) a wind of considerable power, considerably
+stronger than a breeze, but not severe enough to be called a storm.
+In nautical language it is usually combined with some qualifying
+word, as &ldquo;half a gale,&rdquo; a &ldquo;stiff gale.&rdquo; In poetical and figurative
+language &ldquo;gale&rdquo; is often used in a pleasant sense, as in &ldquo;favouring
+gale&rdquo;; in America, it is used in a slang sense for boisterous or
+excited behaviour.</p>
+
+<p>2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals;
+a &ldquo;hanging gale&rdquo; is an arrear of rent left over after each successive
+&ldquo;gale&rdquo; or rent day. The term survives in the Forest of
+Dean, for leases granted to the &ldquo;free miners&rdquo; of the forest,
+granted by the &ldquo;gaveller&rdquo; or agent of the crown, and the term is
+also applied to the royalty paid to the crown, and to the area
+mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. Eng. <i>gafol</i>,
+which survives in &ldquo;gavel,&rdquo; in gavelkind (<i>q.v.</i>), and in the name of
+the office mentioned above. The root from which these words
+derive is that of &ldquo;give.&rdquo; Through Latinized forms it appears in
+<i>gabelle</i> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or
+gaul, sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of
+the word is <i>gagel</i>. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub
+found on bogs and moors in the British Islands, and widely
+distributed in the north temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked
+leaves and inconspicuous, apetalous, unisexual flowers
+borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like fruit is attached to the
+persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea and as a country
+medicine. John Gerard (<i>Herball</i>, p. 1228) describes it as sweet
+willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The genus
+<i>Myrica</i> is the type of a small, but widely distributed order,
+<i>Myricaceae</i>, which is placed among the apetalous families of
+Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow
+family. <i>Myrica cerifera</i> is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree
+(<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD,<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> <span class="sc">Freiherr von</span> (1606-1678),
+prince bishop of Münster, belonged to a noble Westphalian
+family, and was born on the 12th of October 1606.
+Reduced to poverty through the loss of his paternal inheritance,
+he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him from fighting
+on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the concluding
+stages of the Thirty Years&rsquo; War. In 1650 he succeeded Ferdinand
+of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Münster. After
+restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality,
+Galen had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of
+the citizens of Münster; but at length this was crushed, and the
+bellicose bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an
+important personage in Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of
+the directors of the imperial army raised to fight the Turk;
+and after the peace which followed the Christian victory at St
+Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English king Charles II.
+in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of Louis XIV.
+and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to
+make a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again
+attacked Holland six years later he was in alliance with Louis, but
+he soon deserted his new friend, and fought for the emperor
+Leopold I. against France. Afterwards in conjunction with
+Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of Sweden,
+and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the
+19th of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform
+the church, but his chief energies were directed to increasing his
+power and prestige.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See K. Tücking, <i>Geschichte des Stifts Münster unter C.B. von
+Galen</i> (Münster, 1865); P. Corstiens, <i>Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop
+van Munster</i> (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Hüsing, <i>Fürstbischof
+C.B. von Galen</i> (Münster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the <i>English
+Historical Review</i>, vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum
+a poem printed in 1666, entitled <i>Letter to the bishop of Munster
+containing a Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALEN<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Galenus</span>), <b>CLAUDIUS,</b> called Gallien by Chaucer
+and other writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of
+ancient medical writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 130. His father Nicon, from whom he received his early
+education, is described as remarkable both for excellence of
+natural disposition and for mental culture; his mother, on the
+other hand, appears to have been a second Xanthippe. In 146
+Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his twentieth
+year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself
+under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and
+of the peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited
+other cities, and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus.
+A few years later he went for the first time to Rome. There he
+healed Eudemus, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, and other
+persons of distinction; and ere long, by his learning and unparalleled
+success as a physician, earned for himself the titles of
+&ldquo;Paradoxologus,&rdquo; the wonder-speaker, and &ldquo;Paradoxopoeus,&rdquo;
+the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and envy of
+his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to
+his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in
+Venetia, by the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In
+170 he returned to Rome with the latter, who, on departing
+thence to conduct the war on the Danube, having with difficulty
+been persuaded to dispense with his personal attendance,
+appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. In
+Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his
+reputation as a physician, and writing some of his most important
+treatises. It would appear that he eventually betook himself to
+Pergamus, after spending some time at the island of Lemnos,
+where he learned the method of preparing a certain popular
+medicine, the &ldquo;terra lemnia&rdquo; or &ldquo;sigillata.&rdquo; Whether he ever
+revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are the time and place of his
+death. According to Suidas, he died at the age of seventy, or in
+the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, however,
+we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took
+place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one
+of the most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He
+composed, it is said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects,
+including logic, ethics and grammar. Of the published works
+attributed to him, 83 are recognized as genuine, 19 are of doubtful
+authenticity, 45 are confessedly spurious, 19 are fragments, and
+15 are notes on the writings of Hippocrates.</p>
+
+<p>Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic
+philosophy, was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the
+numerous commentaries and original treatises, a catalogue of
+which is given in his work <i>De propriis libris</i>, one only has come
+down to us, the treatise on <i>Fallacies in dictione</i> (<span class="grk" title="Peri tôn kata
+tên lexin sophismatôn">&#928;&#949;&#961;&#8054; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#964;&#8048; &#964;&#942;&#957; &#955;&#941;&#958;&#953;&#957; &#963;&#959;&#966;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#940;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span>). Many points of logical theory, however,
+are discussed in his medical and scientific writings. His name is
+perhaps best known in the history of logic in connexion with the
+fourth syllogistic figure, the first distinct statement of which was
+ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no evidence from Galen&rsquo;s
+own works that he did make this addition to the doctrines of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page399" id="page399"></a>399</span>
+syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides
+Minas from a Greek commentator on the <i>Analytics</i>, referring the
+fourth figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not,
+as generally supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an
+amplification or alteration of the indirect moods of the first
+figure already noted by Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.</p>
+
+<p>In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the
+superscription <i>Galenus</i>, entitled <span class="grk" title="Galênou eisagôgê dialektikê">&#915;&#945;&#955;&#951;&#957;&#959;&#8166; &#949;&#7984;&#963;&#945;&#947;&#969;&#947;&#8052; &#948;&#953;&#945;&#955;&#949;&#954;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#942;</span>.
+Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth
+figure, and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of
+the Aristotelian and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest
+contempt. He shows demonstratively that it cannot be regarded
+as a writing of Galen&rsquo;s, and ascribes it to some one or other of the
+later Greek logicians. A full summary of its contents will be
+found in the 1st vol. of the <i>Geschichte der Logik</i> (pp. 591-610), and
+a notice of the logical theories of the true Galen in the same work,
+pp. 559-577.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen&rsquo;s
+works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned
+Jo. Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
+Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
+Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore
+Goulston, Caspar Hoffman, René Chartier, Haller and Kühn. Of
+Latin translations Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two
+in the following century. The Greek text was edited at Venice,
+in 1525, 5 vols. fol.; at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with
+Latin version by René Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.;
+and at Leipzig, in 1821-1833, by C.G. Kühn, considered to be the best,
+20 vols. 8vo. An epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates
+and Galen, by J.R. Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846.
+A new edition of Galen&rsquo;s smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan
+Müller and G. Helmreich was published in three volumes at Leipzig
+in 1884-1909.</p>
+
+<p>Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical
+and medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles
+under the headings of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medicine</a></span>. See also René
+Chartier&rsquo;s Life, in his edition of Galen&rsquo;s works; N.F.J. Eloy,
+<i>Dictionnaire historique de la médecine</i>, <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Galien,&rdquo; tom. i. (1778);
+F. Adams&rsquo;s &ldquo;Commentary&rdquo; in his <i>Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta</i>
+(London and Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, &ldquo;A Cursory Analysis of the
+Works of Galen, so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology,&rdquo;
+<i>Trans. Provincial Med. and Surg. Assoc.</i> vi., 1837, pp. 299-336;
+C.V. Daremberg, <i>Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l&rsquo;anatomie,
+la physiologie et la pathologie du système nerveux</i> (Thèse pour
+le Doctorat en Médecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, &ldquo;The
+Practical Medicine of Galen and his Time,&rdquo; <i>The British and Foreign
+Medico-Chirurgical Rev.</i>, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg,
+&ldquo;Die Schriften des Claudius Galenos,&rdquo; <i>Rheinisches Museum für
+Philologie</i>, 1889, 1892 and 1896.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALENA,<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county,
+Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena
+(formerly the Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi,
+about 165 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom
+918 were foreign-born; (1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago,
+Burlington &amp; Quincy, the Chicago &amp; North-Western and the
+Illinois Central railways; the Galena river has been made
+navigable by government locks at the mouth of the river, but the
+river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky limestone
+bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, and a
+number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected
+by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General
+U.S. Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the
+Civil War. In the vicinity there are the most important deposits of
+zinc and lead in the state, and the city derives its name from the
+deposits of sulphide of lead (galena), which were the first worked
+about here; below the galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or
+smithsonite) ores, which was the main zone worked between 1860
+and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende, or zinc sulphide, now
+the principal source of the mineral wealth of the region. The
+production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is unimportant.
+The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery,
+flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is
+afforded by the river. Galena was originally a trading post,
+called by the French &ldquo;La Pointe&rdquo; and by the English &ldquo;Fever
+River,&rdquo; the river having been named after le Fevre, a French
+trader who settled near its mouth. In 1826 Galena was laid out
+as a town and received its present name; it was incorporated in
+1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre was
+opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father
+of the celebrated actor of that name.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALENA,<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the
+extreme S.E. part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring
+river. Pop. (1890) 2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were
+negroes and 251 were foreign-born; (1905) 6449; (1910) 6096.
+It is situated at the intersection of the Missouri, Kansas &amp; Texas,
+and the Kansas City, Fort Scott &amp; Memphis (&ldquo;Frisco System&rdquo;)
+railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region, extremely
+valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in 1877.
+Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing establishments.
+Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring
+river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies
+founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former
+S. of Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated
+in 1877, and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 230px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:184px; height:158px" src="images/img399.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><span class="bold">GALENA,<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide
+(PbS). The mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name,
+and it is sometimes now known as lead-glance (Ger. <i>Bleiglanz</i>).
+It crystallizes in the cubic system, and well-developed crystals
+are of common occurrence; the usual form is the cube or the
+cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important
+character, and one by which the mineral
+may always be recognized, is the perfect
+cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is
+brilliant and metallic. The colour of the
+mineral and of its streak is lead-grey;
+it is opaque; the hardness is 2½ and
+the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned
+crystals are not common, but the
+presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by fine
+striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage
+surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure
+are of common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such
+masses present a spangled appearance owing to the numerous
+bright cleavages.</p>
+
+<p>The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur
+13.4%. The mineral nearly always contains a small amount of
+silver, and sometimes antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium,
+&amp;c. Argentiferous galena is an important source of silver; this
+metal is present in amounts rarely exceeding 1%, and often less
+than 0.03% (equivalent to 10¾ ounces per ton). Since argentite
+(Ag<span class="su">2</span>S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable that the silver
+isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that native
+silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.</p>
+
+<p>Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous
+veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones,
+and also as pockets in limestones. It is often associated
+with blende and pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz,
+barytes, chalybite and pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the
+upper oxidized parts of the deposits, cerussite and anglesite
+occur as alteration products. The mineral has occasionally been
+observed as a recent formation replacing organic matter, such
+as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal. As small
+concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone
+at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of
+Derbyshire and the north of England the ore occurs as veins and
+flats in the Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall
+the veins traverse clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead
+region of Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills
+large cavities or chambers in limestone.</p>
+
+<p>Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of
+localities which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the
+following may be selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in
+Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man (where crystals measuring
+almost a foot across have been found), Neudorf in the Harz,
+Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri. Good crystals have
+also been obtained as a furnace product.</p>
+
+<p>Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then
+known as &ldquo;potters&rsquo; ore&rdquo; or alquifoux.</p>
+
+<p>The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as
+argentite (<i>q.v.</i>). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page400" id="page400"></a>400</span>
+(lead selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which,
+with their lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely
+resemble galena in appearance; these species are named after
+the localities at which they were originally found, namely,
+Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai mountains in Asiatic Russia.
+Altaite is of interest as being one of the tellurides found associated
+with gold.</p>
+<div class="author">(L. J. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALEOPITHECUS,<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> the scientific designation of the Colugo
+(<i>q.v.</i>) or Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone
+representing the family <i>Galeopithecidae</i>. Much uncertainty has
+prevailed among naturalists as to the systematic position of this
+animal, or rather these animals (for there are two species); and
+while some have referred it to the lemurs, others have placed it
+with the bats, and others again among the <i>Insectivora</i>, as the
+representative of a special subordinal group, the <i>Dermoptera</i>.
+Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study of the creature,
+writes, however, as follows: &ldquo;It appears, at least in the judgment
+of the author, that <i>Galeopithecus</i> cannot be regarded as
+being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands
+alone, the sole representative of an ancient group, <i>Galeopithecidae</i>,
+as <i>Hyrax</i> does of <i>Hyracoidea</i>. While <i>Galeopithecus</i> is but remotely
+related to the <i>Lemuroidea</i> and <i>Insectivora</i>, it is so closely
+related to <i>Chiroptera</i>, more particularly in regard to the structure
+of its patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus,
+&amp;c., that there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the
+descendants of Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the
+descendants of a Galeopithecus-like ancestor.&rdquo; Without going
+quite so far as this, it may be definitely admitted that the colugo
+is entitled to represent an order by itself, the characters of which
+will be as follows: Herbivorous, climbing, unguiculate mammals,
+provided with a very extensive flying-membrane, and having the
+dental formula <i>i.</i> <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span>, <i>c.</i> <span class="spp">0</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">1</span>, <i>p.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, <i>m.</i> <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>, total 34. The lower incisors
+are directed forwards and have a comb-like structure of their
+crowns, while the outermost of these teeth and the canines are
+double-rooted, being in these respects, taken together, quite
+unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have
+numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of
+milk-molars by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded
+by bone, and the tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external
+meatus. The ulna and fibula are to some extent inclined backwards;
+the carpus has a scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed.
+The hemispheres of the brain are short and but slightly
+convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a large caecum;
+the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus is
+two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two
+pairs of pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a
+birth.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:439px; height:243px" src="images/img400.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur (<i>Galeopithecus
+philippinensis</i>).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>It will be obvious that if other representatives of the <i>Dermoptera</i>
+were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the
+family <i>Galeopithecidae</i>.</p>
+
+<p>There are two species, <i>Galeopithecus volans</i>, ranging from
+Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and
+Java, and <i>G. philippinensis</i> of the Philippine group. The former,
+which is nearly 2 ft. in total length, is distinguished by its
+larger upper incisors, shorter ears and smaller skull. In both
+species not only are the long and slender limbs connected by a
+broad integumentary expansion extending outwards from the
+sides of the neck and body, but there is also a web between the
+fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws (fig.); and the
+hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion passing
+outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and,
+inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true
+interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats
+altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted
+outer incisors and canines, <i>Galeopithecus</i> contrasts strongly
+with that order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and
+in the great length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in
+<i>Chiroptera</i>. From the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of
+the brain, the character of the teeth, the structure of the skull,
+and the deciduate discoidal placenta at once separate the
+group.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALERIUS<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Galerius Valerius Maximianus</span>], Roman
+emperor from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 305 to 311, was born near Sardica in Thrace.
+He originally followed his father&rsquo;s occupation, that of a herdsman,
+whence his surname of <i>Armentarius</i> (Lat. <i>armentum</i>, herd).
+He served with distinction as a soldier under Aurelian and
+Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar along with Constantius
+Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian&rsquo;s daughter Valeria, and
+at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Illyrian
+provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he was
+removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign
+ended in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing
+through the mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory
+over Narses (<i>q.v.</i>) and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on
+the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, he at once assumed
+the title of Augustus, with Constantius his former colleague, and
+having procured the promotion to the rank of Caesar of Flavius
+Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and Daia (Maximinus), his
+nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to become sole
+master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was defeated
+by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on
+the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and
+Maxentius in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in
+307 he elevated his friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and,
+moderating his ambition, devoted the few remaining years of his
+life &ldquo;to the enjoyment of pleasure and to the execution of some
+works of public utility.&rdquo; It was at the instance of Galerius that
+the first of the celebrated edicts of persecution against the
+Christians was published, on the 24th of February 303, and this
+policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance
+of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his own name and
+in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311 <span class="scs">A.D.</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Zosimus ii. 8-11; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24,
+x. 1.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALESBURG,<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
+Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of
+Chicago. Pop. (1890) 15,264; (1900) 18,607; of whom 3602
+were foreign-born; (census, 1910) 22,089. It is served by the
+Atchison, Topeka &amp; Santa Fé, and the Chicago, Burlington &amp;
+Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and coeducational),
+which was chartered here in 1837 as the &ldquo;Knox Manual
+Labor College&rdquo; (the present name was adopted in 1857), was
+opened in 1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628
+students, of whom more than half were in the Conservatory of
+Music, a department of the college, and 79 were in the Academy.
+Lombard College (coeducational; Universalist), which was
+chartered as the &ldquo;Illinois Liberal Institute&rdquo; in 1851, was known
+as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard, a
+benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal
+Arts, the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of
+music and domestic science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors
+and 117 students. Here also are Corpus Christi College (Roman
+Catholic), St Joseph&rsquo;s Academy (Roman Catholic) and Brown&rsquo;s
+Business College (1874). There is a public library, founded in
+1874. The industries consist mainly of the construction and
+repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the Chicago, Burlington
+&amp; Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and
+machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page401" id="page401"></a>401</span>
+and machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1905
+was $2,217,772, being 52.9% more than in 1900. Galesburg
+was named in honour of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1789-1862),
+a prominent Presbyterian preacher, who in 1827-1834 had
+founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute at Whitestown,
+Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college in the
+Mississippi Valley to supply &ldquo;an evangelical and able ministry&rdquo;
+to &ldquo;spread the Gospel throughout the world,&rdquo; and also wishing to
+counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he
+interested a number of people in the project, formed a society for
+colonization, and in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the
+&ldquo;Mesopotamia in the West.&rdquo; Knox College was founded to
+fulfil his educational purpose. Galesburg was an important
+&ldquo;station&rdquo; of the Underground Railroad, one of the conditions of
+membership in the &ldquo;Presbyterian Church of Galesburg&rdquo; (the
+name of Mr Gale&rsquo;s society) being opposition to slavery; and in
+1855 this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery.
+Galesburg was chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October
+1858 one of the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the
+grounds of Knox College.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALG&#256;CUS,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> or perhaps rather <span class="sc">Calg&#257;cus</span>, a Caledonian chief
+who led the tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman
+army under Cn. Julius Agricola about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 85 and was defeated
+at the battle of Mons Graupius (Tac. <i>Agric.</i> 29). The name
+recurs much later, in Adamnan&rsquo;s <i>Life of Columba</i>, in the name
+of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or Roboretum
+Calgachi, &ldquo;the wood of Calgacus&rdquo;: it may be Celtic and denote
+&ldquo;the man with the sword.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALIANI, FERDINANDO<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (1728-1787), Italian economist, was
+born at Chieti on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully
+educated by his uncle Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome
+with a view to entering the Church. Galiani gave early promise
+of distinction as an economist, and even more as a wit. At the
+age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders, he had produced
+two works by which his name became widely known far beyond
+the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his <i>Trattato della
+moneta</i>, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the
+mercantile school, deals with many aspects of the question of
+exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of
+confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the
+Neapolitan government. The other, <i>Raccolta in Morte del Boia</i>,
+established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in
+Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In this
+volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of
+discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the
+most pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day.
+Galiani&rsquo;s political knowledge and social qualities now pointed him
+out to the discriminating eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles
+III. of Spain, and his liberal minister Tanucci, and he was
+appointed in 1759 secretary to the Neapolitan embassy at Paris.
+This post he held for ten years, when he returned to Naples and
+was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777,
+minister of the royal domains. His economic reputation was
+made by a book written in French and published in Paris,
+namely, his <i>Dialogues sur le commerce des blés</i>. This work, by its
+light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it
+abounded, delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production
+of which Plato and Molière might have been combined!
+The author, says Pecchio, treated his arid subject as Fontenelle
+did the vortices of Descartes, or Algarotti the Newtonian system
+of the world. The question at issue was that of the freedom of the
+corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of
+the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the exportation of grain
+so long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. The
+general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to
+this trade is to have no system&mdash;countries differently circumstanced
+requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment.
+He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the
+mercantilists&mdash;holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even
+Verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and
+in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments
+in debasing the currency. Until his death at Naples on the
+30th of October 1787, Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends
+a correspondence, which was published in 1818.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>L&rsquo;Abate Galiani</i>, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his correspondence
+with Tanucci in Viesseux&rsquo;s <i>L&rsquo;Archivio storico</i> (Florence,
+1878).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALICIA<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (Ger. <i>Galizien</i>; Pol. <i>Halicz</i>), a crownland of Austria,
+bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and
+W. by Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299
+sq. m., and is the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old
+kingdoms of Galicia and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and
+Zator, and the grand duchy of Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which
+with their offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of
+the country. The surface gradually sinks down by undulating
+terraces to the valleys of the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and
+E. of these rivers Galicia forms a continuation of the great plains
+of Russia, intersected only by a few hills, which descend from the
+plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which attain in some places
+an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians, which, extending
+in the form of an arc, form the boundary between Galicia and
+Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides,
+which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif
+of the Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia Góra (5650 ft.),
+the Wolowiec (6773 ft.) and the Cserna Góra (6505 ft.). The
+principal passes are those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of
+Dukla, Vereczke Körösmezö or Delatyn in the East Beskides.
+The river Vistula, which becomes navigable at Cracow,
+and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia,
+receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with
+its affluents the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San
+and the Bug. The Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians,
+within the territory of Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor,
+and receives on the right the Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and
+the Bystrzyca, and on the left the Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth
+and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards Russia. The
+Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of
+Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives the
+Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few
+lakes in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable
+morasses exist about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the
+San, while the ponds or dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated
+to cover an area of over 200 sq. m. The most frequented mineral
+springs are the alkaline springs at Szczawnica and Krynica, the
+sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and Lubian, and the
+iodine springs at Iwonicz.</p>
+
+<p>Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and
+shut out by the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds,
+Galicia has the severest climate in Austria. It has long winters,
+with an abundant snowfall, short and wet springs, hot summers
+and long and steady autumns. The mean annual temperature at
+Lemberg is 46.2° F., and at Tarnopol only 43° F.</p>
+
+<p>Of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16%
+by meadows, 9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76%
+by forests. The soil is generally fertile, but agriculture is still
+backward. The principal products are barley, oats, rye, wheat,
+maize and leguminous plants. Galicia has the largest area under
+potatoes and legumes in the whole of Austria, and hemp, flax,
+tobacco and hops are of considerable importance. The principal
+mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum. Salt is extracted
+at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and Kosow.
+Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza
+near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum
+fields in Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and
+are worked at Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka
+and Potok near Krosno, Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &amp;c.
+Great quantities of ozocerite are also extracted in the petroliferous
+region of the Carpathians. Other mineral products are
+zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the Cracow region,
+amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria, iron
+ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur
+mines of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since
+1598, were abandoned in 1884.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page402" id="page402"></a>402</span></p>
+
+<p>The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly
+developed. The first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose
+output amounts to nearly 40% of the total production of
+spirits in Austria. Then follow the petroleum refineries and
+kindred industries, saw-mills and the fabrication of various
+wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar factory at Tlumacz
+and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the largest
+establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is
+concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens
+is pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian
+region, the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is
+mainly in the hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit
+trade to Russia and to the East is also of considerable importance.</p>
+
+<p>Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is
+equivalent to 241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal
+nationalities are the Poles (45%) and the Ruthenians (42%),
+the former predominating in the west and in the big towns, and
+the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the Carpathians are
+distinguished as Goralians (from <i>góry</i>, mountain), and those of
+the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian
+highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly
+Roman Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there
+are over 770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are
+Catholics and stand under the jurisdiction of an Armenian
+archbishop at Lemberg.</p>
+
+<p>The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg,
+and three bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the
+Greek Catholic Church is represented by an archbishop, at
+Lemberg, and two bishops, at Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the
+head of the educational institutions stand the two universities of
+Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy of science at
+Cracow.</p>
+
+<p>The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3
+archbishops, the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities,
+and Galicia sends 78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For
+administrative purposes, the province is divided into 78 districts
+and 2 autonomous municipalities&mdash;Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the
+capital, and Cracow (91,310). Other principal towns are:
+Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea (34,188), Tarnów (31,548), Tarnopol
+(30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj (23,673), Jaroslau (22,614),
+Drohobycz (19,146), Podgórze (18,142), Brody (17,360), Sambor
+(17,027), Neusandec (15,724), Rzeszów (14,714), Zloczow (12,209),
+Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504), Sniatyn
+(11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671),
+Chrzanów (10,170), Jaworów (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and
+Biala (8265).</p>
+
+<p>Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring
+principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th
+century&mdash;the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch.
+Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the
+interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190
+assumed the title of king, and appointed his son Andreas
+lieutenant of the kingdom. Polish assistance, however, enabled
+Vladimir, the former possessor, to expel Andreas, and in 1198
+Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself master of Galicia also.
+On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland and Hungary
+for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was
+arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be
+invested with Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian
+king, with Galicia. Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav
+of Novgorod; and in his turn Andreas, Mstislav&rsquo;s nominee, was
+expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a powerful prince, who by a
+flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his position. Though in
+1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary, yet, when
+he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu, he
+called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown
+of Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when
+Innocent disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former
+connexion with the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line
+in 1340 Casimir III. of Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg;
+on Casimir&rsquo;s death in 1370 Louis the Great of Hungary, in accordance
+with previous treaties, became king of Poland, Galicia and
+Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of Louis&rsquo;s daughter
+with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as part of his
+Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became definitively
+assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in
+1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria,
+and to this was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795;
+but at the peace of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were
+surrendered to the grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of
+East Galicia, including Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This
+latter portion was recovered by Austria at the peace of Paris
+(1814), and the former came back on the suppression of the
+independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the introduction
+of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a larger
+degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian
+empire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Die österreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild</i>,
+vol. 19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); <i>Die Länder Österreich-Ungarns
+in Wort und Bild</i>, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable
+sketches of Galician life are to be found in the works of the German
+novelist Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALICIA<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> (the ancient <i>Gallaecia</i> or <i>Callaecia</i>, <span class="grk" title="Kallaikia">&#922;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span> or
+<span class="grk" title="Kalaikia">&#922;&#945;&#955;&#945;&#953;&#954;&#943;&#945;</span>), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom, countship
+and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded
+on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by
+Portugal, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515;
+area, 11,254 sq. m. In 1833 Galicia was divided for administrative
+purposes into the provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and
+Pontevedra.</p>
+
+<p>Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded
+as a continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is
+further broken in the east by the westernmost ridges of that
+system, which, running in a south-westerly direction, rise above
+the basin of the Miño. The high land north of the headwaters of
+the Miño forms the sole connecting link between the Cantabrians
+properly so-called and the mountains of central and western
+Galicia. The average elevation of the province is considerable,
+and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Peña
+Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.</p>
+
+<p>The principal river is the Miño (Portuguese <i>Minho</i>; Lat.
+<i>Minius</i>; so named, it is said, from the <i>minium</i> or vermilion
+found in its bed). Rising near Mondoñedo, within 25 m. of the
+northern coast, the Miño enters the Atlantic near the port of
+Guardia, after a course of 170 m. S. and S.W. Its lower reaches
+are navigable by small vessels. Of its numerous affluents the
+most important is the Sil, which rises among the lofty mountains
+between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a
+westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and
+the Lerez or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or <i>rias</i>
+called respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria
+de Pontevedra. The rivers of the northern versant, such as the
+Nera, are, like those of Asturias, for the most part short, rapid
+and subject to violent floods.</p>
+
+<p>The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere
+bold and deeply indented, presenting a large number of
+secure harbours, and in this respect forming a marked contrast to
+the neighbouring province. The Eo, which bounds Galicia on
+the east, has a deep estuary, the Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which
+offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero Bay and the
+Ria del Barquero y Váres are of a similar character; while the
+harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief
+naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite
+side of Betanzos Bay (the <span class="grk" title="megas limên">&#956;&#941;&#947;&#945;&#962; &#955;&#953;&#956;&#942;&#957;</span> or <i>Portus Magnus</i> of the
+ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Coruña. The principal
+port on the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered
+bay of Vigo, but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion
+under Cape Finisterre, at Marin and at Carril.</p>
+
+<p>The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the
+interior, owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1500 ft.
+above sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is
+exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations
+for a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole
+fertile, and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page403" id="page403"></a>403</span>
+timber is grown on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures
+support large herds of cattle, while the abundance of oaks and
+chestnuts favours the rearing of swine. In the lowland districts
+good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats and rye, as well as of
+turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit also is of excellent
+quality and in great variety, although the culture of the vine is
+limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern districts.
+The <i>dehesas</i> or moorlands abound in game, and fish are plentiful
+in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province, which
+are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients.
+Strabo (<i>c.</i> 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23-79) mentions the <i>gemma Gallaica</i>, a precious stone.
+Galicia is also remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other
+warm springs, the most important of which are those at Lugo,
+and those from which Orense is said to take its name (<i>Aquae
+urentes</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Ethnologically the Galicians (<i>Gallegos</i>) are allied to the
+Portuguese, whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in
+habits more than the other inhabitants of the peninsula. The
+men are well known all over Spain and Portugal as hardy,
+honest and industrious, but for the most part somewhat unskilled,
+labourers; indeed the word <i>Gallego</i> has come to be almost a
+synonym in Madrid for a &ldquo;hewer of wood and drawer of water.&rdquo;
+It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning &ldquo;boor.&rdquo; Agriculture
+engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and
+female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed.
+The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971);
+Santiago de Compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal
+see; Lugo, Tuy, Mondoñedo and Orense are bishoprics.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gallaecia</i>, the country of the Galacci, <i>Callaici</i> or <i>Gallaici</i>,
+seems to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier
+geographers. According to Eratosthenes (276-196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the
+entire population of the peninsula were at one time called <i>Galatae</i>.
+The region properly called by their name, bounded on the south
+by the Douro and on the east by the Navia, was first entered by
+the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus in 137-136 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+(Livy lv., lvi., <i>Epit.</i>); but the final subjugation cannot be placed
+earlier than the time of Augustus (31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>-<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 14). On the
+partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the
+Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaecia fell to the lot of the first
+named (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly
+200 years, the Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic
+dominions under Leovigild in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the
+Moors, who in turn were driven out by Alphonso I. of Asturias,
+in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it was the subject of
+dispute between more than one count of Galicia and the
+suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans.
+When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063,
+Galicia was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the
+three. In 1072 it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia&rsquo;s brother
+Alphonso VI. of Castile and thenceforward it remained an
+integral part of the kingdom of Castile or of Leon. The honorary
+title of count of Galicia has frequently been borne by younger
+sons of the Spanish sovereign.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Annette B. Meakin, <i>Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain</i> (London,
+1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> (1752-1821), newspaper
+publisher, was born at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some
+time in London, he went to Paris, where he started in 1800 an
+English library, and in 1808 a monthly publication, the <i>Repertory
+of English Literature</i>. In 1814 he began to publish, in Paris,
+<i>Galignani&rsquo;s Messenger</i>, a daily paper printed in English. At his
+death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his two sons, Jean-Antoine
+(1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under their
+management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to
+promote good feeling between England and France. The brothers
+established and endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine.
+In recognition of their generosity the city of Corbeil
+erected a monument in their honour. In 1884 the Galignani
+family disposed of their interest in <i>Galignani&rsquo;s Messenger</i>, and
+from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the paper
+appeared under the title of the <i>Daily Messenger</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALILEE<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Heb. <span title="Galil">&#1490;&#1500;&#1497;&#1500;</span>, &ldquo;border&rdquo; or &ldquo;ring,&rdquo; Gr. <span class="grk" title="Galilaia">&#915;&#945;&#955;&#953;&#955;&#945;&#943;&#945;</span>), a
+Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S. by
+Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the
+Leontes (Lit&#257;ni), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of
+Phoenicia. Its maximum extent was about 60 m. north to south
+and 30 east to west. The name in the Hebrew Scriptures hardly
+had a definite territorial significance. It literally means a ring or
+circuit, and, like analogous words in English, could be applied to
+various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel (iii. 4) refer to
+the <i>Geliloth</i> (&ldquo;borders, coast&rdquo;) of the Philistines or of Palestine;
+Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8) mention the
+Jordan valley plain as the &ldquo;Geliloth of Jordan&rdquo; in &ldquo;the Eastern
+Gelilah.&rdquo; In its more restricted connotation, denoting the
+district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found
+in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, 1 Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was
+situated the town of Kadesh; and in 1 Kings ix. 11, the district of
+&ldquo;worthless&rdquo; cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. 1 we
+find the full name of the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally &ldquo;the
+ring, circuit or border of the foreigners&rdquo;&mdash;referring to the
+Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by whose country the
+province was on three sides surrounded. In 1 Kings xv. 29 it is
+specified as one of the districts whose population was deported by
+Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, however,
+Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the
+unit of territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial,
+and though such important events as those associated with the
+names of Barak, Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within
+its borders, yet these belong rather to the histories of Issachar,
+Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali, whose territories together almost
+correspond with Galilee, than to the province itself.</p>
+
+<p>After the Jewish return from exile the population confined
+itself to Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed
+multitude of successors established there by the Assyrians.
+When it once more came into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is
+generally supposed that its reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus.
+Before very long it developed a nationalism and patriotism as
+intense as that of Judaea itself, notwithstanding the contempt
+with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem looked down upon the
+Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such as &ldquo;Out of
+Galilee cometh no prophet&rdquo; (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha,
+and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common.
+Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the
+Galileans; it appears that they confused the gutturals in
+pronunciation.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate
+governed by members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was
+tetrarch of Galilee in 47 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; in 4 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> he was succeeded by his son
+Antipas. Galilee was the land of Christ&rsquo;s boyhood and the chief
+centre of His active work, and in His various ministries here
+some of His chief discourses were uttered (as the Sermon on
+the Mount, Matt. v.) and some of His chief miracles performed.</p>
+
+<p>After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic
+schools took refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised.
+No ancient remains of Jewish synagogues exist except those that
+have been identified in some of the ancient Galilean towns, such
+as Tell &#7716;um (Tal&#7717;&#363;m), Ker&#257;zeh, Kefr Bir&rsquo;&#299;m, and elsewhere.
+One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was &#7778;afed, still a sacred
+city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members of that faith.
+Near here is Meir&#363;n, a place much revered by the Jews as
+containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai;
+a yearly festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At
+Tiberias also are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers,
+including Maimonides.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower
+Galilee, the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which
+prolonged would cut the Jordan about midway between &#7716;&#363;leh and
+the Sea of Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf
+and Esdraelon.</p>
+
+<p>The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by
+volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up
+towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed
+over the plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district
+<span class="sidenote">Lower Galilee.</span>
+the highest hills are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The
+ridge of Nazareth rises north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page404" id="page404"></a>404</span>
+north of this again is the fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from
+the sea-coast plains by low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the
+basaltic plateau called Sahel el A&#7717;m&#257; (&ldquo;the inaccessible plain&rdquo;),
+rising 1700 ft. above the Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a
+confused hill country, the spurs falling towards a broad valley which
+lies at the foot of the mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad
+valley, running westwards to the coast, is perhaps the old boundary
+of Zebulun&mdash;the valley of Jiphthah-el (Josh, xix. 14). The great
+plain of Esdraelon is of triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the
+east and by the ridge which runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m.
+long from Jen&#299;n to the Nazareth hills, and its southern border is
+about 20 m. long. It rises 200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both
+sides being some 1500 ft. higher. The whole drainage is collected
+by the Kishon, which runs through a narrow gorge at the north-west
+corner of the plain, descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea.
+The broad valley of Jezreel on the east, descending towards the
+Jordan valley, forms the gate by which Palestine is entered from
+beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor stands isolated in the plain at the
+north-east corner, and rather farther south the conical hill called
+Nebi Du&#7717;i rises between Tabor and Gilboa. The whole of Lower
+Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is fed by springs from near
+Tabor and from a copious stream from the west side of the plain of
+Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is W&#257;di el Melek, an open
+valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of Acre, rising in the
+sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above identified with
+Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel is full of
+magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains of
+Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-A&#7717;m&#257; are all
+remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which corn,
+cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of vegetable
+are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in former
+times. The Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but west
+of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads over
+the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain are
+partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets. The
+mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub,
+except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal
+places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000 inhabitants),
+Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above the
+Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jen&#299;n (En Gannim),
+a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The
+ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a precipitous
+spur of Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets,
+Solam (Shunem), End&#363;r (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side
+of the plain is the ruin of Lejj&#363;n (the Legio of the 4th century, which
+was then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf
+is Jef&#257;t, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata
+defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian
+village at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is
+one of the sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin K&#257;na, on
+the north side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to
+the pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries.</p>
+
+<p>The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the
+drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the
+rocky range of Jebel Jarm&#363;k rises to nearly 4000 ft. above
+the sea; on the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms
+<span class="sidenote">Upper Galilee.</span>
+the watershed, with steep eastern slopes falling towards
+Jordan. Immediately west of the watershed are two small plateaus
+covered with basaltic débris, near el-Jish and Kades. On the west
+are rugged mountains with deep intricate valleys. The main drains
+of the country are&mdash;first, W&#257;di el &lsquo;Ay&#363;n, rising north of Jebel
+Jarm&#363;k, and running north-west as an open valley; and secondly,
+W&#257;di el Ahj&#257;r, a rugged precipitous gorge running north to join the
+Leontes. The district is well provided with springs throughout,
+and the valleys are full of water in the spring-time. Though rocky
+and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren, the soil of the plateaus is
+rich, and the vine flourishes in the higher hills, especially in the
+neighbourhood of Kefr Bir&rsquo;&#299;m. The principal town is &#7778;afed, perched
+on a white mountain 2700 ft. above the sea. It has a population of
+about 9000, including Jews, Christians and Moslems.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in
+<i>Wars</i>, iii. 3. 2: &ldquo;The Galileans are inured to war from their
+infancy, and have been always very numerous; nor hath the
+country been ever destitute of men of courage or wanted a
+numerous set of them; for their soil is universally rich and fruitful,
+and full of plantations of trees of all sorts, insomuch that it
+invites the most slothful to take pains in its cultivation....
+Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very many villages
+there are here are everywhere full of people.&rdquo; Though the
+population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country
+is still remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its
+water-supply draining from the Lebanon mountains.</p>
+
+<p>The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and
+soap (from the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd.</p>
+
+<p>The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone
+monuments, rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous
+remains of Byzantine monasteries and fine churches of the time of
+the crusades. There are also remains of Greek architecture in
+various places; but the most interesting buildings are the ancient
+synagogues, of which some eleven examples are now known.
+They are rectangular, with the door to the south, and two rows of
+columns forming aisles east and west. The architecture is a
+peculiar and debased imitation of classic style, attributed by
+architects to the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> In Kefr Bir&rsquo;&#299;m there were
+remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of
+them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At
+Irbid, above Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different
+character. Traces of synagogues have also been found on
+Carmel, and at Tireh, west of Nazareth. It is curious to find
+the representation of various animals in relief on the lintels
+of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also occur, and the
+carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though debased.</p>
+
+<p>In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian
+kingdom of Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected
+by fortresses, the magnificent remains of which still crown the
+most important strategical points. Toron (mod. <i>Tibn&#299;n</i>) was
+built in 1104, the first fortress erected by the crusaders, and
+standing on the summit of the mountains of Upper Galilee.
+Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a precipice
+above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the
+advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time
+Château Neuf (Hun&#299;n) was erected above the Hüleh lake. Belfort
+(esh Shukif), on the north bank of the Leontes, the finest and
+most important, dates somewhat earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el
+Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east of Acre, completing the
+chain of frontier fortresses. The town of Banias, with its castle,
+formed also a strong outpost against Damascus, and was the
+scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many desperate
+encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was
+the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Christians.
+In 1250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands extending
+round Acre as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including
+&#7778;afed. These possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.</p>
+
+<p>The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the
+peasants are principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek
+Christians round Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper
+Galilee, however, there is a mixture of Jews and Maronites,
+Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine settlers), while the
+slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering Arabs. The
+Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and Moslems
+in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral
+people.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALILEE,<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or
+chapel which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case
+at Durham and Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name
+is sometimes given to the south-west porch. The name is said
+to be derived from the scriptural expression &ldquo;Galilee of the
+Gentiles&rdquo; (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are supposed to have been
+used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably served chiefly
+for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church. The
+Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey
+church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they
+were related, or from which they could hear divine service. The
+foundation of what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at
+the west end of Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were
+placed there before interment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALILEE, SEA OF,<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> a lake in Palestine consisting of an
+expansion of the Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is
+13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64 sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of
+the Mediterranean, and, according to Merrill and Barrois (who
+have corrected the excessive depth said to have been found by
+Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in maximum depth. It is
+pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In the Hebrew
+Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth (probably
+derived from a town of the same name mentioned in
+Joshua xi. 2 and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with
+<span title="kinor">&#1499;&#1504;&#1493;&#1512;</span>, &ldquo;a harp,&rdquo; is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page405" id="page405"></a>405</span>
+Maccabees it is named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is
+usually called Sea of Galilee, though once it is called Lake of
+Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1,
+xxi. 1). The modern Arabic name is <i>Ba&#7717;r Tubar&#299;ya</i>, which is
+often rendered &ldquo;Lake of Tiberias.&rdquo; Pliny refers to it as the
+Lake of Taricheae.</p>
+
+<p>Like the Dead Sea it is a &ldquo;rift&rdquo; lake, being part of the great
+fault that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show
+that originally it formed part of the great inland sea that filled
+this depression in Pleistocene times. The district on each side of
+the lake has a number of hot springs, at least one of which is
+beneath the sea itself, and has always shown indications of
+volcanic and other subterranean disturbances. It is especially
+liable to earthquakes. The water of the sea, though slightly
+brackish and not very clear, is generally used for drinking. The
+shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel; some yards
+from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish
+mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon
+falls about 10º F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range
+of temperature affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.;
+below that depth the water is uniformly about 59° F. The sea is
+set deep in hills which rise on the east side to a height of about
+2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms (such as are described in
+Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel passages) are often produced
+by the changes of temperature in the air resulting from
+these great differences of level.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western precipices.
+It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills
+rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes
+and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with
+black basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma
+terminates in precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the
+black rocky tops called &ldquo;the Horns of Hatt&#299;n&rdquo; are conspicuous
+objects. On the south is a broad valley through which the Jordan
+flows. On the east are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the
+great plateau of the Jaul&#257;n (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the
+lake through a narrow gorge between lower hills. A marshy plain,
+2½ m. long and 1½ broad, called el-Bat&#299;hah, exists immediately east
+of the Jordan inlet. There is also on the west side of the lake a small
+plain called el-Ghuweir, formed by the junction of three large valleys.
+It measures 3¼ m. along the shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain,
+naturally fertile, but now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be
+the plain of Gennesareth, described by Josephus (B. J. iii. 10, 8). On
+the east the hills approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water,
+but there is generally a width of about ¾ of a mile from the hills to
+the beach. On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an
+average width of about 200 yds. A few scattered palms dot the
+western shores, and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr H&#257;rib
+on the south-east. The hot baths south of Tiberias include seven
+springs, the largest of which has a temperature of 137° F. In these
+springs a distinct rise in temperature was observed in 1837, when
+Tiberias and &#7778;afed were destroyed by an earthquake. The plain
+of Gennesareth, with its environs, is the best-watered part of the lake-basin.
+North of this plain are the five springs of et-Tabighah, the
+largest of which was enclosed about a century ago in an octagonal
+reservoir by &lsquo;Ali, son of Dhahr el-Am&#299;r, and the water led off by an
+aqueduct 52 ft. above the lake. The Tabighah springs, though
+abundant, are warm and brackish. At the north end of the plain is
+&rsquo;Ain et-T&#299;neh (&ldquo;spring of the fig-tree&rdquo;), also a brackish spring
+with a good stream; south of the plain is &lsquo;Ain el-Bardeh (&ldquo;the cold
+spring&rdquo;), which is sweet, but scarcely lower in temperature than
+the others. One of the most important springs is &lsquo;Ain el-Madawwera
+(&ldquo;the round spring&rdquo;), situated 1 m. from the south end of the
+plain and half a mile from the shore. The water rises in a circular
+well 32 ft. in diameter, and is clear and sweet, with a temperature
+of 73° F. The bottom is of loose sand, and the fish called <i>coracinus</i>
+by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is here found (see below). Dr Tristram
+was the first explorer to identify this fish, and on account of its
+presence suggested the identification of the &ldquo;round spring&rdquo; with
+the fountain of <i>Capharnaum</i>, which, according to Josephus, watered
+the plain of Gennesareth. There is, however, a difficulty in this
+identification; there are no ruins at &lsquo;Ain el-Madawwera.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fauna and Flora.</i>&mdash;For half the year the hillsides are bare and
+steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation.
+Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at
+&rsquo;Ain et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms
+with fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose
+boats are the only representatives of the many ships and boats
+which plied on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a
+lucrative industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws
+regulating it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and
+unclean, the good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong
+to the genera <i>Chromis</i>, <i>Barbus</i>, <i>Capoeta</i>, <i>Discognathus</i>, <i>Nemachilus</i>,
+<i>Blennius</i> and <i>Clarias</i>; and there is a great affinity between them
+and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight
+species of <i>Chromis</i>, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their
+young in the buccal cavities of the males. The <i>Chromis simonis</i> is
+popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece
+of money (Matt. xvii. 27). <i>Clarias macracanthus</i> (Arab. <i>Burbur</i>) is
+the <i>coracinus</i> of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs
+of &lsquo;Ain el-Madawwera, &lsquo;Ain et-T&#299;neh and &lsquo;Ain et-Tabighah, on the lake
+shore where muddy, and in Lake Hüleh. It is a scaleless, snake-like
+fish, often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the <i>C. anguillaris</i> of
+Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be
+unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of
+Matt. vii. 10 and Luke xi. 11. Large numbers of grebes&mdash;great
+crested, eared, and little,&mdash;gulls and pelicans frequent the lake.
+On its shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable
+sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of
+<i>Melania</i>, <i>Melanopsis</i>, <i>Neritina</i>, <i>Corbicula</i> and <i>Unio</i> have been found.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Antiquities.</i>&mdash;The principal sites of interest round the lake may
+be enumerated from north to west and from south to east.
+Kerazeh, the undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur
+900 ft. above the lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and
+scattered stones cover the slopes and the flat valley below. On
+the west is a rugged gorge. In the middle of the ruins are the
+scattered remains of a synagogue of richly ornamental style built
+of black basalt. A small spring occurs on the north. Tell &#7716;um
+(as the name is generally spelt, though <i>Tal&#7717;&#363;m</i> would probably be
+preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin on the shore,
+south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of foundations
+and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic thistles)
+extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations of
+a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white
+limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has
+been erected close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell
+&#7716;um synagogue. Since the 4th century Tell &#7716;um has been
+pointed out by all the Christian writers of importance as the
+site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers question this
+identification, but without sufficient reason (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capernaum</a></span>).
+Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of Gennesareth,
+2½ m. from the last, and close to the shore. There
+are extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and
+foundations. Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here
+discovered in course of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of
+an old kh&#257;n, which appears to have been built in the middle ages.
+This is another suggested identification for Capernaum; but all
+the remains belong to the Arab period. Between Tell &#7716;um and
+Minyeh is <i>Tell &lsquo;Oreimeh</i>, the site of a forgotten Amorite city.</p>
+
+<p>South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly
+supposed to represent the New Testament town of Magdala.
+A few lotus trees and some rock-cut tombs are here found beside
+a miserable mud hamlet on the hill slope, with a modern tombhouse
+(<i>kubbeh</i>). Passing beneath rugged cliffs a recess in the hills
+is next reached, where stands Tubar&#299;ya, the ancient Tiberias or
+Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half of whom are
+Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly destroyed
+by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el-Am&#299;r, as was
+the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were
+erected by his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders&rsquo; church,
+and the tomb of the celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town,
+while Rabbi Aq&#299;ba and Rabbi Meir lie buried outside. The
+ruins of the ancient city, including granite columns and traces of
+a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards a mile beyond the
+modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought water a
+distance of 9 m. from the south.</p>
+
+<p>Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a
+peninsula surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan,
+and by a broad water ditch, while on the north-west a narrow
+neck of land remains. The plateau thus enclosed is partly
+artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft. above the water. A ruined
+citadel remains on the north-west, and on the east was a bridge
+over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of sculptured
+stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the description
+given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30
+stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities.
+Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the
+cliffs, and partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page406" id="page406"></a>406</span>
+plain (the Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at
+the south end of the Sea of Galilee. <i>Sinn en-Nabreh</i>, a ruin on a
+spur of the hills close to the last-mentioned site, represents the
+ancient Sennabris, where Vespasian (Josephus, <i>B.J.</i> iii. 9, 7)
+fixed his camp, advancing from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae
+and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30 stadia from Tiberias, or about
+the distance of the ruin now existing.</p>
+
+<p>The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully
+explored than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly
+recovered. The site of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is
+fixed by Clermont-Ganneau at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn
+(&ldquo;castle of the stronghold&rdquo;) is a ruin on a rocky spur opposite
+Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain, with traces of an
+old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong wall once
+surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east
+where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the
+site on the north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut
+tombs are found beneath the ruin. This site is not identified; the
+suggestion that it is Gamala is doubtful, and not borne out by
+Josephus (<i>War</i>, iv. 1, 1), who says Gamala was over against
+Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of the last, is
+thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th century,
+situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill south of
+this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine &ldquo;ran
+violently down a steep place&rdquo; (Matt. viii. 32).</p>
+<div class="author">(C. R. C; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALILEO GALILEI<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and
+experimental philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of
+February 1564. His father, Vincenzio, was an impoverished
+descendant of a noble Florentine house, which had exchanged
+the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the election, in
+1343, of one of its members, Tommaso de&rsquo; Bonajuti, to the college
+of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen
+times represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier
+to Florence, flourished with the republic and declined with its fall.
+Vincenzio Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was
+a competent mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on
+the theory and practice of music, and was especially distinguished
+amongst his contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance
+upon the lute. By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he
+had three sons and four daughters.</p>
+
+<p>From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family,
+was remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical
+invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original
+and ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary
+studies was equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa,
+near Florence, where his education was principally conducted,
+he not only made himself acquainted with the best
+Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of the Greek tongue,
+thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and elegant style.
+From one of the monks he also received instruction in logic; but
+the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly distasteful
+to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that
+he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to
+have joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs
+for him, seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to
+withdraw him permanently from the care of the monks. Having
+had personal experience of the unremunerative character both of
+music and of mathematics, he desired that his son should apply
+himself to the cultivation of medicine, and, not without some
+straining of his slender resources, placed him, before he had
+completed his eighteenth year, at the university of Pisa. He
+accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of November 1581, and
+immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures of the
+celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino.</p>
+
+<p>The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time
+equally ready to develop in any direction towards which choice
+or hazard might incline them. In musical skill and invention he
+already vied with the best professors of the art in Italy; his
+personal taste would have led him to choose painting as his
+profession, and one of the most eminent artists of his day,
+Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he was
+mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while
+watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed
+that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably
+executed in equal times. The experimental verification of this
+fact led him to the important discovery of the isochronism of the
+pendulum. He at first applied the new principle to pulse-measurement,
+and more than fifty years later turned it to account
+in the construction of an astronomical clock. Up to this time he
+was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his father having carefully
+held him aloof from a study which he rightly apprehended would
+lead to his total alienation from that of medicine. Accident,
+however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given by
+Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced,
+tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his
+attention was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he
+threw all his energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly
+presented to him. With Ricci&rsquo;s assistance, he rapidly mastered
+the elements of the science, and eventually extorted his father&rsquo;s
+reluctant permission to exchange Hippocrates and Galen for
+Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was withdrawn from the
+university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree,
+and returned to Florence, where his family habitually resided.
+We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy
+on the site and dimensions of Dante&rsquo;s <i>Inferno</i>; and he shortly
+afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the
+hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known
+throughout Italy. His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo
+del Monte of Pesaro, a man equally eminent in science, and
+influential through family connexions. At the Marchese&rsquo;s
+request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of gravity in
+solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of &ldquo;the
+Archimedes of his time,&rdquo; the honourable though not lucrative
+post of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During
+the ensuing two years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable
+series of experiments by which he established the first principles
+of dynamics and earned the undying hostility of bigoted Aristotelians.
+From the leaning tower of Pisa he afforded to all the
+professors and students of the university ocular demonstration
+of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that heavy bodies fall
+with velocities proportional to their weights, and with unanswerable
+logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the schools
+regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or
+levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his
+adversaries. The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not
+calculated to soothe the susceptibilities of men already smarting
+under the deprivation of their most cherished illusions. He seems,
+in addition, to have compromised his position with the grand-ducal
+family by the imprudent candour with which he condemned
+a machine for clearing the port of Leghorn, invented by Giovanni
+de&rsquo; Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo I. Princely favour
+being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show itself. He
+was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to resign
+his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through
+the death of his father in July of that year family cares and
+responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to
+the chair of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by
+the influence of the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian
+senate, was welcome both as affording a relief from pecuniary
+embarrassment and as opening a field for scientific distinction.</p>
+
+<p>His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of
+eighteen years, from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted
+prosperity. His appointment was three times renewed, on each
+occasion with the expressions of the highest esteem on the part of
+the governing body, and his yearly salary was progressively raised
+from 180 to 1000 florins. His lectures were attended by persons
+of the highest distinction from all parts of Europe, and such was
+the charm of his demonstrations that a hall capable of containing
+2000 people had eventually to be assigned for the accommodation
+of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His invention
+of the proportional compass or sector&mdash;an implement still used in
+geometrical drawing&mdash;dates from 1597; and about the same
+time he constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page407" id="page407"></a>407</span>
+and tube filled with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of
+water. In this instrument the results of varying atmospheric
+pressure were not distinguishable from the expansive and contractive
+effects of heat and cold, and it became an efficient
+measure of temperature only when Rinieri, in 1646, introduced
+the improvement of hermetically sealing the liquid in glass. The
+substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water completed the modern
+thermometer.</p>
+
+<p>Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the
+Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from
+avowing his opinions&mdash;as is proved by his letter to Kepler of
+August 4, 1597&mdash;by the fear of ridicule rather than of persecution.
+The appearance, in September 1604, of a new star in the
+constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed an opportunity,
+of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an onslaught upon
+the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the heavens;
+but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to
+Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent
+implement of research in the shape of the telescope (<i>q.v.</i>) placed
+at his command startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as
+to the constitution and mutual relations of the heavenly bodies.
+Galileo was not the original inventor of the telescope.<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> That
+honour must be assigned to Johannes Lippershey, an obscure
+optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October 1608,
+petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive
+rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the
+apparent size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention,
+which reached Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the
+track; and after one night&rsquo;s profound meditation on the principles
+of refraction, he succeeded in producing a telescope of threefold
+magnifying power. Upon this first attempt he rapidly improved,
+until he attained to a power of thirty-two, and his instruments, of
+which he manufactured hundreds with his own hands, were soon
+in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only&mdash;a plano-convex
+and a plano-concave&mdash;were needed for the composition of
+each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the construction
+of opera-glasses. Galileo&rsquo;s direction of his new instrument
+to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy.
+Discoveries followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in
+bewildering variety. The <i>Sidereus Nuncius</i>, published at Venice
+early in 1610, contained the first-fruits of the new mode of
+investigation, which were sufficient to excite learned amazement
+on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous configuration of
+the moon&rsquo;s surface was there first described, and the so-called
+&ldquo;phosphorescence&rdquo; of the dark portion of our satellite attributed
+to its true cause&mdash;namely, illumination by sunlight reflected
+from the earth.<a name="fa2f" id="fa2f" href="#ft2f"><span class="sp">2</span></a> All the time-worn fables and conjectures
+regarding the composition of the Milky Way were at once dissipated
+by the simple statement that to the eye, reinforced by
+the telescope, it appeared as a congeries of lesser stars, while the
+great nebulae were equally declared to be resolvable into similar
+elements. But the discovery which was at once perceived to be
+most important in itself, and most revolutionary in its effects,
+was that of Jupiter&rsquo;s satellites, first seen by Galileo on the 7th of
+January 1610, and by him named <i>Sidera Medicea</i>, in honour of the
+grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and
+was about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the
+general run of mankind, more powerful to convince than an
+argument; and the cogency of the visible plea for the Copernican
+theory offered by the miniature system, then first disclosed
+to view, was recognizable in the triumph of its advocates as well
+as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.</p>
+
+<p>In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for
+Florence. His researches with the telescope had been rewarded
+by the Venetian senate with the appointment for life to his
+professorship, at an unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery
+of the &ldquo;Medicean Stars&rdquo; was acknowledged by his nomination
+(July 12, 1610) as philosopher and mathematician extraordinary
+to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments of this office,
+which involved no duties save that of continuing his scientific
+labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of
+increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism,
+which induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of
+which had indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610
+the memorable cycle of discoveries begun in the previous year
+was completed by the observation of the ansated or, as it
+appeared to Galileo, triple form of Saturn (the ring-formation was
+first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in 1655), of the phases of
+Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards sun-spots,
+however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim
+priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring
+of 1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the
+Quirinal Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most
+eminent personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the
+flattering reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his <i>Letters
+on the Solar Spots</i>, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more
+decided position towards that doctrine on the establishment of
+which, as he avowed in a letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the
+grand-duke, &ldquo;all his life and being henceforward depended.&rdquo;
+Even in the time of Copernicus some well-meaning persons,
+especially those of the reformed persuasion, had suspected a
+discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and certain
+passages of Scripture&mdash;a suspicion strengthened by the anti-Christian
+inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the
+question was never formally debated until Galileo&rsquo;s brilliant
+disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic
+zeal, irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities.
+Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be
+admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself
+into it with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to
+precipitate a decision which it was his interest to avert. In
+December 1613 a Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli,
+at that time professor of mathematics at the university of Pisa,
+wrote to inform Galileo of a recent discussion at the grand-ducal
+table, in which he had been called upon to defend the
+Copernican doctrine against theological objections. This task
+Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan
+astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation
+and success. Galileo&rsquo;s answer, written, as he said himself,
+<i>currente calamo</i>, was an exposition of a formal theory as to the
+relations of physical science to Holy Writ, still further developed
+in an elaborate apology addressed by him in the following year
+(1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager grand-duchess of
+Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts, he met
+his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and
+endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system
+which seemed to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to
+the scientific few a beautiful but daring innovation. The rising
+agitation on the subject, fomented for their own purposes by the
+rabid Aristotelians of the schools, was heightened rather than
+allayed by these manifestoes, and on the fourth Sunday of the
+following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of Santa Maria
+Novella. Padre Caccini&rsquo;s denunciation of the new astronomy
+was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors;
+nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican
+monk named Lorini laid Galileo&rsquo;s letter to Castelli before the
+Inquisition.</p>
+
+<p>Cardinal Robert Bellarmin was at that time by far the most
+influential member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast
+learning and upright piety, but, although personally friendly to
+Galileo, there is no doubt that he saw in his scientific teachings a
+danger to religion. The year 1615 seems to have been a period of
+suspense. Galileo received, as the result of a conference between
+Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a semi-official warning to
+avoid theology, and limit himself to physical reasoning. &ldquo;Write
+freely,&rdquo; he was told by Monsignor Dini, &ldquo;but keep outside the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page408" id="page408"></a>408</span>
+sacristy.&rdquo; Unfortunately, he had already committed himself to
+dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome,
+full of confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity
+of his eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical
+court to his views. He was cordially received, and eagerly
+listened to, but his imprudent ardour served but to injure his
+cause. On the 24th of February 1616 the consulting theologians
+of the Holy Office characterized the two propositions&mdash;that the
+sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and that the earth has
+a diurnal motion of rotation&mdash;the first as &ldquo;absurd in philosophy,
+and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy
+Scripture,&rdquo; and the second as &ldquo;open to the same censure in
+philosophy, and at least erroneous as to faith.&rdquo; Two days later
+Galileo was, by command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned
+to the palace of Cardinal Bellarmin, and there officially admonished
+not thenceforward to &ldquo;hold, teach or defend&rdquo; the
+condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to obey.
+On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree
+reiterating, with the omission of the word &ldquo;heretical,&rdquo; the censure
+of the theologians, suspending, <i>usque corrigatur</i>, the great work of
+Copernicus, <i>De revolutionibus orbium coelestium</i>, and absolutely
+prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini,
+which treated the same subject from a theological point of view.
+At the same time it was given to be understood that the new
+theory of the solar system might be held <i>ex hypothesi</i>, and the
+trivial verbal alterations introduced into the Polish astronomer&rsquo;s
+book in 1620, when the work of revision was completed by Cardinal
+Gaetani, confirmed this interpretation. This edict, it is essential
+to observe, the responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary
+congregation in no sense representing the church, was never
+confirmed by the pope, and was virtually repealed in 1757 under
+Benedict XIV.</p>
+
+<p>Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased,
+as his letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He
+brought with him, for the refutation of calumnious reports
+circulated by his enemies, a written certificate from Cardinal
+Bellarmin, to the effect that no abjuration had been required of or
+penance imposed upon him. During a prolonged audience he had
+received from the pope assurances of private esteem and personal
+protection; and he trusted to his dialectical ingenuity to find the
+means of presenting his scientific convictions under the transparent
+veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere Catholic, he
+seems to have laid but little stress on the secret admonition of the
+Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged him
+gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written
+memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, according
+to his own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin&rsquo;s
+certificate, in which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather
+than expressly recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during
+which he led a life of studious retirement in the Villa Segni at
+Bellosguardo, near Florence, he maintained an almost unbroken
+silence. At the end of that time he appeared in public with his
+<i>Saggiatore</i>, a polemical treatise written in reply to the <i>Libra
+astronomica</i> of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym of Lotario
+Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The
+subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous
+appearance of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished
+the occasion of the controversy. Galileo&rsquo;s views, although
+erroneous, since he held comets to be mere atmospheric emanations
+reflecting sunlight after the evanescent fashion of a halo
+or a rainbow, were expressed with such triumphant vigour, and
+embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his opponent did not
+venture upon a reply. The <i>Saggiatore</i> was printed at Rome in
+October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was
+a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and
+notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of
+Copernican opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical,
+no less than by scientific authorities.</p>
+
+<p>Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken
+prosperity to Galileo&rsquo;s career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest
+friend and admirer in the Sacred College, was, by the election of
+the 8th of August 1623, seated on the pontifical throne; and the
+marked distinction with which he was received on his visit of
+congratulation to Rome in 1624 encouraged him to hope for the
+realization of his utmost wishes. He received every mark of
+private favour. The pope admitted him to six long audiences in
+the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to the
+grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his
+distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and
+granted a pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards
+transferred to himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the
+end of his life. But on the subject of the decree of 1616, the
+revocation of which Galileo had hoped to obtain through his
+personal influence, he found him inexorable. Yet there seemed
+reason to expect that it would at least be interpreted in a liberal
+spirit, and Galileo&rsquo;s friends encouraged his imprudent confidence
+by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance which it was
+possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal Hohenzollern,
+Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the
+earth&rsquo;s motion had not been and could not be condemned as
+heretical, but only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican
+monk Tommaso Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had
+expressed to him in conversation his disapproval of the prohibitory
+decree. Thus, in the full anticipation of added renown,
+and without any misgiving as to ulterior consequences, Galileo
+set himself, on his return to Florence, to complete his famous
+but ill-starred work, the <i>Dialogo dei due massimi sistemi del
+mondo</i>. Finished in 1630, it was not until January 1632 that it
+emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book
+was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected
+obstacles interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the
+death of Prince Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an
+outbreak of plague impeded communication between the various
+Italian cities; and the <i>imprimatur</i> was finally extorted, rather
+than accorded, under the pressure of private friendship and
+powerful interest. A tumult of applause from every part of
+Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult to find
+in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style
+are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific
+exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati,
+Sagredo, and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which
+the work is composed. The first-named expounds the views of
+the author; the second is an eager and intelligent listener; the
+third represents a well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the
+others treat at times with undisguised contempt. Salviati and
+Sagredo took their names from two of Galileo&rsquo;s early friends, the
+former a learned Florentine, the latter a distinguished Venetian
+gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from the Cilician
+commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless instigated
+by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word. There
+were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to
+depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party;
+and the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by
+certain imprudences of expression, which Urban was not permitted
+to ignore.</p>
+
+<p>It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable
+work was in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen
+years before its publication, as well as with the author&rsquo;s personal
+pledge of conformity to it. The ironical submission with which it
+opened, and the assumed indetermination with which it closed,
+were hardly intended to mask the vigorous assertion of Copernican
+principles which formed its substance. It is a singular
+circumstance, however, that the argument upon which Galileo
+mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the truth
+of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow
+of the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial
+double movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the
+absolute velocities through space of the various parts of the
+earth&rsquo;s surface, due to its rotation. To this notion, which took
+its rise in a confusion of thought, he attached capital importance,
+and he treated with scorn Kepler&rsquo;s suggestion that a certain
+occult attraction of the moon was in some way concerned in the
+phenomenon. The theological censures which the book did not
+fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt. Towards
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page409" id="page409"></a>409</span>
+the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of October
+the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his
+age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the
+obstacles to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the
+pope was sternly indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude
+and insubordination, and no excuse was admitted. At length,
+on the 13th of February 1633, he arrived at the residence of
+Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the pontifical court, and
+there abode in retirement for two months. From the 12th to the
+30th of April he was detained in the palace of the Inquisition,
+where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with
+unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the
+hospitality of Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation
+against him was that he had written in contravention of the
+decree of 1616, and in defiance of the command of the Holy Office
+communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin; and his defence
+consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an appeal to
+his good intentions. On the 21st of June he was finally examined
+under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his
+assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the
+Index, he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the
+publication of the documents relating to this memorable trial,
+there can no longer be any doubt, not only that the threat of
+torture was not carried into execution, but that it was never
+intended that it should be. On the 22nd of June, in the church of
+Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his recantation, and
+received his sentence. He was condemned, as &ldquo;vehemently
+suspected of heresy,&rdquo; to incarceration at the pleasure of the
+tribunal, and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a
+week for three years the seven penitential psalms. This sentence
+was signed by seven cardinals, but did not receive the customary
+papal ratification. The legend according to which Galileo,
+rising from his knees after repeating the formula of abjuration,
+stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, &ldquo;<i>Eppur si muove!</i>&rdquo; is,
+as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its earliest
+ascertained appearance is in the Abbé Irailh&rsquo;s <i>Querelles littéraires</i>
+(vol. iii. p. 49, 1761).</p>
+
+<p>Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the
+21st to the 24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the
+Villa Medici on the Trinità de&rsquo; Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July,
+he was permitted to depart for Siena, where he spent several
+months in the house of the archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one
+of his numerous and trusty friends. It was not until December
+that his earnest desire of returning to Florence was realized, and
+the remaining eight years of his life were spent in his villa at
+Arcetri called &ldquo;Il Giojello,&rdquo; in the strict seclusion which was the
+prescribed condition of his comparative freedom. Domestic
+afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to
+embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family,
+who came to live with him on his return from Rome, perished
+shortly afterwards of the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634
+died, to the inexpressible grief of her father, his eldest and best-beloved
+daughter, a nun in the convent of San Matteo at Arcetri.
+Galileo was never married; but by a Venetian woman named
+Marina Gamba he had three children&mdash;a son who married and
+left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an early
+age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to
+the last. In 1636 he completed his <i>Dialoghi delle nuove scienze</i>,
+in which he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and
+mature meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in
+many respects his most valuable work was printed by the
+Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and excited admiration equally universal
+and more lasting than that accorded to his astronomical
+treatises. His last telescopic discovery&mdash;that of the moon&rsquo;s
+diurnal and monthly librations&mdash;was made in 1637, only a few
+months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness.
+It was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited
+him at Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet
+extinct. He continued his scientific correspondence with
+unbroken interest and undiminished logical acumen; he thought
+out the application of the pendulum to the regulation of clockwork,
+which Huygens successfully realized fifteen years later;
+and he was engaged in dictating to his disciples, Viviani and
+Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of impact when he was
+seized with the slow fever which in two months brought him to
+the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long life of
+triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval
+between the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.</p>
+
+<p>The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are
+virtually summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theoretical
+perfection of the science he contributed little or nothing.
+He pointed out indeed that the so-called &ldquo;third motion,&rdquo; introduced
+by Copernicus to account for the constant parallelism of
+the earth&rsquo;s axis, was a superfluous complication. But he substituted
+the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a magnetic attraction,
+and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be explained
+was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the absence
+of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously
+detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the
+discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his
+contemporaries. Kepler&rsquo;s first and second laws were published
+in 1609, and his third ten years later. By these momentous
+inductions the geometrical theory of the solar system was
+perfected, and a hitherto unimagined symmetry was perceived to
+regulate the mutual relations of its members. But by Galileo
+they were passed over in silence. In his <i>Dialogo dei massimi
+sistemi</i>, printed not less than thirteen years after the last of the
+three laws had been given to the world, the epicycles by which
+Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of uniform circular
+motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the irregularities of
+the planetary movements, were neither expressly adopted nor
+expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that this
+grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps
+unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not
+originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that
+vast extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has
+rendered modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his
+telescopic observations are a standing monument to his sagacity
+and acumen.</p>
+
+<p>With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic
+features of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his
+inferences, except when distorted by polemical exigencies, have
+been strikingly confirmed by modern investigations. Of his two
+capital errors, regarding respectively the theory of the tides and
+the nature of comets, the first was insidiously recommended to
+him by his passionate desire to find a physical confirmation of the
+earth&rsquo;s double motion; the second was adopted for the purpose
+of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded on the planetary
+analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within two years of
+their first discovery, he had constructed approximately accurate
+tables of the revolutions of Jupiter&rsquo;s satellites, and he proposed
+their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes, not
+only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great
+stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular
+glass, and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was
+offered by him in 1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards
+to that of Tuscany, but in each case unsuccessfully; and the
+close of his life was occupied with prolonged but fruitless negotiations
+on the same subject with the states-general of Holland.
+The idea, though ingenious, has been found of little practical
+utility at sea.</p>
+
+<p>A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the
+principal appearances revealed by modern instruments in the
+solar spots. He pointed out that they were limited to a certain
+defined zone on the sun&rsquo;s surface; he noted the <i>faculae</i> with
+which they are associated, the penumbra by which they are
+bordered, their slight proper motions and their rapid changes of
+form. He inferred from the regularity of their general movements
+the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of little less than a
+month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the paths
+seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive,
+argument in favour of the earth&rsquo;s annual revolution. Twice in
+the year, he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in
+straight lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page410" id="page410"></a>410</span>
+referred with great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun&rsquo;s
+axis of rotation to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the
+earth finds herself in the plane of the sun&rsquo;s equator, which occurs
+at two opposite points of her orbit, the spots, travelling in circles
+parallel with that plane, necessarily appear to describe right lines;
+but when the earth is above or below the equatorial level, the
+paths of the spots open out into curves turned downwards or
+upwards, according to the direction in which they are seen. But
+the explanation of this phenomenon is equally consistent with the
+geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the solar system.
+The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have hovered
+on the borders of this great man&rsquo;s mind, without ever fully
+entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which
+holds the moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels
+Jupiter&rsquo;s satellites to circulate round their primary, and the
+attraction exercised by the earth on bodies at its surface;<a name="fa3f" id="fa3f" href="#ft3f"><span class="sp">3</span></a> but
+he failed to conceive the combination of central force with
+tangential velocity, and was disposed to connect the revolutions
+of the planets with the axial rotation of the sun. This notion, it
+is plain, tended rather towards Descartes&rsquo;s theory of vortices
+than towards Newton&rsquo;s theory of gravitation. More valid
+instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found
+in his prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be
+found for some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets
+would at some future time be ascertained to exist, and in his
+conviction that light travels with a measurable, although, in
+relation to terrestrial distances, infinite velocity.</p>
+
+<p>The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his
+first biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to
+him. Such an instrument was made as early as 1590 by Zacharias
+Jansen of Middleburg; and although Galileo discovered, in 1610,
+a means of adapting his telescope to the examination of minute
+objects, he did not become acquainted with the compound
+microscope until 1624 when he saw one of Drebbel&rsquo;s instruments
+in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity, immediately
+introduced some material improvements into its
+construction.</p>
+
+<p>The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work
+consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establishment
+of mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts
+and theorems had been previously discovered and proved, but
+it was he who first clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical
+agent, and extended to the external world the conception of the
+invariability of the relation between cause and effect. From the
+time of Archimedes there had existed a science of equilibrium, but
+the science of motion began with Galileo. It is not too much to
+say that the final triumph of the Copernican system was due in
+larger measure to his labours in this department than to his
+direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is
+essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical
+conceptions of the dependence of motion upon force which
+Galileo familiarized to men&rsquo;s minds, that problem might have
+remained a sealed book even to the intelligence of Newton. The
+interdependence of motion and force was not indeed formulated
+into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on dynamics are
+everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of
+dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extraordinary
+advances made by him in this branch of knowledge
+were owing to his happy method of applying mathematical
+analysis to physical problems. As a pure mathematician he was,
+it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than one among his
+pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative grasp
+of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with
+Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or
+Leibnitz. Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his
+powerful and original mind left notable traces of its working.
+He studied the properties of the cycloid, and attempted the
+problem of its quadrature; and in the &ldquo;infinitesimals,&rdquo; which he
+was one of the first to introduce into geometrical demonstrations,
+was contained the fruitful germ of the differential calculus.
+But the method which was peculiarly his, and which still forms
+the open road to discoveries in natural science, consisted in the
+combination of experiment with calculation&mdash;in the transformation
+of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous comparison
+of results. The first-fruits of the new system of investigation
+was his determination of the laws of falling bodies. Conceiving
+that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he
+assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth
+descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence
+that the velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces
+traversed in the duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the
+beginning of motion; finally, he proved, by observing the times
+of descent of bodies falling down inclined planes, that the postulated
+law was the true law. Even here, he was obliged to take for
+granted that the velocities acquired in descending from the same
+height along planes of every inclination are equal; and it was not
+until shortly before his death that he found the mathematical
+demonstration of this not very obvious principle.</p>
+
+<p>The first law of motion&mdash;that which expresses the principle
+of inertia&mdash;is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly
+accelerated velocity. The recognition of the second&mdash;that of the
+independence of different motions&mdash;must be added to form the
+true theory of projectiles. This was due to Galileo. Up to his
+time it was universally held in the schools that the motion of a
+body should cease with the impulse communicated to it, but
+for the &ldquo;reaction of the medium&rdquo; helping it forward. Galileo
+showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once impressed
+is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that the
+effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another
+commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by
+more than one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed
+that a cannon ball, or other projectile, moves forward in a right
+line until its first impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to
+the ground. In the fourth of Galileo&rsquo;s dialogues on mechanics,
+he demonstrated that the path described by a projectile, being the
+result of the combination of a uniform transverse motion with a
+uniformly accelerated vertical motion, must, apart from the
+resistance of the air, be a parabola. The establishment of the
+principle of the composition of motions formed a conclusive
+answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against the
+rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly
+brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the
+systems of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a
+body flung upward or cast downward would, if the earth were in
+motion, be left behind by the rapid translation of the point from
+which it started; Galileo proved on the contrary that the
+reception of a fresh impulse in no way interfered with the movement
+already impressed, and that the rotation of the earth was
+insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its surface.
+His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his satisfactory
+definition of &ldquo;momentum,&rdquo; led him towards the third law of
+motion. We find Newton&rsquo;s theorem, that &ldquo;action and reaction
+are equal and opposite,&rdquo; stated with approximate precision in his
+treatise <i>Della scienza meccanica</i>, which contains the substance of
+lectures delivered during his professorship at Padua; and the
+same principle is involved in the axiom enunciated in the third
+of his mechanical dialogues, that &ldquo;the propensity of a body to
+fall is equal to the least resistance which suffices to support it.&rdquo;
+The problems of percussion, however, received no definitive
+solution until after his death.</p>
+
+<p>His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the
+kinetical division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory
+demonstration of equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to
+the level by a sound and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by
+establishing the theory of &ldquo;virtual velocities,&rdquo; he laid down the
+fundamental principle which, in the opinion of Lagrange, contains
+the general expression of the laws of equilibrium. He
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page411" id="page411"></a>411</span>
+studied with attention the still obscure subject of molecular
+cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on the
+question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first
+brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his
+<i>Discorso intorno alle cose che stanno su l&rsquo;acqua</i>, published in 1612,
+he used the principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more
+important theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the
+equilibrium of fluid in a siphon, and proved against the Aristotelians
+that the floating of solid bodies in a liquid depends not
+upon their form, but upon their specific gravities relative to such
+liquid.</p>
+
+<p>In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by
+Galileo in natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate
+the confused and erroneous opinions prevailing on all such
+subjects in his time. His best eulogium, it has been truly said,
+consists in the fallacies which he exposed. The scholastic
+distinctions between corruptible and incorruptible substances,
+between absolute gravity and absolute levity, between natural
+and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear from
+scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place
+of honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these
+obscure and misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and
+levity are relative terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even
+those which, like the air, are invisible; that motion is the result
+of force, instantaneous or continuous; that weight is a continuous
+force, attracting towards the centre of the earth; that, in a
+vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal velocities; that the
+&ldquo;inertia of matter&rdquo; implies the continuance of motion, as well
+as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the
+heavenly bodies is equally &ldquo;corruptible&rdquo; with that of the earth.
+These simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of
+development and investigation, and were not only true but the
+prelude to further truth; while those they superseded defied
+inquiry by their vagueness and obscurity. Galileo was a man
+born in due time. He was superior to his contemporaries, but not
+isolated amongst them. He represented and intensified a growing
+tendency of the age in which he lived. It was beginning to be
+suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature, and some
+were found who no longer treated the <i>ipse dixit</i> of the Stagirite
+as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but
+ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind
+traditions of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and
+Campanella, and the revolution which Galileo completed had been
+prepared by his predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so
+effectually accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality
+of genius. He struck out for himself the happy middle path
+between the <i>a priori</i> and the empirical systems, and exemplified
+with brilliant success the method by which experimental science
+has wrested from nature so many of her secrets. His mind was
+eminently practical. He concerned himself above all with what
+fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others the
+larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to
+the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty
+generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work
+has proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations.
+His keen intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argument,
+his fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made
+him irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs
+of scornful controversy have given place to the sedate applause of
+a long-lived posterity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first complete edition of Galileo&rsquo;s writings was published at
+Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of
+Signor Eugenio Albèri. Besides the works already enumerated, it
+contained the <i>Sermones de motu gravium</i> composed at Pisa between
+1589 and 1591; his letters to his friends, with many of their replies,
+as well as several of the essays of his scientific opponents; his
+laudatory comments on the <i>Orlando Furioso</i>, and depreciatory
+notes on the <i>Gerusalemme Liberata</i>, some stanzas and sonnets of no
+great merit, together with the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint
+of Viviani&rsquo;s <i>Life</i>, with valuable notes and corrections. The original
+documents from the archives of the Inquisition, relating to the
+events of 1616 and 1633, recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts
+of Count Rossi, and now in the Vatican Library, were to a limited
+extent made public by Monsignor Marino-Marini in 1850, and
+more unreservedly by M. Henri de l&rsquo;Épinois, in an essay entitled
+<i>Galilée, son procès, sa condemnation</i>, published in 1867 in the <i>Revue
+des questions historiques</i>. He was followed by M. Karl von Gebler,
+who, in an able and exhaustive but somewhat prejudiced work,
+<i>Galileo Galilei und die römische Curie</i> (Stuttgart, 1876), sought to
+impeach the authenticity of a document of prime importance in
+the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by Signor Domenico
+Berti, in <i>Il Processo originale di Galileo Galilei</i> (Rome, 1876), and by
+M. de l&rsquo;Épinois, with <i>Les pièces du procès de Galilée</i> (Rome, Paris,
+1877). The touching letters of Galileo&rsquo;s eldest daughter, Sister Maria
+Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by Professor Carlo Arduini,
+in a publication entitled <i>La Primogenita di Galileo Galilei</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The issue of a &ldquo;national edition&rdquo; of the Works of Galileo, in
+20 large volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a
+mass of previously inedited correspondence and other documents,
+collected by the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro,
+among whose numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be
+mentioned: <i>Galileo e lo studio di Padova</i> (2 vols., 1883); <i>Scampoli
+Galileani</i> (12 series, 1886-1897); <i>Nuovi Studii Galileani</i> (1891);
+<i>Galileo Galilei e Suor Maria Celeste</i> (1891). See also Th. Henri
+Martin&rsquo;s <i>Galilée, les droits de la science et la méthode des sciences
+physiques</i> (1868); <i>Private Life of Galileo</i> (by Mrs Olney, 1870);
+J.J. Fahie&rsquo;s <i>Galileo; his Life and Work</i> (1903); <i>Galilée et Marius</i>,
+by J.A.C. Oudemans and J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of
+Galileo to the Church are temperately and ably discussed by F.R.
+Wegg-Prosser in <i>Galileo and his Judges</i> (1889), and in two articles
+published in the <i>American Catholic Quarterly</i> for April and July
+1901.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. M. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word <i>telescope</i>, from <span class="grk" title="têle">&#964;&#8134;&#955;&#949;</span>, far, <span class="grk" title="skopein">&#963;&#954;&#959;&#960;&#949;&#8150;&#957;</span>, to view, was invented
+by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at the request of Prince
+Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was used by Galileo as
+early as 1612, but was not introduced into England until much later.
+In 1655 the word <i>telescope</i> was inserted and explained in Bagwell&rsquo;s
+<i>Mysteries of Astronomy</i>, <i>trunk</i> or <i>cylinder</i> being the terms until then
+ordinarily employed.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2f" id="ft2f" href="#fa2f"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come
+to the same conclusion.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3f" id="ft3f" href="#fa3f"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in the
+original:&mdash;&ldquo;Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro di
+essa, che quando ella cangiasse luogo, le dette parti, benchè lontane
+dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero per tutto;
+esempio di ciò sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee, ancorchè separate
+continuamente da Giove. L&rsquo;istesso si deve dire della Luna, obbligata
+a seguir la Terra.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Dialogo dei massimi sistemi</i>, Giornata terza,
+p. 351 of Albèri&rsquo;s edition.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALION,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m.
+S.W. of Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born);
+(1910) 7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati,
+Chicago &amp; St Louis, and the Erie railways, and by an interurban
+electric railway. The city is about 1165 ft. above sea level, and
+has extensive railway shops (of the Erie railway) and manufactories
+of brick and tile machinery, carriages and wagons, and
+grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and operates
+its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in 1831,
+was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a
+city in 1878.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist,
+and founder of phrenology (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Tiefenbrunn near
+Pforzheim, Baden, on the 9th of March 1758. After completing
+the usual literary course at Baden and Bruchsal, he began the
+study of medicine under J. Hermann (1738-1800) at Strassburg,
+whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van Swieten (1700-1772)
+and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to Vienna
+in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as
+a physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted
+to the scientific investigation of problems which had occupied
+his attention from boyhood. At a comparatively early period
+he formed the generalization that in the human subject at least
+a powerful memory is invariably associated with prominent
+eyes; and further observation enabled him, as he thought, also
+to define the external characteristics indicative of special talents
+for painting, music and the mechanical arts. Following out
+these researches, he gradually reached the strong conviction,
+not only that the talents and dispositions of men are dependent
+upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be inferred
+with perfect exactitude and precision from the external appearances
+of the skull. Gall&rsquo;s first appearance as an author was
+made in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of
+a (never completed) work entitled <i>Philosophisch-medicinische
+Untersuchungen über Natur u. Kunst im kranken u. gesunden
+Zustande des Menschen</i>. The first public notice of his inquiries
+in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a letter addressed to
+a friend, which appeared in C.M. Wieland&rsquo;s <i>Deutscher Mercur</i> in
+1798; but two years previously he had begun to give private
+courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his doctrines
+soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing success
+until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being
+dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities
+had the effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing
+Gall&rsquo;s celebrity.</p>
+
+<p>In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his
+friend and associate J.C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through
+Germany, in the course of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden,
+Magdeburg and several of the university towns. His expositions,
+which he knew how to make popular and attractive, were much
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page412" id="page412"></a>412</span>
+resorted to by the public, and excited considerable controversy in
+the scientific world. He had almost reached the zenith of his
+fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and established himself
+there as a medical practitioner, at the same time continuing his
+activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his <i>Introduction
+au cours de physiologie du cerveau</i>, which was followed in
+1809 by the <i>Recherches sur le système nerveux en général, et sur
+celui du cerveau en particulier</i> (originally laid before the Institute
+of France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment
+of the <i>Anatomie et physiologie du système nerveux en général, et
+du cerveau en particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilité
+de reconnaître plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de
+l&rsquo;homme et des animaux par la configuration de leurs têtes.</i> The
+<i>Recherches</i> and the first two volumes of the <i>Anatomie</i> bear the
+conjoint names of Gall and Spurzheim. The latter work was
+completed in 1819, and appeared in a second edition of six
+volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a charge of
+Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against
+him, by a treatise entitled <i>Des dispositions innées de l&rsquo;âme et
+de l&rsquo;esprit</i>, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater
+work. In 1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his
+efforts two years afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy
+of Sciences, although supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
+were unsuccessful. In 1823 he visited London with the intention
+of giving a series of phrenological lectures, but his reception was
+not what he had anticipated, and he speedily abandoned his
+plans. He continued to lecture and practise in Paris until the
+beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic seizure.
+His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of
+August 1828.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALL<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf.
+Dutch <i>gal</i>, and Ger. <i>Galle</i>; the Indo-European root appears in
+Gr. <span class="grk" title="cholê">&#967;&#959;&#955;&#942;</span> and Lat. <i>fel</i>; possibly connected with &ldquo;yellow,&rdquo;
+with reference to the colour of bile), the secretion of the liver
+known as &ldquo;bile,&rdquo; the term being also used of the pear-shaped
+<i>diverticulum</i> of the bile-duct, which forms a reservoir for the bile,
+more generally known as the &ldquo;gall-bladder&rdquo; (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liver</a></span>). From
+the extreme bitterness of the secretion, &ldquo;gall,&rdquo; like the Lat.
+<i>fel</i>, is used for anything extremely bitter, whether actually or
+metaphorically. From the idea that the gall-bladder was the
+dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament, &ldquo;gall&rdquo; was
+formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one very
+ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang,
+with the meaning &ldquo;impudence&rdquo; or &ldquo;assurance.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Gall,&rdquo; meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a
+horse, may be the same word, derived from an early use of the
+word as meaning &ldquo;poison.&rdquo; On the other hand, in Romanic
+languages, the Fr. <i>galle</i>, Sp. <i>agalla</i>, a wind-gall or puffy distension
+of the synovial bursa on the fetlock joint of a horse, is derived
+from the Lat. <i>galla</i>, oak-apple, from which comes the English
+&ldquo;gall,&rdquo; meaning an excrescence on trees caused by certain
+insects. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Galls</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLABAT,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Galabat</span>, called by the Abyssinians Matemma
+(Metemma), a town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13° N.
+36° 12&prime; E. It is built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank
+of a tributary of the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which
+forms here the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m.
+W. by N. of Gondar, the capital of Amhara, and being on the main
+route from Sennar to Abyssinia, is a trade centre of some importance.
+Pop. about 3000. The majority of the buildings are grass
+<i>tukls</i>. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and hides were formerly
+the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was closed
+about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the town
+was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later
+the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other.
+About 1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886
+was attacked by the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a
+dervish raiding party penetrated to Gondar, which they looted.
+In revenge an Abyssinian army under King John attacked the
+dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889. The dervishes
+suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a stray
+bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Egypt</a></span>: <i>Military Operations</i>,
+1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered
+Gallabat. The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result
+of frontier arrangement the town was definitely included in the
+Sudan, though Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since
+1899 the trade of the place has revived, coffee and live stock
+being the most important items.</p>
+
+<p>The town and district form a small ethnographical island,
+having been peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri
+from Darfur, who, finding the spot a convenient resting-place
+for their fellow-pilgrims on their way to Mecca and back, obtained
+permission from the negus of Abyssinia to make a permanent
+settlement. They are an industrious agricultural race, and
+cultivate cotton with considerable success. They also collect
+honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged throwing
+knives, which are said to have been brought from their original
+home in the Upper Congo regions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLAIT, LOUIS<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at
+Tournay, in Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He
+first studied in his native town under Hennequin. In 1832 his
+first picture, &ldquo;Tribute to Caesar,&rdquo; won a prize at the exhibition
+at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to prosecute his studies
+under Mathieu Ignace Van Brée, and in the following year
+exhibited at the Brussels Salon &ldquo;Christ Healing the Blind.&rdquo;
+This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the
+cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he
+sent to the Belgian Salons &ldquo;Job on the Dunghill,&rdquo; &ldquo;Montaigne
+Visiting Tasso in Prison&rdquo;; and, in 1841, &ldquo;The Abdication of
+Charles V.,&rdquo; in the Brussels Gallery. This was hailed as a
+triumph, and gained for the painter a European reputation.
+Official invitations then caused him to settle at Brussels, where he
+died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater works
+may be named: &ldquo;The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont
+and Horn by the Corporations of the Town of Brussels,&rdquo; now
+at Tournay; &ldquo;The Death of Egmont,&rdquo; in the Berlin gallery;
+the &ldquo;Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of Constantinople,&rdquo;
+painted for Versailles; &ldquo;The Temptation of St Anthony,&rdquo;
+in the palace at Brussels; &ldquo;The Siege of Antioch,&rdquo; &ldquo;Art and
+Liberty,&rdquo; a &ldquo;Portrait of M.B. Dumortier&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Plague at
+Tournay,&rdquo; all in the Brussels gallery. &ldquo;A Gipsy Woman and
+her Children&rdquo; was painted in 1852. &ldquo;M. Gallait has all the
+gifts that may be acquired by work, taste, judgment and
+determination,&rdquo; wrote Théophile Gautier; his art is that of
+a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment
+but superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the
+example of the Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment
+of Belgian classical painters and the French Romantic school,
+sincerely aimed at truth; unfortunately, misled by contemporary
+taste, he could not conceive of it excepting as dressed in sentimentality.
+As an artist employed by the State he exercised
+considerable influence, and for a long period he was the leader of
+public taste in Brussels.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Teichlin, <i>Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland</i> (1853);
+J. Dujardin, <i>L&rsquo;Art flamand</i> (1899); C. Lemonnier, <i>Histoire des
+beaux-arts en Belgique</i> (1881).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLAND, ANTOINE<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> (1646-1715), French Orientalist and
+archaeologist, the first European translator of the <i>Arabian
+Nights</i>, was born on the 4th of April 1646 at Rollot, in the
+department of Somme. The completion of his school education
+at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to a trade,
+from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic
+studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time
+in making a catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne,
+he was, in 1670, attached to the French embassy at Constantinople;
+and in 1673 he travelled in Syria and the Levant,
+where he copied a great number of inscriptions, and sketched,
+and in some cases removed historical monuments. After a brief
+visit to France, where his collection of ancient coins attracted
+some attention, Galland returned to the Levant in 1676; and in
+1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by the
+French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert;
+on the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the
+government to continue his researches, and had the title of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page413" id="page413"></a>413</span>
+&ldquo;antiquary to the king&rdquo; conferred upon him. During his prolonged
+residences abroad he acquired a thorough knowledge of the
+Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and literatures, which, on
+his final return to France, enabled him to render valuable assistance
+to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to
+Barthélemy d&rsquo;Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some
+time at Caen under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721),
+the intendant of Caen, himself no mean archaeologist; and there
+he began the publication (12 vols., 1704-1717) of <i>Les mille et
+une nuits</i>, which excited immense interest during the time of its
+appearance, and is still the standard French translation. It had
+no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the coarseness of the
+language was modified to suit European taste, but the narrative
+was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted
+into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed
+to the chair of Arabic in the Collège de France. He continued
+to discharge the duties of this post until his death, which took
+place on the 17th of February 1715.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department
+of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic,
+Persian and Turkish, entitled <i>Paroles remarquables, bons mots et
+maximes des orientaux</i> (1694), and a translation from an Arabic
+manuscript, <i>De l&rsquo;origine et du progrès du café</i> (1699). The former of
+these works appeared in an English translation in 1795. His <i>Contes
+et fables indiennes de Bidpaï et de Lokman</i> was published (1724) after
+his death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts are a
+translation of the Koran and a <i>Histoire générale des empereurs turcs</i>.
+His <i>Journal</i> was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLARATE,<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
+Milan, from which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,002.
+The town is of medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its
+textile factories. It is the junction of railways to Varese,
+Laveno and Arona (for the Simplon). Six miles to the W.
+are the electric works of Vizzola, the largest in Europe, where
+23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLARS<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> [in Lat. <span class="sc">Gallasius</span>], <b>NICOLAS DES</b> (<i>c.</i> 1520-<i>c.</i>
+1580), Calvinistic divine, first appears as author of a <i>Defensio</i>
+of William Farel, published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-1549)
+by translations into French of three tracts by Calvin.
+In 1551 he was admitted burgess of Geneva, and in 1553 made
+pastor of a country church in the neighbourhood. In 1557 he
+was sent to minister to the Protestants at Paris; his conductor,
+Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in his possession,
+was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing suspicious
+about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the
+Strangers&rsquo; church in London (1560), he, being then minister at
+Geneva, came to London to organize the French branch; and
+in 1561 he published <i>La Forme de police ecclésiastique instituée à
+Londres en l&rsquo;Église des François</i>. In the same year he assisted
+Beza at the colloquy of Poissy. He became minister to the Protestants
+at Orleans in 1564; presided at the synod of Paris in
+1565; was driven out of Orleans with other Protestants in 1568;
+and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d&rsquo;Albret, queen of Navarre.
+Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis,
+and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegetical
+and polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on
+Exodus (1560); edited an annotated French Bible (1562) and
+New Testament (1562); and published tracts against Arians
+(1565-1566). His main work was his edition of Irenaeus (1570)
+with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London, and
+giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text.
+His collaboration with Beza in the <i>Histoire des Églises Réformées
+du royaume de France</i> (1580) is doubted by Bayle.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Bayle, <i>Dictionnaire hist. et crit.</i>; Jean Senebier, <i>Hist.
+littéraire de Genève</i> (1786); <i>Nouvelle Biog. gén.</i> (1857).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLAS, MATTHIAS<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span>, <span class="sc">Count of Campo</span>, <span class="sc">Duke of Lucera</span>
+(1584-1647), Austrian soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and
+in Savoy with the Spaniards, and subsequently joined the forces
+of the Catholic League as captain. On the general outbreak
+of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an infantry
+regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Stadtlohn
+(1623). In 1630 he was serving as <i>General-Feldwachtmeister</i>
+under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the
+capture of Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service,
+he returned to Germany for the campaign against Gustavus
+Adolphus. In command of a corps of Wallenstein&rsquo;s army, he
+covered Bohemia against the Swedes in 1631-1632, and served
+at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lützen. Further good
+service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General
+Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general
+in his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators
+against Wallenstein, and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed
+to the command of the army which Wallenstein had formed and
+led. At the great battle of Nördlingen (23rd of August 1634)
+in which the army of Sweden was almost annihilated, Gallas
+commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next command was
+in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so much
+from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still
+more was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded
+against the Swedish general Banér in 1637 and 1638.
+At first driving the Swedes before him, in the end he made a
+complete failure of the campaign, lost his command, and was
+subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather the indiscipline
+of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein&rsquo;s methods) than his
+own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat across
+North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to
+endeavour to stop Torstenson&rsquo;s victorious advance, only to be
+shut up in Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant
+of his forces. Once more relieved of his command, he was again
+recalled to make head against the Swedes in 1645 (after their
+victory at Jankow). Before long, old and warworn, he resigned
+his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army had earned
+for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and rapacious
+force even in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and his <i>Merode Brüder</i> have
+survived in the word <i>marauder</i>. Like many other generals of
+that period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial
+possessions (the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein&rsquo;s estates).
+He was the founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which
+furnished many distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLAS,<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> or more correctly <span class="sc">Galla</span>, a powerful Hamitic
+people of eastern Africa, scattered over the wide region which
+extends for about 1000 m. from the central parts of Abyssinia to
+the neighbourhood of the river Sabaki in British East Africa.
+The name &ldquo;Galla&rdquo; or &ldquo;Gala&rdquo; appears to be an Abyssinian
+nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves <i>Ilm&rsquo;
+Orma</i>, &ldquo;sons of men&rdquo; or &ldquo;sons of Orma,&rdquo; an eponymous hero.
+In Shoa (Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gála in
+Guragie, on the banks of which a great battle is said to have
+been fought between the Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud
+d&rsquo;Abbadie says that the Abyssinian Moslems recount that,
+when summoned by the Prophet&rsquo;s messenger to adopt Islam, the
+chief of the Galla said &ldquo;No,&rdquo;&mdash;in Arabic <i>k&#257;l</i> (or <i>g&#257;l</i>) <i>la</i>,&mdash;and the
+Prophet on hearing this said, &ldquo;Then let their very name imply
+their denial of the Faith.&rdquo; Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla
+are the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them
+(<i>c.</i> 1860) at from six to eight millions; later authorities put them
+at not much over three millions. Individual tribes are said to be
+able to bring 20,000 to 30,000 horsemen into the field.</p>
+
+<p>Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early
+home of the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern
+part of its present territory since the 16th century. According to
+Hiob Ludolf and James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the
+Abyssinian frontiers in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a
+district along the northern side of the river Abai) tell how their
+savage forefathers came from the south-east from a country on
+the other side of a bahr (lake or river), and the Yejju and Raia
+Galla also point towards the east and commemorate the passage
+of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be
+mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the
+country now occupied by the Somali. Their original home was
+possibly in the district east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near
+Mount Kenya are stated to go on periodical pilgrimages to the
+mountain, making offerings to it as if to their mother. A theory
+has been advanced that the great exodus which it seems certain
+took place among the peoples throughout eastern Africa during
+the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of Kenya
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page414" id="page414"></a>414</span>
+and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical
+term Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central
+regions of the Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla
+are numerically strongest. There is no sharp dividing line between
+the territory occupied respectively by the Galla and by the
+Somali.</p>
+
+<p>In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast
+eastern Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the
+Somali, the Afars (Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the
+eastern Hamites, there is a perceptible strain of Negro blood in
+the Galla, who are, however, described by Sir Frederick Lugard
+as &ldquo;a wonderfully handsome race, with high foreheads, brown
+skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the wool of the
+Bantus.&rdquo; As a rule their features are quite European. Their
+colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a
+coffee and milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the
+Limmu and Gudru on the river Abai.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral
+stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements.
+Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are
+generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle
+and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven
+or eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child;
+and among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever
+thinks of going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very
+large. The ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and
+honey, the last being considered of so much importance by the
+southern Galla that a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and
+the husband who fails to furnish his wife with a sufficient supply
+of honey may be excluded from all conjugal rights. In the south
+monogamy is the rule, but in the north the number of a man&rsquo;s wives
+is limited only by his wishes and his wealth. Marriage-forms are
+numerous, that of bride-capture being common. Each tribe has
+its own chief, who enjoys the strange privilege of being the only
+merchant for his people, but in all public concerns must take the
+advice of the fathers of families assembled in council. The greater
+proportion of the tribes are still pagan, worshipping a supreme god
+Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess Oglieh and Atetieh,
+whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and sheep. With a
+strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a certain time of
+the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the wants of their
+enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some tribes, and
+notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to Mahommedanism
+and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the north, where
+the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of superficial Christianization
+has taken place, to the extent at least that the people are
+familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary, Balawold or Jesus,
+Girgis or St George, &amp;c.; but to all practical intents paganism is
+still in force. The serpent is a special object of worship, the northern
+Galla believing that he is the author of the human race. There is a
+belief in were-wolves (<i>buda</i>), and the northern Galla have sorcerers
+who terrorize the people. Though cruel in war, all Galla respect their
+pledged word. They are armed with a lance, a two-edged knife, and
+a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. A considerable number find
+employment in the Abyssinian armies.</p>
+
+<p>Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each
+instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the
+Kukatta, the Ba&#333;le, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Ilani, the Arrar and
+the Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be considered
+to mark the division between north and south; and in the
+north we find the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the
+Ambassil, the Aijjo, and the Azobo Galla.</p>
+
+<p>See C.T. Beke, &ldquo;On the Origin of the Gallas,&rdquo; in <i>Trans. of Brit.
+Assoc.</i> (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, <i>Travels in Eastern Africa</i> (1860);
+and <i>Vocabulary of the Galla Language</i> (London, 1842); Arnaud
+d&rsquo;Abbadie, <i>Douze Ans dans la Haute-Éthiopie</i> (1868); Ph. Paulitschke,
+<i>Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas</i>; <i>Die geistige Kultur der Dan&rsquo;akil,
+Galla u. Somâl</i> (Berlin, 1896); P.M. de Salviac, <i>Les Galla</i> (Paris,
+1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLATIN, ALBERT<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> (1761-1849), American statesman, was
+born in Geneva (Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The
+Gallatins were both an old and a noble family. They are first
+heard of in Savoy in the year 1258, and more than two centuries
+later they went to Geneva (1510), united with Calvin in his
+opposition to Rome, and associated their fortunes with those of
+the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and with one or two
+other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth many
+representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the
+service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the
+eve of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva,
+occupying the same position which they had held for two hundred
+years. Albert Gallatin&rsquo;s father died in 1765, his mother five
+years later, and his only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan
+at nine, he was by no means lonely or unprotected. His grandparents,
+a large circle of near relatives and Mlle Catherine
+Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his mother, cared for him
+during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at the schools
+of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or
+academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to
+enter the army of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve
+&ldquo;a tyrant,&rdquo; and a year later slipped away from Geneva and
+embarked for the United States. A competent fortune, good
+prospects, social position, and a strong family connexion were
+all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New World. His
+relatives very properly opposed his course, but they nevertheless
+did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to treat
+him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their
+opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the
+established order of things, and some political enthusiasm
+imbibed from the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons
+which can now be assigned for Gallatin&rsquo;s desertion of home and
+friends.</p>
+
+<p>In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784)
+landed in Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope
+and courage, as well as a little money, and at once entered into
+business. The times, however, were unfavourable. The great
+convulsion of the Revolution was drawing to a close, and everything
+was in an unsettled condition. The young Genevans
+failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds of Maine,
+and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a
+living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not
+without success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New
+England repelled him, and he made his way to the South. In the
+backwoods of Pennsylvania and Virginia there seemed to be
+better chances for a young adventurer. Gallatin engaged in land
+speculations, and tried to lay the foundation of his fortune in a
+frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allègre, and every
+prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered
+again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and
+Gallatin was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier
+life became now more dreary than ever; he flung himself into
+politics, the only outside resource open to him, and his long, and
+eventful public career began.</p>
+
+<p>The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and
+Gallatin, with his dislike of strong government still upon him,
+threw himself into opposition and became one of the founders
+of the Anti-Federalist, or, as it was afterwards called, the
+Republican party. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Constitutional
+Convention of 1789-1790, and of the Pennsylvania
+Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising
+rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak
+English with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by
+his sound education; but the true cause of his success lay in his
+strong sense, untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and
+great intellectual force. In 1793 he was chosen United States
+senator from Pennsylvania by the votes of both political parties.
+No higher tribute was ever paid to character and ability than that
+conveyed by this election. But the staunch Federalists of the
+senate, who had begun to draw the party lines rather sharply,
+found the presence of the young Genevan highly distasteful.
+They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a man of
+levelling principles. His seat was contested on account of a
+technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in
+February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the
+session, the senate annulled the election and sent him back to
+Pennsylvania with all the glory of political martyrdom.</p>
+
+<p>The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the &ldquo;Whisky
+Insurrection&rdquo; in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt,
+been an efficient cause in his rejection by the senate. He intended
+fully to restrain within legal bounds the opposition
+which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked, but he made
+the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the character
+of the backwoods population. When legal resistance developed
+into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page415" id="page415"></a>415</span>
+prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the
+29th of August 1794, before the &ldquo;Committee of Sixty&rdquo; who were
+appointed to represent the disaffected people, he opposed with
+vigorous eloquence the use of force against the government, and
+refused to be intimidated by an excited band of riflemen who
+happened to be in the vicinity and represented the radical element.
+He effectively checked the excitement, and when a month later
+an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon the western
+counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of all
+the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin
+alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the
+national house of representatives, and took his seat in December
+1795. There, by sheer force of ability and industry, he wrested
+from all competitors the leadership of the Republicans, and became
+the most dangerous opponent whom the Federalists had
+ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a hatred of France
+just then rising to the dignity of a party principle, they found in
+Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion peculiarly
+obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in vain.
+His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and
+action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most
+effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His
+clear mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance.
+He became the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his
+cardinal doctrines of simplicity and economy, and was an effective
+critic of the measures of government. Cool and temperate,
+Gallatin, when following his own theories, was usually in the
+right, although accused by his followers of trimming. Thus, in
+regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the constitutional right of
+the house to consider the treaty, but he did not urge rejection in
+this specific case. On the other hand, when following a purely
+party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the
+mainspring of Washington&rsquo;s foreign policy; he opposed commercial
+treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion.
+On these points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed
+his views after a good deal of bitter experience.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest period of Gallatin&rsquo;s career in congress was in
+1798, after the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches.
+The insults of Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort
+bribes from the American commissioners, roused the deep anger
+of the people against France. The Federalists swept all before
+them, and the members of the opposition either retired from
+Philadelphia or went over to the government. Alone and single-handed,
+Gallatin carried on the fight in congress. The Federalists
+bore down on him unmercifully, and even attempted (1798) a
+constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship, partly, it
+appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on,
+making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying
+very little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson
+and Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong
+measures of the Federalists shocked the country; the leaders
+of the dominant party quarrelled fiercely among themselves;
+and the Republicans carried the elections of 1800. In the
+exciting contest for the presidency in the house of representatives
+between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who led the
+Republicans.</p>
+
+<p>When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801),
+there were two men whose commanding abilities marked them
+for the first places in the cabinet. James Madison became
+secretary of state, and Albert Gallatin secretary of the treasury.
+Wise, prudent and conservative, Gallatin made few changes in
+Hamilton&rsquo;s arrangements, and for twelve years administered
+the national finances with the greatest skill. He and Jefferson
+were both imbued with the idea that government could be carried
+on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness of
+human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory
+fell upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity
+of administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and everything
+bent to these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary
+pirates was a mere question of expense. It was cheaper to seize
+Louisiana than to await the settlement of doubtful points.
+Commercial warfare was to be avoided because of the cost.
+All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded it was less
+extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared.
+Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself
+in the matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six
+years the public debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana
+purchase) by $14,260,000, a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive
+and beneficent scheme of internal improvements was
+ready for execution, and the promised land seemed in sight. Then
+came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched neutrality at home,
+fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair structure of
+government by a priori theories based on the goodness of unoppressed
+humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown
+helplessly back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government
+according to circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets,
+but the position was a trying one. The sworn foe of strong
+government, he was compelled, in pursuance of Jefferson&rsquo;s
+policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other radical
+and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain.
+Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and
+Jefferson, having entangled foreign relations and brought the
+country to the verge of civil war, retired to private life, leaving
+to his successor Madison, and to Gallatin, the task of extricating
+the nation from its difficulties. From 1809 the new administration,
+drifting steadily towards war, struggled on from one abortive
+and exasperating negotiation to another. It was a period of sore
+trial to Gallatin. The peace policy had failed, and nothing else
+replaced it. He had lost his hold upon Pennsylvania and his
+support in the house, while a cabal in the senate, bitterly and
+personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the administration
+and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At
+last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison&rsquo;s recommendation
+declared war against England.</p>
+
+<p>Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished
+schemes were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had
+come, and he believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and
+progress of America. He therefore put the finances in the best
+order he could, and set himself to mitigate the evil effects of
+the war by obtaining an early peace. With this end in view he
+grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of Russia, and without
+resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May 1813.</p>
+
+<p>Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered,
+catching at every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his
+labours came the news that the senate had refused to confirm his
+appointment as peace commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially
+until, the objection of the senate having been met by the appointment
+of a new secretary of the treasury, his second nomination was
+approved, and he was able to proceed with direct negotiations.
+The English and American commissioners finally met at Ghent,
+and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued
+Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in managing
+his colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John
+Quincy Adams, able men of strong wills and jarring tempers.
+He succeeded in preserving harmony, and thus established his
+own reputation as an able diplomatist. Peace was his reward;
+on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was signed; and after
+visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, and assisting
+in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England by
+which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July
+1815 returned to America.</p>
+
+<p>While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become
+minister to France; this appointment he accepted in January
+1816, and adhered to his acceptance in spite of his being asked
+in April 1816 to serve once more as secretary of the treasury.
+He remained in France for the next seven years. He passed
+his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing everybody of
+note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of his
+official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted
+patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted
+country with the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard
+Rush, then United States minister in London, in negotiating
+a commercial convention with Great Britain to take the place
+of that negotiated in 1815.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page416" id="page416"></a>416</span></p>
+
+<p>In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found
+himself plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress
+for the presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal
+friend William H. Crawford, whom he regarded as the true
+heir and representative of the old Jeffersonian principles. With
+these feelings he consented in May 1824 to stand for the vice-presidency
+on the Crawford ticket. But Gallatin had come home
+to new scenes and new actors, and he did not fully appreciate
+the situation. The contest was bitter, personal, factious and full
+of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford interest,
+came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second place,
+by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October
+Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the
+popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the
+choice of John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from
+his retirement and sent him as minister to England to conduct
+another complicated and arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked
+at his new task with his usual industry, tact and patience, but the
+results were meagre, although an open breach on the delicate
+question of the north-east boundary of the United States was
+avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king of the
+Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the
+United States and bade farewell to public life.</p>
+
+<p>Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839
+president of the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank)
+of New York, but his duties were light, and he devoted himself
+chiefly to the congenial pursuits of science and literature. In
+both fields he displayed much talent, and by writing his <i>Synopsis
+of the Indian Tribes within the United States East of the Rocky
+Mountains and in the British and Russian Possessions in North
+America</i> (1836), and by founding the American Ethnological
+Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of &ldquo;Father
+of American Ethnology.&rdquo; He continued, of course, to interest
+himself in public affairs, although no longer an active participant,
+and in all financial questions, especially in regard to the bank
+charter, the resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837,
+he exerted a powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question
+touched him nearly. Gallatin had always been a consistent
+opponent of slavery; he felt keenly, therefore, the attempts of
+the South to extend the slave power and confirm its existence,
+and the remnant of his strength was devoted in his last days to
+writing and distributing two able pamphlets against the war
+with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the
+24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of
+Texas; and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling
+New York mob with the same cool, unflinching courage which he
+had displayed half a century before when he faced the armed
+frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During the winter of 1848-1849
+his health failed, and on the 12th of August 1849, at the
+home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed peacefully
+away.</p>
+
+<p>Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he
+married in November 1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of
+New York, the daughter of Com. James Nicholson (1737-1804),
+an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of the navy from
+1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the &ldquo;Virginia,&rdquo;
+he was taken by the British &ldquo;Iris&rdquo; and &ldquo;General Monk.&rdquo;
+By her he had three children, two sons and a daughter, who all
+survived him. In personal appearance he was above middle
+height, with strongly-marked features, indicating great strength
+of intellect and character. He was reserved and very reticent,
+cold in manner and not sympathetic. There was, too, a certain
+Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much beloved by
+his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have
+a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood,
+with Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won
+his place by force of character, courage, application and intellectual
+power. His eminent and manifold services to his
+adopted country, his great abilities and upright character, assure
+him a high position in the history of the United States.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>The Writings of Albert Gallatin</i>, edited by Henry Adams, were
+published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these
+volumes was published an excellent biography, <i>The Life of Albert
+Gallatin</i>, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John
+Austin Stevens&rsquo;s <i>Albert Gallatin</i> (Boston, 1884) in the &ldquo;American
+Statesmen&rdquo; series.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. C. L.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (1787-1851), American
+educator of the deaf and dumb, was born in Philadelphia,
+Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot ancestry, on the 10th of
+December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805, where he was
+a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology
+at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having
+determined to abandon the ministry and devote his life to the
+education of deaf mutes, he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and
+studied the methods of the abbé Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas
+Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor Joseph Watson
+(1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United States
+in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of
+Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbé
+Sicard, a school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress,
+largely through the influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant,
+and which Gallaudet presided over with great success until
+ill-health compelled him to retire in 1830. It was the first
+institution of the sort in the United States, and served as a model
+for institutions which were subsequently established. He died
+at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, <i>Life,
+Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet</i> (Hartford,
+1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a
+third (and the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Thomas Gallaudet</span> (1822-1902), after graduating
+at Trinity College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal
+ministry, settled in New York City, and there in 1852 organized
+St Anne&rsquo;s Episcopal church, where he conducted services for deaf
+mutes. In 1872 he organized and became general manager of
+the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885 founded the
+Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at
+Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York.</p>
+
+<p>Another son, <span class="sc">Edward Miner Gallaudet</span> (b. 1837), was born
+at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and
+graduated at Trinity College in 1856. After teaching for a year
+in the institution for deaf mutes founded by his father at Hartford,
+he removed with his mother, Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1798-1877),
+to Washington, D.C., where at the request of Amos Kendall
+(1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took charge of the
+Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received
+support from the government, and of which he became president.
+This institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate education
+for deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees),
+and was successful from the start. The Gallaudet College
+(founded in 1864 as the National Deaf Mute College and renamed
+in 1893 in honour of Thomas H. Gallaudet) and the Kendall
+School are separate departments of this institution, under
+independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but under
+the management of one board of directors.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLE,<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Point de Galle</span>, a town and port of Ceylon on the
+south-west coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and
+divided into the five districts of the Fort, Callowelle, Galopiadde,
+Hirimbure and Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile
+in circumference, overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded
+by a range of hills. Within its enclosure are not only several
+government buildings, but an old church erected by the Dutch
+East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan chapel, a hospital,
+and a considerable number of houses occupied by Europeans.
+The old Dutch building known as the queen&rsquo;s house, or governor&rsquo;s
+residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated
+state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in
+1873. Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but
+the general style of domestic architecture is pleasant and comfortable,
+though not pretentious. One of the most delightful
+features of the place is the profusion of trees, even within the
+town, and along the edge of the shore&mdash;suriyas, palms, coco-nut
+trees and bread-fruit trees. The ramparts towards the sea furnish
+fine promenades. In the harbour deep water is found close to the
+shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but the south-west
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page417" id="page417"></a>417</span>
+monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently drives
+vessels from their moorings.</p>
+
+<p>The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of
+a breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and
+most of the commercial steamers to the capital of the island,
+seriously diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few
+steamers still call to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of
+the Peninsular and Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced
+the port to a subordinate position; nor has the extension of the
+railway from Colombo, and beyond Galle to Matara, very much
+improved matters. The tea-planting industry has, however,
+spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in digging
+plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella
+oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil,
+plumbago, coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade
+cotton goods are the chief item. Both the export and import
+trade for the district, however, now chiefly passes through
+Colombo. Pop. (1901) 37,165.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers,
+unless the identification with Ptolemy&rsquo;s Avium Promontorium or
+Cape of Birds be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native
+chronicles before 1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th
+century, distinctly states that Kali&mdash;that is, Galle&mdash;was a <i>small</i>
+town. It was not till the period of Portuguese occupation that it
+rose to importance. When the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese
+they strengthened the fortifications, which had been vigorously
+defended against their admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the
+place had the rank of a commandancy. In the marriage treaty of
+the infanta of Portugal with Charles II. of England it was agreed
+that if the Portuguese recovered Ceylon they were to hand over
+Galle to the English; but as the Portuguese did not recover Ceylon
+the town was left to fall into English hands at the conquest of the
+island from the Dutch in 1796. The name Galle is derived from the
+Sinhalese <i>galla</i>, equivalent to &ldquo;rock&rdquo;; but the Portuguese and
+Dutch settlers, being better fighters than philologists, connected
+it with the Latin <i>gallus</i>, a cock, and the image of a cock was
+carved as a symbol of the town in the front of the old government
+house.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> (1810-1895),
+Italian author and patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of
+November 1810, was the eldest son of a Piedmontese of good
+family, who served for ten years in the French army under
+Masséna and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the
+university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused
+a ferment in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and
+within a few months was successively a conspirator, a state
+prisoner, a combatant and a fugitive. For the next five years he
+lived a wandering life in France, Spain and Africa. In August
+1836 he embarked for New York, and three years later he
+proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a translator
+and teacher of languages. His first book, <i>Italy; General Views
+of its History and Literature</i>, which appeared in 1841, was well
+received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of
+the Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in communication
+with the insurgents. He filled the post of Chargé
+d&rsquo;Affaires for Piedmont at Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the
+next few years he travelled incessantly between Italy and
+England, working for the liberation of his country. In 1854,
+through Cavour&rsquo;s influence, he was elected a deputy to the Italian
+parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the summer
+in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in the
+winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he
+proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of <i>The Times</i>.
+The campaign was so brief that the fighting was over before he
+arrived, but his connexion with <i>The Times</i> endured for twenty
+years. He was a forcible and picturesque writer, with a command
+of English remarkable for an Italian. He materially
+helped to establish that friendly feeling towards Italy which
+became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased the
+Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he
+retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December
+1895. He was twice married. Among his chief works are an
+<i>Historical Memoir of Frà Dolcino and his Times</i> (1853); a <i>History
+of Piedmont</i> (3 vols., 1855; Italian translation, 1856); <i>Country
+Life in Piedmont</i> (1858); <i>The Invasion of Denmark</i> (2 vols., 1864);
+<i>The Pearl of the Antilles</i> [travels in Cuba] (1873); <i>Italy Revisited</i>
+(2 vols., 1875); <i>Two Years of the Eastern Question</i> (2 vols., 1877);
+<i>The Pope</i> [Pius IX.] <i>and the King</i> [Victor Emmanuel] (2 vols.,
+1879); <i>South America</i> (1880); <i>A Summer Tour in Russia</i> (1882);
+<i>Iberian Reminiscences</i> (2 vols., 1883); <i>Episodes of my Second
+Life</i> (1884); <i>Italy, Present and Future</i> (2 vols., 1887). Gallenga&rsquo;s
+earlier publications appeared under the pseudonym of Luigi
+Mariotti.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLERY<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (through Ital. <i>galleria</i>, from Med. Lat. <i>galeria</i>, of
+which the origin is unknown),<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a> a covered passage or space
+outside a main wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the
+ground floor, and as a balcony if on an upper floor and supported
+by columns, piers or corbels; similarly the upper seats in a
+theatre or a church, on either side as in many 17th-century
+churches, or across the west end under the organ. The word is
+also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place
+various rooms in communication with one another; but if
+of narrow width this is usually called a corridor or passage.
+When of sufficient width the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures
+and other art treasures. In the 16th century the picture gallery
+formed the largest room or hall in English mansions, with
+wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster ceiling; the
+principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft. by
+34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.); Hatfield, Hertfordshire
+(163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham
+(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17
+ft.); and Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.).
+Hence the application of the term to art museums (the National
+Gallery, &amp;c.) and also to smaller rooms with top-light in which
+temporary exhibitions are held.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Du Cange, <i>Glossarium, s.v.</i> &ldquo;Galeria,&rdquo; suggests an origin from
+<i>galera</i>, a galley, on the analogy of &ldquo;nave,&rdquo; from <i>navis</i>, the galley
+being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, <i>alii alia opinantur</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLEY<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> (derived through the O. Fr. <i>galee</i>, <i>galie</i>, from the
+Med. Lat. <i>galea</i>, Ital. <i>galea</i>, Port. <i>galé</i>, of uncertain origin; from
+the Med. Lat. variant form <i>galera</i> are derived the Mod. Fr.
+<i>galère</i>, Span. and Ital. <i>galera</i>), a long single or half decked vessel of
+war, with low free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps;
+but also having masts for sails. The word is used generally of the
+ancient war vessels of Greece and Rome of various types, whose
+chief propelling power was the oar or sweep, but its more specific
+application is to the medieval war vessel which survived in the
+navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers after the general adoption
+of the larger many-decked ship of war, propelled solely by sail-power.
+Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval battle in which
+the galley played the principal part. The &ldquo;galleass&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;galliass&rdquo; (Med. Lat. <i>galeasea</i>, Ital. <i>galeazza</i>, an augmented form
+of <i>galea</i>) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually
+carried three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated
+structure. The &ldquo;galliot&rdquo; (O. Fr. <i>galiot</i>, Span. and Port. <i>galeota</i>,
+Ital. <i>galeotta</i>, a diminutive of <i>galea</i>) was a small light type of
+galley. The &ldquo;galleon&rdquo; (formerly in English &ldquo;galloon,&rdquo; Fr.
+<i>galion</i>, derived from the Med. Lat. <i>galio</i>, <i>galionis</i>, a derivative
+of <i>galea</i>) was a sailing ship of war and trade, shorter than the
+galley and standing high out of the water with several decks,
+chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th century in the
+carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or sweeps
+varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the
+galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men.
+This labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves
+or prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers
+to sentence condemned criminals to row in the
+war galleys of the state. Traces of this in France can be found as
+early as 1532, but the first legislative enactment is in the <i>Ordonnance
+d&rsquo;Orléans</i> of 1561. In 1564 Charles IX. forbade the
+sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less than ten years.
+The galley-slaves were branded with the letters <i>Gal.</i> At the end
+of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war purposes
+had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not
+incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the
+galleys and of the convict rowers (<i>galériens</i>) was at Marseilles.
+The majority of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others
+were sent to Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page418" id="page418"></a>418</span>
+in the arsenal. At Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on
+the galleys, which were moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore
+prisons were, however, provided for them, known as <i>bagnes</i>,
+baths, a name given to such penal establishments first by the
+Italians (<i>bagno</i>), and said to have been derived from the prison at
+Constantinople situated close by or attached to the great baths
+there. The name <i>galérien</i> was still given to all convicts, though
+the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the French
+Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed
+to <i>forçat</i>. In Spain <i>galera</i> is still used for a criminal condemned
+to penal servitude.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
+Jean Marteilhes&rsquo;s <i>Memoirs of a Protestant</i>, translated by Oliver
+Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of
+one of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict
+of Nantes.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIA CISALPINA<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Cis</i>, on this side, <i>i.e.</i> of the Alps),
+in ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of
+Liguria and Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited
+by various Celtic and other peoples, of whom the Celts were in
+continual hostility to Rome. In early times it was bounded on
+the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in Caesar&rsquo;s time by Liguria and
+the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War (203 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) these tribes
+were severely punished by the Roman generals for the assistance
+they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district into
+two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was
+made directly subject to the government at Rome, while the
+northern portion was put under a distinct authority, probably
+similar to the usual transmarine commands (see Mommsen,
+<i>Hist. of Rome</i>, Eng. trans., bk. iv. c. 10).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
+district see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Italy</a></span> (ancient), and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History, Ancient.</i></p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIC ACID,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> trioxybenzoic acid (HO)<span class="su">3</span>(3.4.5.)C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>CO<span class="su">2</span>H·H<span class="su">2</span>O,
+the <i>acidum gallicum</i> of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K.
+W. Scheele; it occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate
+root-bark, in tea, in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%,
+and in other vegetable productions. It may be prepared by keeping
+moist and exposed to the air for from four to six weeks, at a
+temperature of 20° to 25° C., a paste of powdered gall-nuts and
+water, and removing from time to time the mould which forms
+on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water, the hot
+solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic acid drained,
+and purified by dissolving in boiling water, recrystallization at
+about 27° C., and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water.
+The production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in
+the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by
+boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol
+and ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced
+by heating an aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with
+excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid
+with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It crystallizes in
+white or pale fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky needles,
+and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold and
+3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent
+and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200° C., and
+at 210º to 215° it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol,
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">3</span>(OH)<span class="su">3</span>. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue
+colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an insoluble,
+blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali
+metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except
+in alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown.
+Solution of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on
+exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid,
+gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids,
+or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver
+are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm
+solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phosphorus
+oxychloride at 120° C. gallic acid yields tannic acid, and
+with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100°, <i>rufigallic acid</i>, C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">8</span>,
+an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic
+acid, convert it into <i>ellagic acid</i>, C<span class="su">14</span>H<span class="su">8</span>O<span class="su">9</span> + H<span class="su">2</span>O, probably a
+fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the
+external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably
+in many plants, and composes the &ldquo;bezoar stones&rdquo; found
+in the intestines of Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid
+has been, and is still, largely used as an astringent, styptic and
+haemostatic. Gallic acid, however, does not coagulate albumen
+and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So far is it
+from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living
+blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutralization
+in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote
+actions.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLICANISM,<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> the collective name for various theories
+maintaining that the church and king of France had ecclesiastical
+rights of their own, independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction
+of the pope. Gallicanism had two distinct sides, a constitutional
+and a dogmatic, though both were generally held together, the
+second serving as the logical basis of the first. And neither
+is intelligible, except in relation to the rival theory of Ultramontanism
+(<i>q.v.</i>). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
+the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that
+the church&rsquo;s infallible authority was committed to pope and
+bishops jointly. The pope decided in the first instance, but his
+judgments must be tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops
+before they had the force of law. This ancient theory survived
+much longer in France than in other Catholic countries. Hence
+the name of Gallican is loosely given to all its modern upholders,
+whether of French nationality or not. Constitutional
+Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state in France.
+It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the theocratic
+pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as
+vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns
+of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they
+disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power
+directly of God; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether
+outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the
+Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to
+become a reality, the Gallican theory became of great importance.
+It was elaborated, and connected with dogmatic Gallicanism, by
+the famous theologian, Edmond Richer (1559-1631), and finally
+incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French
+Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that the
+temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2)
+that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient
+liberties of the Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible
+teaching authority of the church belongs to pope and bishops
+jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome,
+and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines continued
+to be largely held. They were asserted in an extreme
+form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which almost
+severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802
+Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bossuet&rsquo;s declaration
+textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue
+had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope
+should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs.
+Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French governments
+continued to uphold two of the ancient &ldquo;Gallican Liberties.&rdquo;
+The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs whenever
+the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and
+papal bulls were not allowed to be published without the leave
+of the state. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Febronianism</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(St. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1849-&emsp;&emsp;), French soldier and
+colonial administrator, was born at Saint-Béat, in the department
+of Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military
+academy of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the
+Marines, becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He
+saw service in the Franco-German War, and between 1877 and
+1881 took an important part in the explorations and military
+expeditions by which the French dominion was extended in the
+basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly valuable
+service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
+almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce
+on the upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the
+Société de Géographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed
+in Martinique. On the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page419" id="page419"></a>419</span>
+of lieutenant-colonel, and on the 20th of December was nominated
+governor of Upper Senegal. He obtained several successes against
+Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory to agree to a treaty by
+which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Senegal</a></span>:
+<i>History</i>). In connexion with his service in West Africa, Gallieni
+published two works&mdash;<i>Mission d&rsquo;exploration du Haut-Niger,
+1879-1881</i> (Paris, 1885), and <i>Deux Campagnes au Sudan français</i>
+(Paris, 1891)&mdash;which, besides possessing great narrative interest,
+give information of considerable value in regard to the resources
+and topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an
+officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of
+colonel, and from 1893 to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding
+the second military division of the territory. In 1899 he
+published his experiences in <i>Trois Colonnes au Tonkin</i>. In 1896
+Madagascar was made a French colony, and Gallieni was appointed
+resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to governor-general)
+and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration
+of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out
+against the French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni
+succeeded in completing the subjugation of the island. He also
+turned his attention to the destruction of the political supremacy
+of the Hovas and the restoration of the autonomy of the other
+tribes. The execution of the queen&rsquo;s uncle, Ratsimamanga,
+and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior, in
+October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in
+1897, on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova
+hegemony, and made an end of Hova intrigues against French
+rule. The task of government was one of considerable difficulty.
+The application of the French customs and other like measures,
+disastrous to British and American trade, were matters for which
+Gallieni was not wholly responsible. His policy was directed to
+the development of the economic resources of the island and was
+conciliatory towards the non-French European population. He
+also secured for the Protestants religious liberty. In 1899 he
+published a <i>Rapport d&rsquo;ensemble sur la situation générale de Madagascar</i>.
+In 1905, when he resigned the governorship, Madagascar
+enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In
+1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army
+corps and military government of Lyons. He reviewed the
+results of his Madagascar administration in a book entitled
+<i>Neuf Ans à Madagascar</i> (Paris, 1908).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> Roman emperor
+from <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 260 to 268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about
+218. From 253 to 260 he reigned conjointly with his father,
+during which time he gave proof of military ability and bravery.
+But when his father was taken prisoner by Shapur I. of Persia, in
+260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his release, or to withstand
+the incursions of the invaders who threatened the empire
+from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in
+literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up
+chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of
+their military and provincial commands, which were transferred
+to equites. During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful
+pestilence; and the chief cities of Greece were sacked by the
+Goths, who descended on the Greek coast with a fleet of five
+hundred. His generals rebelled against him in almost every
+province of the empire, and this period of Roman history came
+to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless,
+these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining
+order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians.
+Gallienus was killed at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while
+besieging Aureolus, who was proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian
+legions. His sons Valerianus and Saloninus predeceased him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Life by Trebellius Pollio in <i>Script. Hist. Aug.</i>; on coins see articles
+in <i>Numism. Zeit.</i> (1908) and <i>Riv. ital. d. num.</i> (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE,<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis
+de</span>, Prince de Martignes (1830-1909), French general, was born
+in Paris on the 23rd of January 1830. He entered the army in
+1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in 1853, and served
+with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in the Italian
+campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a time he
+served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He
+displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of
+Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded.
+When he returned to France to recover from his wounds he was
+entrusted with the task of presenting the captured standards and
+colours to the emperor, and was promoted <i>chef d&rsquo;escadrons</i>. He
+went again to Algeria in 1864, took part in expeditions against
+the Arabs, returned to Mexico as lieutenant-colonel, and, after
+winning further distinction, became in 1867 colonel of the 3rd
+Chasseurs d&rsquo;Afrique. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71
+he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until
+promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At
+the battle of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d&rsquo;Afrique in
+the heroic charge of General Margueritte&rsquo;s cavalry division,
+which extorted the admiration of the old king of Prussia. Made
+prisoner of war at the capitulation, he returned to France during
+the siege of Paris by the French army of Versailles, and commanded
+a brigade against the Communists. In the suppression
+of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly, and on
+that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout
+his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army,
+made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the
+chamber of deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna
+subdivision of Algeria, and commanded an expedition against El
+Golea, surmounting great difficulties in a rapid march across the
+desert, and inflicting severe chastisement on the revolted tribes.
+On the general reorganization of the army he commanded the
+31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of division in 1875, he
+successively commanded the 15th infantry division at Dijon, the
+IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps at
+Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Supérieur
+de la Guerre. He conducted the cavalry man&oelig;uvres in successive
+years, and attained a European reputation on all cavalry
+questions, and, indeed, as an army commander. Decorated with
+the grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1887, he received the
+military medal for his able conduct of the autumn man&oelig;uvres in
+1891, and after again commanding at the man&oelig;uvres of 1894 he
+retired from the active list. Afterwards he took an important
+part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899 to
+29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau&rsquo;s cabinet, and
+distinguished himself by the firmness with which he dealt with
+cases of unrest in the army, but he then retired into private life,
+and died on the 8th of July 1909.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (originally <span class="sc">Lucius Annaeus
+Novatus</span>), son of the rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the
+elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher, was born
+at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of the Christian era.
+At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a rhetorician of
+some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio. His
+brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises <i>De Ira</i> and
+<i>De Vita Beata</i>, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded
+to by the poet Statius (<i>Silvae</i>, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was
+banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned
+together to Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to
+Nero. Towards the close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was
+proconsul of the newly constituted senatorial province of Achaea,
+but seems to have been compelled by ill-health to resign the post
+within a few years. During his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed
+the charge brought by the Jews against the apostle Paul
+(Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion (&ldquo;But Gallio
+cared for none of these things&rdquo;) shows the impartial attitude of
+the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days. He
+survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death
+by order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Tacitus, <i>Annals</i>, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M.
+Ramsay, <i>St Paul the Traveller</i>, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings&rsquo;
+<i>Dict. of the Bible</i> (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given
+by Anatole France in <i>Sur la pierre blanche</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIPOLI<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> (anc. <i>Callipolis</i>), a seaport town and episcopal see
+of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by
+rail, 46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune,
+13,459. It is situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of
+Taranto, but is united to the mainland by a bridge, protected by
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page420" id="page420"></a>420</span>
+a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifications
+have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from
+1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil,
+which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock.
+This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine,
+however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its
+name (&ldquo;beautiful city&rdquo;) shows. It is hardly mentioned in
+ancient times. Pliny tells us that in his time it was known as
+Anxa. It lay a little off the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum,
+but was reached by a branch from Aletium (the site is marked
+by the modern church of S. Maria della Lizza), among the ruins
+of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no Latin ones, have
+been found.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIPOLI<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (Turk. <i>Gelibolu</i>, anc. <span class="grk" title="Kallipolis">&#922;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#943;&#960;&#959;&#955;&#953;&#962;</span>), a seaport and
+city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the
+north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula
+132 m. W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in
+40° 24&prime; N. and 26° 40&prime; 30&Prime; E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly
+opposite is Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is
+here about 2 m. wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance;
+its streets are narrow and dirty, and many of its houses are
+built of wood, although there are a few better structures, occupied
+by the foreign residents and the richer class of Turkish citizens.
+The only noteworthy buildings are the large, crowded and
+well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are several
+mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman
+and Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor
+Justinian (483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to
+Bayezid I. (1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly
+called the tombs of the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built
+on a cliff, has a fine appearance as seen from the Dardanelles.
+Gallipoli is the seat of a Greek bishop. It has two good harbours,
+and is the principal station for the Turkish fleet. From its
+position as the key of the Dardanelles, it was occupied by the
+allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the isthmus a few
+miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was fortified with
+strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly on
+the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications
+were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the
+Russians threatening to take possession of Constantinople.
+The peninsula thus isolated by the fortified positions has the Gulf
+of Saros on the N.W., and extends some 50 m. S.W. The guns
+of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the strait
+joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly
+fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the
+Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.</p>
+
+<p>The district (<i>sanjak</i>) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well
+adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and
+comprises four <i>kazas</i> (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its
+excellent cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli,
+noted for its cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and
+canary seed; (3) Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi
+(Peristeri) on the coast of the Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and
+petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the neighbourhood
+formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and largely
+exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however,
+amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit
+of the viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and
+replanted their lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture
+their occupation.</p>
+
+<p>There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli
+itself, except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line
+of railway between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been
+prejudicial to the transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts
+have been made to obtain concessions for the construction of a
+railway that would connect this port with the Turkish railway
+system. Steamers to and from Constantinople call regularly.
+In 1904 the total value of the exports was £80,000. Wheat and
+maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to Turkish ports on
+the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great Britain; canary
+seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. Semolina
+and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, principally
+sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople and
+Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats&rsquo; skins and sheepskins are also
+exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from
+Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from
+Germany and Austria. These goods are imported through
+Constantinople. Cordage is chiefly obtained from Servia. Other
+imports are fuel, iron and groceries.</p>
+
+<p>The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th
+century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> At an early date it became a Christian bishopric,
+and in the middle ages developed into a great commercial city,
+with a population estimated at 100,000. It was fortified by the
+East Roman emperors owing to its commanding strategic position
+and its valuable trade with Greece and Italy. In 1190 the
+armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor Frederick I.
+(Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the capture
+of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into the
+power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force
+in the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus,
+established themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their
+leader massacred almost all the citizens; they were vainly
+besieged by the allied troops of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew
+in 1307, after dismantling the fortifications. About the
+middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded Europe, and Gallipoli
+was the first city to fall into their power. The Venetians
+under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIPOLIS,<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Gallia county,
+Ohio, U.S.A., on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of
+Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910)
+5560. It is served by the Kanawha &amp; Michigan (Ohio Central
+Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, and (at Gallipolis Ferry,
+West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the Baltimore &amp; Ohio railway.
+The city is built on a level site several feet above the river&rsquo;s
+high-water mark. It has a United States marine hospital and a
+state hospital for epileptics. Among the city&rsquo;s manufactures are
+lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The municipality
+owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was
+settled in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received
+worthless deeds to lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company,
+founded by Col. William Duer (1747-1799) and others in 1787
+and officially organized in 1789 as the Compagnie du Scioto in
+Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his associates
+abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen.
+This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for
+the use of about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the
+Scioto, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option only.
+The dishonesty of those who conducted the sales in France, the
+unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and the failure of Duer and
+his associates to meet their contract with the Ohio Company,
+caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790, and two
+subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about
+150,000 acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and
+in October 1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained
+for two months at Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of
+Gallipolis, where rude huts had been built for them. This land,
+however, fell within the limits of the tract bought outright by the
+Ohio Company, which sold it to the Scioto Company, and to
+which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto Company to pay.
+In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United States,
+decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the Ohio
+Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were
+legally vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company
+sold to the French settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they
+occupied and adjacent improved lots, and the United States
+government granted to them 24,000 acres in the southern part of
+what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this land (still
+known as the &ldquo;French Grant&rdquo;), however, was ever occupied by
+them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was
+first chartered as a city in 1865.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Theodore T. Belote, <i>The Scioto Speculation and the French
+Settlement at Gallipolis</i> (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No. 3
+of the <i>University Studies</i> of the University of Cincinnati.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page421" id="page421"></a>421</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> (1770-1840),
+American Roman Catholic priest, called &ldquo;The Apostle of the
+Alleghanies,&rdquo; was born at the Hague on the 22nd of December
+1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (<i>q.v.</i>), the Russian family
+from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin
+(1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate
+friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many
+years was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau
+(1748-1806), until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the
+Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the
+age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His
+father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in
+1792 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian
+troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of
+Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the
+service. He then set out to complete his education by travel,
+and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland,
+where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was
+ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic
+priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at
+Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to the
+Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop
+Carroll&rsquo;s instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled
+to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown, Maryland,
+and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such misdirected
+zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved
+by his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a
+settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and
+bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to
+Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase
+of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an
+enterprise. In 1808, after his father&rsquo;s death, he was disinherited
+by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia &ldquo;by reason of your
+Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession&rdquo;; and although
+his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable
+estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her
+brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest,
+who after his father&rsquo;s death had in 1809 discarded the name of
+Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had
+taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was
+a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for
+the see of Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection
+Gallitzin&rsquo;s &ldquo;great load of debt rashly, though for excellent
+and charitable purposes, contracted.&rdquo; In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested
+for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for
+the proposed see of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of
+Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded
+in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. Among his
+parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in
+building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania
+cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were
+10,000 members of his church in the district where forty years
+before he had found a scant dozen. One of the villages he founded
+bears his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: <i>A
+Defence of Catholic Principles</i> (1816), <i>Letter to a Protestant Friend
+on the Holy Scriptures</i> (1820), <i>Appeal to the Protestant Public</i>
+(1834), and <i>Six Letters of Advice</i> (1834), in reply to attacks
+on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sarah M. Brownson, <i>Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest</i>
+(New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing
+in <i>American Catholic Records</i> (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October
+1886, pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton
+in <i>The Gallitzin Memorandum Book</i>, in <i>American Catholic Historical
+Society of Philadelphia, Records</i>, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLIUM<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic
+chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its
+spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran
+(<i>Comptes rendus</i>, 1875, 81, p. 493, and following years). The chief
+chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predicted
+many years before by D. Mendeléeff (<i>c.</i> 1869) from a consideration
+of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Element</a></span>).
+The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it in
+very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, and
+precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is
+dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by
+sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally
+precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the
+gallium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into
+gallium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide,
+from which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline
+solution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which
+melt at 30.15° C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but
+slightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be
+bent several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the
+solid form is 5.956 (24.5° C.), of the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific
+heats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0.079 (12-23° C.)
+and for the liquid 0.082 (106-119°) [M. Berthelot, <i>Comptes
+rendus</i>, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red
+heat. Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so
+easily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic
+weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran
+by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and
+K. Seubert.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Gallium oxide</i> Ga<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">3</span> is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
+solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
+forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
+On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish
+mass which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium
+forms colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are
+converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are precipitated
+by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not
+by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium
+ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In
+neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By
+heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the <i>dichloride</i>
+GaCl<span class="su">2</span> is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164° C. and
+readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride
+GaCl<span class="su">3</span> is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream
+of chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of
+nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at
+75.5° C. and boiling at 215-220° C. The bromide, iodide and sulphate
+are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best
+detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines
+of wave length 4171 and 4031.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLON,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids,
+but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four
+quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. <i>galon</i>,
+Central Fr. <i>jalon</i>, and was Latinized as <i>galo</i> and <i>galona</i>. It
+appears to be connected with the modern French <i>jale</i>, a bowl, but
+the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without
+much plausibility to Gr. <span class="grk" title="gaulos">&#947;&#945;&#965;&#955;&#972;&#962;</span>, a milk pail. The British
+imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub. in. The
+old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard
+gallon of the United States.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLOWAY, JOSEPH<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (1731-1803), American lawyer and
+politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in
+West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland, in 1731. He early
+removed to Philadelphia, where he acquired a high standing as a
+lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the
+most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over
+which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with his
+friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary
+government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a
+royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis
+in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies
+he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the
+justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical
+action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First
+Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a
+&ldquo;Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the
+Colonies,&rdquo; and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It
+provided for a president-general appointed by the crown, who
+should have supreme executive authority over all the colonies,
+and for a grand council, elected triennially by the several provincial
+assemblies, and to have such &ldquo;rights, liberties and
+privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of
+Commons of Great Britain&rdquo;; the president-general and grand
+council were to be &ldquo;an inferior distinct branch of the British
+legislature, united and incorporated with it.&rdquo; The assent of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page422" id="page422"></a>422</span>
+grand council and of the British parliament was to be &ldquo;requisite
+to the validity of all ... general acts or statutes,&rdquo; except that
+&ldquo;in time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared
+by the grand council and approved by the president-general,
+shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the
+British parliament.&rdquo; The individual colonies, however, were to
+retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure
+was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members
+as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward
+Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by
+the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second
+election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New
+Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British to
+attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British
+occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) was superintendent of
+the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In
+October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his
+death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803.
+After he left America his life was attainted, and his property,
+valued at £40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania
+Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the
+form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the
+clearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American
+Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, &ldquo;shared with Thomas
+Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen
+opposed to the Revolution.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his pamphlets are <i>A Candid Examination of the Mutual
+Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies</i> (1775); <i>Historical and
+Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion</i>
+(1780); <i>Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
+American Independence</i> (1780); and <i>The Claim of the American
+Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles
+of Law and Justice</i> (1788).</p>
+
+<p>See Thomas Balch (Ed.), <i>The Examination of Joseph Galloway
+by a Committee of the House of Commons</i> (Philadelphia, 1855);
+Ernest H. Baldwin, <i>Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician</i> (New
+Haven, 1903); and M.C. Tyler, <i>Literary History of the American
+Revolution</i> (2 vols., New York, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLOWAY, THOMAS<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician,
+was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February
+1796. In 1812 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he
+distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was
+appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military
+college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the
+Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind
+in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the
+1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for
+the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting
+paper is &ldquo;On the Proper Motion of the Solar System,&rdquo; and was
+published in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, 1847. He contributed largely to
+the seventh edition of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>, and also
+wrote several scientific papers for the <i>Edinburgh Review</i> and
+various scientific journals. His <i>Encyclopaedia</i> article, &ldquo;Probability,&rdquo;
+was published separately.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society</i> (1852).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLOWAY,<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising
+the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was
+the <i>Novantia</i> of the Romans, and till the end of the 12th century
+included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire.
+Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use
+historically and locally has been long established. Thus the
+Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway
+(created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway
+also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless
+cattle. See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kirkcudbrightshire</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Wigtownshire</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLOWS<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span><a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (a common Teutonic word&mdash;cf. Goth. <i>galga</i>,
+O. H. Ger. <i>galgo</i>, Mod. Ger. <i>Galgen</i>, A.S. <i>galzan</i>, &amp;c.&mdash;of uncertain
+origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by
+hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam,
+but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting
+from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the
+older translations of the Bible &ldquo;gallows&rdquo; was used for the cross
+on which Christ suffered (so <i>galga</i> in Ulfilas&rsquo;s Gothic Testament).<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a>
+Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the
+famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This
+was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected
+in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath,
+into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the
+weather.</p>
+
+<p>According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a
+platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs
+from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round
+his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in
+the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the
+fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far
+less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart,
+which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to
+mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman.
+Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes hanged by
+being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other
+end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At
+the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private,
+the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set
+apart for the purpose inside the gaol.</p>
+
+<p>The word &ldquo;gibbet,&rdquo; the Fr. <i>gibet</i>, gallows, which appears in
+the first instance to have meant a crooked stick,<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a> was originally
+used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes
+still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to
+the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of
+criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets
+were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of hills (Gallows
+Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The
+bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition,
+hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome
+custom comes the common use of the word &ldquo;to gibbet&rdquo; for any
+holding up to public infamy or contempt.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word &ldquo;gallows&rdquo; is the plural of a word (<i>galwe</i>, <i>galowe</i>, <i>gallow</i>)
+which, according to the <i>New English Dictionary</i>, was occasionally
+used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century onwards
+the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of &ldquo;a
+gallows,&rdquo; and, in the older form, of &ldquo;a pair of gallows,&rdquo; this referring
+probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century onwards
+&ldquo;gallows&rdquo; has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new
+plural, &ldquo;gallowses,&rdquo; having come into use. &ldquo;The latter, though
+not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt
+to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural
+in commonly evaded&rdquo; (<i>New Eng. Dict.</i> s.v. &ldquo;Gallows&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> In Med. Lat. &ldquo;gallows&rdquo; was translated by <i>furia</i> and <i>patibulum</i>,
+both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument
+of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. <i>Furia</i>,
+in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major jurisdiction
+to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Cf. Wace, <i>Roman de Rou</i>, iii. 8349:</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Et il a le gibet saisi</p>
+<p class="i05">Qui a son destre braz pendi.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLS.<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of
+living mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by
+dipterous insects of the genus <i>Oestrus</i>. Signor Moriggia<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> has
+described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length,
+from the back of the human hand, which was caused by <i>Acarus
+domesticus</i>. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable
+excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers,
+comprise &ldquo;all abnormal vegetable productions developed on
+plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects,
+whatever may be their form, bulk or situation.&rdquo; For the larvae
+of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The
+exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls,
+appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus,
+secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the
+puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts
+of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision
+of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval
+or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part
+in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers
+remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the &ldquo;stimulus&rdquo;
+and the &ldquo;supporter of the stimulus,&rdquo; as evidenced by the limitation
+in the majority of cases of each species of gall-insect to some
+one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page423" id="page423"></a>423</span>
+of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part
+of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the
+gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of <i>Spathegaster
+baccarum</i>, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the
+flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of oviposition,
+and not to the functions of the parts producing it;
+the bright red galls of the saw-fly <i>Nematus gallicola</i> are found on
+four different species of willow, <i>Salix fragilis</i>, <i>S. alba</i>, <i>S. caprea</i>
+and <i>S. cinerea</i>;<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and the galls of a Cynipid, <i>Biorhiza aptera</i>,
+usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured
+also from the deodar.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a> Often the gall bears no visible resemblance
+to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly,
+however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving
+to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or
+less modified special organs of the plant. The gall of <i>Cecidomyia
+strobilina</i>, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves
+the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small,
+smooth, seed-shaped gall of the American <i>Cynips seminator</i>,
+Harris, according to W.F. Bassett,<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> is the petiole, and its terminal
+tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence
+of the young oak-leaf. The moss-like covering of the &ldquo;bedeguars&rdquo;
+of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid, <i>Rhodites rosae</i>, represents
+leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma
+between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the &ldquo;artichoke-galls&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;oak-strobile,&rdquo; produced by <i>Aphilothrix gemmae</i>, L., which
+insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule
+to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a
+peduncular, oviform, inner gall.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> E. Newman held the view that
+many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: &ldquo;to produce
+an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has
+frustrated the attempt.&rdquo; Their formation from buds which
+normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by
+Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by
+oviposition, such as has been found to result in several plants from
+injury by insect-agency or otherwise.<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Galls vary remarkably
+in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The
+polythalamous gall of <i>Aphilothrix radicis</i>, found on the roots of
+old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man&rsquo;s fist; the galls of
+another Cynipid, <i>Andricus occultus</i>, Tschek,<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> which occurs on the
+male flowers of <i>Quercus sessiliflora</i>, is 2 millimetres, or barely a
+line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance,
+the oak-leaf hairy galls of <i>Spathegaster tricolor</i>, which are of a
+crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light.
+The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns
+or cups, others lenticular. The &ldquo;knoppern&rdquo; galls of <i>Cynips
+polycera</i>, Gir., are cones having the broad, slightly convex
+upper surface surrounded with a toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese
+galls, &ldquo;some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in
+bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected
+by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long
+cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs.&rdquo;<a name="fa8i" id="fa8i" href="#ft8i"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The characters
+of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even
+when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American
+willow, <i>Salix humilis</i>, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-grown
+insects that produce them from one another. In degree
+of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably.
+Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker,
+whilst others are many-celled and numerously inhabited.
+The largest class are the unilocular, or simple, external galls,
+divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without
+a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard,
+or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that authority
+distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a
+subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing
+the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a
+complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective
+layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central
+mass inhabited by the growing larva.<a name="fa9i" id="fa9i" href="#ft9i"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the
+Hymenoptera are the gall-wasps (<i>Cynips</i> and its allies), which
+infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having
+straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen
+with the second or second and third segments greatly developed,
+and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled
+ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are
+completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect
+insect, tunnels its way,&mdash;usually in autumn, though sometimes,
+as has been observed of some individuals of <i>Cynips Kollari</i>,
+after hibernation.</p>
+
+<p>Among the commoner of the galls of the <i>Cynipidae</i> are the
+&ldquo;oak-apple&rdquo; or &ldquo;oak-sponge&rdquo; of <i>Andricus terminalis</i>, Fab.;
+the &ldquo;currant&rdquo; or &ldquo;berry galls&rdquo; of <i>Spathegaster baccarum</i>,
+L., above mentioned; and the &ldquo;oak-spangles&rdquo; of <i>Neuroterus
+lenticularis</i>,<a name="fa10i" id="fa10i" href="#ft10i"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths,
+until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith,<a name="fa11i" id="fa11i" href="#ft11i"><span class="sp">11</span></a> and
+the succulent &ldquo;cherry-galls&rdquo; of <i>Dryophanta scutellaris</i>, Oliv.
+The &ldquo;marble&rdquo; or &ldquo;Devonshire woody galls&rdquo; of oak-buds,
+which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are produced
+by <i>Cynips Kollari</i>,<a name="fa12i" id="fa12i" href="#ft12i"><span class="sp">12</span></a> already alluded to. They were first
+introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become
+common near Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later
+were observed in several parts of Scotland.<a name="fa13i" id="fa13i" href="#ft13i"><span class="sp">13</span></a> They contain
+about 17% of tannin.<a name="fa14i" id="fa14i" href="#ft14i"><span class="sp">14</span></a> On account of their regular form they
+have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets.
+The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls,<a name="fa15i" id="fa15i" href="#ft15i"><span class="sp">15</span></a> produced on a
+species of oak by <i>Cynips insana</i>, Westw., have been regarded by
+many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (<i>mala insana</i>),
+or apples of Sodom (<i>poma sodomitica</i>), alluded to by Josephus
+and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (<i>Bibl.
+Researches in Palestine</i>, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be
+the singular fruit called by the Arabs <i>&rsquo;Ösher</i>, produced by the
+<i>Asclepias gigantea</i> or <i>procera</i> of botanists. What in California
+are known as &ldquo;flea seeds&rdquo; are oak-galls made by a species of
+<i>Cynips</i>; in August they become detached from the leaves that
+bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements
+of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.<a name="fa16i" id="fa16i" href="#ft16i"><span class="sp">16</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey,
+or Levant galls of commerce (Ger. <i>Galläpfel</i>, <i>levantische
+Gallen</i>; Fr. <i>noix de Galle</i>), are produced on <i>Quercus infectoria</i>,
+a variety of <i>Q. Lusitanica</i>, Webb, by <i>Cynips</i> (<i>Diplolepis</i>,
+Latr.) <i>tinctoria</i>, L., or <i>C. gallae tinctoriae</i> Oliv. Aleppo galls
+(<i>gallae halepenses</i>) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>-<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> in. in
+diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown
+to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed &ldquo;blue,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;black,&rdquo; or &ldquo;green&rdquo; galls contain the insect; the inferior &ldquo;white&rdquo;
+galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or
+astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. 1.). Less valued
+are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name
+&ldquo;Tarablous galls&rdquo;). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according
+to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of
+nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe
+for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on
+analysis from 26 (H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page424" id="page424"></a>424</span>
+Vinen, <i>loc. cit.</i>), with gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre,
+water, and minute quantities of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free
+sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, calcium
+oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides
+(i. 146), and other ancient writers, including Pliny <i>(Nat. Hist.</i>
+xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced
+&ldquo;in a single night.&rdquo; Their insect origin appears to have been
+entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times,
+though Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is
+produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes
+oak-apples as &ldquo;an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction.&rdquo;
+Pomet<a name="fa17i" id="fa17i" href="#ft17i"><span class="sp">17</span></a> thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a
+similar opinion obtains among the modern Chinese, who apply
+to them the term <i>Mu-shih-tsze</i>, or &ldquo;fruits for the foodless.&rdquo;<a name="fa18i" id="fa18i" href="#ft18i"><span class="sp">18</span></a>
+Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties,
+and Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in
+affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and
+some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts
+are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments
+<i>unguentum gallae</i> and <i>unguentum gallae cum opio</i>, and of the
+tinctura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid
+(<i>q.v.</i>). They have from very early times been resorted to as a
+means of staining the hair of a dark colour, and they are the
+base of the tattooing dye of the Somali women.<a name="fa19i" id="fa19i" href="#ft19i"><span class="sp">19</span></a></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:404px; height:331px" src="images/img424a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;<i>a</i>, Aleppo &ldquo;blue&rdquo; gall; <i>b</i>, ditto in section, showing
+central cavity for grub; <i>c</i>, Aleppo &ldquo;white&rdquo; gall, perforated by
+insect; <i>d</i>, the same in section (natural size).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the <i>Cynipidae</i>
+proper, certain species of the genus <i>Eurytoma</i> (<i>Isosoma</i>, Walsh)
+and family <i>Chalcididae</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>E. hordei</i>, the &ldquo;joint-worm&rdquo; of the
+United States, which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;<a name="fa20i" id="fa20i" href="#ft20i"><span class="sp">20</span></a>
+also various members of the family <i>Tenthredinidae</i>, or saw-flies.
+The larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their
+cocoons in the earth, or, as in the case of <i>Athalia abdominalis</i>,
+Klg., of the clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for
+some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant.</p>
+
+<p>The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats
+(<i>Cecidomyidae</i>), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies
+usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the
+back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others
+descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls
+are the work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be
+met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera,
+<i>e.g.</i> the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,<a name="fa21i" id="fa21i" href="#ft21i"><span class="sp">21</span></a> grape-vine,<a name="fa22i" id="fa22i" href="#ft22i"><span class="sp">22</span></a> alder, gooseberry,
+blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet,<a name="fa23i" id="fa23i" href="#ft23i"><span class="sp">23</span></a>
+common cabbage and cereals. In the northern United States, in
+May, &ldquo;legions of these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight,
+hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong north-west
+wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the farmer.&rdquo;<a name="fa24i" id="fa24i" href="#ft24i"><span class="sp">24</span></a>
+Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family
+<i>Trypetidae</i>, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the
+family <i>Mycetophilidae</i>, such as the species <i>Sciara tilicola</i>,<a name="fa25i" id="fa25i" href="#ft25i"><span class="sp">25</span></a> Löw,
+the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of
+the young shoots and leaves of the lime.</p>
+
+<p>Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects
+of the families <i>Tingidae</i>, <i>Psyllidae</i>, <i>Coccidae</i> and <i>Aphidae</i>.
+<i>Coccus pinicorticis</i> causes the growth of patches of white flocculent
+and downy matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the
+white pine in America.<a name="fa26i" id="fa26i" href="#ft26i"><span class="sp">26</span></a> The galls of examples of the last
+family are common objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of
+the poplar. An American Aphid of the genus <i>Pemphigus</i> produces
+black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the
+young branches of the hickory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Chinese galls of commerce (<i>Woo-pei-tsze</i>) are stated to be
+produced by <i>Aphis Chinensis</i>, Bell, on <i>Rhus semialata</i>, Murr. (<i>R.
+Bucki-amela</i>, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N.
+India, China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly
+pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered
+externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like
+matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect
+takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle,
+probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for
+several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls
+are gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill
+the insects.<a name="fa27i" id="fa27i" href="#ft27i"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Chinese galls examined by Viedt<a name="fa28i" id="fa28i" href="#ft28i"><span class="sp">28</span></a> yielded 72% of tannin, and
+less mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls
+are produced by Aphides on species of <i>Pistacia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of
+the Aphis of Pistachio galls, <i>Anopleura lentisci</i>, is hatched an
+apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young
+Aphides (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to
+the roots of certain grasses (<i>Bromus sterilis</i> and <i>Hordeum vulgare</i>),
+and by budding underground give rise to several generations of
+apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera).
+These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and
+on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed
+sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive
+of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle
+(see <i>Compt. rend.</i>, Nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted in <i>Ann. and Mag.
+Nat. Hist.</i>, 1879, p. 174).</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:465px; height:286px" src="images/img424b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;<i>a</i>, Chinese gall (abt. ½ natural size); <i>b</i>, ditto broken,
+showing thin-walled cavity; <i>c</i>, Japanese gall (natural size).</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers
+there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils),
+and species of the exotic <i>Sagridae</i> and <i>Lamiadae</i> and an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page425" id="page425"></a>425</span>
+American beetle, <i>Saperda inornata</i> (<i>Cerambycidae</i>), which forms
+the pseudo-galls of <i>Salix longifolia</i> and <i>Populus angulata</i>, or
+cottonwood. Among the Lepidoptera are gall-forming species
+belonging to the <i>Tineidae</i>, <i>Aegeriidae</i>, <i>Tortricidae</i> and <i>Pterophoridae</i>.
+The larva of a New Zealand moth, <i>Morova subfasciata</i>,
+Walk. (<i>Cacoëcia gallicolens</i>), of the family <i>Drepanulidae</i>, causes
+the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently
+subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall.<a name="fa29i" id="fa29i" href="#ft29i"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Mite-galls, or <i>acarocecidia</i>, are abnormal growths of the leaves
+of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus
+<i>Phytoptus</i> (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of
+thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on
+the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior,
+producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore,
+pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants;
+and formerly, <i>e.g.</i> the gall known as <i>Erineum quercinum</i>, on the
+leaves of <i>Quercus Cerris</i>, were taken for cryptogamic structures.
+The lime-leaf &ldquo;nail-galls&rdquo; of <i>Phytoptus tiliae</i> closely resemble the
+&ldquo;trumpet-galls&rdquo; formed on American vines by a species of
+<i>Cecidomyia</i>.<a name="fa30i" id="fa30i" href="#ft30i"><span class="sp">30</span></a> Certain minute Nematoid worms, as <i>Anguillula
+scandens</i>, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls
+usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are
+termed guest-flies or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of <i>Cynips</i> and
+its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera,
+as <i>Synergus</i>, <i>Amblynotus</i> and <i>Synophrus</i>; and the pine-cone-like
+gall of <i>Salix strobiloides</i>, as Walsh has shown,<a href="#ft30i"><span class="sp">30</span></a> is made by a large
+species of <i>Cecidomyia</i>, which inhabits the heart of the mass, the
+numerous smaller cecidomyidous larvae in its outer part being
+mere inquilines. In many instances the lodgers are not of the
+same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for
+example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some
+gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford
+harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the
+case of the Curculio beetle <i>Conotrachelius nenuphar</i>, Hbst., of
+which one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and
+another lives in the &ldquo;black knot&rdquo; of the plum-tree, regarded
+by Walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. The same
+authority (<i>loc. cit.</i> p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides
+no less than sixteen insects with food and protection; these are
+preyed upon by about eight others, so that <span class="correction" title="amended from alltogether">altogether</span> some
+twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are dependent for
+their existence on what to the common observer appears to be
+nothing but &ldquo;an unmeaning mass of leaves.&rdquo; Among the
+numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are
+hymenopterous flies of the family <i>Proctotrypidae</i>, and of the
+family <i>Chalcididae</i>, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Callimome regius</i>, the larva of which
+preys on the larvae of both <i>Cynips glutinosa</i> and its lodger
+<i>Synergus facialis</i>. The oak-apple often contains the larvae of
+<i>Braconidae</i> and <i>Ichneumonidae</i>, which Von Schlechtendal (<i>loc. sup. cit.</i> p. 33)
+considers to be parasites not on the owner of the
+gall, <i>Andricus terminalis</i>, but on inquilinous <i>Tortricidae</i>. Birds
+are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls,
+for example, are broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain
+the grub within, and the &ldquo;button-galls&rdquo; of <i>Neuroterus numismatis</i>,
+Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.</p>
+
+<p>A great variety of deformations and growths produced by
+insects and mites as well as by fungi have been described. They
+are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably
+large and definite structures. The whole are now included under
+the term Cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to
+which the attacks are due, <i>e.g.</i> Phytoptocecidia are the galls
+formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls are those that arise
+when only one member of a plant is involved; compound galls
+are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most remarkable
+galls recently discovered we may mention those found on
+Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia.
+They are remarkable for their variety, and are due to small
+scale-insects of the peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As
+regards the mode of production of galls, the most important
+distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of
+an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those
+that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in the latter
+case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose
+its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result
+of the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been
+known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be
+produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or
+prior to, the actual development of the tissue. Little more than
+this is known. The power that gall-producers possess of influencing
+by direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant
+that affords them the means of subsistence is an art that appears
+to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same time one
+of which we have little knowledge. The views of Adler as to the
+alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully
+confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that
+the galls and the insects produced from them in one generation
+are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also
+been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate
+generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is
+supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually
+been evoked by difference in the nutrition of the alternating
+generations. When two different generations are produced in
+one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the
+sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two generations
+are adapted to different conditions. In some cases the
+alternating generations are produced on different species of trees,
+and even on different parts of the two species.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further&mdash;J.T.C.
+Ratzeburg, <i>Die Forst-Insecten</i>, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844);
+T.W. Harris, <i>Insects injurious to Vegetation</i> (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed.,
+1852); C.L. Koch, <i>Die Pflanzenläuse Aphiden</i> (Nuremberg, 1854);
+T. Hartig, <i>Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen</i> (Berlin,
+1860); Walsh, &ldquo;On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and
+Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow,&rdquo; <i>Proc.
+Ent. Soc. Philadelphia</i>, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867),
+pp. 223-288; T.A. Marshall, &ldquo;On some British Cynipidae,&rdquo;
+<i>Ent. Month. Mag.</i> iv. pp. 6-8, &amp;c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Müller,
+&ldquo;A List of Gall-bearing British Plants,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> v. pp. 118 and 216;
+G.L. Mayr, <i>Die mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild</i>
+(Vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in
+the <i>Entomologist</i>, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, &ldquo;Die
+Einmiethler der mitteleuropäischen Eichengallen,&rdquo; <i>Verhandl. d.
+zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien</i>, xxii. pp. 669-726; and &ldquo;Die europäischen
+Torymiden,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in <i>Cistula entomologica</i>,
+i., London, 1869-1876); F. Löw, &ldquo;Beiträge zur Kenntnis der
+Gallmücken,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm
+and P. Löw, &ldquo;Synopsis Cecidomyidarum,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> xxvi. pp. 1-104;
+Perris, <i>Ann. Soc. Entom. de France</i>, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185;
+R. Osten-Sacken, &ldquo;On the North American Cecidomyidae,&rdquo; <i>Smithsonian
+Miscellaneous Collections</i>, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg,
+<i>Entomologie für Gärtner und Gartenfreunde</i> (Leipzig, 1871);
+J.W.H. Traill, &ldquo;Scottish Galls,&rdquo; <i>Scottish Naturalist</i>, i. (1871), pp.
+123, &amp;c.; Albert Müller, &ldquo;British Gall Insects,&rdquo; <i>The Entomologist&rsquo;s
+Annual for 1872</i>, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, <i>Forstzoologie</i>, iii. &ldquo;Insecten,&rdquo;
+pp. 250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach, <i>Die Pflanzenfeinde aus
+der Classe der Insecten</i> (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d&rsquo;Arbois de Jubainville
+and J. Vesque, <i>Les Maladies des plantes cultivées</i>, pp. 98-105 (Paris,
+1878).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. H. B.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Quoted in <i>Zoological Record</i>, iv. (1867), p. 192.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> P. Cameron, <i>Scottish Naturalist</i>, ii. pp. 11-15.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Entomologist</i>, vii. p. 47.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> See in <i>Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873</i>, p. xvi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See A. Müller, <i>Gardener&rsquo;s Chronicle</i> (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;
+and E.A. Fitch, <i>Entomologist</i>, xi. p. 129.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> <i>Entomologist</i>, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> <i>Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien</i>, xxi. p. 799.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8i" id="ft8i" href="#fa8i"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Darwin, <i>Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication</i>,
+ii. p. 282.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9i" id="ft9i" href="#fa9i"><span class="fn">9</span></a> &ldquo;Recherches pour servir à l&rsquo;histoire des galles,&rdquo; <i>Ann. des sci.
+nat.</i> xix. pp. 293 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10i" id="ft10i" href="#fa10i"><span class="fn">10</span></a> According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place
+between <i>N. lenticularis</i> and <i>Spathegaster baccarum</i> (see E.A. Ormerod,
+<i>Entomologist</i>, xi. p. 34).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11i" id="ft11i" href="#fa11i"><span class="fn">11</span></a> See Westwood, <i>Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects</i>, ii. (1840)
+p. 130.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12i" id="ft12i" href="#fa12i"><span class="fn">12</span></a> For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see <i>Entomologist</i>,
+iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13i" id="ft13i" href="#fa13i"><span class="fn">13</span></a> <i>Scottish Naturalist</i>, i. (1871) p. 116, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14i" id="ft14i" href="#fa14i"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Vinen, <i>Journ. de pharm. et de chim.</i> xxx. (1856) p. 290;
+&ldquo;English Ink-Galls,&rdquo; <i>Pharm. Journ.</i> 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15i" id="ft15i" href="#fa15i"><span class="fn">15</span></a> See Pereira, <i>Materia Medica</i>, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; <i>Pharm. Journ.</i>
+1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16i" id="ft16i" href="#fa16i"><span class="fn">16</span></a> See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes, <i>Proc. California Acad.
+of Sciences</i>, iv. pp. 265 and 266.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17i" id="ft17i" href="#fa17i"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>A Complete History of Drugs</i> (translation), p. 169 (London, 1748).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18i" id="ft18i" href="#fa18i"><span class="fn">18</span></a> F. Porter Smith, <i>Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of China</i>,
+p. 100 (1871).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19i" id="ft19i" href="#fa19i"><span class="fn">19</span></a> R.F. Burton, <i>First Footsteps in E. Africa</i>, p. 178 (1856).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20i" id="ft20i" href="#fa20i"><span class="fn">20</span></a> A.S. Packard, jun., <i>Guide to the Study of Insects</i>, p. 205 (Salem,
+1870).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21i" id="ft21i" href="#fa21i"><span class="fn">21</span></a> On the Cecidomyids of <i>Quercus Cerris</i>, see Fitch, <i>Entomologist</i>,
+xi. p. 14.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22i" id="ft22i" href="#fa22i"><span class="fn">22</span></a> See, on <i>Cecidomyia oenephila</i>, Von Haimhoffen, <i>Verhandl. d.
+zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien</i>, xxv. pp. 801-810.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23i" id="ft23i" href="#fa23i"><span class="fn">23</span></a> See <i>Entomologist&rsquo;s Month. Mag.</i> iv. (1868) p. 233; and for
+figure and description, <i>Entomologist</i>, xi. p. 13.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24i" id="ft24i" href="#fa24i"><span class="fn">24</span></a> A.S. Packard, jun., <i>Our Common Insects</i>, p. 203 (Salem, U.S.
+1873). On the Hessian fly, <i>Cecidomyia destructor</i>, Say, the May
+brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of
+barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, <i>The Hessian Fly</i> (Albany, 1847),
+reprinted from <i>Trans. New York State Agric. Soc.</i> vol. vi.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25i" id="ft25i" href="#fa25i"><span class="fn">25</span></a> J. Winnertz, <i>Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen</i>, p. 164
+(Vienna, 1867).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26i" id="ft26i" href="#fa26i"><span class="fn">26</span></a> Asa Fitch, <i>First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects
+of the State of New York</i>, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27i" id="ft27i" href="#fa27i"><span class="fn">27</span></a>  See E. Doubleday, <i>Pharm. Journ.</i> 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and
+Pereira, <i>ib.</i> vol. iii. p. 377.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28i" id="ft28i" href="#fa28i"><span class="fn">28</span></a> <i>Dingler&rsquo;s Polyt. Journ.</i> ccxvi. p. 453.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29i" id="ft29i" href="#fa29i"><span class="fn">29</span></a> For figure and description see <i>Zoology of the &ldquo;Erebus&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;Terror,&rdquo;</i> ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30i" id="ft30i" href="#fa30i"><span class="fn">30</span></a> On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Löw, &ldquo;Beiträge zur
+Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (<i>Phytoptus</i>, Duj.),&rdquo; <i>Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot.
+Ges. in Wien</i>, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and &ldquo;Über
+Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend,&rdquo; <i>ib.</i> pp. 495-508;
+Andrew Murray, <i>Economic Entomology, Aptera</i>, pp. 331-374 (1876);
+and F.A.W. Thomas, <i>Ältere und neue Beobachtungen über
+Phytopto-Cecidien</i> (Halle, 1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLUPPI, PASQUALE<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1770-1846), Italian philosopher,
+was born on the 2nd of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He
+was of good family, and after studying at the university of Naples
+he entered the public service, and was for many years employed
+in the office of the administration of finances. At the age of
+sixty, having become widely known by his writings on philosophy,
+he was called to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the university
+of Naples, which he held till his death in November 1846.
+His most important works are: <i>Lettere filosofiche</i> (1827), in which
+he traces his philosophical development; <i>Elementi di filosofia</i>
+(1832); <i>Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza</i> (1819-1832);
+<i>Sull&rsquo; analisi e sulla sintesi</i> (1807); <i>Lezioni di logica e
+di metafisica</i> (1832-1836); <i>Filosofia della volontà</i> (1832-1842,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page426" id="page426"></a>426</span>
+incomplete); <i>Storia della filosofia</i> (i., 1842); <i>Considerazioni
+filosofiche sull&rsquo; idealismo trascendentale</i> (1841), a memoir on the
+system of Fichte.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, <i>Essai sur l&rsquo;histoire de la
+philosophie en Italie au XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i>, i. (1869); V. Botta in Ueberweg&rsquo;s
+<i>Hist. of Philosophy</i>, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti, &ldquo;Philosophy
+in Italy,&rdquo; in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, <i>Pasquale Galluppi.
+Studio critico</i> (Florence, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, CORNELIUS<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 70-26 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Roman poet, orator and
+politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (<i>Fréjus</i>)
+in Gaul. At an early age he removed to Rome, where he was
+taught by the same master as Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil,
+who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.) to him, was in great
+measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the restoration of
+his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause of Octavianus,
+and as a reward for his services was made praefect of Egypt
+(Suetonius, <i>Augustus</i>, 66). His conduct in this position afterwards
+brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having
+been deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he
+put an end to his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a
+high reputation among his contemporaries as a man of intellect,
+and Ovid (<i>Tristia</i>, iv. 10) considered him the first of the elegiac
+poets of Rome. He wrote four books of elegies chiefly on his
+mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for Cytheris, a notorious
+actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion of Chalcis
+(<i>q.v.</i>); he also translated some of this author&rsquo;s works into Latin.
+Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems
+attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590
+and printed in A. Riese&rsquo;s <i>Anthologia Latina</i>, 1869) are generally
+regarded as a forgery.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C. Völker, <i>De C. Galli vita et scriptis</i> (1840-1844); A. Nicolas,
+<i>De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus</i> (1851), an exhaustive monograph.
+An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the Egyptian
+exploits; see M. Schanz, <i>Geschichte der römischen Litteratur</i>, and
+Plessis, <i>Poésie latine</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span>, praefect of Egypt 26-24 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> By
+order of Augustus he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix,
+with disastrous results. The troops suffered greatly from disease,
+heat, want of water and the obstinate resistance of the inhabitants.
+The treachery of a foreign guide also added to his
+difficulties. After six months Gallus was obliged to return to
+Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his force. He was a
+friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of the
+expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29;
+Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> vi. 32; C. Merivale, <i>Hist. of the Romans under
+the Empire</i>, ch. 34; H. Krüger, <i>Der Feldzug des A. G. nach
+dem glücklichen Arabien</i>, 1862). He has been identified with the
+Aelius Gallus frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are
+stated to have been used with success in an Arabian expedition.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span>, governor of Syria during the reign
+of Nero. When the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the
+outrages of the Roman procurators, had seized the fortress of
+Masada and treacherously murdered the garrison of the palace
+of Herod, Gallus set out from Antioch to restore order. On the
+17th of November <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 66 he arrived before Jerusalem. Having
+gained possession of the northern suburb, he attacked the temple
+mount; but, after five days&rsquo; fighting, just when (according to
+Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably withdrew
+his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by
+the Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in
+making good his escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater
+part of his army and a large amount of war material. Soon after
+his return Gallus died (before the spring of 67), and was succeeded
+in the governorship by Licinius Mucianus, the prosecution of the
+war being entrusted to Vespasian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Tacitus, <i>Hist.</i> v. 10, 13; Suetonius, <i>Vespasian</i>, 4; Josephus,
+<i>Bell. Jud.</i> ii. 14-20; E. Schürer, <i>Hist. of the Jewish People</i>, div. i.
+vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span>, Roman general, statesman
+and orator. Under Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend,
+he commanded the 2nd legion in the campaign against Perseus,
+king of Macedonia, and gained great reputation for having predicted
+an eclipse of the moon on the night before the battle of
+Pydna (168 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). On his return from Macedonia he was elected
+consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to
+submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and
+Asia, where he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges
+brought against Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives
+of various cities of Asia Minor. Gallus was a man of great learning,
+an excellent Greek scholar, and in his later years devoted
+himself to the study of astronomy, on which subject he is quoted
+as an authority by Pliny.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Livy xliv. 37, <i>Epit</i>. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, <i>Brutus</i>,
+20, <i>De officiis</i>, i. 6, <i>De senectute</i>, 14; Pliny, <i>Nat. Hist.</i> ii. 9.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALOIS, EVARISTE<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1811-1832), French mathematician, was
+born on the 25th of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 31st
+of May 1832. An obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier
+appeared in the <i>Revue encyclopédique</i> (1832); and his collected
+works are published, <i>Journal de Liouville</i> (1846), pp. 381-444,
+about fifty of these pages being occupied by researches on the
+resolubility of algebraic equations by radicals. This branch of
+algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also due the notion
+of a group of substitutions (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Equation</a></span>: <i>Theory of Equations</i>;
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Groups, Theory of</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His collected works, with an introduction by C.F. Picard, were
+published in 1897 at Paris.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALSTON,<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire,
+Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m.
+E. by S. of Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow &amp; South-Western
+railway. The manufactures include blankets, lace,
+muslin, hosiery and paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the
+vicinity. About 1 m. to the north, amid the &ldquo;bonnie woods and
+braes,&rdquo; is Loudoun Castle, a seat of the earl of Loudoun.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1817-1893), Canadian
+statesman, was the youngest son of John Galt the author. Born
+in London on the 6th of September 1817, he emigrated to Canada
+in 1835, and settled in Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec,
+where he entered the service of the British American Land Company,
+of which he rose to be chief commissioner. Later he was
+one of the contractors for extending the Grand Trunk railway
+westward from Toronto. He entered public life in 1849 as Liberal
+member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the chief
+measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same
+year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States,
+believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-Saxon
+ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in
+his native province be maintained. In the same year he retired
+from parliament but re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the
+chief representative of the English-speaking Protestants of
+Quebec province. On the fall of the Brown-Dorion administration
+in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry, but declined
+the task, and became finance minister under Sir John Macdonald
+and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the
+British North American provinces should become a part of their
+programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance
+minister, and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances
+of Canada into order. To him are due the introduction of the
+decimal system of currency and the adoption of a system of
+protection to Canadian manufactures. To his diplomacy was
+due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and Cartier,
+which carried the federation of the British North American
+provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which
+followed his was one of the chief influences. He became finance
+minister in the first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and
+mysteriously resigned on the 4th of November 1867. After his
+retirement he gave to the administration of Sir John Macdonald
+a support which grew more and more fitful, and advocated
+independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was
+again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning
+these views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee
+on the Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and
+rendered brilliant service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian
+high commissioner to Great Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour
+of Sir Charles Tupper. During this period he advocated imperial
+federation. He was Canadian delegate at the Paris Monetary
+Conference of 1881, and to the International Exhibition of
+Fisheries in 1883. From this date till his death on the 19th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page427" id="page427"></a>427</span>
+September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman
+has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual
+fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague
+in political life.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. L. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALT, JOHN<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1779-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at
+Irvine, Ayrshire, on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early
+education at Irvine and Greenock, and read largely from one of
+the public libraries while serving as a clerk in a mercantile office.
+In 1804 he went to settle in London, where he published anonymously
+a poem on the <i>Battle of Largs</i>. After unsuccessful
+attempts to succeed in business Galt entered at Lincoln&rsquo;s Inn,
+but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission from
+a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and
+Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John
+Hobhouse at Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met
+him again at Athens. He was afterwards employed by the
+Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on similar business at
+Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland. His early
+works are the <i>Life and Administration of Wolsey</i>, <i>Voyages and
+Travels</i>, <i>Letters from the Levant</i>, the <i>Life of Benjamin West</i>,
+<i>Historical Pictures</i> and <i>The Wandering Jew</i>; and he induced
+Colburn to publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces
+rejected by London managers. These were afterwards edited
+by Galt as the <i>New British Theatre</i>, which included some plays of
+his own. He first showed his real power as a writer of fiction in
+<i>The Ayrshire Legatees</i>, which appeared in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>
+in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his masterpiece&mdash;<i>The
+Annals of the Parish</i>; and, at short intervals, <i>Sir Andrew Wylie</i>,
+<i>The Entail</i>, <i>The Steam-Boat</i> and <i>The Provost</i> were published.
+These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his
+happiest manner. His next works were <i>Ringan Gilhaize</i> (1823),
+a story of the Covenanters; <i>The Spaewife</i> (1823), which relates
+to the times of James I. of Scotland; <i>Rothelan</i> (1824), a novel
+founded on the reign of Edward III.; <i>The Omen</i> (1825), which
+was favourably criticized by Sir Walter Scott; and <i>The Last
+of the Lairds</i>, another picture of Scottish life.</p>
+
+<p>In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land
+Company. He carried out extensive schemes of colonization,
+and opened up a road through what was then forest country
+between Lakes Huron and Erie. In 1827 he founded Guelph in
+upper Canada, passing on his way the township of Galt on the
+Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon. But
+all this work proved financially unprofitable to Galt. In 1829
+he returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted
+himself with great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first
+fruit was <i>Lawrie Todd</i>&mdash;one of his best novels. Then came
+<i>Southennan</i>, a tale of Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary.
+In 1830 he was appointed editor of the <i>Courier</i> newspaper&mdash;a
+post he soon relinquished. His untiring industry was seen in the
+publication, in rapid succession, of a <i>Life of Byron</i>, <i>Lives of the
+Players</i>, <i>Bogle Corbet</i>, <i>Stanley Buxton</i>, <i>The Member</i>, <i>The Radical</i>,
+<i>Eben Erskine</i>, <i>The Stolen Child</i>, his <i>Autobiography</i>, and a collection
+of tales entitled <i>Stories of the Study</i>. In 1834 appeared
+his <i>Literary Life and Miscellanies</i>, dedicated by permission to
+William IV., who sent the author a present of £200. As soon as
+this work was published Galt retired to Greenock, where he
+continued his literary labours till his death on the 11th of April
+1839.</p>
+
+<p>Galt, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly
+unequal. His masterpieces are <i>The Ayrshire Legatees</i>, <i>The
+Annals of the Parish</i>, <i>Sir Andrew Wylie</i>, <i>The Entail</i>, <i>The Provost</i>
+and <i>Lawrie Todd</i>. <i>The Ayrshire Legatees</i> gives, in the form of
+a number of exceedingly diverting letters, the adventures of the
+Rev. Dr Pringle and his family in London. The letters are made
+the excuse for endless tea-parties and meetings of kirk-session
+in the rural parish of Garnock. <i>The Annals of the Parish</i> are
+told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Galt&rsquo;s finest character. This
+work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before <i>Waverley</i>
+was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned Scottish
+pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour,
+genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by
+Scott. It is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish
+dialect, and preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast passing
+out of use even in country districts. In this novel Mr Galt
+used, for the first time, the term &ldquo;Utilitarian,&rdquo; which afterwards
+became so intimately associated with the doctrines of John
+Stuart Mill and Bentham (see <i>Annals of the Parish</i>, chap. xxxv.,
+and a note by Mill in <i>Utilitarianism</i>, chap. ii.). In <i>Sir Andrew
+Wylie</i> the hero entered London as a poor lad, but achieved remarkable
+success by his shrewd business qualities. The character
+is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. <i>The Entail</i>
+was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Galt&rsquo;s
+longer novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was
+considered by Byron equal to any female character in literature
+since Shakespeare&rsquo;s time. <i>The Provost</i>, in which Provost Pawkie
+tells his own story, portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings
+and self-seeking of municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish
+burgh. In <i>Lawrie Todd</i> Galt, by giving us the Scot in America,
+accomplished a feat which Sir Walter never attempted. This
+novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater love of nature
+than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted with unerring
+pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much more
+poetical than any of the author&rsquo;s professed poems.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best of Galt&rsquo;s novels were reprinted in Blackwood&rsquo;s <i>Standard
+Novels</i>, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALT,<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m.
+N.N.W. of Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk
+and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866.
+It is named after John Galt, the author. It has excellent water
+privileges which furnish power for flour-mills and for manufactures
+of edge tools, castings, machinery, paper and other
+industries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALTON, SIR FRANCIS<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> (1822-&emsp;&emsp;), English anthropologist,
+son of S.T. Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the
+16th of February 1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist
+Erasmus Darwin, and Charles Darwin was his cousin. After
+attending King Edward VI.&rsquo;s grammar school, Birmingham, he
+studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at King&rsquo;s
+College, London, with the intention of making medicine his profession;
+but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in
+travelling in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with
+Dr John Anderson, of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in
+south-west Africa, starting from Walfisch Bay. These tracts had
+practically never been traversed before, and on the appearance
+of the published account of his journey and experiences under the
+title of <i>Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa</i> (1853)
+Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical
+Society. His <i>Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in Wild
+Countries</i> was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the
+north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the
+country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which
+he edited, entitled <i>Vacation Tourists</i>. He then turned to meteorology,
+the result of his investigations appearing in <i>Meteorographica</i>,
+published in 1863. This work was the first serious
+attempt to chart the weather on an extensive scale, and in it also
+the author first established the existence and theory of anti-cyclones.
+Galton was a member of the meteorological committee
+(1868), and of the Meteorological Council which succeeded it, for
+over thirty years. But his name is most closely associated with
+studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In 1869
+appeared his <i>Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences</i>, a work
+which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This
+was followed by <i>English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture</i>,
+published in 1874; <i>Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development</i>,
+issued in 1883; <i>Life-History Album</i> (1884); <i>Record of
+Family Faculties</i> (1884) (tabular forms and directions for entering
+data, with a preface); and <i>Natural Inheritance</i> (1889). The
+idea that systematic efforts should be made to improve the breed
+of mankind by checking the birth-rate of the unfit and furthering
+the productivity of the fit was first put forward by him In 1865;
+he mooted it again in 1884, using the term &ldquo;eugenics&rdquo; for the
+first time in <i>Human Faculty</i>, and in 1904 he endowed a research
+fellowship in the university of London for the promotion of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page428" id="page428"></a>428</span>
+knowledge of that subject, which was defined as &ldquo;the study of
+agencies under social control that may improve or impair the
+racial qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally.&rdquo;
+Galton was the author of memoirs on various anthropometric
+subjects; he originated the process of composite
+portraiture, and paid much attention to finger-prints and their
+employment for the identification of criminals, his publications
+on this subject including <i>Finger Prints</i> (1892), <i>Decipherment of
+Blurred Finger Prints</i> (1893) and <i>Finger Print Directories</i> (1895).
+From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1860,
+he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal in 1902,
+and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894)
+and Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published <i>Memories of My
+Life</i>, and in 1909 he received a knighthood.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALUPPI, BALDASSARE<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1706-1785), Italian musical composer,
+was born on the 18th of October 1706 on the island of
+Burano near Venice, from which he was often known by the
+nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber, and violinist at the
+local theatre, was his first teacher. His first opera, composed at
+the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he determined to
+study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli Incurabili at
+Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully producing
+two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G.B. Pescetti, in
+1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer of
+operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five
+in a year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a <i>pasticcio</i>,
+<i>Alexander in Persia</i>, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his
+influence on English music to have been very powerful. In 1740
+he became <i>vice-maestro di cappella</i> at St Mark&rsquo;s and <i>maestro</i> in
+1762. In 1749 he began writing comic operas to libretti by
+Goldoni, which enjoyed an enormous popularity. He was invited
+to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766, where his operas made a
+favourable impression, and his influence was also felt in Russian
+church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where he had held
+the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili since
+1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.</p>
+
+<p>Galuppi&rsquo;s best works are his comic operas, of which <i>Il Filosofo
+di Campagna</i> (1754), known in England as <i>The Guardian Trick&rsquo;d</i>
+(Dublin, 1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive
+rather than original, but his workmanship in harmony and
+orchestration is generally superior to that of his contemporaries.
+He seems to have been the first to extend the concerted finales of
+Leo and Logroscino into a chain of several separate movements,
+working up to a climax, but in this respect he is much inferior to
+Sarti and Mozart.</p>
+
+<p>Browning&rsquo;s poem, &ldquo;A Toccata of Galuppi,&rdquo; does not refer to
+any known composition, but more probably to an imaginary
+extemporization on the harpsichord, such as was of frequent
+occurrence in the musical gatherings of Galuppi&rsquo;s day.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Alfred Wotquerme, <i>Baldassare Galuppi, étude bibliographique
+sur ses &oelig;uvres dramatiques</i> (Brussels, 1902). Many of his
+autograph scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. J. D.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALVANI, LUIGI<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after
+whom galvanism received its name, was born at Bologna on the
+9th of September 1737. It was his wish in early life to enter the
+church, but by his parents he was educated for a medical career.
+At the university of Bologna, in which city he practised, he was
+in 1762 appointed public lecturer in anatomy, and soon gained
+repute as a skilled though not eloquent teacher, and, chiefly from
+his researches on the organs of hearing and genito-urinary tract
+of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His celebrated theory
+of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, &ldquo;De viribus
+electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius,&rdquo; published in the
+7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna
+in 1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and
+elsewhere subsequently. The statement has frequently been
+repeated that, in 1786, Galvani had noticed that the leg of a
+skinned frog, on being accidentally touched by a scalpel which
+had lain near an electrical machine, was thrown into violent
+convulsions; and that it was thus that his attention was first
+directed to the relations of animal functions to electricity. From
+documents in the possession of the Institute of Bologna, however,
+it appears that twenty years previous to the publication of his
+<i>Commentary</i> Galvani was already engaged in investigations as
+to the action of electricity upon the muscles of frogs. The
+observation that the suspension of certain of these animals on an
+iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of
+their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first
+experiment with which is described in the third part of the
+<i>Commentary</i>, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he
+constructed of two different metals, which, placed in contact
+the one with a frog&rsquo;s nerve and the other with a muscle, caused
+contraction of the latter. In Galvani&rsquo;s view the motions of the
+muscle were the result of the union, by means of the metallic arc,
+of its exterior or negative electrical charge with positive electricity
+which proceeded along the nerve from its inner substance. Volta,
+on the other hand, attributed them solely to the effect of
+electricity having its source in the junction of the two dissimilar
+metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply as
+conductors. On Galvani&rsquo;s refusal, from religious scruples, to
+take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he
+was removed from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means
+of livelihood, he retired to the house of his brother Giacomo,
+where he soon fell into a feverish decline. The republican
+government, in consideration of his great scientific fame, eventually,
+but too late, determined to reinstate him in his chair, and he
+died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-1842,
+by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under
+the title <i>Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALVANIZED IRON<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span>, sheet iron having its surface covered
+with a thin coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic
+action has often no part in the production of galvanized iron,
+which is prepared by dipping the iron, properly cleaned and
+pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc. The hotter the zinc the
+thinner the coating, but as a high temperature of the bath is
+attended with certain objections, it is a common practice to use a
+moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by passing
+the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers&rsquo;s process a
+thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the
+zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a
+wooden tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride,
+when tin is deposited on them by galvanic action. In &ldquo;cold
+galvanizing&rdquo; the zinc is deposited electrolytically from a bath,
+preferably kept neutral or slightly acid, containing a 10%
+solution of crystallized zinc sulphate, ZnSO<span class="su">4</span>·7H<span class="su">2</span>O. The resulting
+surface is usually duller and less lustrous than that obtained by
+the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming a coating of
+zinc, known as &ldquo;sherardizing,&rdquo; was invented by Sherard Cowper-Coles,
+who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product
+obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed
+with a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures
+well below the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer
+of that metal. In carrying out the process the articles are placed
+in an air-tight vessel with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and
+subjected to a heat of 250-330°C., the time for which the heating
+is continued depending on the thickness of the deposit required
+and varying from one-half to several hours. If an air-tight
+receptacle is not available, a small percentage of powdered carbon
+is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent increase in the amount of
+oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to make the deposit dull.</p>
+
+<p>Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion
+by the weather, though the protection is not very efficient in
+the presence of acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it
+is extensively employed for roofing, especially in the form of
+corrugated sheets. The iron wire used for wire-netting, telegraphic
+purposes, &amp;c., is commonly galvanized, as also are bolts,
+nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALVANOMETER<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span>, an instrument for detecting or measuring
+electric currents. The term is generally applied to instruments
+which indicate electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary
+units, as opposed to instruments called amperemeters (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which show directly on a dial the value of the current in amperes.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page429" id="page429"></a>429</span>
+Galvanometers may be divided into direct current and alternating
+current instruments, according as they are intended to measure
+one or other of these two classes of currents (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Electrokinetics</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Direct Current Galvanometers</i>.&mdash;The principle on which one type
+of direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvanometer,
+depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended
+in the centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the
+direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the
+current passing through it. In the other type, or movable coil
+galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence
+the coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force
+of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some
+way to take up and retain a definite position when no current is
+passing by means which are called the &ldquo;control.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer
+consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil
+of insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like
+a compass needle. The direction of such a needle is controlled
+<span class="sidenote">Movable needle galvanometer.</span>
+by the direction of the terrestrial magnetic force
+within the coil. If the needle is so placed that its axis is
+parallel to the plane of the coil, then when an electric current
+passes through the coil it is deflected and places itself at an angle
+to the axis of the coil determined by the strength of the current
+and of the controlling field. In the early forms of movable needle
+galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively large magnet
+several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was employed
+carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees so as to
+indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion by
+means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K.F.
+Gauss and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it,
+and a telescope having cross wires in the focus was used to observe
+the scale divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord
+<span class="sidenote">Mirror galvanometers.</span>
+Kelvin (Professor W. Thomson) made the important
+improvement of reducing the size of the needle and attaching
+it to the back of a very small mirror, the two being
+suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The mirror
+was made of silvered microscopic glass about ¼ in. in diameter,
+and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short fragments of
+watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being thrown on the
+mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were observed by
+watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from it upon a
+fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first devised
+in connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became an
+indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory.</p>
+
+<p>In course of time both the original form of single needle galvanometer
+and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the
+astatic principle and weakening the external controlling
+magnetic field. If two magnetic needles of equal size and
+<span class="sidenote">Astatic galvanometers.</span>
+moment are attached rigidly to one stem parallel to each
+other but with poles placed in opposite directions an
+astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so suspended as
+to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are made exactly
+equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no directive power.
+If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the suspended
+system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines of force
+of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle galvanometer
+devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of magnetized
+needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other with
+poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one
+coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the
+current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the
+pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement
+a greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more
+perfect astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields.
+The earth&rsquo;s magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling
+magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the galvanometer
+coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In
+instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the
+current in both coils passes so as to turn both needles in the same
+direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal
+position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the plane
+of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with
+a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument
+(fig. 1); it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields
+caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors,
+and therefore is not suitable for use in many places.</p>
+
+<p>This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer
+which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling
+instrument but subsequently modified by A. d&rsquo;Arsonval
+and others into a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). In this
+<span class="sidenote">Movable coil galvanometer.</span>
+instrument a permanent magnet, generally of the horseshoe
+shape, is employed to create a strong magnetic field, in
+which a light movable coil is suspended. The suspension
+is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are connected to the ends
+of the coil and serve to lead the current in and out. If such a coil
+is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of force of the permanent
+magnet, then when a current is passing through it it displaces itself
+in the field, so as to set with its axis more nearly parallel to the lines
+of force of the field. The movable coil may carry a pointer or a
+mirror; in the latter form it is well represented by several much
+used laboratory instruments. The movable coil galvanometer has
+the great advantage that it is not easily disturbed by the magnetic
+fields caused by neighbouring magnets or electric currents, and thus
+is especially useful in the electrical workshop and factory.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 340px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:290px; height:359px" src="images/img429a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 1.&mdash;Kelvin Astatic Mirror Galvanometer.
+Elliott square pattern.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil
+galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the
+wire of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered,
+wound on a frame, the whole being thoroughly saturated
+<span class="sidenote">Construction and use.</span>
+with paraffin wax. In some cases two wires are wound
+on in parallel, constituting a &ldquo;differential galvanometer.&rdquo;
+When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for the exact
+comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if an
+electric current is passed
+through one wire and creates
+certain deflexions of the
+needle, the current which
+annuls this deflexion when
+passed through the other
+wire must be equal to the
+first current. In the construction
+of a movable coil
+galvanometer, it is usual to
+intensify the magnetic field
+by inserting a fixed soft iron
+core in the interior of the
+movable coil. If the current
+to be measured is too large
+to be passed entirely through
+the galvanometer, a portion
+is allowed to flow through a
+circuit connecting the two
+terminals of the instrument.
+This circuit is called a <i>shunt</i>
+and is generally arranged so
+as to take 0.9, 0.99, or 0.999
+of the total current, leaving
+0.1, 0.01 or 0.001 to flow
+through the galvanometer.
+W.E. Ayrton and T. Mather have designed a universal shunt box or
+resistance which can be applied to any galvanometer and by which a
+known fraction of any current can be sent through the galvanometer
+when we know its resistance (see <i>Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond</i>., 1894,
+23, p. 314). A galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its
+deflexion determined, by passing through it an electric current of
+known value and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The
+known current can be provided in the following manner:&mdash;a single
+secondary cell of any kind can have its electromotive force measured
+by the potentiometer (<i>q.v.</i>), and compared with that of a standard
+voltaic cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer
+through a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is
+shunted, that is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S,
+then if the resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G,
+the whole resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance
+has a value represented by R + GS/(G + S), and therefore the current
+through the galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of
+the cell is represented by</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td>SE</td>
+<td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">R(G + S) + GS</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:378px; height:316px" src="images/img429b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 2.&mdash;Movable Coil Galvanometer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil
+or spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the
+value of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation
+between the deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page430" id="page430"></a>430</span>
+galvanometer is meant the deflexion produced by a known electromotive
+force put upon its terminals or a known current sent through
+it. It is usual to specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer
+by requiring a certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot
+of light thrown on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror,
+when an electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt)
+is applied to the terminals of the galvanometer; it may be otherwise
+expressed by stating the deflexion produced under the same conditions
+when a current of one microampere is passed through the
+coil. In modern mirror galvanometers a deflexion of 1 mm. of the
+spot of light upon a scale at 1 metre distance can be produced by a
+current as small as one hundred millionth (10<span class="sp">&minus;8</span>) or even one ten
+thousand millionth (10<span class="sp">&minus;10</span>) of an ampere. It is easy to produce
+considerable sensitiveness in the galvanometer, but for practical
+purposes it must always be controlled by the condition that the
+zero remains fixed, that is to say, the galvanometer needle or coil
+must come back to exactly the same position when no current is
+passing through the instrument. Other important qualifications
+of a galvanometer are its time-period and its dead-beatness. For
+certain purposes the needle or coil should return as quickly as
+possible to the zero position and with either no, or very few, oscillations.
+If the latter condition is fulfilled the galvanometer is said
+to be &ldquo;dead-beat.&rdquo; On the other hand, for some purposes the
+galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that is to say,
+there must be as little retardation as possible to the needle or coil
+when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a galvanometer
+is called &ldquo;ballistic.&rdquo; The quality of a galvanometer in this respect
+is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of the oscillations
+when the movable system is set swinging. This last term is
+defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next succeeding
+swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic decrement
+is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes, such as
+for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a galvanometer
+which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by affixing
+to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a movable needle
+galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame when it is
+a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the comparison
+of capacities of condensers and for other purposes, a galvanometer
+is required which is as little damped as possible, and for this purpose
+the coil must have the smallest possible frictional resistance to its
+motion through the air. In this case the moment of inertia of the
+movable system must be decreased or the control strengthened.</p>
+
+<p>The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive
+instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists
+of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic
+field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across
+the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:204px; height:241px" src="images/img430.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Helmholtz Tangent
+Galvanometer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>For the measurement of large currents a &ldquo;tangent galvanometer&rdquo;
+is employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a
+distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a
+current passing through them creates in the central
+<span class="sidenote">Tangent galvanometer.</span>
+region between them a nearly uniform magnetic field.
+At the centre of the coils is suspended a small magnetic
+needle the length of which should not be greater than <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span> the radius
+of either coil. The normal position of the needle is at right angles
+to the line joining the centre of the
+coils. If a current is passed through
+the coils, the needle will be deflected,
+and the tangent of the angle of its
+deflexion will be nearly proportional to
+the current passing through the coil,
+provided that the controlling field is
+uniform in strength and direction, and
+that the length of the magnetic needle
+is so short that the space in which it
+rotates is a practically uniform magnetic
+field.</p>
+
+<p><i>Alternating Current Galvanometers.</i>&mdash;For
+the detection of small alternating
+currents a magnetic needle or movable
+coil galvanometer is of no utility. We
+can, however, construct an instrument
+suitable for the purpose by suspending
+within a coil of insulated wire a small
+needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45° to
+the axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through
+the coil the soft iron needle tends to set itself in the direction of the
+axis of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic
+wire so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument.
+Another arrangement, devised by J.A. Fleming in 1887, consists
+of a silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the
+disk being held at 45° to that of the coil. When an alternating
+current is passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the
+disk and the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set
+itself so that these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvanometer
+has been made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble
+oscillatory electric currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless
+telegraph apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another
+very sensitive form of alternating current galvanometer. In it the
+current to be detected or measured is passed through a high resistance
+wire or strip of metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is
+suspended a closed loop of bismuth and antimony, forming a thermoelectric
+couple. This loop is suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong
+magnetic field, and one junction of the couple is held just over the
+resistance wire and as near it as possible without touching. When
+an alternating current passes through the resistance it creates heat
+which in turn acts on the thermo-junction and generates a continuous
+current in the loop, thus deflecting it in the magnetic field.
+The sensitiveness of such a thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently
+great to detect a current of a few microamperes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;J.A. Fleming, <i>A Handbook for the Electrical
+Laboratory and Testing Room</i>, vol. i. (London, 1901); W.E. Ayrton,
+T. Mather and W.E. Sumpner, &ldquo;On Galvanometers,&rdquo; <i>Proc. Phys.
+Soc. London</i> (1890), 10, 393; H.R. Kempe, <i>A Handbook of Electrical
+Testing</i> (London, 1906); A. Gray, <i>Absolute Measurements in Electricity
+and Magnetism</i>, vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful
+information is also contained in the catalogues of all the principal
+electrical instrument makers&mdash;Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The
+Cambridge Scientific Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and
+Braun, Queen and others.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. F.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALVESTON<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span>, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of
+Galveston county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the
+N.E. extremity of Galveston Island and at the entrance to
+Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m. S.E. of Houston and 310 m.
+W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900) 37,789,
+(6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land
+area (1906) 7.8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston
+&amp; Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg &amp; San Antonio, the
+Gulf, Colorado &amp; Santa Fé, the Trinity &amp; Brazos Valley,
+the International &amp; Great Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas
+&amp; Texas railways, and by numerous steamship lines to Gulf
+ports in the United States and Mexico, and to Cuba, South
+America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States.
+Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long
+and 1½ to 3½ m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland.
+The city, which extends across the island from Gulf to Bay,
+faces and has its harbour on the latter. The island was connected
+with the mainland before the 1900 storm by a road bridge and
+several railway bridges, which, a short distance W. of the city,
+crossed the narrow strip of water separating the West Bay from
+Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least harmed (a single-track
+railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was for a time the
+city&rsquo;s only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908 bonds were
+issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four
+railway tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for
+vehicles and pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in
+1904 at a cost of $2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and
+Gulf sides of the city, about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide
+(1.5 ft. above the high-water mark of the storm of 1900 and 7.5 ft.
+above the previous high-water mark, that of September 1875),
+16 ft. wide at the base and 5 ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the
+lineal foot, and with a granite rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft.
+on the Gulf side. The entire grade of the city was raised from 1 to
+15 ft. above the old level. Between the sea-wall and the sea there
+is a splendid beach, the entire length of which is nearly 30 m.
+Among the principal buildings are the city hall, the court-house,
+the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and post-office,
+the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United States
+government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station,
+an immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal
+government separate quarantine stations. In addition to the
+Ball public high school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary&rsquo;s
+University (1854), the Sacred Heart and Ursuline academies, and
+the Cathedral school, all under Roman Catholic control.</p>
+
+<p>The government of the municipality was long vested in a
+council of ward aldermen, controlled by a &ldquo;machine,&rdquo; which was
+proved corrupt in 1894 by an investigation undertaken at the
+personal expense of the mayor; it gave place in 1895 to a city
+council of aldermen at large, which by 1901 had proved its
+inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm of the
+preceding year. Government then seemed a business question
+and was practically undertaken by the city&rsquo;s commercial experts,
+the Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been
+harbour improvement, and who now drew up a charter providing
+for government by a board of five appointed by the governor of the
+state. A compromise measure making three members appointees
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page431" id="page431"></a>431</span>
+of the governor and two elected by the voters of the city was
+in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A third
+charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by
+the people, dividing among themselves the posts of mayor-president
+and commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-works
+and sewerage, of streets and public property, and of police
+and fire protection, each commissioner being held individually
+responsible for the management of his department. These are
+business departments carefully systematized by their heads.
+The legislative power is vested in the commission as a whole,
+over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote
+like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. The
+success of this commission government has been remarkable:
+in 1901-1908 the city, without issuing bonds except for grade
+raising, paid off a large debt, raised the salaries of city employees,
+paid its running expenses in cash, planned and began public
+improvements and sanitary reforms, and did much for the
+abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice. The
+Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been
+adopted in many other American cities.</p>
+
+<p>Galveston&rsquo;s manufactories, the products of which in 1900
+were valued at $5,016,360, a decrease of 12.4% from 1890
+(value of products under &ldquo;factory system,&rdquo; $3,675,323 in 1900;
+$2,996,654 in 1905, a decrease of 18.5%), include cotton-seed
+oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber mills, wooden-ware
+factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works, ship-yards
+and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses, coal
+and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The
+Gulf Fisheries Company has its fleet&rsquo;s headquarters and large
+packing-houses at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that
+Galveston is chiefly important. In 1907 it was the second port
+in the United States in the value of its exports (domestic and
+foreign, $196,627,382, or 10.22% of the total), being surpassed
+only by New York City; and was the first of the Gulf ports
+(having 45.43% of the total value), New Orleans being second
+with $164,998,540. Galveston&rsquo;s imports in 1907 were valued at
+$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port
+in the Union, its exports of cotton in 1907 being valued at
+$163,564,445. Other exports of great value are cotton seed products
+(oil and cake, $10,188,594 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279
+in 1907), wheat ($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The
+electric lighting and water-supply systems are owned and
+operated by the municipality.</p>
+
+<p>The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about
+1782 by Spanish explorers in honour either of José de Galvez,
+Marquis of Sonora, or his nephew Bernardo, governor of
+Louisiana; and in the early days of the 19th century was the
+principal rendezvous of a powerful band of buccaneers and pirates,
+of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean Lafitte was chief.
+After much difficulty these were finally dispersed about 1820 by
+the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first settlement
+from the United States was made on the site of the present city.
+The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic
+of Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken
+by a Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw
+(1816-1863). After a sharp engagement a Confederate force
+under General John B. Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on
+the 1st of January 1863, one of the Federal ships, the &ldquo;Harriet
+Lane,&rdquo; falling into Confederate hands, and another, the &ldquo;Westfield,&rdquo;
+being blown up with Commander Renshaw on board.
+Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although
+rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war.
+On the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by
+a West Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen
+hours, reached a velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the
+Gulf were piled up in enormous waves that swept across a large
+part of the city, destroying or badly damaging more than 8000
+buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000 lives, and a property
+loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal contributions
+came from all over the country, and the state partially remitted
+the city&rsquo;s taxes for 17 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on a
+more substantial plan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALWAY<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span>, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of
+Connaught, bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; E. by
+Roscommon, King&rsquo;s County and Tipperary; S. by Clare and
+Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The area is
+1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in
+size to Cork among the Irish counties.</p>
+
+<p>The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two
+great divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county
+except the four western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and
+is, generally speaking, a level champaign country, but contains
+large quantities of wet bog. Its southern portion is partly a
+continuation of the Golden Vale of Limerick, celebrated for its
+fertility, and partly occupied by the Slievebaughty Mountains.
+The northern portion of the division contains rich pasture and
+tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and dale. Some
+of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated, but
+forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the
+county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and
+mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara,
+Jar-Connaught and Joyce&rsquo;s Country; the name of Connemara
+is, however, often applied to the whole district. Its highest
+mountains are the grand and picturesque group of Bunnabeola,
+or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which occupy a space of about 25 sq.
+m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft. Much of this district is a
+gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft. above sea-level. Joyce&rsquo;s
+Country, farther north, is an elevated tract, with flat-topped
+hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys lying between
+them.</p>
+
+<p>Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of
+sea-coast, indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are
+rarely used except by a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the
+boundary with the county Mayo in the north is Killary Harbour
+which separates the two counties. The first bay on the western
+coast capable of accommodating large ships is Ballynakill,
+sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in succession
+is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of Inishbofin and
+Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet, within
+which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot.
+Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminating
+at the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the
+southern inlet has also good anchorage within the bar, and has
+a good salmon fishery. Mannin Bay, though large, is much
+exposed and little frequented by shipping. From Slyne Head the
+coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay, which has its entrance
+protected by the islands of Inishnee and Inishlacken. Next in
+order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and rocks, but
+deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast, has
+a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is
+but 3 m. broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is
+Greatman&rsquo;s Bay and close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of
+those in Connemara. The whole of the coast from Greatman&rsquo;s
+Bay eastward is comprehended in the Bay of Galway, the entrance
+of which is protected by the three limestone islands of Aran,
+Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer.</p>
+
+<p>The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size.
+The Suck, which forms the eastern boundary of the county,
+rises in Roscommon, and passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the
+Shannon at Shannonbridge. The Shannon forms the south-eastern
+boundary of the county, and passing Shannon Harbour, Banagher,
+Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great expanse of water
+called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as the village of
+Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through the
+centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above
+the town of Galway. The Ballynahinch, considered one of the
+best salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins,
+passes through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid
+course falls into Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough
+Corrib extends from Galway town northwards over 30,000 acres,
+with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The lake is studded with many
+islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The district west of
+Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about twenty-five of
+them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page432" id="page432"></a>432</span>
+same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent.
+Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called
+turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the
+year. Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder,
+and contain large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, draining
+into Camus Bay, a branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess
+and the Ballynahinch waters, are the best fishing centres. On
+account of its scenic beauty, both coastal and inland, together
+with its facilities for sport, county Galway is frequented by
+summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were difficult
+of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the western
+counties generally, the Galway and Clifden railway assisted private
+enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains,
+broken by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as
+by the innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts,
+afford scenes varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded
+along the water&rsquo;s edge to wild, bare moorlands among the
+heights, while the summits are usually bold and rocky cones.
+Several small fishing villages have acquired the dignity of watering-places
+from the erection of hotels, which have also been
+planted in previously untenanted situations of high scenic
+attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the
+head of Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letterfrack
+on Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel
+on Bertraghboy Bay. Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare,
+and Ballynahinch, on the lough of that name, both on the
+railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Geology</i>.&mdash;The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous Limestone
+plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore
+and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock
+appears freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over
+almost level land. Its west branches, however, run up into &ldquo;Dalradian&rdquo;
+hills, which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara.
+A broad mass of ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough
+Corrib and Galway Bay, cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest
+the presence of an east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve
+Bens owe their supremacy to the quartzites, which are here well
+bedded and associated with limestone and mica-schist. Silurian
+conglomerates and sandstones, with andesitic lavas, overlie the
+Dalradians, with marked unconformity, south of Leenane and
+round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard rocks admirably
+record the action of ice throughout the county. There is black
+Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway; and the well-known
+&ldquo;Connemara Marble&rdquo; is a banded serpentinous crystalline limestone
+in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown.
+Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west
+of Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate and Industries</i>.&mdash;The climate is mild and healthy but
+variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon.
+Frost or snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle
+of every description continue unhoused during the winter. The
+eastern part of the county produces the best wheat. Oats are frequently
+sown after potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat.
+The flat shores of the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for
+manure. Limestone, gravel and marl are to be had in most other
+parts. When a sufficient quantity of manure for potatoes cannot
+be had, the usual practice is to pare and burn the surface. In many
+places on the seashore fine early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand
+manured with seaweed, and the crop is succeeded by barley. Those
+parts of the eastern district less fitted for grain are employed in
+pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks occupy a very large tract between
+Monivea and Galway. An extensive range from Athenry, stretching
+to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also chiefly occupied by sheep. Over
+half the total acreage of the county is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep,
+pigs and poultry are extensively reared. The proportion of tillage to
+pasturage is roughly as one to four; and owing to the nature of the
+country fully one-third of the total area is quite barren.</p>
+
+<p>Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by
+the domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels
+and blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and
+Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit
+woollen stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called bandle
+linen, is also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving
+factory at Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great
+source of profit on the western shores, is still carried on to some
+extent. Feathers and sea-fowls&rsquo; eggs are brought in great quantities
+from the islands of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-fowl
+that frequent the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many
+of the inhabitants, the industry having as its centres the ports of
+Galway and Clifden.</p>
+
+<p>The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at
+Ballinasloe, and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension
+to Oughterard (Lough Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern &amp;
+Western line from Sligo to Limerick traverses the county from
+N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry and Gort.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Population and Administration.</i>&mdash;The population of county
+Galway (211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more
+than half in the last seventy years of the 19th century, and the
+decrease continues, as emigration is heavy. About 97% of the
+population are Roman Catholics, and a somewhat less percentage
+are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained by many in this
+remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426),
+Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the
+smaller towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford,
+Oughterard and Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four
+parliamentary divisions (returning one member each); north,
+south, east and Connemara, while the town of Galway returns
+one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes are held at
+Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden, Gort,
+Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county
+comprises parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of
+Killaloe; and of the Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway,
+Clonfert and Killaloe.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure,
+and nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its
+legend with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for
+mastery undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of
+the Spanish Armada on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose
+influence is still to be traced. The formation of Galway into a
+county was effected about 1579 by Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy
+of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim (<i>q.v.</i>) the decisive battle
+of the English Revolution was fought in 1691. Among the
+antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is at
+Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning considerably
+out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are
+numerous and several cromlechs are to be seen in good preservation.
+The ruins of monastic buildings are also numerous. That
+of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam, said to have been founded
+in 1180 by Cathal O&rsquo;Connor, was adorned with rude fresco
+paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable as
+being the best authentic representations existing of ancient
+Irish costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-Norman
+settlers are frequently met with; some have been kept in
+repair, but the greater number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam,
+built in 1161 by Roderick O&rsquo;Connor, king of Ireland, at the period
+of the English invasion, is said to have been the first building of
+this description of stone and mortar in Ireland. The remains of a
+round castle, a form of building very uncommon in the military
+architecture of the country, are to be seen between Gort and
+Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and monastic
+ruins on the Aran Islands (<i>q.v.</i>) must be mentioned; and the
+town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe
+all show interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the
+south of the county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a
+cathedral, the diocese of which was united with Kilfenora,
+Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GALWAY,<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county
+town of county Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway
+Bay, and on the main line of the Midland Great Western railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,426. Some of the streets are
+very narrow, and contain curious specimens of old buildings,
+chiefly in antique Spanish style, being square, with a central
+court, and a gateway opening into the street. The most noteworthy
+of these is the pile known as Lynch&rsquo;s Castle. This
+residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch
+Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose
+severity as a magistrate is exemplified in the story that he
+executed his own son, and thus gave origin (according to one of
+several theories) to the familiar term of Lynch law. The principal
+streets are broad and contain good shops. St Nicholas church is a
+fine cruciform building founded in 1320, and containing monuments,
+and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to have been
+brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not
+known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward
+VI. created the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page433" id="page433"></a>433</span>
+but the old college buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the
+church ceased to be collegiate in 1840. There are remains of
+a Franciscan friary founded in 1296. St Augustine&rsquo;s church
+(Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town is the seat of
+a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and
+industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College,
+Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University
+College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey
+limestone. It was founded as Queen&rsquo;s College, with other
+colleges of the same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of
+1845, and its name was changed when it was granted a new
+charter pursuant to the Irish Universities Act 1908. The
+harbour comprises an extensive line of quays, and is connected
+for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping trade is
+considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited
+unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are important.
+The chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and
+black marble, which is polished in local mills. Other industrial
+establishments include corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and
+brush and bag factories. The borough, which returned two
+members to parliament until 1885, now returns one.</p>
+
+<p>Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb
+known as the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a
+curious collection of small cottages, where communal government
+by a locally elected mayor long prevailed, together with
+peculiar laws and customs, strictly exclusive inter-marriage, and a
+high moral and religious standard. Specimens of the distinctive
+Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and treasured
+as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive
+dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their
+vestiges remain.</p>
+
+<p>The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome
+residences. The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam,
+with its round tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill,
+with golf links, is a waterside residential suburb.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival
+of the English, at which time it was under the protection of
+O&rsquo;Flaherty, who possessed the adjoining district to the west.
+On the extinction of the native dynasty of the O&rsquo;Connors, the
+town fell into the hands of the De Burgos, the head of a branch of
+which, under the name of M&rsquo;William Eighter, long governed it by
+magistrates of his own appointment. After it had been secured
+by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are still in part
+traceable, it became the residence of a number of enterprising
+settlers, through whom it attained a position of much commercial
+celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen in
+number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of
+Norman, Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in
+their relationships that dispensations were frequently requisite
+for the canonical legality of marriages among them. The town
+rapidly increased from this period in wealth and commercial
+rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival city of Limerick.
+Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with liberal
+privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the
+right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to
+show that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in
+1545, extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran,
+permitted the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and
+woollens, and confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers
+of Cromwell&rsquo;s soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and
+there are many traces of Spanish blood among the population.
+Its municipal privileges were extended by a charter from James I.,
+whereby the town, and a district of two miles round in every
+direction, were formed into a distinct county, with exclusive
+jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates. During
+the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was
+surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote;
+after which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and
+their property was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly
+from England. On the accession of James II. the old inhabitants
+entertained sanguine hopes of recovering their former rights.
+But the successes of King William soon put an end to their expectations;
+and the town, after undergoing another siege, again
+capitulated to the force brought against it by General Ginkell.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMA, VASCO DA<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and
+discoverer of the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small
+seaport in the province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama&rsquo;s early history
+little is known. His descent, according to the <i>Nobiliario</i> of
+Antonio de Lima, was derived from a noble family which is
+mentioned in the year 1166; but the line cannot be traced
+without interruption farther back than the year 1280, to one
+Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevão da Gama,
+civil governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born probably
+about the year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the
+Navigator, to whose intelligence and foresight must be traced
+back all the fame that Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and
+16th centuries. Explorers sent out at his instigation discovered
+the Azores and unknown regions on the African coast, whence
+continually came reports of a great monarch, &ldquo;who lived east of
+Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both temporal
+and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings,&rdquo; a story
+which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of &ldquo;Prester John&rdquo;
+which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests,
+that John II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea
+and by land the attempt should be made to reach the country
+of this potentate. For this purpose Pedro de Covilham and
+Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward by land; while
+Bartholomeu Diaz (<i>q.v.</i>), in command of two vessels, was sent
+westward by sea (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Abyssinia</a></span>, 14). That there was in truth
+an ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned
+in December 1488 with the report that when sailing southward
+he was carried far to the east by a succession of fierce storms,
+past&mdash;as he discovered only on his return voyage&mdash;what he
+ascertained to be the southern extremity of the African continent.
+The condition of John&rsquo;s health and concerns of state, however,
+prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition; and it was
+not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to
+the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were
+completed&mdash;hastened, doubtless, by Columbus&rsquo;s discovery of
+America in the meanwhile.</p>
+
+<p>For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected
+Vasco da Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against
+Castile, and in his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid
+mariner. The fleet, consisting of four vessels specially built for
+this mission, sailed down the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after
+prayers and confession made by the officers and crews in a small
+chapel on the site where now stands the church of S. Maria de
+Belem (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lisbon</a></span>), afterwards built to commemorate the event.
+Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St Helena Bay,
+South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the beginning
+of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa.
+Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained
+from Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived
+at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1498, and set
+up, according to the custom of his country, a marble pillar as a
+mark of conquest and a proof of his discovery of India. His
+reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler of Calicut, would
+have in all probability been favourable enough, had it not been
+for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for
+their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da
+Gama was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having
+seen enough of India to assure him of its great resources, he
+returned to Portugal in September 1499. The king received him
+with every mark of distinction, granted him the use of the prefix
+<i>Dom</i>, thus elevating him to the rank of an untitled noble, and
+conferred on him pensions and other property. In prosecution
+of da Gama&rsquo;s discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships was
+immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who,
+in sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on
+reaching his destination established a factory at Calicut. The
+natives, again instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose
+up in arms and murdered all whom Cabral had left behind. To
+avenge this outrage a powerful armament of ten ships was fitted
+out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first given to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page434" id="page434"></a>434</span>
+Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who received
+the title admiral of India (January 1502). A few weeks later the
+fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately
+bombarded the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery
+too horrible to describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November
+to Cochin, &ldquo;doing all the harm he could on the way to all that he
+found at sea,&rdquo; and having made favourable trading terms with it
+and with other towns on the coast, he returned to Lisbon in
+September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and his captains
+were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received additional
+privileges and revenues.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora,
+possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he
+expected, but more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and
+position which he had acquired; for he was now one of the
+richest men in the kingdom. He had married, probably in 1500,
+a lady of good family, named Catherina de Ataide, by whom he
+had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to advise King
+Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime policy
+up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-1522
+which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour.
+The most important of these is a grant dated December 1519
+by which Vasco da Gama was created count of Vidigueira, with
+the extraordinary privileges of civil and criminal jurisdiction
+and ecclesiastical patronage. During this time the Portuguese
+conquests increased in the East, and were presided over by
+successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so unfortunate that
+da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel&rsquo;s successor,
+John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in
+April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during
+September of the same year, he immediately set himself to correct
+with vigour the many abuses which had crept in under the rule
+of his predecessors. He was not destined, however, to prosecute
+far the reforms he had inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve
+following his arrival, he died at Cochin after a short illness, and was
+buried in the Franciscan monastery there. In 1538 his body was
+conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the town of Vidigueira.
+In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence to have been
+his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria de
+Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching
+Portugal, and raising her to one of the foremost places among the
+nations of Europe, and eventually the far greater one of bringing
+to pass the colonization of the East by opening its commerce
+to the Western world.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>Vasco da Gama&rsquo;s First Voyage</i>, by Dr E. Ravenstein
+(London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes,
+&amp;c., of the anonymous <i>Roteiro</i> (Journal or Itinerary), written by
+one of Vasco da Gama&rsquo;s subordinates who sailed on board the
+&ldquo;S. Raphael,&rdquo; which was commanded by the admiral&rsquo;s brother Paulo
+da Gama. This is the most important of the original authorities;
+five accounts of the voyage in letters contemporary with it are
+appended to the Hakluyt Society&rsquo;s translation. See also J. de
+Barros, <i>Decadas da India</i> (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written <i>c.</i> 1540);
+F.L. de Castanheda, <i>Historia do descobrimento da India</i> (Coimbra,
+1551, largely based on the <i>Roteiro</i>); <i>The Three Voyages of Vasco da
+Gama and his Viceroyalty</i>, by Gaspar Correa (Hakluyt Society,
+1869), chiefly valuable for the events of 1524; <i>The Lusiads</i> of
+Camoens, the central incident in which is Vasco da Gama&rsquo;s first
+voyage; <i>Calcoen</i> (<i>i.e.</i> <i>Calicut</i>), <i>a Dutch Narrative of the Second
+Voyage of Vasco da Gama</i>, written by some unknown seaman of
+the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504, reprinted in facsimile,
+with introduction and translation, by J. Ph. Berjeau (London,
+1874); Thomé Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of Ramusio.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMALIEL<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (<span title="Gamliel">&#1490;&#1502;&#1500;&#1497;&#1488;&#1500;</span>). This name, which in Old Testament
+times figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh
+(<i>vide</i> Num. i. 10, &amp;c.), was hereditary among the descendants of
+Hillel. Six persons bearing the name are known.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated
+Ha-Z&#257;q&#275;n (the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that
+he was numbered among the Sanhedrin, the high council of
+Jerusalem. According to the tradition of the schools of Palestine
+Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his father (of the latter
+nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as <i>Nasi</i>, or president of
+the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not correspond with
+historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel took a leading
+position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest repute as an
+authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the
+interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name
+was prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in
+the Acts of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted
+in the Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were
+threatened with death, and on this occasion he is designated
+as a Pharisee and as being &ldquo;had in reputation among all the
+people&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="nomodidaskalos timios panti tô laô">&#957;&#959;&#956;&#959;&#948;&#953;&#948;&#940;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#955;&#959;&#962; &#964;&#943;&#956;&#953;&#959;&#962; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#8054; &#964;&#8183; &#955;&#945;&#8183;</span>). In the Mishna
+(<i>Gi&#7789;&#7789;in</i> iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the author of certain legal
+ordinances affecting the welfare of the community (the expression
+in the original is &ldquo;<i>tiqqun ha-&lsquo;&#333;l&#257;m</i>,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> improvement of the
+world) and regulating certain questions as to conjugal rights.
+In the tradition was also preserved the text of the epistles
+regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent
+to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (<i>i.e.</i> southern
+Palestine) and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and
+elsewhere). He figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser
+of the king and queen, <i>i.e.</i> Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris
+(Pesahim 88 <i>b</i>). His function as a teacher is proved by the fact
+that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat at the feet of Gamaliel
+(Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the saying preserved in
+Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of scrupulousness
+in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very
+remarkable characterization of the different natures of the
+scholars remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in
+later days is summed up in the words (Mishna, end of So&#7789;ah):
+&ldquo;When Rabban Gamaliel the Elder died, regard for the Torah
+(the study of the Law) ceased, and purity and piety died.&rdquo; As
+Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose name is mentioned
+in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian legend,
+and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstratensian)
+relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel&rsquo;s
+commentary on the Old Testament, thereby most probably
+meaning the Talmud.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of
+Jerusalem&rsquo;s foremost men in the war against the Romans (<i>vide</i>
+Josephus, <i>Bellum Jud</i>. iv. 3, 9, <i>Vita</i> 38), and grandson of Gamaliel
+I. To distinguish him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel
+of Jabneh. In Jabneh (Jamnia), where during the siege of
+Jerusalem the scribes of the school of Hillel had taken refuge by
+permission of Vespasian, a new centre of Judaism arose under the
+leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a school whose
+members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem.
+Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai&rsquo;s successor, and
+rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration
+of Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the
+destruction of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political
+autonomy. He put an end to the division which had arisen
+between the spiritual leaders of Palestinian Judaism by the
+separation of the scribes into the two schools called respectively
+after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to enforce his own
+authority as the president of the chief legal assembly of Judaism
+with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he himself
+said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in order
+that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel&rsquo;s position
+was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the
+end of Domitian&rsquo;s reign (<i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 95) he went to Rome in company
+with the most prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in
+order to avert a danger threatening the Jews from the action of
+the terrible emperor. Many interesting particulars have been
+given regarding the journey of these learned men to Rome and
+their sojourn there. The impression made by the capital of the
+world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an overpowering
+one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
+In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend
+Judaism in polemical discussions with pagans, and also with
+professed Christians. In an anecdote regarding a suit which
+Gamaliel was prosecuting before a Christian judge, a converted
+Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the words of Jesus in
+Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 <i>a, b</i>). Gamaliel devoted special
+attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page435" id="page435"></a>435</span>
+cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He
+gave the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its
+final revision, and declared it every Israelite&rsquo;s duty to recite it
+three times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were
+not Jews, and was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when
+the latter died he mourned for him as for a beloved member of his
+own family. He loved discussing the sense of single portions of
+the Bible with other scholars, and made many fine expositions of
+the text. With the words of Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the
+lesson: &ldquo;So long as thou thyself art merciful, God will also be
+merciful to thee.&rdquo; Gamaliel died before the insurrections under
+Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At his funeral
+obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos),
+reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value
+of seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his
+body was to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this
+he wished to check the extravagance which had become associated
+with arrangements for the disposal of the dead, and his end was
+attained; for his example became the rule, and it also became the
+custom to commemorate him in the words of consolation
+addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 <i>b</i>). Gamaliel&rsquo;s son,
+Simon, long after his father&rsquo;s death, and after the persecutions
+under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his
+descendants handed on from father to son.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna,
+and his successor as <i>Nasi</i> (patriarch). The redaction of the
+Mishna was completed under him, and some of his sayings are
+incorporated therein (Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows:
+&ldquo;Beware of those in power, for they permit men to approach
+them only for their own uses; they behave as friends when it is
+for their advantage, but they do not stand by a man when he is in
+need.&rdquo; Evidently this was directed against the self-seeking of the
+Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the first half of
+the 3rd century.</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter
+half of the 3rd century: about him very little is known.</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.:
+beyond his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the
+latter half of the 4th century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel
+whom Jerome mentions in his letter to Pamachius, written in 393.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="sc">Gamaliel</span> VI., grandson of the above, the last of the
+patriarchs, died in 425. With him expired the office, which had
+already been robbed of its privileges by a decree of the emperors
+Honorius and Theodosius II. (dated the 17th of October 415).
+Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and a celebrated remedy of his
+is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus (<i>De Medicamentis</i>,
+liber 21).</p>
+<div class="author">(W. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBETTA, LÉON<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (1838-1882), French statesman, was born
+at Cahors on the 2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who
+had established himself as a grocer and had married a Frenchwoman
+named Massabie, is said to have been his son&rsquo;s prototype
+in vigour and fluency of speech. In his sixteenth year young
+Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left eye, which
+eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation,
+he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors,
+and in 1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern
+vehemence gave him great influence among the students of the
+Quartier Latin, and he was soon known as an inveterate enemy
+of the imperial government. He was called to the bar in 1859,
+but, although contributing to a Liberal review, edited by
+Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the 17th
+of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist
+Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a
+monument to the representative Baudin, who was killed in
+resisting the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity
+and assailed both the <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i> and the government with an
+eloquence of invective which made him immediately famous.</p>
+
+<p>In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first
+circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte
+Carnot for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for
+the latter. He elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no opportunity
+of attacking the Empire in the Assembly. He was at first
+opposed to the war with Germany, but when satisfied that it had
+been forced upon France he did not, like some of his colleagues,
+refuse to vote supplies, but took the patriotic line of supporting
+the flag. When the news of the disaster at Sedan reached Paris,
+Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself proclaimed the
+fall of the emperor at the <i>corps législatif</i>, and the establishment of
+a republic at the hôtel de ville. He was one of the first members
+of the new government of national defence, becoming minister
+of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and
+conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice
+was rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a
+delegation to organize resistance in the provinces was despatched
+to Tours, but when this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta
+himself (7th October) quitted Paris in a balloon, and upon
+arriving at Tours took the supreme direction of affairs as minister
+of the interior and of war. Aided by M. de Freycinet, then a
+young officer of engineers, as his assistant secretary of war, he
+displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He speedily
+organized an army, which might possibly have effected the relief
+of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine
+brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success
+was impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans
+early in December the seat of government had to be transferred
+to Bordeaux, and when Paris surrendered at the end of January,
+Gambetta, though resisting and protesting, was compelled to
+submit to the capitulation concluded with Prince Bismarck.
+He immediately resigned his office. Elected by nine departments
+to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the 1st of
+March 1871) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of
+the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification
+was to be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he
+resigned in protest and retired to Spain.</p>
+
+<p>He returned to France in June, was elected by three departments
+in July, and commenced an agitation for the definitive
+establishment of the Republic. On the 5th of November 1871 he
+established a journal, <i>La République française</i>, which soon
+became the most influential in France. His orations at public
+meetings were more effective than those delivered in the
+Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and
+that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he
+spoke of political power having passed to les <i>nouvelles couches
+sociales</i>. When Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873,
+and a Royalist was placed at the head of the government in the
+person of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta gave proof of his
+statesmanship by unceasingly urging his friends to a moderate
+course, and by his tact and parliamentary dexterity, no less than
+by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in the voting of the
+constitution in February 1875. This policy he continued during
+the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and gave it
+the appropriate name of &ldquo;opportunism.&rdquo; It was not until the
+4th of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was
+notorious, and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the
+restoration of the temporal power of the pope, that he delivered
+his famous speech denouncing &ldquo;clericalism&rdquo; as &ldquo;the enemy.&rdquo;
+On the 16th of May Marshal MacMahon, in order to support the
+clerical reactionaries, perpetrated his parliamentary <i>coup d&rsquo;état</i>,
+and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in a speech at Lille, gave
+him the alternative se <i>soumettre ou se démettre</i>. He then undertook
+a political campaign to rouse the republican party throughout
+France, which culminated in a speech at Romans (September
+18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally
+unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to
+dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry
+under the premiership of Dufaure.</p>
+
+<p>When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about
+the abdication of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to
+become a candidate for the presidency, but gave his support to
+Grévy; nor did he attempt to form a ministry, but accepted the
+office of president of the chamber of deputies (January 1879).
+This position, which he filled with much ability, did not prevent
+his occasionally descending from the presidential chair to
+make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page436" id="page436"></a>436</span>
+communards, was especially memorable. Although he really
+directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought
+that the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to
+direct the policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe
+a neutral attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on,
+and early in 1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement
+for restoring <i>scrutin de liste</i>, or the system by which deputies are
+returned by the entire department which they represent, so that
+each elector votes for several representatives at once, in place of
+<i>scrutin d&rsquo;arrondissement</i>, the system of small constituencies,
+giving one member to each district and one vote to each elector.
+A bill to re-establish <i>scrutin de liste</i> was passed by the Assembly
+on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on the 19th of
+June.</p>
+
+<p>But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the
+country his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at
+the election. His supporters were in a large majority, and on the
+reassembling of the chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned.
+Gambetta was unwillingly entrusted by Grévy on the 14th of
+November 1881 with the formation of a ministry&mdash;known as
+<i>Le Grand Ministère</i>. He now experienced the Nemesis of his
+over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of compromising
+his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at
+a dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice,
+were directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on
+the 26th of January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six
+days. Had he remained in office his declarations leave no doubt
+that he would have cultivated the British alliance and cooperated
+with Great Britain in Egypt; and when the Freycinet
+administration, which succeeded, shrank from that enterprise
+only to see it undertaken with signal success by England alone,
+Gambetta&rsquo;s foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were
+presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of
+December 1882, at his house in Ville d&rsquo;Avray, near Sèvres, he
+died by a shot from a revolver which accidentally went off.
+Then all France awoke to a sense of her obligation to him, and
+his public funeral on the 6th of January 1883 evoked one of the
+most overwhelming displays of national sentiment ever witnessed
+on a similar occasion.</p>
+
+<p>Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by
+preserving her self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance
+he organized during the German War, by his tact in persuading
+extreme partisans to accept a moderate Republic, and by his
+energy in overcoming the usurpation attempted by the advisers
+of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early age of forty-four,
+cut short a career which had given promise of still greater things,
+for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the future of
+his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been
+potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his
+life was his connexion with Léonie Léon (d. 1906), the full details
+of which were not known to the public till her death. This lady,
+with whom Gambetta fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a
+French artillery officer. She became his mistress, and the <i>liaison</i>
+lasted till he died. Gambetta himself constantly urged her to
+marry him during this period, but she always refused, fearing to
+compromise his career; she remained, however, his confidante
+and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is understood
+that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and the
+date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which
+caused his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory
+accounts have indeed been given as to this fatal episode, but that
+it was accidental, and not suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the
+influence of Léonie was absorbing, both as lover and as politician,
+and the correspondence which has been published shows how
+much he depended upon her. But in various matters of detail the
+serious student of political history must be cautious in accepting
+her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in the
+writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took
+place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta
+after 1875 felt strongly that the relations between France and
+Germany might be improved, and that he made it his object, by
+travelling incognito, to become better acquainted with Germany
+and the adjoining states, may be accepted, but M. Laur appears
+to have exaggerated the extent to which any actual negotiations
+took place. On the other hand, the increased knowledge of
+Gambetta&rsquo;s attitude towards European politics which later
+information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost
+prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April
+1905 a monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was
+unveiled by President Loubet.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gambetta&rsquo;s <i>Discours et plaidoyers politiques</i> were published by J.
+Reinach in 11 vols. (Paris, 1881-1886); his <i>Dépêches, circulaires,
+décrets</i> ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have
+appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, <i>Léon Gambetta</i> (1884),
+<i>Gambetta orateur</i> (1884) and <i>Le Ministère Gambetta, histoire et doctrine</i>
+(1884); Neucastel, <i>Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idées politiques</i> (1885);
+J. Hanlon, <i>Gambetta</i> (London, 1881); Dr Laborde, <i>Léon Gambetta
+biographie psychologique</i> (1898); P.B. Gheusi, Gambetta, <i>Life and
+Letters</i> (Eng. trans. by V.M. Montagu, 1910). See also G. Hanotaux,
+<i>Histoire de la France contemporaine</i> (1903, &amp;c.). F. Laur&rsquo;s <i>Le C&oelig;ur
+de Gambetta</i> (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains the correspondence
+with Léonie Léon; see also his articles on &ldquo;Gambetta and Bismarck&rdquo;
+in <i>The Times</i> of August 17 and 19, 1907, with the correspondence
+arising from them.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBIA,<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> an important river of West Africa, and the only
+river of Africa navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for
+over 200 m. from its mouth. It rises in about 11° 25&prime; N. and
+12° 15&prime; W., within 150 m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarpment
+of the Futa Jallon highlands, the massif where also rise the
+head-streams of the Senegal and some of the Niger tributaries,
+besides the Rio Grande and many other rivers flowing direct to
+the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in its lower course, is
+very serpentine, and although the distance from the source to
+the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct line,
+the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first
+N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12° 35&prime; N.
+takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it
+leaves the fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the
+lower district is marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a
+ledge of rock stretching across the river. Between 30 and 50 m.
+above the falls the Gambia is joined by two considerable affluents,
+the Nieriko from the north and the Kuluntu or Grey river from
+the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the Atlantic the
+Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this distance
+the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year round
+by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles
+below Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry
+season, of over 300 ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls
+to McCarthy&rsquo;s Island, a distance of 200 m., the river valley, which
+here presents a park-like appearance, is enclosed by low rocky
+hills of volcanic character. For 50 m. below the island, where the
+stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks of the river are steep and
+thickly wooded. They then become low and are fringed with
+mangrove swamps. From Devil&rsquo;s Point, a sharp promontory on
+the north bank&mdash;up to which place the water is salt&mdash;the river
+widens considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13½° N.
+and 16½° W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river
+on the south side is St Mary&rsquo;s Island (3½ m. long by 1½ broad),
+and opposite on the north bank is Barra Point, the river being
+here contracted to 2½ m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance
+from shore to shore is 27 m. There is a sand-bar at the entrance
+to the river, but at the lowest state of the tide there are 26 ft. of
+water over the bar. The Gambia is in flood from November to
+June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable by small boats.
+Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m. Politically
+the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and France&mdash;Britain
+possessing both banks of the river up to, but not including,
+Yarbatenda.</p>
+
+<p>The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the
+Carthaginian in his famous voyage along the west coast of
+Africa. It was known to Ptolemy and the Arabian geographers,
+and was at one time supposed to be a mouth of the Nile, and,
+later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was possibly
+visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly discovered
+by the Portuguese <i>c.</i> 1446, but was first explored for any
+distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page437" id="page437"></a>437</span>
+(<i>q.v.</i>), who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1507
+(<i>La Prima Navigazione per l&rsquo;Oceano alle terre de&rsquo; Negri della
+Bassa Ethiopia</i>). Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place
+for explorers of the interior, among them Mungo Park, who began
+both his journeys (1795 and 1805) from this river. It was not
+until 1818 that the sources of the Gambia were reached, the
+discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard Mollien, who had
+travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle course
+of the river was explored in 1851 by R.G. MacDonnell, then
+governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V.S. Gouldsbury
+also navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind
+was seen above Barraconda. The more correct name of the river
+is Gambra, and it is so called in old books of travel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Mungo Park&rsquo;s <i>Travels</i> (London, 1799); G. Mollien, <i>Travels
+... to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ...</i>, edited by T.E.
+Bowdich (London, 1820); the account of Dr Gouldsbury&rsquo;s journey in
+the Blue Book C 3065 (1881); also under the country heading below.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBIA,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> the most northerly of the British West African
+dependencies. It consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the
+lower Gambia. The colony, with the protectorate dependent upon
+it, has an area of about 4000 sq. m. and a population officially
+estimated (1907) at 163,000. The colony proper (including
+St Mary&rsquo;s Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded Mile, McCarthy&rsquo;s
+Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m. The
+protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres
+(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about
+200 m. in a direct line from the sea. The land outside these
+limits is French. Within the protectorate are various petty
+kingdoms, such as Barra, to the north of the Gambia, and
+Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the colony near the coast
+is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The greatest breadth
+is 39 m.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Physical Features, Fauna and Flora.</i>&mdash;The colony, as its name
+implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (<i>q.v.</i>),
+which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony,
+while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth
+and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river
+banks, the country is largely &ldquo;bush.&rdquo; The region above McCarthy&rsquo;s
+Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The
+fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys,
+bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part
+of the river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most
+common are bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and
+sand-grouse. Bees are very numerous in parts of the country.
+The flora resembles that of West Africa generally, the mangrove
+being common. Mahogany and rosewood (<i>Pterocarpus erinaceus</i>)
+trees are found, though not in large numbers, and the rubber-vine
+and oil-palm are also comparatively scarce. There are many varieties
+of fern. The cassava (manioca) and indigo plants are indigenous.</p>
+
+<p><i>Climate.</i>&mdash;The climate during the dry season (November-June)
+is the best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is
+then considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of
+the malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean
+temperature at Bathurst is 77° F., the shade minimum being 56°
+and the solar maximum 165°. Upriver the variation in temperature
+is even greater than at Bathurst, from 50° in the morning to 100°-104°
+at 3 <span class="scs">P.M.</span> being common at McCarthy&rsquo;s Isle. The average
+rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June
+there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first
+instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in
+1906. The dry east wind known as the harmattan blows intermittently
+from December to March.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Inhabitants.</i>&mdash;The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and
+industrious, are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the
+chief tribes represented being the Mandingo (<i>q.v.</i>), the Jolof and
+the Jola. Numbers of Fula (<i>q.v.</i>) are also settled in the country.
+Fully four-fifths of the natives are Mahommedans. The few
+European residents are officials, traders or missionaries.</p>
+
+<p><i>Towns and Trade.</i>&mdash;Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief
+town of the colony, in 13° 24&prime; N., 16° 36&prime; W., is built on St Mary&rsquo;s
+Island, which lies at the mouth of the river near its south
+bank and is connected with the mainland by a bridge across
+Oyster Creek. It was founded in 1816 and is named after the
+3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of state for the colonies from 1812 to
+1827. Bathurst is a fairly well-built town, the chief material
+employed being red sandstone. It lies about 12 to 14 ft. above
+the level of the river. The principal buildings face the sea, and
+include Government House, barracks, a well-appointed hospital,
+founded by Sir R.G. MacDonnell (administrator, 1847-1852),
+and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine
+avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no
+other towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called
+Georgetown is situated on McCarthy&rsquo;s Island, so named after Sir
+Charles McCarthy, the governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was
+captured and beheaded by the Ashanti at the battle of Essamako.
+Albreda, a small port on the north bank of the river, of some
+historic interest (see below), is in the Barra district.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Products.</i>&mdash;Ground-nuts (<i>Arachis hypogaea</i>), rubber, beeswax,
+palm kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions.
+Millet and rice are the staple food of the people. The curing of hides,
+the catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the
+weaving of cotton into cloths called &ldquo;pagns,&rdquo; afford employment
+to a considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal exports,
+besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being
+obtained from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between
+1830 and 1840 from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually,
+but shipments ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of
+gold-dust can still be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export
+of hides received a severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of
+nearly all the cattle, but after an interval of seven or eight years
+the industry gradually revived. The value of hides exported increased
+from £520 in 1902 to £9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber
+was started about 1880, but the trade has not assumed large proportions.
+In 1907 the value of the rubber exported was £4602.
+The export of wax, valued at £37,000 in 1843, had dwindled in
+1907 to £2325. The cultivation of the ground-nut, first exported
+in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by 1850 had become the
+chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of the nuts was
+£256,685, over <span class="spp">11</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span> of the total exports (exclusive of specie). Nearly
+the whole male population is engaged in the industry for eight months
+of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains, the crop is
+reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (<span class="spp">4</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span> to
+Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as olive
+oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the beginning of
+the planting season of thousands of men from a distance, &ldquo;strange
+farmers,&rdquo; as they are called, who are housed and fed and given
+farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce
+to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the &ldquo;strange
+farmer&rdquo; goes off, often not returning for years.</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural
+resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are
+kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their
+wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-one
+years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier
+is unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical
+station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and
+Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment
+proved discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting
+farmers to grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly
+scientific lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of the ground-nut.
+The principal imports, of which over <span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> come from Great Britain
+or British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone),
+tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the
+average annual value of the exports was £301,000, of the imports
+£316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent
+mineral wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above
+McCarthy&rsquo;s Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with
+Europe and the rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony,
+but it is traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft.
+The Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A
+government steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy&rsquo;s
+Island, and a smaller boat plies on the upper river. The shipping
+trade is chiefly British; French and German tonnage coming next.</p>
+
+<p>Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the
+colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which
+country most of the exports go. A considerable entrepôt trade is
+also done with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of
+French influence is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece,
+locally known as a dollar, is largely circulated throughout the protectorate,
+and is accepted as legal tender, although the currency in
+the colony proper is the English coinage.</p>
+
+<p><i>Administration, Revenue, &amp;c.</i>&mdash;The Gambia is administered by a
+governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On
+the last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats.
+The colony is self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue,
+which in 1906 for the first time exceeded £60,000, is mainly derived
+from customs. A company of the West African Frontier Force is
+maintained. Travelling commissioners visit the five districts into
+which, for administrative purposes, the protectorate is divided, and
+in which the native form of government prevails. From the native
+law-courts appeal can be made to the supreme court at Bathurst.
+There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan court, established in 1906,
+for the trial of cases involving the civil status of Moslems.</p>
+
+<p>Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denominations,
+and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page438" id="page438"></a>438</span>
+also a secondary and a technical school. There is a privately
+supported school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans,
+Wesleyans and Roman Catholics have numerous converts.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;Of the early history of the Gambia district there is
+scant mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars
+(apparently of a &ldquo;Druidical&rdquo; character), whose ruins are found at
+several places along the upper Gambia, were erected is not known.
+Those at Lamin Koto, on the right bank of the river opposite
+McCarthy&rsquo;s Island, are still in good preservation, and are an
+object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see <i>Geog. Journ.</i>
+vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed part,
+successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The
+relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with
+the north and east; consequently no large town was founded on
+the banks of the river, nor any trade carried on (before the
+coming of the white man) by vessels sailing the ocean. About
+the 11th century the district came under Mahommedan influence.</p>
+
+<p>The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the 15th century, and
+in the beginning of the 16th century were trading in the lower
+river. Embassies were sent from the Portuguese stations inland
+to Melle to open up trade with the interior, but about the
+middle of the century this trade&mdash;apparently mostly in gold and
+slaves&mdash;declined. At the end of the century the river was known
+as the resort of banished men and fugitives from Portugal and
+Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living in England
+that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to &ldquo;certain
+merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London
+for a trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea.&rdquo; This
+company was granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its
+operations led to no permanent settlement in the Gambia. In
+1618 James I. granted a charter to another company named
+&ldquo;The Company of Adventurers of London trading into Africa,&rdquo;
+and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich, afterwards earl
+of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold Coast.
+This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then
+believed to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower
+Gambia in considerable quantities. With this object George
+Thompson (a merchant who had traded with Barbary) was sent
+out in the &ldquo;Catherine,&rdquo; and ascended the Gambia in his ship to
+Kassan, a Portuguese trading town, thence continuing his journey
+in small boats. In his absence the &ldquo;Catherine&rdquo; was seized and
+the crew murdered by Portuguese and half-castes, and Thompson
+himself was later on murdered by natives. Two years afterwards
+Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of Adventurers,
+advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was followed,
+about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who
+on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country
+full of gold.</p>
+
+<p>The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth
+of the Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by
+Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small
+island 20 m. from the mouth of the river and named Fort James,
+in honour of the duke of York (James II.). This fort was built
+expressly to defend the British trade against the Dutch, and from
+that time the British remained in permanent occupation of one or
+more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain Bartholomew Stibbs
+was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had succeeded
+the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden&rsquo;s reports of gold.
+He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not
+found. The French now became rivals for the trade of the
+Gambia, but the treaty of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in
+the river to Britain, reserving, however, Albreda for French trade,
+while it assigned the Senegal to France, with the reservation of
+the right of the British to trade at Portendic for gum. This
+arrangement remained in force till 1857, when an exchange of
+possessions was effected and the lower Gambia became a purely
+British river. In the period between the signing of the treaty of
+Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the colony
+proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings.
+St Mary&rsquo;s Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy&rsquo;s Isle was bought
+in 1823; the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in
+1826; and British Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During
+this period the colony had gone through an economic crisis by
+the abolition of the slave trade (1807), which had been since 1662
+its chief financial support. The beginning of a return to prosperity
+came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged to leave
+Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the
+Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary&rsquo;s Isle. From
+that year the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river,
+dates. The Gambia witnessed many administrative changes.
+When the slave trade was abolished, the settlement was placed
+under the jurisdiction of the governor of Sierra Leone, and was
+formally annexed to Sierra Leone on the dissolution of the Royal
+African Company (1822). It so remained until 1843, when the
+Gambia was made an independent colony, its first governor
+being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia
+became a portion of the officially styled &ldquo;West African Settlements.&rdquo;
+In 1883 it was again made a separate government,
+administered as a crown colony. Between the years last
+mentioned&mdash;1866-1888&mdash;the colony had suffered from the retrograde
+policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West
+African Settlements (<i>vide</i> Report of the Select Committee of 1865).</p>
+
+<p>In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great
+Britain on the basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West
+Africa. Suspended owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian
+War the negotiations were resumed in 1876. &ldquo;Definite proposals
+were at that time formulated by which the Gambia was to be
+exchanged for all posts by France between the Rio Pongas
+(Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have
+been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong
+a feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was
+manifested in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies,
+that the government of the day was unable to press the scheme.&rdquo;<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+Nothing was done, however, to secure for the Gambia a suitable
+<i>hinterland</i>, and in 1877 the 4th earl of Carnarvon (then colonial
+secretary) warned British traders that they proceeded beyond
+McCarthy&rsquo;s Isle at their own risk. Meantime the French from
+Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British settlements,
+so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement of
+the 10th of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to
+secure only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This
+document fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at
+a radius of 10 m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda;
+which town is situated at the limit of navigability of the Gambia
+from the sea. By Art. 5 of the Anglo-French convention of the
+8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded to France, with the
+object of giving that country a port on the river accessible to
+sea-going merchantmen.</p>
+
+<p>Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the
+acquirement of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance
+increasing expenditure, to impose a &ldquo;hut tax&rdquo; on the natives.
+This was done in 1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum
+for a family, met with no opposition.</p>
+
+<p>In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be
+forcibly expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-raider,
+Fodi Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An
+expedition under Captain E.H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble
+succeeded in routing him, and Fodi Silah took refuge in French
+territory, where he died. During the expedition Captain Gamble
+was led into an ambush, and in this engagement lost 15 killed and
+47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the agency of
+Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French
+territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F.C. Sitwell and
+Mr Silva) were murdered in June of that year, at a place called
+Suankandi, and a punitive expedition was sent out under
+Colonel H.E. Brake. Suankandi was captured and, the French
+co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi Kabba being
+killed on the 23rd of March 1901.</p>
+
+<p>The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and
+contented, and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision
+was moreover made by an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of
+slavery itself throughout the protectorate, it being enacted that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page439" id="page439"></a>439</span>
+henceforth all children born of slaves were free from birth, and
+that all slaves became free on the death of their master.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the <i>Annual Reports</i> on the colony published by the colonial
+office, London, which give the latest official information; C.P.
+Lucas&rsquo;s <i>Historical Geography of the British Colonies</i>, vol. iii., <i>West
+Africa</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contains valuable bibliographical
+notes); and <i>The Gambia Colony and Protectorate</i>, an
+official handbook (with map and considerable historical information),
+by F.B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early
+accounts of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley&rsquo;s
+<i>New General Collection of Voyages and Travels</i> (London, 1745-1747).
+See also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, <i>Travels in Western
+Africa in 1818-1821, from the River Gambia ... to the River Niger</i>
+(London, 1829). The flora has been the subject of a special study,
+A. Rançon, <i>La Flore utile du bassin de la Gambie</i> (Bordeaux, 1895). Most
+of the books mentioned under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gold Coast</a></span> also deal with the Gambia.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British
+ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 1892.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> <span class="sc">Baron</span> (1756-1833), English
+admiral, was born on the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas,
+of which his father, John Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-governor.
+He entered the navy in 1767 as a midshipman on
+board the &ldquo;Yarmouth,&rdquo; under the command of his uncle; and,
+his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he was
+raised in 1778 to the rank cf post-captain, and appointed to the
+&ldquo;Raleigh,&rdquo; a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was
+placed on half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the
+French Revolution, he was appointed to the command of the
+74-gun ship &ldquo;Defence,&rdquo; under Lord Howe; and in her he had
+an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of June 1794. In
+recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain Gambier
+received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines;
+the following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral,
+and appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he
+continued for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral
+of 1799, hoisted his flag on board the &ldquo;Neptune,&rdquo; of 98 guns,
+as third in command of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Cornwallis,
+where, however, he remained for but a year, when he was
+appointed governor of Newfoundland and commander-in-chief
+of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he returned to the
+admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806, continued
+there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his
+uncle, Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805
+he was raised to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807,
+whilst still a lord of the admiralty, he was appointed to the
+command of the fleet ordered to the Baltic, which, in concert
+with the army under Lord Cathcart, reduced Copenhagen, and
+enforced the surrender of the Danish navy, consisting of nineteen
+ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops, gunboats, and naval
+stores. This service was considered by the government as worthy
+of special acknowledgment; the naval and military commanders,
+officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both Houses
+of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the
+admiralty on being appointed to the command of the Channel
+Fleet; and in that capacity he witnessed the partial, and prevented
+the total, destruction of the French fleet in Basque Roads,
+on the 12th of April 1809. It is in connexion with this event,
+which might have been as memorable in the history of the British
+navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dundonald</a></span>),
+that Lord Gambier&rsquo;s name is now best known. A court-martial,
+assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over
+by a warm partisan, &ldquo;most honourably acquitted&rdquo; him on the
+charge &ldquo;that, on the 12th of April, the enemy&rsquo;s ships being then
+on fire, and the signal having been made that they could be
+destroyed, he did, for a considerable time, neglect or delay taking
+effectual measures for destroying them&rdquo;; but this decision was
+in reality nothing more than a party statement of the fact that a
+commander-in-chief, a supporter of the government, is not to be
+condemned or broken for not being a person of brilliant genius or
+dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the French fleet
+should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had
+Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of
+many of his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the
+Channel Fleet for the full period of three years, at the end of which
+time&mdash;in 1811&mdash;he was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil
+capacity as chief commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace
+with the United States; for his exertions in which business he
+was honoured with the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1830 he was
+raised to the high rank of admiral of the fleet, and he died on the
+19th of April 1833.</p>
+
+<p>Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious
+principle, and of undoubted courage; but the administration of
+the admiralty has seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as
+during the time when he was a member of it; and through the
+whole war the self-esteem of the navy suffered no such wound as
+during Lord Gambier&rsquo;s command in the Bay of Biscay.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The so-called <i>Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral
+Lord Gambier</i>, by Lady Chatterton (1861), has no historical value.
+The life of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall&rsquo;s <i>Royal Naval
+Biography</i>, in Ralfe&rsquo;s <i>Naval Biography</i>, in Lord Dundonald&rsquo;s <i>Autobiography
+of a Seaman</i>, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in
+the general history of the period.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBIER<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span>, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio,
+U.S.A., on the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop.
+(1900) 751; (1910) 537. It is served by the Cleveland, Akron &amp;
+Columbus railway. The village is finely situated, and is the seat
+of Kenyon College and its theological seminary, Bexley Hall
+(Protestant Episcopal), and of Harcourt Place boarding school
+for girls (1889), also Protestant Episcopal. The college was incorporated
+in 1824 as the &ldquo;Theological Seminary of the Protestant
+Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio&rdquo;; but in 1891
+&ldquo;Kenyon College,&rdquo; the name by which the institution has always
+been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held
+at Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-1852),
+first Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west
+Territory, by whose efforts the funds for its endowment had been
+raised in England in 1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords
+Kenyon and Gambier. The first permanent building, &ldquo;Old
+Kenyon&rdquo; (still standing, and used as a dormitory), was erected
+on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a forest. In 1907-1908
+the theological seminary had 18 students and the collegiate
+department 119.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop
+Chase&rsquo;s <i>Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the
+Principal Events in the Author&rsquo;s Life to 1847</i> (2 vols., New York, 1848).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBOGE<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is
+obtained), a gum-resin procured from <i>Garcinia Hanburii</i>, a
+dioecious tree with leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow
+flowers, and usually square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a
+member of the natural order Guttiferae, and indigenous to
+Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the south of Cochin China,
+formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The juice, which
+when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark of
+the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from
+this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being
+placed to receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce
+in cylindrical pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also,
+usually of inferior quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is
+of a dirty orange externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a
+conchoidal and reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a
+brilliant yellow powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first
+slight, but subsequently acrid; forms with water an emulsion;
+and consists of from 20 to 25% of gum soluble in water, and from
+70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest adulterants are rice-flour
+and pulverized bark.</p>
+
+<p>Gamboge (<i>Cambogia</i>) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, causing
+much griping and irritation of the intestine. A small
+quantity is absorbed, adding a yellow ingredient to the urine
+and acting as a mild diuretic. Its irritant action on the skin may
+cause the formation of pustules. It is less active only than
+croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in doses of half to two
+grains, combined with some sedative such as hyoscyamus, in
+apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used as a
+pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to
+have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East
+at the close of the 16th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMBRINUS<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span>, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the
+first brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of
+Jan Primus, <i>i.e.</i> Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant,
+from 1261 to 1294, who was president of the Brussels gild of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page440" id="page440"></a>440</span>
+brewers; his portrait with a foaming glass of ale in his hand had
+the place of honour in the gild-hall, and this led in time, it is
+suggested, to the myth of the beer-king who is usually represented
+outside a barrel with a tankard in his hand.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAME,<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> a word which in its primary and widest significance
+means any amusement or sport, often combined in the early
+examples with &ldquo;glee,&rdquo; &ldquo;play,&rdquo; &ldquo;joy&rdquo; or &ldquo;solace.&rdquo; It is a
+common Teutonic word, in O. Eng. <i>gamen</i>, in O.H.G. <i>gaman</i>, but
+only appears in modern usage outside English in Dan. <i>gammen</i>
+and Swed. <i>gamman</i>. The ulterior derivation is obscure, but
+philologists have identified it with the Goth. <i>gaman</i>, companion
+or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the prefix
+<i>ga</i>-, with, and the root seen in &ldquo;man.&rdquo; Apart from its primary
+and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first
+to a contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in
+accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those
+wild animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as
+used for food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry,
+and from the flesh of deer, to which the name &ldquo;venison&rdquo; is given.
+For &ldquo;game,&rdquo; from the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its
+pursuit and capture see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar150">Game Laws</a></span>. The athletic contests of the
+ancient Greeks (<span class="grk" title="agônes">&#7936;&#947;&#8182;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>) and the public shows (<i>ludi</i>) of the arena
+and amphitheatre of the ancient Romans are treated below
+(<span class="sc"><a href="#ar151">Games, Classical</a></span>); the various forms of modern games,
+indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or chance, are
+dealt with under their specific titles. A special use (&ldquo;gaming&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;gambling&rdquo;) restricts the term to the playing of games for
+money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in
+horse-racing, &amp;c. (see <span class="sc"><a href="#ar152">Gaming and Wagering</a></span>). &ldquo;Gamble,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;gambler&rdquo; and &ldquo;gambling&rdquo; appear very late in English. The
+earliest quotations in the <i>New English Dictionary</i> for the three
+words are dated 1775, 1747 and 1784 respectively. They were
+first regarded as cant or slang words, and implied a reproach,
+either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to those who played
+recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the words is
+obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation <i>gammle</i> of
+the M.E. <i>gamenian</i>. From this word must, of course, be distinguished
+&ldquo;gambol,&rdquo; to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms
+(<i>gambald, gambaud</i>) show, is from the Fr. <i>gambade</i>, leap, jump, of
+a horse, It. <i>gambado</i>, <i>gamba</i>, leg (Mod. Fr. <i>jambe</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAME LAWS.<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> This title in English law is applied to the
+statutes which regulate the right to pursue and take or kill
+certain kinds of wild animals (see above). The existence of
+these statutes is due to the rules of the common law as to the
+nature of property, and the interest of the Norman sovereigns
+and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or the chase.
+The substantial basis of the law of property is physical possession
+of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By the
+common law wild animals are regarded as <i>res nullius</i>, and as not
+being the subject of private property until reduced into possession
+by being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a
+bird in the bush is not. Even bees do not become property until
+hived. &ldquo;Though a swarm lights in my tree,&rdquo; says Bracton,
+&ldquo;I have no more property therein than I have in the birds which
+make their nests thereon.&rdquo; If reclaimed or confined they become
+property. If they escape, the rights of the owner continue only
+while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, <i>i.e.</i> no other person can in
+the meantime establish a right of property against him by
+capturing the animal. A swarm of bees &ldquo;which fly out of my
+hive are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have
+power to pursue them.&rdquo; But the right of recapture does not
+entitle the owner to follow his animals on to the lands of another,
+and the only case in which any right to follow wild animals on to
+the lands of others is now expressly recognized is when deer or
+hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds. This recognition
+merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal game trespass,
+and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags
+are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the
+consent of the occupier (<i>Paul</i> v. <i>Summerhayes</i>, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9).</p>
+
+<p>It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one
+can claim any property belong to the crown by its prerogative:
+this rule has been applied to wild animals, and in particular to
+deer and what is now called &ldquo;game.&rdquo; The crown rights may
+pass to a subject by grant or equivalent prescription. In the
+course of time the exclusive right to take game, &amp;c., on lands
+came to be regarded as incidental to the ownership or occupation
+of the lands. This is described as the right to game <i>ratione soli</i>.
+In certain districts of England which are crown forests or chases
+or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren, the right to
+take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the soil, but
+is in the crown by prerogative, or <i>ratione privilegii</i> in the grantee
+of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior to
+and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over
+which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these
+special rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is
+treated as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of
+the land on which they are found, and there is no public right to
+take them on private land or even on a highway; nor is there any
+method known to the law by which the public at large or an
+undefined body of persons can lawfully acquire the right to take
+wild animals <i>in alieno solo</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is
+valuable as to deer and the animals usually described as game,
+and not as to those which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply
+valueless, as small birds. Upon the rules of the common law
+there has been grafted much legislation which up till the end of
+the 18th century was framed for the preservation of deer and
+game for the recreation and amusement of persons of fortune,
+and to prevent persons of inferior rank from squandering in the
+pursuit of game time which their station in life required to be
+more profitably employed. These enactments included the
+rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Forest
+Laws</a></span>), as well as what are usually called the Game Laws.</p>
+
+<p>In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed
+early in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389)
+to 1831, no person might kill game unless qualified by estate or
+social standing, a qualification raised from a 40s. freehold in 1389
+to an interest of £100 a year in freehold or £150 in long leaseholds
+(1673). In 1831 this qualification by estate was abolished as to
+England. But in Scotland the right to hunt is theoretically
+reserved to persons who have in heritage that unknown quantity
+a &ldquo;plough-gate of land&rdquo; (Scots Act 1621, c. 31); and in Ireland
+qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing game and
+keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In
+England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts
+of 1828 and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention
+Act 1862, and the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From
+the fact that the right of landowners over wild animals on their
+land does not amount to ownership it follows that they cannot
+prosecute any one for stealing live wild animals: and that apart
+from the game laws the only remedy against poachers is by civil
+action for trespass. As between trespasser and landowner the
+law is peculiar (<i>Blades</i> v. <i>Higgs</i>, 1865, 11 H.L.C. 621). If A
+starts and kills a hare on B&rsquo;s land the dead hare belongs to B
+(<i>ratione soli</i>) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own
+efforts (<i>per industriam</i>). But if A hunts the hare from B&rsquo;s land
+on to C&rsquo;s land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and
+not to B or C. It is not B&rsquo;s because it was not taken on his land,
+and it is not C&rsquo;s because it was not started on his land. In other
+words the right of each owner is limited to animals both started
+and killed on his own land, and in the case of conflicting claims
+to the animal taken (made <i>ratione soli</i>) the captor can make title
+(<i>per industriam</i>) against both landowners. If he is a trespasser
+he is liable to civil or criminal proceedings by both landowners,
+but the game is his unless forfeited under a statute. Another
+peculiar result of the law is that where trespassers (<i>e.g.</i> poachers)
+kill and carry off game or rabbits as part of one continuous
+transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of game trespass
+(<i>R</i>. v. <i>Townley</i>, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is theft for a
+trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the owner
+of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an
+independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals
+belong (<i>propter impotentiam</i>) to the owner of the land until they
+are able to fly or run away. This right does not extend to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page441" id="page441"></a>441</span>
+eggs of wild birds. But the owner can reduce the eggs into
+possession by taking them up and setting them under hens or in
+enclosures. And if this is done persons who take them are
+thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for
+wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game
+preserve in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to
+the ordinary incidents of the law as to animals <i>ferae naturae</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England
+is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all
+beasts of venery.</p>
+
+<p>2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox,
+marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.</p>
+
+<p>3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant,
+woodcock, quail, rail and heron.</p>
+
+<p>4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the
+Game Act of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse,
+bustard and hare. In France game (<i>gibier</i>) includes everything
+eatable that runs or flies.</p>
+
+<p>5. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless
+prized for sport, <i>e.g.</i> duck, snipe, plovers, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p>6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected
+against destruction by the Wild Birds Protection Acts, which were,
+however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws.</p>
+
+<p>As regards class 1 no subject without special authority of the
+crown may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent highways,
+rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does
+not depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative
+as to the animals, <i>i.e.</i> it exists not <i>ratione soli</i> but <i>ratione privilegii</i>:
+and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831.
+A chase is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which
+is an enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription
+founded on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance
+the same as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on
+ownership of the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee
+usually but not necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which
+the right of warren runs. The right of free warren depends on
+crown grant or prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a
+right of property over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within
+the franchise. As will appear from the list above, some game birds
+are not fowl of warren, <i>e.g.</i> black game and red grouse (<i>Duke of
+Devonshire</i> v. <i>Lodge</i>, 1827, 7 B. &amp; C. 39). Free warren is quite
+different from ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred
+by the owner of the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such
+warrens is protected under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by
+the game laws. In manors, of which none have been created since
+1290, the lord by his franchise had the sporting rights over the
+manor, but at the present time this right is restricted to the commons
+and wastes of the manor, the freehold whereof is in him, and does not
+extend to enclosed freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds,
+unless at the time of enclosure the sporting rights were
+reserved to him by the Enclosure Act or award (<i>Sowerby</i> v. <i>Smith</i>,
+1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514). In other words his rights exist ratione
+<i>soli</i> and not <i>ratione privilegii</i>. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of
+manors and privileged persons certain rights as to appointing
+gamekeepers with special powers to protect game within the district
+over which their rights extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws
+in no way cut down the special privileges as to forest, park, chase or
+free warren (1831, s. 9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of
+manors on the wastes of the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not
+affected by these rights, the right to kill or take game on the land is
+presumably in the occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject
+to the qualifications hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right
+to kill or take &ldquo;game&rdquo; or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently
+with or in exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in
+the landlord the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for
+breaches of covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on
+summary conviction if without the lessor&rsquo;s authority he pursues,
+kills or takes any &ldquo;game&rdquo; upon the land or gives permission to
+others to do so (1831, s. 12). In effect he is
+made criminally liable for game trespass on lands
+in his own occupation, so far as relates to game,
+but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe,
+woodcock, quails or rails.</p>
+
+<p>The net effect of the common law and the
+game laws is to give the occupier of lands and the
+owner of sporting rights over them the following
+remedies against persons who infringe their right
+to kill or take wild animals on the land. A
+stranger who enters on the land of another to
+take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for
+trespass on the land and for the animals started
+and killed on the land by the trespasser. He is
+also criminally liable for game trespass if he has
+entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of
+&ldquo;game&rdquo; or woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or
+rabbits. If the trespass is in the daytime (whether on lands of the
+subject or in royal forests, &amp;c.), the penalty on conviction may not
+exceed 40s., unless five or more persons go together, in which case
+the maximum penalty is £5. If a single offender refuses his name
+or address or gives a false address to the occupier or to the owner
+of the sporting rights or his representatives, or refuses to leave the
+land, he may be arrested by them, and is liable to a penalty not
+exceeding £5, and if five or more concerned together in game trespass
+have a gun with them and use violence, intimidation or menace, to
+prevent the approach of persons entitled to take their names or
+order them off the land, they incur a further penalty up to £5.</p>
+
+<p>If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game <i>or rabbits</i> in the nighttime,
+the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment with
+hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment,
+&amp;c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under
+sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or for
+two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence
+the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions,
+but for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is
+liable to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard
+labour (2 years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or
+occupier of the land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or
+offer violence by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be
+indicted and on conviction punished to the same extent as in the last
+offence. In 1844 the above penalties were extended to persons found
+by night on highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more
+trespass together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits,
+and any of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive
+weapon, they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced
+to penal servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour
+(2 years). By &ldquo;day&rdquo; time is meant from the beginning of the first
+hour before sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by
+&ldquo;night&rdquo; from the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning
+of the first hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34).
+The time is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time.</p>
+
+<p>The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters
+between the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers
+have often been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is
+illegal and severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns
+for poachers (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby
+any grievous bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a
+trespasser, so that the incursions of poachers can be prevented only
+by personal attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to
+be observed also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated
+are, so far as concerns private land, left to be enforced by private
+enterprise without the interference of the police, with the result
+that in some districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war.
+Even in the Night Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways,
+the arrest of offenders is made by owners, occupiers or their gamekeepers.
+The police were not given any direct authority as to
+poachers until the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, under which a
+constable is empowered &ldquo;on any highway, street or public place,
+to search any person whom he may have good cause to suspect of
+coming from any land where he shall have been unlawfully in search
+or pursuit of &lsquo;game,&rsquo; or any persons aiding or abetting such person,
+and having in his possession any game unlawfully obtained, or any
+gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the killing or taking
+game; and also to stop and search any cart or other conveyance in
+or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have good cause
+to suspect that any such game, or any such article or thing, is being
+carried by such person.&rdquo; If any such thing be found the constable
+is to detain it, and apply for a summons against the offender, summoning
+him to appear before a petty sessional court, on conviction
+before which he may be fined not more than £5, and forfeits the
+game, guns, &amp;c., found in his possession. In this act &ldquo;game&rdquo;
+includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds
+other than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night
+or by day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal
+lies to quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &amp;c.,
+taken may be forfeited by the court which tries the poacher.</p>
+
+<p><i>Close Time.</i>&mdash;On certain days, and within periods known as
+&ldquo;close time,&rdquo; it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close
+times are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&emsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">England.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ireland.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Scotland.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hare</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">April 21 to Aug. 11*</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red deer (male)</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">Jan. 1 to June 9</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Fallow deer</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">Sept. 29 to June 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Roe deer</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Pheasant</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Sept. 30</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb.1 to Sept. 30 (1845)</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Sept. 30</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Partridge</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Aug. 31</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 (1899)</td> <td class="tcl rb">Feb. 1 to Aug. 31</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Black game</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20**</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Red grouse</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Ptarmigan</td> <td class="tcc rb">None</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 20</td> <td class="tcl rb">Dec. 10 to Aug. 12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Bustard (wild turkey)</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">March 1 to Sept. 1</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Jan. 10 to Sept. 1</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">None</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">&emsp; * Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90" colspan="4">&emsp; ** Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page442" id="page442"></a>442</span></p>
+
+<p class="noind">In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares
+may not be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to
+sell or expose for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June
+and July. It is illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or
+sell winged game birds after ten days from the beginning of the
+close season as fixed by the English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13).
+This prohibition applies to the sale of live game, British or foreign,
+and to the sale of British dead game. It is illegal to lay poison for
+game or rabbits except in rabbit holes, and it is illegal to kill game by
+firearms at night. Wild birds not within the list above given but of
+interest for sport are protected by close times fixed under the Wild
+Birds Protection Acts, which may vary in each county of each
+kingdom.</p>
+
+<p><i>Licences</i>.&mdash;Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill game
+which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the lands
+on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by the
+laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the
+right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the
+lord of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social
+rank of the person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which
+ranged from a 40s. freehold (in 1389) to £100 a year (1671). These
+restrictions were abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was
+made conditional on the possession of a game certificate, now called
+a game licence in Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the
+Game Licences Act 1860 &ldquo;any person, before he shall in Great Britain
+take, kill or pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking,
+killing or pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun,
+net or other engine for the purpose of taking, killing or pursuing any
+game, or any woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any
+deer, shall take out a proper licence to kill game under this act&rdquo;&mdash;subject
+to a penalty of £20. There are certain exceptions and
+exemptions as to royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with
+reference to taking woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing
+or hunting hares or deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares
+Acts 1848, Game Licences Act 1860) in certain enclosed lands by
+the owners or occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and
+assistants who go out with holders of a game licence. The licence
+is granted by the Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regulated
+by the Game Licences Act 1860 as amended by the Customs
+and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The licences now in use are of four
+kinds:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Those taken out after 31st July&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; To expire on the next 31st July</td> <td class="tcr">£3 &emsp; 0 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; To expire on the next 31st October</td> <td class="tcr">2 &emsp; 0 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Those taken out after 1st November&mdash;</td> <td class="tcr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;&emsp; To expire on the next 31st July</td> <td class="tcr">2 &emsp; 0 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Those taken out for any continuous period of fourteen days specified in the licence</td> <td class="tcr">1 &emsp; 0 &emsp; 0</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer
+pays the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is £2,
+but the licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a
+right to kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right
+and not as gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United
+Kingdom. The game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands
+of others in search of game nor the shooting of game, &amp;c., at night,
+and is forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30; 1860,
+s. 11). Persons who have game licences need not have a gun licence,
+but the possession of a gun licence does not qualify the holder to kill
+game or even rabbits.</p>
+
+<p>The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation.
+Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their
+employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence
+may sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game.
+These licences are annual (expiring on the 1st of July), and are granted
+in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England by
+the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the
+dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27),
+and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the
+licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop.
+The following persons are disqualified for holding the licence: innkeepers,
+persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners, guards
+or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances, carriers
+and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with the grant
+of game licences to large stores which also have licences to sell beer.
+The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons who
+are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under the
+Game Act 1831 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must
+also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of £2 is
+charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling game
+killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning
+of close time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated
+under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in 1860
+extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were in 1893
+applied to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect
+of the system of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by
+poachers rather than to benefit the revenue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Deer</i>.&mdash;Deer are not included within the definition of game in
+any of the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously
+punished by the old law, and under an act of 9 George I. c. 22,
+known as the Waltham Black Act, passed because of the depredations
+of disguised deer-stealers in Epping Forest, it was under certain
+circumstances made a capital offence. At present offences with
+reference to deer are included in the Larceny Act 1861. It is a felony
+to hunt or kill deer in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in
+enclosed land where deer is usually kept, or after a previous conviction
+to hunt or kill deer in the open parts of a forest, &amp;c., and
+certain minor provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forfeiture
+of venison unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting traps for
+deer. These enactments do not prevent a man from killing on his
+own land deer which have strayed there (<i>Threlkeld</i> v. <i>Smith</i>, 1901,
+2 K.B. 531). In Scotland the unlawful killing of deer is punished as
+theft.</p>
+
+<p><i>Eggs</i>.&mdash;The owner or occupier of land has no property in the eggs
+of wild birds found on his lands unless he takes them up. But under
+s. 24 of the Game Act 1831 a penalty of 5s. per egg is incurred by
+persons who unlawfully (<i>i.e.</i> without being, or having licence from,
+the person entitled to kill the game) and wilfully take from the nest
+or destroy in the nest the eggs of any game bird, or of a swan, wild
+duck, teal or widgeon. Similar provisions exist in Ireland under an
+act of 1698, and by the Poaching Prevention Act 1862 (United
+Kingdom) power is given to constables to search persons suspected
+of poaching and to take from them the eggs of pheasants, partridges,
+grouse or black game. And the Wild Birds Protection Acts deal with
+the eggs of all wild birds except game and swans.</p>
+
+<p><i>Damage to Crops by Game</i>.&mdash;Where an occupier of lands has not
+the right to kill game or rabbits he runs the risk of suffering damage
+by the depredations of the protected animals, which he may not kill
+without incurring a liability to summary conviction or for breach
+of the conditions on which he holds the land. At common law the
+owner of land who has reserved to himself the sporting rights,
+and his sporting tenants, must use the reserved rights reasonably.
+They are liable for any damage wilfully or unnecessarily done to
+the crops, &amp;c., of the occupier, such as trampling down standing
+crops or breaking hedges or fences. They are not directly liable to
+the occupier for damage done to the crops by game bred on the land
+or frequenting it in the ordinary course of nature; but are not entitled
+to turn down game or rabbits on the land. And if game or rabbits
+are for the purposes of sport imported or artificially raised on land,
+the person who breeds or brings them there is liable for the damage
+done to the crops of adjoining owners or occupiers (<i>Farrer</i> v. <i>Nelson</i>,
+1885, 15 Q.B.D. 258; <i>Birkbeck</i> v. <i>Paget</i>, 31 Beav. 403; <i>Hilton</i> v.
+<i>Green</i>, 1862, 2 F. &amp; F. 821).</p>
+
+<p>Recent legislation has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers
+of land as against the owners of sporting rights over it. As regards
+hares and rabbits the occupier&rsquo;s rights are regulated by the Ground
+Game Act 1880 (which is expressed to be made &ldquo;in the interests of
+good husbandry and for the better security of capital and labour
+invested in the cultivation of the soil&rdquo;). By that act the occupier
+of land as incident to and inseparable from his occupation has the
+right to kill and take hares and rabbits on the land. The right is
+indefeasible and cannot be divested by contract with the owner or
+landlord or even by letting the occupier&rsquo;s sporting rights to another.
+But where apart from the act the right to kill game on the land is
+vested in a person other than the occupier, such person has a right
+concurrent with the statutory right of the occupier to take hares
+and rabbits on the land. The act does not extend to common lands
+nor to lands over which rights of grazing or pasturage for not more
+than nine months in the year exist. Consequently over such lands
+exclusive rights of killing ground game still continue, and the law
+appears not to apply in cases where a special right of killing or taking
+ground game vested before the 7th of September 1880 in any person
+(other than the landlord) by statute, charter or franchise (s. 5).
+The mode of exercise of the occupier&rsquo;s right is subject to certain
+limitations. The ground game is only to be taken by him or by
+persons whom he has duly authorized in writing, who must be
+members of his family or his servants or bona fide employed by him
+for reward to take ground game. The written authority must be
+produced on demand to persons having concurrent rights to take and
+kill the ground game (s. 1 (1) (c)). Firearms may not be used by
+night, nor may poison be used, nor may spring traps be set except
+in rabbit holes (s. 6); nor may ground game be killed on days or
+seasons or by methods prohibited by statute in 1880 (s. 10).</p>
+
+<p>In the case of moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not
+arable and do not consist of small detached portions of less than 25
+acres) the occupier may between the 1st of September and the 31st
+of March kill and take ground game; but between the 1st of
+September and the 10th of December firearms may not be used
+(1880, s. 1 (3); 1906, s. 2). In the case of such lands the occupiers
+and the owners of the sporting rights may between the 1st of September
+and the 10th of December make and enforce for their joint
+benefit agreements for taking the ground game. The Agricultural
+Holdings Act 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, <i>inter alia</i>, with damage
+to crops by deer and winged game, but does not apply to damage
+by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land is entitled to
+compensation for damage to his crops exceeding 1s. per acre over the
+area affected if caused by game, &ldquo;the right to kill or take which is
+vested neither in him nor in any one claiming under him other than
+the landlord and which the tenant has not permission in writing to
+kill&rdquo; (s. 2). The right of the tenant is indefeasible and cannot be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page443" id="page443"></a>443</span>
+contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by
+arbitration; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing
+crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops before
+carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before the 1st
+of January 1909, allowances are to be made if by their terms compensation
+for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of
+an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing
+the rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to
+his right to be indemnified in cases where the sporting rights are not
+vested in him.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sporting Rights</i>.&mdash;Sporting rights (<i>i.e.</i> rights of fowling or of
+shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing), when
+severed from the occupation of land, are subject to income or property
+tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating Act
+1874); and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of the
+sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of value
+in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights are
+the landlord&rsquo;s, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by the
+tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is
+reserved and let, the rating authority may rate either the landlord
+or the sporting tenant as occupier of the right. The Ground Game
+Acts have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights
+of killing hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent
+right granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.), 385-387). The ownership
+of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of
+the land over which they are exercisable is not an interest in land
+giving the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land
+is taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scotland</i>.&mdash;By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege
+of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which
+does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or
+in the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is
+liable to the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in
+exercise of his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage
+by over-preserving or over-stocking. Under an act of 1877 he was
+liable for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or
+retained under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1878, or
+reserved by presumption of common law; this act from 1909 onwards
+is superseded by the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings
+Act 1906. Night poaching is punished by the same act as in England,
+and day poaching by an act of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887
+poaching by night under arms was a capital offence. The definition
+of game in Scotland for purposes of night poaching is the same as
+in England. The provisions of the act of 1832 as to game trespass
+by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits, woodcock, snipe, rails and
+wild duck; but in other respects closely resemble those of the
+English act of 1831.</p>
+
+<p>Offences against the game laws are not triable by justices of the
+peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time for game birds in
+Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is
+concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game may not be
+killed between the 10th of December and the 25th of August, nor
+ptarmigan between the 10th of December and the 20th of August.
+There is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an
+old Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of
+such acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not
+own a plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ireland</i>.&mdash;The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as
+for England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts
+passed prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts
+limited to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole
+United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not
+a freehold worth £40 a year or £1000 net personality, and elaborate
+provisions are made by that and later acts against the keeping of
+sporting dogs by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British
+officers and soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted
+to poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of
+1698 and 1707.</p>
+
+<p>Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass
+on lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by
+reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act
+of 1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe,
+quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act
+1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement
+of the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the
+exclusive right of taking &ldquo;game&rdquo; as above defined.</p>
+
+<p>A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But
+in other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences
+to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Possessions Abroad</i>.&mdash;The English game laws have not
+been carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists,
+nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial legislation.
+But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to
+preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of
+these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These
+statutes are free from feudal prepossessions as to sporting rights,
+and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acts
+than on the English game laws, but in some possessions, <i>e.g.</i> Quebec,
+sporting leases by the crown are recognized. The acts since 1895
+are indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished
+in the <i>Journal</i> of the Society of Comparative Legislation.</p>
+
+<p>See also Oke&rsquo;s <i>Game Laws</i>, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897); Warry,
+<i>Game Laws of England</i> (1897); Marchant and Watkins, <i>Wild Birds
+Protection Act</i> (1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMES, CLASSICAL.<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> 1. <i>Public Games</i>.&mdash;The public games of
+Greece (<span class="grk" title="agônes">&#7936;&#947;&#8182;&#957;&#949;&#962;</span>) and Rome (<i>Ludi</i>) consisted in athletic contests
+and spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and
+forming part of a religious observance. Probably no institution
+exercised a greater influence in moulding the national character,
+and producing that unique type of physical and intellectual
+beauty which we see reflected in Greek art and literature, than the
+public contests of Greece (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athlete</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Athletic Sports</a></span>).
+For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they were
+the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought
+his wares, and the common ground of union for every member of
+the Hellenic race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the
+earliest form and the fullest development of ancient games. The
+shows of the Roman circus and amphitheatre were at best a
+shadow, and in the later days of the empire a travesty, of the
+Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory notice.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest games of which we have any record are those at
+the funeral of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-third
+Iliad. They are noteworthy as showing that
+Greek games were in their origin clearly connected with
+<span class="sidenote">Greek.</span>
+religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites, or else
+instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a victory
+gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime.
+Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred
+place and is associated with some deity or mythical hero. It was
+not before the 4th century that this honour was paid to a living
+man (see Plutarch, <i>Lysander</i>, 18). The games of the <i>Iliad</i> and
+those of the <i>Odyssey</i> at the court of Alcinous are also of interest
+as showing at what an early date the distinctive forms of Greek
+athletics&mdash;boxing, wrestling, putting the weight, the foot and
+the chariot race&mdash;were determined.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Olympian</i> games were the earliest, and to the last they
+remained the most celebrated of the four national festivals.
+Olympia was a naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis,
+bounded on the N. by the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S.
+and W. by the Alpheus and its tributary the Cladeus. There was
+the grove of Altis, in which were ranged the statues of the
+victorious athletes, and the temple of Olympian Zeus with the
+chryselephantine statue of the god, the masterpiece of Pheidias.
+There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar has introduced
+in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis and slain its
+king Augeas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in
+honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies
+historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and
+ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help,
+and was bidden restore the games which had fallen into
+desuetude; and there was in the time of Pausanias, suspended
+in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a bronze disk whereon were
+inscribed, with the regulations of the games, the names of
+Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that the
+games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and
+first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of
+Sparta. The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities,
+during the month in which the games were held, is also credited
+to Iphitus.</p>
+
+<p>In 776 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman
+Coroebus as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have
+an almost unbroken list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad
+or fourth recurrent year. For the next fifty years no names
+occur but those of Eleians or their next neighbours. After 720
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> we find Corinthians and Megareans, and later still Athenians
+and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first was nothing more
+than a village feast became a bond of union for all the branches of
+the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to which
+every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly
+to the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived
+even the extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed
+twelve centuries when it was abolished by the decree of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page444" id="page444"></a>444</span>
+Christian emperor Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign.
+The last Olympian victor was a Romanized Armenian named
+Varastad.</p>
+
+<p>Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy
+days must have presented as the great festival approached.
+Heralds had proclaimed throughout Greece the &ldquo;truce of God.&rdquo;
+So religiously was this observed that the Spartans chose to risk
+the liberties of Greece, when the Persians were at the gates of
+Pylae, rather than march during the holy days. Those white
+tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the olive groves
+belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games, chosen
+one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already
+ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or
+most of the athletes must have arrived, for they have been
+undergoing the indispensable training in the gymnasium of the
+Altis. But along the &ldquo;holy road&rdquo; from the town of Elis there
+are crowding a motley throng. Conspicuous in the long train of
+pleasure-seekers are the <span class="grk" title="theôroi">&#952;&#949;&#969;&#961;&#959;&#943;</span> or sacred deputies, clad in their
+robes of office, and bearing with them in their carriages of state
+offerings to the shrine of the god. Nor is there any lack of
+distinguished visitors. It may be Alcibiades, who, they say, has
+entered no less than seven chariots; or Gorgias, who has written
+a famous <span class="grk" title="epideixis">&#7952;&#960;&#943;&#948;&#949;&#953;&#958;&#953;&#962;</span> for the occasion; or the sophist Hippias,
+who boasts that all he bears about him, from the sandals on his
+feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, are his own manufacture;
+or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage
+of Alexander and Roxana&mdash;the picture which gained him no less
+a prize than the daughter of the Hellanodices Praxonides; or, in
+an earlier age, the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar himself.
+One feature of the medieval tournament and the modern
+racecourse is wanting. Women might indeed compete and win
+prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the priestesses of
+Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to enter the
+enclosure.</p>
+
+<p>At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleuterium,
+where the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses
+that they were of pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain,
+religious or civil, on their character. Laying their hands on the
+bleeding victim, they swore that they had duly qualified themselves
+by ten months&rsquo; continuous training in the gymnasium, and
+that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred contests.
+Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to
+the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, &ldquo;Let
+the runners put their feet to the line,&rdquo; and called on the spectators
+to challenge any disqualified by blood or character. If no
+objection was made, they were started by the note of the
+trumpet, running in heats of four, ranged in the places assigned
+them by lot. The presidents seated near the goal adjudged the
+victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four Olympian
+contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not
+suppose that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the
+77th Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the
+feast was extended to five.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture,
+but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was
+followed. We will now describe in this order the most important.</p>
+
+<p>(1) The <i>Foot-race</i>.&mdash;For the first 13 Olympiads the <span class="grk" title="dromos">&#948;&#961;&#972;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, or
+single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only
+contest. The <span class="grk" title="diaulos">&#948;&#943;&#945;&#965;&#955;&#959;&#962;</span>, in which the course was traversed twice,
+was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the 15th the <span class="grk" title="dolichos">&#948;&#972;&#955;&#953;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, or
+long race, of 7, 12 or, according to the highest computation, 24 laps,
+about 2<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span> m. in length. We are told that the Spartan Ladas, after
+winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal. There was also,
+for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato highly commends
+as a preparation for active service. (2) <i>Wrestling</i> was introduced
+in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this
+exercise is shown by the very word <i>palaestra</i>, and Plutarch calls it
+the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice
+differed little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler&rsquo;s
+limbs were anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third
+throw, which decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and struggling
+on the ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence,
+was not allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was
+introduced the <span class="grk" title="pentathlon">&#960;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#952;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span> (pentathlon), a combination of the five games
+enumerated in the well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="grk" title="halma, podôkeiên, diskon, hakonta, palên">&#7940;&#955;&#956;&#945;, &#960;&#959;&#948;&#969;&#954;&#949;&#943;&#951;&#957;, &#948;&#943;&#963;&#954;&#959;&#957;, &#7940;&#954;&#959;&#957;&#964;&#945;, &#960;&#940;&#955;&#951;&#957;</span>.</p>
+
+<p class="noind">Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised
+seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their
+momentum by means of <span class="grk" title="haltêres">&#7937;&#955;&#964;&#8134;&#961;&#949;&#962;</span> or dumb-bells, which they swung
+in the act of leaping and dropped as they &ldquo;took off.&rdquo; The take-off
+may have been slightly raised, and some commentators with very
+little warrant have stated that spring-boards were used. The record
+jump with which Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible
+with or without a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in
+all five contests, or in three at least, was required to win the <span class="grk" title="pentathlon">&#960;&#941;&#957;&#964;&#945;&#952;&#955;&#959;&#957;</span>.
+(4) The rules for boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pugilism</a></span>), and the chief difference was in the use of the <i>caestus</i>.
+This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the
+boxer&rsquo;s fists and wrists; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal
+studs, which made the caestus more like a &ldquo;knuckle-duster&rdquo; than
+a boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an
+antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for a
+prize but was severely punished. The use of ear-guards and the comic
+allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer
+did not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill
+fashion, like the modern rustic. In the <i>pancratium</i>, a combination of
+wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched
+fist, was disallowed. (5) The <i>chariot-race</i> had its origin in the 23rd
+Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain,
+but from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimensions
+were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there
+ran a bank of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post
+round which the chariots had to pass. &ldquo;To shun the goal with rapid
+wheels&rdquo; required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a
+more important part in the race than even the modern jockey.
+Pausanias tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots.
+The places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were
+elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of
+chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain.
+Pindar (<i>Pyth.</i> v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrene for having brought
+off his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took
+part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors,
+and even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in
+the list of victors we find the names of Cylon, the would-be tyrant
+of Athens, Pausanias the Spartan king, Archelaus of Macedon, Gelon
+and Hiero of Syracuse, and Theron of Agrigentum. Chariot-races
+with mules, with mares, with two horses in place of four, were
+successively introduced, but none of these present any special
+interest. Races on horseback date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the
+course was the same, success must have depended on skill as much
+as on swiftness. Lastly, there were athletic contests of the same
+description for boys, and a competition of heralds and trumpeters,
+introduced in the 93rd Olympiad.</p>
+
+<p>The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic
+value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest
+was a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from
+the kallistephanos, the sacred tree brought by Hercules &ldquo;from the
+dark fountains of Ister in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a
+shelter common to all men and a crown of noble deeds&rdquo; (Pindar,
+<i>Ol.</i> iii. 18). Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with
+complacency on the magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing
+but honour and were content to struggle for a corruptible crown.
+But though the Greek games present in this respect a favourable
+contrast to the greed and gambling of the modern racecourse, yet
+to represent men like Milon and Damoxenus as actuated by pure love
+of glory is a pleasing fiction of the moralists. The successful athlete
+received in addition to the immediate honours very substantial
+rewards. A herald proclaimed his name, his parentage and his
+country; the Hellanodicae took from a table of ivory and gold the
+olive crown and placed it on his head, and in his hand a branch of
+palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the temple of Zeus, his
+friends and admirers showered in his path flowers and costly gifts,
+singing the old song of Archilochus, <span class="grk" title="tênella kallinike">&#964;&#942;&#957;&#949;&#955;&#955;&#945; &#954;&#945;&#955;&#955;&#943;&#957;&#953;&#954;&#949;</span>, and his name
+was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh honours and rewards
+awaited him on his return home. If he was an Athenian he received,
+according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and free rations for
+life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his prerogative the
+post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides and Euripides
+sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and Praxiteles were
+engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read of a breach
+in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the common road
+were not good enough for such a hero; and there are well-attested
+instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered to a successful
+athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was regarded
+as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman&rsquo;s contempt
+for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian victor
+receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and tells
+the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the
+prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day,
+was addressed by a Laconian in these words:&mdash;&ldquo;Die, Diagoras,
+for thou hast nothing short of divinity to desire.&rdquo; Alcibiades,
+when setting forth his services to the state, puts first his victory at
+Olympia, and the prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent
+display. But perhaps the most remarkable evidence of the exaggerated
+value which the Greeks attached to athletic prowess is a
+casual expression which Thucydides employs when describing the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page445" id="page445"></a>445</span>
+enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at Scione. The state, he says,
+voted him a crown of gold, and the multitude flocked round him and
+decked him with garlands, <i>as though he were an athlete</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <i>Pythian</i> games originated in a local festival held at
+Delphi, anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo,
+and were limited to musical competitions. The date at which
+they became a Panhellenic <span class="grk" title="agôn">&#7936;&#947;&#974;&#957;</span> (so Demosthenes calls them)
+cannot be determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era
+date from 527 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, by which time music had been added to all the
+Panhellenic contests. Now, too, these were held at the end of
+every fourth year; previously there had been an interval of
+eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the prize was a
+chaplet of laurel.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Nemean</i> games were biennial and date from 516 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+They were by origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean
+Zeus, but in historical times were open to all Greece and
+provided the established round of contests, except that no
+mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of wild celery was
+the prize.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Isthmian</i> games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the
+first and third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius,
+from 523 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> They are variously reported to have been founded
+by Poseidon or Sisyphus in honour of Melicertes, or by Theseus
+to celebrate his victory over the robbers Sinis and Sciron. Their
+early importance is attested by the law of Solon which bestowed
+a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who gained a
+victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and
+after the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) the presidency
+passed to the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth
+(46 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). They probably continued to exist till Christianity
+became the religion of the Roman empire. The Athenians were
+closely connected with the festival, and had the privilege of
+<i>proedria</i>, the foremost seat at the games, while the Eleans were
+absolutely excluded from participation. The games included
+gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little from
+those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made
+at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later
+period of pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later
+times is shown by the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion
+for proclaiming the liberation of Greece, 196 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> That at a
+later anniversary (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 67) Nero repeated the proclamation of
+Flamininus, and coupled with it the announcement of his own
+infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the hollowness of
+the first gift and the degradation which had befallen the Greek
+games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ludi Publici</i> of the Romans included feasts and
+theatrical exhibitions as well as the public games with
+which alone we are concerned. As in Greece, they
+were intimately connected with religion. At the
+<span class="sidenote">Roman.</span>
+beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls
+to vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth,
+and the expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus,
+at no cost to themselves, the Roman public were enabled to
+indulge at the same time their religious feelings and their love of
+amusement. Their taste for games naturally grew till it became
+a passion, and under the empire games were looked upon by
+the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The aediles who
+succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to supplement
+the state allowance from their private purse. Political adventurers
+were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and
+what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon
+men of wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian
+horde or the death of a relation served as the pretext for a
+magnificent display. But the worst extravagance of private
+citizens was eclipsed by the reckless prodigality of the Caesars,
+who squandered the revenues of whole provinces in catering for
+the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour their throne depended.
+But though public games played as important a part in
+Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman
+historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet,
+regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of
+interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how
+any man of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary
+round of fights and races.</p>
+
+<p>It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games
+of Greece and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were
+actors, the Romans from first to last were spectators. It is true
+that even in Greek games the professional element played a large
+and ever-increasing part. As early as the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+Xenophanes complains that the wrestler&rsquo;s strength is preferred to
+the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides, in a well-known
+fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering athlete.
+But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be
+such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal.
+No Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in
+person for the Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior
+in gymnastic exercises, kept strictly to the privacy of the
+palaestra; and for a patrician to appear in public as a charioteer
+is stigmatized by the satirist as a mark of shameless effrontery.</p>
+
+<p>Roman games are generally classified as <i>fixed</i>, <i>extraordinary</i>
+and <i>votive</i>; but they may be more conveniently grouped according
+to the place where they were held, viz. the circus or the
+amphitheatre.</p>
+
+<p>For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a
+fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring,
+and a playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says
+that in his day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason
+to doubt the precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus
+Maximus there were seats for 350,000 spectators.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of the various <i>Ludi Circenses</i> it may be enough here to give a
+short account of the most important, the <i>Ludi Magni</i> or <i>Maximi</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the <i>Ludi
+Magni</i> were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised
+by the general when he took the field, and performed on his return
+from the annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of
+a military spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force,
+which marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum
+and thence to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aventine.
+First came the sons of patricians mounted on horseback,
+next the rest of the burghers ranged according to their military
+classes, after them the athletes, naked save for the girdle round
+their loins, then the company of dancers with the harp and flute
+players, next the priestly colleges bearing censers and other sacred
+instruments, and lastly the simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on
+their shoulders or drawn in cars. The games themselves were fourfold:&mdash;(1)
+the chariot race; (2) the <i>ludus Troiae</i>; (3) the military
+review; and (4) gymnastic contests. Of these only the first two call
+for any comment. (1) The chariot employed in the circus was the
+two-wheeled war car, at first drawn by two, afterwards by four, and
+more rarely by three horses. Originally only two chariots started
+for the prize, but under Caligula we read of as many as twenty-four
+heats run in the day, each of four chariots. The distance traversed
+was fourteen times the length of the circus or nearly 5 m. The
+charioteers were apparently from the first professionals, though
+the stigma under which the gladiator lay never attached to their
+calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in popularity and
+fortune with a modern jockey. The drivers were divided into
+companies distinguished by the colours of their tunics, whence arose
+the faction of the circus which assumed such importance under the
+later emperors. In republican times there were two factions, the
+white and the red; two more, the green and the blue, were added
+under the empire, and for a short time in Domitian&rsquo;s reign there
+were also the gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal&rsquo;s day party
+spirit ran so high that a defeat of the green was looked upon as a
+second Cannae. After the seat of empire had been transferred to
+Constantinople these factions of the circus were made the basis of
+political cabals, and frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults,
+such as the famous Nika revolt (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 532), in which 30,000 citizens
+lost their lives. (2) The Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on horseback
+in which the actors were patrician youths. A spirited description of
+it will be found in the 5th Aeneid. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Circus</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The two exhibitions we shall next notice, though occasionally
+given in the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre.
+<i>Venatio</i> was the baiting of wild animals who were pitted either with
+one another or with men&mdash;captives, criminals or trained hunters
+called <i>bestiarii</i>. The first certain instance on record of this amusement
+is in 186 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in
+the arena. The taste for these brutalizing spectacles grew apace,
+and the most distant provinces were ransacked by generals and
+proconsuls to supply the arena with rare animals&mdash;giraffes, tigers
+and crocodiles. Sulla provided for a single show 100 lions, and
+Pompey 600 lions, besides elephants, which were matched with
+Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar enjoys the doubtful honour of
+inventing the bull-fight. At the inauguration of the Colosseum
+5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were killed, and to commemorate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page446" id="page446"></a>446</span>
+Trajan&rsquo;s Dacian victories there was a butchery of 11,000 beasts.
+The <i>naumachia</i> was a sea-fight, either in the arena, which was
+flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and sluices, or on an
+artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by prisoners of war
+or criminals, who often fought till one side was exterminated. In
+the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the emperor Claudius,
+100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged.</p>
+
+<p>But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the <i>munus
+gladiatorium</i>, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and
+Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It was
+probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common
+savage custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a
+warrior or chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein
+of coarseness and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise
+noble character of the Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows.
+We can fancy how Pericles, or even Alcibiades, would have loathed
+a spectacle that Augustus tolerated and Trajan patronized. Only
+after the conquest of Greece we hear of their introduction into
+Athens, and they were then admitted rather out of compliment to
+the conquerors than from any love of the sport. In spite of numerous
+prohibitions from Constantine downwards, they continued to
+flourish even as late as St Augustine. To a Christian martyr, if we
+may credit the story told by Theodoret and Cassiodorus, belongs the
+honour of their final abolition. In the year 404 Telemachus, a
+monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred mission,
+rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the combatants.
+He was instantly despatched by the praetor&rsquo;s orders; but Honorius,
+on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games, which
+were never afterwards revived. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gladiators</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice.
+The <i>Ludi Apollinares</i> were established in 212 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, and were annual
+after 211 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>; mainly theatrical performances. The <i>Megalenses</i>
+were in honour of the great goddess, Cybele: instituted 204 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>,
+and from 191 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or
+priests of Cybele, was a leading feature. Under the empire the
+festival assumed a more orgiastic character. Four of Terence&rsquo;s
+plays were produced at these games. The <i>Ludi Saeculares</i> were
+celebrated at the beginning or end of each <i>saeculum</i>, a period variously
+interpreted by the Romans themselves as 100 or 110 years. The
+celebration by Augustus in 17 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> is famous by reason of the Ode
+composed by Horace for the occasion. They were solemnized by
+the emperor Philip <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 248 to commemorate the millennium of the
+city.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Private Games.</i>&mdash;These may be classified as outdoor and
+indoor games. There is naturally all the world over a much
+closer resemblance between the pursuits and amusements of
+children than of adults. Homer&rsquo;s children built castles in the
+sand, and Greek and Roman children alike had their dolls, their
+hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses, their kites,
+their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the tug-of-war,
+pitch and toss, blind-man&rsquo;s buff, hide and seek, and kiss in
+the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were
+popular in Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there
+were five distinct kinds of ball and more ways of playing with
+them. For particulars the dictionary of antiquities must be
+consulted. It is strange that we can find in classical literature no
+analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or polo, and though the <i>follis</i>
+resembled our football, it was played with the hand and arm, not
+with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at Athens and
+Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove
+their pluck.</p>
+
+<p>Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and
+games of skill, though in some of them the two elements are
+combined. <i>Tesserae</i>, shaped and marked with pips like modern
+dice, were evolved from the <i>tali</i>, knuckle-bones with only four
+flat sides. The old Roman threw a hazard and called a main,
+just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of gambling was lashed by
+Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The Latin name for a
+dice-box has survived in the <i>fritillary</i> butterfly and flower.</p>
+
+<p>The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simultaneously
+held up by the player and his opponent is still popular
+in Italy where it is known as &ldquo;morra.&rdquo; The proverbial phrase
+for an honest man was <i>quicum in tenebris mices</i>, one you
+would trust to play at morra in the dark.</p>
+
+<p>Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and
+playing at <span class="grk" title="pessoi">&#960;&#949;&#963;&#963;&#959;&#943;</span>, some kind of draughts. The invention of the
+game was ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was
+played on a board with five lines and with five pieces. Later we
+find eleven lines, and a further development was the division of
+the board into squares, as in the game of <span class="grk" title="poleis">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#953;&#962;</span> (cities). In the
+Roman <i>latrunculi</i> (soldiers), the men were distinguished as
+common soldiers and &ldquo;rovers,&rdquo; the equivalent of crowned pieces.</p>
+
+<p><i>Duodecim scripta</i>, as the name implies, was played on a board
+with twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our
+backgammon. There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the
+moves were determined by a throw of the dice; &ldquo;blots&rdquo; might be
+taken, and the object of the player was to clear off all his own men.
+Lastly must be mentioned the <i>Cottabus</i> (<i>q.v.</i>), a game peculiar to
+the Greeks, and with them the usual accompaniment of a wine
+party. In its simplest form each guest threw what was left in his
+cup into a metal basin, and the success of the throw, determined
+partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was reckoned a divination
+of love. For the various elaborations of the game (in Sicily
+we read of Cottabus houses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be consulted.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Daremberg et Saglio, <i>Dictionnaire des antiquités
+grecques et romaines</i>, articles &ldquo;Agon,&rdquo; &ldquo;Athleta,&rdquo; &ldquo;Circus,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Ludi,&rdquo; &ldquo;Olympia,&rdquo; &ldquo;Spiele&rdquo;; Curtius and Adler, <i>Olympia</i> (5
+vols., 1890, &amp;c.); Hachtmann, <i>Olympia und seine Festspiele</i>;
+Blümner, <i>Home Life of the Ancient Greeks</i>; J.P. Mahaffy, <i>Old
+Greek Education</i>; P. Gardner and F.B. Jevons, <i>Manual of Greek
+Antiquities</i>; E.N. Gardiner, <i>Greek Athletic Sports</i> (1910); Becker-Marquardt,
+<i>Handbuch der römischen Altertümer</i> (5 vols.).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMING AND WAGERING.<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> It is somewhat difficult exactly
+to define or adequately to distinguish these terms of allied
+meaning. The word &ldquo;game&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) is applicable to most pastimes
+and many sports, irrespective of their lawful or unlawful
+character. &ldquo;Gaming&rdquo; is now always associated with the
+staking of money or money&rsquo;s worth on the result of a game of
+pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and &ldquo;gambling&rdquo; has
+the same meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive
+or the practice otherwise reprehensible, while &ldquo;wager&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;wagering&rdquo; are applied to money hazarded on any contingency
+in which the person wagering has no interest at risk other than
+the amount at stake. &ldquo;Betting&rdquo; is usually restricted to wagers
+on events connected with sports or games, and &ldquo;lottery&rdquo; applies
+to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance.</p>
+
+<p>At English common law no games were unlawful and no
+penalties were incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-houses,
+unless by reason of disorder they became a public
+nuisance. From very early times, however, the English statute
+law has attempted to exercise control over the sports, pastimes
+and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view have been
+taken: (1) their competition with military exercises and training;
+(2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them
+from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of
+Sunday; (4) their combination with betting or gambling as
+causing impoverishment and dishonesty in children, servants and
+other unwary persons; (5) the use of fraud or deceit in connexion
+with them. The legislation has assumed several forms: (1)
+declaring certain games unlawful either absolutely or if accompanied
+by staking or betting money or money&rsquo;s worth on the event
+of the game; (2) declaring the keeping of establishments for
+betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting the use of
+streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting the
+enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the
+interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to
+render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute
+of Richard II. (1388) directed servants and labourers
+<span class="sidenote">Games, lawful and unlawful.</span>
+to have bows and arrows and to use them on Sundays
+and holidays, and to cease from playing football, quoits,
+dice, putting the stone, kails and other such importune games.
+A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (11 Hen. IV. c.
+4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV. c. 3) on
+persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises.
+These acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute
+passed on the petition of the bowyers, fletchers (<i>fléchiers</i>), stringers
+and arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force)
+is entitled an &ldquo;act for maintenance of archery and debarring of
+unlawful games&rdquo;; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of
+3 &amp; 6 Hen. VIII.) &ldquo;divers and many subtil inventative and crafty
+persons have found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty
+games and plays, as logating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise
+called shove-groat, as well within the city of London as elsewhere
+in many other and divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays
+and alleys for the maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is
+sore decayed, and daily is like to be more minished, and divers
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page447" id="page447"></a>447</span>
+bowyers and fletchers, for lack of work, gone and inhabit themselves
+in Scotland and other places out of this realm, there working and
+teaching their science, to the puissance of the same, to the great comfort
+of strangers and detriment of this realm.&rdquo; Accordingly penalties
+are imposed on all persons keeping houses for unlawful games, and
+all persons resorting thereto (s. 8). The games specified are dicing,
+table (backgammon) or carding, or any game prohibited by any
+statute theretofore made or any unlawful new game then or thereafter
+invented or to be invented. It is further provided that &ldquo;no manner
+of artificer or craftsman of any handicraft or occupation, husbandman,
+apprentice, labourer, servant at husbandry, journeyman or
+servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen, watermen, or any serving
+man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice, cards, bowls, clash,
+coyting, logating or any other unlawful game out of Christmas
+under the pain of xxs. to be forfeit for every time; and in Christmas
+to play at any of the said games in their masters&rsquo; houses or in their
+masters&rsquo; presence; and also that no manner of person shall at any
+time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden or
+orchard&rdquo; (s. 11). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment,
+crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the
+preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the statute&mdash;the
+maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between
+games of skill and games of chance, and no reference is made to playing
+for money or money&rsquo;s worth. The <i>Book of Sports</i> of James I.
+(1617), republished by Charles I. (1633), was aimed at encouraging
+certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of
+Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act
+1625 prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the
+Lord&rsquo;s Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been
+attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act
+goes on to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes,
+common plays or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by
+parishioners within their own parishes. According to Blackstone
+(iv. <i>Comm.</i> c. 13) the principal ground of complaint leading to
+legislation in the 18th century was &ldquo;gambling in high life.&rdquo; He
+collects the statutes made with this view, but only those still in
+force need have been mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing
+games was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c. 7) &ldquo;against deceitful, disorderly
+and excessive gaming&rdquo; which deals with games both of
+skill and chance at which people cheat, or play otherwise than with
+ready money, or lose more than £100 on credit. In 1698 (13 Will.
+III. c. 23) legislation was passed against lotteries, therein described
+as &ldquo;mischievous and unlawful games.&rdquo; This act was amended in
+1710 (9 Anne c. 6), and in the same year was passed a statute which
+is the beginning of the modern legislation against gambling (9 Anne
+c. 19). It includes within its scope money won by &ldquo;gaming or
+playing&rdquo; at cards, &amp;c., and money won by &ldquo;betting&rdquo; on the sides
+or hands of those who game at any of the forbidden games. But it
+refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games with cards and dice.</p>
+
+<p>The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in
+<i>Oliphant on Horses, &amp;c.</i> (6th ed.): horse-races, steeplechases, trotting
+matches, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas, rowing
+matches, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives, rackets,
+bowls, skittles, quoits, curling, putting the stone, football, and
+presumably every bona-fide variety, <i>e.g.</i> croquet, knurr and spell,
+hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have been
+unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting animals
+to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals
+Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist and other lawful
+games at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess, draughts
+and dominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these
+games or at skittles or &ldquo;skittle pool&rdquo; or &ldquo;puff and dart&rdquo; on
+licensed premises is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The
+earlier acts declared unlawful the following games of skill: football,
+quoits, putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or
+cloyshcayls, logating, half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and
+backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with
+backgammon tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-racing,
+long under restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665
+and many 18th-century acts, was fully legalized in 1840 (3 &amp; 4
+Vict. c. 35). The act of 1541, so far as it declared any game of mere
+skill unlawful, was repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is
+legal in private houses or clubs and in public places duly licensed.
+The following games have been declared by the statutes or the judges
+to be unlawful, whether played in public or in private, unless played
+in a royal palace where the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts,
+pharaoh (faro), basset and hazard (1738), passage, and every game
+then invented or to be invented with dice or with any other instrument,
+engine or device in the nature of dice having one or more
+figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulet or roly-poly (1744), and all
+lotteries (except Art Union lotteries), <i>rouge et noir</i>, <i>baccarat-banque</i>
+(1884), <i>chemin de fer</i> (1895), and all games at cards which are not
+games of mere skill. The definition of unlawful game does not include
+whist played for a prize not subscribed to by the players,
+but it does include playing cards for money in licensed premises;
+even in the private room of the licensee or with private friends
+during closing hours.</p>
+
+<p>The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries &ldquo;by
+dice, lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other
+way whatsoever.&rdquo; An act of 1721 prohibited lotteries which under
+the name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land,
+jewels, &amp;c., by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722, 1733
+and 1823 prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers
+in foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as unlawful
+were in 1738 declared to be &ldquo;games or lotteries by cards or
+dice,&rdquo; and in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include
+&ldquo;little-goes and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament,
+drawn by dice, lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any
+other way, contrivance or device whatsoever.&rdquo; This wide definition
+reaches raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of
+foreign or illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 1836 and 1844.
+In 1846 art unions were exempted from the scope of the Lottery
+Acts. Attempts have been made to suppress the sale in England
+of foreign lottery tickets, but the task is difficult, as the post-office
+distributes the advertisements, although, under the Revenue Act
+1898, the Customs treat as prohibited goods advertisements or
+notices as to foreign lotteries. More success has been obtained in
+putting down various devices by newspapers and shopkeepers to
+attract customers by instituting &ldquo;missing word competitions&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;racing coupon competitions&rdquo;; by automatic machines which
+give speculative chances in addition to the article obtained for the
+coin inserted; by distribution of prizes by lot or chance to customers;
+by holding sweepstakes at public-houses, by putting coins in sweetmeats
+to tempt street urchins by cupidity to indigestion; or by
+gratuitous distribution of medals giving a chance of a prize from a
+newspaper. An absolutely gratuitous distribution of chances seems
+not to be within the acts, but a commercial distribution is, even if
+individuals who benefit do not pay for their chance.</p>
+
+<p>As already stated, the keeping of a gaming-house was at common
+law punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of
+1541 imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful
+games. Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but
+these were abolished in 1555 (2 &amp; 3 Phil. and Mar.). In 1698 lotteries
+were declared public nuisances, and in 1802 the same measure was
+meted out to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are
+provided for those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with
+cards or dice, &amp;c. (1738, 1739, 1744). In 1751 inhabitants of a
+parish were enabled to insist on the prosecution of gaming-houses.
+The act of 1802 imposed severe penalties on persons publicly or
+privately keeping places for any lottery. This statute hits at the
+deliberate or habitual use of a place for the prohibited purpose, and
+does not touch isolated or incidental uses on a single occasion, <i>e.g.</i>
+at a bazaar or show; but under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery
+tickets is in itself an offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the
+search of suspected gaming-houses and the proof that they are such.
+It provides that, to prove any house to be a common gaming-house,
+it &ldquo;shall be sufficient to show that it is kept or used for playing
+therein at any unlawful game, and that a bank is kept there by one
+or more of the players exclusively of the others, or that the chances
+of any game played therein are not alike favourable to all the
+players, including among the players the banker or other person by
+whom the game is managed, or against whom the other players
+stake, play or bet.&rdquo; Gambling, it will be noticed, is still in this
+definition connected with some kind of game. The act also provides
+that proof that the gaming was for money shall not be required,
+and that the presence of cards, dice and other instruments of gaming
+shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was used as a common
+gaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with gaming-houses
+is of 1854, which provides summary remedies against the
+keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It
+may be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by
+cheating at any game or wager punishable in the same way as
+obtaining money by false pretences. At the present time proceedings
+for keeping gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is commonly
+understood are comparatively rare, and are usually against
+foreigners. The statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses
+(see the Park Club case, <i>Jenks</i> v. <i>Turpin</i>, 1884, 13 Q.B.D. 505,
+the leading case on unlawful games). The proprietor and the person
+who keeps the bank at an unlawful game are both within the statute:
+the players are not, but the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that
+they can be put under recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses.
+Under the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed
+victuallers who suffer any gaming or unlawful game to be played
+on their premises. A single instance of playing an unlawful game
+for money in a private house is not within the statutes (<i>R</i>. v. <i>Davies</i>,
+1897, 2 Q.B. 199).</p>
+
+<p>In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at
+cards is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pastimes,
+or speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The
+legislation against betting <i>eo nomine</i> began in 1853. In the Betting
+Act 1853 it is described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the
+injury and demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of
+places called betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money
+<i>in advance</i> by the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises
+to pay money on events or horse races and like contingencies. This
+act strikes at ready money betting as distinguished from betting on
+credit (&ldquo;on the nod&rdquo;). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open
+to all and sundry as distinguished from private betting clubs such as
+Tattersall&rsquo;s. The act seeks to punish persons who keep a house,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page448" id="page448"></a>448</span>
+office, room or other place for the purpose (<i>inter alia</i>) of any person
+betting with persons &ldquo;resorting thereto&rdquo; or of receiving deposits
+in consideration of bets on contingencies relating to horse-races or
+other races, fights, games, sports or exercises. The act especially
+excepts persons who receive or hold prizes or stakes to be paid to
+the winner of a race or lawful sport, game or exercise, or to the owner
+of a horse engaged in a race (s. 6). Besides the penalties incurred by
+keeping such places, the keeper is liable to repay to depositors the
+sums deposited (s. 5).</p>
+
+<p>By the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed persons
+who allow their houses to be used in contravention of the Betting
+Act 1853. There has been a great deal of litigation as to the meaning
+and scope of this enactment, and a keen contest between the police
+and the Anti-gambling League (which has been very active in the
+matter) and the betting confraternity, in which much ingenuity
+has been shown by the votaries of sport in devising means for evading
+the terms of the enactment. The consequent crop of legal decisions
+shows a considerable divergence of judicial opinion. The House
+of Lords has held that the Tattersall&rsquo;s enclosure or betting ring on a
+racecourse is not a &ldquo;place&rdquo; within the statute; and members of a
+bona-fide club who bet with each other in the club are not subject
+to the penalties of the act. But the word &ldquo;place&rdquo; has been held
+to include a public-house bar, an archway, a small plot of waste
+ground, and a bookmaker&rsquo;s stand, and even a bookmaker&rsquo;s big
+umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from the judges any clear
+indication of the nature of the &ldquo;places&rdquo; to which the act applies.
+The act is construed as applying only to ready-money betting, <i>i.e.</i>
+when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only to places
+used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto; so that
+bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its penalties.
+The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as thieves
+&ldquo;welshers,&rdquo; who receive and make off with deposits on bets which
+they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an
+offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for
+betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties
+on persons advertising as to betting. But this has been read as
+applying to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not
+prohibit the publication of betting news or sporting tips in newspapers.
+A few newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in
+some public libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts
+crowds of undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great
+extent effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of
+them to Holland and other places. But it has been deemed expedient
+to legislate against betting in the streets, which has been
+found too attractive to the British workman.</p>
+
+<p>By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons
+assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London
+or county of London for the purpose of betting and
+deemed to be obstructing the street, may be arrested
+<span class="sidenote">Street betting.</span>
+without warrant by a constable and fined a sum not exceeding
+£5. The Vagrancy Act 1873 (36 &amp; 37 Vict. c. 38) provides
+that &ldquo;Every person playing or betting by way of wagering or gaming
+on any street, road, highway or other open and public place, or in
+any open place to which the public have, or are permitted to have,
+access, at or with any table or instrument of gaming, or any coin, card,
+token or other article used as an instrument or means of gaming,
+at any game or pretended game of chance, shall be deemed a rogue
+and vagabond.&rdquo; This act amended a prior act of 1868, passed to
+repress the practice of playing pitch and toss in the streets, which
+had become a public nuisance in the colliery districts. The powers
+of making by-laws for the peace, order and good government of
+their districts, possessed by municipal boroughs&mdash;and since 1888
+by county councils&mdash;and extended in 1899 to the new London
+boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by making by-laws
+forbidding any person to &ldquo;frequent or use any street or other public
+place, on behalf either of himself or any other person, for the purpose
+of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to bet or wager
+with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling bets.&rdquo; This and
+similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found inadequate,
+and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c. 43), passed by the
+efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence for any person
+to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on behalf of himself
+or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking or betting or
+wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or receiving or settling
+bets. The punishment for a first offence is fine up to £10, for a second
+fine up to £20, and the punishment is still higher in the case of a third
+or subsequent offence, or where the accused while committing the
+offence has any betting transaction with a person under the age of
+sixteen. The act does not apply to ground used for a course for
+horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on which races take place;
+but the expression public place includes a public park, garden or
+sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which the public for the
+time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places other than public
+parks or gardens to which the public have a restricted right of
+access with or without payment, if the owners or persons controlling
+the place exhibit conspicuously a notice prohibiting betting therein.
+A constable may arrest without warrant persons offending and seize
+all books, papers, cards and other articles relating to betting found
+in their possession, and these articles may be forfeited on conviction.
+Besides the above provision against betting with infants the Betting
+and Loans (Infants) Act 1892, passed at the instance of the late
+Lord Herschell, makes it a misdemeanour to send, with a view to
+profit, to any one known by the sender to be an infant, a document
+inviting him to enter into a betting or wagering transaction. The
+act is intended to protect lads at school and college from temptation
+by bookmakers.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>We must now turn from the public law with respect to gaming
+to the treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of
+their obligation on the individuals who lose them. A
+wager may be defined as &ldquo;a promise to give money or
+<span class="sidenote">Wagering.</span>
+money&rsquo;s worth upon the determination or ascertainment of an
+uncertain event&rdquo; (Anson, <i>Law of Contract</i>, 11th ed., p. 206). The
+event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because
+its happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a
+wager the determination of the event must be the sole condition
+of the bargain. According to the view taken in England of the
+common law, bets or wagers were legally enforceable, subject to
+certain rules dictated by considerations of public policy, <i>e.g.</i>
+that they did not lead to immorality or breach of the peace, or
+expose a third person to ridicule.<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The courts were constantly
+called upon to enforce wagers and constantly exercised their
+ingenuity to discover excuses for refusing. A writer on the law of
+contracts<a name="fa2k" id="fa2k" href="#ft2k"><span class="sp">2</span></a> discovers here the origin of that principle of &ldquo;public
+policy&rdquo; which plays so important a part in English law. Wagering
+contracts were rejected because the contingencies on which
+they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common
+weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared
+void because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the
+king&rsquo;s enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest
+in compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the
+amount of the hop-duty was held to be against public policy,
+because it tended to expose the condition of the king&rsquo;s revenue to
+all the world. A bet between two hackney coachmen, as to which
+of them should be selected by a gentleman for a particular
+journey, was void because it tended to expose the customer to
+their importunities. When no such subtlety could be invented,
+the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the
+fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by
+the judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an
+action, he could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision
+of more important cases.</p>
+
+<p>Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law
+within narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial
+wagers, and both by general and temporary enactments. An
+example of the latter was 7 Anne c. 16 (1710), avoiding all wagers
+and securities relating to the then war with France. The earliest
+general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7 (1665), prohibiting the
+recovery of a sum exceeding £100 lost in games or pastimes, or in
+betting on the sides or hands of the players, and avoiding securities
+for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities for such wagers
+for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders for value
+without notice, and enabled the loser of £10 or upwards to sue for
+and recover the money he had lost within three months of the
+loss. Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering
+were declared void, in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the
+case of other risks in 1774. It was not until 1845 that a general
+rule was made excluding wagers from the courts. Section 18 of
+the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after a parliamentary inquiry in
+1844 as to gaming) enacted &ldquo;that all contracts or agreements,
+whether by parole or in writing, by way of gaming or wagering
+shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be brought or maintained
+in any court of law or equity for recovering any sum of
+money or valuable thing alleged to be won upon any wager, or
+which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person to
+abide the event on which any wager shall have been made;
+provided always that this enactment shall not be deemed to apply
+to any subscription or contribution, or agreement to subscribe or
+contribute, for or towards any plate, prize or sum of money to be
+awarded to the winner or winners of any lawful game, sport,
+pastime or exercise.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The construction put on this enactment enabled turf commission
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page449" id="page449"></a>449</span>
+agents to recover from their principals bets made and paid for
+them. But the Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any
+promise, express or implied, to repay to any person any sum of
+money paid by him under, or in respect of, any contract or agreement
+rendered null and void by the Gaming Act 1845, or to pay
+any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or otherwise
+in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any
+services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and
+provided that no action should be brought or maintained to
+recover any such sum. By the combined effect of these two
+enactments the recovery by the winner from the loser or stakeholder
+of bets or of stakes on games falling within s. 18 of the
+Gaming Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but persons who have
+deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not debarred
+from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is
+decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the
+stake is paid over to the winner;<a name="fa3k" id="fa3k" href="#ft3k"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and a man who pays a bet for a
+friend, or a turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet
+for a principal, has now no legal means of recovering the money,
+unless some actual deceit was used to induce him to pay in ignorance
+that it was a bet. But a person who has received a bet on
+account of another can still, it would seem, be compelled to pay
+it over, and the business of a betting man is treated as so far
+lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and actions
+between parties in such a business for the taking of partnership
+accounts have been entertained.</p>
+
+<p>The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares
+or other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to
+be correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two
+persons, having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event
+(past or future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that
+on the determination of the event one shall win, and the other
+shall pay over a sum of money, or other stake, neither party
+having any other interest in the event than the sum or stake to
+be won or lost. This definition does not strike at contracts in
+&ldquo;futures,&rdquo; under which the contractors are bound to give or take
+delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in existence at the date
+of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered void because
+they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact, their
+legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
+Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or
+wagering on events in which the assured has no interest present
+or prospective whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774)
+or maritime risks (Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act
+known as Sir John Barnard&rsquo;s Act (7 Geo. II. c. 8, entitled
+&ldquo;An act to prevent the infamous practice of stock jobbing&rdquo;)
+prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any public
+stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but
+this act was repealed in 1860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks
+and shares are not now void because entered into by way of
+speculation and not for purposes of investment. The only limitation
+on such contracts is that contained in Leeman&rsquo;s Act (30 &amp;
+31 Vict. c. 29) as to contracts for the sale of shares in joint-stock
+banking companies. But a transaction in any commodity,
+though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming Acts if in
+substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the
+commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not matter
+whether the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it is
+entered into on the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange,
+or elsewhere; nor is it conclusive in favour of the validity of the
+bargain that it purports to bind the parties to take or deliver the
+article dealt in. The courts are entitled to examine into the true
+nature of the transaction; and where the substantial intention of
+the parties is merely to gamble in differences, to make what is
+called &ldquo;a time bargain,&rdquo; the fact that it is carried out by a series
+of contracts, regular and valid in form, will not be sufficient to
+exclude the application of the Gaming Acts.</p>
+
+<p>In very many cases transactions with &ldquo;outside stockbrokers&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;bucket shops&rdquo; have been held to be mere wagers, although the
+contracts purported to give &ldquo;put&rdquo; or &ldquo;call&rdquo; options to demand
+delivery or acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the cover
+deposited by the &ldquo;client&rdquo; has been treated as a mere security for
+performance of the bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time,
+<i>i.e.</i> before it is used for the purpose for which it is deposited.
+There was not up to 1909 any authoritative decision as to the
+application of the Gaming Act 1892 to transactions on the London
+Stock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a member of
+&ldquo;the House&rdquo;; but the same principle appears to be applicable
+where the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the
+intention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive
+differences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the
+Stock Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people
+from setting up a gaming act defence: as each contract entitles
+the holder to call for delivery or acceptance of the stock named
+therein. In the event of the bankruptcy of a person involved in
+speculations, the bankruptcy officials exclude from proof against
+the estate all claims founded on any dealing in the nature of a
+wager; and on the same principle the bankrupt&rsquo;s trustee cannot
+recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming transactions,
+but unexhausted &ldquo;cover&rdquo; on uncompleted transactions may be
+recovered back.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or
+wagers by action there has also been a good deal of legislation
+dealing with securities given in respect of &ldquo;gambling
+debts.&rdquo; The earliest (1665) dealt with persons playing
+<span class="sidenote">Gambling debts.</span>
+at games otherwise than for ready money and losing
+£100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from
+recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning
+it. An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes,
+bills, bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the
+consideration is for money or valuable security won by gaming
+at cards, stocks or other games, or by betting on the sides or
+hands of the gamesters, or for reimbursing money knowingly
+advanced for such gaming or betting. This act draws a distinction
+between gaming and other bets or wagers. Under this act
+the securities were void even in the hands of innocent transferees.
+In 1841 the law was altered, declaring such securities not void
+but made upon an &ldquo;illegal&rdquo; consideration. The effect of the
+change is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note
+or cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the
+original taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to
+put on him the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder
+for value. In the case of a negotiable security given for a wager
+not within the acts of 1710 or 1841 (<i>e.g.</i> a bet on a contested
+election), but within the act of 1845, a third person holding it
+would be presumed to be a holder for value and on the person
+prima facie liable under the security falls the burden of proving
+that no consideration was given for it. It has been decided after
+considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action will not
+lie in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a
+cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at
+baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the
+game. The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming
+Acts of 1845 and 1892 as the <i>lex fori</i> prohibit the English courts
+from enforcing gaming debts wherever incurred (<i>Moulis</i> v.
+<i>Owen</i>, 1907, 1 K.B. 746).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Scotland.</i>&mdash;A Scots act of 1621 c. 14 (said still to be in force)
+forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry,
+and directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding
+or dicing or at wagers on horse races should be at once sent to the
+treasurer of the kirk session. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1698,
+apply to Scotland; and the Betting House Act 1853 was extended
+to Scotland in 1874. The Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scotland,
+and gaming houses can be suppressed under the Burgh Police
+Act 1892, and street betting, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903.</p>
+
+<p>The Scots courts refuse to try actions on wagers, as being <i>sponsiones
+ludicrae</i>, unbecoming the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 19
+and 5 &amp; 6 Will. IV. c. 41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of
+judicial opinion is that the Gaming Act 1845 does not.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ireland.</i>&mdash;The British Acts against lotteries were extended to
+Ireland in 1780, and the general law as to gaming is the same in
+both countries.</p>
+
+<p><i>British Possessions.</i>&mdash;Certain of the earlier imperial acts are in
+force in British possessions, <i>e.g.</i> the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is in
+force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the
+Straits Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordinances
+directed against gambling and lotteries, and particularly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page450" id="page450"></a>450</span>
+against forms of gambling introduced by the Chinese. Under these
+ordinances the money paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law.
+In the Transvaal betting houses were suppressed by proclamation
+(No. 33) soon after the annexation. An invention known in France
+as the <i>pari mutuel</i>, and in Australia as the totalizator, is allowed
+to be used on race-courses in most of the states (but not in New
+South Wales). In Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania and
+Western Australia the state levies a duty on the takings of the
+machine. In Tasmania the balance of the money retained by the
+stewards of the course less the tax must be applied solely for improving
+the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria under an
+act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by advertisement duly posted
+make betting on the ground illegal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Egypt.</i>&mdash;By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with
+certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or offer
+them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the notice
+of the public. The authorized lotteries are those for charitable
+purposes, <i>e.g.</i> those of the benevolent societies of the various foreign
+communities.</p>
+
+<p><i>United States.</i>&mdash;In the United States many of the states make
+gaming a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse
+race, or a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given
+upon a bet are often made void, and this may destroy a gaming note
+in the hands of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies
+outside of the province of the federal government. By the legislation
+of some states the loser may recover his money if he sue within a
+limited time, as he might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Brandt on <i>Games</i> (1872); Oliphant, <i>Law of
+Horses, &amp;c.</i> (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the <i>Stock Exchange</i>
+(1905); Melsheimer on the <i>Stock Exchange</i> (4th ed., 1905);
+Coldridge and Hawksford, <i>The Law of Gambling</i> (1895); Stutfield,
+<i>Betting</i> (3rd ed., 1901).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. F. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Leake on <i>Contracts</i> (4th ed.), p. 529.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2k" id="ft2k" href="#fa2k"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Pollock, <i>Contracts</i> (7th ed.), p. 313.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3k" id="ft3k" href="#fa3k"><span class="fn">3</span></a> <i>Burge</i> v. <i>Ashby</i>, 1900, 1 Q.B. 744.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAMUT<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span> (from the Greek letter <i>gamma</i>, used as a musical
+symbol, and <i>ut</i>, the first syllable of the medieval hymn <i>Sanctus
+Johannes</i>), a term in music used to mean generally the whole
+compass or range of notes possessed by an instrument or voice.
+Historically, however, the sense has developed from its stricter
+musical meaning of a scale (the recognized musical scale of any
+period), originating in the medieval &ldquo;great scale,&rdquo; of which the
+invention has usually been ascribed to Guido of Arezzo (<i>q.v.</i>) in
+the 11th century. The whole question is somewhat obscure, but,
+in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical alphabetical
+system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more
+properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales
+the semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord,
+as G, A, &#9837; B, C, so the &#9838; B and &#9839; F of the second octave were in
+false relation to the &#9837; B and &#9838;F of the first two tetrachords. To
+this scale of four notes, G, A, &#9837; B, C, were subsequently added a
+note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with
+the semitone between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as
+F, G, A, &#9837; B, C, D. It was at a much later date that the 7th, our
+leading note, was admitted into a key, and for this the first two
+letters of the last line of the above-named hymn, &ldquo;Sanctus
+Johannes,&rdquo; would have been used, save for the notion
+that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel
+should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the
+syllable Si was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable
+Ut was replaced by Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France;
+and in these two countries, with whatever others employ their
+nomenclature, the original Ut and the substituted Do stand for
+the sound defined by the letter C in English and German terminology.
+The literal musical alphabet thus accords with the
+syllabic:</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">A</td> <td class="tcc">B</td> <td class="tcc">C</td> <td class="tcc">D</td> <td class="tcc">E</td> <td class="tcc">F</td> <td class="tcc">G</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc">La,</td> <td class="tcc">Si,</td> <td class="tcc">Ut or Do,</td> <td class="tcc">Re,</td> <td class="tcc">Mi,</td> <td class="tcc">Fa,</td> <td class="tcc">Sol.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">In Germany
+a remnant of Greek use survives. A was originally followed
+in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical Mes&#275; was
+followed by Parames&#275;, and this note, namely &#9837; B, is still called
+B in German, English &#9838; B (French and Italian Si) being represented
+by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted,
+did not pass out of use until the 19th century, regarded the
+hexachord and not the octachord, employed both letters and
+syllables, made the former invariable while changing the latter
+according to key relationship, and acknowledged only the three
+keys of G, C and F; it took its name from having the Greek
+letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the Latin
+letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the
+other notes.</p>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANDAK,<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal-Himalayas,
+flows south-west until it reaches British territory,
+where it forms the boundary between the United Provinces and
+Bengal for a considerable portion of its course, and falls into the
+Ganges opposite Patna. It is a snow-fed stream, and the
+surrounding country in the plains, lying at a lower level than its
+banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is accordingly
+enclosed by protective embankments.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Little Gandak</span> rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur
+district about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just
+within the Saran district of Bengal.</p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Burhi</span> (or old) <span class="sc">Gandak</span> also rises in the Nepal hills, and
+follows a course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak,
+of which it represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and
+joining the Ganges nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal
+tributary is the Baghmati, which rises in the hills N. of Kathmandu,
+flows in a southerly direction through Tirhut, and joins
+the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANDAMAK,<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad
+on the road to Kabul. On the retreat from Kabul of General
+Elphinstone&rsquo;s army in 1842, a hill near Gandamak was the scene
+of the massacre of the last survivors of the force, twenty officers
+and forty-five British soldiers. It is also notable for the treaty of
+Gandamak, which was signed here in 1879 with Yakub Khan.
+(See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Afghanistan.</a></span>)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANDERSHEIM,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a town of Germany in the duchy of Brunswick,
+in the deep valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick, on
+the railway Böissum-Holzminden. Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two
+Protestant churches of which the convent church (<i>Stiftskirche</i>)
+contains the tombs of famous abbesses, a palace (now used as law
+courts) and the famous abbey (now occupied by provincial
+government offices). There are manufactures of linen, cigars,
+beet-root sugar and beer.</p>
+
+<p>The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of
+Saxony, who removed here in 856 the nuns who had been
+shortly before established at Brunshausen. His own daughter
+Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was succeeded on her death
+by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga&rsquo;s government Louis III.
+granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess was to continue
+in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was found
+competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the
+abbey a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop
+of Hildesheim and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested
+with each other about its supervision, Pope Innocent III. declared
+it altogether independent of both. The abbey was ultimately
+recognized as holding directly of the Empire, and the abbess had
+a vote in the imperial diet. The conventual estates were of great
+extent, and among the feudatories who could be summoned to
+the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the king
+of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1568, and Magdalena,
+the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant
+abbesses were appointed to the foundation, and continued to
+enjoy their imperial privileges till 1803, when Gandersheim
+was incorporated with Brunswick. The last abbess, Augusta
+Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the ducal house, and
+kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim will
+long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the
+famous Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the 9th
+century; and the rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim
+ranks as in all probability the earliest historical work composed in
+low German.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the
+monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the <i>Monumenta Germ. historica</i>
+(1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse
+(Göttingen, 1872). See also &ldquo;Agii vita Hathumodae abbatissae
+Gandershemensis primae,&rdquo; in J.G. von Eckhart&rsquo;s <i>Veterum monumentorum
+quaternio</i> (Leipzig, 1720); and Hase, <i>Mittelalterliche
+Baudenkmäler Niedersachsens</i> (1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANDHARVA,<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote
+(1) in the Rig-Veda usually a minor deity; (2) in later writings
+a class of divine beings. As a unity Gandharva has no special
+attributes but many duties, and is in close relation with the great
+gods. Thus he is director of the sun&rsquo;s horses; he is guardian of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page451" id="page451"></a>451</span>
+soma, the sacred liquor, and therefore is regarded as the heavenly
+physician, soma being a panacea. He is servant of Agni the god
+of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is omnipresent: in
+the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the keeper of
+heaven&rsquo;s secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men.
+He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife
+he has the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her
+became father of the first mortals, Yama and Yami. He is the
+tutelary deity of women and presides over marriage ceremonies.
+In their collective capacity the Gandharva share the duties
+allotted to the single deity. They live in the house of Indra and
+with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time by singing, acting
+and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as numbering
+twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In
+Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual
+consent and without formality.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANDÍA,<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span> a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of
+Valencia; on the Gandía-Alcóy and Alcira-Denia railways.
+Pop. (1900) 10,026. Gandía is on the left bank of the river
+Alcóy or Sérpis, which waters one of the richest and most populous
+plains of Valencia and enters the Mediterranean Sea at the small
+harbour of Gandía (<i>El Grao</i>), 3 m. N.E. The chief ancient
+buildings of Gandía are the Gothic church, the college, founded by
+San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the order of Jesus
+(1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandía&mdash;a title held
+in the 15th and 16th centuries by members of the princely house
+of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and
+the palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manufactures
+of leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandía has a thriving
+export trade in fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour.
+In 1904, 400 vessels, of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANDO,<a name="ar159" id="ar159"></a></span> a sultanate of British West Africa, included in the
+protectorate of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger
+above Borgu. The sultanate was established, c. 1819, on the death
+of Othman Dan Fodio, the founder of the Fula empire, and its
+area and importance varied considerably during the 19th century,
+several of the Fula emirates being regarded as tributaries, while
+Gando itself was more or less dependent on Sokoto. Gando in
+the middle of the century included both banks of the Niger
+at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British
+protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been
+in treaty relations with the British, and in 1903 the part assigned
+to the British sphere by agreement with France came definitely
+under the control of the administration in Nigeria. Gando now
+forms the sub-province of the double province of Sokoto. The
+emir was appointed under British authority after the conquest of
+Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the province has been organized
+for administration on the same system as the rest of the protectorate
+of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native courts of
+justice have been established, roads have been opened, the slave
+trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new
+scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga
+and Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto,
+the first considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about
+60 m. S.W. of the town of Sokoto.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANESA,<a name="ar160" id="ar160"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ganesh</span>, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom
+and prudence, always represented with an elephant&rsquo;s head possibly
+to indicate his sagacity. He is the son of Siva and Parvati. He is
+among the most popular of Indian deities, and almost every act,
+religious or social, in a Hindu&rsquo;s life begins with an invocation to
+him, as do most books. He typifies not the wisdom of knowledge
+but that worldly wisdom which results in financial success, and
+thus he is particularly the god of the Hindu shopkeeper. In his
+divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of heaven, the spirits
+which come and go to do Indra&rsquo;s will.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANGES<a name="ar161" id="ar161"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Ganga</span>), a great river of northern India, formed by
+the drainage of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This
+mighty stream, which in its lower course supplies the river
+system of Bengal, rises in the Garhwal state, and falls into the
+Bay of Bengal after a course of 1500 m. It issues, under the name
+of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the foot of a Himalayan
+snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level of the sea.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it
+receives the Jahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the
+Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of the
+Ganges. Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place
+of pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream.
+At Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to
+Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous
+course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
+Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it
+receives the Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more
+than a series of broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of
+course, during the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy
+season. At Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty
+sister stream, which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west
+of the sources of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards
+by south-east through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti
+and the Gogra. The point of junction with both the Gumti and the
+Gogra has more or less pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of
+land at Allahabad, where the Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true
+Prayag, <i>the</i> place of pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of
+devout Hindus repair to wash away their sins in the sacred river.
+It is here that the great festival called the Magh mela is held.</p>
+
+<p>Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters
+Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from
+the south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume
+from the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it
+receives the Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply
+to the southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur.
+By this time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flies,
+from the sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over
+the level country, and this spot marks the commencement of the
+delta, 220 m. in a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river,
+from the Bay of Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the
+Padma or Padda, and proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past
+Pabna to Goalanda, above which it is joined by the Jamuna or
+main stream of the Brahmaputra. The vast confluence of waters
+rushes towards the sea, receiving further additions from the hill
+country on the east, and forming a broad estuary known under the
+name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay of Bengal near Noakhali.
+This estuary, however, is only the largest and most easterly of a great
+number of mouths or channels. The most westerly is the Hugli,
+which receives the waters of a number of distributary channels that
+start from the parent Ganges above Murshidabad. Between the
+Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the east lies the delta. The
+upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile districts, such as Murshidabad,
+Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas. But towards its southern
+base, resting on the sea, the country sinks into a series of great
+swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable channels. This
+wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the <i>sundari</i> tree,
+which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts.</p>
+
+<p>The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the
+Hugli, on which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth.
+Beyond this city the navigation is conducted by native craft,&mdash;the
+modern facilities for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the
+river having put an end to the previous steamer communication,
+which plied until about 1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below
+Calcutta important boat routes through the delta connect the Hugli
+with the eastern branches of the river, for both native craft and
+steamers.</p>
+
+<p>The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities: Calcutta, Monghyr,
+Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction
+with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are
+on the Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is
+bounded on the N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan
+range, on the S. by the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the
+ranges which separate Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin
+thus enclosed embraces 432,480 sq. m. According to the latest
+calculations, the length of the main stream of the Ganges is 1540 m.,
+or with its longest affluent, 1680; breadth at true entrance into the
+sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in dry season, 1¼ to 2¼ m.; depth in
+dry season, 30 ft.; flood discharge, 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second;
+ordinary discharge, 207,000 cub. ft.; longest duration of flood,
+about 40 days. The average fall from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in.
+per mile; from Benares to Calcutta, between 4 and 5 in.; from
+Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great changes take place from time
+to time in the river-bed, which alter the face of the country. Extensive
+islands are thrown up, and attach themselves to the mainland,
+while the river deserts its old bed and seeks a new channel, it may be
+many miles off. Such changes are so rapid and on so vast a scale, and
+the corroding power of the current on the bank so irresistible, that
+in Lower Bengal it is considered perilous to build any structure of a
+large or permanent character on its margin. Many decayed or ruined
+cities attest the changes in the river-bed in ancient times; and
+within our own times the main channel which formerly passed
+Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the town high and dry,
+7 m. from the bank.</p>
+
+<p>The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as
+far as Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been
+sanctioned.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page452" id="page452"></a>452</span></p>
+
+<p>The <span class="sc">Upper Ganges Canal</span> and the <span class="sc">Lower Ganges Canal</span> are the
+two principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Provinces.
+The Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and
+irrigates 978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of
+the original canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates
+830,000 acres. The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna,
+command the greater portion of the Doab lying between the
+Ganges and the Jumna, above Allahabad. Navigation in either is
+insignificant.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANGOTRI,<a name="ar162" id="ar162"></a></span> a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among
+the Himalaya Mountains. It is situated in the native state of
+Garhwal in the United Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief
+head-stream of the Ganges, which is here not above 15 or 20 yds.
+broad, with a moderate current, and not in general above 3 ft.
+deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and on the bank
+near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in which
+are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of
+mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century.
+The bed of the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the
+Brahmans into three basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of
+these portions is dedicated to Brahma, another to Vishnu and
+the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to Gangotri is considered
+efficacious in washing away the sins of the devotee, and ensuring
+him eternal happiness in the world to come. The water taken
+from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and sold
+at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is
+10,319 ft.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANGPUR,<a name="ar163" id="ar163"></a></span> a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until
+1905 among the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by
+Ranchi district, E. by the Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur
+and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the Central Provinces. The
+country is for the most part an undulating plain, broken by
+detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range,
+possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from
+the plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with
+two flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani,
+formed here by the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both
+navigable by canoes. The Ib was formerly famous on account of
+diamonds found in its bed, and its sands are still washed for gold.
+One of the largest coalfields in India extends into the state,
+and iron ore is also found. Jungle products&mdash;lac, silk cocoons,
+catechu and resin, which are exported; wild animals&mdash;bisons,
+buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, wild dogs and
+many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 238,896;
+estimated revenue, £16,000.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANGRENE<a name="ar164" id="ar164"></a></span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="gangraina">&#947;&#940;&#947;&#947;&#961;&#945;&#953;&#957;&#945;</span>, an eating sore, from
+<span class="grk" title="grainein">&#947;&#961;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (<i>q.v.</i>),
+or a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the
+circulation by various causes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANILH, CHARLES<a name="ar165" id="ar165"></a></span> (1758-1836), French economist and
+politician, was born at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January
+1758. He was educated for the profession of law and practised
+as <i>avocat</i>. During the troubled period which culminated in the
+taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July 1789, he came prominently
+forward in public affairs, and was one of the seven
+members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat
+at the hôtel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of
+Terror, and was only released by the counter-revolution of the
+9th Thermidor. During the first consulate he was called to the
+tribunate, but was excluded in 1802. In 1815 he was elected
+deputy for Cantal, and finally left the Chamber on its dissolution
+in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best known as the most
+vigorous defender of the mercantile school in opposition to the
+views of Adam Smith and the English economists.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision
+with which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess
+much value for the student of political economy. He wrote <i>Essai
+politique sur le revenue des peuples de l&rsquo;antiquité, du moyen âge, &amp;c.</i>
+(1808); <i>Des systèmes d&rsquo;économie politique</i> (1809); <i>Théorie d&rsquo;économie
+politique</i> (1815); <i>Dictionnaire analytique de l&rsquo;économie politique</i>
+(1826).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANJAM,<a name="ar166" id="ar166"></a></span> a district of British India, in the extreme north-east
+of the Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much
+of the district is exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is
+interspersed with open valleys and fertile plains. Pleasant
+groves of trees in the plains give to the scenery a greener appearance
+than is usually met with in the districts to the south. The
+mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of the Eastern
+Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft.&mdash;its principal
+peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and
+Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam,
+with an area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114,
+mostly wild backward tribes, incapable of being governed under
+ordinary conditions and therefore ruled by an agent of the
+governor with special powers. The chief rivers are the Rushikulya,
+the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The sea and river fisheries
+afford a livelihood to a considerable section of the population.
+The hilly region abounds in forests consisting principally of <i>sal</i>,
+with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller quantities.</p>
+
+<p>Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its
+early history is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the
+Gajapati dynasty ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract
+became even nominally a part of their dominions. Owing to the
+nature of the country the rising Mahommedan power was long
+kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a century after the first
+invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor was sent to
+govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present district of
+Ganjam. In 1753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were made
+over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his
+French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an
+English force sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to
+abandon Ganjam and their other factories in the north. In 1765
+the Northern Circars (including Ganjam) were granted to the
+English by imperial firman, and in August 1768 an English
+factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a fort. The present
+district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the earlier years of
+British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in the administration
+of the district; and on more than one occasion the refractory
+large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular
+troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in
+1836 occurred the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came
+into contact with the aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose
+practice of human sacrifice was successfully accomplished. A
+petty rising of a section of the Kondhs occurred in 1865, which
+was, however, suppressed without the aid of regular troops.</p>
+
+<p>In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,256, showing an
+increase of 20% in the decade. There are two systems of government
+irrigation: (1) the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam
+minor rivers system. The principal crops are rice, other food
+grains, pulse, oil seeds and a little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is
+evaporated, as a government monopoly, along the coast. Sugar
+is refined, according to German methods, at Aska, where rum also
+is produced. A considerable trade is conducted at the ports of
+Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open roadsteads.
+The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway
+(Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to
+Madras in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlakimedi.
+The headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of
+Ganjam occupied this position till 1815, when it was found
+unhealthy, and its importance has since declined.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS<a name="ar167" id="ar167"></a></span> (1791-1852), French chemist, was
+born at Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered
+the medical department of the French army, and witnessed the
+retreat from Moscow in 1812. After the downfall of the empire he
+worked at the École Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at
+the Faculty of Sciences as assistant to L.J. Thénard. His
+contributions to technical chemistry included a method of
+refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers formed of
+gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for manufacturing
+glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &amp;c. The Institute
+awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of
+chlorine as a remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for
+his discovery of the efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and
+chloride for preserving anatomical preparations. In the latter
+part of his life he turned his attention to embalmment, his
+method depending on the injection of solutions of aluminium salts
+into the arteries. He died at Paris in January 1852. His son
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page453" id="page453"></a>453</span>
+<span class="sc">Felix</span>, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the question of the
+disposal of the dead, among his publications being <i>Mort réelle et
+mort apparente</i> (1868), <i>Inhumation et crémation</i> (1876), and <i>Les
+Cimetières</i> (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of
+which only one volume appeared.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANNET<a name="ar168" id="ar168"></a></span> (O.E. <i>ganot</i>) or <span class="sc">Solan Goose</span>,<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a> the <i>Pelecanus bassanus</i>
+of Linnaeus and the <i>Sula bassana</i> of modern ornithologists, a
+large sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose
+of breeding, to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of
+Forth, and to certain other islands off the coast of Britain, of
+which four are in Scottish waters&mdash;namely, Ailsa Craig, at the
+mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the group known collectively as
+St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east of the Butt of Lewis;
+and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance westward of
+Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the coast of
+Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and it
+resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel&mdash;its only
+English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settlements
+are Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and
+various small islands off the coast of Iceland, of which the
+Vestmannaeyjar, the Reykjanes Fuglaskér and Grimsey are the
+chief. On the western side of the Atlantic it appears to have but
+five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four rocks in the
+Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird
+arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn
+when its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-season
+many of the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions
+at a vast distance from their home, while at other times of the
+year their range is greater still, for they not only frequent the
+North Sea and the English Channel, but stray to the Baltic, and,
+in winter, extend their flight to the Madeiras, while the members
+of the species of American birth traverse the ocean from the shores
+of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:427px; height:632px" src="images/img453.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Gannet, or Solan Goose.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail,
+the gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is
+white, tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer
+edge and principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare
+spaces round the eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin.
+The first plumage of the young is of a deep brown above, but
+paler beneath, and each feather is tipped with a triangular white
+spot. The nest is a shallow depression, either on the ground
+itself or on a pile of turf, grass and seaweed&mdash;which last is often
+conveyed from a great distance. The single egg it contains has a
+white shell of the same chalky character as a cormorant&rsquo;s. The
+young are hatched blind and naked, but the slate-coloured skin
+with which their body is covered is soon clothed with white
+down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark colour
+already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be
+attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the
+majority of gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood
+of their breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea,
+follow the shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of
+which they are most useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great
+distance from land. Their prey is almost invariably captured by
+plunging upon it from a height, and a company of gannets fishing
+presents a curious and interesting spectacle. Flying in a line,
+each bird, when it comes over the shoal, closes its wings and
+dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it emerges after a
+few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers, mounts in a
+wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the string, to
+repeat <span class="correction" title="amended from is">its</span> headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself above its
+prey.<a name="fa2l" id="fa2l" href="#ft2l"><span class="sp">2</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note,
+such as its closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all
+connected by a web&mdash;characters which it possesses in common
+with most of the other members of the group of birds (<i>Steganopodes</i>)
+to which it belongs. But more remarkable still is the
+system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of large size, pervading
+almost the whole surface of the body, communicating with the
+lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied at the will of the
+bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of several
+writers&mdash;Montagu, Sir R. Owen (<i>Proc. Zool. Soc.</i>, 1831, p. 90),
+and Macgillivray.</p>
+
+<p>In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two
+nearly allied but somewhat smaller forms&mdash;one, <i>Sula capensis</i>,
+inhabiting the coast of South Africa, and the other, <i>S. serrator</i>,
+the Australian seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page454" id="page454"></a>454</span>
+the former seems to have a permanently black tail, and the latter
+a tail the four middle feathers of which are blackish-brown with
+white shafts.</p>
+
+<p>Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the
+smaller birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extraordinary
+stupidity they commonly display. They differ, however,
+in having no median stripe of bare skin down the front of
+the throat; they almost invariably breed upon trees and are
+inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, <i>S. cyanops</i>, when
+adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but <i>S. piscator</i> is readily
+distinguishable by its red legs, and <i>S. leucogaster</i> by its upper
+plumage and neck of deep brown. These three are widely
+distributed within the tropics, and are in some places exceedingly
+abundant. The fourth, <i>S. variegata</i>, which seems to preserve
+throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the immature
+<i>S. bassana</i>, has a much more limited range, being as yet only
+known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which
+contribute to the formation of guano.</p>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The phrase <i>ganotes bæð</i> (gannet&rsquo;s bath), a periphrasis for the sea,
+occurs in the <i>Anglo-Saxon Chronicle</i>, in reference to events which
+took place <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose
+learned treatise on this bird (<i>Ibis</i>, 1866, p. 1) nearly exhausts all
+that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further on
+(p. 13) this writer remarks:&mdash;&ldquo;The name gannet is intimately connected
+with our modern English gander, both words being modifications
+of the ancient British &lsquo;gan&rsquo; or &lsquo;gans,&rsquo; which is the same word
+as the modern German &lsquo;Gans,&rsquo; which in its turn corresponds with
+the old High German &lsquo;Kans,&rsquo; the Greek <span class="grk" title="chên">&#967;&#942;&#957;</span>, the Latin <i>anser</i>, and
+the Sanskrit &lsquo;hansa,&rsquo; all of which possess the same signification, viz.
+a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland, sulan, sula and
+haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is not so obvious.
+Martin [<i>Voy. St Kilda</i>] informs us that &lsquo;some imagine that the word
+solan comes from the Irish souler, corrupted and adapted to the
+Scottish language, <i>qui oculis irretortis e longinquo respiciat praedam</i>.&rsquo;
+The earlier writers in general derive the word from the Latin <i>solea</i>, in
+consequence of the bird&rsquo;s supposed habit of hatching its egg with its
+foot; and in a note intercalated into Ray&rsquo;s description of the solan
+goose in the edition of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society,
+and edited by Dr Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the
+statement is given, that &lsquo;the gannet, <i>Sula alba</i>, should be written
+solent goose, <i>i.e.</i> a channel goose.&rsquo;&rdquo; Hereon an editorial note
+remarks that this last statement appears to have been a suggestion of
+Yarrell&rsquo;s, and that it seems at least as possible that the &ldquo;Solent&rdquo;
+took its name from the bird.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2l" id="ft2l" href="#fa2l"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they
+take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations
+on this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that
+in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as
+plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were
+more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by
+Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at
+12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in
+1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their
+number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (<i>Report on the Herring
+Fisheries of Scotland</i>, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),&mdash;being a diminution of
+one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANODONTA<a name="ar169" id="ar169"></a></span> (so named from the presence of bands of enamel
+on the teeth), a group of specialized North American Lower and
+Middle Eocene mammals of uncertain affinity. The group
+includes <i>Hemiganus</i>, <i>Psittacotherium</i> and <i>Conoryctes</i> from the
+Puerco, <i>Calamodon</i> and <i>Hemiganus</i> from the Wasatch, and
+<i>Stylinodon</i> from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of
+<i>Conoryctes</i>, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests
+affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones.
+The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be
+considered ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the
+molars when first developed have tritubercular summits, but
+these soon become worn away, leaving tall columnar crowns,
+with a subcircular surface of dentine exposed at the summit of
+each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a comparatively
+full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested with
+enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth
+never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life.
+These and other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard
+the Ganodonta as an ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this
+view is not accepted by Prof. W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally
+assigned to <i>Calamodon</i> have been obtained from the Lower
+Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.L. Wortman, &ldquo;The Ganodonta and their Relationship to
+the Edentata,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Amer. Mus.</i> vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott,
+&ldquo;Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata,&rdquo; <i>Rep. Princeton
+Exped. to Patagonia</i>, vol. v. (1903-1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. L.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANS, EDUARD<a name="ar170" id="ar170"></a></span> (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at
+Berlin on the 22nd of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents.
+He studied law first at Berlin, then at Göttingen, and finally at
+Heidelberg, where he attended Hegel&rsquo;s lectures, and became
+thoroughly imbued with the principles of the Hegelian philosophy.
+In 1820, after taking his doctor&rsquo;s degree, he returned to Berlin
+as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and the following
+year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary, professor
+in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical school
+of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed
+owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied
+the method to one special branch&mdash;the right of succession. His
+great work, <i>Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung</i> (1824,
+1825, 1829 and 1835), is of permanent value, not only for its
+extensive survey of facts, but for the admirable manner in which
+the general theory of the slow evolution of legal principles is
+presented. In 1830, and again in 1835, Gans visited Paris, and
+formed an intimate acquaintance with the leaders of literary
+culture and criticism there. The liberality of his views, especially
+on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure of the
+Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of
+the last fifty years (published as <i>Vorlesungen über d. Geschichte
+d. letzten fünfzig Jahre</i>, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He
+died at Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works
+above mentioned, there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental
+laws of property (<i>Über die Grundlage des Besitzes</i>, Berlin,
+1829), a portion of a systematic work on the Roman civil law
+(<i>System des römischen Civil-Rechts</i>, 1827), and a collection of his
+miscellaneous writings (<i>Vermischte Schriften</i>, 1832). Gans edited
+the <i>Philosophie der Geschichte</i> in Hegel&rsquo;s <i>Werke</i>, and contributed
+an admirable preface.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Revue des deux mondes</i> (Dec. 1839).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GÄNSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST<a name="ar171" id="ar171"></a></span> (1778-1844), Austrian
+musical composer, was born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His
+father, a schoolmaster and teacher of music, undertook his son&rsquo;s
+early education, which the boy continued under various masters
+till 1802, when he became the pupil of the celebrated Abbé G.J.
+Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and with his fellow-pupils,
+more perhaps than to his own merits, Gänsbacher&rsquo;s
+permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was during
+his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt,
+that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the
+close friendship which sprang up among the three young
+musicians, and was dissolved by death only, has become celebrated
+in the history of their art. But Gänsbacher was himself
+by no means without merit. He creditably filled the responsible
+and difficult post of director of the music at St Stephen&rsquo;s
+cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844); and
+his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They
+consist chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies,
+motets, offertories, &amp;c., being amongst the number. He also
+wrote several sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions
+of a dramatic kind.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANTÉ,<a name="ar172" id="ar172"></a></span> a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft.
+It is largely used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has
+the appearance of a fine hessian cloth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GANYMEDE,<a name="ar173" id="ar173"></a></span> in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of
+Dardania, and Callirrhoë. He was the most beautiful of mortals,
+and was carried off by the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself,
+or by Zeus in the form of an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer
+(Apollodorus iii. 12; Virgil, <i>Aeneid</i>, v. 254; Ovid,
+<i>Metam.</i> x. 255). By way of compensation, Zeus presented his
+father with a team of immortal horses (or a golden vine).
+Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of the fountains
+of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and identified by
+astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the divinity
+that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius
+who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When
+pederasty became common in Greece, an attempt was made to
+justify it and invest it with dignity by referring to the rape of the
+beautiful boy by Zeus; in Crete, where the love of boys was
+reduced to a system, Minos, the primitive ruler and law-giver,
+was said to have been the ravisher of Ganymede. Thus the name
+which once denoted the good genius who bestowed the precious
+gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar Latin
+under the form <i>Catamitus</i>. Ganymede being carried off by the
+eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor
+Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E.
+Veckenstedt (<i>Ganymedes</i>, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that
+Ganymede is the genius of intoxicating drink (<span class="grk" title="methu">&#956;&#941;&#952;&#965;</span>, mead, for
+which he postulates a form <span class="grk" title="mêdos">&#956;&#8134;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>), whose original home was
+Phrygia.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See article by P. Weizsäcker in Roscher&rsquo;s <i>Lexikon der Mythologie</i>.
+In the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Greek Art</a></span>, fig. 53 (Pl. I.) gives an illustration of
+Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAO,<a name="ar174" id="ar174"></a></span> <span class="sc">Gao-Gao</span>, or <span class="sc">Garo</span>, a town of French West Africa, in the
+Upper Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger,
+400 m. by river below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The
+present town dates from the French occupation in 1900; of the
+ancient city there are scanty ruins, the chief being a truncated
+pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century) of Mahommed
+Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque.
+According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient
+times and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with
+the Egyptians. It is known, however, that the city of which the
+French settlement is the successor was founded by the Songhoi,
+probably in the 7th or 8th century, and became the capital of
+their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears to have been the correct
+name of the Songhoi city, though it was also known as Gogo and
+Kuku (Kaougha)<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>. In the 12th century Idrisi describes Kuku as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page455" id="page455"></a>455</span>
+a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and industry;
+it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao but to
+another town somewhat to the south&mdash;at that period the middle
+course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks.
+In the 14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and
+its great mosque was built (<i>c.</i> 1325) by the Melle sovereign
+Kunkur Musa on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the
+15th century the Songhoi regained power and Gao attained its
+greatest prosperity in the reign of Askia. It did not enjoy the
+commercial importance of Jenné nor the intellectual supremacy
+of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the western Sudan
+for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power the
+city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the
+<i>Ruma</i> of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the
+Tuareg, the last named surrendering possession to the French.
+The first European to reach Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was
+followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth, and in 1896 by the French
+naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the headquarters of a military
+district. A caravan route leads from it to Kano and Bornu.
+From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Timbuktu</a></span>. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article
+by F. Dubois in <i>L&rsquo;Afrique française</i> (January 1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake
+Chad in the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the
+Bulala dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose
+rule in the 15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The
+existence of the state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the
+Bornuese it was known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which
+persists as that of a district in French Congo (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bornu</a></span>). The
+similarity of the name Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given
+rise to much confusion.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAOL,<a name="ar175" id="ar175"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Jail</span>, a prison (<i>q.v.</i>). The two forms of the word are
+due to the parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French
+respectively, <i>jaiole</i> or <i>jaole</i>, and <i>gaiole</i> or <i>gayolle</i>. The common
+origin is the med. Lat. <i>gabiola</i>, a diminutive formed from <i>cavea</i>,
+a hollow, a den, from which the English &ldquo;cave&rdquo; is derived.
+The form &ldquo;gaol&rdquo; still commonly survives in English, and is in
+official usage, <i>e.g.</i> &ldquo;gaol-delivery,&rdquo; but the common pronunciation
+of both words, &ldquo;jail,&rdquo; shows the real surviving word.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAON<a name="ar176" id="ar176"></a></span> (Heb. for &ldquo;Excellency,&rdquo; plural <i>Geonim</i>), the title
+given to the heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia,
+Sura and Pumbeditha. Though the name is far older, it is
+chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived between the close of the
+Talmud and the transference of the centre of Judaism from Asia
+to Europe&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> from the end of the 6th to the middle of the 11th
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> The Geonim were required to do homage to the
+Exilarchs (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exilarch</a></span>) but were otherwise independent.
+They exercised wide authority and were appealed to in settlement
+of the social and religious affairs of the diaspora. To them
+must be assigned the arrangement of the main lines of the present
+Synagogue liturgy. Their chief literary activity took the form of
+Answers to Questions&mdash;a form which was extensively used in
+later centuries. The most noted of the Geonim, who will be
+found treated under their respective names, were A&#7717;ai, Amram,
+&#7778;emach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038,
+closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a
+half centuries.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the <i>Jewish
+Encyclopaedia</i>, vol. v. p. 571.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAP,<a name="ar177" id="ar177"></a></span> the capital of the French department of the Hautes
+Alpes. Pop. (1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built
+at a height of 2418 ft. on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent
+of the Durance), in an agreeable position, and is dominated afar
+by snowy peaks on the N.E. The little city has the look of a
+Provençal town, being white. The 17th-century cathedral
+church has been entirely reconstructed (1866-1905). In the
+prefecture is the tomb of the constable de Lesdiguières (1543-1626),
+dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine sculptor,
+Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific
+and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives,
+which include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &amp;c.
+There are a few small manufactories of purely local importance.
+Gap is connected by railway with Briançon (51½ m.) and with
+Grenoble (85½ m.), while from the railway junction of Veynes
+(16½ m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m. by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal
+see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence,
+is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century, and in 1791 was
+enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun (then suppressed).</p>
+
+<p>Gap is the <i>Vapincum</i> of the Romans, and was founded by
+Augustus about 14 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> It long formed part of Provence, but in
+1232 most of the region passed by marriage to the dauphins of
+Viennois. The town itself, however, remained under the rule of
+the bishops until 1512, when it was annexed to the crown of
+France. The bishops continued to bear the title of count of
+Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the
+Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692.
+It was the birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565),
+who first preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562,
+but then took refuge in Switzerland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J. Roman, <i>Histoire de la ville de Gap</i> (Gap, 1892).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAPAN,<a name="ar178" id="ar178"></a></span> a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon,
+Philippine Islands, 3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop.
+(1903) 11,278. It is situated in a rich rice-growing region, and
+extensive forests in its vicinity contain fine hardwoods. Its
+climate is comparatively cool and healthy. The principal native
+dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is the oldest
+town of the province.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARARISH<a name="ar179" id="ar179"></a></span> (<span class="sc">Kararish</span>), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic
+origin, dwelling along the right bank of the Nile from W&#257;di
+Halfa to Merawi. Many members of the tribe are agriculturists,
+others act as guides or transport drivers. They declare themselves
+kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are more Arab than Beja.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARASHANIN, ILIYA<a name="ar180" id="ar180"></a></span> (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was
+the son of a Servian peasant, who made money by exporting
+cattle and pigs to Austria and by his intelligence and wealth
+attained to a certain influence in the country. He wanted to
+give his son as good an education as possible, and therefore sent
+him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in a German
+school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular
+although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very
+quickly came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him
+a colonel and commander of the then just organized regular army
+of Servia. In 1842 he was called to the position of assistant to
+the home minister, and from that time until his retirement from
+public life in 1867 he was repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing
+himself by the energy and justice of his administration.
+But he rendered far greater services to his country as minister
+for foreign affairs. He was the first Servian statesman who had a
+political programme, and who worked to replace the Russian protectorate
+over Servia by the joint protectorate of all the great
+powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in 1853 he was
+decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against Turkey
+and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in
+Prince Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853,
+peremptorily demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander
+Karageorgevich) his dismissal. But although dismissed, his
+personal influence in the country secured the neutrality of Servia
+during the Crimean War. He enjoyed esteem in France, and it
+was due to him that France proposed to the peace conference of
+Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to Servia by
+Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be
+replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a
+European international commission. But the agreement of the
+powers was not secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander
+Karageorgevich to convoke a national assembly, which had not
+been called to meet for ten years. The assembly was convoked
+for St Andrew&rsquo;s Day 1858, but its first act was to dethrone Prince
+Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh Obrenovich. When
+after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince Michael
+ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign
+affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that
+Servia was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution,
+and that she obtained, without war, the evacuation
+of all the fortresses garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the
+Servian territory, including the fortress of Belgrade (1867).
+Garashanin was preparing a general rising of the Balkan nations
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page456" id="page456"></a>456</span>
+against the Turkish rule, and had entered into confidential
+arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians,
+Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro.
+But the execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden
+resignation (at the end of 1867), and more especially by the
+assassination of Prince Michael a few months later (the 10th of
+June 1868). Although he was a Conservative in politics, and as
+such often in conflict with the leader of the Liberal movement,
+Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the ablest statesmen
+whom Servia had in the 19th century.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. Mi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH<a name="ar181" id="ar181"></a></span> (1740-1833), French writer
+and politician, was born at Bayonne on the 8th of September
+1749. After receiving a good education under the direction of a
+relation who was a curé, and having been an advocate at Bordeaux,
+he came to Paris, where he obtained introductions to the
+most distinguished writers of the time, and became a contributor
+to the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i> and the <i>Mercure de France</i>. He
+gained considerable reputation by an éloge on Michel de L&rsquo;Hôpital
+in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy
+for éloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was
+named professor of history at the <i>Lycée</i>, where his lectures
+enjoyed an equal popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on
+literature. Being chosen a deputy to the states-general in 1789,
+he rendered important service to the popular cause by his
+narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly contributed to the
+<i>Journal de Paris</i>. Possessing strongly optimist views, a mild
+and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable convictions,
+he played a somewhat undignified part in the great
+political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying
+out the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of
+justice in 1792, and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he
+called the <i>commission affreuse</i> of communicating to Louis XVI.
+his sentence of death. In 1793 he became minister of the interior.
+In this capacity he proved himself quite inefficient. Though
+himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most scandalous corruption
+in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably organized
+detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every
+movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order,
+which might easily have been done by a moderate display of
+firmness. At last, disgusted with the excesses which he had been
+unable to control, he resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of
+October he was arrested for Girondist sympathies but soon
+released, and he escaped further molestation owing to the
+friendship of Barras and, more especially, of Robespierre, whose
+literary <i>amour-propre</i> he had been careful to flatter. On the 9th
+Thermidor, however, he took sides against Robespierre, and on
+the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the Convention as a
+member of the executive committee of public instruction. In
+1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following
+year he became a member, then president, of the Council of the
+Ancients. Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was
+chosen a senator by Napoleon and created a count. During the
+Hundred Days he was a member of the chamber of representatives.
+In 1803 he was chosen a member of the Institute of France,
+but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name was, in 1816,
+deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of 1830
+he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and
+Political Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25,
+1833. His writings are characterized by elegance, grace and
+variety of style, and by the highest kind of rhetorical eloquence;
+but his grasp of his subject is superficial, and as his criticisms
+have no root in fixed and philosophical principles they are not
+unfrequently whimsical and inconsistent. He must not be
+confounded with his elder brother Dominique (1735-1799), who
+was also a deputy to the states-general.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned,
+<i>Considérations sur la Révolution Française</i> (Paris, 1792); <i>Mémoires
+sur la Révolution, ou exposé de ma conduite</i> (1795); <i>Mémoires sur
+la vie de M. Suard, sur ses écrits, et sur le XVIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1820);
+éloges on Joubert, Kléber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished
+persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals.
+Valuable materials for the history of Garat&rsquo;s tenure of the ministry,
+notably the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt&rsquo;s
+<i>Tableaux de la Révolution Française</i> (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN<a name="ar182" id="ar182"></a></span> (1764-1823), French singer, nephew
+of Dominique Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th
+of April 1764. Gifted with a voice of exceptional timbre and
+compass he devoted himself, from an early age, to the cultivation
+of his musical talents. On account of his manifesting a distaste
+for the legal profession, for which his father wished him to study,
+he was deprived of his allowance, but through the patronage of a
+friend he obtained the office of secretary to Comte d&rsquo;Artois, and
+was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to the queen of
+France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied
+Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in
+concerts. He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he
+became a professional singer, and on account of a song which he
+had composed in reference to the misfortunes of the royal family
+he was thrown into prison. On regaining his liberty he went to
+Hamburg, where he at once achieved extraordinary success; and
+by his subsequent appearances in Paris, and his visits to Italy,
+Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for himself a reputation as
+a singer unequalled by any other of his own time. He was a keen
+partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the institution of
+the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of singing.
+He also composed a number of songs, many of which have
+considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARAY, JÁNOS<a name="ar183" id="ar183"></a></span> (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author,
+was born on the 10th of October 1812, at Szegszárd, in the
+county of Tolna. From 1823 to 1828 he studied at Fünfkirchen,
+and subsequently, in 1829, at the university of Pest. In 1834 he
+brought out an heroic poem, in hexameters, under the title
+<i>Csatár</i>. After this he issued in quick succession various historical
+dramas, among which the most successful were <i>Arbócz, Országh
+Ilona</i> and <i>Báthori Erzsébet</i>,&mdash;the first two published at Pest in
+1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic journalist,
+and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the political
+journal <i>Hirnök</i> (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when he
+was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy
+of Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society,
+of which he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian
+literature with numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The
+first collection of his poems was published at Pest in 1843; and
+his prose tales appeared in 1845, under the title of <i>Tollrajzok</i>
+(Sketches with the Pen). His historical ballads and legends,
+styled <i>Arpádok</i> (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed. 1848), showed him to be a
+master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of his lyrical poems
+also are excellent, as, for example, <i>Balatoni Kagylók</i> (Shells from
+the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend <i>Bosnyák Zsófia</i>
+(Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance <i>Frangepán Kristófné</i>
+(Christopher Frangepan&rsquo;s Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize of
+the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an
+historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title <i>Szent László</i>
+(Saint Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863).
+Garay was professor of Hungarian language and literature to the
+university of Pest in 1848-1849. After about four years&rsquo; illness
+he died on the 5th of November 1853, in great want. A collective
+edition of his poems was published at Pest the year after his
+death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and several of his poems were
+translated by Kertbeny.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Garay János Összes költeményei</i> (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and
+<i>Dichtungen von Johann Garay</i> (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARBLE<a name="ar184" id="ar184"></a></span> (a word derived from the Arab. <i>gharbala</i>, to sift, and
+related to <i>ghirbal</i>, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin,
+probably from the Lat. <i>cribrum</i>, a sieve), originally a medieval
+commercial term in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort
+out, or to sift merchandize, such as corn, spices, &amp;c., in order
+to separate what was good from the refuse or waste; hence to
+select the best of anything for retention. Similarly a &ldquo;garbler&rdquo;
+was an official who was appointed to sort out, or test the work of
+those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs offered for sale
+in the London markets. In this original sense the word is now
+obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, &ldquo;garble&rdquo; now
+means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary
+works, or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates,
+or renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page457" id="page457"></a>457</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARÇÃO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRÊA<a name="ar185" id="ar185"></a></span> (1724-1772),
+Portuguese lyric poet, was the son of Philippe Corrêa da
+Serra, a <i>fidalgo</i> of the royal house who held an important post in
+the foreign office; his mother was of French descent. The poet&rsquo;s
+health was frail, and after going through a Jesuit school in Lisbon
+and learning English, French and Italian at home, he proceeded in
+1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a legal career.
+He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was created
+a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with
+D. Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him
+to live in ease and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit
+reduced him to poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the
+<i>Lisbon Gazette</i>. In 1756, in conjunction with Cruz e Silva and
+others, Garção founded the <i>Arcadia Lusitana</i> to reform the
+prevailing bad taste in literature, identified with <i>Seicentismo</i>,
+which delighted in conceits, windy words and rhetorical phrases.
+The <i>Arcadia</i> fulfilled its mission to some extent, but it lacked
+creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of inanition.
+Garção was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing the
+name of &ldquo;Corydon Erimantheo,&rdquo; and his orations and dissertations,
+with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at
+its meetings. He lived much in the society of the English
+residents in Lisbon, and he is supposed to have conceived a
+passion for an English married lady which completely absorbed
+him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his literary
+activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the
+9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose
+displeasure he had incurred by his independence of character.
+The immediate cause of his incarceration would appear to have
+been his connexion with a love intrigue between a young friend of
+his and the daughter of a Colonel Elsden, but he was never
+brought to trial, and the matter must remain in doubt. After
+much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order for her
+husband&rsquo;s release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too
+late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life,
+Garção expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of
+forty-seven.</p>
+
+<p>Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment,
+scholarship and wide reading, Garção set out to raise and purify
+the standard of poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by
+a classical simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets <i>ad
+sodales</i> show a charming personality; his vigorous and elegant
+odes and epistles are sententious in tone and reveal an inspired
+poet and a man chastened by suffering. His two comedies in
+hendecasyllables, the <i>Theatro Novo</i> (played in January 1766)
+and the <i>Assemblêa</i>, are excellent satires on the social life of the
+capital; and in the <i>Cantata de Dido</i>, included in the latter piece,
+the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of form, making this
+composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century poetry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Garção wrote little and spent much time on the <i>labor limae</i>.
+His works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete
+and accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome,
+1888). An English version of the <i>Cantata de Dido</i> appeared in the
+Academy (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, <i>Diccionario
+bibliographico Portuguez</i>, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp. 182-184;
+also Dr Theophilo Braga, <i>A Arcadia Lusitana</i> (Oporto, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL<a name="ar186" id="ar186"></a></span> (1775-1832),
+Spanish singer and composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of
+January 1775. He became a chorister at the cathedral of Seville,
+and studied music under the best masters of that city. At
+seventeen he made his début on the stage at Cadiz, in an operetta,
+in which were included songs of his own composition. Soon afterwards
+he appeared at Madrid in the twofold capacity of singer and
+composer. His reputation being established, he proceeded to
+Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in Paer&rsquo;s
+opera <i>Griselda</i>. Here also he was received with great applause,
+his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further
+improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself,
+where he continued his successes. His opera <i>Il Califo di Bagdad</i>
+was favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes
+were again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera <i>La
+Morte di Tasso</i> was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was
+followed in 1823 by his <i>Il Fazzoletto</i>. In 1824 he went to London,
+and thence proceeded to America (1825) with a company of
+artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and his daughter
+Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran.
+In New York was produced his opera <i>La Figlia dell&rsquo; aria</i> in 1827.
+He extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the
+point of returning to Europe in order to retire from public life
+when he was robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his
+way to Vera Cruz. Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired
+from the stage, and devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He
+died in Paris on the 2nd of June 1832. His method of teaching
+was famous, and some of the most celebrated singers of the early
+part of the century were amongst his pupils. He also wrote an
+excellent book on the art of singing called <i>Metodo di canto</i>, of
+which the essence was subsequently incorporated by his son
+Manoel in his admirable <i>Traité complet de l&rsquo;art du chant</i> (1847).
+His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in
+all, but with the exception of those quoted, and <i>El Poeta calculista</i>,
+produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the
+children already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame
+Viardot (1821-1910), worthily continued the tradition for the
+best singing with which his name had become associated.</p>
+
+<p>His son, <span class="sc">Manoel Garcia</span> (1805-1906), who celebrated his
+hundredth birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was
+born at Madrid, and after his father&rsquo;s death devoted himself to
+teaching. He was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire from
+1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was a professor at the
+Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous for his
+invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his position
+as the greatest representative of the old &ldquo;<i>bel canto</i>&rdquo; style of
+singing.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARCÍA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO<a name="ar187" id="ar187"></a></span> (1734-1787),
+Spanish dramatist, was born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734,
+and was educated at Salamanca. At Madrid he soon attracted
+attention by his literary arrogance and handsome person; and
+at an early age became chief of the National Library, a post from
+which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of his numerous
+enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection of
+Spanish plays entitled <i>Theatro Hespanol</i> (1785-1786) exposed him
+to severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason.
+He died at Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying
+into effect his avowed intention of reviving the national drama.
+His <i>Agamemnón vengado</i> derives from Sophocles, his <i>Jaire</i> is
+translated from Voltaire, and even his once famous <i>Raquel</i>,
+though Spanish in subject, is classic in form.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARCÍA DE PAREDES, DIEGO<a name="ar188" id="ar188"></a></span> (1466-1534), Spanish soldier
+and duellist, was a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain.
+He never commanded an army or rose to the position of a general,
+but he was a notable figure in the wars of the end of the 15th and
+beginning of the 16th century, when personal prowess had still a
+considerable share in deciding the result of actions. His native
+town and its district, which lie between Talavera and Madrid,
+produced many of the most noted <i>conquistadores</i> of America,
+including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth
+in the war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted
+him to shine in operations largely composed of night marches,
+escalades, surprises and hand-to-hand combats. The main
+scene of his achievements was in Italy, and he betook himself to
+it&mdash;on his own showing&mdash;not in search of glory, but because he
+had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas, in a street
+fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to Rome,
+then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation
+to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope
+Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the
+Romagna and took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier
+of the pope till he killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it
+necessary to pass over to the enemy. Now he became acquainted
+with the Colonnas, who appreciated his services. The wars
+between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the Catholic king) and Louis
+XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The Spanish general
+Gonsalvo de Córdoba, who knew his value, employed him and
+trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page458" id="page458"></a>458</span>
+frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube,
+till 1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many
+Münchausen-like stories of personal prowess. It was said that he
+held a bridge single-handed against 200 Frenchmen, that he
+stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so forth. In the &ldquo;Brief
+Summary&rdquo; of his life and deeds attributed to him, and printed at
+the end of the <i>Chronicle of the Great Captain</i>, published in 1584 at
+Alcalá de Henares, he lays no claim to having done more than
+was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in
+1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of
+the younger officers of the army. His body was carried to his
+native town Trujillo, and buried in the church of Santa Maria
+Mayor in 1545.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARCÍA GUTIÉRREZ, ANTONIO<a name="ar189" id="ar189"></a></span> (1812-1884), Spanish
+dramatist, was born at Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812,
+and studied medicine in his native town. In 1832 he removed
+to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by translating plays of
+Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success, he was on the
+point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as the author
+of <i>El Trovador</i>, which was played for the first time on the 1st of
+March 1836. García Gutiérrez never surpassed this first effort,
+which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement
+in Spain, and which became known all over Europe through
+Verdi&rsquo;s music. His next great success was <i>Simón Bocanegra</i>
+(1843), but, as his plays were not lucrative, he emigrated to
+Spanish America, working as a journalist in Cuba and Mexico till
+1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of his later
+period are a <i>zarzuela</i> entitled <i>El Grumete</i> (1853), <i>La Venganza
+catalana</i> (1864) and <i>Juan Lorenzo</i> (1865). He became head of
+the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th
+of August 1884. His <i>Poesías</i> (1840) and another volume of
+lyrics, entitled <i>Luz y tinieblas</i> (1842), are unimportant; but the
+brilliant versification of his plays, and his power of analysing
+feminine emotions, give him a foremost place among the Spanish
+dramatists of the 19th century.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARD<a name="ar190" id="ar190"></a></span>, a department in the south of France, consisting of part
+of the old province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area
+2270 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of Lozère and
+Ardèche, E. by the Rhone, which separates it from Vaucluse and
+Bouches-du-Rhône, S. by the Mediterranean, S.W. by Hérault
+and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into three sharply-defined
+regions. Its north-western districts are occupied by the range of
+the Cévennes, which on the frontier of Lozère attain a height of
+5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its fruitful
+valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and the
+chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the
+mountains are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a
+dry, hilly region of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation
+of cereals, the vine and olive, stretches from the foot of the
+Cévennes over the centre of the department, covering about half
+its area. The southern portion, which extends to the sea, and was
+probably at one time covered by it, is a low plain with numerous
+lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is prosperous, and
+comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E.,
+and the Ardèche, the lower course of which forms part of its
+boundary on the N., the principal rivers are the Cèze, Gard,
+Vidourle and Hérault. The most northern of these is the Cèze,
+which rises in the Cévennes, and after a course of about 50 m. in
+an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above Roquemaure.
+The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its name,
+is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cévennes from
+several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a
+length of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows
+through a succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the
+melting of the snows on the Cévennes is subject to inundations,
+which often cause great damage. Its waters not infrequently
+rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its bed is sometimes increased
+in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it is crossed by a
+celebrated Roman aqueduct&mdash;the Pont du Gard (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aqueduct</a></span>).
+The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near Le
+Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below
+Sommières it forms the western boundary of the department.
+The Hérault has its source and part of its course in the west of
+Gard. The Canal de Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at
+Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which communicates with the
+Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the Grand-Roubine
+canal.</p>
+
+<p>The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west;
+it is rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The
+cold and violent north-west wind known as the mistral is its
+worst drawback. Les Fumades (near Allègre) and Euzet have
+mineral springs. The chief grain crops are wheat and oats.
+Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed for its
+cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of which is
+of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks first
+among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the
+olive, mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated
+and yields excellent red and white wines. The department is
+rich in minerals, and the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt,
+zinc, lead and copper, which are for the most part situated in the
+neighbourhoods of Alais and La Grand&rsquo;-Combe, constitute one of
+the chief sources of its wealth. Great quantities of salt are
+obtained from the salt marshes along the coast. The quarries of
+building and other stone employ a considerable number of workmen.
+The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive,
+and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre,
+cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze),
+liquorice, gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There
+are also breweries and distilleries, and important metallurgical
+works, the chief of which are those of Bessèges. The exports of
+Gard include coal, lignite, coke, asphalt, building-stone, iron,
+steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives, grapes and truffles.</p>
+
+<p>The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is
+divided into the arrondissements of Nîmes, Alais, Uzès and Le
+Vigan, with 40 cantons and 351 communes. The chief town is
+Nîmes, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon
+and of a court of appeal. Gard belongs to the 15th military
+region, which has its headquarters at Marseilles, and to the
+académie (educational division) of Montpellier. Nîmes, Alais,
+Uzès, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Bessèges, La Grand&rsquo;-Combe
+and Villeneuve-lès-Avignon are the principal places.
+Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone
+is crossed by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long
+built by the Pontiff brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with
+several old houses, carries on silk-spinning.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDA, LAKE OF<a name="ar191" id="ar191"></a></span> (the <i>Lacus Benacus</i> of the Romans), the
+most easterly and the most extensive of the great Lombard
+lakes, being only surpassed in the Alpine region by those of
+Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme northern extremity
+(Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in 1517), the
+whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of
+Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents
+the southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river
+now flows through a narrow trench which is separated from the
+lake by the long narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.).
+Nowadays the lake is fed by the Sarca, that flows in at its north
+end from the glaciers of the Adamello, while at the southern
+extremity of the lake the Mincio flows out, on its way to join the
+Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq. m., its length is 32¼ m.,
+its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the height of its surface above
+sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth yet measured is 1916 ft.
+Its upper or northern end is narrow, but between Garda (E.) and
+Salò (W.) the lake expands gradually into a nearly circular basin,
+which at the southern extremity is divided into two parts by the
+long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the southern
+shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this conformation
+the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds,
+which Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (<i>Georg</i>. ii. line 160):
+<i>fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino</i>. The most
+dangerous of these winds is the <i>Borea</i> or <i>Suer</i>, that sweeps down
+from the north as through a funnel. In the southern portion of
+the lake the <i>Vinessa</i>, an E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The <i>Ora</i>
+is a regular wind coming from the east which, on reaching the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page459" id="page459"></a>459</span>
+lake, blows from S. to N. The steep grey limestone crags of
+Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake, contrast strongly
+with the rich vegetation on the western and southern shores.
+The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to
+Salò is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that
+not merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing
+lemons, figs, mulberries, olives, &amp;c.), but is frequented in winter,
+and has been given the name of the <i>Riviera Benacense</i>. The
+lovely promontory of Sermione, at the southern end of the lake,
+has also an extremely luxuriant vegetation, while it contains
+many remains of buildings of Roman and later date, having been
+the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided here and celebrated its beauties
+in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat with paddles set in motion
+by horses was put on the lake, but the first steamer dates only
+from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W. respectively
+of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera
+(14¼ m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17½ m.
+by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8¾ m. distant from
+each other. On the west shore of the lake are Salò, Toscolano,
+Gargnano and Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast
+only of Bardolino and Garda. At the northern tip of the lake,
+and in Tirol, is Riva, the most considerable town on the lake,
+and 15½ m. by rail from the Mori station on the main Brenner
+line.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. B. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU,<a name="ar192" id="ar192"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1766-1818),
+French general and diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January
+1766. He entered the army and rose rapidly during the revolutionary
+wars, becoming captain in 1793. In May 1799 he
+distinguished himself by saving a division of the French army
+which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of
+Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau.
+He incurred Napoleon&rsquo;s displeasure for an omission of duty
+shortly before the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in
+1805 was appointed to be aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief
+distinction, however, was to be won in the diplomatic sphere.
+In the spring of 1807, when Russia and Prussia were at war with
+France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia was also engaged
+in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a mission to
+the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the east
+of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian
+alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle;
+and Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing
+of that alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up
+for Gardane, and signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as
+showing the strong oriental trend of the emperor&rsquo;s policy. France
+was to guarantee the integrity of Persia, to recognize that
+Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) belonged to the
+shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring that
+territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms,
+officers and workmen, in the number and to the amount
+demanded by him. Napoleon on his side required Persia to
+declare war against Great Britain, to expel all Britons from her
+territory, and to come to an understanding with the Afghans
+with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India.
+Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long
+and dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at
+Teheran in December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian
+treaty at Tilsit in July 1807 rendered the mission
+abortive. Persia longed only for help against Russia and had
+no desire, when all hope of that was past, to attack India. The
+shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant to France
+a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely
+replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir
+John Malcolm to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally,
+however, Gardane saw that nothing much was to be hoped for in
+the changed situation of European affairs, and abruptly left the
+country (April 1809). This conduct was not wholly approved by
+Napoleon, but he named him count and in 1810 attached him
+to Masséna&rsquo;s army in Portugal. There, during the disastrous
+retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which
+brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no
+notice. He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny
+(dated April 23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the
+prospects of a successful invasion of India is of great interest.
+He admitted the difficulties of this enterprise, but thought that
+a force of picked French troops, aided by Persians and Afghans,
+might under favourable conditions penetrate into India by way of
+Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were distracted
+by maritime attacks from Mauritius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Count Alfred de Gardane, <i>Mission du général Gardane en Perse</i>
+(Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, <i>La Politique orientale de
+Napoléon: Sébastiani et Gardane</i> (Paris, 1904).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Hl. R.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDELEGEN,<a name="ar193" id="ar193"></a></span> a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on
+the right bank of the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main
+line of railway Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a
+Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, a hospital,
+founded in 1285, and a high-grade school. There are considerable
+manufactures, notably agricultural machinery and buttons, and
+its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was founded in the 10th
+century, and was for a long time the seat of a line of counts. It
+suffered considerably in the Thirty Years&rsquo; War, and in 1775 was
+burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave
+Louis I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the
+Mild of Brunswick.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDEN<a name="ar194" id="ar194"></a></span> (from O. Fr. <i>gardin</i>, mod. Fr. <i>jardin</i>; this, like
+our words &ldquo;garth,&rdquo; a paddock attached to a building, and
+&ldquo;yard,&rdquo; comes from a Teutonic word for an enclosure which
+appears in Gothic as <i>gards</i> and O.H. Ger. <i>gart</i>, cf. Dutch <i>gaarde</i>
+and Ger. <i>garten</i>), the ground enclosed and cultivated for the
+growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>).
+The word is also used for grounds laid out ornamentally, used as
+places of public entertainment. Such were the famous Ranelagh
+and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in zoological
+gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or
+streets. From the fact that Epicurus (<i>q.v.</i>) taught in the gardens
+at Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as
+<span class="grk" title="hoi apo tôn kêpôn">&#959;&#7985; &#7936;&#960;&#8056; &#964;&#8182;&#957; &#954;&#942;&#960;&#969;&#957;</span> (so Diog. Laërtius x. 10); and Cicero (<i>De
+finibus</i> v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the <i>Horti Epicuri</i>.
+Thus as the &ldquo;Academy&rdquo; refers to the Platonic and the &ldquo;Porch&rdquo;
+(<span class="grk" title="stoa">&#963;&#964;&#959;&#940;</span>) to the Stoic school, so the &ldquo;Garden&rdquo; is the name given to
+the Epicurean school of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as
+<span class="grk" title="kêpotyrannos">&#954;&#951;&#960;&#959;&#964;&#973;&#961;&#945;&#957;&#957;&#959;&#962;</span>, the tyrant of the garden.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDENIA,<a name="ar195" id="ar195"></a></span> in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae,
+containing about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs,
+natives of the warmer parts of the old world. Several are
+grown in stoves or greenhouses for their handsome, sweet-scented
+white flowers. The flowers are developed singly at the end of a
+branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or salver-shaped with
+a long tube. The double forms of <i>Gardenia florida</i> (a native of
+China) and <i>G. radicans</i> (a native of Japan) are amongst the most
+beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias
+are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by
+cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing
+season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy
+bug, green fly, red spider and scale-insect.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDINER, JAMES<a name="ar196" id="ar196"></a></span> (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at
+Carriden in Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the
+age of fourteen he entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch
+service, and was afterwards present at the battle of Ramillies,
+where he was wounded. He subsequently served in different
+cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was advanced to the rank of
+lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of colonel. He fell at the
+battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September 1745. The
+circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott&rsquo;s
+<i>Waverley</i>. In his early years he was distinguished for his
+recklessness and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision,
+as he regarded it, led to his conversion, and from that time he
+lived a life of great devoutness and of thorough consistency with
+his Christian profession. Dr Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk,
+author of an autobiography, says that he was &ldquo;very ostentatious&rdquo;
+about his conversion&mdash;speaks of him as weak, and
+plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col.
+Gardiner&rsquo;s account of his sins.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often
+reprinted.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page460" id="page460"></a>460</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON<a name="ar197" id="ar197"></a></span> (1829-1902), English
+historian, son of Rawson Boddam Gardiner, was born near
+Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March 1829. He was educated at
+Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first
+class in <i>literae humaniores</i>. He was subsequently elected to
+fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some
+years he was professor of modern history at King&rsquo;s College,
+London, and devoted his life to historical work. He is the
+historian of the Puritan revolution, and has written its history in
+a series of volumes, originally published under different titles,
+beginning with the accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the
+third volume of the <i>History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate</i>)
+appeared in 1901. This was completed in two volumes by C.H.
+Firth as <i>The Last Years of the Protectorate</i> (1909). The series is
+<i>History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak
+of the Civil War</i>, 1603-1642 (10 vols.); <i>History of the Great Civil
+War</i>, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and <i>History of the Commonwealth and
+Protectorate, 1649-1660</i>. His treatment is exhaustive and
+philosophical, taking in, along with political and constitutional
+history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment during his
+period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original
+authorities on which his work is founded many of great value
+exist only in manuscript, and his researches in public and
+private collections of manuscripts at home, and in the archives
+of Simancas, Venice, Rome, Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable
+and fruitful. His accuracy is universally acknowledged.
+He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by the fact of his
+descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly written of
+it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his
+judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his
+appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of
+perception and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these
+qualities it will be enough to refer to what he says of the characters
+of James I., Bacon, Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional
+matters he writes with an insight to be attained only by
+the study of political philosophy, discussing in a masterly
+fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes of government
+proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a prominent
+place to everything which illustrates human progress in
+moral and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially
+to the rise and development of the idea of religious toleration,
+finding his authorities not only in the words and actions of men of
+mark, but in the writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers,
+whose essays indicate currents in the tide of public opinion.
+His record of the relations between England and other states
+proves his thorough knowledge of contemporary European
+history, and is rendered specially valuable by his researches
+among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound
+for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.</p>
+
+<p>Gardiner&rsquo;s work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years
+which it covers are a period of exceptional importance in many
+directions, and the actions and characters of the principal persons
+in it demand careful analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an
+exaggerated importance to some of the authorities which he was
+the first to bring to light, to see a general tendency in what may
+only be the expression of an individual eccentricity, to rely too
+much on ambassadors&rsquo; reports which may have been written for
+some special end, to enter too fully into the details of diplomatic
+correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not the
+result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely
+unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly
+to the intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom
+picturesque, though in describing a few famous scenes, such as the
+execution of Charles I., he writes with pathos and dignity. The
+minuteness of his narrative detracts from its interest; though
+his arrangement is generally good, here and there the reader
+finds the thread of a subject broken by the intrusion of incidents
+not immediately connected with it, and does not pick it up again
+without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his supreme
+qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of character;
+his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and unmoved.
+Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without
+beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity
+and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other
+books, mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by
+which his name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting
+labour, a splendid monument of historical scholarship.
+His position as an historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862
+he was given a civil list pension of £150 per annum, &ldquo;in recognition
+of his valuable contributions to the history of England&rdquo;;
+he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of Edinburgh, and
+Ph.D. of Göttingen, and honorary student of Christ Church,
+Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius
+professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should
+interfere with the accomplishment of his history. He died on
+the 24th of February 1902.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner&rsquo;s separate works are:
+<i>Prince Charles and the Spanish Marriage</i> (2 vols., London, 1869);
+<i>Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660</i> (1st
+ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); <i>Oliver Cromwell</i> (London,
+1901); <i>What Gunpowder Plot was</i> (London, 1897); <i>Outline of
+English History</i> (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896);
+and <i>Student&rsquo;s History of England</i> (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891;
+2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of
+papers for the Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the
+<i>English Historical Review</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. Hu.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDINER, STEPHEN<a name="ar198" id="ar198"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1493-1555), English bishop and
+lord chancellor, was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of
+his birth as commonly given, 1483, seems to be about ten years
+too early, and surmises which have passed current that he was
+some one&rsquo;s illegitimate child are of no authority. His father is
+now known to have been John Gardiner, a substantial cloth
+merchant of the town where he was born (see his will, printed in
+<i>Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute</i>, i. 329), who
+took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then
+a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols&rsquo;s <i>Epistles of Erasmus</i>,
+ii. 12, 13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge,
+where he studied at Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself
+in the classics, especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted
+himself to the canon and civil law, in which subjects he attained
+so great a proficiency that no one could dispute his pre-eminence.
+He received the degree of doctor of civil law in 1520, and of canon
+law in the following year.</p>
+
+<p>Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey,
+who made him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have
+been with him at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion
+of the celebrated treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and
+the French ambassadors thither. It is stated, and with great
+probability, that this was the occasion on which he was first
+introduced to the king&rsquo;s notice, but he does not appear to have
+been actively engaged in Henry&rsquo;s service till three years later. In
+that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very intimate knowledge
+of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas More
+were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging
+a treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army
+in Italy against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey
+on his important diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and
+magnificence of which are so graphically described by Cavendish.
+Among the imposing train who went with the cardinal&mdash;including,
+as it did, several noblemen and privy councillors&mdash;Gardiner
+alone seems to have been acquainted with the real heart of the
+matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar moment.
+Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with
+Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the
+object on which he had secretly set his heart&mdash;a divorce from
+Catherine of Aragon. In the course of his progress through
+France he received orders from Henry to send back his secretary
+Gardiner, or, as he was called at court, Master Stevens, for fresh
+instructions; to which he was obliged to reply that he positively
+could not spare him as he was the only instrument he had in
+advancing the king&rsquo;s &ldquo;secret matter.&rdquo; Next year Gardiner, still
+in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along with
+Edward Fox, provost of King&rsquo;s College, Cambridge, to promote
+the same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion
+are still extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which
+he was engaged, they certainly give a wonderful impression of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page461" id="page461"></a>461</span>
+zeal and ability with which he discharged his functions. Here his
+perfect familiarity with the canon law gave him a great advantage.
+He was instructed to procure from the pope a decretal commission,
+laying down principles of law by which Wolsey and
+Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal.
+The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not
+only unusual but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at
+Orvieto, and had just recently escaped from captivity at St
+Angelo at the hands of the imperialists. But fear of offending
+the emperor could not have induced him to refuse a really
+legitimate request from a king like Henry. He naturally referred
+the question to the cardinals about him; with whom Gardiner
+held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little
+browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of
+a spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the
+wanderer his way? The king and lords of England would be
+driven to think that God had taken away from the Holy See the
+key of knowledge, and that pontifical laws which were not clear
+to the pope himself might as well be committed to the flames.</p>
+
+<p>This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was
+obliged to be content with a general commission for Campeggio
+and Wolsey to try the cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw,
+was quite inadequate for the purpose in view; and he again
+instructed Gardiner, while thanking the pope for the commission
+actually granted, to press him once more by very urgent pleas,
+to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was only to be
+shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise,
+he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even
+be tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At
+last the pope&mdash;to his own bitter regret afterwards&mdash;gave what
+was desired on the express conditions named, that Campeggio
+was to show it to the king and Wolsey and no one else, and then
+destroy it, the two legates holding their court under the general
+commission. After obtaining this Gardiner returned home;
+but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings were
+delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once
+more to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing.
+The pope would make no further concessions, and would not
+even promise not to revoke the cause to Rome, as he did very
+shortly after.</p>
+
+<p>Gardiner&rsquo;s services, however, were fully appreciated. He was
+appointed the king&rsquo;s secretary. He had been already some years
+archdeacon of Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was
+added to it in March 1529, which two years later he resigned for
+that of Leicester. In 1530 he was sent to Cambridge to procure
+the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage
+with a deceased brother&rsquo;s wife, in accordance with the new plan
+devised for settling the question without the pope&rsquo;s intervention.
+In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of artifice,
+more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In November
+1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric
+of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey&rsquo;s death. The promotion was
+unexpected, and was accompanied by expressions from the king
+which made it still more honourable, as showing that if he had
+been in some things too subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking
+policy of his own. Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated
+boldly with his sovereign on some points, and Henry
+now reminded him of the fact. &ldquo;I have often <i>squared</i> with you,
+Gardiner,&rdquo; he said familiarly, &ldquo;but I love you never the worse,
+as the bishopric I give will convince you.&rdquo; In 1532, nevertheless,
+he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he took in the
+preparation of the famous &ldquo;Answer of the Ordinaries&rdquo; to the
+complaints brought against them in the House of Commons.
+On this subject he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own
+defence.</p>
+
+<p>His next important action was not so creditable; for he was,
+not exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer&rsquo;s assessors, but,
+according to Cranmer&rsquo;s own expression, &ldquo;assistant&rdquo; to him as
+counsel for the king, when the archbishop, in the absence of
+Queen Catherine, pronounced her marriage with Henry null and
+void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately afterwards he was
+sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between the pope and
+Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry
+stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most
+cordial ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause
+in the matter of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner
+intimated the appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case
+the pope should venture to proceed to sentence against him.
+This appeal, and also one on behalf of Cranmer presented with it,
+were of Gardiner&rsquo;s drawing up. In 1535 he and other bishops
+were called upon to vindicate the king&rsquo;s new title of &ldquo;Supreme
+Head of the Church of England.&rdquo; The result was his celebrated
+treatise <i>De vera obedientia</i>, the ablest, certainly, of all the
+vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an
+unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his
+diocese. He was also employed to answer the pope&rsquo;s brief
+threatening to deprive Henry of his kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies
+in France and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that
+he had little influence upon the king&rsquo;s councils. But in 1539 he
+took part in the enactment of the severe statute of the Six Articles,
+which led to the resignation of Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and
+the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1540, on the death of
+Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected chancellor of the university
+of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted, in concert with
+others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in
+connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and but for the
+personal intervention of the king he would probably have
+succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal
+supremacy, a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a
+doctrinal point of view, and it was suspected that he even
+repented his advocacy of the royal supremacy. He certainly
+had not approved of Henry&rsquo;s general treatment of the church,
+especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was
+frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he
+schooled himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of
+his own, named German Gardiner, whom he employed as his
+secretary, was put to death for treason in reference to the king&rsquo;s
+supremacy, and his enemies insinuated to the king that he
+himself was of his secretary&rsquo;s way of thinking. But in truth the
+king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer; for it
+was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious
+to prove that England had not fallen away from the faith,
+while Cranmer&rsquo;s authority as primate was necessary to upholding
+that supremacy. Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained
+opposite sides of the king&rsquo;s church policy; and though Gardiner
+was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the archbishop
+himself for heresy, the archbishop could always rely on the
+king&rsquo;s protection in the end. Heresy was gaining ground in high
+places, especially after the king&rsquo;s marriage with Catherine Parr;
+and there seems to be some truth in the story that the queen
+herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner,
+with the king&rsquo;s approbation, censured some of her expressions
+in conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men
+of the Court were condemned at Windsor and three of them
+were burned. The fourth, who was the musician Marbeck, was
+pardoned by Gardiner&rsquo;s procurement.</p>
+
+<p>Great as Gardiner&rsquo;s influence had been with Henry VIII., his
+name was omitted at the last in the king&rsquo;s will, though Henry
+was believed to have intended making him one of his executors.
+Under Edward VI. he was completely opposed to the policy of the
+dominant party both in ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The
+religious changes he objected to both on principle and on the
+ground of their being moved during the king&rsquo;s minority, and
+he resisted Cranmer&rsquo;s project of a general visitation. His remonstrances,
+however, were met by his own committal to the
+Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his
+imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long
+before he was called before the council, and, refusing to give
+them satisfaction on some points, was thrown into the Tower,
+where he continued during the whole remainder of the reign, a
+period slightly over five years. During this time he in vain
+demanded his liberty, and to be called before parliament as a peer
+of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and given to Dr
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page462" id="page462"></a>462</span>
+Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer&rsquo;s who had not long before been
+made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the
+duke of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the
+Tower along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into
+London, set them all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his
+bishopric and appointed lord chancellor, and he set the crown on
+the queen&rsquo;s head at her coronation. He also opened her first
+parliament and for some time was her leading councillor.</p>
+
+<p>He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of
+the work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years&mdash;to
+vindicate the legitimacy of the queen&rsquo;s birth and the lawfulness
+of her mother&rsquo;s marriage, to restore the old religion, and to
+recant what he himself had written touching the royal supremacy.
+It is said that he wrote a formal <i>Palinodia</i> or retractation of his
+book <i>De vera obedientia</i>, but it does not seem to be now extant;
+and the reference is probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday
+1554, after Cardinal Pole had absolved the kingdom from schism.
+As chancellor he had the onerous task of negotiating the queen&rsquo;s
+marriage treaty with Philip, to which he shared the general
+repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In executing it,
+however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous for
+England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards
+should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the
+country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation
+of the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high
+favour. How far he was responsible for the persecutions which
+afterwards arose is a debated question. He no doubt approved
+of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided
+there as chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws. Neither
+is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop Hooper,
+and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not exactly
+to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The
+natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined,
+even as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were
+handed over to the secular power to be burned. Gardiner,
+however, undoubtedly did his best to persuade them to save
+themselves by a course which he conscientiously followed himself;
+nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission along with
+a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he could
+very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese
+no victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after
+his death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents,
+there are strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane
+and generous. In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the
+English commissioners to promote peace with France; but their
+efforts were ineffectual. In October 1555 he again opened parliament
+as lord chancellor, but towards the end of the month he
+fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of November, when
+he died over sixty years of age.</p>
+
+<p>Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the
+subject of so much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular
+historians. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be
+admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrow-minded
+bigot he is commonly represented there is nothing
+whatever to show. He has been called ambitious, turbulent,
+crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a good many other
+things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in addition
+to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was
+despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of
+him as a tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted
+to remain five years in prison rather than change his principles is
+not very clearly explained; and as to his being despised, we have
+seen already that neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any
+means despicable. The truth is, there is not a single divine or
+statesman of that day whose course throughout was so thoroughly
+consistent. He was no friend to the Reformation, it is true, but
+he was at least a conscientious opponent. In doctrine he adhered
+to the old faith from first to last, while as a question of church
+policy, the only matter for consideration with him was whether
+the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally justifiable.</p>
+
+<p>His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as
+a statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his
+learning even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part
+that he was allowed to take in the drawing up of doctrinal
+formularies in Henry VIII.&rsquo;s time is not clear; but at a later
+date he was the author of various tracts in defence of the Real
+Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being written in prison,
+were published abroad under a feigned name. Controversial
+writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he had
+several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry
+VIII.&rsquo;s ambassador.</p>
+
+<p>He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great
+interest especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge.
+He was, however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing
+the language introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to
+him and Sir Thomas Smith upon the subject, in which, according
+to Ascham, his opponents showed themselves the better critics,
+but he the superior genius. In his own household he loved to
+take in young university men of promise; and many whom he
+thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as bishops,
+ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was
+spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special
+abode of the muses.</p>
+
+<p>He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his
+effigy is still to be seen.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. Ga.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDINER,<a name="ar199" id="ar199"></a></span> a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the
+confluence of Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m.
+below Augusta. Pop. (1890) 5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born);
+(1910) 5311. It is served by the Maine Central railway.
+The site of the city is only a few feet above sea-level, and the
+Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this point; the water
+of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a mile, furnishes
+the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly paper,
+machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable
+quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by
+Dr Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement
+was called Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a
+town, the founder being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston.
+But in 1803, when that part of Pittston which lay on the W.
+bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as a separate town and
+new life was given to it by the grandson of the founder, the present
+name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city in 1849.
+The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a
+population of 1177 in 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDNER, PERCY<a name="ar200" id="ar200"></a></span> (1846-&emsp;&emsp;), English classical archaeologist,
+was born in London, and was educated at the City
+of London school and Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872).
+He was Disney professor of archaeology at Cambridge from 1880
+to 1887, and was then appointed professor of classical archaeology
+at Oxford, where he had a stimulating influence on the study
+of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also became prominent
+as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his works
+are: <i>Types of Greek Coins</i> (1883); <i>A Numismatic Commentary
+on Pausanias</i> (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); <i>New Chapters in
+Greek History</i> (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Aisa">Asia</span> Minor; <i>Manual of Greek Antiquities</i> (with F.B. Jevons,
+2nd ed. 1898); <i>Grammar of Greek Art</i> (1905); <i>Exploratio
+Evangelica</i> (1899), on the origin of Christian belief; <i>A Historic
+View of the New Testament</i> (1901); <i>Growth of Christianity</i> (1907).</p>
+
+<p>His brother, <span class="sc">Ernest Arthur Gardner</span> (1862-&emsp;&emsp;), educated
+at the City of London school and Caius College, Cambridge
+(fellow, 1885), is also well known as an archaeologist. From
+1887 to 1895 he was director of the British School of Archaeology
+at Athens, and later became professor of archaeology at University
+College, London. His publications include: <i>Introduction to
+Greek Epigraphy</i> (1887); <i>Ancient Athens</i> (1902); <i>Handbook of
+Greek Sculpture</i> (1905); <i>Six Greek Sculptors</i> (1910). He was
+elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARDNER,<a name="ar201" id="ar201"></a></span> a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,699. The township is traversed
+by the Boston &amp; Maine railway. It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of
+hill country, well watered with streams and ponds, and includes
+the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of Fitchburg), South
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page463" id="page463"></a>463</span>
+Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the state
+colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital,
+and the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a
+memorial to Levi Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local
+manufacturer of chairs, who invented various kinds of chair-making
+machinery. By far the principal industry of the township
+(dating from 1805) is the manufacture of chairs, the township
+having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the world; among the
+other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages, silver-ware and
+oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the township
+was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting
+to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from
+parts of Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden,
+was incorporated in 1785, and was named in honour of Col.
+Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a patriot leader of Massachusetts,
+who was mortally wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See W.D. Herrick, <i>History of the Town of Gardner</i> (Gardner,
+1878), covering the years 1785-1878.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARE-FOWL<a name="ar202" id="ar202"></a></span><a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (Icelandic, <i>Geirfugl</i>; Gaelic, <i>Gearbhul</i>), the
+anglicized form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now
+considered extinct, formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish
+islands, the Great Auk of most English book-writers, and the
+<i>Alca impennis</i> of Linnaeus. In size it was hardly less than a tame
+goose, and in appearance it much resembled its smaller and
+surviving relative the razor-bill (<i>Alca torda</i>); but the glossy
+black of its head was varied by a large patch of white occupying
+nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in place of the
+razor-bill&rsquo;s thin white line, while the bill itself bore eight or more
+deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and the
+ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise
+the coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory
+evidence that the gare-fowl&rsquo;s winter-plumage differed from that
+of the breeding-season just as is ordinarily the case in other
+members of the family <i>Alcidae</i> to which it belongs. The most
+striking characteristic of the gare-fowl, however, was the comparatively
+abortive condition of its wings, the distal portions of
+which, though the bird was just about twice the linear dimensions
+of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same size as in that
+species&mdash;proving, if more direct evidence were wanting, its
+inability to fly.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:444px; height:545px" src="images/img463.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption">Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is
+one which has been repeated so often, and in books of such
+generally good repute and wide dispersal, that a successful
+refutation seems almost hopeless. This is the notion that it was
+a bird possessing a very high northern range, and consequently
+to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this error arose would
+take too long to tell, but the fact remains indisputable that,
+setting aside general assertions resting on no evidence worthy of
+attention, there is but a single record deserving any credit at all
+of a single example of the species having been observed within the
+Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who had the
+best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.<a name="fa2n" id="fa2n" href="#ft2n"><span class="sp">2</span></a> It
+is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the
+better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements
+have been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another
+error which, if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since
+Sir R. Owen unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird
+&ldquo;has not been specially hunted down like the dodo and dinornis,
+but by degrees has become more scarce.&rdquo; If any reliance can be
+placed upon the testimony of former observers, the first part of
+this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the dodo all we know is
+that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at the time the
+island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had ceased
+to exist&mdash;the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture, and
+a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man&rsquo;s
+acts it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (<i>Phil. Trans.</i>,
+1869, p. 354). The extinction of the <i>Dinornis</i> lies beyond the
+range of recorded history. Supposing it even to have taken
+place at the very latest period as yet suggested&mdash;and there is
+much to be urged in favour of such a supposition&mdash;little but oral
+tradition remains to tell us how its extirpation was effected.
+That it existed after New Zealand was inhabited by man is indeed
+certain, and there is nothing extraordinary in the proved fact that
+the early settlers (of whatever race they were) killed and ate
+moas. But evidence that the whole population of those birds
+was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is
+wholly wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In
+Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down
+from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists who ever
+lived, John Wolley, that the latest survivors of the species were
+caught and killed by expeditions expressly organized with the
+view of supplying the demands of caterers to the various museums
+of Europe. In like manner the fact is incontestable that its
+breeding-stations in the western part of the Atlantic were for
+three centuries regularly visited and devastated with the combined
+objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from very early
+days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard Bonnycastle
+(<i>Newfoundland in 1842</i>, i. p. 232), was owing to &ldquo;the ruthless
+trade in its eggs and skin.&rdquo; There is no doubt that one of the
+chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared
+through volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old
+Geirfuglaskér drove some at least of the birds which frequented it
+to a rock nearer the mainland, where they were exposed to danger
+from which they had in their former abode been comparatively
+free; yet on this rock (Eldey = fire-island) they were &ldquo;specially
+hunted down&rdquo; whenever opportunity offered, until the stock
+there was wholly extirpated in 1844.</p>
+
+<p>A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould
+in his <i>Birds of Great Britain</i>, where he says that &ldquo;formerly this
+bird was plentiful in all the northern parts of the British Islands,
+particularly the Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement
+of the 19th century, however, its fate appears to have been
+sealed; for though it doubtless existed, and probably bred, up to
+the year 1830, its numbers annually diminished until they became
+so few that the species could not hold its own.&rdquo; Now of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page464" id="page464"></a>464</span>
+Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795, says in his
+posthumously-published <i>Fauna Orcadensis</i> that he could not find
+it was ever seen there; and on Bullock&rsquo;s visit in 1812 he was told,
+says Montagu (<i>Orn. Dict. App.</i>), that one male only had made its
+appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully
+hunted, but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate
+had been killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen
+there since. As to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality
+recorded for it, and the last example known to have been obtained
+there, or in its neighbourhood, was that given to Fleming (<i>Edinb.
+Phil. Journ.</i> x. p. 96) in 1821 or 1822, having been some time
+before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass. That the gare-fowl
+was not plentiful in either group of islands is sufficiently obvious,
+as also is the impossibility of its continuing to breed &ldquo;up to the
+year 1830.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors.
+As on the death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his
+memory as quickly as clouds round the setting sun, so have stories,
+probable as well as impossible, accumulated over the true history of
+this species, and it behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise
+more than common caution in sifting the truth from the large
+mass of error. Americans have asserted that the specimen which
+belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar College) was obtained by
+him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there is Macgillivray&rsquo;s
+distinct statement (<i>Brit. Birds</i>, v. p. 359) that Audubon procured
+it in London. The account given by Degland (<i>Orn. Europ.</i>
+ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his work by
+M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd that
+it deserves to be quoted in full: &ldquo;Il se trouvait en assez grand
+nombre il y a une quinzaine d&rsquo;années aux Orcades; mais le
+ministre presbytérien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime
+aux personnes qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a été cause de sa
+destruction sur ces îles.&rdquo; The same author claims the species as a
+visitor to the shores of France on the testimony of Hardy
+(<i>Annuaire normand</i>, 1841, p. 298), which he grievously misquotes
+both in his own work and in another place (<i>Naumannia</i>, 1855,
+p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English writer (<i>Nat.
+Hist. Rev.</i>, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.</p>
+
+<p>John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former
+resorts of the gare-fowl, or &ldquo;penguin,&rdquo; as it was there called, in
+the Newfoundland seas, a place where bones had before been
+obtained by Stuvitz, and natural mummies so lately as 1863 and
+1864. Landing on this rock at the risk of his life, he brought off
+a rich cargo of its remains, belonging to no fewer than fifty birds,
+some of them in size exceeding any that had before been known.
+His collection was subsequently dispersed, most of the specimens
+finding their way into various public museums.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting
+the gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which
+are without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be
+especially mentioned:&mdash;J.J.S. Steenstrup, &ldquo;Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens
+Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere
+Udbredningskreds,&rdquo; <i>Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser</i> (Copenhagen,
+1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, &ldquo;On the Great Auk,&rdquo; <i>Trans.
+Tyneside Nat. Field Club</i>, iv. p. 111; &ldquo;Abstract of Mr J. Wolley&rsquo;s
+Researches in Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl,&rdquo; <i>Ibis</i> (1861), p. 374;
+W. Preyer, &ldquo;<i>Über Plautus impennis</i>,&rdquo; <i>Journ. für Orn.</i> (1862), pp.
+110, 337; K.E. von Baer, &ldquo;Über das Aussterben der Tierarten in
+physiologischer und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht,&rdquo; <i>Bull. de
+l&rsquo;Acad. Imp. de St-Pétersb.</i> vi. p. 513; R. Owen, &ldquo;Description of
+the Skeleton of the Great Auk,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Zool. Soc.</i> v. p. 317; &ldquo;The
+Gare-fowl and its Historians,&rdquo; <i>Nat. Hist. Rev.</i> v. p. 467; J.H.
+Gurney, jun., &ldquo;On the Great Auk,&rdquo; <i>Zoologist</i> (2nd ser.), pp. 1442,
+1639; H. Reeks, &ldquo;Great Auk in Newfoundland,&rdquo; &amp;c., <i>op. cit.</i>
+p. 1854; V. Fatio, &ldquo;Sur l&rsquo;Alca impennis,&rdquo; <i>Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse</i>,
+ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; &ldquo;On existing Remains of the Gare-fowl,&rdquo; <i>Ibis</i>
+(1870), p. 256; J. Milne, &ldquo;Relics of the Great Auk,&rdquo; <i>Field</i> (27th of
+March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875). Lastly, reference cannot be
+omitted to the happy exercise of poetic fancy with which Charles
+Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief facts of the gare-fowl&rsquo;s
+extinction (derived from one of the above-named papers) into his
+charming <i>Water Babies</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. N.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The name first appears, and in this form, in the <i>Account of Hirta</i>
+(St Kilda) <i>and Rona, &amp;c.</i>, by the lord register, Sir George M&lsquo;Kenzie,
+of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his <i>Collection of Voyages and
+Travels</i> (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald&rsquo;s <i>Scotia illustrata</i> (1684).
+Martin soon after, in his <i>Voyage to St Kilda</i>, spelt it &ldquo;Gairfowl.&rdquo;
+Sir R. Owen adopted the form &ldquo;garfowl,&rdquo; without, as would seem,
+any precedent authority.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2n" id="ft2n" href="#fa2n"><span class="fn">2</span></a> The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as
+to the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is
+within, or at the Fiskernäs, which is without, the Arctic Circle.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM<a name="ar203" id="ar203"></a></span> (1831-1881), twentieth president
+of the United States, was born on the 19th of November 1831
+in a log cabin in the little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga
+county, Ohio. His early years were spent in the performance
+of such labour as fell to the lot of every farmer&rsquo;s son in the new
+states, and in the acquisition of such education as could be had
+in the district schools held for a few weeks each winter. But life
+on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he left home and
+set off to make a living in some other way. A book of stories
+of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when
+a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He
+decided, therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping
+across the country to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment
+from the captain of a lake schooner. But the captain drove him
+from the deck, and, wandering on in search of work, he fell in
+with a canal boatman who engaged him. During some months
+young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a
+canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on
+recovery, having resolved to attend a high school and fit himself
+to become a teacher, he passed the next four years in a hard
+struggle with poverty and in an earnest effort to secure an education,
+studying for a short time in the Geauga Seminary at Chester,
+Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter and a farmer;
+studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute
+at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and
+finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856,
+Garfield became professor of ancient languages and literature
+in the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen
+to the presidency of the institution.</p>
+
+<p>Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days
+of the Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas
+struggle were exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns
+of 1857 and 1858, he became known as an effective
+speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His reward for his services
+was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the member from
+Portage and Summit counties. When the &ldquo;cotton states&rdquo;
+seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous
+measures. He was one of the six Ohio senators who voted
+against the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution
+(Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any constitutional amendment
+which should give Congress the power to abolish or interfere
+with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the government
+to coerce seceded states; defended the &ldquo;Million War Bill&rdquo;
+appropriating a million dollars for the state&rsquo;s military expenses;
+and when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio
+furnish 20,000 soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share.
+He had just been admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of
+war he at once offered his services to the governor, and became
+lieutenant-colonel and then colonel of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers,
+recruited largely from among his former students. He served
+in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general
+of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second day&rsquo;s
+fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under
+Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at
+Chickamauga, and was made a major-general of volunteers for
+gallantry in that battle. In 1862 he was elected a member of
+Congress from the Ashtabula district of Ohio, and, resigning his
+military commission, took his seat in the House of Representatives
+in December 1863. In Congress he joined the radical wing of
+the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of Confederate
+property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto
+denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized
+as a hard worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought
+him places on important committees&mdash;he was chairman successively
+of the committee on military affairs, the committee on
+banking and currency, and the committee on appropriations,&mdash;and
+his ability as a speaker enabled him to achieve distinction
+on the floor of the House and to rise to leadership. Between
+1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of importance on
+&ldquo;The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery,&rdquo; &ldquo;The
+Freedman&rsquo;s Bureau,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Reconstruction of the Rebel States,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Public Debt and Specie Payments,&rdquo; &ldquo;Reconstruction,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The Currency,&rdquo; &ldquo;Taxation of United States Bonds,&rdquo; &ldquo;Enforcing
+the 14th Amendment,&rdquo; &ldquo;National Aid to Education,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;the Right to Originate Revenue Bills.&rdquo; The year 1874
+was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page465" id="page465"></a>465</span>
+issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South,
+the Crédit Mobilier and the &ldquo;Salary Grab,&rdquo; disgusted thousands
+of independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the
+country. Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion
+with the Crédit Mobilier scandal, but the charge was
+never proved. A Republican convention in his district demanded
+his resignation, and re-election seemed impossible; but he
+defended himself in two pamphlets, &ldquo;Increase of Salaries&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Review of the Transactions of the Crédit Mobilier Company,&rdquo;
+made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious.
+In 1876 Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his
+district; and afterwards as one of the two representatives of
+the Republicans in the House, he was a member of the Electoral
+Commission which decided the dispute regarding the presidential
+election of 1876. When, in 1877, James G. Blaine was made
+a senator from Maine, the leadership of the House of Representatives
+passed to Garfield, and he became the Republican
+candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in
+the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president,
+having chosen John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury,
+an effort was made to send Garfield to the United States Senate
+in Sherman&rsquo;s place. But the president needed his services
+in the House, and he was not elected to the Senate until
+1880.</p>
+
+<p>The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party
+must nominate a candidate for the presidency. General Grant
+had served two terms (1869-1877), and the unwritten law of
+custom condemned his being given another. But the &ldquo;bosses&rdquo;
+of the Republican party in three great States&mdash;New York,
+Pennsylvania and Illinois&mdash;were determined that he should be
+renominated. These men and their followers were known as
+the &ldquo;stalwarts.&rdquo; Opposed to them were two other factions,
+one supporting James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John
+Sherman, of Ohio. When the convention met and the balloting
+began, the contest along these factional lines started in earnest.
+For eight-and-twenty ballots no change of any consequence was
+noticeable. Though votes were often cast for ten names, there
+were but two real candidates before the convention, Grant and
+Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of
+the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the
+supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the
+cry &ldquo;Anything to beat Grant!&rdquo; an effort was made to find
+some man on whom the opposition could unite. Such a man
+was Garfield. His long term of service in the House, his leadership
+of his party on its floor, his candidacy for the speakership,
+and his recent election to the United States Senate, marked him
+out as the available man. Between the casting of the first and
+the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader of Sherman&rsquo;s
+adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or two
+votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received
+seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire
+vote hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared
+nominated. During the campaign Garfield was subject to
+violent personal abuse; the fact that he was alleged to have
+received $329 from the Crédit Mobilier as a dividend on stock
+led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of &ldquo;329,&rdquo; and this
+number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed
+in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged &ldquo;Morey
+letter,&rdquo; in which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion
+of the Chinese, was widely circulated and injured his
+candidacy in the West. That the charges against Garfield were
+not generally credited, however, is shown by the fact that he
+received 214 electoral votes to his opponent&rsquo;s 155. He was
+inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.</p>
+
+<p>Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of
+composing the differences in his party. For his secretary of state
+he chose James G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator
+Roscoe Conkling (<i>q.v.</i>), the leader of the New York &ldquo;stalwarts.&rdquo;
+Without consulting the New York senators, Garfield appointed
+William H. Robertson, another political enemy of Conkling&rsquo;s, to
+the desirable post of Collector of the Port of New York, and
+thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony. On the 2nd of
+July, while on his way to attend the commencement exercises at
+Williams College, the new president was shot in a Washington
+railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles
+J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced
+by the abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents;
+and on the 19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New
+Jersey, whither he had been removed on the 6th. He was buried
+in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890 a monument was erected by
+popular subscription to his memory.</p>
+
+<p>In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom
+he had seven children. His son, <span class="sc">Harry Augustus Garfield</span>
+(b. 1863) graduated at Williams College in 1885, practised law in
+Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888-1903, was professor of politics at
+Princeton University in 1903-1908, and in 1908 became president
+of Williams College. Another son, <span class="sc">James Rudolph Garfield</span>
+(b. 1865), also graduated at Williams College in 1885 and practised
+law in Cleveland; he was a Republican member of the Ohio
+Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of corporations, Department
+of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907, attracting wide
+attention by his reports on certain large industrial organizations,
+and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the cabinet of
+President Roosevelt.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>President Garfield&rsquo;s writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were
+published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. B. McM.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAR-FISH,<a name="ar204" id="ar204"></a></span> the name given to a genus of fishes (<i>Belone</i>) found
+in nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized
+by their long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by
+their jaws being produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed
+beak. About fifty species are known from different
+parts of the globe, some attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One
+species is common on the British coasts, and is well known by the
+names of &ldquo;long-nose,&rdquo; &ldquo;green-bone,&rdquo; &amp;c. The last name is
+given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green colour of
+their bones, which deters many people from eating them, although
+their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The
+skipper (<i>Scomberesox</i>) and half-beak (<i>Hemirhamphus</i>), in which
+the lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the
+gar-pikes.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARGANEY<a name="ar205" id="ar205"></a></span><a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a> (North-Italian, <i>Garganello</i>), or <span class="sc">Summer-Teal</span>,
+the <i>Anas querquedula</i> and <i>A. circia</i> of Linnaeus (who made, as
+did Willughby and Ray, two species out of one), and the type of
+Stephens&rsquo;s genus <i>Querquedula</i>. This bird is one of the smallest of
+the <i>Anatidae</i>, and has gained its common English name from
+being almost exclusively a summer-visitant to England where
+nowadays it only regularly resorts to breed in some of the East-Norfolk
+Broads, though possibly at one time it was found at the
+same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly larger
+than the common teal (<i>A. crecca</i>), the male is readily distinguished
+therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of which are
+nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks, while
+a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the
+eyes. The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars
+black with a white shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (<i>speculum</i>)
+greyish green bordered above and below by white. The female
+closely resembles the hen teal, but possesses no wing-spot. In
+Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very rare, and though it
+is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence of its
+occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range,
+and its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it
+breeds in many parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be
+common; but it ranges far to the eastward in Asia&mdash;even to
+Formosa, according to Swinhoe&mdash;and yearly visits India in
+winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in Norfolk
+arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast
+reed-beds which border the Broads&mdash;a situation rarely or never
+chosen by the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the
+trachea in the male garganey differs in form from that described
+in any other drake, being more oval and placed nearly in the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page466" id="page466"></a>466</span>
+median line of the windpipe, instead of on one side, as is usually
+the case.</p>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (<i>Orn.</i>, lib.
+iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never to
+have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being invariably
+known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous as
+&ldquo;summer-teal.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARGANO, MONTE<a name="ar206" id="ar206"></a></span> (anc. <i>Garganus Mons</i>), a massive
+mountainous peninsula projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia,
+Italy, and belonging geologically to the opposite Dalmatian
+coast; it was indeed separated from the rest of Italy by an arm
+of the sea as late as the Tertiary period. The highest point
+(Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The oak forests
+for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely
+disappeared.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARGOYLE,<a name="ar207" id="ar207"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gurgoyle</span> (from the Fr. <i>gargouille</i>, originally
+the throat or gullet, cf. Lat. <i>gurgulio</i>, <i>gula</i>, and similar words
+derived from root <i>gar</i>, to swallow, the word representing the
+gurgling sound of water; Ital. <i>doccia di grande</i>; Ger. <i>Ausguss</i>),
+in architecture, the carved termination to a spout which conveys
+away the water from the gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque
+figures. The term is applied more especially to medieval work,
+but throughout all ages some means of throwing the water off the
+roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been adopted, and in
+Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the washing
+of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the
+flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the
+roof passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved
+or modelled in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice.
+At Pompeii large numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been
+found which were modelled in the shape of various animals.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARHWAL,<a name="ar208" id="ar208"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Gurwal</span>. 1. A district of British India, in the
+Kumaon division of the United Provinces. It has an area of
+5629 sq. m., and consists almost entirely of rugged mountain
+ranges running in all directions, and separated by narrow valleys
+which in some cases become deep gorges or ravines. The only
+level portion of the district is a narrow strip of waterless forest
+between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains
+of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the north, the
+principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet (25,413),
+Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and
+Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of
+the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the
+district. At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi,
+and thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the
+Ganges. Cultivation is principally confined to the immediate
+vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for purposes of irrigation.
+Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty chieftainships,
+each chief with his own independent fortress (<i>garh</i>). Nearly
+500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pál, reduced all the minor
+principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal
+kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the
+adjacent state of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when
+the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal
+chief into the plains. For twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the
+country with a rod of iron, until a series of encroachments by
+them on British territory led to the war with Nepal in 1814.
+At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon were
+converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality
+was restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation,
+Garhwal has rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop.
+(1901) 429,900. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th
+Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in the district, which also contains
+the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth
+are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and wool are imported,
+the trade with Tibet being considerable. The administrative
+headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is the
+largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara,
+the terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway
+from Najibabad.</p>
+
+<p>2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area
+4180 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district
+mentioned above, and its topographical features are similar.
+It contains the sources of both the Ganges and the Jumna,
+which are visited by thousands of Hindu pilgrims. The gross
+revenue is about £28,000, of which nearly half is derived from
+forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE<a name="ar209" id="ar209"></a></span> (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was
+born at Nice on the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from
+home to escape a clerical education, but afterwards joined his
+father in the coasting trade. After joining the &ldquo;Giovine Italia&rdquo;
+he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a number of companions
+on board the frigate &ldquo;Euridice,&rdquo; plotted to seize the vessel and
+occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini&rsquo;s
+Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being
+discovered, Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by
+default on the 3rd of June 1834. Escaping to South America
+in 1836, he was given letters of marque by the state of Rio
+Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil. After a series
+of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and subjected to
+severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining liberty, he
+renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro. During
+the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable
+companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and
+Menotti. Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to
+Corrientes with a small flotilla to oppose Rosas&rsquo;s forces, but
+was overtaken by Admiral Brown, against whose fleet he fought
+for three days. When his ammunition was exhausted he burned
+his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo, he formed the
+Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and Sant&rsquo;
+Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of
+Uruguay. Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to
+return to Italy upon receiving news of the incipient revolutionary
+movement. In October 1847 he wrote to Pius IX., offering his
+services to the Church, whose cause he for a moment believed to
+be that of national liberty.</p>
+
+<p>Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword
+at the disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties
+with the Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000
+strong, but shortly after taking the field was obliged, by the
+defeat of Custozza, to flee to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to
+Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman republic with the defence
+of San Pancrazio against the French, where he gained the victory
+of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the saddle, although
+wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From the 3rd
+of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged
+against the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere,
+dispersing an army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After
+the fall of Rome he left the city at the head of 4000 volunteers,
+with the idea of joining the defenders of Venice, and started on
+that wonderful retreat through central Italy pursued by the
+armies of France, Austria, Spain and Naples. By his consummate
+generalship and the matchless endurance of his men the pursuers
+were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly
+diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his
+devoted wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice,
+where the tricolor still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of
+Ravenna; the Austrians were seeking him in all directions, and
+most of his legionaries were captured and shot. Anita died near
+Comacchio, and he himself fled across the peninsula, being assisted
+by all classes of the people, to Tuscany, whence he escaped to
+Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in order to
+earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a trading
+skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and
+purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house
+thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was
+placed in command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the
+Austrians at Casale on the 8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the
+23rd of May, and, after a series of victorious fights, liberating
+Alpine territory as far as the frontier of Tirol. When about to
+enter Austrian territory proper his advance was, however,
+checked by the armistice of Villafranca.</p>
+
+<p>Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom
+he had been aided during the campaign, he was apprised,
+immediately after the wedding, of certain circumstances which
+caused him at once to abandon that lady and to start for central
+Italy. Forbidden to invade the Romagna, he returned indignantly
+to Caprera, where with Crispi and Bertani he planned
+the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page467" id="page467"></a>467</span>
+sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the
+expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but
+Crispi succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the
+5th of May 1860 with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of
+1070 strong. Calling at Talamone to embark arms and money,
+he reached Marsala on the 11th of May, and landed under the
+protection of the British vessels &ldquo;Intrepid&rdquo; and &ldquo;Argus.&rdquo;
+On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was proclaimed
+at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were routed
+at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the
+6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine
+frigates and protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate.
+Once established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to
+liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the
+emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of
+Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling Lafarina and driving
+out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi routed the
+Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on the
+20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,
+secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was
+fitting out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour,
+however, obliged the expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning
+to Messina, Garibaldi found a letter from Victor Emmanuel II.
+dissuading him from invading the kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi
+replied asking &ldquo;permission to disobey.&rdquo; Next day he crossed
+the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August,
+accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San
+Giovanni and of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon
+Naples became a triumphal progress, which the wiles of Francesco
+II. were powerless to arrest. On the 7th of September Garibaldi
+entered Naples, while Francesco fled to Gaeta. On the 1st
+of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army 40,000
+strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had
+occupied the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of
+Bersaglieri reaching the Volturno in time to take part in the
+battle. Their presence put an end to the plan for the invasion
+of the papal states, and Garibaldi unwillingly issued a decree for
+the <i>plébiscite</i> which was to sanction the incorporation of the Two
+Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th of November Garibaldi
+accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into
+Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after disbanding
+his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the regular
+army.</p>
+
+<p>Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect
+of his followers by the Italian government induced him to return
+to political life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against
+Cavour found violent expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile
+them, but the publication by Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi
+provoked a hostility which, but for the intervention of the king,
+would have led to a duel between Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning
+to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. Cavour&rsquo;s successor,
+Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular army; Rattazzi,
+who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an expedition
+in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his
+followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms
+against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo
+and gathered an army under the banner &ldquo;Roma o morte.&rdquo;
+Rattazzi, frightened at the prospect of an attack upon Rome,
+proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, sent the fleet to Messina, and
+instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. Circumventing the
+Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to Melito with
+3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and
+wounded by Cialdini&rsquo;s forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of
+August. Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once
+more to Caprera amidst general sympathy.</p>
+
+<p>In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded
+an enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city.
+From England he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of
+war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and, after
+the defeat of the Italian troops at Custozza, took the offensive
+in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of July he defeated the
+Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone, on the 10th at
+Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on the
+21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he
+was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous
+reply &ldquo;Obbedisco&rdquo; (&ldquo;I obey&rdquo;) has often been cited as a classical
+example of military obedience to a command destructive of a
+successful leader&rsquo;s hopes, but documents now published (cf.
+<i>Corriere della sera</i>, 9th of August 1906) prove beyond doubt that
+Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate
+the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the
+9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th
+of July to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition,
+Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the
+evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi&rsquo;s laconic reply.
+From the Trentino he returned to Caprera to mature his designs
+against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in
+pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of
+September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867,
+he prepared to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga
+by the Italian government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding
+the surveillance of the Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence,
+and, with the complicity of the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered
+Roman territory at Passo Corese on the 23rd of October. Two
+days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd of November
+his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal troops.
+Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and
+taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by
+writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer
+corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops
+at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the
+Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French
+insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected
+deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the Conservative
+Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of £40,000 with an
+annual pension of £2000 be conferred upon him as a recompense
+for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by parliament
+(27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon the
+advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and
+pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber
+embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time
+he succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the
+countess Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted
+another marriage with the mother of his children, Clelia and
+Manlio. In 1880 he went to Milan for the inauguration of the
+Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited Naples and Palermo,
+but was prevented by illness from being present at the 600th
+anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882
+his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Garibaldi, <i>Epistolario</i>, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885),
+and <i>Memorie autografiche</i> (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation
+by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888
+ed.); Giuseppe Guerzoni, <i>Garibaldi</i> (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie
+White Mario, <i>Garibaldi e i suoi tempi</i> (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan,
+<i>Garibaldi&rsquo;s Defence of the Roman Republic</i> (London, 1907), which
+contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi&rsquo;s early career, of the events
+leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a
+picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of
+Rome and of Garibaldi&rsquo;s flight, with a very full bibliography; also
+Trevelyan&rsquo;s <i>Garibaldi and the Thousand</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(H. W. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARIN LE LOHERAIN,<a name="ar210" id="ar210"></a></span> French epic hero. The 12th century
+<i>chanson de geste</i> of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and
+most sanguinary narratives left by the <i>trouvères</i>. This local
+cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers
+de Metz, Anséis, fils de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based on
+history, and the failure absolutely to identify the events recorded
+does not deprive the poems of their value as a picture of the
+savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries. The episodes
+are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the
+<i>trouvères</i> to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless
+no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet
+been offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F.
+Settegast, <i>Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik</i>, 1904) that
+these poems resume historical traditions going back to the
+Vandal irruption of 408 and the battle fought by the Romans
+and the West Goths against the Huns in 451. The cycle relates
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page468" id="page468"></a>468</span>
+three wars against hosts of heathen invaders. In the first of
+these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of Metz fight
+by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have
+destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in
+a great battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in
+Metz by the &ldquo;Hongres.&rdquo; He sends first for help to Pippin, who
+defers his assistance by the advice of the traitor Hardré. Hervis
+then transfers his allegiance to Anséis of Cologne, by whose help
+the invaders are repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the
+third Thierry, king of Moriane<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> sends to Pippin for help against
+four Saracen kings. He is delivered by a Frankish host, but
+falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz was the son of a citizen to
+whom the duke of Lorraine had married his daughter Aelis, and
+his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the <i>chanson</i> which
+gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had desired
+that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when
+Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux
+puts himself forward as his rival and Hardré, Fromont&rsquo;s father, is
+slain by Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war
+that ensues between the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux.
+They finally submit their differences to the king, only to begin
+their disputes once more. Blanchefleur becomes the wife of
+Pippin, while Garin remains her faithful servant. One of the
+most famous passages of the poem is the assassination of Begue
+by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying waste his
+enemy&rsquo;s territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs continue
+the feud between the two families. According to Paulin
+Paris, the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of
+Aquitaine, the last of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed
+and slain by Pippin the Short, king of the Franks; but the
+<i>trouvères</i> had in mind no doubt the wars which marked the end of
+the Carolingian dynasty.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Li Romans de Garin le Loherain</i>, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833);
+<i>Hist. litt. de la France</i>, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, <i>Popular
+Epics of the Middle Ages</i> (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot,
+<i>Études d&rsquo;histoire du moyen âge</i> (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast, <i>Quellenstudien
+zur gallo-romanischen Epik</i> (Leipzig, 1904). A complete
+edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first volume of
+which, <i>Hervis de Mes</i> (Gesellschaft für roman. Lit., Dresden), appeared
+in 1903.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> <i>i.e.</i> Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne)
+of Savoy.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARLAND, JOHN<a name="ar211" id="ar211"></a></span> (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known
+as Johannes Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de
+Garlandia, was born in England, though most of his life was
+spent in France. John Bale in his <i>Catalogus</i>, and John Pits,
+following Bale, placed him among the writers of the 11th century.
+The main facts of his life, however, are stated in a long poem <i>De
+triumphis ecclesiae</i> contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A x in the
+British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe
+Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the
+point of view of the victories gained by the church over heretics
+at home and infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a
+certain John of London, whom it is difficult to distinguish from
+others of the same name; but he must have been in Paris in or
+before 1202, for he mentions as one of his teachers Alain de Lisle,
+who died in that year or the next. Garland was one of the professors
+chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse, and
+remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which
+he gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the
+hatred of the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe
+for the professors of the university, who had been installed by the
+Catholic party. Garland was one of the first to fly, and the rest
+of his life was spent in Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252.
+Garland&rsquo;s grammatical works were much used in England, and
+were often printed by Richard Pynson and Wynkyn de Worde.
+He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on mathematics
+and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription may
+have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus,
+a canon of Besançon in the 12th century. The treatise on
+alchemy, <i>Compendium alchimiae</i>, often printed under his name,
+was by a 14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.</p>
+
+<p>The best known of his poems beside the &ldquo;De Triumphis
+Ecclesiae&rdquo; is &ldquo;Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis,&rdquo; contained
+in the same MS. Among his other works are his &ldquo;Dictionarius,&rdquo;
+a Latin vocabulary, printed by T. Wright in the <i>Library of National
+Antiquities</i> (vol. i., 1857); <i>Compendium totius grammatices ...</i>,
+printed at Deventer, 1489; two metrical treatises, entitled
+<i>Synonyma</i> and <i>Equivoca</i>, frequently printed at the close of the
+15th century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For further bibliographical information see the British Museum
+catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, <i>Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae
+aetatis ...</i>, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, <i>Manuel du libraire, &amp;c.</i>
+See also <i>Histoire litt. de la France</i>, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and xxx.;
+the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P.
+Meyer, <i>La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois</i>, vol. ii. pp.
+xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, <i>Lexicographie latine du XII<span class="sp">e</span>
+et du XIII<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i> (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L. Kingsford in
+the <i>Dict. Nat. Biog.</i>, giving a list also of the works on alchemy,
+mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him; J.E.
+Sandys, <i>Hist. of Class. Schol.</i> i. (1906) 549.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARLIC<a name="ar212" id="ar212"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>gárleác</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;spear-leek&rdquo;; Gr. <span class="grk" title="skorodon">&#963;&#954;&#972;&#961;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#957;</span>;
+Lat. <i>allium</i>; Ital. <i>aglio</i>; Fr. <i>ail</i>; Ger. <i>Knoblauch</i>), <i>Allium
+sativum</i>, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae,
+indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long,
+narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a
+globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils.
+The bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales,
+in the axils of which are 10 or 12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From
+these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in February or
+March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. If of
+fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 &#8468;. To prevent the plant
+from running to leaf, Pliny (<i>Nat. Hist.</i> xix. 34) advises to bend
+the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he observes,
+may be prevented by twisting the stalk.</p>
+
+<p>Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (<i>q.v.</i>).
+It is stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548.
+The percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly
+(<i>Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond.</i>, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09,
+organic matter 13.38, and inorganic matter 1.53&mdash;that of the
+leaves being water 87.14, organic matter 11.27 and inorganic
+matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and characteristic odour
+and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence
+of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C<span class="su">3</span>H<span class="su">5</span>)<span class="su">2</span>S (see Hofmann
+and Cahours, <i>Journ. Chem. Soc.</i> x. p. 320). This, when garlic
+has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity
+of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been
+used as an article of diet. It formed part of the food of the
+Israelites in Egypt (Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed
+by Cheops in the construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in
+Egypt, where, however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed
+(see Rawlinson&rsquo;s <i>Herodotus</i>, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by
+the ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes
+(cf. Virg. <i>Ecl</i>. ii. 11), and, as Pliny tells us (<i>N.H.</i> xix. 32), by
+the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the rustic&rsquo;s <i>theriac</i>
+(see F. Adams&rsquo;s <i>Paulus Aegineta</i>, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam,
+a writer of the 12th century (see Wright&rsquo;s edition of his works,
+p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative of the heat of the sun
+in field labour. &ldquo;The people in places where the simoon is
+frequent,&rdquo; says Mountstuart Elphinstone (<i>An Account of the
+Kingdom of Caubul</i>, p. 140, 1815), &ldquo;eat garlic, and rub their lips
+and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer,
+to prevent their suffering by the simoon.&rdquo; &ldquo;O dura messorum
+ilia,&rdquo; exclaims Horace (<i>Epod</i>. iii.), as he records his detestation
+of the popular esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign
+of vulgarity (cf. Shakespeare, <i>Coriol</i>. iv. 6, and <i>Meas. for Meas.</i>
+iii. 2). In England garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning,
+but in the southern countries of Europe it is a common ingredient
+in dishes, and is largely consumed by the agricultural population.
+Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at
+cross-roads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, <i>Characters</i>,
+<span class="grk" title="Deisidaimonias">&#916;&#949;&#953;&#963;&#953;&#948;&#945;&#953;&#956;&#959;&#957;&#943;&#945;&#962;</span>); and according to Pliny garlic and onions
+were invocated as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths.
+The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower Egypt, who worshipped the
+onion, are said to have held both it and garlic in aversion as food.
+Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic properties, and was of
+old, as still sometimes now, employed as a medicinal remedy.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page469" id="page469"></a>469</span>
+Pliny (<i>N.H.</i> xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list of complaints
+in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham valued
+it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen
+(<i>Mat. Med.</i> ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it
+alone. In the United States the bulb is given in doses of ½-2
+drachms in cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis.
+Garlic may also be prescribed as an extract consisting of the
+inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10 grains, and as the <i>syrupus
+allii aceticus</i>, in doses of 1-4 drachms. This last preparation has
+recently been much extolled in the treatment of pulmonary
+tuberculosis or phthisis.</p>
+
+<p>The wild &ldquo;crow garlic&rdquo; and &ldquo;field garlic&rdquo; of Britain are the
+species <i>Allium vineale</i> and <i>A. oleraceum</i> respectively.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNET,<a name="ar213" id="ar213"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Garnett</span>, <b>HENRY</b> (1555-1606), English Jesuit,
+son of Brian Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated
+at Winchester and afterwards studied law in London.
+Having become a Roman Catholic, he went to Italy, joined the
+Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under Bellarmine and
+others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he joined the
+mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the
+imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the
+dispute between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the
+&ldquo;Wisbech Stirs&rdquo; (1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston
+in his resistance to any compromise with the civil government.
+His antagonism to the secular clergy was also shown later, when
+in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was the means of betraying to
+the government the &ldquo;Bye Plot,&rdquo; contrived by William Watson,
+a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four vows.</p>
+
+<p>Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with
+conspicuous success. His life was one of concealment and disguises;
+a price was put on his head; but he was fearless and
+indefatigable in carrying on his propaganda and in ministering
+to the scattered Catholics, even in their prisons. The result was
+that he gained many converts, while the number of Jesuits in
+England increased during his tenure of office from three to forty.
+It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he is
+best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death,
+needs discussion in greater detail.</p>
+
+<p>In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII.
+directing that no person unfavourable to the Catholic religion
+should be allowed to succeed to the throne. About the same time
+he was consulted by Catesby, Tresham and Winter, all afterwards
+involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on the subject of the mission to
+be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to invade England. According
+to his own statement he disapproved, but he gave Winter a
+recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person at
+Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy
+Fawkes when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham
+when he went to Rome (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gunpowder Plot</a></span>). The preparations
+for the plot had now been actively going forward since the
+beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of June 1605 Garnet was
+asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter upon any
+undertaking which should involve the destruction of the innocent
+together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the
+affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged
+in a town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according
+to his own accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the
+death of &ldquo;not only innocents but friends and necessary persons
+for a commonwealth,&rdquo; and showed him a letter from the pope
+forbidding rebellion. According to Sir Everard Digby, however,
+Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, replied &ldquo;that they
+were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or procure stirs, but
+yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the pope&rsquo;s mind
+they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good....
+This answer, with Mr Catesby&rsquo;s proceedings with him and me,
+gave me absolute belief that the matter in general was approved,
+though every particular was not known.&rdquo; Both men were endeavouring
+to exculpate themselves, and therefore both statements
+are subject to suspicion. A few days later, according to
+Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known as Greenway,
+informed him of the whole plot &ldquo;by way of confession,&rdquo; when,
+as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged Greenway
+to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently,
+after his trial, Garnet said he &ldquo;could not certainly affirm&rdquo; that
+Greenway intended to relate the matter to him in confession.</p>
+
+<p>Garnet&rsquo;s conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a
+matter of considerable controversy not only between Roman
+Catholics and Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers
+themselves. Father Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600,
+discusses the exact case of the revelation of a plot in confession.
+Almost all the learned doctors, he says, declare that the confessor
+may reveal it, but he adds, &ldquo;the contrary opinion is the safer and
+better doctrine, and more consistent with religion and with the
+reverence due to the holy rite of confession.&rdquo; According to
+Bellarmine, Garnet&rsquo;s zealous friend and defender, &ldquo;If the person
+confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a priest to break the seal
+of confession in order to avert a great calamity&rdquo;; but he justifies
+Garnet&rsquo;s silence by insisting that it was not lawful to disclose a
+treasonable secret to a heretical king. According to Garnet&rsquo;s own
+opinion a priest cognizant of treason against the state &ldquo;is bound
+to find all lawful means to discover it <i>salvo sigillo confessionis</i>.&rdquo;
+In this connexion it is worth pointing out that Garnet had not
+thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue with the
+king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this case
+that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his inactivity
+now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that he
+was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway&rsquo;s
+information, he had still Catesby&rsquo;s earlier revelations to
+act upon. He appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent
+the crime, beyond writing to Rome in vague terms that &ldquo;he
+feared some particular desperate courses,&rdquo; which aroused no
+suspicions in that quarter. At the same time he wrote to Father
+Parsons on the 4th of September that &ldquo;as far as he could now see
+the minds of the Catholics were quieted.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His movements immediately prior to the attempt were
+certainly suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected
+meeting of parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a
+pilgrimage to St Winifred&rsquo;s Well in Flintshire, which started
+from Gothurst (now Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby&rsquo;s house in
+Buckinghamshire, included Rokewood, and stopped at the
+houses of John Grant and Robert Winter, three others of the
+conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for the
+prayers of the company &ldquo;for some good success for the Catholic
+cause at the beginning of parliament.&rdquo; After his return he went
+on the 29th of October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which
+place it had been settled the conspirators were to assemble after
+the explosion. On the 6th of November, Bates, Catesby&rsquo;s
+servant and one of the conspirators, brought him a letter with the
+news of the failure of the plot and desiring advice. On the 30th
+Garnet addressed a letter to the government in which he protested
+his innocence with the most solemn oaths, &ldquo;as one who
+hopeth for everlasting salvation.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and
+Greenway were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the
+plot; and on the same day Garnet removed from Coughton to
+Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a house furnished with cleverly-contrived
+hiding-places for the use of the proscribed priests.
+Here he remained some time in concealment in company with
+another priest, Oldcorne <i>alias</i> Hall, but at last on the 30th of
+January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer,
+they surrendered and were taken up to London, being well
+treated during the journey by Salisbury&rsquo;s express orders. He was
+examined by the council on the 13th of February and frequently
+questioned during the following days, but refused to incriminate
+himself, and a threat to inflict torture had no effect upon his
+resolution. Subsequently Garnet and Oldcorne having been
+placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to communicate with one
+another, their conversations were overheard on several separate
+occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet at
+first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th
+of March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at
+the Guildhall on the 28th.</p>
+
+<p>Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, <i>i.e.</i> of having
+concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page470" id="page470"></a>470</span>
+him to perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property;
+for the law of England took no account of religious scruples or
+professional etiquette when they permit the execution of a
+preventable crime. Strangely enough, however, the government
+passed over the incriminating conversation with Greenway, and
+relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to support
+the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was
+not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more
+modern days. The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure
+in criminal cases did not then exist, and Garnet&rsquo;s trial,
+like many others, was influenced by the political situation, the
+case against him being supported by general political accusations
+against the Jesuits as a body, and with evidence of their complicity
+in former plots against the government. The prisoner
+himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false statements,
+and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of equivocation.
+Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of
+equivocation to cases &ldquo;of necessary defence from injustice and
+wrong or of the obtaining some good of great importance when
+there is no danger of harm to others,&rdquo; and he could justify his
+conduct in lying to the council by their own conduct towards him,
+which included treacherous eavesdropping and fraud, and also
+threats of torture. Moreover, the attempt of the counsel for the
+crown to force the prisoner to incriminate himself was opposed to
+the whole spirit and tradition of the law of England. He was
+declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of the irregularity and
+unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial justice was
+done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd of
+May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for
+his concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he
+had never approved it. The king, who had shown him favour
+throughout and who had forbidden his being tortured, directed
+that he should be hanged till he was quite dead and that the
+usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.</p>
+
+<p>Soon after his death the story of the miracle of &ldquo;Garnet&rsquo;s Straw&rdquo;
+was circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained
+straw from the scene of execution which came into the hands of
+one John Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who
+was present, developed Garnet&rsquo;s likeness. In consequence of the
+credence which the story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was
+commissioned by the privy council to discover and punish the
+impostors. Garnet&rsquo;s name was included in the list of the 353
+Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England in 1880, and
+in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales
+compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of
+the province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is
+styled &ldquo;a martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation.&rdquo;
+The passage in <i>Macbeth</i> (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no
+doubt refers especially to Garnet. His <i>aliases</i> were Farmer,
+Marchant, Whalley, Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts,
+Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was the author of a letter on the
+Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, <i>alias</i> John Jones, in Diego
+Yepres&rsquo;s <i>Historia particular de la persecucion de Inglaterra</i> (1599);
+a <i>Treatise of Schism</i>, a MS. treatise in reply to <i>A Protestant
+Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician</i>; a translation of
+the <i>Stemma Christi</i> with supplements (1622); a treatise on the
+Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Of the great number of works embodying the
+controversy on the question of Garnet&rsquo;s guilt the following may be
+mentioned, in order of date: <i>A True and Perfect Relation of the
+whole Proceedings against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates</i>
+(1606, repr. 1679), the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate;
+<i>Apologia pro Henrico Garneto</i> (1610), by the Jesuit L&rsquo;Heureux,
+under the pseudonym <span class="correction" title="amended from Endaemon">Eudaemon</span>-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot&rsquo;s
+reply, <i>Antilogia versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes</i>, in which the
+whole subject is well treated; Henry More, <i>Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae
+Societatis</i> (1660); D. Jardine, <i>Gunpowder Plot</i> (1857); J.
+Morris, S.J., <i>Condition of the Catholics under James I.</i> (1872), containing
+Father Gerard&rsquo;s narrative; J.H. Pollen, <i>Father Henry
+Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot</i> (1888); S.R. Gardiner, <i>What Gunpowder
+Plot was</i> (1897), in reply to John Gerard, S.J., <i>What was the
+Gunpowder Plot?</i> (1897); J. Gerard, <i>Contributions towards a Life of
+Father Henry Garnet</i> (1898). See also <i>State Trials II.</i>, and <i>Cal. of
+State Papers Dom.</i>, (1603-1610). The original documents are preserved
+in the <i>Gunpowder Plot Book</i> at the Record Office.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNET<a name="ar214" id="ar214"></a></span>, a name applied to a group of closely-related
+minerals, many of which are used as gem-stones. The name
+probably comes from the Lat. <i>granaticus</i>, a stone so named from
+its resemblance to the pulp of the pomegranate in colour, or to its
+seeds in shape; or possibly from <i>granum</i>, &ldquo;cochineal,&rdquo; in allusion
+to the colour of the stone. The garnet was included, with other
+red stones, by Theophrastus, under the name of <span class="grk" title="anthrax">&#7940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#945;&#958;</span>, while
+the common garnet seems to have been his <span class="grk" title="anthrakion">&#7936;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#940;&#954;&#953;&#959;&#957;</span>. Pliny
+groups several stones, including garnet, under the term <i>carbunculus</i>.
+The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet (almandine)
+cut <i>en cabochon</i>, or with a smooth convex surface, frequently
+hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of colour,
+and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Almandine</a></span>). The
+Hebrew word <i>nophek</i>, translated <span class="grk" title="anthrax">&#7940;&#957;&#952;&#961;&#945;&#958;</span> in the Septuagint, seems
+to have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst <i>bareketh</i> (<span class="grk" title="smaragdos">&#963;&#956;&#940;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>
+of the Septuagint), though also rendered &ldquo;carbuncle,&rdquo; was probably
+either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie,
+rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt.
+Though not extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for
+engraved gems, it was much used for this purpose by the Romans
+of the Empire. Flat polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid
+in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian jewelry, the
+material used being almandine, or &ldquo;precious garnet.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the
+variation is limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates,
+conformable to the general formula R&Prime;<span class="su">3</span>R&Prime;&prime;<span class="su">2</span>(SiO<span class="su">4</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, where R&Prime; =
+Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R&Prime;&prime; = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many
+kinds of garnet they may be reduced to the following six types,
+which may occur intermixed isomorphously:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (<i>Grossularite</i>), Ca<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p>
+<p>2. Calcium-ferric garnet (<i>Andradite</i>), Ca<span class="su">3</span>Fe<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p>
+<p>3. Calcium-chromium garnet (<i>Uvarovite</i>), Ca<span class="su">3</span>Cr<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p>
+<p>4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (<i>Pyrope</i>), Mg<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p>
+<p>5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (<i>Almandine</i>), Fe<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p>
+<p>6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (<i>Spessartine</i>), Mn<span class="su">3</span>Al<span class="su">2</span>Si<span class="su">3</span>O<span class="su">12</span>.</p>
+
+<p>These are frequently called respectively:&mdash;(1) Lime-alumina garnet;
+(2) lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina
+garnet; (5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="noind">The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of
+some of their elements.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 250px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:199px; height:205px" src="images/img470.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic
+dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two
+forms (see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced
+octahedron occurs in some of the combinations.
+Cleavage obtains parallel
+to the dodecahedron, but is imperfect.
+The hardness varies according to composition
+from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific
+gravity in like manner has a wide
+range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium
+garnets to 4.3 in the ferrous-aluminium
+species. Sir Arthur H.
+Church found that many garnets when
+fused yielded a product of lower
+density than the original mineral. The
+colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or even
+black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets
+are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur,
+leading some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really
+cubic. The refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic
+sections, viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands
+out in relief.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline
+schists, gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and
+occasionally in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite,
+garnet forms the peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for
+industrial purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits,
+weathered from the parent rock, though in some important workings
+the rock is quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are
+described under their respective headings (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Almandine</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cinnamon
+Stone</a></span>, <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Demantoid</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pyrope</a></span>). Most of the minerals noticed
+in this article are of scientific rather than commercial interest.</p>
+
+<p>Grossularite or &ldquo;gooseberry-stone,&rdquo; is typically a brownish-green
+garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to
+vesuvianite, <i>q.v.</i>), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is related
+to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in rose-pink
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page471" id="page471"></a>471</span>
+dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of
+grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov. Andradite
+was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d&rsquo;Andrada e Silva, who
+described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian
+garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes
+most of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact
+masses, sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be
+referred melanite, a black garnet well known from the volcanic
+tuffs near Rome, used occasionally in the 18th century for mourning
+jewelry. Another black garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees,
+is called pyreneite. Under andradite may also be placed topazolite,
+a honey-yellow garnet, rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite,
+a brown resin-like garnet, with which certain kinds of
+idocrase have been confused; aplome, a green garnet from Saxony
+and Siberia; and jelletite, a green Swiss garnet named after the
+Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed the green Siberian
+mineral termed demantoid (<i>q.v.</i>), sometimes improperly called
+olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a Russian minister,
+Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from Siberia and Canada,
+but though of fine colour is never found in crystals large enough for
+gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine, named after Spessart, a
+German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet, cut for jewelry when
+sufficiently clear, and rather resembling cinnamon-stone. It is
+found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines in Amelia county,
+Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red garnet, forming a
+fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county, N.C., and has
+been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under the name
+of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope, and
+shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets
+largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of
+pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes.
+Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of sandpaper
+for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the boot-trade.
+As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in the
+United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of
+the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much
+of the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common
+garnet, where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent
+in metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially,
+and is known as a furnace-product.</p>
+
+<p>It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to
+the mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in icositetrahedra.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. W. R.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNETT, RICHARD<a name="ar215" id="ar215"></a></span> (1835-1906), English librarian and
+author, son of the learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett
+(1789-1850), priest-vicar of Lichfield cathedral and afterwards
+keeper of printed books at the British Museum, who came of a
+Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on the 27th of February
+1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern philological
+research in England; his articles in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (1835,
+1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic
+question, and his essays in the <i>Transactions</i> of the Philological
+Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of
+the English language. The son, who thus owed much to his
+parentage, was educated at home and at a private school, and in
+1851, just after his father&rsquo;s death, entered the British Museum as
+an assistant in the library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent
+of the reading-room, and from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he
+was keeper of the printed books. In 1883 he was given the
+degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour repeated by other
+universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.</p>
+
+<p>His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the
+value of his services there, made him a well-known figure in the
+literary world, and he published much original work in both
+prose and verse. His chief publications in book-form were:
+in verse, <i>Primula</i> (1858), <i>Io in Egypt</i> (1859), <i>Idylls and Epigrams</i>
+(1869, republished in 1892 as <i>A Chaplet from the Greek Anthology</i>),
+<i>The Queen and other Poems</i> (1902), <i>Collected Poems</i> (1893); in
+prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), Emerson (1887), Milton
+(1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume of remarkably
+original and fanciful tales, <i>The Twilight of the Gods</i>
+(1888); a tragedy, <i>Iphigenia in Delphi</i> (1890); <i>A Short History
+of Italian Literature</i> (1898); <i>Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily</i>
+(1899); <i>Essays of an Ex-librarian</i> (1901). He was an
+extensive contributor to the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> and the
+<i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, editor of the <i>International
+Library of Famous Literature</i>, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the
+elaborate <i>English Literature: an illustrated Record</i>. So multifarious
+was his output, however, in contributions to reviews, &amp;c.,
+and as translator or editor, that this list represents only a small
+part of his published work. He was a member of numerous
+learned literary societies, British and foreign. His facility as an
+expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute generalization, together
+with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his work an authority
+which was universally recognized, though it sometimes suffered
+from his relying too much on his memory and his power of
+generalizing&mdash;remarkable as both usually were&mdash;in cases
+requiring greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But
+as an interpreter, whether of biography or <i>belles lettres</i>, who
+brought an unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best
+sense, interestingly and comprehensibly before a large public, and
+at the same time acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship,
+Dr Garnett&rsquo;s writing was always characterized by clearness,
+common sense and sympathetic appreciation. His official
+career at the British Museum marked an epoch in the management
+of the library, in the history of which his place is second
+only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the &ldquo;sliding press&rdquo;
+in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the
+general catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was
+resumed under him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes
+of a Dryasdust, his human interest in books made him an
+ideal librarian, and his courtesy and helpfulness were outstanding
+features in a personality of singular charm. The whole bookish
+world looked on him as a friend. Among his &ldquo;hobbies&rdquo; was a
+study of astrology, to which, without associating his name with
+it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the pseudonym
+of &ldquo;A.G. Trent&rdquo; he published in 1880 an article (in the <i>University
+Magazine</i>) on &ldquo;The Soul and the Stars&rdquo;&mdash;quoted in
+Wilde and Dodson&rsquo;s <i>Natal Astrology</i>. He satisfied himself that
+there was more truth in the old astrology than modern criticism
+supposed, and he had intended to publish a further monograph
+on the subject, but the intention was frustrated by the ill-health
+which led up to his death on the 13th of April 1906. He married
+(1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney Singleton (d. 1903), and had a
+family of six children; his son Edward (b. 1868) being a well-known
+literary man, whose wife translated Turgeneff&rsquo;s works
+into English.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. Ch.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, CLÉMENT JOSEPH<a name="ar216" id="ar216"></a></span> (1813-1881), French economist,
+was born at Beuil (Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October
+1813. Coming to Paris he studied at the École de Commerce, of
+which he eventually became secretary and finally a professor.
+In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin (1801-1864)
+the Société d&rsquo;Économie politique, becoming its secretary, a post
+which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the
+Association pour la Liberté des Échanges. He also helped to
+establish and edited for many years the <i>Journal des économistes</i>
+and the <i>Annuaire de l&rsquo;économie politique</i>. Of the school of
+<i>laissez faire</i>, he was engaged during his whole life in the advancement
+of the science of political economy, and in the improvement
+of French commercial education. In 1873 he became a
+member of the Institute, and in 1876 a senator for the department
+in which he was born. He died at Paris on the 25th of
+September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more
+important: <i>Traité d&rsquo;économie politique</i> (1845), <i>Richard Cobden
+et la Ligue</i> (1846), <i>Traité des finances</i> (1862), and <i>Principes du
+population</i> (1857).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, GERMAIN,<a name="ar217" id="ar217"></a></span> <span class="sc">Marquis</span> (1754-1821), French politician
+and economist, was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November
+1754. He was educated for the law, and obtained when young
+the office of <i>procureur</i> to the Châtelet in Paris. On the calling of
+the states-general he was elected as one of the <i>députés suppléants</i>
+of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator of the department
+of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to the
+Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public
+life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In
+1797 he was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800
+he was prefect of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator
+and in 1808 a count. After the Restoration he obtained a peerage,
+and on the return of Louis XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he
+became minister of state and member of privy council, and in
+1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on the 4th of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page472" id="page472"></a>472</span>
+October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his facile
+power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation depends
+rather on his later works on political economy, especially his
+admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith&rsquo;s
+<i>Wealth of Nations</i> (1805) and his <i>Histoire de la monnaie</i> (2 vols.,
+1819), which contains much sound and well-arranged material.
+His <i>Abrégé des principes de l&rsquo;écon. polit.</i> (1796) is a very clear and
+instructive manual. The valuable <i>Description géographique,
+physique, et politique du département de Seine-et-Oise</i> (1802) was
+drawn up from his instructions. Other works are <i>De la propriété</i>
+(1792) and <i>Histoire des banques d&rsquo;escompte</i> (1806).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES<a name="ar218" id="ar218"></a></span> (1825-1898), French
+architect, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He
+was educated in a primary school, and it was intended that he
+should pursue his father&rsquo;s craft, that of a wheelwright. His
+mother, however, having heard that with a little previous study
+he might enter an architect&rsquo;s office and eventually become a
+measuring surveyor (<i>vérificateur</i>), and earn as much as six francs
+a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health
+he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing
+and mathematics at the Petite École de Dessin, in the rue de
+Médecine, the cradle of so many of the great artists of France.
+His progress was such as to justify his being sent first into an
+architect&rsquo;s office and then to the well-known atelier of Lebas,
+where he began his studies in preparation for the examination of
+the École des Beaux Arts, which he passed in 1842, at the age of
+seventeen. Shortly after his admission it became necessary that
+he should support himself, and accordingly he worked during the
+day in various architects&rsquo; offices, among them in that of M.
+Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the École to the
+evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three,
+the Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture,
+engraving and music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His
+principal works were the measured drawings of the Forum of
+Trajan and the temple of Vesta in Rome, and the temple of
+Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his travelling studentship
+he went to Athens and measured the temple at Aegina,
+subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its
+polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph
+in 1877. The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned
+by the duc de Luynes to make of the tombs of the
+house of Anjou were not published, owing to the death of his
+patron; and since Garnier&rsquo;s death they have been given to the
+library of the École des Beaux Arts, along with other drawings he
+made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was appointed
+surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very
+moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor
+Baltard to make two water-colour drawings of the Hôtel de
+Ville, to be placed in the album presented to Queen Victoria in
+1855, on the occasion of her visit to Paris, proved very acceptable.
+These two drawings are now in the library at Windsor.</p>
+
+<p>In 1860 came, at last, Garnier&rsquo;s chance: a competition was
+announced for a design for a new imperial academy of music, and
+out of 163 competitors Garnier was one of five selected for a
+second competition, in which, by unanimous vote, he carried off
+the first prize, and the execution of the design was placed in his
+hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its completion by the
+Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the structure of the
+present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a cost of
+about 35,000,000 francs (£1,420,000). During the war the building
+was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The
+staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the
+interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been
+approached. Of Garnier&rsquo;s other works, the most remarkable are
+the Casino at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera,
+the Hôtel du Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs,
+those of the musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Massé and Duprato. In
+1874 he was elected a member of the Institute of France, and
+after passing through the grades of chevalier, officer and commander
+of the Legion of Honour, received in 1895 the rank of
+grand officer, a high distinction that had never before been
+granted to an architect. Charles Garnier&rsquo;s reputation was not
+confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of
+Europe, and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal
+of the Royal Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria.
+Besides his monograph on the temple of Aegina, he wrote
+several works, of which <i>Le Nouvel Opéra de Paris</i> is the most
+valuable. For the International Exhibition of 1889 he designed
+the buildings illustrating the &ldquo;History of the House&rdquo; in all
+periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards published by
+him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his
+claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he
+rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the
+Institute of France, and the École des Beaux-Arts, services which
+in France are rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died
+on the 3rd of August 1898.</p>
+<div class="author">(R. P. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANÇOIS<a name="ar219" id="ar219"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Francis</span>] (1839-1873),
+French officer and explorer, was born at St Étienne on the
+25th of July 1839. He entered the navy, and after voyaging
+in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he obtained a post on the
+staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862 was campaigning
+in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he
+returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of
+the natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration
+of Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion
+that the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a
+mission to explore the valley of the Mekong, but as Garnier was
+not considered old enough to be put in command, the chief
+authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagrée. In the
+course of the expedition&mdash;to quote the words of Sir Roderick
+Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he
+was presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical
+Society of London&mdash;from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai
+5392 m. were traversed, and of these 3625 m., chiefly of country
+unknown to European geography, were surveyed with care, and
+the positions fixed by astronomical observations, nearly the whole
+of the observations being taken by Garnier himself. Volunteering
+to lead a detachment to Talifu, the capital of Sultan Suleiman,
+the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in Yunnan, he successfully
+carried out the more than adventurous enterprise. When
+shortly afterwards Lagrée died, Garnier naturally assumed the
+command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to the
+Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return
+to France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of
+his narrative was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and
+during the siege of Paris he served as principal staff officer to the
+admiral in command of the eighth &ldquo;sector.&rdquo; His experiences
+during the siege were published anonymously in the feuilleton of
+<i>Le Temps</i>, and appeared separately as <i>Le Siège de Paris, journal
+d&rsquo;un officier de marine</i> (1871). Returning to Cochin-China he
+found the political circumstances of the country unfavourable
+to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China, and in
+1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the
+waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupré,
+governor of Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a
+new colony in Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took
+Hanoi, the capital of Tongking, and on the 21st of December he
+was slain in fight with the Black Flags. His chief fame rests on
+the fact that he originated the idea of exploring the Mekong, and
+carried out the larger portion of the work.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as
+<i>Voyage d&rsquo;exploration en Indo-Chine effectué pendant les années 1866,
+1867 et 1868, publié sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec
+le concours de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel</i> (2 vols.).
+An account of the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier&rsquo;s pen is given in
+the <i>Bulletin de la Soc. de Géog.</i> (1874). His <i>Chronique royale du
+Cambodje</i>, was reprinted from the <i>Journal Asiatique</i> in 1872. See
+<i>Ocean Highways</i> (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh
+Clifford, <i>Further India</i>, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNIER, ROBERT<a name="ar220" id="ar220"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1545-<i>c.</i> 1600), French tragic poet, was
+born at Ferté Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his
+first work while still a law-student at Toulouse, where he won a
+prize (1565) in the <i>jeux floraux</i>. It was a collection of lyrical
+pieces, now lost, entitled <i>Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier</i>
+(1565). After some practice at the Parisian bar, he became
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page473" id="page473"></a>473</span>
+conseiller du roi au siège présidial et sénéchaussée of Le Maine,
+his native district, and later lieutenant-général criminel. His
+friend Lacroix du Maine says that he enjoyed a great reputation
+as an orator. He was a distinguished magistrate, of considerable
+weight in his native province, who gave his leisure to literature,
+and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized by his own
+generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600.</p>
+
+<p>In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of
+dramatists who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these
+productions there is little that is strictly dramatic except the
+form. A tragedy was a series of rhetorical speeches relieved by a
+lyric chorus. His pieces in this manner are <i>Porcie</i> (published
+1568, acted at the hôtel de Bourgogne in 1573), <i>Cornélie</i> and
+<i>Hippolyte</i> (both acted in 1573 and printed in 1574). In <i>Porcie</i>
+the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the subject of
+an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death of the
+nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group
+of tragedies&mdash;<i>Marc-Antoine</i> (1578), <i>La Troade</i> (1579), <i>Antigone</i>
+(acted and printed 1580)&mdash;shows an advance on the theatre of
+Étienne Jodelle and Jacques Grévin, and on his own early plays,
+in so much that the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance
+of action, though this is accomplished by the plan of joining
+together two virtually independent pieces in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces <i>Bradamante</i>
+and <i>Les Juives</i>. In <i>Bradamante</i>, which alone of his plays
+has no chorus, he cut himself adrift from Senecan models, and
+sought his subject in Ariosto, the result being what came to be
+known later as a tragi-comedy. The dramatic and romantic
+story becomes a real drama in Garnier&rsquo;s hands, though even
+there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the stage.
+The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic
+interest in the manner of Corneille. <i>Les Juives</i> is the pathetic
+story of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the
+Jewish king Zedekiah and his children. The Jewish women
+lamenting the fate of their children take a principal part in this
+tragedy, which, although almost entirely elegiac in conception,
+is singularly well designed, and gains unity by the personality of
+the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French tragedies of the
+16th and 17th centuries it is, with <i>Athalie</i>, the best constructed
+with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual representation
+is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, in
+fact, visually conceived.</p>
+
+<p>Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of
+his century and the precursor of the great achievements of the
+next.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn,
+4 vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found
+in Émile Faguet, <i>La Tragédie française au XVI<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1883, pp.
+183-307).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNIER-PAGÈS, ÉTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS<a name="ar221" id="ar221"></a></span> (1801-1841),
+French politician, was born at Marseilles on the 27th of December
+1801. Soon after his birth his father Jean François Garnier, a
+naval surgeon, died, and his mother married Simon Pagès, a
+college professor, by whom she had a son. The boys were brought
+up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pagès. Étienne
+found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and
+then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study
+law, and made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of
+the Restoration, he joined various democratic societies, notably
+the <i>Aide-toi, le ciel t&rsquo;aidera</i>, an organization for purifying the
+elections. He took part in the revolution of July 1830; became
+secretary of the <i>Aide-toi, le ciel t&rsquo;aidera</i>, whose propaganda he
+brought into line with his anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831
+was sent from Isère to the chamber of deputies. He was concerned
+in the preparation of the <i>Compte rendu</i> of 1832, and
+advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker, and
+his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked
+influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on
+the 23rd of June 1841.</p>
+
+<p>His half-brother, <span class="sc">Louis Antoine Garnier-Pagès</span> (1803-1878),
+fought on the barricades during the revolution of July
+1830, and after Étienne&rsquo;s death was elected to the chamber of
+deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter of reform, and was a
+leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet fixed for the
+22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional
+government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the
+5th of March 1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred
+great unpopularity by the imposition of additional taxes. He
+was a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Executive
+Commission. Under the Empire he was conspicuous in the
+republican opposition and opposed the war with Prussia, and
+after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the Government
+of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the
+National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into
+private life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He
+wrote <i>Histoire de la révolution de 1848</i> (1860-1862); <i>Histoire de
+la commission exécutive</i> (1869-1872); and <i>L&rsquo;Opposition et l&rsquo;empire</i>
+(1872).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARNISH,<a name="ar222" id="ar222"></a></span> a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now
+particularly used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from
+the O. Fr. <i>garnisant</i> or <i>guarnissant</i>, participle of <i>garnir</i>, <i>guarnir</i>,
+to furnish, equip. This is of Teutonic origin, the base being
+represented in O. Eng. <i>warnian</i>, to take warning, beware, and
+Ger. <i>warnen</i>, to warn, Eng. <i>warn</i>; the original sense would be to
+guard against, fortify, hence equip or fit out. The meaning of
+&ldquo;warn&rdquo; is seen in the law term &ldquo;garnishee,&rdquo; a person who owes
+money to or holds money belonging to another and is &ldquo;warned&rdquo;
+by order of the court not to pay it to his immediate creditor but
+to a third person who has obtained final judgment against that
+creditor. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Attachment</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Execution</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARO HILLS,<a name="ar223" id="ar223"></a></span> a district of British India, in the hills division of
+Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a
+tribe of doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom
+it is almost entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section
+of the great Bodo tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of
+Assam. According to the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117.
+In the 18th century they are mentioned as being frequently in
+conflict with the inhabitants of the plains below their hills, and in
+1790 the British government first tried to reduce them. No
+permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the Garos
+were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were
+again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in
+1861, but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was
+now posted among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the
+district was constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was
+committed against a native on the survey staff, there was little
+opposition when an expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the
+whole district into submission, and there were thereafter no
+further disturbances.</p>
+
+<p>The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which
+here run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that
+river debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great
+sweep to the south. The administrative headquarters are at
+Tura. The area of the district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the
+population was 138,274, showing an increase of 14% in the
+decade. The American missionaries maintain a small training
+school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were entirely
+destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in
+the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures.
+Coal in large quantities and petroleum are known to exist.
+The chief exports are cotton, timber and forest products. Trade
+is small, though the natives, according to their own standard,
+are prosperous. They are fair agriculturists. Communications
+within the district are by cart-roads, bridle-paths and native
+tracks.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARONNE<a name="ar224" id="ar224"></a></span> (Lat. <i>Garumna</i>), a river of south-western France,
+rising in the Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a
+wide curve to the Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents,
+one of which has a subterranean course of 2½ m., disappearing in
+the sink known as the Trou du Taureau (&ldquo;bull&rsquo;s hole&rdquo;) and
+reappearing at the Goueil de Jouéou. After a course of 30 m. in
+Spanish territory, during which it flows through the fine gorge
+called the Vallée d&rsquo;Aran, the Garonne enters France in the
+department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page474" id="page474"></a>474</span>
+Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At
+Montréjeau it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at
+this point the vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn
+abruptly east, flowing in a wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint
+Martory it gives off the irrigation canal of that name. At this
+point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, and supplies the motive
+power to several mills. It is joined on the right by various
+streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the Salat, at
+whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize
+and the Ariège (both names signifying &ldquo;river&rdquo;). From Toulouse
+the Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern
+border of the plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the
+principal streams being the Save, the Gers and the Baïse. On its
+right hand the Garonne is swelled by its two chief tributaries, the
+Tarn, near Moissac, and the Lot, below Agen; farther down it is
+joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and on the left by the Ciron.
+Between Toulouse and Castets, 33½ m. above Bordeaux, and the
+highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend, the river is
+accompanied at a distance of from a ½ to 3 m. by the so-called
+&ldquo;lateral canal&rdquo; of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856.
+This canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches,
+one of which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn.
+From Toulouse to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of
+the Garonne, crossing the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while
+another magnificent aqueduct of twenty-three arches carries it at
+Agen from the right to the left bank of the river. It has a fall of
+420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is navigable for vessels having the
+maximum dimensions of 98½ ft. length, 19 ft. breadth and 6½ ft.
+draught. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly in agricultural
+produce and provisions, building materials, wood and industrial
+products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du
+Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the
+Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160
+yds. broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its
+great commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing
+width between two flat shores to the Bec d&rsquo;Ambès (15½ m.),
+where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to
+form the vast estuary known as the Gironde. The triangular
+peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers is called
+Entre-deux-mers (&ldquo;between two seas&rdquo;) and is famous for its
+wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 sq. m.
+Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly.
+The most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the
+flood level at Castets attained the record height of 42½ ft. above
+low-water mark.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRET<a name="ar225" id="ar225"></a></span> (from the O. Fr. <i>garite</i>, modern <i>guérite</i>, a watch-tower,
+connected ultimately with &ldquo;guard&rdquo; and &ldquo;ward&rdquo;),
+properly a small look-out tower built on a wall, and hence the
+name given to a room on the top storey of a building, the sloping
+ceiling of which is formed by the roof.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRETT, JOÃO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITÃO DE
+ALMEIDA,<a name="ar226" id="ar226"></a></span> <span class="sc">Visconde de Almeida-Garrett</span> (1799-1854),
+perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since Camoens, was of
+Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the Quinta
+do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French
+invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett
+made his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early
+age under the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of
+Bocage. Going to the university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon
+earned notoriety by the precocity of his talents and his fervent
+Liberalism, and there he gained his first oratorical and literary
+successes. His tragedy <i>Lucrecia</i> was played there in February
+1819, and during this period he also wrote <i>Merope</i> as well as a
+great part of <i>Cato</i>, all these plays belonging to the so-called
+classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he proceeded
+to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married
+D. Luiza Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal
+separation took place in 1839.</p>
+
+<p>The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of
+1820 reached its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal
+by order of the Absolutist ministry then in power, and went
+to England. He became acquainted with the masterpieces of
+the English and German romantic movements during his stay
+abroad.</p>
+
+<p>Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at
+Havre the poem &ldquo;Camões,&rdquo; which destroyed the influence of the
+worn-out classical and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following
+year composed the patriotic poem &ldquo;D. Branca,&rdquo; or &ldquo;The
+Conquest of the Algarve.&rdquo; He was permitted to return to
+Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism.
+With the publication of <i>O Portuguez</i>, he raised the tone of the
+press, exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language
+then unknown in political controversy, and he introduced the
+&ldquo;feuilleton.&rdquo; But his defence of Liberal principles brought him
+three months&rsquo; imprisonment, and when D. Miguel was proclaimed
+absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828, Garrett had again to leave
+the country. In London, where he sought refuge, he continued
+his adhesion to romanticism by publishing <i>Adozinda</i> and <i>Bernal-Francez</i>,
+expansions of old folk-poems, which met with the
+warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson.
+He spent the next three years in and about Birmingham,
+Warwick and London, engaged in writing poetry and political
+pamphlets, and by these and by his periodicals he did much to
+unite the Portuguese <i>émigrés</i> and to keep up their spirit amid
+their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning that an expedition
+was being organized in France for the liberation of Portugal,
+Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a
+volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira,
+whence he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal
+government. Here he became a co-operator with the statesman
+Mousinho da Silveira, and assisted him in drafting those laws
+which were to revolutionize the whole framework of Portuguese
+society, this important work being done far from books and
+without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote some of
+the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into <i>Flores sem Fructo</i>.
+He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on the
+8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the
+siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the
+historical romance <i>Arco de Sant&rsquo; Anna</i>, descriptive of the city in
+the reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the
+Home and Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted
+many important royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and
+commercial codes. In the following November he was despatched
+as secretary to the marquis on a diplomatic mission to
+foreign courts, which involved him in much personal hardship.
+In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to return
+home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of
+public instruction.</p>
+
+<p>In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and chargé d&rsquo;affaires
+at Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most
+difficult circumstances, for which he received no thanks and
+little pay. When he got back, the government employed him to
+draw up a proposal for the construction of a national theatre and
+for a conservatoire of dramatic art, of which he became the
+head. He instituted prizes for the best plays, himself revising
+nearly all that were produced, and a school of dramatists and
+actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he
+proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects
+from Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the <i>Auto de
+Gil Vicente</i>, considering that the first step towards the recreation
+of the Portuguese drama was to revive the memory of its
+founder, and he followed this up in 1842 by the <i>Alfageme de
+Santarem</i>, dealing with the Holy Constable, and in 1843 by
+<i>Frei Luiz de Sousa</i>, one of the few great tragedies of the 19th
+century, a work as intensely national as <i>The Lusiads</i>. The story,
+which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being
+simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. João de Portugal,
+who was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns,
+years afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and
+the mother of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the
+pair separate and enter religion, and Manoel becomes the famous
+chronicler, Frei Luiz de Sousa (<i>q.v.</i>). The characters live and
+move, especially Telmo, the old servant, who would never believe
+in the death of his former master D. João, and the consumptive
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page475" id="page475"></a>475</span>
+child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere of impending
+disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the return
+of D. João and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the
+language is Portuguese of the best.</p>
+
+<p>Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as
+an orator. In that year he delivered many notable discourses in
+defence of liberal ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright
+bill, which, when it became law in 1851, served as a precedent for
+similar legislation in England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his
+famous speech known as <i>Porto Pyreu</i>, in which he skilfully turned
+the well-known anecdote of the &ldquo;mad Athenian&rdquo; against his
+opponents. While attending with assiduity to his duties as a
+deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama <i>D. Filippa de
+Vilhena</i>, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for
+representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the
+session of 1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his
+speech against the law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to
+Santarem resulted in his prose masterpiece <i>Viagens na minha
+terra</i>, at once a novel and a miscellany of literary, political and
+philosophic criticism, written without plan or method, easy,
+jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part in the civil war that
+followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but continued his
+literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy <i>A Sobrinha do
+Marquez</i>, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an
+historical memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of
+the year 1850 in finishing his <i>Romanceiro</i>, a collection of folk-poetry
+of which he was the first to perceive the value; and in
+June 1851 he was created a viscount. In the following December
+he drew up the additional act to the constitutional charter, and
+his draft was approved by the ministers at a cabinet meeting in
+his house. Further, he initiated the <i>Conselho Ultramarino</i>; and
+the <i>Law of the Misericordias</i>, with its preamble, published in 1852,
+was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became for a
+short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out
+<i>Folhas Cahidas</i>, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion
+and exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said:
+&ldquo;if Camoens had written love verses at Garrett&rsquo;s age, he could
+not have equalled him.&rdquo; His final literary work was a novel,
+<i>Helena</i>, which he left unfinished, and on the 10th of February
+1854 he made his last notable speech in the House. He died on
+the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903 his remains
+were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos
+at Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet,
+novelist, journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark
+of Rebello da Silva: &ldquo;Garrett was not a man of letters only but
+an entire literature in himself.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a
+deep sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular
+capacity for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able
+jurist, he was bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic
+temperament explains his many-sided activity, his expansive
+kindliness, his seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism,
+his aristocratic pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism,
+and the ingenuousness that absolves him from many faults in an
+irregular life. From his rich artistic nature sprang his profound,
+sincere, sensual and melancholy lyrics, the variety and perfection
+of his scenic creations, the splendour of his eloquence, the truth of
+his comic vein, the elegance of his lighter compositions. Two
+books stand out in bold relief from among his writings: <i>Folhas
+Cahidas</i>, and that tragedy of fatality and pity, <i>Frei Luiz de
+Sousa</i>, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the truest
+realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection
+of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several
+editions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Gomes de Amorim, <i>Garrett, memorias biographicas</i>
+(3 vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, <i>La Litteratura
+Portuguesa en el siglo XIX</i> (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr
+Theophilo Braga, <i>Garrett e o romantismo</i> (Oporto, 1904), and <i>Garrett
+e os dramas romanticos</i> (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography;
+Innocencio da Silva, <i>Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez</i>, vol. iii.
+pp. 309-316, and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See <i>Revue encyclopédique
+Larousse</i>, No. 284, for a bibliography of the foreign translations of
+Garrett. <i>Frei Luiz de Sousa</i> was translated by Edgar Prestage under
+the title <i>Brother Luiz de Sousa</i> (London, 1909).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. Pr.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRETTING,<a name="ar227" id="ar227"></a></span> properly Galletting, a term in architecture
+for the process in which the &ldquo;gallets&rdquo; or small splinters of stone
+are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the
+mortar joints; they are stuck in while the mortar is wet.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRICK, DAVID<a name="ar228" id="ar228"></a></span> (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical
+manager, was descended from a good French Protestant family
+named Garric or Garrique of Bordeaux, which had settled in
+England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father,
+Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella Clough, the
+daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a recruiting
+expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford
+on the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had
+made his home at Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731
+rejoined his regiment at Gibraltar. This kept him absent from
+home for many years, during which letters were written to him
+by &ldquo;little Davy,&rdquo; acquainting him with the doings at Lichfield.
+When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a short visit
+to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine merchant.
+On his father&rsquo;s return from Gibraltar, David, who had previously
+been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was, largely by
+the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical
+court, sent with his brother George to the &ldquo;academy&rdquo; at Edial, just
+opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by
+seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary
+was, however, closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of
+March 1736/7 both Johnson and Garrick left Lichfield for
+London&mdash;Johnson, as he afterwards said, &ldquo;with twopence
+halfpenny in his pocket,&rdquo; and Garrick &ldquo;with three-halfpence in
+his.&rdquo; Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy of <i>Irene</i>,
+was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however, before the
+end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John
+Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain
+Garrick died about a month after David&rsquo;s arrival in London.
+Soon afterwards, his uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having
+left David a sum of £1000, he and his brother entered into
+partnership as wine merchants in London and Lichfield, David
+taking up the London business. The concern was not prosperous&mdash;though
+Samuel Foote&rsquo;s assertion that he had known Garrick
+with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine
+merchant need not be taken literally&mdash;and before the end of 1741
+he had spent nearly half of his capital.</p>
+
+<p>His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried
+his hand both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship.
+His first dramatic piece, <i>Lethe</i>, or <i>Aesop in the Shades</i>, which he
+was thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound
+transcript to King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played
+at Drury Lane on the 15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known
+frequenter of theatrical circles. His first appearance on
+the stage was made in March 1741, <i>incognito</i>, as harlequin at
+Goodman&rsquo;s Fields, Yates, who was ill, having allowed him to take
+his place during a few scenes of the pantomime entitled <i>Harlequin
+Student</i>, or <i>The Fall of Pantomime with the Restoration of the
+Drama</i>. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party of players
+from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first part
+as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan
+(in Southerne&rsquo;s <i>Oroonoko</i>). His success in this and other parts
+determined his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he
+made his appearance at Goodman&rsquo;s Fields as Richard III. and
+gained the most enthusiastic applause. Among the audience
+was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock, early in the same
+year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so rapidly to
+pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his brother
+at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal
+from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on
+the part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration,
+were ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had
+added to his popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who,
+like Horace Walpole, at first held out against the <i>furore</i>) declared,
+was &ldquo;horn-mad&rdquo; about him. Before his Richard had exhausted
+its original effect, he won new applause as Aboan, and soon
+afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway&rsquo;s <i>Venice Preserved</i>,
+as well as in several comic characters (including that of Bayes).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page476" id="page476"></a>476</span>
+Glover (&ldquo;Leonidas&rdquo;) attended every performance; the duke of
+Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other
+members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the
+first six months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen
+characters of all kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared
+in his own name. Pope went to see him three times during his
+first performances, and pronounced that &ldquo;that young man
+never had his equal as an actor, and he will never have a rival.&rdquo;
+Before next spring he had supped with &ldquo;the great Mr Murray,
+counsellor,&rdquo; and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope through
+Murray&rsquo;s introduction, while he was dining with Halifax, Sandwich
+and Chesterfield. &ldquo;There was a dozen dukes of a night at
+Goodman&rsquo;s Fields,&rdquo; writes Horace Walpole. Garrick&rsquo;s farce of
+<i>The Lying Valet</i>, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at
+this time brought out with so much success that he ventured to
+send a copy to his brother.</p>
+
+<p>His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent
+Garden and Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the
+manager of Goodman&rsquo;s Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick
+was engaged by Fleetwood for Drury Lane for the season of 1742.
+In June of that year he went over to Dublin, where he found the
+same homage paid to his talents as he had received from his own
+countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg) Woffington,
+of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer.
+(His claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is
+still <i>sub judice</i>. There remains some obscurity as to the end of
+their liaison.) From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at
+Drury Lane, after which he again went over to Dublin. Here
+he remained during the whole season, as joint-manager with
+Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the Theatre Royal in
+Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short engagement with
+Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances under a
+management not his own. With the close of that season Fleetwood&rsquo;s
+patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and
+Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the
+theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing
+£8000 as two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747
+it was opened with a strong company of actors, Johnson&rsquo;s
+prologue being spoken by Garrick, while the epilogue, written by
+him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The negotiations involved
+Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who appears to have had
+a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part himself till
+his performance of Archer in the <i>Beaux&rsquo; Stratagem</i>, a month after
+the opening. For a time at least &ldquo;the drama&rsquo;s patrons&rdquo; were
+content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the
+end Garrick had to &ldquo;please&rdquo; them, like most other managers, by
+gratifying their love of show. Garrick was surrounded by many
+players of eminence, and he had the art, as he was told by Mrs
+Clive, &ldquo;of contradicting the proverb that one cannot make
+bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more difficult,
+making actors and actresses without genius.&rdquo; He had to encounter
+very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had
+distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was
+involved in frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their
+fellows did he, so far as it appears, show that jealousy of real
+merit from which so many great actors have been unable to remain
+free. For the present he was able to hold his own against all
+competition. The naturalness of his acting fascinated those who,
+like Partridge in <i>Tom Jones</i>, listened to nature&rsquo;s voice, and
+justified the preference of more conscious critics. To be &ldquo;pleased
+with nature&rdquo; was, as Churchill wrote, in the <i>Rosciad</i> (1761),<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the
+sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his
+fellows, Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour
+in both voice and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound.
+&ldquo;It seemed,&rdquo; wrote Richard Cumberland, &ldquo;as if a whole century
+had been stepped over in the passage of a single scene; old
+things were done away, and a new order at once brought forward,
+bright and luminous, and clearly destined to dispel the barbarisms
+of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously devoted to the illusions
+of imposing declamation.&rdquo; Garrick&rsquo;s French descent and his
+education may have contributed to give him the vivacity and
+versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had
+given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic
+power of wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy,
+comedy and farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a
+modern actor of high rank; it includes not less than seventeen
+Shakespearian parts. As a manager, though he committed some
+grievous blunders, he did good service to the theatre and signally
+advanced the popularity of Shakespeare&rsquo;s plays, of which not
+less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane under his
+management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and
+he is credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of
+<i>Macbeth</i>. On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick&rsquo;s
+production of <i>Hamlet</i> in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane
+even by the galleries, &ldquo;though without their favourite acquaintances
+the gravediggers.&rdquo; Among his published adaptations are
+an opera, <i>The Fairies</i> (from <i>Midsummer Night&rsquo;s Dream</i>) (1755);
+an opera <i>The Tempest</i> (1756); <i>Catherine and Petruchio</i> (1758);
+<i>Florizel and Perdita</i> (1762). But not every generation has the
+same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best honoured.
+Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a
+manager, but he refused Home&rsquo;s <i>Douglas</i>, and made the wrong
+choice between <i>False Delicacy</i> and <i>The Good Natur&rsquo;d Man</i>.
+For the rest, he purified the stage of much of its grossness, and
+introduced a relative correctness of costume and decoration
+unknown before. To the study of English dramatic literature he
+rendered an important service by bequeathing his then unrivalled
+collection of plays to the British Museum.</p>
+
+<p>After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful
+but reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married
+Mademoiselle Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who
+had attracted admiration at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer,
+and had come to England early in 1746, where her modest grace
+and the rumours which surrounded her created a <i>furore</i>, and where
+she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl and countess of Burlington.
+Garrick, who called her &ldquo;the best of women and wives,&rdquo;
+lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton, acquired by
+him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in
+Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick&rsquo;s quarrel
+with Barry, the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in
+the favour of the public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited
+Paris, where they were cordially received and made the acquaintance
+of Diderot and others at the house of the baron d&rsquo;Holbach.
+It was about this time that Grimm extolled Garrick as the first
+and only actor who came up to the demands of his imagination;
+and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by Garrick&rsquo;s visit
+that Diderot first gave expression to the views expounded in his
+<i>Paradoxe sur le comédien</i>. After some months spent in Italy,
+where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the
+autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April
+1765. Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her
+husband until 1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor
+Castle.</p>
+
+<p>Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the
+management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare
+celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which
+ended in dismal failure, though he composed an &ldquo;Ode upon
+dedicating a building and erecting a Statue to Shakespeare&rdquo; on
+the occasion. (See, <i>inter alia, Garrick&rsquo;s Vagary, or England Run
+Mad; with particulars of the Stratford Jubilee</i>, 1769.) Of his best
+supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with whom he had been
+reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired in 1769;
+but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre.
+He sold his share in the property in 1776 for £35,000, and took
+leave of the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters&mdash;Hamlet,
+Lear, Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian
+parts; Lusignan in <i>Zara</i>, Aaron Hill&rsquo;s adaptation of Voltaire&rsquo;s
+<i>Zaire</i>; and Kitely in his own adaptation of Ben Jonson&rsquo;s <i>Every
+Man in his Humour</i>; Archer in Farquhar&rsquo;s <i>Beaux&rsquo; Stratagem</i>;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page477" id="page477"></a>477</span>
+Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson&rsquo;s <i>Alchemist</i>; Sir John Brute in
+Vanbrugh&rsquo;s <i>Provoked Wife</i>; Leon in Fletcher&rsquo;s <i>Rule a Wife and
+have a Wife</i>. He ended the series, as Tate Wilkinson says,
+&ldquo;in full glory&rdquo; with &ldquo;the youthful Don Felix&rdquo; in Mrs Centlivre&rsquo;s
+<i>Wonder</i> on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the
+20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at
+the foot of Shakespeare&rsquo;s statue with imposing solemnities. An
+elegy on his death was published by William Tasker, poet and
+physiognomist, in the same year.</p>
+
+<p>In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his
+later years he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary
+mobility of his whole person, and his power of as it were
+transforming himself at will, are attested by many anecdotes and
+descriptions, but the piercing power of his eye must have been his
+most irresistible feature.</p>
+
+<p>Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks
+on Garrick and his doings many are scattered through the pages
+of Boswell, spoke warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his
+friend&rsquo;s conversation, as well as of his liberality and kindness of
+heart; while to the great actor&rsquo;s art he paid the exquisite tribute
+of describing Garrick&rsquo;s sudden death as having &ldquo;eclipsed the
+gaiety of nations, and impoverished the public stock of harmless
+pleasure.&rdquo; But the most discriminating character of Garrick,
+slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by Goldsmith in his
+poem of <i>Retaliation</i>. Beyond a doubt he was not without a
+certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager
+temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not
+cast in a heroic mould, he must have been one of the most
+amiable of men. Garrick was often happy in his epigrams and
+occasional verse, including his numerous prologues and epilogues.
+He had the good taste to recognize, and the spirit to make
+public his recognition of, the excellence of Gray&rsquo;s odes at a time
+when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His dramatic
+pieces, <i>The Lying Valet</i>, adapted from Motteux&rsquo;s <i>Novelty Lethe</i>
+(1740), <i>The Guardian</i>, <i>Linco&rsquo;s Travels</i> (1767), <i>Miss in her Teens</i>
+(1747), <i>Irish Widow</i>, &amp;c., and his alterations and adaptations of
+old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge
+of stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action;
+but he cannot be said to have added one new or original character
+to the drama. He was joint author with Colman of <i>The Clandestine
+Marriage</i> (1766), in which he is said to have written his
+famous part of Lord Ogleby. The excellent farce, <i>High Life
+below Stairs</i>, appears to have been wrongly attributed to Garrick,
+and to be by James Townley. His <i>Dramatic Works</i> (1798) fill
+three, his <i>Poetic</i> (1735) two volumes.</p>
+
+<p>Garrick&rsquo;s <i>Private Correspondence</i> (published in 1831-1832
+with a short memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes
+his extensive <i>Foreign Correspondence</i> with distinguished French
+men and women, and the notices of him in the memoirs of
+Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D&rsquo;Arblay, and above
+all in Boswell&rsquo;s <i>Life of Johnson</i>, bear testimony to his many
+attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in
+the Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of
+all kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe&rsquo;s <i>Bibliographical
+History of English Theatrical Literature</i> (1887). The earlier
+biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801) and by
+the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter a work
+of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to dates;
+and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his verses
+is furnished by Joseph Knight&rsquo;s valuable Life (1894). A memoir of
+Garrick is included in a volume of French <i>Memoirs of Mlle Clairon
+and others</i>, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and
+an Italian <i>Biografia di Davide Garrick</i> was published by C. Blasis at
+Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald&rsquo;s <i>Life</i> (2 vols., 1868; new edition,
+1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with additions,
+among Sir Theodore Martin&rsquo;s <i>Monographs</i> (1906). A delightful
+essay on Garrick appeared in the <i>Quarterly Review</i> (July 1868),
+directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick&rsquo;s acting
+in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (<i>Verm. Schriften</i>, iii.,
+Göttingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of Garrick&rsquo;s
+labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, <i>David Garrick
+als Shakespeare-Darsteller</i>, &amp;c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons&rsquo; <i>Garrick,
+and his Circle</i> and <i>Some unpublished Correspondence of David Garrick</i>,
+ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting additions to
+the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by James Smyth,
+<i>David Garrick</i> (1887). T.W. Robertson&rsquo;s play <i>David Garrick</i>, first
+acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir Charles Wyndham,
+is of course mere fiction.</p>
+
+<p>As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The
+<i>Connoisseur</i> (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon
+was preferred by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain
+from the hand of Hogarth, including the famous picture of Garrick
+as Richard III. The portraits by Reynolds include the celebrated
+&ldquo;Garrick between Tragedy and Comedy.&rdquo; Zoffany&rsquo;s are portraits
+in character. Roubiliac&rsquo;s statue of Shakespeare, for which Garrick
+sat, and for which he paid the sculptor three hundred guineas, was
+originally placed in a small temple at Hampton, and is now in the
+entrance hall at the British Museum.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. Ca.; A. W. W.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the subsequent <i>Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers</i>,
+Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick
+to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however,
+Garrick requited by good-humoured kindness.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOY<a name="ar229" id="ar229"></a></span>D (1805-1879), the American
+anti-slavery leader, was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts,
+U.S.A., on the 10th of December 1805. His parents were from
+the British province of New Brunswick. The father, Abijah, a
+sea-captain, went away from home when William was a child,
+and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The
+mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a
+woman of high character, charming in person and eminent for
+piety. She died in 1823. William had a taste for books, and
+made the most of his limited opportunities. His mother first set
+him to learn the trade of a shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and
+then, after 1815, at Baltimore, Maryland, and, when she found
+that this did not suit him, let him try his hand at cabinet-making
+(at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him no better. In
+October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was made
+more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen,
+proprietor of the Newburyport <i>Herald</i>, to learn the trade of a
+printer. He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time
+began to write anonymously for the <i>Herald</i>. His communications
+won the commendation of the editor, who had not at first the
+slightest suspicion that he was the author. He also wrote for
+other papers with equal success. A series of political essays,
+written by him for the Salem <i>Gazette</i>, was copied by a prominent
+Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to the
+Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts.
+His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman,
+while his ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of
+the <i>Herald</i>, when temporarily called away from his post, left the
+paper in his charge.</p>
+
+<p>The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many
+another poor boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the
+college. He was full of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of
+the Greeks to throw off the Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest
+sympathy, and at one time he seriously thought of entering the
+West Point Academy and fitting himself for a soldier&rsquo;s career.
+His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the publication
+of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the <i>Free
+Press</i>, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was &ldquo;Our
+Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country,&rdquo; was
+full of spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy
+place and the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston,
+where, after working for a time as a journeyman printer, he
+became the editor of the <i>National Philanthropist</i>, the first journal
+established in America to promote the cause of total abstinence
+from intoxicating liquors. His work in this paper was highly
+appreciated by the friends of temperance, but a change in the
+proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end of the year.
+In 1828 he was induced to establish the <i>Journal of the Times</i> at
+Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy
+Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper,
+though attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was
+too far ahead of public sentiment on moral questions to win a
+large support. In Boston he had met Benjamin Lundy (<i>q.v.</i>), who
+had for years been preaching the abolition of slavery. Garrison
+had been deeply moved by Lundy&rsquo;s appeals, and after going to
+Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery question.
+Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper,
+entitled <i>The Genius of Universal Emancipation</i>, and he resolved
+to go to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship.
+With this object in view he walked from Boston to
+Bennington, through the frost and snow of a New England winter,
+a distance of 125 m. His mission was successful. Garrison was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page478" id="page478"></a>478</span>
+deeply impressed by the good Quaker&rsquo;s zeal and devotion, and he
+resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter to the work of
+abolishing slavery.</p>
+
+<p>In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn
+of 1829, and thenceforth the <i>Genius</i> was published weekly,
+under the joint editorship of the two men. It was understood,
+however, that Garrison would do most of the editorial work,
+while Lundy would spend most of his time in lecturing and
+procuring subscribers. On one point the two editors differed
+radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and Garrison of
+immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the
+idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized
+somewhere beyond the limits of the United States; the latter
+held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country,
+with all the rights of freemen. In view of this difference it was
+agreed that each should speak on his own individual responsibility
+in the paper, appending his initial to each of his articles for the
+information of the reader. It deserves mention here that Garrison
+was then in utter ignorance of the change previously wrought in
+the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth Heyrick&rsquo;s
+pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual
+emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the
+duty of immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was
+perfectly manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and
+denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system
+was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolishing
+it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for immediate
+emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders.
+For general talk about the evils of slavery they cared little, but
+this assertion that every slave was entitled to instant freedom
+filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for they saw
+that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the
+proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The <i>Genius</i>, now
+that it had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a
+paper to be feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one
+of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic
+Garrison heaped the strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in
+Newburyport having taken a cargo of slaves from Baltimore to
+New Orleans, he characterized the transaction as an act of
+&ldquo;domestic piracy,&rdquo; and avowed his purpose to &ldquo;cover with
+thick infamy&rdquo; those engaged therein. He was thereupon
+prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted
+in costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His
+imprisonment created much excitement, and in some quarters,
+in spite of the pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of
+indignant comment in public as well as private. The excitement
+was fed by the publication of two or three striking sonnets,
+instinct with the spirit of liberty, which Garrison inscribed on the
+walls of his cell. One of these, <i>Freedom of Mind</i>, is remarkable
+for freshness of thought and terseness of expression.</p>
+
+<p>John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry
+Clay to pay Garrison&rsquo;s fine and thus release him from prison.
+To the credit of the slaveholding statesman it must be said that
+he responded favourably, but before he had time for the requisite
+preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New
+York, contributed the necessary sum and set the prisoner free
+after an incarceration of seven weeks. The partnership between
+Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and
+the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which,
+upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of
+immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African
+colonization. He was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore,
+that a movement against slavery resting upon any less radical
+foundation than this would be ineffectual. He first proposed to
+establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on
+returning to New England and observing the state of public
+opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done
+at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending her
+influence, through political, commercial, religious and social
+channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore,
+to publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus,
+set himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by
+means of lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the
+North. It was an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and
+indifference to his wrongs were almost universal. In Boston,
+then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or
+vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and thereupon announced in
+one of the daily journals that if some suitable place was not
+promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of
+infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844),
+who had previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor
+of a Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small
+hall; and, no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully,
+and delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which
+he unfolded his principles and plans. He visited privately many
+of the leading citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and
+merchants, and besought them to take the lead in a national
+movement against slavery; but they all with one consent made
+excuse, some of them listening to his plea with manifest impatience.
+He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His
+conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and
+dangers of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contemplated
+movement, was intensified by opposition, and he resolved
+to go forward, trusting in God for success.</p>
+
+<p>On the 1st of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and
+without a single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp
+(1804-1843) issued the first number of the <i>Liberator</i>, avowing their
+&ldquo;determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread
+and water, or their hands obtain employment.&rdquo; Its motto was,
+&ldquo;Our country is the world&mdash;our countrymen are mankind&rdquo;; and
+the editor, in his address to the public, uttered the words which
+have become memorable as embodying the whole purpose and
+spirit of his life: &ldquo;I am in earnest&mdash;I will not equivocate&mdash;I will
+not excuse&mdash;I will not retreat a single inch&mdash;and I will be
+heard.&rdquo; Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison
+and his brave partner, who died long before the end of the
+conflict, made their bed on the floor of the room, &ldquo;dark, unfurnished
+and mean,&rdquo; in which they printed their paper, and
+where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, in compliance with
+the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina,
+&ldquo;ferreted them out&rdquo; in &ldquo;an obscure hole,&rdquo; &ldquo;their only visible
+auxiliary a negro boy.&rdquo; But the paper founded under such
+inauspicious circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived
+to record not only President Lincoln&rsquo;s proclamation of emancipation,
+but the adoption of an amendment to the constitution of the
+United States for ever prohibiting slavery. It was the beginning
+and the nucleus of an agitation that eventually pervaded and
+filled every part of the country. Other newspapers were afterwards
+established upon the same principles; anti-slavery
+societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate emancipation,
+sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into political
+parties, into the press, and into legislative and ecclesiastical
+assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking alarm from
+the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to
+slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safeguards
+of the system, seceded from the Union and set up a
+separate government.</p>
+
+<p>Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone.
+He knew that the national government had no power over the
+system in any state, though it could abolish it at the national
+capital, and prohibit it in the territories. He thought it should
+bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition; but
+neither he nor his associates ever asked Congress to exercise any
+unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine the moral
+influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel
+upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern
+churches and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of
+Christianity to bear against the slave system, and to advocate the
+rights of the slaves to immediate and unconditional freedom.
+He was a man of peace, hating war not less than he did slavery;
+but he warned his countrymen that if they refused to abolish
+slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner or later
+ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be overthrown,
+if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page479" id="page479"></a>479</span>
+organized under Garrison&rsquo;s auspices, and in accordance with his
+principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which
+adopted its constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this
+year Garrison issued his <i>Thoughts on African Colonization</i>, in
+which he showed by ample citations from official documents that
+the American Colonization Society was organized in the interest of
+slavery, and that in offering itself to the people of the North as a
+practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception.
+His book, aided by others taking substantially the same view,
+smote the society with a paralysis from which it never recovered.
+Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having
+succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its
+character and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New
+England Anti-Slavery Society to visit England for the purpose of
+counteracting their influence. He went in the spring of 1833,
+when he was but twenty-seven years of age, and was received
+with great cordiality by British Abolitionists, some of whom had
+heard of his bold assaults upon American slavery, and had seen a
+few numbers of the <i>Liberator</i>. The struggle for emancipation in
+the West Indies was then at the point of culmination; the leaders
+of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled in
+London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and
+treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with
+him a &ldquo;protest&rdquo; against the American Colonization Society,
+signed by Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney,
+William Evans, S. Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper,
+Daniel O&rsquo;Connell and others, in which they declared their deliberate
+judgment that &ldquo;its precepts were delusive,&rdquo; and &ldquo;its
+real effects of the most dangerous nature.&rdquo; He also received
+assurances of the cordial sympathy of British Abolitionists with
+him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He gained a
+hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the
+confidence of those whom he addressed by his evident earnestness,
+sincerity and ability.</p>
+
+<p>Garrison&rsquo;s visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people
+and press of the United States at the outset, and when he returned
+home in September with the &ldquo;protest&rdquo; against the
+Colonization Society, and announced that he had engaged the
+services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American
+slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The
+American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of
+that year (1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its
+principles and purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added
+fresh fuel to the public excitement, and when Thompson came
+over in the next spring, the hostility to the cause began to manifest
+itself in mobs organized to suppress the discussion of the
+slavery question. Now began what Harriet Martineau called
+&ldquo;the martyr age in America.&rdquo; In the autumn of 1835 Thompson
+was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly for
+England. Just before his departure the announcement that
+he would address the Woman&rsquo;s Anti-Slavery Society of Boston
+created &ldquo;a mob of gentlemen of property and standing,&rdquo; from
+which, if he had been present, he could hardly have escaped with
+his life. The whole city was in an uproar. Garrison, almost
+denuded of his clothing, was dragged through the streets with a
+rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great difficulty,
+and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be secretly
+removed from the city.</p>
+
+<p>Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the
+North, and many men of influence, both in the church and in
+the state, were won to the cause. Garrison, true to his original
+purpose, never faltered or turned back. The Abolitionists of
+the United States were a united body until 1839-1840, when
+divisions sprang up among them. Garrison countenanced the
+activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of allowing them
+to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and
+appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed
+in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was
+opposed upon social and religious grounds. Then there were
+some who thought Garrison dealt too severely with the churches
+and pulpits for their complicity with slavery, and who accused
+him of a want of religious orthodoxy; indeed, according to the
+standards of his time he was decidedly heterodox, though he had
+an intensely religious nature and was far from being an infidel,
+as he was often charged with being. He was, moreover, not only
+a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political systems
+based on force. &ldquo;As to the governments of this world,&rdquo; he
+said, &ldquo;whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove
+that in their essential elements, as at present administered,
+they are all anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom
+be brought into conformity with the will of God; that they
+cannot be maintained except by naval and military power to
+carry them into effect; that all their penal enactments, being
+a dead letter without any army to carry them into effect, are
+virtually written in human blood; and that the followers of
+Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor, power,
+and emolument&mdash;at the same time &lsquo;submitting to every
+ordinance of man for the Lord&rsquo;s sake&rsquo; and offering no physical
+resistance to any of their mandates, however unjust or tyrannical.&rdquo;
+These views were very distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt
+that Garrison greatly injured abolitionism by causing it to be
+associated in men&rsquo;s minds with these unpopular views on other
+subjects. The dissentients from his opinions determined to
+form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in working
+by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These
+differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-Slavery
+Society in 1840, and to the formation of the &ldquo;Liberty
+Party&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) in politics. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Birney, James G.</a></span>) The two
+societies sent their delegates to the World&rsquo;s Anti-Slavery Convention
+in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat
+in that body, because the women delegates from the United
+States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years
+served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the
+constitution of the United States as a shield and support of
+slavery; and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came
+to the conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and
+that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The
+Southern states had greatly enlarged representation in Congress
+on account of their slaves, and the national government was
+constitutionally bound to assist in the capture of fugitive slaves,
+and to suppress every attempt on their part to gain their freedom
+by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison, adopting a
+bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution as
+&ldquo;a covenant with death and an agreement with hell,&rdquo; and chose
+as his motto, &ldquo;No union with slaveholders.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by
+strained interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others,
+admitting that they were immoral, felt themselves obliged,
+notwithstanding, to support the constitution in order to avoid
+what they thought would be still greater evils. The American
+Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the president
+from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this period
+the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which
+was greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the
+field of politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his
+convictions. On the other hand, he always had the highest
+respect for every earnest and faithful opponent of slavery,
+however far their special views might differ. When in 1861 the
+Southern states seceded from the Union and took up arms against
+it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the struggle, that
+the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery clauses, and
+that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure foundations
+of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore ceased
+from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to
+the task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable
+event. His services at this period were recognized and honoured
+by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole
+country knew that the agitation which made the abolition of
+slavery feasible and necessary was largely due to his uncompromising
+spirit and indomitable courage.</p>
+
+<p>In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being
+abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled
+a dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting
+that it had become <i>functus officiis</i>, and that whatever needed
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page480" id="page480"></a>480</span>
+to be done for the protection of the freedmen could best be
+accomplished by new associations formed for that purpose. The
+<i>Liberator</i> was discontinued at the end of the same year, after an
+existence of thirty-five years. He visited England for the second
+time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he was received with
+distinguished honours, public as well as private. In 1877, when
+he was there for the last time, he declined every form of public
+recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in
+the seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston,
+after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In
+1843 a small volume of his <i>Sonnets and other Poems</i> was published,
+and in 1852 appeared a volume of <i>Selections from his Writings
+and Speeches</i>. His wife, Helen Eliza Benson, died in 1876.
+Four sons and one daughter survived them.</p>
+
+<p>Garrison&rsquo;s son, <span class="sc">William Lloyd Garrison</span> (1838-1909), was a
+prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman&rsquo;s
+suffrage, and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an
+opponent of imperialism; another son, <span class="sc">Wendell Phillips
+Garrison</span> (1840-1907), was literary editor of the New York
+<i>Nation</i> from 1865 to 1906.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the
+account given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson
+(reprinted from his <i>Garrison: an Outline of his Life</i>, New York,
+1879). The writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist,
+editor, and an intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the <i>Liberator</i>
+during Garrison&rsquo;s absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor
+or an associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil
+War, the New York <i>Tribune</i> and the New York <i>Evening Post</i>. He
+also published an excellent brief biography in <i>William Lloyd Garrison
+and his Times</i> (Boston, 1880).</p>
+
+<p>The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and
+candid work of his sons, W.P. and F.J. Garrison, <i>William Lloyd
+Garrison 1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children</i> (4
+vols., New York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student
+of the anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith&rsquo;s <i>The Moral
+Crusader: a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison</i> (New
+York, 1892) is a brilliant sketch.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRISON,<a name="ar230" id="ar230"></a></span> originally a term for stores or supplies, also a
+defence or protection, now confined in meaning to a body of
+troops stationed in a town or fortress for the purpose of defence.
+In form the word is derived from O. Fr. <i>garison</i>, modern
+<i>guérison</i>, from <i>guérir</i>, to furnish with stores, to preserve, but in
+its later meaning it has been confused with the Fr. <i>garnison</i>, the
+regular word for troops stationed for purposes of defence. In
+English &ldquo;garnison&rdquo; was used till the 16th century, when &ldquo;garrison&rdquo;
+took its place. In the British army &ldquo;garrison troops,&rdquo;
+especially &ldquo;garrison artillery,&rdquo; are troops trained and employed
+for garrison work as distinct from field operations.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARROTE<a name="ar231" id="ar231"></a></span> (Spanish for &ldquo;cudgel&rdquo;), an appliance used in
+Spain and Portugal for the execution of criminals condemned
+to death. The criminal is conducted to the place of execution
+(which is public) on horseback or in a cart, wearing a black
+tunic, and is attended by a procession of priests, &amp;c. He is
+seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by an iron collar
+(the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever dislocates
+his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column at
+the base of the brain. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Capital Punishment</a></span>.) Originally a
+stout cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal,
+who was seated in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and
+the neck a stick was inserted (hence the name) and twisted till
+strangulation ensued.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Garrotting&rdquo; is the name given in England to a form of
+robbery with violence which became rather common in the
+winter of 1862-1863. The thief came up behind his victim,
+threw a cord over his head, and tightened it nearly to strangulation
+point, while robbing him. An act of 1863, imposing the
+penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offence,
+had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely. At any
+rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of
+any sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the
+penalty, that view has always been taken by the English judges
+who had experience of such cases.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARRUCHA,<a name="ar232" id="ar232"></a></span> a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province
+of Almeria; on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of
+the river Antas. Pop. (1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha,
+which is defended by an ancient castle, affords shelter to large
+ships, and is the natural outlet for the commerce of a thriving
+agricultural and mining district. Despite its small size and the
+want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a considerable
+trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit, &amp;c.
+Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and
+clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons
+entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and
+in the same year the value of the exports reached £478,000, and
+that of the imports £128,000. Both imports and exports trebled
+their value in the ten years 1892-1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARSTON,<a name="ar233" id="ar233"></a></span> a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of
+Lancashire, England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool.
+Pop. (1891) 13,444; (1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the
+London &amp; North Western railway company, employ most of the
+working population. There is about a mile of quayage, with
+special machinery for the shipping of coal, which forms the chief
+article of export.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARTH, SIR SAMUEL<a name="ar234" id="ar234"></a></span> (1661-1719), English physician and
+poet, was born of a good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered
+Peterhouse, Cambridge, in 1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and
+M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and became a member of the
+College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he delivered the Harveian
+oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating from some ten
+years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of the sick
+poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In
+1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, <i>The Dispensary</i>, in six
+cantos, which had an instant success, passing through three
+editions within a year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and
+their allies among the physicians. The poem has little interest at
+the present day, except as a proof that the heroic couplet was
+written with smoothness and polish before the days of Pope.
+Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and became the leading
+physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the Tories. In 1714
+he was knighted by George I. and he died on the 18th of January
+1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work <i>The Dispensary</i>
+and <i>Claremont</i>, a moral <span class="correction" title="amended from espistle">epistle</span> in verse. He made a Latin
+oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the <i>Life of
+Otho</i> in the fifth volume of Dryden&rsquo;s Plutarch. In 1717 he edited
+a translation of Ovid&rsquo;s <i>Metamorphoses</i>, himself supplying the
+fourteenth and part of the fifteenth book.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARTOK,<a name="ar235" id="ar235"></a></span> a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the
+Indus on the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla.
+In accordance with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together
+with Yatung and Gyantse, was thrown open to British trade.
+On the return of the column from Lhasa in that year Gartok was
+visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who found only a few
+dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in the midst
+of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between
+Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GARY,<a name="ar236" id="ar236"></a></span> a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern
+end of Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, Ill. Pop.
+(1910 census) 16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore &amp;
+Ohio, the Lake Shore &amp; Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central,
+the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, and (for freight only) the
+Chicago, Lake Shore &amp; Eastern, and the Indiana Harbor Belt
+railways, and by several steamship lines plying the Great Lakes.
+There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but the
+city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the
+time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps intersected
+from east to west by the Grand Calumet and the Little
+Calumet rivers, small streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S.
+of the lake shore. In 1906 the United States Steel Corporation
+bought this tract to establish on it a great industrial community,
+as direct water connexion with the Lake Superior ore region was
+possible, and it was comparatively accessible to West Virginia
+coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad facilities.
+The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town in
+June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate
+system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution
+of water, gas and electricity. The water-supply is taken from the
+lake at a point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page481" id="page481"></a>481</span>
+utilities the Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about
+500 dwellings, two hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small
+patch of land, now within the limits of the city, has been from the
+beginning in the hands of private owners, but the remainder of
+the lots (except those already sold) are owned by the Steel
+Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions intended to
+prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide improvement
+of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating
+drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been
+dredged out into a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel
+Corporation, covering about 1200 acres. All the machinery in
+this great plant is driven by electricity from generators whose
+motive power is supplied by the combustion of gases from the
+blast furnaces. From the same sources is also supplied the
+electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is operated by
+three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 horse-power
+capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in
+honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of
+directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United
+States Steel Corporation.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAS,<a name="ar237" id="ar237"></a></span> a general term for one of the three states of aggregation
+of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous
+product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other
+carbonaceous matter (see below, section <i>Gas Manufacture</i>; for
+gas engines see the separate heading <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Gas Engine</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><i>The Gaseous State.</i>&mdash;Matter is studied under three physical
+phases&mdash;solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes
+grouped as &ldquo;fluids.&rdquo; The study of the physical properties of
+fluids in general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and
+their applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special
+science dealing with the physical properties of gases is named
+pneumatics.</p>
+
+<p>The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our
+atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals in its
+properties to other of our senses, so that the evidences of its
+presence are manifold. Thus we feel it in its motion as wind,
+and observe the dynamical effects of this motion in the quiver
+of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It offers resistance to
+the passage of bodies through it, destroying their motion and
+transforming their energy&mdash;as is betrayed to our hearing in the
+whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.</p>
+
+<p>The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids
+may be stated in dynamical language thus:&mdash;solids can sustain
+a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral
+pressure; fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed
+by a rigid boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then
+takes the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But
+here we distinguish between fluids according as they are gases
+or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the region, however
+small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the remainder
+will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the
+other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the
+region. Remove any portion and a part of the space will be
+left unoccupied by liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then
+otherwise conditioned than by the form of the wall or bounding
+surface of the region; and if the portion of the wall not in contact
+with the liquid is removed the form and quantity of the
+liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be kept in an
+open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of
+Sir Oliver Lodge: &ldquo;A solid has volume and shape; a liquid
+has volume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a &ldquo;vapour.&rdquo;
+The latter possesses the physical property stated above which
+distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being
+readily condensible to a liquid, either by lowering the temperature
+or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects
+of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the introduction
+of the term &ldquo;permanent gases&rdquo; to denote gases which were
+apparently not liquefiable. The list included hydrogen, nitrogen
+and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases have been
+liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term meaningless
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Liquid Gases</a></span>). The term &ldquo;perfect gas&rdquo; is applied to an
+imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation
+of molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which
+any molecule is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally
+small compared with the time during which it traverses its mean
+free path. It serves as a means of research, more particularly
+in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced
+being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in
+order to co-ordinate actual experiences.</p>
+
+<p>The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance,
+in Greek cosmology, &ldquo;air&rdquo; (<span class="grk" title="pneuma">&#960;&#957;&#949;&#8166;&#956;&#945;</span>) was one of the fundamental
+elements. The alchemists used such terms as <i>spiritus</i>,
+<i>flatus</i>, <i>halitus</i>, <i>aura</i>, <i>emanatio nubila</i>, &amp;c., words implying a
+&ldquo;wind&rdquo; or &ldquo;breath.&rdquo; The word &ldquo;gas&rdquo; was invented by
+J.B. van Helmont in his <i>Ortus medicinae</i>, posthumously published
+in 1648, in the course of his description of the gas now known
+as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning yielded
+a &ldquo;spirit,&rdquo; which he named <i>spiritus sylvestris</i> on account of its
+supposed untamable nature (&ldquo;Gas sylvestre sive incoërcibile,
+quod in corpus cogi non potest visibile&rdquo;); and he invented
+the word &ldquo;gas&rdquo; in the expression: &ldquo;... this spirit, hitherto
+unknown, ... I call by a new name <i>gas</i>&rdquo; (&ldquo;hunc spiritum,
+incognitum hactenus, novo nomine <i>gas</i> voco&rdquo;). The word was
+suggested by the Gr. <span class="grk" title="chaos">&#967;&#940;&#959;&#962;</span>, chaos, for he also writes: &ldquo;I have
+called this spirit <i>gas</i>, it being scarcely distinguishable from the
+Chaos of the ancients&rdquo; (&ldquo;halitum illum <i>Gas</i> vocavi, non longe
+a Chao veterum secretum&rdquo;). The view that the word was
+suggested by the Dutch <i>geest</i>, spirit, is consequently erroneous.
+Until the end of the 18th century the word &ldquo;air,&rdquo; qualified by
+certain adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known&mdash;a
+custom due in considerable measure to the important part
+which common air played in chemical and physical investigations.</p>
+
+<p>The study of gases may be divided into two main branches:
+the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essentially
+general properties, such as the weight and density, the
+relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric
+and thermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion,
+viscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, &amp;c., and generally
+properties independent of composition. These subjects are
+discussed in the articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Density</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Calorimetry</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Diffusion</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Conduction of Heat</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Condensation
+of Gases</a></span>. The latter has for its province the preparation,
+collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations
+in which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties.
+The historical development of the chemistry of gases&mdash;pneumatic
+chemistry&mdash;is treated in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chemistry</a></span>; the
+technical analysis of gaseous mixtures is treated below under
+<i>Gas Analysis</i>. Connecting the experimental study of the physical
+and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice
+termed the kinetic theory of gases. This subject, which is discussed
+in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Molecule</a></span>, has for its purpose (1) the derivation
+of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the
+experimental observations of the diverse physical properties,
+and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical
+composition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Gas Analysis.</i>&mdash;The term &ldquo;gas analysis&rdquo; is given to that
+branch of analytical chemistry which has for its object the
+quantitative determination of the components of a gaseous
+mixture. The chief applications are found in the analysis of flue
+gases (in which much information is gained as to the completeness
+and efficiency of combustion), and of coal gas (where it is
+necessary to have a product of a definite composition within
+certain limits). There are, in addition, many other branches
+of chemical technology in which the methods are employed.
+In general, volumetric methods are used, <i>i.e.</i> a component is
+absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume
+noted, or it is absorbed in water and the amount determined
+by titration with a standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult
+and tedious, and consequently the laboratory methods are not
+employed in technology, where time is an important factor and
+moderate accuracy is all that is necessary. In this article an
+outline of the technical practice will be given.</p>
+
+<p>The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page482" id="page482"></a>482</span>
+series of absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring
+vessel is that devised by W. Hempel. It consists of two
+vertical tubes provided with feet and connected at the bottom
+by flexible rubber tubing. One tube, called the &ldquo;measuring
+tube,&rdquo; is provided with a capillary stopcock at the top and
+graduated downwards; the other tube, called the &ldquo;level tube,&rdquo;
+is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube
+is completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes,
+raising the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock,
+which is then turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock,
+by means of a fine tube which has been previously filled with
+water or in which the air has been displaced by running the gas
+through. By opening the stopcock and lowering the level tube
+any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated over. In cases
+where a large quantity of gas, <i>i.e.</i> sufficient for several tests, is
+to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a large bottle.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:517px; height:295px" src="images/img482a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc f80" colspan="2">(By permission of Messrs Baird &amp; Tatlock.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span></td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by
+bringing the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading
+the graduation on the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors
+associated with recording the coincidence of a graduation with a
+meniscus. The temperature and atmospheric pressure are simultaneously
+noted. If the tests be carried out rapidly, the temperature
+and pressure may be assumed to be constant, and any
+diminution in volume due to the absorption of a constituent may
+be readily expressed as a percentage. If, however, the temperature
+and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced to 0° and
+760 mm. by means of the formula V<span class="su">0</span> = V(P &minus; p)/(1 + .00366t)760,
+in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric pressure, p
+the vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the experiment.
+This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.</p>
+
+<p>Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs.
+1 and 2. The simpler form consists of two bulbs connected
+at the bottom by a wide tube. The lower bulb is provided with
+a smaller bulb bearing a capillary through which the gas is led to
+the apparatus, the higher bulb has a wider outlet tube. The
+arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand. Sometimes the
+small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette varies
+with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which
+remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other
+cases a composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the
+absorbent is protected by a second pipette containing water. In
+the case of solid reagents, <i>e.g.</i> phosphorus, the absorbing bulb
+has a tubulure at the bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing
+liquid is brought to the outlet of the capillary by tilting or by
+squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the wide end, and the liquid is
+maintained there by closing with a clip. The capillary is connected
+with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously filled
+with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the
+level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas
+passes into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the
+pipette being shaken from time to time. It is then run back into
+the measuring tube by lowering the level tube, the stopcock is
+closed, and the volume noted. The operation is repeated until
+there is no further absorption.</p>
+
+<p>The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are
+to be estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases
+where titration methods are not employed, the general order is
+as follows: carbon dioxide, olefines, oxygen, carbon monoxide,
+hydrogen, methane and nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is
+particularly applicable to coal-gas. Carbon dioxide is absorbed
+by a potash solution containing one part of potash to between
+two and three of water; the stronger solution absorbs about 40
+volumes of the gas. The olefines&mdash;ethylene, &amp;c.&mdash;are generally
+absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding
+sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which
+solidifies when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed.
+Oxygen is absorbed by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated
+pipette filled with water. The temperature must be above 18°;
+and the absorption is prevented by ammonia, olefines, alcohol,
+and some other substances. An alkaline solution of pyrogallol
+is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs oxygen, becoming
+black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the solution
+immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a
+solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in
+ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as
+carbon dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash;
+when large in amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal
+cuprous chloride and the residue burned. Hydrogen may be
+estimated by absorption by heated palladium contained in a
+capillary through which the gas is passed, or by exploding (under
+reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and measuring the
+diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of
+hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas
+is contained over water, and is improved by using mercury.
+Methane cannot be burnt in this way even when there is much
+hydrogen present, and several other methods have been proposed,
+such as mixing with air and aspirating over copper oxide
+heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen and burning in a
+platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide formed
+being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water,
+such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen,
+sulphur dioxide, &amp;c., are estimated by passing a known volume of
+the gas through water and titrating the solution with a standard
+solution. Many types of absorption vessel are in use, and the
+standard solutions are generally such that 1 c.c. of the solution
+corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under normal conditions.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 280px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:227px; height:322px" src="images/img482b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption80">(By permission of Messrs Baird &amp;
+Tatlock.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the
+commonest is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in
+the graduated cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a
+water jacket and provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is
+connected by a capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of
+absorbing vessels, the connexion
+being effected by stopcocks. These
+vessels consist of two vertical
+cylinders joined at the bottom
+by a short tube. The cylinder
+in direct communication with the
+capillary is filled with glass tubes so
+as to expose a larger surface of the
+absorbing solution to the gas. The
+other cylinder is open to the air
+and serves to hold the liquid
+ejected from the absorbing cylinder.
+Any number of bulbs can be
+attached to the horizontal capillary;
+in the form illustrated there are
+four, the last being a hydrogen
+pipette in which the palladium is
+heated in a horizontal tube by
+a spirit lamp. At the end of the
+horizontal tube there is a three-way
+cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To use
+the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with
+water by raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels
+are then about half filled with the absorbents, and, by
+opening the cocks and aspirating, the liquid is brought so as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page483" id="page483"></a>483</span>
+completely to fill the bulbs nearer the capillary. The cocks
+are then closed. By opening the three-way cock to the supply of
+the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any desired amount
+can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is effected
+by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the levelling
+bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions
+pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by
+Scheele, Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and
+others, the methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who
+began his researches in 1838. He embodied his results in his classical
+<i>Gasometrische Methoden</i> (1857, second edition 1877), a work translated
+into English by H. Roscoe. Clemens Winkler contributed
+two works, <i>Anleitung zur chemischen Untersuchung der Industriegase</i>
+(1876-1877) and <i>Lehrbuch der technischen Gasanalyse</i> (2nd ed., 1892),
+both of which are very valuable for the commercial applications of
+the methods. W. Hempel&rsquo;s researches are given in his <i>Neue Methode
+zur Analyse der Gase</i> (1880) and <i>Gasanalytische Methoden</i> (1890, 3rd
+ed. 1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">Gas Manufacture</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Illuminating Gas.</i>&mdash;The first practical application of gas
+distilled from coal as an illuminating agent is generally ascribed
+to William Murdoch, who between the years
+of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the possibility of
+<span class="sidenote">Historical.</span>
+making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on
+a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton,
+dean of Kildare, filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained
+by the distillation of coal, and showed that on pricking the
+bladders and applying a light to the escaping gas it burnt
+with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen Hales published
+the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of Newcastle
+coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean
+Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the
+university of Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at
+Maestricht, made experiments on distilling gas from coal with
+the view of obtaining a permanent gas sufficiently light for
+filling balloons, and in 1785 experimentally lighted his lecture
+room with gas so obtained as a demonstration to his students,
+but no commercial application was made of the fact. Lord Dundonald,
+in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the production of tar and
+oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and even used it
+for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from these
+facts that, prior to Murdoch&rsquo;s experiments, it was known that
+illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation
+of coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792,
+and which culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt &amp;
+Co.&rsquo;s engine works at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, undoubtedly
+demonstrated the practical possibility of making the
+gas on a large scale, and burning it in such a way as to make
+coal-gas the most important of the artificial illuminants. An impression
+exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch&rsquo;s early experiments
+were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who
+first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as
+has been shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained
+from coal by distillation was known a century before Murdoch
+made his experiments,
+and the most that can
+be claimed for him is
+that he made the first
+successful application of
+it on a practical scale.</p>
+
+<p>In 1799 a Frenchman
+named Philippe Lebon
+took out a patent in Paris for making an illuminating gas from
+wood, and gave an exhibition of it in 1802, which excited a considerable
+amount of attention on the European continent. It was
+seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer for his
+secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined,
+and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how
+the gas could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering
+this, he in 1803 exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick
+a series of experiments with lighting gas made from wood and
+from coal. Looking upon London as a promising field for
+enterprise, he came over to England, and at the commencement
+of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave demonstrations
+of his process. He then proceeded to float a company, and in
+1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall Mall,
+whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the National
+Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million sterling.
+This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of
+his priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming
+to parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in
+getting it passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter
+being granted later in 1812, the company was called the Chartered
+Gas Light and Coke Company, and was the direct forerunner of
+the present London Gas Light and Coke Company. During this
+period Frederick C. Accum (1769-1838), Dr W. Henry and
+S. Clegg did so much by their writings and by the improvements
+they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and burning of
+coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected
+with the subject.</p>
+
+<p>In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the
+streets of Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it
+became common in London. After this so rapid was
+the progress of this new mode of illumination that in
+<span class="sidenote">The growth of gas lighting.</span>
+the course of a few years it was adopted by all the
+principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting
+streets as well as shops and public edifices. In private houses it
+found its way more slowly, partly from an apprehension of
+danger attending its use, and partly from the discomfort which
+was experienced in many cases through the gas being distributed
+without purification, and to the careless and imperfect manner
+in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was during the
+last four decades of the 19th century that the greatest advance
+was made, this period having been marked not only by many
+improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a
+complete revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the production
+of light. In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of
+3.2 candles illuminating power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle
+gas, was looked upon as the most perfect burner of the day,
+and little hope was entertained that any burner capable of
+universal adoption would surpass it in its power of developing
+light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the
+century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric
+burner yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand
+for the consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day,
+by supplying gas at an increased pressure, a light of ten times
+the power may be obtained. Since the advent of the incandescent
+mantle, the efficiency of which is dependent upon the heating
+power of the gas more than on its illuminating power, the manufacture
+of coal gas has undergone considerable modifications.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a
+process of destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal</a></span>), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen,
+<span class="sidenote">Coals used for gas-making.</span>
+known as bituminous coal, that can with advantage be
+utilized in gas manufacture. Coals of this character are
+obtained in England from the Newcastle and Durham field,
+South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley districts, and an idea of
+their ultimate composition may be derived from the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">Carbon.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc allb">Sulphur.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc allb">Oxygen.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Ash.</td> <td class="tcc allb">Moisture.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Newcastle gas coal</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.16</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.83</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.00</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.23</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.82</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.20</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Durham gas coal</td> <td class="tcc rb">84.34</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">0.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.73</td> <td class="tcc rb">4.29</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.42</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">South Yorkshire silkstone</td> <td class="tcc rb">80.46</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.09</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.66</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.67</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.79</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.30</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Derbyshire silkstone</td> <td class="tcc rb">76.96</td> <td class="tcc rb">5.04</td> <td class="tcc rb">2.39</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.77</td> <td class="tcc rb">6.92</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.28</td> <td class="tcc rb">3.64</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Barnsley gas coal</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">75.64</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.94</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">2.84</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.65</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">7.25</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">4.28</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">3.40</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total
+amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials
+which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of
+the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the
+ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value
+for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily
+arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal,
+however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple
+hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin
+series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen,
+nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.</p>
+
+<p>On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive
+distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the products
+will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in the
+retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its distribution
+<span class="sidenote">Destructive distillation of coal.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page484" id="page484"></a>484</span>
+in the retort, with the length of time the distillation has been going
+on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or less complex
+nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low temperature,
+the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of
+light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin
+hydrocarbons are present in the original coal. These
+paraffins, under the influence of heat, split up into simpler
+members of the same series and into olefines; and if we imagine the
+action in its simplest form, we should have the gases, as they were
+evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and ethylene. These have now
+to pass down the heated retort on their way to the ascension pipe,
+and the contact with the heated sides of the retort, and the baking
+from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an infinity of changes.
+Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up into ethylene and
+hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and acetylene,
+and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene, styrolene, retene,
+&amp;c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time loses some
+hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed
+by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the
+hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances
+containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation
+of the phenols in the tar.</p>
+
+<p>There is very little doubt that the general course of the decompositions
+follows these lines; but any such simple explanation of
+the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that,
+instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed
+in the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort,
+in practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the
+vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these
+to such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the
+retort at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already
+formed into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the
+former into higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon
+of definite composition, it would be theoretically possible to decompose
+it entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane,
+and, by rapidly removing these from the heating zone before any
+secondary actions took place, to prevent formation of tar. But any
+such ideal is hopeless in practice, as the coal is not a definite compound,
+and it is impossible to subject it to a fixed temperature.</p>
+
+<p>If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000° C. when the charge of
+coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from about
+800° C. close to the walls, to about 400° C. in the centre of
+the coal; and in the same way, in the space above the coal,
+<span class="sidenote">Effect of temperature in the retort.</span>
+the products which come in contact with the sides of the
+retort are heated to 1000° C., whilst the gas near the coal
+is probably heated to only 600° C. Moreover, the gases
+and vapours in the retort are subjected to a period of heating which
+varies widely with the distance from the mouth of the retort of the
+coal that is undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the
+coal near the mouth of the retort is quickly washed out into the
+ascension pipe by the push of the gas behind, and the period for
+which it has been exposed to the radiant heat from the walls of the
+retort is practically nil; whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the
+retort farthest from the mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution
+to drive it forward, and has to traverse the longest run possible in
+the retort, exposed during the whole of that period to radiant heat
+and to contact with the highly heated surface of the retort itself.
+Hence we find that the tar is formed of two distinct sets of products,
+the first due to incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary
+reactions due to the products of the decomposition being kept too
+long in the zone of heat.</p>
+
+<p>Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as
+examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent
+the second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great
+loss to the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of
+benzene carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only
+useless in the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble,
+because any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden
+changes of temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes,
+whilst their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large proportion
+of the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these
+secondary products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heating,
+to simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and
+such bodies as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability
+that, when once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose
+them by heat, short of the temperature which breaks them up into
+methane, carbon and hydrogen.</p>
+
+<p>The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal
+combining with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen
+becoming distributed amongst all three classes of products. The
+following table will give an approximate idea of the proportions
+which go to each:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;</td> <td class="tcr">Per cent.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen as ammonia</td> <td class="tcr">14.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen as cyanogen</td> <td class="tcr">1.56</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen free in gas and combined in tar</td> <td class="tcr">35.26</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen remaining in coke</td> <td class="tcr">48.68</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&emsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort
+upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the
+temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal
+increases; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease
+in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found,
+in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal
+were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the
+highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the
+following results as to yield and illuminating power:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Temperature.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Cubic ft. of<br />Gas per ton.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Illuminating<br />Power,<br />Candles.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Total<br />Candles<br />per ton.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">1. Dull red</td> <td class="tcc rb">8,250</td> <td class="tcc rb">20.5</td> <td class="tcc rb">33.950</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">2. Hotter</td> <td class="tcc rb">9,693</td> <td class="tcc rb">17.8</td> <td class="tcc rb">34.510</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">3. &emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">10,821</td> <td class="tcc rb">16.7</td> <td class="tcc rb">36.140</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">4. Bright orange</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">12,006</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">15.6</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">37.460</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Composition of the Gas.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">1.<br />Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">2.<br />Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc allb">4.<br />Per cent.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.09</td> <td class="tcr rb">43.77</td> <td class="tcr rb">48.02</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Marsh gas</td> <td class="tcr rb">42.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">34.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">30.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Olefines</td> <td class="tcr rb">7.55</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.83</td> <td class="tcr rb">4.51</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcr rb">8.72</td> <td class="tcr rb">12.50</td> <td class="tcr rb">13.96</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.92</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.40</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.81</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td> <td class="tcr allb">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power
+shows that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4.
+From this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the
+hydrocarbons&mdash;the olefines and marsh gas series&mdash;gradually break
+up, depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating
+hydrogen, the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p>The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by
+alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation
+takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the
+volume of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the
+tar, whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly
+rises, and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a
+caking coal Wright obtained the following results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Yield of Gas<br />per ton,<br />Cub. ft.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Specific Gravity<br />of Tar.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;6,600</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.086</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;7,200</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.120</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">&ensp;8,900</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.140</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">10,162</td> <td class="tcc rb">1.154</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">11,700</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1.206</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity
+was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from
+28.89 to 64.08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha
+and light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene
+oils doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also
+begins to show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches
+10,000 cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized.</p>
+
+<p>In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main
+characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into&mdash;(<i>a</i>)
+Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (<i>b</i>) liquids, consisting
+of the tar and ammoniacal liquor; and (<i>c</i>) gases, consisting of the
+unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are
+approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as
+follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">10,000 cub. ft. of gas</td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">380</td> <td class="tcc">&#8468; =</td> <td class="tcr">17.0</td> <td class="tcc">per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">10 gallons of tar</td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">115</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;  =</td> <td class="tcr">5.1</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Gas liquor<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">177</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;  =</td> <td class="tcr">7.9</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Coke</td> <td class="tcc">=</td> <td class="tcr">1568</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;  =</td> <td class="tcr">70.0</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">2240</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.0</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it
+contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind
+as ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a
+<span class="sidenote">Solid products.</span>
+great extent, existed in the sap that filled the cells of the
+plant from which the coal was formed. The retort carbon
+formed as a dense deposit on the crown of the retort by the action
+of the high temperature on the hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in
+a very pure form, and, on account of its density, is largely used
+for electrical purposes.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page485" id="page485"></a>485</span></p>
+
+<p>The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar
+and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous
+<span class="sidenote">Liquid products.</span>
+coal is a black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific
+gravity from 1.1 to 1.2. The ultimate composition of
+tar made in the London Gas Works is approximately
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon</td> <td class="tcr">77.53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr">6.33</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr">1.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphur</td> <td class="tcr">0.61</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr">14.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of
+compounds (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Coal Tar</a></span>), and its value as a by-product may be
+gathered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields&mdash;(1)
+benzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most
+of the coal-tar colours, can be derived; (2) carbolic acid, from which
+picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the bitter
+flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable
+disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the
+&ldquo;Albo-carbon&rdquo; employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch,
+extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthracene
+and saccharin can be extracted.</p>
+
+<p>The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal
+is the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing
+ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and
+partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It contains, as its
+principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic
+acid and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are
+decomposed on boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and partly
+combined with stronger acids to form compounds which require to
+be acted upon by a strong alkali before the ammonia contained in
+them can be liberated. The ammonia in the first class of compounds
+is technically spoken of as &ldquo;free&rdquo;; that present in the latter as
+&ldquo;fixed.&rdquo; The following analysis by L.T. Wright will give an idea
+of the relative quantities in which these compounds exist in the
+liquor:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Grammes per litre.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm cl" rowspan="3">Free</td> <td class="tcl">Ammonium sulphide</td> <td class="tcr">3.03</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium carbonate</td> <td class="tcr">39.16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium chloride</td> <td class="tcr">14.23</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm cl tb" rowspan="4">Fixed</td> <td class="tcl tb">Ammonium thiocyanate</td> <td class="tcr tb">1.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium sulphate</td> <td class="tcr">0.19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium thiosulphate</td> <td class="tcr">2.80</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonium ferrocyanide</td> <td class="tcr">0.41</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="noind">From a scientific point of view, the term &ldquo;free&rdquo; is absolutely incorrect,
+and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that
+in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on
+simply boiling the liquor.</p>
+
+<p>The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal,
+and which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite compound,
+but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some
+<span class="sidenote">Gaseous products.</span>
+of which are reduced to the lowest limit, in order to
+develop as fully as possible the light-giving properties
+of the most important constituents of the gas. The following analysis
+gives a fair idea of the composition of an average sample of gas made
+from coal, purified but without enrichment:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr">52.22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Unsaturated hydrocarbons</td> <td class="tcr">3.47</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Saturated hydrocarbons</td> <td class="tcr">34.76</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcr">4.23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcr">0.60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr">4.23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Oxygen</td> <td class="tcr">0.49</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">&mdash;&mdash;&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcr">100.00</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>These constituents may be divided into&mdash;(<i>a</i>) light-yielding hydrocarbons,
+(<i>b</i>) combustible diluents and (<i>c</i>) impurities. The hydrocarbons,
+upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends,
+are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and unsaturated,
+according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine in
+potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed
+&ldquo;unsaturated,&rdquo; but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous
+members of the &ldquo;saturated&rdquo; series of hydrocarbons. They may be
+separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has
+the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The
+chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylene,
+C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">4</span>, butylene, C<span class="su">4</span>H<span class="su">8</span>, acetylene, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">2</span>, benzene,
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">6</span>, and naphthalene,
+C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">8</span>, and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane,
+CH<span class="su">4</span>, and ethane, C<span class="su">2</span>H<span class="su">6</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to
+the hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the
+illuminating value depended upon the amount of ethylene present.
+This, however, is manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of
+ethylene mixed with 96% of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen
+should give 16- to 17-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of
+ethylene and 90% of hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876
+M.P.E. Berthelot came to the conclusion that the illuminating value of
+the Paris coal gas was almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But
+here again another mistaken idea arose, owing to a faulty method of
+estimating the benzene, and there is no doubt that methane is one
+of the most important of the hydrocarbons present, when the gas
+is burnt in such a way as to evolve from it the proper illuminating
+power, whilst the benzene vapour, small as the quantity is, comes
+next in importance and the ethylene last. It is the combined action
+of the hydrocarbons which gives the effect, not any one of them
+acting alone.</p>
+
+<p>The series of operations connected with the manufacture and
+distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation, condensation,
+exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing,
+dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains
+whence the consumer&rsquo;s supply is drawn.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="tcc pt2"><i>River.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:503px; height:290px" src="images/img485a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Plan of Works.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local
+circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready
+means of transport available, and for this reason the works
+should be built upon the banks of a navigable river or
+<span class="sidenote">Site of gas works.</span>
+canal, and should have a convenient railway siding. By
+this means coal may be delivered direct to the store or retort-house,
+and in the same way residual products may be removed.
+The fact that considerable area is required and that the works do
+not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions, and
+although economy of space should be considered, arrangements
+should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works
+whose daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is
+usual to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit
+to the size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas
+is dealt with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is
+reached. From the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4)
+it will be possible to gain an idea of the order in which the operations
+in gas manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 350px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:296px; height:195px" src="images/img485b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Cross Section of Retorts.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The retorts in which the coal is carbonized are almost universally
+made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old single-ended
+retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given
+way to a more economical construction known as doubles,
+<span class="sidenote">Retorts.</span>
+double-ended, or &ldquo;through&rdquo; retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft.
+long, and as it is found inconvenient to produce this length in one
+piece, they are manufactured in three sections, the jointing together
+of which demands great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at
+one end to take an iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally
+employed for retorts are known as &ldquo;D-shaped,&rdquo; &ldquo;oval&rdquo; and
+&ldquo;round&rdquo; (fig. 5). The &ldquo;D&rdquo; form is mostly adopted owing to its
+power of retaining its shape after long exposure to heat, and the
+large amount of heating surface it presents at its base. The life of
+this retort is about thirty working months. A cast iron mouthpiece
+and lid is bolted to the
+exterior end of each retort,
+the mouthpiece carrying a
+socket end to receive the
+ascension pipe, through
+which the gas passes on
+leaving the retort. The
+retorts are heated externally
+and are set in an arch,
+the construction depending
+upon the number of retorts,
+which varies from three to
+twelve. The arch and its
+retorts is termed a bed or
+setting, and a row of beds
+constitutes a bench. It is
+usual to have a separate furnace for each setting, the retorts resting
+upon walls built transversely in the furnace.</p>
+
+<p>The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the &ldquo;direct
+firing&rdquo; or by the &ldquo;regenerative&rdquo; system, the latter affording
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page486" id="page486"></a>486</span>
+marked advantages over the former method, which is now becoming
+extinct. In the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon
+monoxide and nitrogen is produced by passing air through incandescent
+gas coke in a generator placed below the bench of retorts,
+and the heating value of the gases so produced is increased in most
+cases by the admixture of a small proportion of steam with the
+primary air supply, the steam being decomposed by contact with
+the red-hot coke in the generator into water gas, a mixture of carbon
+monoxide and hydrogen (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fuel</a></span>: <i>Gaseous</i>). The gases so formed
+vary in proportion with the temperature of the generator and the
+amount of steam, but generally contain 32 to 38% of combustible
+gas, the remainder being the residual nitrogen of the air and carbon
+dioxide. These gases enter the combustion chamber around the retorts
+at a high temperature, and are there supplied with sufficient air to
+complete their combustion, this secondary air supply being heated by
+the hot products of combustion on their way to the exit flue. This
+method of firing results in the saving of about one-third the weight
+of coke used in the old form of furnace per ton of coal carbonized,
+and enables higher temperatures to be obtained, the heat being also
+more equally distributed.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:514px; height:268px" src="images/img486a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 6.&mdash;Regenerative Setting.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative
+principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the general
+arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is charged
+at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are placed
+fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air necessary for
+the partial combustion of the coke to &ldquo;producer&rdquo; gas enters between
+these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to the combustion
+chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary air is
+admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been already
+heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes place
+at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on rising
+are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round the
+retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are conducted
+down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and shaft.
+The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the circulation
+of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is regulated
+by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the &ldquo;producer&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;spent&rdquo; gases this amount can be readily gauged.</p>
+
+<p>Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical position,
+and the advantages of the one over the other is a question upon which
+almost every gas engineer has his own views.</p>
+
+<p>The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has
+rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal
+retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the
+practice to carry out such operations entirely by hand,
+<span class="sidenote">Charging and drawing.</span>
+men charging the retorts either by means of shovel or
+hand-scoop, and the coke produced being withdrawn with
+hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works adhere to
+this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by either
+compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two cases a
+scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the
+travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over;
+the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over
+in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that
+as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side
+of the retort. With &ldquo;through&rdquo; retorts charging machines feed the
+retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about 1½ cwt.,
+entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that the
+total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six hours
+to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The
+machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the
+retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging
+machines travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power
+is transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of
+more recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine,
+in which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high
+speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is
+sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 20-ft.
+retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed
+throughout the length of the retort.</p>
+
+<p>For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either
+compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being
+made to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With
+this method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge
+several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a telescopic
+ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before it
+and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as
+one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of
+machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original
+cost of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the
+retorts brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the
+fact that the coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is
+clear that the suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order
+to facilitate the work presented great inducements to the gas manager.
+The object aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to
+play the part of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the
+retorts being inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal
+used; this angle is between 28° and 34°. The coal, previously
+elevated to hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are
+so arranged that they can travel from end to end of the retort-house
+and feed the coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be
+charged, an iron stop or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece,
+and the door closed. The shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece,
+and the stop or door, which retains the coal in the chamber, is released;
+the coal is then discharged into the retort, and rushing down
+the incline, is arrested by the barrier, and banks up, forming a
+continuous backing to the coal following. By experience with
+the class of coal used and the adjustment of the stops in the shoot,
+the charge can be run into the retort to form an even layer of any
+desired depth. For the withdrawal of the residual coke at the end
+of the carbonization, the lower mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier
+removed and the coke in the lower part of the retort is &ldquo;tickled&rdquo;
+or gently stirred with an iron rod to overcome a slight adhesion to
+the retort; the entire mass then readily discharges itself. Guides
+are placed in front of the retort to direct its course to the coke
+hoppers or conveyer below, and to prevent scattering of the hot
+material. This system shows a greater economy in the cost of
+carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and the wear and tear of
+the mechanical appliances involved have so far prevented its very
+general adoption.</p>
+
+<p>The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with
+by Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke,
+the low illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage
+to the retort itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distillation,
+it was quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 20th
+century, however, the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at
+Exeter, Messrs Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr
+Bueb in Germany showed such encouraging results that the idea
+of the vertical retort again came to the front, and several systems
+were proposed and tried. The cause of the failure of Murdoch&rsquo;s
+original vertical retort was undoubtedly that it was completely
+filled with coal during charging, with the result that the gas liberated
+from the lower portions of the retort had to pass through a deep
+bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the gas, destroyed the
+illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that the question of
+rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly formed, from the
+influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort and residual coke,
+is one of the most important in gas manufacture.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the
+coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit the
+introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free
+channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly
+heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In
+the case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced,
+but with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly
+approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the
+gas per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives
+the following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the
+same coal but by different methods of carbonization:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">Vertical</td> <td class="tcl">Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Inclined</td> <td class="tcl">Retorts, 584 British thermal units per cub. ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Horizontal</td> <td class="tcl">Retorts, 570 British thermal units per cub. ft.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be
+decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort
+or whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular
+and short intervals; by this latter means (the characteristic feature
+of the Settle-Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process
+of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact
+with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume
+and value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 175px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:125px; height:366px" src="images/img487a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span>&mdash;Hydraulic Main.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hydraulic
+main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal
+position and supported by columns upon the top of the
+retort stack, and through it is maintained a slow but
+<span class="sidenote">Hydraulic main.</span>
+constant flow of water, the level of which is kept uniform.
+The ascension pipe dips about 2 in. into the liquid, and so makes a
+seal that allows of any retort being charged singly without the risk
+of the gas produced from the other retorts in the bench escaping
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page487" id="page487"></a>487</span>
+through the open retort. Coal gas, being a mixture of gases and
+vapours of liquids having very varying boiling points, must necessarily
+undergo physical changes when the temperature is lowered.
+Vapours of liquids of high boiling point will be condensed more
+quickly than those having lower boiling
+points, but condensation of each vapour will
+take place in a definite ratio with the decrease
+of temperature, the rate being dependent upon
+the boiling point of the liquid from which it is
+formed. The result is that from the time the
+gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to
+deposit condensation products owing to the
+decrease in temperature. Condensation takes
+place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece
+leading to the hydraulic main, and to a still
+greater extent in the hydraulic main itself
+where the gas has to pass through water.</p>
+
+<p>Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are
+frequently cleared by an instrument called an
+&ldquo;auger,&rdquo; whilst the arch pipe is fitted with
+hand holes through which it may be easily
+cleared in case of stoppage. The most soluble
+of the constituents of crude coal gas is
+ammonia, 780 volumes of which are soluble
+in one volume of water at normal temperature
+and pressure, and the water in the
+hydraulic main absorbs a considerable quantity
+of this compound from the gas and
+helps to form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst,
+although the liquor is well agitated by the gas
+bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar
+from liquor is effected by gravitation. The
+liquor is run off at a constant rate from the hydraulic main to the
+store tank, and the gas passes from the top of the hydraulic main to
+the foul main.</p>
+
+<p>The gas as it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature
+of from 130° to 150° F., and should now be reduced as nearly as
+possible to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere.
+The operation of efficient condensing is not by any means as
+<span class="sidenote">Condensation.</span>
+simple as might be supposed. The tar and liquor when condensed
+have a dissolving action on various valuable light-giving constituents
+of the gas, which in the ordinary way would not be deposited
+by the lowering of temperature, and for this reason the heavy tar,
+and especially that produced in the hydraulic main, should come in
+contact with the gas as little as possible, and condensation should
+take place slowly.</p>
+
+<p>The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and
+upon which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphthalene:
+this compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on
+cooling to a solid which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes,
+and the trouble caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in
+the district supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of
+carbonization the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and
+gas managers of to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the
+gas a difficult problem to solve. It was for some time debated as
+to whether naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value
+of the gas, and whether an endeavour should be made to carry it
+to the point of combustion; but it is now acknowledged that it is a
+troublesome impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better.
+Gas leaves the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity
+for holding that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence
+of water vapour. The condenser, by effecting the condensation of
+water vapour, also brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene,
+apart from that which naturally condenses owing to reduction of
+temperature.</p>
+
+<p>Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the
+former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and
+so placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected
+at the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than
+air, owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be
+more easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is
+usual to arrange that the water passes through a large number of
+small pipes contained in a larger one through which the gas flows,
+and as it constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked
+by naphthalene, the so-called reversible condenser, in which the
+stream of gas may be altered from time to time and the walls of the
+pipes cleaned by pumping tar over them, is a decided advance.</p>
+
+<p>The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers
+to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact
+with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the latter
+being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to replace
+in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves out;
+and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene
+and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered.</p>
+
+<p>The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the
+purpose of drawing the gas from the hydraulic main through the
+condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying
+<span class="sidenote">Exhauster.</span>
+vessels to the holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts
+under a slight vacuum, the amount of gas produced is increased
+by about 12%, and is of better quality, owing to its leaving the
+heated retort more quickly. A horizontal compound steam-engine
+is usually employed to drive the exhauster.</p>
+
+<p>At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already
+undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet
+remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia,
+sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide.
+Ammonia is of considerable marketable value, and even in places
+where the local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed,
+it is extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and
+its complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parliament.
+As nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted,
+but most gas companies are now exempt from having to purify the
+gas from sulphur compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen.
+Cyanogen compounds also are present in the gas, and in large works,
+where the total quantity is sufficient, their extraction is effected
+for the production of either prussiate or cyanide of soda.</p>
+
+<p>Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this
+point to be about</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcl">&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc" colspan="4">per cent. by vol.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc">from</td> <td class="tcl">42</td> <td class="tcc">to</td> <td class="tcl">53</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Methane</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">32</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;3</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Hydrocarbons&mdash;</td> <td class="tcc">&ensp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;</td> <td class="tcc">&ensp;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; Gases</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;2.5</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;4.5</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"> &emsp; Light condensable vapours</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.5</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;1.2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;1.1</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;1.8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;1.0</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;5.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Sulphuretted hydrogen</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;1.0</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;2.0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Ammonia</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.5</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Cyanogen</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.05</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Carbon disulphide</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.02</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.035</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl">Naphthalene</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.005</td> <td class="tcc">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;0.015</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the extraction
+of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted
+hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the
+gas is now washed with water and ammoniacal liquor.
+<span class="sidenote">Washers.</span>
+The process is termed washing or scrubbing, and is carried out in
+various forms of apparatus, the efficiency of which is dependent
+upon the amount of contact the apparatus allows between the finely
+divided gas and water in a unit area and the facility with which
+it may be cleared out. The &ldquo;Livesey&rdquo; washer, a well-known type,
+is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas enters in the centre, and
+to make its escape again it has to pass into long wrought iron
+inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth of an inch in
+diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through the washer,
+and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations, drives the
+liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to agitation
+by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into close contact
+with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in series
+according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.</p>
+
+<p>The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed
+a &ldquo;scrubber,&rdquo; which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards ¼ in.
+thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together;
+<span class="sidenote">Scrubbers.</span>
+water is caused to flow down over the surface of these
+boards, the object being to break up the gas as much as possible
+and bring it into close contact with the water. In this wet purifying
+apparatus the gas is almost wholly freed from ammonia and from
+part of the sulphuretted hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon
+disulphide are also partially extracted.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:392px; height:171px" src="images/img487b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 8.</span>&mdash;Purifier.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known
+as &ldquo;dry purifiers&rdquo; (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with
+ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of
+grids (fig. 9), and covered with the purifying material B
+<span class="sidenote">Purifiers.</span>
+to a depth of about 6 in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes
+being proportional to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas
+enters at the bottom by the pipe C, the inlet being protected from
+any falling material by the cover D; it forces its way upwards
+through all the trays until, reaching the lid or cover E, it descends
+by the exit tube F, which leads to the next purifier. The edges of the
+lid dip into an external water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is
+prevented from escaping.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page488" id="page488"></a>488</span></p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 300px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:253px; height:113px" src="images/img488a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 9.</span>&mdash;Purifier Grid.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well as
+from sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the removal
+of carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphur
+compounds, whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served to
+remove the last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than
+four lime purifiers were employed, and as the one which was first
+in the series became exhausted, <i>i.e.</i>
+began to show signs of allowing
+carbon dioxide to pass through it
+unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh
+slaked lime and made the last of
+the series, the one which was
+second becoming first, and this
+procedure went on continuously.
+This operation was necessitated by
+the fact that carbon dioxide has the
+power of breaking up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime,
+so that until all carbon dioxide is absorbed with the formation of
+calcium carbonate, the withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannot
+proceed, whilst since it is calcium sulphide formed by the absorption
+of sulphuretted hydrogen by the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour
+of carbon disulphide, purification from the latter can only be accomplished
+after the necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The
+foul gas leaving the scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30
+grains of sulphuretted hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide
+and 200 grains of carbon dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the
+first purifier, which contains calcium thiocarbonate and other combinations
+of calcium and sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted
+hydrogen and disulphide vapour have practically no action upon the
+material, but the carbon dioxide immediately attacks the calcium
+thiocarbonate, forming calcium carbonate with the production of
+carbon disulphide vapour, which is carried over with the gas into the
+second box. In the connexion between the first and the second box
+the gas is found to contain 500 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen
+and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., but no trace of
+carbon dioxide. In the second box the formation of calcium thiocarbonate
+takes place by the action of carbon disulphide upon the
+calcium sulphide with the liberation of sulphuretted hydrogen,
+which is carried over to the third purifier. The gas in the connecting
+pipe between the second and third purifier will be found to contain
+400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20 grains of carbon disulphide.
+The contents of the third box, being mostly composed of
+slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming calcium sulphide,
+and practically remove the remaining impurities, the outlet gas showing
+20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of carbon disulphide
+per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of iron then
+removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be noticed
+that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities is
+actually increased between the purifiers&mdash;in fact, the greater amount
+of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon disulphide,&mdash;but
+it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the disturbing element,
+inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of sulphur and calcium;
+consequently it is a paramount object in this system to prevent this
+latter impurity finding its way through the first box of the series.
+The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide in the gas between the
+first two boxes is generally the signal for a new clean purifier being
+put into action, and the first one shut off, emptied and recharged with
+fresh lime, the impregnated material being sometimes sold for
+dressing certain soils.</p>
+
+<p>The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the
+lime purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted
+hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide
+for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of
+free sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon removing
+the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmosphere
+the sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen
+of the air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur,
+and with moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron.
+This revivification can be carried on a number of times until the
+material when dry contains about 50% of free sulphur and even
+occasionally 60% and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of
+sulphuric acid to be used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sulphuric Acid</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort
+carbon, which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases
+preparing from their spent purifying material pure chemical products
+which are in great demand. The most important of these is
+sulphate of ammonia, which is used for agricultural purposes as a
+manure, and is obtained by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid
+and crystallizing out the ammonium sulphate produced. To do this,
+saturated ammoniacal liquor is decomposed by lime in the presence
+of steam, and the freed ammonia is passed into strong sulphuric acid,
+the saturated solution of ammonium sulphate being carefully
+crystallized. The market value of the salt varies, but an average
+figure is £12 per ton, whilst the average yield is about 24 &#8468; of salt
+per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the sulphuric acid is
+usually manufactured on the spot from the spent oxide, so that the
+sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is considered an undesirable
+impurity, plays a valuable part in the manufacture of an important
+by-product.</p>
+
+<p>Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas,
+from the spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gas
+works now produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest
+developments in the gas chemical industry.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:510px; height:486px" src="images/img488b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 10.&mdash;Gasholder.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 180px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:130px; height:377px" src="images/img488c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 11.&mdash;Cup and Grip.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as
+a gasometer), which may be either single lift, <i>i.e.</i> a simple bell inverted
+in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the
+telescopic principle, in which case much ground space is
+<span class="sidenote">Gasholder.</span>
+saved, as a holder of much greater capacity can be contained in the
+same-sized tank. The tank for the gasholder is usually made by
+excavating a circular reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than
+the proposed holder. A banking is allowed to remain in the centre,
+as shown in fig. 10, which is known as the &ldquo;dumpling,&rdquo; this arrangement
+not only saving work and water, but acting as a support for
+the king post of a trussed holder when the holder is empty. The
+tank must be water-tight, and the precaution necessary to be taken
+in order to ensure this is dependent upon the nature of the soil;
+it is usual, however, for the tanks to be lined with concrete. Where
+the conditions of soil are very bad, steel tanks are built above ground,
+but the cost of these is much greater. The holder is made of sheet
+iron riveted together, the thickness depending upon the size of the
+holder. The telescopic form consists of two or more lifts which slide
+in one another, and may be described as a single lift holder encircled
+by other cylinders of slightly larger diameter,
+but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows
+the general construction. Gas on entering
+at A causes the top lift to rise; the bottom of
+this lift being turned up all round to form a
+cup, whilst the top of the next lift is turned
+down to form a so-called grip, the two interlock
+(see fig. 11), forming what is known as the
+hydraulic cup. Under these conditions the
+cup will necessarily be filled with water, and
+a seal will be formed, preventing the escape
+of gas. A guide framing is built round the
+holder, and guide rollers are fixed at various
+intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at
+the bottom of the cup guide rollers are also
+fixed (fig. 11). In the year 1892 the largest
+existing gasholder was built at the East
+Greenwich works of the South Metropolitan
+Gas Company; it has six lifts, its diameter is
+293 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft.
+high. The capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.</p>
+
+<p>The governor consists usually of a bell floating
+in a cast iron tank partially filled with
+water, and is in fact a small gasholder,
+<span class="sidenote">Governor.</span>
+from the centre of which is
+suspended a conical valve controlling the gas
+inlet and closing it as the bell fills. Any
+deviation in pressure will cause the floating
+bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the inlet will be
+decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.</p>
+
+<p>The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16
+candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate,
+while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an
+enormous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page489" id="page489"></a>489</span>
+<span class="sidenote">Enrichment.</span>
+the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to
+the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for
+producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the
+ordinary gas, thereby enriching it, but as the supply
+became limited and the price prohibitive, other methods
+were from time to time advocated to replace its use in the enrichment
+of illuminating gas. These may be classified as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained
+by decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.</p>
+
+<p>2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing
+crude oils by heat.</p>
+
+<p>3. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with
+the vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.</p>
+
+<p>4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly
+carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons
+through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydrocarbon
+gases.</p>
+
+<p>Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for
+the production and enrichment of gas, and to do this
+<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by tar.</span>
+two methods may be adopted:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards
+using the whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the
+gas and vapours through superheaters.</p>
+
+<p>If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself
+is that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends
+rapidly to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful
+attempt to make use of certain portions of the liquid products of
+distillation of coal before condensation by the second method was
+the Dinsmore process, in which the coal gas and vapours which,
+if allowed to cool, would form tar, were made to pass through a
+heated chamber, and a certain proportion of otherwise condensible
+hydrocarbons was thus converted into permanent gases. Even with
+a poor class of coal it was claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 21-candle
+gas could be made by this process, whereas by the ordinary process
+9000 cub. ft. of 15-candle gas would have been produced. This
+process, although strongly advocated by the gas engineer who
+experimented with it, was never a commercial success. The final
+solution of the question of enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons derived
+from tar may be arrived at by a process which prevents the
+formation of part of the tar during the carbonization of the coal,
+or by the process devised by C.B. Tully and now in use at Truro, in
+which tar is injected into the incandescent fuel in a water-gas generator
+and enriches the water gas with methane and other hydrocarbons,
+the resulting pitch and carbon being filtered off by the
+column of coke through which the gas passes.</p>
+
+<p>The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spraying
+oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization;
+but experience soon showed that this was not an economical
+method of working, and that it was far better to
+<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by oil gas.</span>
+decompose the liquid hydrocarbon in the presence of the
+diluents which are to mingle with it and act as its carrier,
+since, if this were done, a higher temperature could be employed
+and more of the heavier portions of the oil converted into gas, without
+at the same time breaking down the gaseous hydrocarbons
+too much. In carburetting poor coal gas with hydrocarbons from
+mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal is undergoing
+distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier stages, but towards
+the end of the operation the gas is very poor in illuminants, the
+methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and the increase
+in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a coal
+requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the gas
+at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the
+following results:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Time after beginning Distillation.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tccm allb">10<br />minutes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">1 hour<br />30 minutes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">3 hours<br />25 minutes.</td> <td class="tccm allb">5 hours<br />35 minutes.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Sulphuretted hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.30</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.42</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">0.11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbon dioxide</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">2.09</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.49</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hydrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb">20.10</td> <td class="tcr rb">38.33</td> <td class="tcr rb">52.68</td> <td class="tcr rb">67.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Carbon monoxide</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.19</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.66</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.21</td> <td class="tcr rb">6.12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Saturated hydrocarbons</td> <td class="tcr rb">57.38</td> <td class="tcr rb">44.03</td> <td class="tcr rb">33.54</td> <td class="tcr rb">22.58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Unsaturated &emsp; &rdquo;</td> <td class="tcr rb">10.62</td> <td class="tcr rb">5.98</td> <td class="tcr rb">3.04</td> <td class="tcr rb">1.79</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">Nitrogen</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.20</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.47</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">2.55</td> <td class="tcr rb bb">0.78</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take
+place in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal.
+In carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort,
+many of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours,
+it would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas
+is being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension
+a much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being
+supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any
+further quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would
+have to be completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the
+temperature necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality
+of the gas given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation
+has gone on for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled
+off and the temperature of the retort has reached its highest point,
+and this is the best time to feed in the oil.</p>
+
+<p>Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the
+production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the
+&ldquo;Young&rdquo; or &ldquo;Peebles&rdquo; process, which depends on the principle
+of washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means
+of oil which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this
+way it is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent
+gases are allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this
+treatment considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed
+gases are also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again
+driven out by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas obtained
+by the Young process, when tested by itself in the burners
+most suited for its combustion, gives on the photometer an illuminating
+value averaging from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed,
+and quite correctly, that the enriching power of the gas is considerably
+greater. This is accounted for by the fact that it is impossible
+to construct a burner which will do justice to a gas of such illuminating
+power.</p>
+
+<p>The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal
+gas are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as
+much plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that
+although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal
+gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the
+large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of
+such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect
+mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in
+the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide variations
+in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.</p>
+
+<p>The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known,
+a large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being
+due to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried
+in suspension. For many years the price of benzol has
+<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by volatile hydrocarbons.</span>
+been falling, owing to the large quantities produced in
+the coke ovens, and at its present price it is by far the
+cheapest enriching material that can be obtained. Hence
+at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so
+it is used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized
+and its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite
+illuminating power.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now
+is by means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas.
+When steam acts upon carbon at a high temperature the
+resultant action may be looked upon as giving a mixture
+<span class="sidenote">Enrichment by carburetted water gas.</span>
+of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, both
+of which are inflammable but non-luminous gases. This
+water gas is then carburetted, <i>i.e.</i> rendered luminous by
+passing it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat,
+the mixture being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22
+to 25 candles. This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its
+illuminating value to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is
+heated to incandescence by an air blast in a generator lined with
+fire-brick, and the heated products of combustion as they leave the
+generator and enter the superheaters are supplied with more air,
+which causes the combustion of carbon monoxide present in the
+producer gas and heats up the fire-brick baffles with which the superheater
+is filled. When the necessary temperature of the fuel and
+superheater has been reached, the air blast is cut off, and steam is
+blown through the generator, forming water gas, which meets the
+enriching oil at the top of the first superheater, called the carburettor,
+and carries the vapours with it through the main superheaters,
+where the fixing of the hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advantage
+of this apparatus is that a low temperature can be used for
+fixing owing to the enormous surface for superheating,
+and thus to a great extent the deposition
+of carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has
+been very generally adopted in Great Britain as
+well as in America, and practically all carburetted
+water-gas plants are founded upon the same set
+of actions. Important factors in the use of carburetted
+water gas for enrichment are that it can
+be made with enormous rapidity and with a minimum
+of labour; and not only is the requisite
+increase in illuminating power secured, but the
+volume of the enriched gas is increased by the
+bulk of carburetted water gas added, which in
+ordinary English practice amounts to from 25 to
+50%. The public at first strongly opposed its introduction on
+the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon monoxide,
+which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%. Still
+when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal gas,
+containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the percentage
+of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%,
+which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.</p>
+
+<p>A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the
+gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas
+obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or non-luminous
+water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works,
+non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page490" id="page490"></a>490</span>
+the retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas
+and coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol
+vapour, a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is
+distinctly more economical than the use of carburetted water gas.
+In 1896 Karl Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of
+making water gas which entirely altered the whole aspect of the
+industry. In all the attempts to make water
+gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the
+fuel had been obtained by &ldquo;blowing&rdquo; so
+deep a bed of fuel that carbon monoxide and
+the residual nitrogen of the air formed the
+chief products, this mixture being known as
+&ldquo;producer&rdquo; gas. In the Dellwik process,
+however, the main point is the adjustment of
+the air supplied to the fuel in the generator
+in such a way that carbon dioxide is formed
+instead of carbon monoxide. Under these
+conditions producer gas ceases to exist as a
+by-product, and the gases of the blow consist
+merely of the incombustible products of complete
+combustion, carbon dioxide and nitrogen,
+the result being that more than three times
+the heat is developed for the combustion of
+the same amount of fuel, and nearly double
+the quantity of water gas can be made per
+pound of fuel than was before possible. The
+runs or times of steaming can also be continued
+for longer periods. The possibility of
+making from 60,000 to 70,000 cub. ft. of water
+gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik
+generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft.
+per ton made by previous processes reduces
+the price of water gas to about 3½d. per
+thousand, so that the economic value of using
+it in admixture with coal gas and then enriching the mixture by
+any cheap carburetting process is manifest. The universal adoption
+of the incandescent mantle for lighting purposes has made it evident
+that the illuminating value of the gas is a secondary consideration,
+and the whole tendency now is to do away with enrichment and
+produce a gas of low-candle power but good heating power at a
+cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent lighting. (See also
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Lighting</a></span>: <i>Gas.</i>)</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(V. B. L.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <i>Gas for Fuel and Power</i>&mdash;The first gas-producers, which
+were built by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and
+by C.G.C. Bischof at Mägdesprung (both in Germany), consisted
+of simple perpendicular shafts of masonry contracted
+at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate for the
+coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought
+iron casing, are even now used to a great extent. Sometimes
+the purpose of a gas-producer is attained in a very
+simple manner by lowering the grate of an ordinary fireplace
+so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is maintained in the
+fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great body of
+coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace,
+and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed
+immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper
+part of the furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monoxide
+which later on, on the spot where the greatest heat is required,
+is burned into dioxide by admitting fresh air, preferably
+pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive arrangement has the
+further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized immediately
+after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But it
+is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to
+those cases where all the space round the furnace is required
+for manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar
+purposes. In these cases the producers are arranged outside the
+iron-works, glass-works, &amp;c., in an open yard where all the
+manipulations of feeding them with coal, of stoking, and of removing
+the ashes are performed without interfering with the
+work inside. But care must always be taken to place the
+producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward tendency,
+in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is to be
+burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various
+means. The gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens
+Brothers, from 1856 onwards, were provided with a kind of brick
+chimney; on the top of this there was a horizontal iron tube,
+continued into an iron down-draught, and only from this the
+underground flues were started which sent the gas into the single
+furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down
+by the action of the air, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the
+gas out of the producer, but it has various drawbacks and
+has been abandoned in all modern constructions. Where the
+&ldquo;natural draught&rdquo; is not sufficient, it is aided either by blowing
+air under the grate or else by suction at the other end.</p>
+
+<p>We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-producers
+producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied
+in practice.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:691px; height:411px" src="images/img490a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 12<a name="fa2r" id="fa2r" href="#ft2r"><span class="sp">2</span></a>&mdash;Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation).</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:304px; height:274px" src="images/img490b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 13.&mdash;Lürmann&rsquo;s Producer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:521px; height:298px" src="images/img490c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Figs</span>. 14 and 15.&mdash;Liegel&rsquo;s Producer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds
+have been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in
+fig. 12. A is the charging-hole;
+B, the inclined front
+wall, consisting of a cast
+iron plate with fire-brick
+lining; C, the equally inclined
+&ldquo;step-grate&rdquo;; D, a
+damper by which the producer
+may be isolated in
+case of repairs; E, a water-pipe,
+by which the cinders
+at the bottom may be
+quenched before taking
+away; the steam here
+formed rises into the producer
+where it forms some
+&ldquo;semi-water gas&rdquo; (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Fuel</a></span>: <i>Gaseous</i>). Openings
+like that shown at G serve
+for introducing a poker in
+order to clean the brickwork
+from adhering slags.
+H is the gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft.
+high; JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch mentioned
+above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means
+of the gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch JJ much
+of the tar and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance
+where bituminous coal is employed for firing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page491" id="page491"></a>491</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:308px; height:599px" src="images/img491a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 16.</span>&mdash;Taylor&rsquo;s Producer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:735px; height:534px" src="images/img491b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 17.</span>&mdash;Dowson Gas Plant.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:410px; height:452px" src="images/img491c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 18.</span>&mdash;Mond Gas Plant.</td></tr></table>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:629px; height:687px" src="images/img491d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 19.</span>&mdash;Mond Gas Plant.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This as well as most other descriptions of gas-producers, is not
+adapted to being worked with such coal as softens in the heat and
+forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sinking
+of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be
+non-bituminous coal, anthracite or coke, or at least so
+much of these materials should be mixed with ordinary
+coal that no semi-solid cakes of the kind just described
+are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work with coal
+softening in the fire, Lürmann&rsquo;s producer may be
+employed, which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-producer
+of the ordinary kind, which during regular
+work is filled with the coke formed in the horizontal
+retort E. The door <i>b</i> serves for removing the slags
+and ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not
+fall through the grate. The hot producer-gas formed
+in V is passed round the retort E in the flues n<span class="su">2</span> n<span class="su">2</span>,
+and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace
+where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary
+bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation
+by the heat communicated through the flues n<span class="su">2</span> n<span class="su">2</span> and is thus
+converted into coke. The gases formed during this process pass
+into the upper portion of V and get mixed with the producer-gas
+formed in the lower portion. From time to time, as the level
+of the coke in V goes down, some of the freshly formed coke in E is
+pushed into V, whereby the level of the coke in V should assume
+the shape shown by the dotted line <i>l ... m</i>. If the level became
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page492" id="page492"></a>492</span>
+too low, such as is shown by the dotted line <i>x ... y</i>, the working
+of the producer would be wrong, as in this case the layer of coke
+at the front side would be too low, and carbon dioxide would be
+formed in lieu of monoxide.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:712px; height:1048px" src="images/img492.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 20.</span>&mdash;Blass&rsquo; Gas Plant.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel&rsquo;s producer, the special object of
+which is to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty
+slag on combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding
+the up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they
+be removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes.
+To obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat
+than is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer
+being pre-heated in the channels <i>e, e</i>. The inside shape of the producer
+is such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped,
+as it widens out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion,
+where the ashes are already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through
+which the air ascends. The grate <i>b</i> retains any small pieces of fuel,
+but allows the liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues <i>c, c</i>
+prevent the brickwork from being melted.</p>
+
+<p>One of the best-known gas-producers for working with compressed
+air from below is Taylor&rsquo;s, shown in fig. 16. A is the
+feeding-hopper, on the same principle as is used in blast-furnaces.
+L is the producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-holes
+B<span class="su">1</span> to B<span class="su">4</span>, passing through the brick lining M. F is the contracted
+part, leading to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the
+doors D. An injector I, worked by means of the steam-pipe J,
+forces air through K into F. The circular grate G can be turned
+round K by means of the crank E from the outside. This is done,
+without interfering with the blast, in order to keep the fuel at the
+proper level in L, according to the indications of the burning zone,
+as shown through the peep-holes B<span class="su">1</span> to B<span class="su">4</span>. The ashes collecting at
+the bottom are from time to time removed
+by the doors D. As the steam, introduced
+by J, is decomposed in the producer, we
+here obtain a &ldquo;semi-water gas,&rdquo; with about
+27% CO and 12% H<span class="su">2</span>.</p>
+
+<p>Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer,
+together with the arrangements for purifying
+the gas for the purpose of working a gas
+engine. <i>a</i> is a vertical steam boiler, heated
+by a central shaft filled with coke, with
+superheating tubes <i>b</i> passing through the
+central shaft. <i>c</i> is the steam-pipe, carrying
+the dry steam into the air-injector <i>d</i>. This
+mixture of steam and air enters into the
+gas-producer <i>e</i> below the fire-grate <i>f</i>. <i>g</i> is
+the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which
+is usually employed in this kind of producer.
+<i>h</i>, <i>h</i> are cooling-pipes for the gas
+where most of the undecomposed steam
+(say 10% of the whole employed in <i>d</i>) is
+condensed. <i>i</i> is a hydraulic box with water
+seal; <i>j</i>, a coke-scrubber; <i>k</i>, a filter; <i>l</i>, a sawdust-scrubber;
+<i>m</i>, inlet of gas-holder; <i>n</i>, gas-holder;
+<i>o</i>, outlet of same; <i>p</i>, a valve with
+weighted lever to regulate the admission of
+steam to the gas-producer; <i>q</i>, the weight
+which actuates the lever automatically by
+the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder.
+In practical work about ¾ &#8468; of steam is
+decomposed for each pound of anthracite
+consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon
+dioxide is found in the resulting gas. The
+latter has an average calorific power of
+1732 calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U.
+per cubic foot, at 0° and 760 mm.</p>
+
+<p>The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and
+19. The gases produced in the generators
+G are passed through pipes <i>r</i> into washers
+W, in which water is kept in violent motion
+by means of paddle-wheels. The spray of
+water removes the dust and part of the tar
+and ammonia from the gases, much steam
+being produced at the same time. This
+water is withdrawn from time to time and
+worked for the ammonia it contains. The
+gases, escaping from W at a temperature of
+about 100° C., and containing much steam,
+pass though <i>g</i> and <i>a</i> into a tower, fed with
+an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the
+tank <i>s</i>, which is spread into many drops
+by the brick filling of the tower. This
+liquid is a strong solution of ammonium
+sulphate, containing about 2.5% free sulphuric
+acid which absorbs nearly all the
+ammonia from the gases, without dissolving
+much of the tarry substances. Most of the
+liquor arriving at the bottom, after mechanically
+separating the tar, is pumped back
+into <i>s</i>, but a portion is always withdrawn
+and worked for ammonium sulphate. When
+escaping from the acid tower, the gas contains
+about 0.013% NH<span class="su">3</span>, and has a temperature
+of about 80° C. and is saturated
+with aqueous vapour. It is passed through
+<i>c</i> into a second tower B, filled with blocks
+of wood, where it meets with a stream of
+comparatively cold water. At the bottom
+of this the water runs away, its temperature
+being 78° C.; at the top the gas passes away through <i>d</i> into the distributing
+main. The hot water from B, freed from tar, is pumped
+into a third tower C, through which cold air is forced by means of a
+Root&rsquo;s blower by the pipe <i>w</i>. This air, after being heated to 76° C.,
+and saturated with steam in the tower C, passes through <i>l</i> into the
+generator G. The water in C leaves this tower cold enough to be
+used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the steam originally
+employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, leaving only one-third
+to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the steam-engine. The
+gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6 × 12 ft., several of
+them being erected in series. The introduction of the air and the
+removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The bottom
+is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The
+air enters just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page493" id="page493"></a>493</span>
+Mond gas in the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10%
+monoxide, 23% hydrogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen.
+The yield of ammonium sulphate is 75 &#8468; from a ton of coal (slack
+with 11.5% ashes and 55% fixed carbon).</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 290px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:239px; height:416px" src="images/img493.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1"><span class="sc">Fig. 21.</span>&mdash;Dellwik-Fleischer
+Producer.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>One of the best plants for the generation of <i>water-gas</i> is that
+constructed by E. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the
+valve V at D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes
+away at the bottom through A. The pressure of the gas should
+not be such that it could get into the pipe conveying the air-blast,
+by which an explosive mixture would be formed. This is
+prevented by the water-cooled damper S, which always closes the
+air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and vice versa. Below the entry
+W of the air-blast there is a throttle valve d which is closed as soon
+as the damper S opens the gas canal; thus a second security against
+the production of a mixture of air and gas is afforded. The water-cooled
+ring channel K protects the bottom outlet of the generator
+and causes the cinders to solidify, so that they can be easily removed.
+But sometimes no such cooling is effected, in which case the cinders
+run away in the liquid form. Below K the fuel is lying in a conical
+heap, leaving the ring channel A free. During the period of hot-blowing
+(heating-up) S is turned so that the air-blast communicates
+with the generator; <i>d</i> and G are open; <i>g</i> (the damper connected
+with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the period of gas-making
+G and <i>d</i> are closed, S now closes the air-blast and connects
+the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas passes
+from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet <i>w</i> being under a
+pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of the
+valves and dampers are automatically performed in the proper order
+by means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards <i>t</i>
+and shaft <i>v</i>. This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for
+starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to
+open and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible
+on the part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged
+that, when the cone e<span class="su">2</span> opens, e<span class="su">1</span> is shut, and vice versa, thus no more
+gas can escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that
+which is contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up
+gas (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it
+is at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some
+place where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for
+10 or 11 minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7
+to 1.5% carbon dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64
+to 66% nitrogen, and has a heating value of 950 calories per
+cub. metre. The water-gas itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an
+average composition of 3.3% carbon
+dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide,
+0.4% methane, 48.6% hydrogen,
+3.7% nitrogen, and a heating value
+of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1
+kilogram coke yields 1.13 cub. metre
+water-gas and 3.13 Siemens gas.
+100 parts coke (of 7000 calories)
+furnish 42% of their heat value as
+water-gas and 42% as Siemens gas.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly we give a section of the
+Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig.
+21). The feeding-hoppers A are
+alternately charged every half-hour,
+so that the layer of fuel in the
+generator always remains 4 ft. deep.
+B is the chimney-damper, C the
+grate, D the door for removing the
+slags, E the ash-door, F the inlet of
+the air-blast, G the upper, G<span class="su">1</span> the
+lower outlet for the water-gas which
+is removed alternately at top and
+bottom by means of an outside
+valve, steam being always admitted
+at the opposite end. The blowing-up
+generally lasts 1¾ minutes, the
+gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The
+air-blast works under a pressure of
+8 or 9 in. below the grate, or 4
+to 4½ in. above the coke. The
+blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18% carbon dioxide and 1.5%
+oxygen, with mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas
+shows 4 to 5% carbon dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0.8%
+methane, 48 to 51% hydrogen, 4 or 5% nitrogen. About 2.5 cub.
+metres is obtained per kilogram of best coke.</p>
+
+<p>See Mills and Rowan, <i>Fuel and its Application</i> (London, 1889);
+Samuel S. Wyer, <i>Producer-Gas and Gas-Producers</i>, published by the
+<i>Engineering and Mining Journal</i> (New York); F. Fischer, <i>Chemische
+Technologie der Brennstoffe</i> (1897-1901); <i>Gasförmige Heizstoffe</i>, in
+Stohmann and Kerl&rsquo;s <i>Handbuch der technischen Chemie</i>, 4th edition,
+iii. 642 et seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(G. L.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2r" id="ft2r" href="#fa2r"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from
+Lunge&rsquo;s <i>Coal-tar and Ammonia</i>, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u.
+Sohn.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASCOIGNE, GEORGE<a name="ar238" id="ar238"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1535-1577), English poet, eldest
+son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born
+probably between 1530 and 1535. He was educated at Trinity
+College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to
+have joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray&rsquo;s
+Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of
+evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in
+1548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt
+that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned
+for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne
+disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own
+account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts
+contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558
+and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election
+at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being &ldquo;a defamed
+person and noted for manslaughter,&rdquo; &ldquo;a common Rymer and
+a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles,&rdquo; &ldquo;a notorious ruffianne,&rdquo;
+an atheist and constantly in debt. His poems, with the exception
+of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572,
+but they were probably circulated in MS. before that date. He
+tells us that his friends at Gray&rsquo;s Inn importuned him to write
+on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were
+acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow
+of William Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet,
+Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry into the disposition of
+William Breton&rsquo;s property with a view to the protection of the
+children&rsquo;s rights was instituted before the lord mayor, but the
+matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne
+continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had from
+his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the
+Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to
+Brill, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the
+Dutch. He obtained a captain&rsquo;s commission, and took an active
+part in the campaigns of the next two years, during which he
+acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration
+for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his
+behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against
+the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the
+Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg
+by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn
+of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his
+adventures, &ldquo;The Fruites of Warres&rdquo; (printed in the edition
+of 1575) and &ldquo;Gascoigne&rsquo;s Voyage into Hollande.&rdquo; In 1575
+he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next
+year as <i>The Princely Pleasures at the Courte at Kenelworth</i>, which
+celebrated the queen&rsquo;s visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock
+in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and
+presented her with the <i>Pleasant Tale of Hemetes the Heremite</i><a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+in four languages. Most of his works were actually published
+during the last years of his life, after his return from the wars.
+He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of
+George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whetstone
+wrote a long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled &ldquo;A
+Remembrance of the wel-imployed life and godly end of George
+Gaskoigne, Esquire.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short
+critical treatise, &ldquo;Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the
+making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of
+Master Edouardo Donati,&rdquo;<a name="fa2s" id="fa2s" href="#ft2s"><span class="sp">2</span></a> prefixed to his <i>Posies</i> (1575). He
+acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the
+earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly in the
+added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. His poems were
+published in 1572 during his absence in Holland, surreptitiously,
+according to his own account, but it seems probable that the
+&ldquo;editor&rdquo; who supplied the running comment was none other
+than Gascoigne himself. <i>A hundreth Sundrie Floures bound up
+in one small Posie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne
+outlandish Gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and
+others; and partely by Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes
+in Englande, Yelding Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and
+moral discourse, bothe pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page494" id="page494"></a>494</span>
+<i>noses of learned Readers</i>, was followed in 1575 by an authorized
+edition, <i>The Posies of G.G. Esquire</i> ... (not dated).</p>
+
+<p>Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a
+pioneer in more than one direction. In 1576 he published <i>The
+Steele Glas</i>, sometimes called the earliest regular English satire.
+Although this poem is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is
+written in the spirit of <i>Piers Plowman</i>. Gascoigne begins with
+a comparison between the sister arts of Satire and Poetry, and
+under a comparison between the old-fashioned &ldquo;glas of trustie
+steele,&rdquo; and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he takes as a
+symbol of the &ldquo;Italianate&rdquo; corruption of the time, he attacks
+the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee
+landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the
+restoration of the feudal ideal.<a name="fa3s" id="fa3s" href="#ft3s"><span class="sp">3</span></a></p>
+
+<p>His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at
+Gray&rsquo;s Inn, both <i>Jocasta</i> (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed
+by Francis Kinwelmersh) and <i>Supposes</i> being played there in
+1566. <i>Jocasta</i> was said by J.P. Collier (<i>Hist. of Dram. Poetry</i>
+iii. 8) to be the &ldquo;first known attempt to introduce a Greek
+play upon the English stage,&rdquo; but it turns out that Gascoigne
+was only very indirectly acquainted with Euripides. His play is
+a literal version of Lodovico Dolce&rsquo;s <i>Giocasta</i>, which was derived
+probably from the <i>Phoenissae</i> in the Latin translation of R.
+Winter. <i>Supposes</i>,<a name="fa4s" id="fa4s" href="#ft4s"><span class="sp">4</span></a> a version of Ariosto&rsquo;s <i>I Suppositi</i>, is notable
+as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian comedy, and
+moreover, as &ldquo;the earliest play in English prose acted in public
+or private.&rdquo; Udal&rsquo;s <i>Ralph Roister Doister</i> had been inspired
+directly by Latin comedy; <i>Gammer Gurton&rsquo;s Needle</i> was a purely
+native product; but <i>Supposes</i> is the first example of the acclimatization
+of the Italian models that were to exercise so
+prolonged an influence on the English stage. A third play of
+Gascoigne&rsquo;s, <i>The Glasse of Government</i> (published in 1575), is
+a school drama of the &ldquo;Prodigal Son&rdquo; type, familiar on the
+continent at the time, but rare in England. It is defined by Mr
+C.H. Herford as an attempt &ldquo;to connect <i>Terentian situation</i>
+with a <i>Christian moral</i> in a picture of <i>school life</i>,&rdquo; and it may
+be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama
+of university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at
+Antwerp, and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva
+and Heidelberg respectively.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Spoyle of Antwerpe</i>, written by an eyewitness of the sack
+of the city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne,
+but although a George Gascoigne was employed in that year
+to carry letters for Walsingham, internal evidence is against
+Gascoigne&rsquo;s authorship. A curious editorial preface by Gascoigne
+to Sir Humphrey Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Discourse of a Discoverie for a new
+Passage to Cataia</i> (1576) has led to the assertion that Gascoigne
+printed the tract against its author&rsquo;s wish, but it is likely that
+he was really serving Gilbert, who desired the publication, but
+dared not avow it. The <i>Wyll of the Devill</i> ... (reprinted for
+private circulation by Dr F.J. Furnivall, 1871), an anti-popish
+tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne, is
+almost certainly by another hand.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Gascoigne&rsquo;s works not already mentioned include: &ldquo;G. G. in
+commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie,&rdquo; prefixed to <i>The Noble
+Art of Venerie or Hunting</i> (1575); <i>The Complaynte of Phylomene,
+bound up with The Steele Glas</i> (1576); <i>The Droomme of Doomes-day</i>
+(1576), a prose compilation from various authors, especially from
+the <i>De contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis</i> of
+Pope Innocent III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?);
+<i>A Delicate Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes ...</i> (1576), a free
+version of St Augustine&rsquo;s <i>De ebrietate. The Posies</i> (1572) included
+<i>Supposes, Jocasta, A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F</i>[<i>erdinando</i>]
+<i>J</i>[<i>eronimi</i>], in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly autobiographical
+<i>Don Bartholomew of Bath</i>, and miscellaneous poems.
+Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were supposed
+to be concealed under fictitious names in <i>The Adventures of
+Master F. J.</i>, and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the
+names are disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive
+collection, <i>The Whole Workes of G. G.</i> ... appeared in 1587. In
+1868-1870 <i>The Complete Poems of G. G.</i> ... were edited for the
+Roxburghe Library by Mr W.C. Hazlitt. In his <i>English Reprints</i>
+Prof. E. Arber included <i>Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele
+Glas</i> and the <i>Complaynt of Philomene</i>. <i>The Steele Glas</i> was also
+edited for the <i>Library of English Literature</i>, by Henry Morley, vol. i.
+p. 184 (1889). A new edition, <i>The Works of George Gascoigne</i> (The
+Cambridge English Classics, 1907, &amp;c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe.
+See also <i>The Life and Writings of George Gascoigne</i>, by Prof. Felix
+E. Schelling (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in
+Philology, vol. ii. No. 4 [1894]); C.H. Herford, <i>Studies in the Literary
+Relations of England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century</i>, pp. 149-164
+(1886); C.H. Herford, &ldquo;Gascoigne&rsquo;s Glasse of Government,&rdquo;
+in <i>Englische Studien</i>, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &amp;c.).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Printed in 1579 in a pamphlet called <i>The Paradoxe</i>, the
+author of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne&rsquo;s
+name.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2s" id="ft2s" href="#fa2s"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood&rsquo;s <i>Ancient Critical Essays</i>
+(1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith&rsquo;s <i>Elizabethan Critical Essays</i>
+(1904).</p>
+
+
+<p><a name="ft3s" id="ft3s" href="#fa3s"><span class="fn">3</span></a></p>
+<table class="reg" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele</p>
+  <p class="i05">But foure estates, to serve each country soyle,</p>
+  <p class="i05">The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest.</p>
+  <p class="i05">The King should care for al the subjects still,</p>
+  <p class="i05">The Knight should fight, for to defend the same,</p>
+  <p class="i05">The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease,</p>
+  <p class="i05">And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves.&rdquo;&mdash;</p>
+     <p class="i14">(Arber&rsquo;s ed. p. 57.)</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p><a name="ft4s" id="ft4s" href="#fa4s"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The influence of this play on the Shakespearian <i>Taming of the
+Shrew</i> is dealt with by Prof. A.H. Tolman in <i>Shakespeare&rsquo;s Part in
+the Taming of the Shrew</i> (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v.
+No. 4, pp. 215, 216, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar239" id="ar239"></a></span> (<i>c.</i> 1350-1419), chief justice of
+England in the reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition
+testify to the fact that he was one of the great lawyers who in
+times of doubt and danger have asserted the principle that the
+head of the state is subject to law, and that the traditional
+practice of public officers, or the expressed voice of the nation in
+parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part of the
+legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a
+descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his
+birth is uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he
+practised as an advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard
+II. On the banishment of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was
+appointed one of his attorneys, and soon after Henry&rsquo;s accession
+to the throne was made chief justice of the court of king&rsquo;s bench.
+After the suppression of the rising in the north in 1405, Henry
+eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence upon
+Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas
+Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he
+absolutely refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be
+tried by their peers. Although both were afterwards executed,
+the chief justice had no part in the transaction. It has been very
+much doubted, however, whether Gascoigne could have displayed
+such independence of action without prompt punishment or
+removal from office following. The oft-told tale of his committing
+the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as unauthentic,
+though it is both picturesque and characteristic.
+The judge had directed the punishment of one of the prince&rsquo;s
+riotous companions, and the prince, who was present and enraged
+at the sentence, struck or grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne
+immediately committed him to prison, using firm and forcible
+language, which brought him to a more reasonable mood, and
+secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence. The king is said
+to have approved of the act, but there appears to be good ground
+for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post or
+resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419,
+and was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire.
+Some biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412,
+but this is clearly disproved by Foss in his <i>Lives of the Judges</i>;
+and although it is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long
+under Henry V., it is not absolutely impossible that the scene in the
+fifth act of the second part of Shakespeare&rsquo;s <i>Henry IV.</i> has some
+historical basis, and that the judge&rsquo;s resignation was voluntary.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASCONY<a name="ar240" id="ar240"></a></span> (<i>Wasconia</i>), an old province in the S.W. of France.
+It takes its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in
+580 and 587 crossed the Pyrenees and invaded the district known
+to the Romans as Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque,
+the national language of the Vascones, took root only in a few of
+the high valleys of the Pyrenees, such as Soule and Labourd; in
+the plains Latin dialects prevailed, Gascon being a Romance
+language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia was substituted
+for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily
+recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602
+they consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but
+in reality they remained independent. They even appointed
+national dukes, against whom Charlemagne had to fight at
+the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke Lupus II. made his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page495" id="page495"></a>495</span>
+submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to establish
+Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known:
+Séguin (Sighivinus), William (Guillaume), and Arnaud (Arnaldus).
+They were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed
+to the Normans. After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of
+Gascony falls into the profoundest obscurity. The lists of the
+10th-century dukes prepared by ancient and modern historians
+can only be established by means of hypotheses based in many
+cases on spurious documents (<i>e.g.</i> the charter of Alaon), and little
+confidence can be placed in them. During this troubled period
+Gascony was from time to time attached to one or other of the other
+Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope of the
+Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as
+forming part of France, from which it has never been separated.
+Disputed in the 11th century by the counts of Poitiers, who were
+also dukes of Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the
+duchy finally passed to the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the
+title of duke of Gascony was merged in that of duke of Aquitaine
+and disappeared. In the feudal period Gascony comprised
+a great number of countships (including Armagnac, Bigorre,
+Fézensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships (including Béarn,
+Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd and
+Maremne), and seigneuries (<i>e.g.</i> Albret, &amp;c.). From the ecclesiastical
+point of view, it corresponded nearly to the archbishopric
+of Auch.</p>
+
+<p>From about 1073 to 1137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of
+Aquitaine and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave
+the first charter of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the
+duchy was weakened by the increasing independence of its great
+feudatories, especially the viscounts of Béarn and the counts of
+Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her father&rsquo;s death, Eleanor,
+the daughter and heiress of Duke William X., married the king of
+France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine Gascony
+passed under his direct rule. In 1151, however, this marriage was
+annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou,
+who three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus
+was the house of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh
+bone of contention was thrown between the kings of England and
+of France. Having established himself in the duchy by force of
+arms, Henry handed it over to his son Richard, against whom
+many of the great Gascon lords revolted, and from Richard it
+passed to his brother John. The crusade against the Albigenses
+was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a new impetus
+to the process of disintegration which was already at work in the
+duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the
+neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive;
+and the house of Béarn was growing in strength. Gascony
+served Henry III. as headquarters during his two short and
+disastrous wars (1230 and 1242) with Louis IX., and in 1259 he
+did homage for it to this king; his son, Edward I., lost and then
+regained the duchy.</p>
+
+<p>During the Hundred Years&rsquo; War Gascony was obviously a
+battle-field for the forces of England and of France. The French
+seized the duchy, but, aided by the rivalry between the powerful
+houses of Foix and Armagnac, Edward III. was able to recover it,
+and by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 John II. recognized the
+absolute sovereignty of England therein. Handed over as a
+principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it was used
+by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in
+which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles.
+The renewal of the war between England and France, which took
+place in 1369, was due in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of
+Gascony, and during its course the position of the English was
+seriously weakened, the whole of the duchy save a few towns and
+fortresses being lost; but the victories of Henry V. in northern
+France postponed for a time the total expulsion of the foreigner.
+This was reserved for the final stage of the war and was one result
+of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing the capture
+of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from the
+duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered
+severely from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or
+misruled without restraint.</p>
+
+<p>The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the
+royal authority in the duchy, although this was not really
+accomplished until the close of the 15th century when the house of
+Armagnac was overthrown. It was by means of administrative
+measures that these kings attained their object. Gascony was
+governed on the same lines as other parts of France and from the
+time of Henry IV., who was prince of Béarn, and who united his
+hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very slightly
+from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired
+the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation
+was largely accepted in Béarn, but not in other parts of Gascony.
+The wars of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of
+some of the military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made
+some slight changes in its government. As may be surmised the
+boundaries of Gascony varied from time to time, but just before
+the outbreak of the Revolution they were the Atlantic Ocean,
+Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from east to west the
+duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m.</p>
+
+<p>At the end of the <i>ancien régime</i> Gascony was united with
+Guienne to form a great military government. After the division
+of France into departments, Gascony, together with Béarn,
+French Navarre and the Basque country, formed the departments
+of Basses-Pyrénées, Landes, Hautes-Pyrénées and Gers.
+Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements and cantons of
+the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariège and
+Tarn-et-Garonne.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Arnaud Oïhénart, <i>Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, tam Ibericae
+quam Aquitanicae</i> (1637); L&rsquo;Abbé Monlezun, <i>Histoire de la Gascogne</i>
+(1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited
+documents; and Jean de Jaurgain, <i>La Vasconie, étude historique et
+critique sur les origines ... du duché de Gascogne ... et des grands
+fiefs du duché de Gascogne</i> (1898-1902), a learned and ingenious
+work, but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last
+work was rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his <i>Études sur le règne
+de Hugues Capet</i> (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also
+Barrau-Dihigo, &ldquo;La Gascogne,&rdquo; a bibliography of manuscript sources
+and of printed works published in the <i>Revue de synthèse historique</i>
+(1903).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. B.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GAS ENGINE.<a name="ar241" id="ar241"></a></span> A gas engine is a heat engine in which the working
+fluid is atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It
+differs from a hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given
+to the working fluid by combustion within the motive power
+cylinder. In most gas engines&mdash;in fact, in all those at present on
+the market&mdash;the working fluid and the fuel that supplies it with
+heat are mixed with each other before the combustion of the
+fuel. The fuel&mdash;which in the steam and in most hot-air engines
+is burned in a separate furnace&mdash;is, in the gas engine, introduced
+directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is, indeed,
+part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an internal
+combustion engine using gaseous fuel.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when
+Dr N.A. Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive
+use, but long before that year inventors had been at work, attempting
+to utilize gas for producing motive power. The first proposal made
+in Great Britain is found in Street&rsquo;s Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where
+an explosion engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by
+vaporizing spirits of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing
+the vapour with air in a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a
+piston by the explosion produced. Most of the early engines were
+suggested by the fact that a mixture of an inflammable gas and
+atmospheric air gives an explosion when ignited&mdash;that is, produces
+pressure which can be applied in a cylinder to propel a piston.
+Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine in which the gas and air
+were raised to a pressure above that of the atmosphere before use
+in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be clear in his ideas.</p>
+
+<p>Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a
+paper read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled,
+&ldquo;On the Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power
+in Machinery, with a description of an Engine which is moved by
+the pressure of the Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions
+of Hydrogen Gas and Atmospheric Air.&rdquo; In that paper
+the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine of his invention constructed
+to operate on the explosion vacuum method. This engine was stated
+to run with perfect regularity at 60 revolutions per minute, consuming
+17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per hour. The hydrogen explosion,
+however, does not seem to have been noiseless, because Mr Cecil
+states that in building a larger engine &ldquo;... to remedy the noise
+which is occasioned by the explosion, the lower end of the cylinder
+A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may be enclosed in a large
+air-tight vessel.&rdquo; Mr Cecil also mentions previous experiments at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page496" id="page496"></a>496</span>
+Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at his lectures on
+mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
+and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place from atmospheric
+pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have operated an
+engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil appear
+to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.</p>
+
+<p>Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill
+a closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he
+condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine
+by exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was
+evidently suggested by Watt&rsquo;s condensing steam engine, flame being
+employed instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown&rsquo;s engine is
+said to have been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat
+on the Thames, and propel a road carriage. L.W. Wright in 1833
+described an explosion engine working at atmospheric pressure
+and exploding on both sides of the piston. The cylinder is shown
+as water-jacketed. In William Barnett&rsquo;s engine of 1838 two great
+advances were made. The engine was so constructed that the mixture
+of gas and air was compressed to a considerable extent in the
+motor cylinder before ignition. The method of igniting the compressed
+charge was also effective. The problem of transferring a
+flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure is much in excess
+of that of the external air was solved by means of a hollow plug cock
+having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one position the
+hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet issuing within
+it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned within the hollow.
+The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it closed to the external
+air and opened to the engine cylinder; the flame continued to burn
+with the air contained in the cock, until the compressed inflammable
+mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder and ignited at the
+flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the one adopted by Otto
+about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the credit of being the
+first to realize clearly the great idea of compression before explosion in
+gas engines, and to show one way of carrying out the idea in practice.
+Barnett appears to have constructed an engine, but he attained no
+commercial success. Several attempts to produce gas engines were
+made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all failures. Several
+valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an American, described
+a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture by raising
+a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857 Barsanti
+and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the explosion
+propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work was
+done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial
+vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never
+came into commercial use, although the fundamental idea was
+good.</p>
+
+<p>Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental
+stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was
+attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor
+of the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The
+piston, moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy
+stored in the fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and
+air at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke
+the valves closed, and an explosion, caused by an electric spark,
+propelled the piston to the end of its stroke. On the return stroke
+the burnt gases were discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts.
+These operations were repeated on both sides of the piston, and
+the engine was thus double-acting. Four hundred of these engines
+were said to be at work in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works
+Company Limited built and sold one hundred of them in Great
+Britain. They were quiet, and smooth in running; the gas consumption,
+however, was excessive, amounting to about 100 cub.
+ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical ignition
+also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by the
+introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success
+was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their free-piston
+engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine
+was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but
+Otto succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the
+engine in a very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed
+a practical clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one
+direction but engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the
+other; it consisted of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets&mdash;the same
+clutch, in fact, as has since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles.
+This engine consumed about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power
+per hour&mdash;less than half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands
+were made and sold, but its strange appearance and unmechanical
+operation raised many objections. Several inventors meanwhile
+again advocated compression of the gaseous mixture before ignition,
+among them being Schmidt, a German, and Million, a Frenchman,
+both in 1861.</p>
+
+<p>To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of
+proposing, with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now
+widely used in compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published
+in Paris in 1862, he stated that to obtain economy with an explosion
+engine four conditions are requisite: (1) The greatest possible
+cylinder volume with the least possible cooling surface; (2) the
+greatest possible rapidity of explosion; (3) the greatest possible
+expansion; and (4) the greatest possible pressure at the beginning
+of the expansion. The sole arrangement capable of satisfying
+these conditions he stated would be found in an engine operating
+as follows: (1) Suction during an entire out-stroke of the piston;
+(2) compression during the following in-stroke; (3) ignition at the
+dead point, and expansion during the third stroke; (4) forcing out
+of the burnt gases from the cylinder on the fourth and last return
+stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly contemplated, in theory at
+least, the engine produced by Dr Otto fourteen years later. He did
+not, however, put his engine into practice, and probably had no
+idea of the practical difficulties to be overcome before realizing his
+conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto belongs the honour of
+independently inventing the same cycle, now correctly known as
+the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all practical difficulties
+and making the gas engine of world-wide application. This
+he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly surpassed all
+others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is manufactured over the
+whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr Otto used low
+compression, only about 30 &#8468; per sq. in. above atmosphere. Year
+by year compression was increased and greater power and economy
+were obtained, and at present compressions of more than 100 &#8468;
+per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improvement
+in detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to
+be used with safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in
+dimensions and power. In the same period light and heavy oil
+engines have been developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oil Engine</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working
+process, into three well-defined types:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous
+compression.</p>
+
+<p>(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous
+compression.</p>
+
+<p>(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous
+compression.</p>
+
+<p>For practical purposes engines of the first type may be disregarded.
+Gas engines without compression are now considered
+to be much too wasteful of gas to be of commercial importance.
+Those of the second type have never reached the stage of extended
+commercial application; they are scientifically interesting,
+however, and may take an important place in the future development
+of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir William Siemens
+with regard to them have not been realized, although he spent
+many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also
+devoted much thought and work to this second type may be
+mentioned Brayton (1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883);
+Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889); and Diesel (1892). Diesel&rsquo;s
+engines are proving successful as oil engines but have not been
+introduced as gas engines.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The working cycles of the three types are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>First Type.</i>&mdash;Four operations.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmospheric
+         pressure.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Exploding the charge.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Expanding after explosion.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Expelling the burnt gases.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Second Type.</i>&mdash;Five operations.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at
+       atmospheric pressure.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of
+       flame, at the pressure of compression.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Expanding after admission.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Expelling the burnt gases.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Third Type.</i>&mdash;Five operations.</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric
+        pressure.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Compressing the charge into a combustion space.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Exploding the charge.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Expanding after explosion.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Expelling the burnt gases.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished
+by the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for
+the cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete
+rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its replacement
+by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at atmospheric
+temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be
+repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air
+engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working
+fluid to heat or cool through metal surfaces.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:654px; height:367px" src="images/img497a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><i>Four-cycle Engines.</i>&mdash;Otto-cycle engines belong to the third
+type, being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page497" id="page497"></a>497</span>
+is compressed previous to explosion. Fig. 1 is a side elevation,
+fig. 2 is a sectional plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine
+built about 1892 by Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were
+the original makers of Otto engines in Great Britain. In external
+appearance it somewhat resembles a modern high-pressure
+steam engine, of which the working parts are exceedingly strong.
+In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal and open-ended,
+works a long trunk piston, the front end of which carries
+the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel
+large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the
+piston through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is
+considerably longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full
+in leaves a space into which it does not enter. This is the combustion
+space, in which the charge is first compressed and then
+burned. On the forward stroke, the piston A (fig. 2) takes into
+the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air at atmospheric
+pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into the space
+Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then
+ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a
+high pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under
+the pressure of the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust
+valve is opened, discharges the products of combustion. The
+engine is then ready to go through the same cycle of operations.
+It thus takes four strokes or two revolutions of the shaft to
+complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being used alternately
+as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at full
+load, thus gives one impulse for every two
+revolutions. The valves, which are all of the
+conical-seated lift type, are four in number&mdash;charge
+inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting
+valve, and exhaust valve. The igniting valve
+is usually termed the timing valve, because it
+determines the time of the explosion. Since
+the valves have each to act once in every two
+revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams
+or eccentrics placed directly on the crank
+shaft. The valve shaft D is driven at half
+the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by
+means of the skew or worm gear E, one wheel
+of which is mounted on the crank shaft and the
+other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accomplished
+by means of a metal tube heated to
+incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the
+proper moment the ignition or timing valve is
+opened, and the mixed gas and air under pressure being admitted
+to the interior of the tube, the inflammable gases come into contact
+with the incandescent metal surface and ignite; the flame
+at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its contents, thus
+producing the motive explosion.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The working parts are as follows:&mdash;A the piston, B the connecting
+rod, C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing,
+F the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve
+cam, I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the
+charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N
+lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P
+timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, R igniting tube,
+S governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating
+ignition tube. On the first forward or charging
+stroke the charge of gas and air is admitted by
+the inlet valve I, which is operated by the lever J
+from the cam K, on the valve shaft D. The gas
+supply is admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift
+valve L, which is also operated by the lever and
+link N from the cam M, controlled, however, by
+the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates
+either to admit gas wholly, or to cut it off completely,
+so that the variation in power is obtained
+by varying the number of the explosions.</p>
+
+<p>Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built
+further modifications have been made, principally
+in the direction of dispensing with or diminishing
+port space, that is, so arranging the ports that
+the compression space is not broken up into
+several separate chambers. In this way the cooling
+surface in contact with the intensely hot gases is
+reduced to a minimum. This is especially important
+when high compressions are used, as then
+the compression space being small, the port spaces
+form a large proportion of the total space. For
+maximum economy it is necessary to get rid of
+port space altogether; this is done by making the
+lift valves open directly into the compression
+space. This arrangement can be readily made
+in small- and medium-sized engines, but in the larger engines it
+becomes necessary to provide ports, so as to allow the valves to be
+more easily removed for cleaning.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J.E. Dowson
+for the production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke
+by the action of air mixed with steam, soon led to the development
+of larger and larger Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained
+consisted of a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and
+some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having a lower heating value
+of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot. With this gas
+these engines used about 1 &#8468; of anthracite per b.h.p. per hour.</p>
+
+<p>From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first
+placed on the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in
+1894, but then presenting many difficulties which were not removed
+till about nine years later when Dowson and others
+placed effective suction plants in use in considerable numbers.
+Such suction plants are now built by all the leading gas engine
+constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500 i.h.p.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:669px; height:316px" src="images/img497b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig</span>. 2.&mdash;Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros. also attacked the problem
+of the bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are
+now at work for powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B.H.
+Thwaite demonstrated that the so-called waste gas from blast
+furnaces could be used in gas engines, and this undoubtedly
+led to the design and construction of the very large gas engines
+now becoming common both in Europe and in America. It
+appears from Thwaite&rsquo;s experiments that the surplus gas from
+the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at
+least three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page498" id="page498"></a>498</span>
+and night, and it is calculated that in America nearly three
+million horse-power is available from this source. Thwaite&rsquo;s
+system was put into operation in 1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works,
+and it was also successfully applied near Barrow-in-Furness.
+For many reasons the system did not take immediate root in
+England, but in 1898 the Société Cockerill of Seraing near Liège
+applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to utilize
+blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at
+105 revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an
+engine giving 600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for
+driving a blowing cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single
+cylinder of 51.2 in. diameter and a piston stroke of 55.1 in.
+About 1900 the Gasmotoren Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle
+engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four cylinders each 33 in. diameter
+and 39.3 in. stroke, speed 135 revolutions per minute. It was
+coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley Bros. Ltd. took up the
+large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p. engine by them
+was at work at Brunner, Mond &amp; Co.&rsquo;s works, Winnington, in
+1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke,
+and it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:667px; height:607px" src="images/img498.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig.</span> 3.&mdash;End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single
+acting open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the
+larger engines closed cylinders of the double acting type are used.
+The engine then closely resembles a double acting steam engine.
+It has a cylinder cover with packing box of a special type, and,
+in addition to the water jacket surrounding the cylinder and
+combustion spaces, the piston and piston rod are hollow and
+cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such a double
+acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then
+two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft
+is occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding
+revolution gets two power impulses. For still larger engines
+two such double acting cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that
+one piston rod runs through two pistons and connects to a slide
+in front and to one crank pin by a connecting rod. Such an
+engine gives two power impulses for every revolution of the crank
+shaft. The greatest power developed in one double acting
+cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder of
+45¼ in. diameter by 51¼ in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per
+minute gives 1100 i.h.p.</p>
+
+<p><i>Two-Cycle Engine.</i>&mdash;While the Otto or four-cycle engine was
+developing as above described, inventors were hard at work on
+the two-cycle engine. In Britain this work fell mostly upon
+Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while on the continent of Europe
+the most persevering and determined worker was Koerting.</p>
+
+<p>Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876.
+His first patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the
+air pressure vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of
+1878, and the engine there described was exhibited at the Royal
+Agricultural Show at Kilburn, London, 1879. In it a pump
+compressed a mixture of air and gas into a reservoir, from which
+it entered the motor cylinder during the first part of its stroke.
+After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum igniter, the piston
+was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on the
+return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first
+compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for
+each revolution of the crank shaft. It had
+difficulties, however, which prevented it from
+reaching the market.</p>
+
+<p>The particular type of engine now widely
+known as operating on the Clerk cycle was
+patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One
+of the earliest of these engines was set up at
+Lord Kelvin&rsquo;s laboratory at the Glasgow
+university and used for the purpose of driving
+a Siemens dynamo and supplying his house
+with electric light. The engine was first exhibited
+in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of
+1881 and the London Smoke Abatement Exhibition
+of the same year. In this engine the
+charge was not compressed by a separate
+pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was
+used, but its function was to act merely as a
+displacer to take in a mixture of gas and air
+and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low
+a pressure as possible, in such a way that the
+entering charge displaced the exhaust gases
+through ports which were opened by the overrunning
+of the piston. The motor piston thus
+timed and controlled the exhaust discharge, and
+gave a power impulse for every revolution of
+the crank. Engines of the Clerk type were
+built largely by Messrs Sterne &amp; Co. of Glasgow,
+the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia,
+U.S.A., the Campbell Gas Engine Co., and a
+modification was made and sold in considerable
+numbers by the Stockport Company.
+The lapsing of the Otto patent, however, in
+1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time,
+although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an
+ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine.
+This two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for
+motor launch work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for
+large gas engines up to about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs
+Koerting of Hanover.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan
+at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders&mdash;a power cylinder A
+and a displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder
+is to take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it
+to the power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of
+the previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end
+of the motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates
+with the displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift
+valve which opens into the compression space from a chamber
+communicating by a pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-end
+of the motor cylinder are placed <b>V</b>-shaped ports E which open
+to the atmosphere by an exhaust pipe. The outward travel of the
+motor piston C causes it to overrun these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and
+allows the pressure in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action
+of the engine is as follows:&mdash;The displacer piston D on its forward
+movement draws in its charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with
+reference to the motor piston C that it has returned a small portion
+of its stroke just when the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports.
+The overrunning of the exhaust ports at once causes the pressure
+in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere, and then the pressure in the
+displacer overcomes the pressure in the motor cylinder and opens
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page499" id="page499"></a>499</span>
+the lift valve, when the charge flows in to the motor cylinder through
+the conical compression space and displaces the exhaust gases
+through the ports E, while it fills up the cylinder A with the inflammable
+charge. The exhaust gases are sufficiently displaced
+and the fresh charge introduced into the cylinder by the time the
+motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E on the out-stroke and
+closed them on the return stroke. The two cylinders are so proportioned
+that the exhaust gases are expelled as completely as possible
+and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without any material part
+of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless the proportions
+are carefully made such an escape is possible. The relative operations
+of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D are secured by
+advancing the crank of the displacer about a right angle compared
+to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke compresses
+the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when compression
+is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F. This
+produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward
+until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of operations
+one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank.
+The motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual
+manner, but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the
+gases are never hot.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:662px; height:304px" src="images/img499a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span>&mdash;Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1881.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was
+taken out in 1877 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents
+of 1879-1880 were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second
+cylinder was used. The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed
+by a cover and packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas
+and air into a reservoir at a few &#8468; above atmosphere. The motor
+piston was arranged to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but
+the exhaust discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift
+valve controlled the overrun ports and determined when the exhaust
+should be discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at
+the end of the stroke the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was
+admitted by a lift valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining
+exhaust gases and fill the cylinder with charge. This mixture was
+compressed into a space at the end of the cylinder and ignited by
+means of a flame ignition device. Robson&rsquo;s engine was built in
+considerable numbers by Messrs Tangye of Birmingham, the first
+exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at the end of 1880. The modern
+Day engine closely resembles the Robson engine
+so far as its broad operations are concerned.</p>
+
+<p>Atkinson&rsquo;s work on the gas engine was begun
+in 1878, his first patent being No. 3212 of 1879.
+The engine described in that patent somewhat
+resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at
+Kilburn. Atkinson was ingenious and persevering
+in the invention of two-cycle engines. Two
+of his engines were made in considerable numbers.
+The first was known as the &ldquo;Differential&rdquo;
+engine, exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition,
+London, in 1885. A later engine produced by
+him was called the &ldquo;Cycle&rdquo; engine, and it
+proved to be the most economical of all the
+motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of
+motors for electric lighting in 1888-1889.
+Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his
+ingenious contrivances are now at work on the
+well-known engines of that firm.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Four-cycle engines now practically monopolize
+the field of the smaller internal combustion
+engines, and very large engines are also constructed
+on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, however,
+compete strongly with the four-cycle for large gas
+engines using blast furnace gas. Koerting engines on the
+Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000 i.h.p. per double acting
+motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this method gives
+two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather &amp; Platt build a
+Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of
+their construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and
+40½ in. stroke gives 700 b.h.p.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders
+of a Mather &amp; Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power
+cylinder section is shown above that of the
+pump cylinders, but it is to be understood that
+both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane
+as in the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The
+Koerting engine, however, is double acting,
+whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The
+power cylinder A has a power piston A¹ and
+compression spaces A²A³. At the centre of the
+cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the
+atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A¹
+at both ends of the stroke. A<span class="sp">4</span> and A<span class="sp">5</span> are inlet
+valves for gas and air. The single acting pump
+cylinders BB¹ supply the air required for the
+charge, and the double acting gas cylinder CC¹
+supplies the gas. Both gas and air are led from
+these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet
+valves A<span class="sp">4</span>A<span class="sp">5</span>. The air pump pistons are lettered
+B²B³ and the gas pump piston C². The main
+crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of
+the power piston A¹, and the pump crank F
+to the trunk air pump piston B² which drives
+the other air pump piston B³ and the gas
+pump piston C² by a piston rod passing through all three. The
+gas mixture is not made until the inlet valves A<span class="sp">4</span>A<span class="sp">5</span> are reached, so
+that no explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder
+A. The air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge
+some of the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the contents
+of the cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the
+engine is exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and
+the arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each
+other is also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports
+E, and the incoming charge fills the cylinder in the same way as in
+the Clerk engine.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:665px; height:268px" src="images/img499b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span>&mdash;Longitudinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine (Koerting-Clerk), new type, by
+Messrs Mather &amp; Platt, Ltd.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechelhäuser,
+operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan
+at fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A¹A², A¹ being
+operated by a centre and A² by two outside cranks, side rods, and
+cross head; the pistons A¹A² thus move in opposite directions and
+give an effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the
+air and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas
+on the other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from
+the pump and to the power cylinder by ports C¹; a similar chamber
+D opens to a gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power
+cylinder by ports D¹. The exhaust ports E are provided at the other
+end of the cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust
+ports E the pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere;
+the back piston then opens the air ports C¹ and air under slight
+pressure flows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight
+pressure from the gas ports D¹. In this way the power cylinder A
+is charged with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the
+pistons A¹A² approach each other the charge is compressed into the
+space between and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons
+are then forced apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechelhäuser
+engine, which is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardmore
+of Glasgow, has attained considerable success in driving blowing
+pumps for blast furnaces, in producing electric light, and in driving
+iron rolling mills.</p>
+
+<p>Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be
+seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in 1908 by Mr
+R.E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large
+gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page500" id="page500"></a>500</span></p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:677px; height:240px" src="images/img500.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span>&mdash;Arrangement of Oechelhäuser Gas Engine.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate
+of 23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt &amp; Sehmer, 59 motors, total, 69,790
+h.p.; the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p.; Gebrüder
+Koerting, 198, total 165,760 h.p.; Société Alsacienne, 55, total
+23,410 h.p.; Société John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Société
+Suisse, Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken,
+Augsburg and Nürnberg, 215, total 256,240 h.p. The mean
+power of each gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt &amp; Sehmer and
+the Augsburg and Nürnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p.
+It is stated that in one factory there are gas engines representing
+a total output of 35,000 h.p. These European large gas engines thus
+give nearly 575,000 h.p. between them.</p>
+
+<p>The installation of large gas engines has made considerable progress
+in America. Mr E.L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p.
+was at work or in construction in the United States in 1908. The
+first large engines were installed at the works of the Lackawanna
+Steel Co., Buffalo, New York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk
+type, and were built by the De La Vergne Co. of New York. They
+included 16 blowing engines, each of 2000 h.p., and 8 engines of
+1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce electric light. This
+large power plant was started in 1902. The Westinghouse Co. of
+<span class="correction" title="amended from Pittsburg">Pittsburgh</span> have also built large engines, several of which are in
+operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel Co. These
+Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type, having
+two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the
+cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow
+Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with
+cylinders of 42 in. diameter and
+54 in. stroke. The English Westinghouse
+Co. have also designed
+large gas engines, and they exhibited
+a very interesting vertical
+multiple cylinder gas engine having
+four cranks and eight single-acting
+cylinders, four pairs, in
+tandem, at the Franco-British
+Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750
+h.p., and the pistons were not
+watered.</p>
+
+<p>Over two million horse-power
+of the smaller gas engines are
+now at work in the world, and
+certainly above one million horse-power
+of petrol motors.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The application of large gas
+engines to marine work, the
+compounding of the gas engine,
+and many other matters are being strenuously pursued.
+Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels
+used for towing purposes in which the vessel is driven by
+gas engines operated by means of suction gas-producers consuming
+anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and Messrs Beardmore
+in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs, and
+both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thornycroft
+to a gas launch which has been tested in the Solent,
+and Beardmore to an old gunboat, the &ldquo;Rattler.&rdquo; The
+&ldquo;Rattler&rdquo; was fitted with five-cylinder Otto cycle engines and
+suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has sailed some
+1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to
+be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas
+engines can be installed on board ship, but progress is being
+made, and without doubt all difficulties will be ultimately
+surmounted and gas power successfully applied to ships for
+both large and small power.</p>
+
+<p>The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have
+been displaced by electrical ignition of both high and low tension
+types; all large gas engines are ignited electrically and generally
+by more than one igniter per cylinder.</p>
+
+<p>The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as
+to keep up continuity of impulses by the method either of
+throttling the charge inlet or by varying the
+point of admission of gas alone or air and gas
+mixed.</p>
+
+<p>It may be said, indeed, without exaggeration,
+that the whole world is now alive to
+the possibilities of the internal-combustion
+motor, and that progress will be more and
+more rapid. This motor has almost fulfilled
+the expectations of those engineers who
+have devoted a large part of their lives to
+its study and advancement. They are looking
+forward now to the completion of the
+work begun so many years ago, and expect,
+at no distant date, to find the internal-combustion
+motor competing with the steam
+engine even in its latest form, the steam turbine, on sea as
+vigorously as it does at present on land.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines.</i>&mdash;The Otto and Clerk
+type engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and
+two-cycle, because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to
+complete the power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk
+engine two strokes complete the cycle.</p>
+
+<p>Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of
+the total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the
+explosion and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency
+may be defined as the proportion of the total heat of combustion
+which appears as work given out by the engine available for overcoming
+external resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the
+effective efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas
+engines the indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by
+tests of Otto engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated
+thermal efficiencies of from 35% to 37% are often obtained. Some
+experimenters claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher
+than ordinary best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared
+to show this advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal
+efficiency, the brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency,
+together with other particulars such as engine dimensions, types
+and names of experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal
+efficiency has also increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically
+one-third of the whole heat of combustion is obtained by these
+engines in effective work available for all motive power purposes.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><span class="sc">Table I.</span>&mdash;<i>Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines from 1882 to 1908.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">No.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Mechanical<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Names of<br />Experimenters.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Dimensions<br />of Engine.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Indicated<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Brake<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Type of<br />Engine.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Diam.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Stroke.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">1</td> <td class="tcc rb">87.6</td> <td class="tcl rb">Slaby</td> <td class="tcc rb">1882</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;6.75&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 13.7&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">16</td> <td class="tcl rb">14</td> <td class="tcl rb">Deutz</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">2</td> <td class="tcc rb">84.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Thurston</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8.5&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 14&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">17</td> <td class="tcl rb">14.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">3</td> <td class="tcc rb">86.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Society of Arts</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;9.5&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 18&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">22</td> <td class="tcl rb">18.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">4</td> <td class="tcc rb">80.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Society of Arts</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;9.02&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 14&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">21</td> <td class="tcl rb">17</td> <td class="tcl rb">Griffin (6-cycle)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">5</td> <td class="tcc rb">87.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Kennedy</td> <td class="tcc rb">1888</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;7.5&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 15&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">21</td> <td class="tcl rb">18.3</td> <td class="tcl rb">Beck (6-cycle)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">6</td> <td class="tcc rb">82.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Capper</td> <td class="tcc rb">1892</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;8.5&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 18&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">22.8</td> <td class="tcl rb">17.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">7</td> <td class="tcc rb">87.0</td> <td class="tcl rb">Robinson</td> <td class="tcc rb">1898</td> <td class="tcl">10&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 18&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">28.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">25</td> <td class="tcl rb">National</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">8</td> <td class="tcc rb">83 &ensp;</td> <td class="tcl rb">Humphrey</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcl">26&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 36&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">31</td> <td class="tcl rb">25.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Crossley</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">9</td> <td class="tcc rb">81.7</td> <td class="tcl rb">Witz</td> <td class="tcc rb">1900</td> <td class="tcl">51.2&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 55.13&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">28</td> <td class="tcl rb">22.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Cockerill</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">10</td> <td class="tcc rb">85.5</td> <td class="tcl rb">Inst. Civil. Eng.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1905</td> <td class="tcl">14&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 22&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">35<a name="fa1t" id="fa1t" href="#ft1t"><span class="sp">1</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">29.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">National</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb">11</td> <td class="tcc rb">77.1</td> <td class="tcl rb">Burstall</td> <td class="tcc rb">1907</td> <td class="tcl">16&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× 24&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">41.5<a name="fa2t" id="fa2t" href="#ft2t"><span class="sp">2</span></a></td> <td class="tcl rb">32</td> <td class="tcl rb">Premier</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcr lb rb bb">12</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">87.5</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Hopkinson</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1908</td> <td class="tcl bb">11.5&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">× 21&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">36.8</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">32.2</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Crossley</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><i>Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines.</i>&mdash;It has been found that
+two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to
+obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the
+thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical
+difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in
+indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16.4% attained in
+1884 to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the
+same period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not
+so well established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have
+been so far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests
+than those of the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page501" id="page501"></a>501</span>
+that the mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%,
+while in the later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75%.</p>
+
+<p><i>Standards of Thermal Efficiency</i>.&mdash;To set up an absolute standard
+of thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner
+the physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous
+explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous
+explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of
+Europe, and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of
+Mallard and Le Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and
+Bairstow and Alexander. From these and other experiments it is
+possible to measure approximately the internal energy or the specific
+heats of the gases of combustion at very high temperatures, such
+as 2000° C.; and to advance the knowledge on the subject a committee
+of the British Association was formed at Leicester in 1907.
+Recognizing, in 1882, that it was impossible to base any standard
+cycle of efficiency upon the then existing knowledge of gaseous
+explosions Dugald Clerk proposed what is called the air standard.
+This standard has been used for many years, and it was officially
+adopted by a committee of the Institution of Civil Engineers appointed
+in 1903, this committee&rsquo;s two reports, dated March 1905
+and December 1905, definitely adopting the air-standard cycle as
+the standard of efficiency for internal combustion engines. This
+standard assumes that the working fluid is air, that its specific heat
+is constant throughout the range of temperature, and that the
+value of the ratio between the specific heat at constant volume and
+constant pressure is 1.4. The air-standard efficiency for different
+cycles will be found fully discussed in the report of that committee,
+but space here only allows of a short discussion of the various cycles
+using compression previous to ignition.</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table II</span>.&mdash;<i>Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle Engines from 1884 to 1908</i>.</p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Mechanical<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Name of<br />Experimenter.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb" colspan="2">Dimensions<br />of Motor<br />Cylinders.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Indicated<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Brake<br />Thermal<br />Efficiency.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Type of Engine.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc rb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">Diam.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Stroke.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcc rb">Per cent.</td> <td class="tcl rb">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">84</td> <td class="tcl rb">Garrett</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;9&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">×  20&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">16.4</td> <td class="tcl rb">14</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clerk-Sterne</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">Stockport Co.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1884</td> <td class="tcc">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">11.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">Andrews &amp; Co.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">83</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clerk</td> <td class="tcc rb">1887</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;9&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">×  15&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">20.2</td> <td class="tcl rb">16.9</td> <td class="tcl rb">Clerk-Tangye</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">Atkinson</td> <td class="tcc rb">1885</td> <td class="tcl">&ensp;7½&Prime;</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb">15</td> <td class="tcl rb">Atkinson</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">75</td> <td class="tcl rb">Meyer</td> <td class="tcc rb">1903</td> <td class="tcl">26<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>&Prime;</td> <td class="tcl rb">× (2&Prime;×37½&Prime;)</td> <td class="tcl rb">38</td> <td class="tcl rb">29</td> <td class="tcl rb">Oechelhäuser</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb bb">75</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Mather &amp; Platt</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">1907</td> <td class="tcc bb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">..</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">30.6</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">23</td> <td class="tcl rb bb">Koerting</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic
+cycles, and each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible
+for the conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as
+cycles of (1) constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3)
+constant volume.</p>
+
+<p>The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat
+is added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compression
+is assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from
+the lowest to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant
+temperature, so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant
+temperature, which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The
+heat supply is stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adiabatically
+expands until the temperature falls to the lowest temperature.
+A compression operation then takes place at the lowest
+temperature, so that the necessary heat is discharged by isothermal
+compression at the lower temperature. It will be recognized that
+this is the Carnot cycle, and the efficiency E is the maximum possible
+between the temperature limits in accordance with the well-known
+second law of thermo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T &minus; T<span class="sp">1</span>)/T =
+1 &minus; T<span class="sp">1</span>/T, where T is the absolute temperature at which heat is supplied
+and T<span class="sp">1</span> the absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression
+are here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that
+if t be the temperature before compression and t<span class="su">c</span> the temperature
+after compression, then E = 1 &minus; t/t<span class="su">c</span>. This equation in effect says that
+thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the
+temperatures before and after compression.</p>
+
+<p>The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to
+the working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic
+compression raises the pressure&mdash;not the temperature&mdash;from the
+lower to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is
+added while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure.
+The temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume.
+When the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and
+reduces the pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower
+point. Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature.
+The heat in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower
+pressure but at diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this
+case also that E = 1 &minus; t/t<span class="su">c</span>, that is, that although the maximum
+temperature of the working fluid is higher than the temperature of
+compression and the temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion
+is higher than the lower temperature, yet the proportion of heat
+convertible into work is determined here also by the ratio of the
+temperatures before and after compression.</p>
+
+<p>The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required
+is added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle
+adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the
+working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added
+while the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which
+the fluid is diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion reduces
+the pressure and temperature of the working fluid until the
+volume is the same as the original volume before compression, and
+the necessary heat is discharged from the cycle at constant volume
+during falling temperature. Here also it can be shown that the
+thermal efficiency depends on the ratio between the temperature
+before compression and the temperature after compression. It
+is as before E = 1 &minus; t/t<span class="su">c</span>. Where t is the temperature and v the volume
+before compression, and t<span class="su">c</span> the temperature and v<span class="su">c</span> the volume after
+adiabatic compression, it can be shown that (v<span class="su">c</span>/v)<span class="sp">&gamma;<span class="sp">&minus;1</span></span> = t/t<span class="su">c</span>, so that E
+may be written</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">E = 1 &minus; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>v<span class="su">c</span></td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">&gamma;<span class="sp">&minus;1</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2">,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">v</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and if v<span class="su">c</span>/v = 1/r, the compression ratio, then</p>
+
+<table class="math0" summary="math">
+<tr><td rowspan="2">E = 1 &minus; <span class="f150">(</span></td> <td>1</td>
+<td rowspan="2"><span class="f150">)</span></td> <td><span class="sp">&gamma;<span class="sp">&minus;1</span></span></td> <td rowspan="2">.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="denom">r</td> <td>&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><span class="sc">Table III.</span>&mdash;<i>Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical
+Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc">1/r</td> <td class="tcc rb">E</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">2</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.026</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.55</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.36</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">10</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.61</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">4</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.43</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">20</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.70</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span></td> <td class="tcr rb">0.48</td> <td class="tcc"><span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span></td> <td class="tcc">0.85</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature,
+constant pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency
+depends only on the ratio of the
+maximum volume before compression
+to the volume after compression;
+and, given this ratio,
+called 1/r, which does not depend
+in any way upon temperature
+determinations but only upon the
+construction and valve-setting of
+the engine, we have a means of
+settling the ideal efficiency proper
+for the particular engine. Any
+desired ideal efficiency may be
+obtained from any of the cycles
+by selecting a suitable compression
+ratio. Table III., giving the
+theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of
+constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a
+compression ratio of ½ to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span>th. Such compression ratios as
+100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value
+in constant volume engines ranges from <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">5</span>th to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">7</span>th. In the
+Diesel engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is
+usually <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">12</span>th. As the value of 1/r increases beyond certain limits,
+the effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes,
+because the temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the
+maximum temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression
+of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">100</span>th raises the temperature of air from 17° C. to about 1600° C,
+and as 2000º C. is the highest available explosion temperature for
+ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work
+would be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart
+from other mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized
+that constant pressure and constant volume engines have the same
+thermal efficiency for similar range of compression temperature,
+but Prof. H.L. Callendar first pointed out the interesting fact that
+a Carnot cycle engine is equally dependent upon the ratio of the
+temperature before and after compression, and that its efficiency for
+a given compression ratio is the same as the efficiencies proper for
+constant pressure and constant volume engines. Prof. Callendar
+demonstrated this at a meeting of the Institution of Civil Engineers
+Committee on thermal standards in 1904. The work of this committee,
+together with Clerk&rsquo;s investigations, prove that in modern
+gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may be taken that the best result
+possible in practice is given by multiplying the air-standard value
+by .7. For instance, an engine with a compression ratio of one-third
+has an air-standard efficiency of 0.36, and the actual indicated
+efficiency of a well-designed engine should be .36 multiplied by .7 =
+0.25.  If, however, the compression ratio be raised to one-fifth, then
+the air-standard value .48 multiplied by .7 gives .336. The ideal
+efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to be about 20%
+short of the air-standard values given.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(D. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1t" id="ft1t" href="#fa1t"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst. C.E.
+Committee&rsquo;s values.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2t" id="ft2t" href="#fa2t"><span class="fn">2</span></a> This value is, in the author&rsquo;s view, too high; probably due to
+indicator error.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN<a name="ar242" id="ar242"></a></span> (1810-1865), English
+novelist and biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810
+in Lindsay Row, Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way
+for Cheyne Walk. Her father, William Stevenson (1772-1829),
+came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and had been successively Unitarian
+minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper for students at
+Edinburgh, editor of the <i>Scots Magazine</i>, and contributor to the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page502" id="page502"></a>502</span>
+<i>Edinburgh Review</i>, before he received the post of Keeper of the
+Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. His first
+wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell&rsquo;s mother. She was a
+Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county
+the family name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs
+Stevenson died a month after her daughter was born, and the
+babe was carried into Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her
+aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her childhood was spent in the pleasant
+environment that she has idealized in <i>Cranford</i>. At fifteen years
+of age she went to a boarding-school at Stratford-on-Avon, kept
+by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her seventeenth year.
+Then came occasional visits to London to see her father and his
+second wife, and after her father&rsquo;s death in 1829 to her uncle,
+Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in
+Newcastle-on-Tyne In the family of William Turner, a Unitarian
+minister, and a third in Edinburgh. On the 30th of August 1832
+she was married in the parish church of Knutsford to William
+Gaskell, minister of the Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Manchester,
+and the author of many treatises and sermons in support
+of his own religious denomination. Mr Gaskell held the chair of
+English history and literature in Manchester New College.</p>
+
+<p>Henceforth Mrs Gaskell&rsquo;s life belonged to Manchester. She and
+her husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street,
+and finally in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life
+began with poetry. She and her husband aspired to emulate
+George Crabbe and write the annals of the Manchester poor. One
+poetic &ldquo;Sketch,&rdquo; which appeared in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i> for
+January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this
+ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband
+and wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to
+become a successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side
+with those of greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished
+Unitarian divine, whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all
+but forgotten. In her earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly
+occupied with domestic duties&mdash;she had seven children&mdash;and
+philanthropic work among the poor. Her first published prose
+effort was probably a letter that she addressed to William
+Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume entitled
+<i>Visits to Remarkable Places</i>. She then told the legend of Clopton
+Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and
+Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published
+in 1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been
+commenced until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs
+Gaskell visited North Wales, where their only son &ldquo;Willie&rdquo;
+died of scarlet fever at the age of ten months, and it was, it is
+said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her sorrow that her husband
+suggested a long work of fiction, and <i>Mary Barton</i> was begun.
+There were earlier short stories in <i>Howitt&rsquo;s Journal</i>, where
+&ldquo;Libbie Marsh&rsquo;s Three Eras&rdquo; and &ldquo;The Sexton&rsquo;s Hero&rdquo; appeared
+in 1847. But it was <i>Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life</i> that
+laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell&rsquo;s literary career. It was
+completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it
+unread. It was then sent to Chapman &amp; Hall, who retained the
+manuscript for a year without reading it or communicating with
+the author. A reminder, however, led to its being sought for,
+considered and accepted, the publishers agreeing to pay the
+author £100 for the copyright. It was published anonymously
+in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide popularity, and
+its author secured first the praise and then the friendship of
+Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in 1850
+to become a contributor to his new magazine <i>Household Words</i>,
+and here the whole of <i>Cranford</i> appeared at intervals from
+December 1851 to May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted
+in the &ldquo;World&rsquo;s Classics&rdquo; edition (1907), that was published in
+<i>All the Year Round</i> for November 1863. Earlier than this,
+indeed, for the very first number of <i>Household Words</i> she had
+written &ldquo;Lizzie Leigh.&rdquo; Mrs Gaskell&rsquo;s second book, however, was
+<i>The Moorland Cottage</i>, a dainty little volume that appeared at
+Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the
+Christmas number of <i>Household Words</i> for 1853 appeared &ldquo;The
+Squire&rsquo;s Story,&rdquo; reprinted in <i>Lizzie Leigh and other Tales</i> in 1865.
+In 1853 appeared another long novel, <i>Ruth</i>, and the incomparable
+<i>Cranford</i>. This last&mdash;now the most popular of her books&mdash;is an
+idyll of village life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knutsford
+and its people. In <i>Ruth</i>, which first appeared in three
+volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to a delicate treatment of a girl&rsquo;s
+betrayal and her subsequent rescue. Once more we are introduced
+to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the little Unitarian
+chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in early
+years. In 1855 <i>North and South</i> was published. It had previously
+appeared serially in <i>Household Words</i>. Then came&mdash;in 1857&mdash;the
+<i>Life of Charlotte Brontë</i>, in two volumes. Miss Brontë, who
+had enjoyed the friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged
+visits, died in March 1855. Two years earlier she had begged her
+publishers to postpone the issue of her own novel <i>Villette</i> in order
+that her friend&rsquo;s <i>Ruth</i> should not suffer. This biography, by its
+vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy and indeed tragic
+story of the three Brontë sisters, greatly widened the interest in
+their writings and gave its author a considerable place among
+English biographers. But much matter was contained in the
+first and second editions that was withdrawn from the third.
+Certain statements made by the writer as to the school of
+Charlotte Brontë&rsquo;s infancy, an identification of the &ldquo;Lowood&rdquo; of
+<i>Jane Eyre</i> with the existing school, and the acceptance of the
+story of Bramwell Brontë&rsquo;s ruin having been caused by the
+woman in whose house he had lived as tutor, brought threats of
+libel actions. Apologies were published, and the third edition of
+the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by &ldquo;another
+hand.&rdquo; The book in any case remains one of the best biographies
+in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then
+popular novel, <i>Mabel Vaughan</i>, was also included in her work of
+this year 1857, but no further book was published by her until
+1859, when, under the title of <i>Round the Sofa</i>, she collected many of
+her contributions to periodical literature. <i>Round the Sofa</i> appeared
+in two volumes, the first containing only &ldquo;My Lady Ludlow,&rdquo;
+the second five short stories. These stories reappeared the same
+year in one volume as <i>My Lady Ludlow and other Tales</i>. In the
+next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of short stories,
+entitled <i>Right at Last and other Tales</i>. The title story had
+appeared two years earlier in <i>Household Words</i> as &ldquo;The Sin of a
+Father.&rdquo; In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by
+Colonel Vecchj, translated from the Italian&mdash;<i>Garibaldi and
+Caprera</i>, and in 1863 she published her last long novel, <i>Sylvia&rsquo;s
+Lovers</i>, dedicated &ldquo;to My dear Husband by her who best knows
+his Value.&rdquo; After this we have&mdash;in 1863&mdash;a one-volume story,
+<i>A Dark Night&rsquo;s Work</i>, and in the same year <i>Cousin Phyllis and
+other Tales</i> appeared. Reprinted short stories from <i>All the
+Year Round</i>, <i>Cornhill Magazine</i>, and other publications, tend to
+lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during
+her lifetime. <i>The Grey Woman and other Tales</i> appeared in 1865.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn,
+Alton, Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the
+profits of her writings as a present for her husband. She was
+buried in the little graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church.
+Her unfinished novel <i>Wives and Daughters</i> was published in two
+volumes in 1866.</p>
+
+<p>Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her
+death. <i>Cranford</i> has been published in a hundred forms and
+with many illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic.
+Scarcely less recognition is awarded to the <i>Life of Charlotte
+Brontë</i>, which is in every library. The many volumes of novels and
+stories seemed of less secure permanence until the falling in of their
+copyrights revealed the fact that a dozen publishers thought them
+worth reprinting. The most complete editions, however, are the
+&ldquo;Knutsford Edition,&rdquo; edited with introductions by A.W. Ward, in
+eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the &ldquo;World&rsquo;s Classics&rdquo; edition,
+edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes (Henry Froude, 1908).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the
+publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical
+introduction to the &ldquo;Knutsford&rdquo; <i>Mary Barton</i> by A.W. Ward;
+the <i>Letters of Charles Dickens</i>; <i>Women Writers</i>, by C.J. Hamilton,
+second series; <i>H.B. Stowe&rsquo;s Life and Letters</i>, edited by Annie Fields;
+<i>Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher</i>; <i>Mrs Gaskell and Knutsford</i>, by
+G.A. Payne; <i>Cranford</i>, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie;
+<i>Écrivains modernes de l&rsquo;Angleterre</i>, by Émile Montégut.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. K. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various
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+</body>
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+
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@@ -0,0 +1,19444 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4
+       "G" to "Gaskell, Elizabeth"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: August 22, 2011 [EBook #37160]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE GABEL, KRISTOFFER: "See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk.
+      Biograf. Lex. art "Gabel" (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); Danmarks Riges
+      Historie (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. v." '1905' amended from
+      '1005'.
+
+    ARTICLE GALLS: "The same authority (loc. cit. p. 550) mentions a
+      willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food
+      and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
+      that altogether some twenty-four insects, ..." 'altogether' amended
+      from 'alltogether'.
+
+    ARTICLE GANNET: "... and orderly takes its place in the rear of the
+      string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds
+      itself above its prey." 'its' amended from 'is'.
+
+    ARTICLE GARDNER, PERCY: "... an account of excavations in Greece
+      and Asia Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd
+      ed. 1898); ..." 'Asia' amended from 'Aisa'.
+
+    ARTICLE GARNET, HENRY: "... by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the
+      pseudonym Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, Antilogia
+      versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes, ..." 'Eudaemon' amended from
+      'Endaemon'.
+
+    ARTICLE GARTH, SIR SAMUEL: "He wrote little besides his best-known
+      work The Dispensary and Claremont, a moral epistle in verse."
+      'epistle' amended from 'espistle'.
+
+    ARTICLE GAS ENGINE: "The Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also
+      built large engines, several of which are in operation at the
+      various works of the Carnegie Steel Co." 'Pittsburgh' amended from
+      'Pittsburg'.
+
+
+
+
+          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
+           AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+              ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+            VOLUME XI, SLICE IV
+
+          G to Gaskell, Elizabeth
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  G                                 GALLUPPI, PASQUALE
+  GABBRO                            GALLUS, CORNELIUS
+  GABEL, KRISTOFFER                 GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
+  GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER     GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
+  GABELLE                           GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS
+  GABERDINE                         GALOIS, EVARISTE
+  GABES                             GALSTON
+  GABII                             GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH
+  GABINIUS, AULUS                   GALT, JOHN
+  GABION                            GALT
+  GABLE                             GALTON, SIR FRANCIS
+  GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS             GALUPPI, BALDASSARE
+  GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP            GALVANI, LUIGI
+  GABLETS                           GALVANIZED IRON
+  GABLONZ                           GALVANOMETER
+  GABORIAU, EMILE                   GALVESTON
+  GABRIEL                           GALWAY (county of Ireland)
+  GABRIEL HOUNDS                    GALWAY (town of Ireland)
+  GABRIELI, GIOVANNI                GAMA, VASCO DA
+  GABUN                             GAMALIEL
+  GACE BRULE                        GAMBETTA, LEON
+  GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER            GAMBIA (river of West Africa)
+  GAD                               GAMBIA (country of West Africa)
+  GADAG                             GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,
+  GADARA                            GAMBIER
+  GADDI                             GAMBOGE
+  GADE, NIELS WILHELM               GAMBRINUS
+  GADOLINIUM                        GAME
+  GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER              GAME LAWS
+  GADSDEN, JAMES                    GAMES, CLASSICAL
+  GADWALL                           GAMING AND WAGERING
+  GAEKWAR                           GAMUT
+  GAETA                             GANDAK
+  GAETANI                           GANDAMAK
+  GAETULIA                          GANDERSHEIM
+  GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON                GANDHARVA
+  GAGE, THOMAS                      GANDIA
+  GAGE                              GANDO
+  GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST      GANESA
+  GAHANBAR                          GANGES
+  GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE     GANGOTRI
+  GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE               GANGPUR
+  GAILLAC                           GANGRENE
+  GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI           GANILH, CHARLES
+  GAINESVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.)     GANJAM
+  GAINESVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.)       GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS
+  GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS              GANNET
+  GAINSBOROUGH                      GANODONTA
+  GAIRDNER, JAMES                   GANS, EDUARD
+  GAIRLOCH                          GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST
+  GAISERIC                          GANTE
+  GAISFORD, THOMAS                  GANYMEDE
+  GAIUS                             GAO
+  GAIUS CAESAR                      GAOL
+  GALAGO                            GAON
+  GALANGAL                          GAP
+  GALAPAGOS ISLANDS                 GAPAN
+  GALASHIELS                        GARARISH
+  GALATIA                           GARASHANIN, ILIYA
+  GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE         GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH
+  GALATINA                          GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN
+  GALATZ                            GARAY, JANOS
+  GALAXY                            GARBLE
+  GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman general)  GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA
+  GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman emperor)  GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL
+  GALBANUM                          GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO
+  GALCHAS                           GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO
+  GALE, THEOPHILUS                  GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO
+  GALE, THOMAS                      GARD
+  GALE                              GARDA, LAKE OF
+  GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD         GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU
+  GALEN, CLAUDIUS                   GARDELEGEN
+  GALENA (Illinois, U.S.A.)         GARDEN
+  GALENA (Kansas, U.S.A.)           GARDENIA
+  GALENA (ore of lead)              GARDINER, JAMES
+  GALEOPITHECUS                     GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON
+  GALERIUS                          GARDINER, STEPHEN
+  GALESBURG                         GARDINER
+  GALGACUS                          GARDNER, PERCY
+  GALIANI, FERDINANDO               GARDNER
+  GALICIA (crownland of Austria)    GARE-FOWL
+  GALICIA (province of Spain)       GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM
+  GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO       GAR-FISH
+  GALILEE (province of Palestine)   GARGANEY
+  GALILEE (architectural term)      GARGANO, MONTE
+  GALILEE, SEA OF                   GARGOYLE
+  GALILEO GALILEI                   GARHWAL
+  GALION                            GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE
+  GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH                GARIN LE LOHERAIN
+  GALL                              GARLAND, JOHN
+  GALLABAT                          GARLIC
+  GALLAIT, LOUIS                    GARNET, HENRY
+  GALLAND, ANTOINE                  GARNET
+  GALLARATE                         GARNETT, RICHARD
+  GALLARS, NICOLAS DES              GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH
+  GALLAS, MATTHIAS                  GARNIER, GERMAIN
+  GALLAS                            GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES
+  GALLATIN, ALBERT                  GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS
+  GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS         GARNIER, ROBERT
+  GALLE                             GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS
+  GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE GARNISH
+  GALLERY                           GARO HILLS
+  GALLEY                            GARONNE
+  GALLIA CISALPINA                  GARRET
+  GALLIC ACID                       GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DE ALMEIDA
+  GALLICANISM                       GARRETTING
+  GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON            GARRICK, DAVID
+  GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS EGNATIUS       GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD
+  GALLIFFET, GASTON AUGUSTE         GARRISON
+  GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS            GARROTE
+  GALLIPOLI (Italy)                 GARRUCHA
+  GALLIPOLI (Turkey)                GARSTON
+  GALLIPOLIS                        GARTH, SIR SAMUEL
+  GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE    GARTOK
+  GALLIUM                           GARY
+  GALLON                            GAS
+  GALLOWAY, JOSEPH                  GASCOIGNE, GEORGE
+  GALLOWAY, THOMAS                  GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM
+  GALLOWAY                          GASCONY
+  GALLOWS                           GAS ENGINE
+  GALLS                             GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN
+
+
+
+
+G    The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an invention of
+the Romans, who had previously converted the third symbol of the
+alphabet into a representative of a _k_-sound (see C). Throughout the
+whole of Roman history C remained as the symbol for G in the
+abbreviations C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
+to Plutarch (_Roman Questions_, 54, 59) the symbol for G was invented by
+Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 B.C. This probably means that he was
+the first person to spell his cognomen RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to
+occupy the seventh place in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been
+taken by Z, because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the z-sounds of Latin
+passed into r, names like _Papisius_ and _Fusius_ in that period
+becoming Papirius and Furius (see Z), so that the letter z had become
+superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus Capella z was
+removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312
+B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into the alphabet is also sometimes
+ascribed.
+
+In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the lower lip
+of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line [symbol], but
+[symbol] and [symbol] are found also in republican times. In the
+earliest Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the form
+is [symbol] written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom lip
+of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a diacritical
+mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is represented by K. The
+use of the new form was not firmly established till after the middle of
+the 3rd century B.C.
+
+In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop (as in _gig_)
+in classical times. Later, before _e_, _g_ passed into a sound like the
+English _y_, so that words begin indifferently with _g_ or _j_; hence
+from the Lat. _generum_ (accusative) and _Ianuarium_ we have in Ital.
+_genero_ and _Gennajo_, Fr. _gendre_ and _janvier_. In the ancient
+Umbrian dialect _g_ had made this change between vowels before the
+Christian era, the inhabitant of _Iguvium_ (the modern Gubbio) being in
+the later form of his native speech _Iuvins_, Lat. _Iguvinus_. In most
+cases in Mid. Eng. also _g_ passed into a _y_ sound; hence the old
+prefix _ge_ of the past participle appears only as _y_ in _yclept_ and
+the like. But _ng_ and _gg_ took a different course, the _g_ becoming an
+affricate d_z_ (_dzh_), as in _singe_, _ridge_, _sedge_, which in
+English before 1500 were _senge_, _rigge_, _segge_, and in Scotch are
+still pronounced _sing_, _rig_, _seg_. The affricate in words like
+_gaol_ is of French origin (_geole_), from a Late Lat. _gabiola_, out of
+_caveola_, a diminutive of the Lat. _cavea_.
+
+The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay down rules
+for the pronunciation of English _g_; thus there are in the language
+five words _Gill_, three of which have the _g_ hard, while two have it
+soft: viz. (1) _gill_ of a fish, (2) _gill_, a ravine, both of which are
+Norse, and (3) _Gill_, the surname, which is mostly Gaelic = White; and
+(4) _gill_ a liquid measure, from O. Fr. _gelle_, Late Lat. _gella_ in
+the same sense, and (5) _Gill_, a girl's name, shortened from _Gillian_,
+_Juliana_ (see Skeat's _Etymological Dictionary_). No one of these words
+is of native origin; otherwise the initial _g_ would have changed to
+_y_, as in Eng. _yell_ from the O. Eng. _gellan_, _giellan_.
+     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+GABBRO, in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks, holocrystalline
+and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting essentially of a basic
+plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian minerals (such as
+augite, hornblende, hypersthene and olivine). The name was given
+originally in north Italy to certain coarsely crystalline dark green
+rocks, some of which are true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The
+gabbros are the plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the
+dolerites, basalts and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite)
+with which they agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute
+structure. Of their minerals felspar Is usually the most abundant, and
+is principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs in
+some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others. The
+felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being for the
+most part short and broad, with rather irregular or rounded outlines.
+Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these rocks it is often
+accompanied by pericline twinning by which the broad or narrow albite
+plates are cut transversely by many thin, bright and dark bars as seen
+in polarized light. Equally characteristic of the gabbros is the
+alteration of the felspars to cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussurite.
+These are compact, tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and
+usually a greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by
+the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote, with
+garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite, amphibole,
+serpentine, prehnite, sericite and other minerals. The augite is usually
+brown, but greenish, violet and colourless varieties may occur.
+Hypersthene, when present, is often strikingly pleochroic in colours
+varying from pink to bright green. It weathers readily to
+platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are soft and yield low polarization
+colours. The olivine is colourless in itself, but in most cases is
+altered to green or yellow serpentine, often with bands of dark
+magnetite granules along its cleavages and cracks. Hornblende when
+primary is often brown, and may surround augite or be perthitically
+intergrown with it; original green hornblende probably occurs also,
+though it is more frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by
+no means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many of
+them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown with felspar
+as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals may be mentioned
+apatite, magnetite, ilmenite, picotite and garnet.
+
+A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the minerals of
+these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the occurrence of small
+black or dark brown enclosures often regularly arranged parallel to
+certain crystallographic planes. Reflection of light from the surfaces
+of these minute enclosures produces a shimmering or _Schiller_. In
+augite or hypersthene the effect is that the surface of the mineral has
+a bronzy sub-metallic appearance, and polished plates seen at a definite
+angle yield a bright coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of
+the felspars may exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in
+the Labrador spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious
+stone. In olivine the black enclosures are not thin laminae, but
+branching growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon is known as
+"schillerization"; its origin has been much discussed, some holding that
+it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures as original.
+
+In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement of the
+minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which the others
+grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with olivine, may be
+enclosed in augite, hornblende, and hypersthene, sometimes with a later
+growth of biotite, while the felspars occupy the interspaces between the
+clusters of ferromagnesian minerals. In some cases there are borders
+around olivine consisting of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic
+pyroxene (kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may
+occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where olivine
+is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical resorption at a
+late stage in the solidification of the rock. In some gabbros and
+norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende are found around both
+hypersthene and diallage where these are in contact with felspar.
+Typical orbicular structure such as characterizes some granites and
+diorites is rare in the gabbros, though it has been observed in a few
+instances in Norway, California, &c.
+
+  In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase
+  felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is
+  enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases.
+  When these rocks become fine-grained they pass gradually into ophitic
+  diabase and dolerite; only very rarely does olivine enclose felspar
+  in this way. A fluxion structure or flow banding also can be observed
+  in some of the rocks of this series, and is characterized by the
+  occurrence of parallel sinuous bands of dark colour, rich in
+  ferromagnesian minerals, and of lighter shades in which felspars
+  predominate.
+
+  These basic holocrystalline rocks form a large and numerous class
+  which can be subdivided into many groups according to their mineral
+  composition; if we take it that typical gabbro consists of plagioclase
+  and augites or diallage, norite of plagioclase and hypersthene, and
+  troctolite of plagioclase and olivine, we must add to these
+  olivine-gabbro and olivine-norite in which that mineral occurs in
+  addition to those enumerated above. Hornblende-gabbros are distinctly
+  rare, except when the hornblende has been developed from pyroxene by
+  pressure and shearing, but many rocks may be described as hornblende-
+  or biotite-bearing gabbro and norite, when they contain these
+  ingredients in addition to the normal minerals plagioclase, augite and
+  hypersthene. We may recognize also quartz-gabbro and quartz-norite
+  (containing primary quartz or micropegmatite) and orthoclase-gabbro
+  (with a little orthoclase). The name eucrite has been given to gabbros
+  in which the felspar is mainly anorthite; many of them also contain
+  hypersthene or enstatite and olivine, while allivalites are
+  anorthite-olivine rocks in which the two minerals occur in nearly
+  equal proportions; harrisites have preponderating olivine, anorthite
+  felspar and a little pyroxene. In areas of gabbro there are often
+  masses consisting nearly entirely of a single mineral, for example,
+  felspar rocks (anorthosites), augite or hornblende rocks (pyroxenites
+  and hornblendites) and olivine rocks (dunites or peridotites).
+  Segregations of iron ores, such as ilmenite, usually with pyroxene or
+  olivine, occur in association with some gabbro and anorthosite masses.
+
+  Some gabbros are exceedingly coarse-grained and consist of individual
+  crystals several inches in length; such a type often form dikes or
+  veins in serpentine or gabbro, and may be called gabbro-pegmatite.
+  Very fine-grained gabbros, on the other hand, have been distinguished
+  as beerbachites. Still more common is the occurrence of sheared,
+  foliated or schistose forms of gabbro. In these the minerals have a
+  parallel arrangement, the felspars are often broken down by pressure
+  into a mosaic of irregular grains, while greenish fibrous or bladed
+  amphibole takes the place of pyroxene and olivine. The diallage may be
+  present as rounded or oval crystals around which the crushed felspar
+  has flowed (augen-gabbro); or the whole rock may have a well-foliated
+  structure (hornblende-schists and amphibolites). Very often a mass of
+  normal gabbro with typical igneous character passes at its margins or
+  along localized zones into foliated rocks of this kind, and every
+  transition can be found between the different types. Some authors
+  believe that the development of saussurite from felspar is also
+  dependent on pressure rather than on weathering, and an analogous
+  change may affect the olivine, replacing it by talc, chlorite,
+  actinolite and garnet. Rocks showing changes of the latter type have
+  been described from Switzerland under the name allalinites.
+
+  Rocks of the gabbro group, though perhaps not so common nor occurring
+  in so great masses as granites, are exceedingly widespread. In Great
+  Britain, for example, there are areas of gabbro in Shetland,
+  Aberdeenshire, and other parts of the Highlands, Ayrshire, the Lizard
+  (Cornwall), Carrock Fell (Cumberland) and St David's (Wales). Most of
+  these occur along with troctolites, norites, serpentine and
+  peridotite. In Skye an interesting group of fresh olivine-gabbros is
+  found in the Cuillin Hills; here also peridotites occur and there are
+  sills and dikes of olivine-dolerite, while a great series of basaltic
+  lavas and ash beds marks the site of volcanic outbursts in early
+  Tertiary time. In this case it is clearly seen that the gabbros are
+  the deep-seated and slowly crystallized representatives of the basalts
+  which were poured out at the surfaces, and the dolerites which
+  consolidated in fissures. The older gabbros of Britain, such as those
+  of the Lizard, Aberdeenshire and Ayrshire, are often more or less
+  foliated and show a tendency to pass into hornblende-schists and
+  amphibolites. In Germany gabbros are well known in the Harz Mountains,
+  Saxony, the Odenwald and the Black Forest. Many outcrops of similar
+  rocks have been traced in the northern zones of the Alps, often with
+  serpentine and hornblende-schist. They occupy considerable tracts of
+  country in Norway and Sweden, as for instance in the vicinity of
+  Bergen. The Pyrenees, Ligurian Alps, Dauphine and Tuscany are other
+  European localities for gabbro. In Canada great portions of the
+  eastern portion of the Dominion are formed of gabbros, norite,
+  anorthosite and allied rock types. In the United States gabbros and
+  norites occur near Baltimore and near Peekskill on the Hudson river.
+  As a rule each of these occurrences contains a diversity of
+  petrographical types, which appear also in certain of the others; but
+  there is often a well-marked individuality about the rocks of the
+  various districts in which gabbros are found.
+
+  From an economic standpoint gabbros are not of great importance. They
+  are used locally for building and for road-metal, but are too dark in
+  colour, too tough and difficult to dress, to be popular as building
+  stones, and, though occasionally polished, are not to be compared for
+  beauty with the serpentines and the granites. Segregations of iron
+  ores are found in connexion with many of them (Norway and Sweden) and
+  are sometimes mined as sources of the metal.
+
+  Chemically the gabbros are typical rocks of the basic subdivision and
+  show the characters of that group in the clearest way. They have low
+  silica, much iron and magnesia, and the abundance of lime
+  distinguishes them in a marked fashion from both the granites and the
+  peridotites. A few analyses of well-known gabbros are cited here.
+
+    +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |     | SiO2  | TiO2 | Ab2O3 | FeO  | Fe2O3| MgO  | CaO  | Na2O | K2O  | H2O  |
+    +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+    |  I. | 49.63 | 1.75 | 16.18 |12.03 | 1.92 | 5.38 | 9.33 | 1.89 | 0.81 | 0.55 |
+    | II. | 49.90 |  ..  | 16.04 |  ..  | 7.81 |10.08 |14.48 | 1.69 | 0.55 | 1.46 |
+    |III. | 45.73 |  ..  | 22.10 | 3.51 | 0.71 |11.16 | 9.26 | 2.54 | 0.34 | 4.38 |
+    | IV. | 46.24 |  ..  | 29.85 | 2.12 | 1.30 | 2.41 |16.24 | 1.98 | 0.18 |  ..  |
+    +-----+-------+------+-------+------+------+------+------+------+------+------+
+
+  I. Gabbro, Radanthal, Harzburg; II. Gabbro, Penig, Saxony; III.
+  Troctolite, Coverack, Cornwall; IV. Anorthosite, mouth of the Seine
+  river, Bad Vermilion lake, Ontario, Canada.     (J. S. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GABEL, KRISTOFFER (1617-1673), Danish statesman, was born at Gluckstadt,
+on the 6th of January 1617. His father, Wulbern, originally a landscape
+painter and subsequently recorder of Gluckstadt, was killed at the siege
+of that fortress by the Imperialists in 1628. Kristoffer is first heard
+of in 1639, as overseer and accountant at the court of Duke Frederick.
+When the duke ascended the Danish throne as Frederick III., Gabel
+followed him to Copenhagen as his private secretary and man of business.
+Gabel, who veiled under a mysterious reticence considerable financial
+ability and uncommon shrewdness, had great influence over the irresolute
+king. During the brief interval between King Charles X.'s first and
+second attack upon Denmark, Gabel was employed in several secret
+missions to Sweden; and he took a part in the intrigues which resulted
+in the autocratic revolution of 1660 (see DENMARK: _History_). His
+services on this occasion have certainly been exaggerated; but if not
+the originator of the revolution, he was certainly the chief
+intermediary between Frederick III. and the conjoined Estates in the
+mysterious conspiracy which established absolutism in Denmark. His
+activity on this occasion won the king's lifelong gratitude. He was
+enriched, ennobled, and in 1664 made governor of Copenhagen. From this
+year must be dated his open and official influence and power, and from
+1660 to 1670 he was the most considerable personage at court, and very
+largely employed in financial and diplomatic affairs. When Frederick
+III. died, in February 1670, Gabel's power was at an end. The new ruler,
+Christian V., hated him, and accusations against him poured in from
+every quarter. When, on the 18th of April 1670, he was dismissed, nobody
+sympathized with the man who had grown wealthy at a time when other
+people found it hard to live. He died on the 13th of October 1673.
+
+  See Carl Frederik Bricka, _Dansk. Biograf. Lex._ art "Gabel"
+  (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); _Danmarks Riges Historie_ (Copenhagen,
+  1897-1905), vol. v.
+
+
+
+
+GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER (1807-1874), German linguist and
+ethnologist, born at Altenburg on the 13th of October 1807, was the only
+son of Hans Karl Leopold von der Gabelentz, chancellor and
+privy-councillor of the duchy of Altenburg. From 1821 to 1825 he
+attended the gymnasium of his native town, where he had Matthiae (the
+eminent Greek scholar) for teacher, and Hermann Brockhaus and Julius
+Lobe for schoolfellows. Here, in addition to ordinary school-work, he
+carried on the private study of Arabic and Chinese; and the latter
+language continued especially to engage his attention during his
+undergraduate course, from 1825 to 1828, at the universities of Leipzig
+and Gottingen. In 1830 he entered the public service of the duchy of
+Altenburg, where he attained to the rank of privy-councillor in 1843.
+Four years later he was chosen to fill the post of _Landmarschall_ in
+the grand-duchy of Weimar, and in 1848 he attended the Frankfort
+parliament, and represented the Saxon duchies on the commission for
+drafting an imperial constitution for Germany. In November of the same
+year he became president of the Altenburg ministry, but he resigned
+office in the following August. From 1851 to 1868 he was president of
+the second chamber of the duchy of Altenburg; but in the latter year he
+withdrew entirely from public life, that he might give undivided
+attention to his learned researches. He died on his estate of Lemnitz,
+in Saxe-Weimar, on the 3rd of September 1874.
+
+In the course of his life he is said to have learned no fewer than
+eighty languages, thirty of which he spoke with fluency and elegance.
+But he was less remarkable for his power of acquisition than for the
+higher talent which enabled him to turn his knowledge to the genuine
+advancement of linguistic science. Immediately after quitting the
+university, he followed up his Chinese researches by a study of the
+Finno-Ugrian languages, which resulted in the publication of his
+_Elements de la grammaire mandchoue_ in 1832. In 1837 he became one of
+the promoters, and a joint-editor, of the _Zeitschrift fur die Kunde des
+Morgenlandes_, and through this medium he gave to the world his _Versuch
+einer mordwinischen Grammatik_ and other valuable contributions. His
+_Grundzuge der syrjanischen Grammatik_ appeared in 1841. In conjunction
+with his old school friend, Julius Lobe, he brought out a complete
+edition, with translation, glossary and grammar, of Ulfilas's Gothic
+version of the Bible (1843-1846); and from 1847 he began to contribute
+to the _Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenlandischen Gesellschaft_ the
+fruits of his researches into the languages of the Swahilis, the
+Samoyedes, the Hazaras, the Aimaks, the Formosans and other
+widely-separated tribes. The _Beitrage zur Sprachenkunde_ (1852) contain
+Dyak, Dakota, and Kiriri grammars; to these were added in 1857 a
+_Grammatik u. Worterbuch der Kassiasprache_, and in 1860 a treatise in
+universal grammar (_Uber das Passivum_). In 1864 he edited the Manchu
+translations of the Chinese Sse-shu, Shu-king and Shi-king, along with a
+dictionary; and in 1873 he completed the work which constitutes his most
+important contribution to philology, _Die melanesischen Sprachen nach
+ihrem grammatischen Bau und ihrer Verwandschaft unter sich und mit den
+malaiisch-polynesischen Sprachen untersucht_ (1860-1873). It treats of
+the language of the Fiji Islands, New Hebrides, Loyalty Islands, New
+Caledonia, &c., and shows their radical affinity with the Polynesian
+class. He also contributed most of the linguistic articles in Pierer's
+_Conversations-Lexicon_.
+
+
+
+
+GABELLE (French, from the Med. Lat. _gabulum_, _gablum_, a tax, for the
+origin of which see GAVELKIND), a term which, in France, was originally
+applied to taxes on all commodities, but was gradually limited to the
+tax on salt. In process of time it became one of the most hated and most
+grossly unequal taxes in the country, but, though condemned by all
+supporters of reform, it was not abolished until 1790. First imposed in
+1286, in the reign of Philip IV., as a temporary expedient, it was made
+a permanent tax by Charles V. Repressive as a state monopoly, it was
+made doubly so from the fact that the government obliged every
+individual above the age of eight years to purchase weekly a minimum
+amount of salt at a fixed price. When first instituted, it was levied
+uniformly on all the provinces in France, but for the greater part of
+its history the price varied in different provinces. There were five
+distinct groups of provinces, classified as follows: (a) the _Pays de
+grandes gabelles_, in which the tax was heaviest; (b) the _Pays de
+petites gabelles_, which paid a tax of about half the rate of the
+former; (c) the _Pays de salines_, in which the tax was levied on the
+salt extracted from the salt marshes; (d) the _Pays redimes_, which had
+purchased redemption in 1549; and (e) the _Pays exempts_, which had
+stipulated for exemption on entering into union with the kingdom of
+France. _Greniers a sel_ (dating from 1342) were established in each
+province, and to these all salt had to be taken by the producer on
+penalty of confiscation. The _grenier_ fixed the price which it paid for
+the salt and then sold it to retail dealers at a higher rate.
+
+  See J.J. Clamageran, _Histoire de l'impot en France_ (1876); A.
+  Gasquet, _Precis des institutions politiques de l'ancienne France_
+  (1885); Necker, _Compte rendu_ (1781).
+
+
+
+
+GABERDINE, or GABARDINE, any long, loose over-garment, reaching to the
+feet and girt round the waist. It was, when made of coarse material,
+commonly worn in the middle ages by pilgrims, beggars and almsmen. The
+Jews, conservatively attached to the loose and flowing garments of the
+East, continued to wear the long upper garment to which the name
+"gaberdine" could be applied, long after it had ceased to be a common
+form as worn by non-Jews, and to this day in some parts of Europe, e.g.
+in Poland, it is still worn, while the tendency to wear the frock-coat
+very long and loose is a marked characteristic of the race. The fact
+that in the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to engage in handicrafts
+also, no doubt, tended to stereotype a form of dress unfitted for manual
+labour. The idea of the "gaberdine" being enforced by law upon the Jews
+as a distinctive garment is probably due to Shakespeare's use in the
+_Merchant of Venice_, I. iii. 113. The mark that the Jews were obliged
+to wear generally on the outer garment was the badge. This was first
+enforced by the fourth Lateran Council of 1215. The "badge" (Lat.
+_rota_; Fr. _rouelle_, wheel) took generally the shape of a circle of
+cloth worn on the breast. It varied in colour at different times. In
+France it was of yellow, later of red and white; in England it took the
+form of two bands or stripes, first of white, then of yellow. In Edward
+I.'s reign it was made in the shape of the Tables of the Law (see the
+_Jewish Encyclopedia_, s.v. "Costume" and "Badge"). The derivation of
+the word is obscure. It apparently occurs first in O. Fr. in the forms
+_gauverdine_, _galvardine_, and thence into Ital. as _gavardina_, and
+Span. _gabardina_, a form which has influenced the English word. The
+_New English Dictionary_ suggests a connexion with the O.H. Ger.
+_wallevart_, pilgrimage. Skeat (_Etym. Dict._, 1898) refers it to Span.
+_gaban_, coat, cloak; _cabana_, hut, cabin.
+
+
+
+
+GABES, a town of Tunisia, at the head of the gulf of the same name, and
+70 m. by sea S.W. of Sfax. It occupies the site of the Tacape of the
+Romans and consists of an open port and European quarter and several
+small Arab towns built in an oasis of date palms. This oasis is
+copiously watered by a stream called the Wad Gabes. The European quarter
+is situated on the right bank of the Wad near its mouth, and adjacent
+are the Arab towns of Jara and Menzel. The houses of the native towns
+are built largely of dressed stones and broken columns from the ruins of
+Tacape. Gabes is the military headquarters for southern Tunisia. The
+population of the oasis is about 20,000, including some 1500 Europeans.
+There is a considerable export trade in dates.
+
+Gabes lies at the head of the shat country of Tunisia and is intimately
+connected with the scheme of Commandant Roudaire to create a Saharan sea
+by making a channel from the Mediterranean to these shats (large salt
+lakes below the level of the sea). Roudaire proposed to cut a canal
+through the belt of high ground between Gabes and the shats, and fixed
+on Wad Melah, a spot 10 m. N. of Gabes, for the sea end of the channel
+(see SAHARA). The company formed to execute his project became simply an
+agricultural concern and by the sinking of artesian wells created an
+oasis of olive and palm trees.
+
+The Gulf of Gabes, the _Syrtis Minor_ of the ancients, is a
+semi-circular shallow indentation of the Mediterranean, about 50 m.
+across from the Kerkenna Islands, opposite Sfax on its northern shore,
+to Jerba Island, which lies at its southern end. The waters of the gulf
+abound in fish and sponge.
+
+
+
+
+GABII, an ancient city of Latium, between 12 and 13 m. E. of Rome, on
+the Via Praenestina, which was in early times known as the Via Gabina.
+The part played by it in the story of the expulsion of the Tarquins is
+well known; but its importance in the earliest history of Rome rests
+upon other evidence--the continuance of certain ancient usages which
+imply a period of hostility between the two cities, such as the adoption
+of the _cinctus Gabinus_ by the consul when war was to be declared. We
+hear of a treaty of alliance with Rome in the time of Tarquinius
+Superbus, the original text of which, written on a bullock's skin, was
+said by Dionysius of Halicarnassus to be still extant in his day. Its
+subsequent history is obscure, and we only hear of it again in the 1st
+century B.C. as a small and insignificant place, though its desolation
+is no doubt exaggerated by the poets. From inscriptions we learn that
+from the time of Augustus or Tiberius onwards it enjoyed a municipal
+organization. Its baths were well known, and Hadrian, who was
+responsible for much of the renewed prosperity of the small towns of
+Latium, appears to have been a very liberal patron, building a
+senate-house (_Curia Aelia Augusta_) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd
+century Gabii practically disappears from history, though its bishops
+continue to be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of
+the 9th. The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the
+citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of
+Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south. The
+most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple, generally
+attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front and six on each
+side. The plan is interesting, but the style of architecture was
+apparently mixed. To the east of the temple lay the Forum, where
+excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton in 1792. All the objects found
+were placed in the Villa Borghese, but many of them were carried off to
+Paris by Napoleon, and still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts
+are especially numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus,
+Diana, Nemesis, &c., they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus,
+Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and Sabina, M.
+Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius and others. The
+inscriptions relate mainly to local and municipal matters.
+
+  See E.Q. Visconti, _Monumenti Gabini della Villa Pinciana_ (Rome,
+  1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in _Papers of the British School at
+  Rome_, i. 180 seq.; G. Pinza in _Bull. Com._ (1903), 321 seq.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GABINIUS, AULUS, Roman statesman and general, and supporter of Pompey, a
+prominent figure in the later days of the Roman republic. In 67 B.C.,
+when tribune of the people, he brought forward the famous law (_Lex
+Gabinia_) conferring upon Pompey the command in the war against the
+Mediterranean pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute
+control over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other
+measures of Gabinius loans of money to foreign ambassadors in Rome were
+made non-actionable (as a check on the corruption of the senate) and the
+senate was ordered to give audience to foreign envoys on certain fixed
+days (1st of Feb.-1st of March). In 61 Gabinius, then praetor,
+endeavoured to win the public favour by providing games on a scale of
+unusual splendour, and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not
+without suspicion of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius
+Clodius in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went as
+proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus in the
+high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, introduced important
+changes in the government of Judaea, and rebuilt several towns. During
+his absence in Egypt, whither he had been sent by Pompey, without the
+consent of the senate, to restore Ptolemy Auletes to his kingdom, Syria
+had been devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had
+again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the
+high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order, and in 54
+handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius Crassus. The
+knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered heavy losses during
+the disturbances in Syria, were greatly embittered against Gabinius,
+and, when he appeared in the senate to give an account of his
+governorship, he was brought to trial on three counts, all involving a
+capital offence. On the charge of _majestas_ (high treason) incurred by
+having left his province for Egypt without the consent of the senate and
+in defiance of the Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that
+the judges were bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked
+Gabinius with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as
+little as he could in his evidence to damage his former enemy. On the
+second charge, that of _repetundae_ (extortion during the administration
+of his province), with especial reference to the 10,000 talents paid by
+Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found guilty, in spite of evidence
+offered on his behalf by Pompey and witnesses from Alexandria and the
+eloquence of Cicero, who had been induced to plead his cause. Nothing
+but Cicero's wish to do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to
+take up what must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted
+that the half-heartedness of the defence materially contributed to
+Gabinius's condemnation. The third charge, that of _ambitus_
+(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship), was
+consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his property was
+confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war, he was recalled by
+Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took no active part against
+his old patron Pompey. After the battle of Pharsalus, he was
+commissioned to transport some recently levied troops to Illyricum. On
+his way thither by land, he was attacked by the Dalmatians and with
+difficulty made his way to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended
+himself against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus Octavius,
+but in a few months died of illness (48 or the beginning of 47).
+
+  See Dio Cassius xxxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, xxxix. 55-63; Plutarch,
+  _Pompey_, 25. 48; Josephus, _Antiq._ xiv. 4-6; Appian, _Illyrica_, 12,
+  _Bell. Civ._ ii. 24. 59; Cicero, _ad Att._ vi. 2, _ad Q. Fratrem_, ii.
+  13, _Post reditum in senatu_, 4-8, _Pro lege Manilia_, 17, 18, 19;
+  exhaustive article by Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopadie_; and monograph by G. Stocchi, _Aulo Gabinio e i suoi
+  processi_ (1892).
+
+
+
+
+GABION (a French word derived through Ital. _gabbione_, _gabbia_, from
+Lat. _cavea_, a cage), a cylindrical basket without top or bottom, used
+in revetting fortifications and for numerous other purposes of military
+engineering. The gabion is filled with earth when in position. The
+ordinary brushwood gabion in the British service has a diameter of 2 ft.
+and a height of 2 ft. 9 in. There are several forms of gabion in use,
+the best known being the Willesden paper band gabion and the Jones iron
+or steel band gabion.
+
+
+
+
+GABLE, in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the level of
+the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is a southern
+English form of the Scottish _gavel_, or of an O. Fr. word _gable_ or
+_jable_, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian _gafl_. In other
+Teutonic languages, similar words, such as Ger. _Gabel_ and Dutch
+_gaffel_, mean "fork," cf. Lat. _gabalus_, gallows, which is Teutonic in
+origin; "gable" is represented by such forms as Ger. _Giebel_ and Dutch
+_gevel_. According to the _New English Dictionary_ the primary meaning
+of all these words is probably "top" or "head," cf. Gr. [Greek:
+kephale], and refers to the forking timbers at the end of a roof. The
+gable corresponds to the pediment in classic buildings where the roof
+was of low pitch. If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall
+so that the purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden
+by a "barge board," but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of
+the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle ages the
+gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was crowned by coping
+stones properly weathered on both sides to throw off the rain. In the
+16th century in England variety was given to the outline of the gable by
+a series of alternating semi-circular and ogee curves. In Holland,
+Belgium and Scotland a succession of steps was employed, which in the
+latter country are known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and
+the Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables assume
+very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character, and they are
+sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or three storeys. Designs
+of a similar rococo character are found in England, but only in
+crestings such as those which surmount the towers of Wollaton and the
+gatehouse of Hardwick Hall.
+
+_Gabled Towers_, in architecture, are those towers which are finished
+with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex. Many of the
+German Romanesque towers are gabled.
+
+
+
+
+GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1786-1853), German Hegelian philosopher, son of
+J.P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th of July 1786, at Altdorf in
+Bavaria. In 1804 he accompanied his father to Jena, where he completed
+his studies in philosophy and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple
+of Hegel. After holding various educational appointments, he was in 1821
+appointed rector of the Bayreuth gymnasium, and in 1830 general
+superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel in the Berlin
+chair. He died at Teplitz on the 13th of September 1853. His works
+include _Lehrbuch d. philos. Propadeutik_ (1st vol., Erlangen, 1827), a
+popular exposition of the Hegelian system; _De verae philosophiae erga
+religionem Christianam pietate_ (Berlin, 1836), and _Die Hegel'sche
+Philosophie_ (ib., 1843), a defence of the Hegelian philosophy against
+Trendelenburg.
+
+
+
+
+GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP (1753-1826), German Protestant theologian of the
+school of J.J. Griesbach and J.G. Eichhorn, was born at
+Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. In 1772 he entered the
+university of Jena as a theological student. In 1776 he was on the point
+of abandoning theological pursuits, when the arrival of Griesbach
+inspired him with new ardour. After having been successively _Repetent_
+in Gottingen and teacher in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia)
+and Altdorf (Bavaria), he was, in 1785, appointed second professor of
+theology in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a
+chair in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he
+died on the 17th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published
+(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of Eichhorn's
+_Urgeschichte_; this was followed, two years afterwards, by a supplement
+entitled _Neuer Versuch uber die mosaische Schopfungsgeschichte_. He was
+also the author of many essays which were characterized by much critical
+acumen, and which had considerable influence on the course of German
+thought on theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was
+editor of the _Neuestes theologisches Journal_, first conjointly with
+H.K.A. Hanlein (1762-1829), C.F. von Ammon (1766-1850) and H.E.G.
+Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to 1804 of the _Journal fur
+theologische Litteratur_; and from 1805 to 1811 of the _Journal fur
+auserlesene theologische Litteratur_.
+
+  Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831); and a
+  memoir appeared in 1827 by W. Schroter.
+
+
+
+
+GABLETS (diminutive of "gable"), in architecture, triangular
+terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English and
+Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally terminated in
+pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally plain, and very sharp
+in pitch. In the Decorated period they are often enriched with panelling
+and crockets. They are sometimes finished with small crosses, but of
+oftener with finials.
+
+
+
+
+GABLONZ (Czech, _Jablonec_), a town of Bohemia, Austria, 94 m. N.E. of
+Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly German. It is the chief seat
+of the glass pearl and imitation jewelry manufacture, and has also an
+important textile industry, and produces large quantities of hardware,
+papier mache and other paper goods.
+
+
+
+
+GABORIAU, EMILE (1833-1873), French novelist, was born at Saujon
+(Charente Inferieure) on the 9th of November 1833. He became secretary
+to Paul Feval, and, after publishing some novels and miscellaneous
+writings, found his real gift in _L'Affaire Lerouge_ (1866), a detective
+novel which was published in the _Pays_ and at once made his reputation.
+The story was produced on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels
+dealing with the annals of the police court followed, and proved very
+popular. Among them are: _Le Crime d'Orcival_ (1867), _Monsieur Lecoq_
+(1869), _La Vie infernale_ (1870), _Les Esclaves de Paris_ (1869),
+_L'Argent des autres_ (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th of
+September 1873.
+
+
+
+
+GABRIEL (Heb. [Hebrew: Gavriel], man of God), in the Bible, the heavenly
+messenger (see Angel) sent to Daniel to explain the vision of the ram
+and the he-goat, and to communicate the prediction of the Seventy Weeks
+(Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also employed to announce the birth of
+John the Baptist to Zacharias, and that of the Messiah to the Virgin
+Mary (Luke i. 19, 26). Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke
+i. 19; Rev. viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian
+writers generally speak of him as an archangel. In the _Book of Enoch_
+"the four great archangels" are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael, and
+Gabriel, who is set over "all the powers" and shares the work of
+intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish literature of the
+later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to the Targum
+Pseudo-Jonathan, he was the man who showed the way to Joseph (Gen.
+xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is affirmed that he, along with
+Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah and the Metatron, buried the body of
+Moses. In the Targum on 2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who
+destroyed the host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still
+later period he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire,
+thunder, the ripening of the fruits of the earth and similar processes.
+In the Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium of
+divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan interpreters, he it
+is who is referred to by the appellations "Holy Spirit" and "Spirit of
+Truth." He is specially commemorated in the calendars of the Greek,
+Coptic and Armenian churches.
+
+
+
+
+GABRIEL HOUNDS, a spectral pack supposed in the North of England to
+foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend is that they are
+the souls of unbaptized children wandering through the air till the day
+of judgment. They are also sometimes called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A
+very prosaic explanation of this nocturnal noise is given by J.C.
+Atkinson in his _Cleveland Glossary_ (1868). "This," he writes, "is the
+name for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling the cry
+of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large flocks of wild geese
+which chance to be flying by night."
+
+  See further Joseph Lucas, _Studies in Nidderdale_ (1882), pp. 156-157.
+
+
+
+
+GABRIELI, GIOVANNI (1557-1612?), Italian musical composer, was born at
+Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle Andrea, a distinguished
+musician of the contrapuntal school and organist of St Mark's. He
+succeeded Claudio Merulo as first organist of the same church in 1585,
+and died at Venice either in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable for his
+compositions for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or 16 voices,
+and is important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony. It was
+probably for this reason that he made a special point of combining
+voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders of choral and
+orchestral composition. Among his pupils was Heinrich Schutz; and the
+church of St Mark, from the time of the Gabrielis onwards down to that
+of Lotti, became one of the most important musical schools in Europe.
+
+  See also Winterfeld, _Johann Gabrieli und seine Zeit_ (1834).
+
+
+
+
+GABUN, a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the colonies
+forming French Congo (q.v.). It derives its designation from the
+settlements on the Gabun river or Rio de Gabao. The Gabun, in reality an
+estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of the equator. At the
+entrance, between Cape Joinville or Santa Clara on the N. and Cape
+Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it has a width of about 10 m. It
+maintains a breadth of some 7 m. for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it
+contracts into what is known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2
+or 3 m. from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is the
+chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun was discovered
+by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the 15th century, and was
+named from its fanciful resemblance to a _gabao_ or cabin. On the small
+island of Konike, which lies about the centre of the estuary, scanty
+remains of a Portuguese fort have been discovered. The three principal
+tribes in the Gabun are the Mpongwe, the Fang and the Bakalai.
+
+
+
+
+GACE BRULE (d. c. 1220), French _trouvere_, was a native of Champagne.
+It has generally been asserted that he taught Thibaut of Champagne the
+art of verse, an assumption which is based on a statement in the
+_Chroniques de Saint-Denis_: "Si fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gace Brule
+les plus belles chancons et les plus delitables et melodieuses qui onque
+fussent oies." This has been taken as evidence of collaboration between
+the two poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those
+of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known. Paulin Paris,
+in the _Histoire litteraire de la France_ (vol. xxiii.), quotes a number
+of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace's songs. Gace is the author
+of the earliest known _jeu parti_. The interlocutors are Gace and a
+count of Brittany who is identified with Geoffrey of Brittany, son of
+Henry II. of England. Gace appears to have been banished from Champagne
+and to have found refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a
+contract between Gatho Brusle (Gace Brule) and the Templars for a piece
+of land in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died before 1220, at
+the latest in 1225.
+
+  See Gedeon Busken Huet, _Chansons de Gace Brule_, edited for the
+  Societe des anciens textes francais (1902), with an exhaustive
+  introduction. Dante quotes a song by Gace, _Ire d'amor qui en mon cuer
+  repaire_, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre (_De
+  vulgari eloquentia_, p. 151, ed. P. Rajna, Florence, 1895).
+
+
+
+
+GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1885), Belgian man of letters, was born in
+Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered the administration of the
+royal archives in 1826, and was appointed director-general, a post which
+he held for fifty-five years. During this long period he reorganized the
+service, added to the records by copies taken in other European
+collections, travelled for purposes of study, and carried on a wide
+correspondence with other keepers of records, and with historical
+scholars. He also edited and published many valuable collections of
+state papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the
+_Annuaire de l'academie royale de Belgique_ by Ch. Piot in 1888, pp.
+220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of several
+historical writings, of which the best known are _Don Carlos et Philippe
+II_ (1867), _Etudes et notices historiques concernant l'histoire des
+Pays-Bas_ (1863), _Histoire de la Belgique au commencement du XVIII^e
+siecle_ (1880), _Histoire politique et diplomatique de P.P. Rubens_
+(1877), all published at Brussels. His chief editorial works are the
+_Actes des etats generaux des Pays-Bas 1576-1585_ (Brussels, 1861-1866),
+_Collection de documents inedits concernant l'histoire de la Belgique_
+(Brussels, 1833-1835), and the _Relations des ambassadeurs Venitiens sur
+Charles V et Philippe II_ (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels on
+the 24th of December 1885.
+
+
+
+
+GAD, in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a "seer" (cp. 1 Sam. ix. 9),
+who was a companion of David from his early days. He is first mentioned
+in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David to take refuge in Judah, and
+appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. 11 seq. to make known Yahweh's displeasure
+at the numbering of the people. Together with Nathan he is represented
+in post-exilic tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of
+the temple (2 Chron. xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel he is said to
+have written an account of David's deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a history
+of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the lines of later
+prophetic ideas is far from improbable.
+
+2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; a tribe of Israel (Gen. xxx.
+11). The name is that of the god of "luck" or fortune, mentioned in Isa.
+lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several names of places, e.g. Baal-Gad (Josh.
+xi. 17, xii. 7), and possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and
+Nahal-Gad.[1] There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the
+name is played on: "Gad, a plundering troop (_gedud_) shall plunder him
+(_yegudennu_), but he shall plunder at their heels." There are no
+traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest
+references to the name is the statement on the inscription of Mesha,
+king of Moab (about 850 B.C.), that the "men of Gad" had occupied
+Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the king of Israel had
+fortified the city. This is in the district ascribed to Reuben, with
+which tribe the fortunes of Gad were very closely connected. In Numbers
+xxxii. 34 sqq., the cities of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of
+Heshbon; in Joshua xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north;
+while other texts present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled
+with either passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and
+Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That Gad, at one
+time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah and Nebo would
+follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of the Targums be
+accepted, "and he looked out the first part for himself, because there
+was the portion of the buried law-giver." It is certain, however, that,
+at a late period, this tribe was localized chiefly in Gilead, in the
+district which now goes by the name of Jebel Jil'ad. The traditions
+encircling this district point, it would seem, to the tribe having been
+of Aramaean origin (see the story of Jacob); at all events its position
+was extremely exposed, and its population at the best must have been a
+mixed one. Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding
+nomads of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jacob gives
+the tribe a character for bravery, and David's men of Gad (1 Chron. xii.
+8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by name (the
+geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad enters into the
+lives of Jephthah and Saul, and in the wars of Ammon and Moab it must
+have played some part. It followed Jeroboam in the great revolt against
+the house of David, and its later fortunes until 734 B.C. (1 Chron. v.
+26) would be those of the northern kingdom.
+
+  See, for a critical discussion of the data, H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._
+  cols. 1579 sqq.; also GILEAD; MANASSEH; REUBEN.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See G.B. Gray, _Heb. Proper Names_, pp. 134 seq., 145.
+
+
+
+
+GADAG, or GARAG, a town of British India, in the Dharwar district of
+Bombay, 43 m. E. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1901) 30,652. It is an important
+railway junction on the Southern Mahratta system, with a growing trade
+in raw cotton, and also in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are
+factories for ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town
+contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit fine
+carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence of Gadag as
+early as the 10th century.
+
+
+
+
+GADARA, an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital of Peraea,
+and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris. It was a
+Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin. The earliest
+recorded event in its history is its capture by Antiochus III. of Syria
+in 218 B.C.; how long it may have existed before this date is unknown.
+About twenty years later it was besieged for ten months by Alexander
+Jannaeus. It was restored by Pompey, and in 30 B.C. was presented by
+Augustus to Herod the Great; on Herod's death it was reunited to Syria.
+The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions as have
+been found on its site are Greek. Its governing and wealthy classes were
+probably Greek, the common people being Hellenized and Judaized
+Aramaeans. The community was Hellenistically organized, and though
+dependent on Syria and acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was
+governed by a democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In
+the Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine period
+it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was renowned for
+its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and show the remains of
+bath-houses. The temperature of the springs is 110 deg. F. This town was
+the birthplace of Meleager the anthologist. There is a confusion in the
+narrative of the healing of the demoniac between the very similar names
+_Gadara_, _Gerasa_ and _Gergesa_; but the probabilities, both textual
+and geographical, are in favour of the reading of Mark (_Gerasenes_, ch.
+v. 1, revised version); and that the miracle has nothing to do with
+Gadara, but took place at _Kersa_, on the eastern shore of the Sea of
+Galilee.
+
+Gadara is now represented by _Umm Kais_, a group of ruins about 6 m.
+S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the sea-level. There are
+very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in the neighbourhood. There are
+the remains of two theatres and (probably) a temple, and many heaps of
+carved stones, representing ancient buildings of various kinds. The
+walls are, or were, traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also
+the remains of a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying
+the ruins by quarrying building material out of them.     (R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GADDI. Four painters of the early Florentine school--father, son and two
+grandsons--bore this name.
+
+1. GADDO GADDI was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend of Cimabue,
+and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and death have been given
+as 1239 and about 1312; these are probably too early; he may have been
+born towards 1260, and may have died in or about 1333. He was a painter
+and mosaicist, is said to have executed the great mosaic inside the
+portal of the cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the
+Virgin, and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside
+the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to the
+legend of the foundation of that church; their date is probably 1308. In
+the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also executed the mosaics
+of the choir, and those of the front representing on a colossal scale
+God the Father, with many other figures; likewise an altarpiece in the
+church of S. Maria Novella, Florence; these works no longer exist. It is
+ordinarily held that no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo
+Gaddi is now extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that
+the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance in style
+to four of the frescoes in the upper church of Assisi, representing
+incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 2, 3, 4 and especially 5,
+which shows Francis stripping himself, and protected by the bishop),
+that those frescoes likewise may, with considerable confidence, be
+ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant mosaics are attributed to him, but
+without full authentication. This artist laid the foundation of a very
+large fortune, which continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a
+highly distinguished worldly position.
+
+2. TADDEO GADDI (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo, was born in
+Florence, and is usually said to have been one of Giotto's most
+industrious assistants for a period of 24 years. This can hardly be
+other than an exaggeration; it is probable that he began painting on his
+own account towards 1330, when Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded
+as a merchant, and had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a
+painter, mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the
+Baroncelli (now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce,
+the "Virgin and Child between Four Prophets," on the funeral monument at
+the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in the legend of the
+Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the Temple up to the
+Nativity. In the subject of the "Presentation of the Virgin in the
+Temple" are the two heads traditionally accepted as portraits of Gaddo
+Gaddi and Andrea Tafi; they, at any rate, are not likely to be portraits
+of those artists from the life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are
+the "Eight Virtues." In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo,
+the "Virgin and Child," and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the
+Naples gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the "Virgin enthroned along
+with Four Saints," the "Baptism of Jesus," and his "Deposition from the
+Cross"; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near Poggibonsi, an
+altarpiece dated 1355, the "Virgin and Child enthroned amid Angels." A
+series of paintings, partly from the life of St Francis, which Taddeo
+executed for the presses in S. Croce, are now divided between the
+Florentine Academy and the Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken
+from or founded on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have
+ascribed their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant
+in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings, which
+have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most eminent successors
+of Giotto; it may be said that he continued working up the material
+furnished by that great painter, with comparatively feeble inspiration
+of his own. His figures are vehement in action, long and slender in
+form; his execution rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are
+generally ascribed the celebrated frescoes--those of the ceiling and
+left or western wall--in the Cappella degli Spagnuoli, in the church of
+S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to considerable
+doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the designs for the
+ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also are the three pictures
+ascribed to him in the National Gallery, London. In mosaic he has left
+some work in the baptistery of Florence. As an architect he supplied in
+1336 the plans for the present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original
+(not the present) Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church
+of Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto's death the work of
+the unrivalled Campanile.
+
+3. AGNOLO GADDI, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo; the date of
+his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly 1350 is nearer the mark.
+He was a painter and mosaicist, trained by his father, and a merchant as
+well; in middle age he settled down to commercial life in Venice, and he
+added greatly to the family wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396.
+His paintings show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced
+in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra' Fossi, Florence,
+represents the "Resurrection of Lazarus." Another probably youthful
+performance is the series of frescoes of the Pieve di Prato--legends of
+the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed upon St Thomas, and
+brought to Prato in the 11th century by Michele dei Dagomari; the
+"Marriage of Mary" is one of the best of this series, the later
+compositions in which have suffered much by renewals. In S. Croce he
+painted, in eight frescoes, the legend of the Cross, beginning with the
+archangel Michael giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and
+ending with the emperor Heraclius carrying the Cross as he enters
+Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself. Agnolo
+composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more dignity and
+individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold colourist; the
+general effect is laudably decorative, but the drawing is poor, and the
+works show best from a distance. Various other productions of this
+master exist, and many have perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the
+celebrated treatise on painting, was one of his pupils.
+
+4. GIOVANNI GADDI, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of promise. He
+died young in 1383.
+
+  Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as to the Gaddi.
+  Other notices appear here and there--such as _La Cappella de'
+  Rinuccini in S. Croce di Firenze_, by G. Ajazzi (1845).     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GADE, NIELS WILHELM (1817-1890), Danish composer, was born at
+Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 1817, his father being a musical
+instrument maker. He was intended for his father's trade, but his
+passion for a musician's career, made evident by the ease and skill with
+which he learnt to play upon a number of instruments, was not to be
+denied. Though he became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and
+in the elements of theory under Weyse and Berggreen, he was to a great
+extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in the
+great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the court band.
+In 1840 his _Aladdin_ and his overture of _Ossian_ attracted attention,
+and in 1841 his _Nachklange aus Ossian_ overture gained the local
+musical society's prize, the judges being Spohr and Schneider. This work
+also attracted the notice of the king, who gave the composer a stipend
+which enabled him to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the
+Gewandhaus concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn's absence, and on the
+latter's death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the outbreak of the
+Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where he was appointed organist
+and conductor of the Musik-Verein. In 1852 he married a daughter of the
+composer J.P.E. Hartmann. He became court conductor in 1861, and was
+pensioned by the government in 1876--the year in which he visited
+Birmingham to conduct his _Crusaders_. This work, and the
+_Fruhlingsfantasie_, the _Erlkonigs Tochter_, _Fruhlingsbotschaft_ and
+_Psyche_ (written for Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide
+popularity. Indeed, they represent the strength and the weakness of
+Gade's musical ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the
+best of which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato
+pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his music is
+highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather than dramatic
+and effective. Much of the pianoforte music, _Aquarellen_, _Spring
+Flowers_, for instance, enjoyed a considerable vogue, as did the
+_Novelletten_ trio; but Gade's opera _Mariotta_ has not been heard
+outside the Copenhagen opera house. He died at Copenhagen on the 21st of
+December 1890.
+
+
+
+
+GADOLINIUM (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157.3), one of the rare earth
+metals (see ERBIUM). The element was discovered in 1880 in the mineral
+samarskite by C. Marignac (_Comptes rendus_, 1880, 90, p. 899; _Ann.
+chim. phys._, 1880 [5] 20, p. 535). G. Urbain (_Comptes rendus_, 1905,
+140, p. 583) separates the metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of
+nickel and gadolinium. The salts show absorption bands in the
+ultra-violet. The oxide Gd2O3 is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).
+
+
+
+
+GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), American patriot, was born in
+Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father, Thomas Gadsden, was for
+a time the king's collector for the port of Charleston. Christopher went
+to school near Bristol, in England, returned to America in 1741, was
+afterwards employed in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a
+merchant and planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain of an
+artillery company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a
+member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously from 1760
+to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp Act Congress of 1765
+and in the Continental Congress in 1774-1776. In February 1776 he was
+placed in command of all the military forces of South Carolina, and in
+October of the same year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was
+taken into the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising
+out of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his
+command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in 1780, when
+Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about three months
+following this event he was held as a prisoner on parole within the
+limits of Charleston; then, because of his influence in deterring others
+from exchanging their paroles for the privileges of British subjects, he
+was seized, taken to St Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would
+not give another parole to those who had violated the former agreement
+affecting him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In 1782
+Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature; he was also
+elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground that he was too
+old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the convention which ratified
+for South Carolina the Federal constitution; and in 1790 he was a member
+of the convention which framed the new state constitution. He died in
+Charleston on the 28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor
+Thomas Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature
+improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was hostile to
+the British administration. He was an ardent leader of the opposition to
+the Stamp Act, advocating even then a separation of the colonies from
+the mother country; and in the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed
+the situation on the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and
+urged an immediate attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be
+defeated before receiving reinforcements.
+
+
+
+
+GADSDEN, JAMES (1788-1858), American soldier and diplomat, was born at
+Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788, the grandson of Christopher
+Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806, became a merchant in his native
+city, and in the war of 1812 served in the regular U.S. Army as a
+lieutenant of engineers. In 1818 he served against the Seminoles, with
+the rank of captain, as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In
+October 1820 he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with
+the rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the
+establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From August
+1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his appointment not
+being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army and became a planter in
+Florida. He served in the Territorial legislature, and as Federal
+commissioner superintended in 1823 the removal of the Seminole Indians
+to South Florida. In 1832 he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty
+which provided for their removal within three years to lands in what is
+now the state of Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move,
+hostilities again broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was
+quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February to April
+1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice planter, and was
+president of the South Carolina railway. In 1853 President Franklin
+Pierce appointed him minister to Mexico, with which country he
+negotiated the so-called "Gadsden treaty" (signed the 30th of December
+1853), which gave to the United States freedom of transit for mails,
+merchandise and troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided
+for a readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of
+Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45,535 sq. m. of land,
+since known as the "Gadsden Purchase," in what is now New Mexico and
+Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo,
+which bound the United States to prevent incursions of Indians from the
+United States into Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by
+such Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United
+States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of the
+treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the 30th of
+June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired from his post. The
+boundary line between Mexico and the "Gadsden Purchase" was marked by
+joint commissions appointed in 1855 and 1891, the second commission
+publishing its report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South
+Carolina, on the 25th of December 1858.
+
+An elder brother, CHRISTOPHER EDWARDS GADSDEN (1785-1852), was
+Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in 1839-1852.
+
+
+
+
+GADWALL, a word of obscure origin,[1] the common English name of the
+duck, called by Linnaeus _Anas strepera_, but considered by many modern
+ornithologists to require removal from the genus _Anas_ to that of
+_Chaulelasmus_ or _Ctenorhynchus_, of either of which it is almost the
+sole species. Its geographical distribution is almost identical with
+that of the common wild duck or mallard (see DUCK), since it is found
+over the greater part of the northern hemisphere; but, save in India,
+where it is one of the most abundant species of duck during the cold
+weather, it is hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern
+parts of the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare
+than otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed,
+greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance on the water
+is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated form and
+elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler even at such a
+distance as hinders him from seeing its very distinct plumage. In
+coloration the two sexes appear almost equally sombre; but on closer
+inspection the drake exhibits a pencilled grey coloration and upper
+wing-coverts of a deep chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly
+clad partner. She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour,
+but has, like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure
+white, presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most
+readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The gadwall is
+a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the few that have
+been induced, by the protection afforded them in certain localities, to
+resume the indigenous position they once filled, but had, through the
+draining and reclaiming of marshy lands, long since abandoned. In regard
+to the present species, this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew
+Fountaine, on whose property, in West Norfolk and its immediate
+neighbourhood, the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing
+numbers. It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for
+the table.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The _New English Dictionary_ has nothing to say. Webster gives
+    the etymology _gad well_ = go about well. Dr R.G. Latham suggested
+    that it was taken from the syllables _quedul_, of the Lat.
+    _querquedula_, a teal. The spelling "gadwall" seems to be first found
+    in Willughby in 1676, and has been generally adopted by later
+    writers; but Merrett, in 1667, has "gaddel" (_Pinax rerum naturalium
+    Britannicarum_, p. 180), saying that it was so called by
+    bird-dealers. The synonym "gray," given by Willughby and Ray, is
+    doubtless derived from the general colour of the species, and has its
+    analogue in the Icelandic _Graond_, applied almost indifferently, or
+    with some distinguishing epithet, to the female of any of the
+    freshwater ducks, and especially to both sexes of the present, in
+    which, as stated in the text, there is comparatively little
+    conspicuous difference of plumage in drake and duck.
+
+
+
+
+GAEKWAR, or GUICOWAR, the family name of the Mahratta rulers of Baroda
+(q.v.) in western India, which has been converted by the English into a
+dynastic title. It is derived from the vernacular word for the cow, but
+it is a mistake to suppose that the family are of the cowherd caste;
+they belong to the upper class of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a
+Rajput origin. The dynasty was founded by a succession of three
+warriors, Damaji I., Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta
+supremacy throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 18th century.
+The present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.
+
+
+
+
+GAETA (anc. _Caietae Portus_), a seaport and episcopal see of Campania,
+Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is 53 m. W.N.W. by rail
+via Sparanise. Pop. (1901) 5528. It occupies a lower projecting point of
+the promontory which forms the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The
+tomb of Munatius Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see CAIETAE
+PORTUS), is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the
+extensive earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is well
+sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial importance, being
+mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the suburb of Elena (formerly
+Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (1901) 10,369. Above the town is a castle erected
+by the Angevin kings, and strengthened at various periods. The cathedral
+of St Erasmus (S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun
+in 860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the interior
+has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of the cathedral is a
+candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the end of the 13th century,
+consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief, with 24 representations from the
+life of Christ, and 24 of the life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, _Storia
+dell' arte Italiana_, iii. Milan, 1904, 642 seq.). The cathedral
+possesses three fine _Exultet_ rolls, with miniatures dating from the
+11th to the beginning of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the
+banner sent by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of
+Lepanto. The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527,
+is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close to that
+of La Trinita is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical fissure from 6
+to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level. Over the chasm is a
+chapel _del Crocefisso_, the mountain having split, it is said, at the
+death of Christ.
+
+During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi and Naples,
+would seem to have established itself as a practically independent port
+and to have carried on a thriving trade with the Levant. Its history,
+however, is obscure until, in 823, it appears as a lordship ruled by
+hereditary _hypati_ or consuls. In 844 the town fell into the hands of
+the Arabs, but four years later they were driven out with help supplied
+by Pope Leo IV. In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who
+gave it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long
+claimed jurisdiction over it. In 877, however, the _hypatus_ John
+(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he established
+as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman emperors. In the 11th
+century the duchy fell into the hands of the Norman counts of Aversa,
+afterwards princes of Capua, and in 1135 it was definitively annexed to
+his kingdom by Roger of Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage
+as late as 1229.
+
+In military history the town has played a conspicuous part. Its
+fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On the 30th of
+September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months' siege, by the
+Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August 1734 it was taken, after
+a siege of four months, by French, Spanish and Sardinian troops under
+the future King Charles of Naples. The fortifications were again
+strengthened; and in 1799 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On
+the 18th of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the
+French under Massena; and on the 18th of July 1815 it capitulated, after
+a three months' siege, to the Austrians. In November 1848 Pope Pius IX.,
+after his flight in disguise from Rome, found a refuge at Gaeta, where
+he remained till the 4th of September 1849. Finally, in 1860, it was the
+scene of the last stand of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of
+United Italy. Shut up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's
+occupation of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen
+Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th of
+February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having made
+bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to capitulate.
+
+  See G.B. Federici, _Degli antichi duchi, consoli o ipati della citta
+  di Gaeta_ (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gaetani d' Aragona, _Mem. stor.
+  della citta di Gaeta_ (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, _Il Golfo di Gaeta_
+  (Novara, 1876).     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GAETANI, or CAETANI, the name of the oldest of the Roman princely
+families which played a great part in the history of the city and of the
+papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin, and the founder of the
+house is said to be one Dominus Constantinus Cagetanus, who flourished
+in the 10th century, but the family had no great importance until the
+election of Benedetto Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1294,
+when they at once became the most notable in the city. The pope
+conferred on them the fiefs of Sermoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato
+(1297-1300), and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles II. of
+Anjou created the pope's brother count of Caserta. Giordano Loffredo
+Gaetani by his marriage with Giovanna dell' Aquila, heiress of the
+counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297 added the name of Aquila to his
+own, and his grandson Giacomo acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and
+Gioia. The Gaetani proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to
+protect Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th
+centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturbances in
+Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to civil war. They also
+played an important role as Neapolitan nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in
+his attempt to crush the great Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the
+Gaetani fiefs and gave them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.); but
+they afterwards regained them.
+
+At present there are two lines of Gaetani: (1) Gaetani, princes of Teano
+and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello Gaetani, whose grandson,
+Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted the duchy of Sermoneta by Pius III. in
+1503, the marquisate of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Sixtus
+V. in 1585. In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by
+marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the principality
+of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house, Onorato Gaetani, 14th
+duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano, duke of San Marco, marquis of
+Cisterna, &c., is a senator of the kingdom of Italy, and was minister
+for foreign affairs for a short time. (2) Gaetani dell' Aquila
+d'Aragona, princes of Piedimonte, and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by
+Onorato Gaetani dell' Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and
+Morcone, lord of Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname
+of Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani, duke of
+Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural daughter of King
+Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Laurenzana, in the kingdom of
+Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani by his marriage in 1606 with
+Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte
+was raised to a principality in 1715. The present (1908) head of the
+house is Nicola Gaetani dell' Aquila d'Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of
+Piedimonte and 12th duke of Laurenzana.
+
+  See A. von Reumont, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Berlin, 1868); F.
+  Gregorovius, _Geschichte der Stadt Rom_ (Stuttgart, 1872); _Almanach
+  de Gotha_ (1907 and 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GAETULIA, an ancient district in northern Africa, which in the usage of
+Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of the southern slopes of
+Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the Atlantic, and the oases in the
+northern part of the Sahara. They were always distinguished from the
+Negro people to the south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber
+race which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and Mauretania
+(q.v.). The tribes to be found there at the present day are probably of
+the same race, and retain the same wandering habits; and it is possible
+that they still bear in certain places the name of their Gaetulian
+ancestors (see Vivien St Martin, _Le Nord de l'Afrique_, 1863). A few
+only seem to have mingled with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus
+interpret Ptolemy's allusion to Melano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were
+noted for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000
+foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh and
+milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name is that of the
+purple dye which became famous from the time of Augustus onwards, and
+was made from the purple fish found on the coast, apparently both in the
+Syrtes and on the Atlantic.
+
+We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (111-106 B.C.), when,
+as Sallust tells us, they did not even know the name of Rome. They took
+part with Jugurtha against Rome; but when we next hear of them they are
+in alliance with Caesar against Juba I. (_Bell. Afr._ 32). In 25 B.C.
+Augustus seems to have given a part of Gaetulia to Juba II., together
+with his kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling
+the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred the Roman
+residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been inflicted on
+them by Lentulus Cossus (who thus acquired the surname Gaetulicus) in
+A.D. 6 that they submitted to the king. After Mauretania became a Roman
+province in A.D. 40, the Roman governors made frequent expeditions into
+the Gaetulian territory to the south, and the official view seems to be
+expressed by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulia as far as
+the Niger and the Ethiopian frontier was reckoned as subject to the
+Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but inscriptions
+prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops of the empire, and
+it may be assumed that the country passed within the sphere of Roman
+influence, though hardly within the pale of Roman civilization.
+
+  For bibliography see AFRICA, ROMAN.
+
+
+
+
+GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier, was born at De Ruyter,
+Madison county, New York, on the 28th of June 1836. He was educated at
+an academy at Rome, New York, where at the age of seventeen he became a
+bank clerk. In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as
+book-keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house of
+the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was cashier in
+1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively assistant cashier (1868),
+vice-president (1882), and president (1891) of the First National Bank
+of Chicago, one of the strongest financial institutions in the middle
+west. He was chosen in 1892 president of the board of directors of the
+World's Columbian Exposition, the successful financing of which was due
+more to him than to any other man. In politics he was originally a
+Republican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the party
+in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884, however, he
+supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency, and came to be looked
+upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President Cleveland, after his second
+election, offered Gage the post of secretary of the treasury, but the
+offer was declined. In the "free-silver" campaign of 1896 Gage laboured
+effectively for the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897
+until January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets
+successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From April 1902 until
+1906 he was president of the United States Trust Company in New York
+City. His administration of the treasury department, through a more than
+ordinarily trying period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking
+toward the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater
+flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the
+relations between the government and the National banks.
+
+
+
+
+GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts,
+second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the
+army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of
+Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in March 1751. In
+1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in
+General Braddock's disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a
+new regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal. He
+was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and
+in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in
+America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-general. In 1774 he was
+appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted
+with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which
+surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the
+gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April
+at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the
+battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William)
+Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on
+the 2nd of April 1787.
+
+
+
+
+GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the performance of
+an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure to carry it out. The
+word also appears in "engage," and is taken from the O. Fr., as are
+"wage," payment for services, and "wager," bet, stake, from the
+collateral O. Fr. _waige_. These two words are from the Low Lat.
+_wadiare_, _vadiare_, to pledge, _vadium_, classical Lat. _vas_,
+_vadis_, but may be from the old Teutonic cognate base seen in Gothic
+_wadi_, a pledge (cf. Ger. _wetten_, to wager); this Teutonic base is
+seen in Eng. "wed," to marry, i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth,
+_gawadjon_, to betrothe). A particular form of giving a "gage" or pledge
+was that of throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a
+judicial combat, the glove being the "pledge" that the parties would
+appear on the field; hence the common phrase "to throw down the gage of
+defiance" for any challenge (see GLOVE and WAGER).
+
+
+
+
+GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (1766-1852), German statesman
+and political writer, was born at Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the
+25th of January 1766. After studying law at the universities of Leipzig
+and Gottingen, he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg,
+whom in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards
+appointed the prince's envoy at Paris, where he remained till the decree
+of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left side of the Rhine
+to serve any other state than France, compelled him to resign his office
+(1811). He then retired to Vienna, and in 1812 he took part in the
+attempt to excite a second insurrection against Napoleon in Tirol. On
+the failure of this attempt he left Austria and joined the headquarters
+of the Prussian army (1813), and became a member of the board of
+administration for north Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator
+of the Orange principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king
+of the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister. In 1815 he
+represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded in obtaining
+for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation of territory. From 1816
+to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy at the German diet, but was recalled, at
+the instance of Metternich, owing to his too independent advocacy of
+state constitutions. In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at
+Hornau, near Hochst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first
+chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take an active
+share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of his country. He
+retired from public life in 1848, and died at Hornau on the 22nd of
+October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote a history of the German nation
+(Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols., Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several
+other books on subjects connected with history and social and political
+science. Of most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, _Mein
+Anteil an der Politik_, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).
+
+Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained considerable
+eminence:--
+
+FRIEDRICH BALDUIN, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the eldest, was born
+at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He entered the university of
+Gottingen, but soon left, and, taking service in the Austrian army, took
+part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and fought in the following year
+at Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took
+part in the campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at
+Heidelberg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of the
+German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took part in the
+Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being promoted to the rank
+of general, was sent on an important mission to the Dutch East Indies to
+inquire into the state of their military defences. In 1847 he was
+appointed governor at the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the
+spring of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the
+revolutionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government of
+Baden to take the command against the insurgent "free companies"
+(_Freischaaren_). At Kandern, on the 20th of April, he made a vain
+effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was about to order his
+troops to attack when he was mortally wounded by the bullets of the
+insurgents. His _Life_, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg and Leipzig, 1856-1857),
+was written by his brother Heinrich von Gagern.
+
+HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, Freiherr von Gagern (1799-1880), the third son,
+was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August 1799, educated at the
+military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in the service of the
+duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo. Leaving the service after the war,
+he studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Gottingen and Jena, and in 1819
+went for a while to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his
+official career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 was
+elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities he had
+proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the _Burschenschaft_,
+and he now threw himself into open opposition to the unconstitutional
+spirit of the Hessian government, an attitude which led to his dismissal
+from the state service in 1833. Henceforth he lived in comparative
+retirement, cultivating a farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and
+occasionally publishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February
+revolution of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active
+political life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian
+administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation of a
+united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the preliminary convention
+(_Vorparlament_) of Frankfort he deeply impressed the assemblies with
+the breadth and moderation of his views; with the result that when the
+German national parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first
+president. His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist
+party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was he who
+was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a united empire
+with a common parliament, and in carrying the election of the Archduke
+John as regent. With the growing split between the Great Germans
+(_Grossdeutschen_), who wished the new empire to include the Austrian
+provinces, and the Little Germans (_Kleindeutschen_), who realized that
+German unity could only be attained by excluding them, his position was
+shaken. On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian
+members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the imperial
+ministry, and on the 18th he introduced a programme (known as the
+_Gagernsche Programm_) according to which Austria was to be excluded
+from the new federal state, but bound to it by a treaty of union. After
+a severe struggle this proposal was accepted; but the academic
+discussion on the constitution continued for weary months, and on the
+20th of May, realizing the hopelessness of coming to terms with the
+ultra-democrats, Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted
+to influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the
+national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt
+parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good results
+from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from the contest,
+and, as a major in the service of the Schleswig-Holstein government,
+took part in the Danish War of 1850. After the war he retired into
+private life at Heidelberg. In 1862, misled by the constitutional
+tendency of Austrian politics, he publicly declared in favour of the
+Great German party. In 1864 he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring
+in 1872 when the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd of
+May 1880.
+
+MAXIMILIAN, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest son, was born
+at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to 1848 he was a government
+official in Nassau; in that year he became a member of the German
+national parliament and under-secretary of state for foreign affairs.
+Throughout the revolutionary years he supported his brother's policy,
+became a member of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the
+national movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In
+1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service as court
+and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs. In 1871
+he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life member of the Upper Chamber
+(_Herrenhaus_). He died at Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.
+
+  See _Allgemeine deutsche Biographie_, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878)
+  and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated by the
+Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond with the six periods
+of creation: (1) _Maidhyozaremaya_ (mid spring), (2) _Maidhyoshema_
+(midsummer), (3) _Paitishahya_ (season of corn), (4) _Ayathrema_ (season
+of flocks), (5) _Maidhyarya_ (winter solstice), (6) _Hamaspathmaedha_
+(festival of sacrifices).
+
+
+
+
+GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE (1642-1715), French genealogist, antiquary
+and collector, was the son of Aime de Gaignieres, secretary to the
+governor of Burgundy, and was born on the 30th of December 1642. He
+became ecuyer (esquire) to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards
+to Louis Joseph's aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed
+governor of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to
+make a collection of original materials for history generally, and, in
+particular, for that of the French church and court. He brought together
+a large collection of original letters and other documents, together
+with portraits and prints, and had copies made of a great number of the
+most curious antiquarian objects, such as seals, tombstones, stained
+glass, miniatures and tapestry. In 1711 he presented the whole of his
+collections to the king. The bulk of them is preserved in the
+Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian
+library at Oxford.
+
+  See G. Duplessis, _Roger de Gaignieres_ (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle,
+  _Cabinet des manuscrits_, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, _Les
+  Portraits aux crayon des XVI^e et XVII^e siecles_ (Paris, 1884); Ch.
+  de Grandmaison, _Gaignieres, ses correspondants et ses collections de
+  portraits_ (Niort, 1892).
+
+
+
+
+GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829), French hellenist, was born in Paris on
+the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed deputy, and in 1792
+titular professor at the College de France. During the Revolution he
+quietly performed his professional duties, taking no part in politics,
+although he possessed the faculty of ingratiating himself with those in
+authority. In 1815 he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in
+the royal library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other
+conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. Gail imagined
+that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle his learning and
+professional success, and there was a standing quarrel between him and
+his literary opponents, the most distinguished of whom was P.L. Courier.
+He died on the 5th of February 1829. Without being a great Greek
+scholar, Gail was a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was
+devoted to his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for
+having rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during
+the troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published
+works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of
+Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). He also
+wrote a number of elementary educational works, based on the principles
+of the school of Port Royal. His communications to the Academie des
+Inscriptions being coldly received and seldom accorded the honour of
+print, he inserted them in a vast compilation in 24 volumes, which he
+called _Le Philologue_, containing a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek
+grammar, geography, archaeology, and various authors.
+
+  See "Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in
+  _Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions_, ix.; the articles in _Biographie
+  universelle_ (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopadie_ (by C.F. Bahr); a list of his works will be found in
+  J.M. Querard, _La France litteraire_ (1829), including the contents of
+  the volumes of _Le Philologue_.
+
+
+
+
+GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in
+the department of Tarn, on the right bank of the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi
+on the railway from that city to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388;
+commune, 7535. The churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from
+the 13th and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There
+are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen, of the
+Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors. The public
+institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance,
+and a communal college. Its industries include the manufacture of lime
+and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-sawing and flour-milling are also
+carried on; it has a considerable trade in grain, flour, vegetables,
+dried plums, anise, coriander, &c., and in wine, the white and red wines
+of the arrondissement having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round
+the Benedictine abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century.
+
+
+
+
+GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian, was born at
+Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the bar, but after
+finishing his studies adopted a literary career, ultimately devoting his
+chief attention to history. He was already a member of the Academy of
+Inscriptions and Belles-lettres (1760), when, after the publication of
+the three first volumes of his _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et
+d'Angleterre_, he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when
+Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third class
+(_Academie francaise_) in 1803. For forty years he was the intimate
+friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He died at St Firmin,
+near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806. Gaillard is painstaking
+and impartial in his statement of facts, and his style is correct and
+elegant, but the unity of his narrative is somewhat destroyed by
+digressions, and by his method of treating war, politics, civil
+administration, and ecclesiastical affairs under separate heads. His
+most important work is his _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et de
+l'Angleterre_ (in 11 vols., 1771-1777); and among his other works may be
+mentioned _Essai de rhetorique francaise, a l'usage des jeunes
+demoiselles_ (1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the
+author; _Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne_ (1757); _Histoire de Francois
+I^er_ (7 vols., 1776-1779); _Histoire des grandes querelles entre
+Charles V. et Francois I^er_ (2 vols., 1777); _Histoire de Charlemagne_
+(2 vols., 1782); _Histoire de la rivalite de la France et de l'Espagne_
+(8 vols., 1801); _Dictionnaire historique_ (6 vols., 1789-1804), making
+part of the _Encyclopedie methodique_; and _Melanges litteraires_,
+containing _eloges_ on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, La
+Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.
+
+
+
+
+GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Alachua county, Florida,
+U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1890) 2790; (1900) 3633,
+of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413; (1910) 6183. Gainesville is
+served by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa
+& Jacksonville railways, and is an important railway junction. It is the
+seat of the University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City
+in 1905 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university includes a
+school of language and literature, a general scientific school, a school
+of agriculture, a technological school, a school of pedagogy, a normal
+school, and an agricultural experiment station. In 1908 the university
+had 15 instructors and 103 students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference
+and Chautauqua is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter
+resort, and its climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by
+pulmonary troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne's
+Prairie, Newman's Lake, the Devil's Mill Hopper and other objects of
+interest. The surrounding country produces Sea Island cotton, melons,
+citrus and other fruits, vegetables and naval stores. About 15 m. W. of
+the city there is a rich phosphate mining district. The city has
+bottling works, and manufactures fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c.
+The municipality owns and operates the water-works; the water-supply
+comes from a spring 2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles
+that of the Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the
+famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here about 1850;
+and Gainesville, named in honour of General E.P. Gaines, was
+incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered as a city in 1907.
+
+
+
+
+GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooke county, Texas, U.S.A.,
+about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m. N. of Fort Worth. Pop.
+(1890) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes and 269 foreign-born); (1910)
+7624. The city is served by the Gulf, Colorado & Santa Fe, and the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by an interurban electric
+railway. Gainesville is a trading centre and market for the surrounding
+country, in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are
+grown and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for
+the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma. The city has
+cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manufactures are
+cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks, canned goods,
+foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery products. Gainesville was
+settled about 1851, was incorporated in 1873, and was chartered as a
+city in 1879; it was named in honour of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines
+(1777-1849), who served with distinction in the War of 1812, becoming a
+brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of
+major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of Fort Erie in
+August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the operations against the
+Seminoles in Florida in 1817 (when he was in command of the Southern
+Military District) and in 1836 and during the Mexican War commanded the
+department of the South-West, with headquarters at New Orleans.
+
+
+
+
+GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS (1727-1788), English painter, one of the greatest
+masters of the English school in portraiture, and only less so in
+landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in the spring of 1727. His
+father, who carried on the business of a woollen crape-maker in that
+town, was of a respectable character and family, and was noted for his
+skill in fencing; his mother excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged
+her son in the use of the pencil. There were nine children of the
+marriage, two of the painter's brothers being of a very ingenious turn.
+
+At ten years old, Gainsborough "had sketched every fine tree and
+picturesque cottage near Sudbury," and at fourteen, having filled his
+task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and sketched the
+portrait of a man whom he had detected on the watch for robbing his
+father's orchard, he was allowed to follow the bent of his genius in
+London, with some instruction in etching from Gravelot, and under such
+advantages as Hayman, the historical painter, and the academy in St
+Martin's Lane could afford. Three years of study in the metropolis,
+where he did some modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two
+years in the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young
+lady of many charms, including an annuity of L200, married her after
+painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age of twenty,
+became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being L6 a year. The annuity
+was reported to come from Margaret's real (not her putative) father, who
+was one of the exiled Stuart princes or else the duke of Bedford. She
+was sister of a young man employed by Gainsborough's father as a
+traveller. At Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was "chiefly in the
+face-way"; his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often
+rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society of
+Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many landscapes with
+an attention to details which his later works never exhibited, or from
+joining a musical club and entertaining himself and his fellow-townsmen
+by giving concerts. As he advanced in years he became ambitious of
+advancing in reputation. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and
+fashion, and to that city, towards the close of the year 1759, he
+removed with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their
+marriage. His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; he
+gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40
+guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he rapidly
+developed beyond the comparatively plain and humdrum quality of his
+Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at this period were the authors
+Sterne and Richardson, and the actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick.
+Meanwhile he contributed both portraits and landscapes to the annual
+exhibitions in London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to
+play the viol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His
+house harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians. He
+haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted gratuitously the
+portraits of many of the actors: he constantly gave away his sketches
+and landscapes. In the summer of 1774, having already attained a
+position of great prosperity, he took his departure for London, and
+fixed his residence at Schomberg House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still
+standing, for a part of which the artist paid L300 a year.
+
+Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he received a
+summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he divided with West
+the favour of the court, and with Reynolds the favour of the town.
+Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin, Canning, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu,
+Mrs Siddons, Clive, Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who
+sat to him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited, were
+commended, and were year after year returned to him, "till they stood,"
+says Sir William Beechey, "ranged in long lines from his hall to his
+painting-room." Gainsborough was a member of the Royal Academy, one of
+the original 36 elected in 1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with
+the position assigned on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the
+three princesses, he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never
+afterwards exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the
+business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibition in
+his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while witnessing the
+trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary chill at the back of
+his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer (or, as some say, a
+malignant wen) which proved fatal on the 2nd of August of the same year.
+He lies buried at Kew.
+
+Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive to the
+point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish likings, a
+lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough embodiment of
+the artistic temperament; delighting in nature and "the look of things,"
+insatiable in working, fond of music and the theatre hardly less than of
+painting--a warm, rich personality, to whom severe principle was perhaps
+as foreign as deliberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his
+death was not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the
+musician Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of
+mental aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried. Mrs
+Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, survived her husband
+ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that Gainsborough, if he ever had
+a tiff with her, would write a pacifying note, confiding it to his dog
+Fox, who delivered it to the lady's pet spaniel Tristram. The note was
+worded as in the person of Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied
+in the best of humours, as from Tristram to Fox.
+
+Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest
+portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance; but
+Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation. It
+is difficult to say which stands the higher of the two, although
+Reynolds may claim to have worked with a nearer approach to even and
+demonstrable excellence. In grace, spirit, and lightness of insight and
+of touch, Gainsborough is peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight
+for the most part, and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree
+masterly; and his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted
+than his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of "Lady
+Ligonier," "Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," "Master Buttall (the Blue
+Boy)," now in Grosvenor House, "Mrs Sheridan and Mrs Tickell," "Orpin,
+the parish clerk" (National Gallery), "the Hon. Mrs Graham" (Scottish
+National Gallery), his own portrait (Royal Academy), "Mrs Siddons"
+(National Gallery); also "the Cottage Door," "the Market Cart," "the
+Return from Harvest," "the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm" (destroyed by
+fire), and "Waggon and Horses passing a Brook" (National Gallery--this
+was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast number of drawings and
+sketches.
+
+A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual works by
+Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics as a painter.
+
+Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at Ipswich,
+were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston. His first great hit
+was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord Nugent. With a likeness of Mr
+Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided advance in artistic type, and his style
+became fixed towards 1768. The date of the "Blue Boy" is somewhat
+uncertain: most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark.
+This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is said
+that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting a dictum
+of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour unsuitable for the
+main light of a work. But, if the picture was produced before 1778, the
+date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-cherished and often-repeated
+tradition must be given up. A full-length of the duke of Norfolk was
+perhaps the latest work to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait
+of Elizabeth, duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance,
+has aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not long
+after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed "the Duchess of
+Devonshire," does really represent that lady, is by no means certain. It
+was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in London immediately after it had been
+purchased by Messrs Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a
+long time elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New
+York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through the agency
+of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the American detectives
+working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold to Mr Pierpont Morgan.
+
+Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300, including 220
+portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and 3 in aquatint. At the
+date of his death 56 paintings remained on hand: these, along with 148
+drawings, were then exhibited. In his earlier days he made a practice of
+copying works by Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration),
+Titian, Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not in a
+spirit of servile reproduction.
+
+Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential element of
+portraiture--truthful likeness. In process of time he advanced in the
+rendering of immediate expression, while he somewhat receded in general
+character. He always made his sitters look pleasant, and, after a while,
+distinguished. Unity of impression is one of the most marked qualities
+in his work; he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he
+wrought at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very
+wilful some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result. He
+painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later years. For
+portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft. long; there was but
+little light in his painting-room, and he often worked in the evenings.
+He kept his landscape work distinct from his portraiture, not ever
+adding to the latter a fully realized landscape background; his views he
+never signed or dated--his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are
+constantly cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
+scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming rain,
+or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his landscapes is
+somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-groups or in
+portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plaintive than mirthful.
+It should be acknowledged that, whether in portraiture or in landscape,
+the painter's mannerisms of execution increased in process of
+time--patchings of the brush, tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits
+are hurried and flimsy, with a minimum of solid content, though not
+other than artistic in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:--"What
+makes the difference between man and man is real performance, and not
+genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous for a
+person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours smelt
+offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is just as
+material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and drawing of a
+picture." "The eye is the only perspective-master needed by a
+landscape-painter."
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor of
+  Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the artist's
+  fortunes at starting, published A _Sketch of the Life and Paintings of
+  Thomas Gainsborough_. He had quarrelled with the painter at Bath,
+  partly because the latter had undertaken to do a portrait of him as a
+  gift, and then neglected the work, and finally, in a huff, bundled it
+  off only half done. The crucial question here is whether or not
+  Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform any such gratuitous
+  work, and this point has been contested. Thicknesse's book is in part
+  adverse to Gainsborough, and more particularly so to his wife.
+  Reynolds's "Lecture" on Gainsborough, replete with critical insight,
+  should never be lost sight of as a leading document. In 1856 a
+  heedfully compiled _Life of Thomas Gainsborough_ was brought out by
+  T.W. Fulcher. This was the first substantial work about him subsequent
+  to Allan Cunningham's lively account (1829) in his _Lives of the
+  Painters_. Of late years a great deal has been written, mainly but not
+  by any means exclusively from the critical or technical point of
+  view:--Sir Walter Armstrong (two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur
+  Bell (1902); Sir W.M. Conway, _Artistic Development of Reynolds and
+  Gainsborough_ (1886); Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G.M.
+  Brock-Arnold (1881). G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in
+  Germany (1904) under the title _Gainsborough_.     (W. M. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or Gainsborough
+parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; on the right (E.) bank
+of the Trent. Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,660. It is served by the
+Lincoln-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern
+railways, by which it is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central
+railway. The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century,
+excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish churches are
+modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged in the 16th, is a
+picturesque building, forming three sides of a quadrangle, partially
+timber-framed, but having a beautiful oriel window and other parts of
+stone. There is also a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific
+institute occupy part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar
+school (founded in 1589 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other
+schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall and Church of
+England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water on the Trent
+and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-founding are carried on,
+and there are manufactures of linseed cake, and agricultural and other
+machinery.
+
+Gainsborough (_Gegnesburh_) was probably inhabited by the Saxons on
+account of the fishing in the Trent. The _Saxon Chronicle_ states that
+in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed here and subjugated the
+inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not a chartered borough, was probably
+one by prescription, for mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The
+privilege of the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor,
+Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed to Ralph de
+Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a Wednesday market, but there
+is no extant grant before 1258, when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market
+to William de Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward
+I. in 1291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints' Day, and the seven
+preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III. granted to John
+Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day and morrow of St James
+the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592 granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two
+fairs, to begin on Easter Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting
+three days. Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to
+nine days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are
+Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and Wednesday
+after the 20th of October.
+
+  See Adam Stark, _History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh_ (London,
+  1843).
+
+
+
+
+GAIRDNER, JAMES (1828-   ), English historian, son of John Gairdner,
+M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of March 1828. Educated in his
+native city, he entered the Public Record Office in London in 1846,
+becoming assistant keeper of the public records (1859-1893). Gairdner's
+valuable and painstaking contributions to English history relate chiefly
+to the reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the "Rolls
+Series" he edited _Letters and Papers illustrative of the Reigns of
+Richard III. and Henry VII._ (London, 1861-1863), and _Memorials of
+Henry VII._ (London, 1858); and he succeeded J.S. Brewer in editing the
+_Letters and Papers_, foreign and domestic, of the reign of Henry VIII.
+(London, 1862-1905). He brought out the best edition of the _Paston
+Letters_ (London, 1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a
+valuable introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the
+_Historical collections of a Citizen of London_ (London, 1876), and
+_Three 15th-century Chronicles_ (London, 1880). His other works include
+excellent monographs on _Richard III._ (London, 1878, new and enlarged
+edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on _Henry VII._ (London, 1889, and
+subsequently); _The Houses of Lancaster and York_ (London, 1874, and
+other editions); _The English Church in the 16th century_ (London,
+1902); _Lollardy and the Reformation in England_ (1908); and
+contributions to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_, the _Dictionary of
+National Biography_, the _Cambridge Modern History_, and the _English
+Historical Review_. Gairdner received the honorary degree of LL.D. from
+the university of Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GAIRLOCH (Gaelic _gearr_, short), a sea loch, village and parish in the
+west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland. Pop. of parish (1901)
+3797. The parish covers a large district on the coast, and stretches
+inland beyond the farther banks of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies
+within its bounds. It also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in
+the loch, and Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646
+acres. The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in
+Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross, Gairloch
+has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th century.
+Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little glen of the same
+name, lying close to the village, is the chief seat of the Gairloch
+branch of the clan Mackenzie. William Ross (1762-1790), the Gaelic
+poet, who was schoolmaster of Gairloch, of which his mother was a
+native, was buried in the old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates
+him.
+
+
+
+
+GAISERIC, or GENSERIC (c. 390-477), king of the Vandals, was a son of
+King Godegisel (d. 406), and was born about 390. Though lame and only of
+moderate stature, he won renown as a warrior, and became king on the
+death of his brother Gonderic in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host
+of Vandals from Spain into Roman Africa, and took possession of
+Mauretania. This step is said to have been taken at the instigation of
+Boniface, the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented
+of his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending Hippo
+Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months Gaiseric raised the
+siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced to fly to Italy, and the city
+afterwards fell into the hands of the Vandals. Having pillaged and
+conquered almost the whole of Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a
+treaty with the emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which he was allowed
+to retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long, and in
+October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the capital of his
+kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric at this time first
+actually assumed the title of king. In religious matters he was an
+Arian, and persecuted the members of the orthodox church in Africa,
+although his religious policy varied with his relations to the Roman
+empire. Turning his attention in another direction he built a fleet, and
+the ravages of the Vandals soon made them known and feared along the
+shores of the Mediterranean. "Let us make," said Gaiseric, "for the
+dwellings of the men with whom God is angry," and he left the conduct of
+his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he led an
+expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen days his troops
+were permitted to plunder, and then returned to Africa laden with spoil.
+He also carried with him many captives, including the empress Eudoxia,
+who is said to have invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two
+attempts to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus,
+in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years later;
+but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius of
+Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought Sicily,
+Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under his rule, and even
+extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia Minor. Having made
+peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in 476, he died on the 25th of
+January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel and cunning man, possessing great
+military talents and superior mental gifts. Though the effect of his
+victories was afterwards neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his
+name long remained the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said
+to be derived from _gais_, a javelin, and _reiks_, a king.
+
+  See VANDALS; also T. Hodgkin, _Italy and her Invaders_, vol. ii.
+  (London, 1892); E. Gibbon, _Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire_ (ed.
+  J.B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, _Geschichte der Vandalen_ (Leipzig,
+  1901); and F. Martroye, _Genseric; La Conquete vandale en Afrique_
+  (Paris, 1907).
+
+
+
+
+GAISFORD, THOMAS (1779-1855), English classical scholar, was born at
+Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779. Proceeding to Oxford in
+1797, he became successively student and tutor of Christ Church, and was
+in 1811 appointed regius professor of Greek in the university. Taking
+orders, he held (1815-1847) the college living of Westwell, in
+Oxfordshire, and other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with
+his professorship. From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he
+was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and principal
+delegate of the University Press he was instrumental in securing the
+co-operation of distinguished European scholars as collators, notably
+Bekker and Dindorf. Among his numerous contributions to Greek literature
+may be mentioned, Hephaestion's _Encheiridion_ (1810); _Poetae Graeci
+minores_ (1814-1820); Stobaeus' _Florilegium_ (1822); _Herodotus_, with
+variorum notes (1824); Suidas' _Lexicon_ (1834); _Etymologicon magnum_
+(1848); Eusebius's _Praeparatio_ (1843) and _Demonstratio evangelica_
+(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were founded
+at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.
+
+
+
+
+GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history very little is
+known. It is impossible to discover even his full name, Gaius or Caius
+being merely the personal name (praenomen) so common in Rome. From
+internal evidence in his works it may be gathered that he flourished in
+the reigns of the emperors Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and
+Commodus. His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180, at
+the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and its government
+the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some provincial town, and hence
+we find no contemporary notices of his life or works. After his death,
+however, his writings were recognized as of great authority, and the
+emperor Valentinian named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus
+and Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be
+followed by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these
+jurists accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.
+
+Besides the _Institutes_, which are a complete exposition of the
+elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the _Edicts
+of the Magistrates_, of _Commentaries on the Twelve Tables_, and on the
+important _Lex Papia Poppaea_, and several other works. His interest in
+the antiquities of Roman law is apparent, and for this reason his work
+is most valuable to the historian of early institutions. In the disputes
+between the two schools of Roman jurists he generally attached himself
+to that of the Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius
+Capito, of whose life we have some account in the _Annals_ of Tacitus,
+and to advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules,
+and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of Gaius occur
+in the _Digest_ of Justinian, and so acquired a permanent place in the
+system of Roman law; while a comparison of the _Institutes_ of Justinian
+with those of Gaius shows that the whole method and arrangement of the
+later work were copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous
+passages are word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of
+the period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and Justinian,
+the _Institutes_ of the former had been the familiar textbook of all
+students of Roman law.
+
+Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in 1816, a
+manuscript was discovered by B.G. Niebuhr in the chapter library of
+Verona, in which certain of the works of St Jerome were written over
+some earlier writings, which proved to be the lost work of Gaius. The
+greater part of the palimpsest has, however, been deciphered and the
+text is now fairly complete. This discovery has thrown a flood of light
+on portions of the history of Roman law which had previously been most
+obscure. Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in
+the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of the
+ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be traced
+"survivals" from the most primitive times, which provide the science of
+comparative law with valuable illustrations, which may explain the
+strange forms of legal procedure found in other early systems. Another
+circumstance which renders the work of Gaius more interesting to the
+historical student than that of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time
+when actions were tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions
+given by the praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to
+whom he referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae
+it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the history
+of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the ancient law
+of Rome were modified by what has been called the equitable jurisdiction
+of the praetors, and made applicable to new conditions, and brought into
+harmony with the notions and the needs of a more developed society. It
+is clear from evidence of Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an
+independent set of courts administering, as in England previous to the
+Judicature Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts,
+but by the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the
+work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared.
+
+The _Institutes_ of Gaius are divided into four books--the first
+treating of persons and the differences of the status they may occupy in
+the eye of the law; the second of things, and the modes in which rights
+over them may be acquired, including the law relating to wills; the
+third of intestate succession and of obligations; the fourth of actions
+and their forms.
+
+  There are several carefully prepared editions of the _Institutes_,
+  starting from that of Goschen (1820), down to that of Studemund and
+  Kruger (1900). The most complete English edition is that of E. Poste,
+  which includes beside the text an English translation and copious
+  commentary (1885). A comparison of the early forms of actions
+  mentioned by Gaius with those used by other primitive societies will
+  be found in Sir H. Maine's _Early Institutions_, cap. 9. For further
+  information see M. Glasson, _Etude sur Gaius et sur le jus
+  respondendi_; also ROMAN LAW.
+
+
+
+
+GAIUS CAESAR (A.D. 12-41), surnamed CALIGULA, Roman emperor from 37-41,
+youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina the elder, was born on the 31st
+of August A.D. 12. He was brought up in his father's camp on the Rhine
+among the soldiers, and received the name Caligula from the _caligae_,
+or foot-soldiers' boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his
+father to Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 32 he was
+summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed to
+escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius by
+Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards, which was
+probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the throne amidst the
+rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred the imperial power upon
+him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus, the grandson of the preceding
+emperor, had been designated as his co-heir. He entered on his first
+consulship in July 37. For the first eight months of his reign he did
+not disappoint the popular expectation; but after his recovery from a
+severe illness his true character showed itself. His extravagance,
+cruelty and profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption
+that he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his conduct
+was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up, and the ideas of
+sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to pose as a monarch of
+the Graeco-oriental type. To fill his exhausted treasury he put to death
+his wealthy subjects and confiscated their property; even the poor fell
+victims to his thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a
+consulship upon his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should
+be offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole Roman
+people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a single stroke.
+In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally to punish the Germans
+for having invaded Roman territory, but in reality to get money by
+plunder and confiscation. Before leaving, he led his troops to the coast
+opposite Britain, and ordered them to pick up shells on the seashore, to
+be dedicated to the gods at Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return
+he entered Rome with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were
+built, statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood
+instituted to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new
+forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole Rome was
+free from internal disturbances during his reign; some insignificant
+conspiracies were discovered and rendered abortive. A personal insult to
+Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a praetorian cohort, led to Caligula's
+assassination on the 24th of January 41.
+
+  See Suetonius, _Caligula_; Tacitus, _Annals_, vi. 20 ff.; Dio Cassius
+  lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, _The Tragedy of the Caesars_ (3rd ed.,
+  1892); H.F. Pelham in _Quarterly Review_ (April, 1905); H. Willrich,
+  _Beitrage zur alten Geschichte_ (1903); H. Schiller, _Geschichte der
+  romischen Kaiserzeit_, i. pt. 1; J.B. Bury, _Student's Hist. of the
+  Roman Empire_ (1893); Merivale, _History of the Romans under the
+  Empire_, ch. 48; H. Furneaux's _Annals_ of Tacitus, ii.
+  (introduction). Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L.
+  Quidde, _Caligula_. _Eine Studie uber romischen Casarenwahnsinn_ and
+  an anonymous supplement, _1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar?_
+  (both 1894); and a reply, _Fin-de-Siecle-Geschichtsschreibung_, by G.
+  Sommerfeldt (1895).
+
+
+
+
+GALAGO, the Senegal name of the long-tailed African representatives of
+the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as their technical
+designation. Till recently the galagos have been included in the family
+_Lemuridae_; but this is restricted to the lemurs of Madagascar, and
+they are now classed with the lorises and pottos in the family
+_Nycticebidae_, of which they form the section _Galaginae_,
+characterized by the great elongation of the upper portion of the feet
+(tarsus) and the power of folding the large ears. Throughout the greater
+part of Africa south of the Sahara galagos are widely distributed in
+the wooded districts, from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the
+east, and as far south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are
+very active at night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When
+they descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by jumping
+with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little animals,
+varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a rat, with
+large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails. There are several
+species, of which _G. crassicaudatus_ from Mozambique is the largest;
+together with _G. garnetti_ of Natal, _G. agisymbanus_ of Zanzibar, and
+_G. monteiroi_ of Angola, this represents the subgenus _Otolemur_. The
+typical group includes _G. senegalensis_ (or _galago_) of Senegal, _G.
+alleni_ of West and Central Africa, and _G. moholi_ of South Africa;
+while _G. demidoffi_ of West and Central Africa and _G. anomurus_ of
+French Congoland represent the subgenus _Hemigalago_. (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GALANGAL, formerly written "galingale," and sometimes "garingal,"
+_rhizoma galangae_ (Arab. _Kholinjan_;[1] Ger. _Galgantwurzel_; Fr.
+_Racine de Galanga_), a drug, now obsolete, with an aromatic taste like
+that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser galangal root, _radix galangae
+minoris_, the ordinary galangal of commerce, is the dried rhizome of
+_Alpinia officinarum_, a plant of the natural order Zingiberaceae,
+growing in the Chinese island of Hainan, where it is cultivated, and
+probably also in the woods of the southern provinces of China. The plant
+is closely allied to _Alpinia calcarata_, the rhizome of which is sold
+in the bazaars of some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems
+attain a length of about 4 ft., and its leaves are slender, lanceolate
+and light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers are white with red
+veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses, sometimes
+more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow horizontally, and
+are 3/4 in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to have been unknown to
+the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to have been first introduced into
+Europe by Arabian physicians. It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn
+Khurdadbah, an Arabian geographer who flourished in the latter half of
+the 9th century, and "gallengar" (gallingale or galangal) is one of the
+ingredients in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a "wen salve" (see O.
+Cockayne, _Saxon Leechdoms_, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at
+present in Livonia, Esthonia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem
+in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still
+employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in Russia,
+where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring for liqueurs.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Apparently derived from the Chinese _Kau-liang-Kiang_, i.e.
+    Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after
+    the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called
+    Kau-liang (see F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. to the Materia Medica ...
+    of China_, p. 9, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, an archipelago of five larger and ten smaller islands
+in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator. The nearest island to
+the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of Ecuador, to which country
+they belong. The name is derived from _galapago_, a tortoise, on account
+of the giant species, the characteristic feature of the fauna. The
+islands were discovered early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave
+them their present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names
+of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for whom
+the group formed a convenient retreat.
+
+The larger members of the group, several of which attain an elevation of
+2000 to 2500 ft., are Albemarle or Isabela (100 m. long, 28 m. in
+extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and an extreme elevation of
+5000 ft.), Narborough or Fernandina, Indefatigable or Santa Cruz,
+Chatham or San Cristobal, James or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa
+Maria. The total land area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that
+of the West Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters, a
+few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence that the
+archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The number of main craters
+may be about twenty-five, but there are very many small eruptive cones
+on the flanks of the old volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on
+Chatham with some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed
+huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other officials
+of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in 1832, when General
+Villamil founded Floreana on Charles Island, naming it in honour of Juan
+Jose Flores, president of Ecuador. A governor has been appointed since
+1885, some importance being foreseen for the islands in connexion with
+the cutting of the Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to
+Australia opened up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of
+the group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets
+numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no doubt
+escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild cattle,
+horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs--the last large and fierce--which
+occur abundantly on most of the islands have escaped from domestication.
+
+The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a dense
+barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable thicket of
+tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended, give place to
+taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered with orchids and
+trailing moss (_orchilla_), and from which creepers hang down
+interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low grounds are parched
+and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of Peruvian cactus and stunted
+shrubs, and a most uninviting shore. The contrast between this low zone
+and the upper zone of rich vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously
+marked. From July to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and
+give moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry.
+Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does not
+occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water is scarce.
+Though the islands are under the equator, the climate is not intensely
+hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the Antarctic sea, which,
+having followed the coast of Peru as far as Cape Blanco, bear off to the
+N.W. towards and through the Galapagos. The mean temperature of the
+lower zone is about 71 deg. F., that of the upper from 66 deg. to 62 deg.
+
+The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to Ecuador, on
+account of the guano and the orchilla moss found on them and exported to
+Europe. Except on Charles Island, where settlement has existed longest,
+little or no influence of the presence of man is evident in the group;
+still, the running wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the
+vegetation, especially goats, must in a comparatively short period
+greatly modify the biological conditions of the islands.
+
+The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so distinctly
+oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief importance to this
+archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in the "Beagle." The
+Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare advantage from its isolated
+situation, and from the fact that its history has never been interfered
+with by any aborigines of the human race. Of the seven species of giant
+tortoises known to science (although at the discovery of the islands
+there were probably fifteen) all are indigenous, and each is confined to
+its own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two
+species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the
+birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while more
+than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the flora is
+unknown elsewhere.
+
+  Since 1860 several visits have been paid to the group by scientific
+  investigators--by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and the
+  naturalists of the "Albatross," between 1888 and 1891; and in
+  1897-1898 by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially undertaken
+  at the instance of the Hon. Walter Rothschild. Very complete
+  collections have therefore, as a result of these expeditions, been
+  brought together; but their examination does not materially change the
+  facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin, from the
+  evidence of the birds and plants, were based; though he "no doubt
+  would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded by
+  Land-tortoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which we
+  are acquainted now" (Gunther). His conclusions were that the group
+  "has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have its
+  members been at any time closer together"; and that the character of
+  the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over from
+  America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where in
+  their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees and
+  ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further
+  exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists
+  that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from
+  subsidences, through volcanic action, which have reduced one large
+  island mass into a number of islets, wherein the separated species
+  became differentiated during their isolation. The presence of these
+  giant reptiles on the group is the chief fact on which a former land
+  connexion with the continent of America may be sustained. "Nearly all
+  authorities agree that it is not probable that they have crossed the
+  wide sea between the Galapagos Islands and the American continent,
+  although, while they are helpless, and quite unable to swim, they can
+  float on the water. If their ancestors had been carried out to sea
+  once or twice by a flood and safely drifted as far as the Galapagos
+  Islands" (Wallace), "they must have been numerous on the continent"
+  (Rothschild and Hartert). No remains, and of course no living species,
+  of these tortoises are known to exist or have existed on the mainland.
+  Rothschild and Hartert think "it is more natural to assume the
+  disappearance of a great stock of animals, the remains of which have
+  survived, ... than to assume the disappearance in comparatively recent
+  times (i.e. in the Eocene period or later) of enormous land masses."
+  Past elevations of land, however (and doubtless equally great
+  subsidences) have taken place in South America since the Eocene, and
+  the conclusion that extensive areas of land have subsided in the
+  Indian Ocean has long been based on a somewhat similar distribution of
+  giant tortoises in the Mascarene region.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Darwin, _Voyage of the "Beagle"_; O. Salvin, "On the
+  Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ part ix.
+  (1876); Sclater and Salvin, "Characters of New Species collected by Dr
+  Habel in the Galapagos Islands," _Proc. Zool. Soc. London_, 1870, pp.
+  322-327; A.R. Wallace, _Geographical Distribution of Animals_ (New
+  York, 1876); Theodor Wolf, _Ein Besuch der Galapagos Inseln_
+  (Heidelberg, 1879); and paper in _Geographical Journal_, vi. 560
+  (1895); W.L. and P.L. Sclater, _The Geography of Mammals_ (London,
+  1899); Ridgway, "Birds of the Galapagos Archipelago," _Proc. U.S. Nat.
+  Mus._ vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897); Baur, "New Observations on the
+  Origin of the Galapagos Islands," _Amer. Nat._ (1897), pp. 661-680,
+  864-896; A. Agassiz, "The Galapagos Islands," _Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool._
+  vol. xxiii. pp. 56-75; A. Gunther, _Proc. Linn. Soc._ (London
+  (President's Address), October 1898), pp. 14-29 (with bibliography
+  from 1875 to 1898 on gigantic land-tortoises); Rothschild and Hartert,
+  "Review of the Ornithology of the Galapagos Islands," _Novitates
+  zoologicae_, vi. pp. 85-205; B.L. Robinson, "Flora of the Galapagos
+  Islands," _Proc. Amer. Acad. of Arts and Sciences_, xxxviii. (1902).
+
+
+
+
+GALASHIELS, a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1891) 17,367; (1901) 13,615. It is situated on Gala Water, within a
+short distance of its junction with the Tweed, 33-1/2 m. S.S.E. of
+Edinburgh by the North British railway. The town stretches for more than
+2 m. along both banks of the river, the mills and factories occupying
+the valley by the stream, the villas and better-class houses the
+high-lying ground on either side. The principal structures include the
+municipal buildings, corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market
+cross. The town is under the control of a provost, bailies and council,
+and, along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border) group
+of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures, dating from the close
+of the 16th century, are the most important in Scotland, though now
+mainly confined to the weaving of tweeds. Other leading industries are
+hosiery, tanning (with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and
+brass founding, engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built
+for the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.), it
+became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the
+Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose peel-tower
+was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created into a burgh of
+barony in 1599. The Catrail or Picts' Work begins near the town and
+passes immediately to the west. Clovenfords, 3-1/2 m. W., is noted for
+the Tweed vineries, which are heated by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply
+the London market throughout the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is
+Ashestiel, where Sir Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 1812, where he
+wrote his most famous poems and began _Waverley_, and which he left for
+Abbotsford.
+
+
+
+
+GALATIA. I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman _Gallograecia_)
+this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples to a large inland
+district of Asia Minor since its occupation by Gaulish tribes in the 3rd
+century B.C. Bounded on the N. by Bithynia and Paphlagonia, W. by
+Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and Cappadocia, E. by Pontus, it included the
+greater part of the modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus
+eastwards to Tavium and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra
+southwards to the N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including
+the plains W. of the lake during the greater part of its history),--a
+rough oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad.
+
+Galatia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here ranging
+from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographically into two
+parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak),--a small eastern district
+lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije Irmak, the principal affluent
+of the Halys, and a large western region drained almost entirely by the
+Sangarius (Sakaria) and its tributaries. On the N. side Galatia consists
+of a series of plains with fairly fertile soil, lying between bare
+hills. But the greater part is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating
+uplands, intersected by tiny streams and passing gradually into the vast
+level waste of treeless (anc. _Axylon_) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia;
+these uplands are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage
+for large flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart, and
+the climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general condition
+and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient as in modern
+times.
+
+The Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 B.C. They
+numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men, the rest
+being doubtless women and children; and not long after their arrival we
+find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi, Tolistobogii and
+Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate sphere of operations. They
+had split off from the army which invaded Greece under Brennus in 279
+B.C., and, marching into Thrace under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed
+over to Asia at the invitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required
+help in his struggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were
+the scourge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country, as
+allies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious
+check, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted several
+severe defeats upon them, and about 232 B.C. forced them to settle
+permanently in the region to which they gave their name. Probably they
+already occupied parts of Galatia, but definite limits were now fixed
+and their right to the district was formally recognized. The tribes were
+settled where they afterwards remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the
+Tolistobogii round Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The
+constitution of the Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably
+to Gaulish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr. [Greek:
+tetrarchiai]), each governed by a chief ("tetrarch") of its own with a
+judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in cases of murder,
+which were tried before a council of 300 drawn from the twelve cantons
+and meeting at a holy place called Drynemeton. But the power of the
+Gauls was not yet broken. They proved a formidable foe to the Romans in
+their wars with Antiochus, and after Attalus' death their raids into W.
+Asia Minor forced Rome in 189 B.C. to send an expedition against them
+under Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson. Henceforward
+their military power declined and they fell at times under Pontic
+ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by the Mithradatic wars,
+in which they heartily supported Rome. In the settlement of 64 B.C.
+Galatia became a client-state of the empire, the old constitution
+disappeared, and three chiefs (wrongly styled "tetrarchs") were
+appointed, one for each tribe. But this arrangement soon gave way before
+the ambition of one of these tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of
+Cicero and Caesar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies
+and was finally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the
+death of the third king Amyntas in 25 B.C., Galatia was incorporated by
+Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces were more
+enthusiastically loyal.
+
+The population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the arrival of
+the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was inhabited by Phrygians,
+and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians and other native races. This native
+population remained, and constituted the majority of the inhabitants of
+the rural parts and almost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were
+left in possession of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, _B.G._ i. 31)
+on condition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who took
+the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the arts and
+crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands. They were
+henceforth ranked as "Galatians" by the outside world equally with their
+overlords, and it was from their numbers that the "Galatian" slaves who
+figure in the markets of the ancient world were drawn. The conquerors,
+who were few in number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not
+in the towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their
+castles kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With
+the decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with the
+natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation was
+accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became as complete as
+that of the Normans with the Saxons in England, but they gave to the
+mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and long retained their
+national characteristics and social customs, as well as their language
+(which continued in use, side by side with Greek, in the 4th century
+after Christ). In the 1st century, when St Paul made his missionary
+journeys, even the towns Ancyra, Pessinus and Tavium (where Gauls were
+few) were not Hellenized, though Greek, the language of government and
+trade, was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected by
+Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought begin to appear
+in the towns only in the later 2nd century. In the rustic parts a
+knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the 3rd century; but only in the
+4th and 5th centuries, after the transference of the centre of
+government first to Nicomedia and then to Constantinople placed Galatia
+on the highway of imperial communication, was Hellenism in its Christian
+form gradually diffused over the country. (See also ANCYRA; PESSINUS;
+GORDIUM.)
+
+II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C., included the
+greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz. Galatia Proper, part
+of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia, Antioch and Iconium), Pisidia,
+part of Lycaonia (including Lystra and Derbe) and Isauria. For nearly
+100 years it was the frontier province, and the changes in its
+boundaries are an epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the
+Euphrates, one client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in
+6-5 B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, A.D. 1-2; Comana, A.D.
+34-35,--together forming Pontus Galaticus,--the Pontic kingdom of
+Polemon, A.D. 64, under the name Pontus Polemoniacus. In A.D. 70
+Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since A.D. 17) with Armenia Minor
+became the centre of the forward movement and Galatia lost its
+importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a vast double governorship
+until A.D. 114 (probably), when Trajan separated the two parts, making
+Galatia an inferior province of diminished size, while Cappadocia with
+Armenia Minor and Pontus became a great consular military province,
+charged with the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's
+reorganization Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the
+name retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia of
+Deiotarus); and about 390 this province, amplified by the addition of a
+few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia Prima and Secunda or
+Salutaris, the division indicating the renewed importance of Galatia in
+the Byzantine empire. After suffering from Persian and Arabic raids,
+Galatia was conquered by the Seljuk Turks in the 11th century and passed
+to the Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.
+
+The question whether the "Churches of Galatia," to which St Paul
+addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or southern part of
+the province has been much discussed, and in England Prof. Sir W.M.
+Ramsay has been the principal advocate of the adoption of the
+South-Galatian theory, which maintains that they were the churches
+planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and Antioch (see GALATIANS). In the
+present writer's opinion this is supported by the study of the
+historical and geographical facts.[1]
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Van Gelder, _De Gallis in Graecia et Asia_ (1888);
+  Staehelin, _Gesch. d. kleinasiat. Galater_ (1897); Perrot, _De Galatia
+  prov. Rom._ (1867); Sir W.M. Ramsay, _Histor. Geogr._ (1890), _St
+  Paul_ (1898), and Introd. to _Histor. Commentary on Galatians_ (1899).
+  For antiquities generally, Perrot, _Explor. archeol. de la Galatie_
+  (1862); K. Humann and O. Puchstein, _Reisen in Kleinasien_ (1890);
+  Koerte, _Athen. Mitteilungen_ (1897); Anderson and Crowfoot, _Journ.
+  of Hellenic Studies_ (1899); and Anderson, _Map of Asia Minor_
+  (London, Murray, 1903).     (J. G. C. A.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
+    attaches to the opinion of experts on either side; and the above
+    statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
+    on the epistle, must be taken on its merits.--Ed. _E.B._
+
+
+
+
+GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE, one of the books of the New Testament. This
+early Christian scripture is one of the books militant in the world's
+literature. Its usefulness to Luther in his propaganda was no accident
+in its history; it originated in a controversy, and the varying views of
+the momentous struggle depicted in Gal. ii. and Acts xv. have naturally
+determined, from time to time, the conception of the epistle's aim and
+date. Details of the long critical discussion of this problem cannot be
+given here. (See PAUL.) It must suffice to say that to the present
+writer the identification of Gal. ii. 1-10 with Acts xi. 28 f. and not
+with Acts xv. appears quite untenable, while a fair exegesis of Acts
+xvi. 1-6 implies a distinction between such towns as Lystra, Derbe and
+Iconium on the one hand and the Galatian [Greek: chora] with Phrygia
+upon the other.[1] A further visit to the latter country is mentioned,
+upon this view, in Acts xviii. 23. The Christians to whom the epistle
+was addressed were thus inhabitants, for the most part (iv. 8) of pagan
+birth, belonging to the northern section of the province, perhaps mainly
+in its south-western district adjoining Bithynia and the province of
+Asia. The scanty allusions to this mission in Acts cannot be taken as
+any objection to the theory. Nor is there any valid geographical
+difficulty. The country was quite accessible from Antioch. Least of all
+does the historical evidence at our disposal justify the inference that
+the civilization of north Galatia, during the 1st century A.D., was
+Romano-Gallic rather than Hellenic; for, as the coins and inscriptions
+indicate, the Anatolian culture which predominated throughout the
+province did not exclude the infusion either of Greek religious
+conceptions or of the Greek language. The degree of elementary Greek
+culture needful for the understanding of Galatians cannot be shown to
+have been foreign to the inhabitants of north Galatia. So far as any
+trustworthy evidence is available, such Hellenic notions as are
+presupposed in this epistle might well have been intelligible to the
+Galatians of the northern provinces. Still less does the acquaintance
+with Roman jurisprudence in iii. 15-iv. 2 imply, as Halmel contends
+(_Uber rom. Recht im Galaterbrief_, 1895), not merely that Paul must
+have acquired such knowledge in Italy but that he wrote the epistle
+there. A popular acquaintance with the outstanding features of Roman law
+was widely diffused by this time in Asia Minor.
+
+The epistle can hardly have been written therefore until after the
+period described in Acts xviii. 22, but the _terminus ad quem_ is more
+difficult to fix.[2] The composition may be placed (cf. the present
+writer's _Historical New Testament_, pp. 124 f. for details) either
+during the earlier part of Paul's residence at Ephesus (Acts xix. 1, 10,
+so most editors and scholars), or on his way from Ephesus to Corinth, or
+at Corinth itself (so Lightfoot, Bleek, Salmon).
+
+The epistle was not written until Paul had visited Thessalonica, but
+the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul undertaken
+some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe. When he composed this
+letter, he had visited the churches twice. On the former of these visits
+(iv. 13 [Greek: to proteron]), though broken down by illness (2 Cor.
+xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusiastically welcomed, and the immediate
+result of his mission was an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5,
+iv. 14 f.). The local Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But
+they failed to maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7,
+v. 21) the apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due
+to discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence in
+some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective. Otherwise,
+this second visit is left in the shadow.[3] So far as it was accompanied
+by warnings, these were evidently general rather than elicited by any
+definite and imminent peril to the churches. Not long afterwards,
+however, some judaizing opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous
+anonymity of the [Greek: tines] in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by
+one prominent and influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance
+among the Galatians, promulgating a "gospel" which meant fidelity to,
+not freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testament,
+they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which required to
+be supplemented by legal exactitude,[4] including ritual observance (iv.
+10) and even circumcision,[5] while at the same time they sought to
+undermine his authority[6] by pointing out that it was derived from the
+apostles at Jerusalem and therefore that his teaching must be open to
+the checks and tests of that orthodox primitive standard which they
+themselves claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic
+privileges was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory
+upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).
+
+When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had evidently not
+yet gone too far. Only a few had been circumcised. It was not too late
+to arrest the Galatians on their downward plane, and the apostle, unable
+or unwilling to re-visit them, despatched this epistle. How or when the
+information came to him, we do not know. But the gravity of the
+situation renders it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time
+in writing to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from
+allusions like those in i. 6 ([Greek: tacheos] and [Greek:
+metatithesthe]--the lapse still in progress), we may conclude that the
+interval between the reception of the news and the composition of the
+letter must have been comparatively brief.
+
+After a short introduction[7] (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual word
+of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical
+vindication[8] of his apostolic independence, which, developed
+negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main sections
+in the epistle (i. 6-ii. 21). In the closing passage he drifts over from
+an account of this interview with Peter into a sort of monologue upon
+the incompatibility of the Mosaic law with the Christian gospel (ii.
+15-21),[9] and this starts him afresh upon a trenchant expostulation and
+appeal (iii. 1-v. 12) regarding the alternatives of law and spirit.
+Faith dominates this section; faith in its historical career and as the
+vantage-ground of Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be
+merely a provisional episode[10] culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28)
+as a message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. 11). The
+genuine "sons of Abraham" are not legalistic Jewish Christians but those
+who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate outburst then
+follows (iv. 12 f.), and, harping still on Abraham, the apostle essays,
+with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christianity over legalism
+as the free and final religion for men, applying this to the moral
+situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 1-12). This conception of
+freedom then leads him to define the moral responsibilities of the faith
+(v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent misconception and to enforce the
+claims of the gospel upon the individual and social life of the
+Galatians. The epilogue (vi. 11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt,
+emphatic sentences, the main points of the epistle.
+
+The allusion in vi. 11 [Greek: (idete pelikois hymin grammasin egrapsa
+te eme cheiri)] is to the large bold size[11] of the letters in Paul's
+handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are matters of
+dispute. It is "a sensational heading" (Findlay), but it may either
+refer[12] to the whole epistle (so Augustine, Chrysostom, &c., followed
+by Zahn) or, as most hold (with Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 11-18).
+Paul commonly dictated his letters. His use of the autograph here may
+have been to prevent any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal
+emphasis of his message. In any case it is assumed that the Galatians
+knew his handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript
+from a feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize
+that, after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating
+them like children, "playfully hinting that surely the large letters
+will touch their hearts" (so Deissmann, _Bible-Studies_ (1901), 346 f.).
+
+The earliest allusion to the epistle[13] is the notice of its inclusion
+in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be
+heard in Justin Martyr's _Dial._ xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known to
+Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of its popularity
+multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the Ophites to Irenaeus and
+the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's _Canon and Text of N.T._, 1907, pp.
+201-203). It is no longer necessary for serious criticism to refute the
+objections to its authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain
+quarters;[14] as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's
+commentaries, "to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism."
+Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion (cf.
+Tert. _Adv. Marc._ 2-4) removed what he judged to be some
+interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion's text is
+more original than the canonical (_Theolog. Tijdschrift_, 1887, 400 f.
+451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation in _Die
+Einheitlichkeit der paulin_. _Briefe_, 1894, pp. 100 f. and Zahn's
+_Geschichte d. N. T. lichen Kanons_, ii. 409 f.), and little or no
+weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J.A. Cramer) to
+disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even D. Volter, who
+applies this method to the other Pauline epistles, admits that
+Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a literary unity
+(_Paulus und seine Briefe_, 1905, pp. 229-285). The frequent roughnesses
+of the traditional text suggest, however, that here and there marginal
+glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a ([Greek: to gar Sina oros estin
+en te Arabia]) probably represents the explanatory and prosaic gloss of
+a later editor, as many scholars have seen from Bentley (_Opuscula
+philologica_, 1781, pp. 533 f.) to H.A. Schott, J.A. Cramer, J.M.S.
+Baljon and C. Holsten. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and
+unpremeditated, "one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine and
+inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood, such as may
+often have been seen by his Galatians" (J. Macgregor). But there is a
+certain rhythmical balance, especially in the first chapter (cf. J.
+Weiss, _Beitrage zur paulin. Rhetorik_, 1897, 8 f.); here as elsewhere
+the rush and flow of feeling carry with them some care for rhetorical
+form, in the shape of antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might
+more or less unconsciously retain.[15] All through, the letter shows the
+breaks and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis.
+Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument, are its
+most characteristic features.[16] The trenchant remonstrances and fiery
+outbursts make it indeed "read like a dithyramb from beginning to end."
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Of more modern editions in English, the most competent
+  are those of C.J. Ellicott (4th ed., 1867, strong in linguistic and
+  grammatical material), Prof. Eadie (Edinburgh, 1869), J.B. Lightfoot
+  (11th ed., 1892), Dean Alford (3rd ed., 1862) and F. Rendall
+  (_Expositor's Greek Testament_, 1903) on the Greek text; Dr Sanday (in
+  Ellicott's _Commentary_, 1879), Dr Jas. Macgregor (Edinburgh, 1879),
+  B. Jowett (3rd ed., 1894), Huxtable (_Pulpit Comment._, 1885), Dr Agar
+  Beet (London, 1885, &c.), Dr W.F. Adeney (_Century Bible_), Dr E.H.
+  Perowne (_Cambridge Bible_, 1890) and Dr James Drummond (_Internat.
+  Handbooks to N.T._, 1899) also comment on the English text. The
+  editions of Lightfoot and Jowett are especially valuable for their
+  subsidiary essays, and Sir W.M. Ramsay's _Historical Commentary on
+  Galatians_ (1899) contains archaeological and historical material
+  which is often illuminating. The French editions are few and minor,
+  those by A. Sardinoux (Valence, 1837) and E. Reuss (1878) being
+  adequate, however. In Germany the two most up-to-date editions are by
+  F. Sieffert (in Meyer's _Comment._, 1899) and Th. Zahn (2nd ed.,
+  1907); these supersede most of the earlier works, but H.A. Schott
+  (1834), A. Wieseler (Gottingen, 1859), G.B. Winer (4th ed., 1859),
+  J.C.K. von Hofmann (2nd ed., 1872), Philippi (1884), R.A. Lipsius (2nd
+  ed., _Hand.-Commentar_, 1892), and Zockler (2nd ed., 1894) may still
+  be consulted with advantage, while Hilgenfeld's commentary (1852)
+  discusses acutely the historical problems of the epistle from the
+  standpoint of Baur's criticism. The works of A. Schlatter (2nd ed.,
+  1894) and W. Bousset (_in Die Schriften des N.T._, 2nd ed., 1907) are
+  more popular in character. F. Windischmann (Mayence, 1843), F.X.
+  Reithmayr (1865), A. Schafer (Munster, 1890) and F. Cornely (1892,
+  also in _Cursus scripturae sacrae_, 1907) are the most satisfactory
+  modern editors, from the Roman Catholic church, but it should not be
+  forgotten that the 16th century produced the _Literalis expositio_ of
+  Cajetan (Rome, 1529) and the similar work of Pierre Barahona
+  (Salamanca, 1590), no less than the epoch-making edition of Luther
+  (Latin, 1519, &c.; German, 1525 f.; English, 1575 f.). After Calvin
+  and Grotius, H.E.G. Paulus (_Des Apostel P. Lehrbriefe an die Gal. u.
+  Romer Christen_, 1831) was perhaps the most independent interpreter.
+  For the patristic editions, see the introductory sections in Zahn and
+  Lightfoot. The religious thought of the epistle is admirably
+  expounded from different standpoints by C. Holsten (_Das Evangelium
+  Paulus_, Teil I., i., 1880), A.B. Bruce (_St Paul's Conception of
+  Christianity_, 1894, pp. 49-70) and Prof. G.G. Findlay (_Expositor's
+  Bible_). On the historical aspects, Zimmer (_Galat. und
+  Apostelgeschichte_, 1882) and M. Thomas (_Melanges d'histoire et de
+  litt. religieuse_, Paris, 1899, pp. 1-195) are excellent; E.H.
+  Askwith's essay (_Epistle to the Galatians, its Destination and Date_,
+  1899) advocates ingeniously the south Galatian theory, and W.S. Wood
+  (_Studies in St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_, 1887) criticizes
+  Lightfoot. General studies of the epistle will be found in all
+  biographies of Paul and histories of the apostolic age, as well as in
+  works like Sabatier's _The Apostle Paul_ (pp. 187 f.), B.W. Bacon's
+  _Story of St Paul_ (pp. 116 f.), Dr R.D. Shaw's _The Pauline Epistles_
+  (2nd ed., pp. 60 f.), R. Mariano, _Il Cristianesimo nei primi secoli_
+  (1902), i. pp. 111 f., and Volkmar's _Paulus vom Damaskus bis zum
+  Galaterbrief_ (1887), to which may be added a series of papers by
+  Haupt in _Deutsche Evang.-Blatter_ (1904), 1-16, 89-108, 161-183,
+  238-259, and an earlier set by Hilgenfeld in the _Zeitschrift fur
+  wiss. Theologie_ ("Zur Vorgeschichte des Gal." 1860, pp. 206 f., 1866,
+  pp. 301 f., 1884, pp. 303 f.). Other monographs and essays have been
+  noted in the course of this article. See further under PAUL.
+       (J. Mt.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The historical and geographical facts concerning Galatia, which
+    lead other writers to support the south Galatian theory, are stated
+    in the preceding article on Galatia; and the question is still a
+    matter of controversy, the division of opinion being to some extent
+    dependent on whether it is approached from the point of view of the
+    archaeologist or the Biblical critic. The ablest re-statements of the
+    north Galatian theory, in the light of recent pleas for south Galatia
+    as the destination of this epistle, may be found by the English
+    reader in P.W. Schmiedel's exhaustive article in _Encycl. Biblica_
+    (1592-1616) and Prof. G.H. Gilbert's _Student's Life of Paul_ (1902),
+    pp. 260-272. Schmiedel's arguments are mainly directed against Sir
+    W.M. Ramsay, but a recent Roman Catholic scholar, Dr A. Steinmann,
+    takes a wider survey in a pamphlet on the north Galatian side of the
+    controversy (_Die Abfassungszeit des Galaterbriefes_, Munster, i. W.,
+    1906), carrying forward the points already urged by Sieffert and
+    Zockler amongst others, and especially refuting his fellow-churchman,
+    Prof. Valentine Weber.
+
+  [2] The tendency among adherents of the south Galatian theory is to
+    put the epistle as early as possible, making it contemporaneous with,
+    if not prior to, 1 Thessalonians. So Douglass Round in _The Date of
+    St Paul's Epistle to the Galatians_ (1906).
+
+  [3] It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
+    were already found by Paul on this visit (so especially Holsten,
+    Lipsius, Sieffert, Pfleiderer, Weiss and Weizsacker) or whether they
+    are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and
+    Hofmann, among others). The tone of surprise which marks the opening
+    of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul seems to
+    have been taken aback by the news of the Galatians' defection.
+
+  [4] Apparently they were clever enough to keep the Galatians in
+    ignorance that the entire law would require to be obeyed (v. 3).
+
+  [5] The critical dubiety about [Greek: oude] in ii. 5 (cf. Zahn's
+    excursus and Prof. Lake in _Expositor_, March 1906, p. 236 f.) throws
+    a slight doubt on the interpretation of ii. 3, but it is clear that
+    the agitators had quoted Paul's practice as an authoritative sanction
+    of the rite.
+
+  [6] This depreciation is voiced in their catch-word [Greek: oi
+    dokountes] ("those of repute," ii. 6), while other echoes of their
+    talk can be overheard in such phrases as "we are Abraham's seed"
+    (iii. 16), "sinners of Gentiles" (ii. 15) and "Jerusalem which is our
+    mother" (iv. 26), as well as in their charges against Paul of
+    "seeking to please men" (i. 10) and "preaching circumcision" (v. 11).
+
+  [7] Not only is the address "to the churches of Galatia" unusually
+    bare, but Paul associates no one with himself, either because he was
+    on a journey or because, as the attacked party, he desired to
+    concentrate attention upon his personal commission. Yet the [Greek:
+    hemeis] of i. 8 indicates colleagues like Silas and Timothy.
+
+  [8] Cf. Hausrath's _History of the N.T. Times_ (iii. pp. 181-199),
+    with the fine remarks, on vi. 17, that "Paul stands before us like an
+    ancient general who bares his breast before his mutinous legions, and
+    shows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy to
+    be called Imperator."
+
+  [9] Cf. T.H. Green's _Works_, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the
+    indirect abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the
+    apostle, carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he
+    dictates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.
+
+  [10] Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
+    (cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was given as the divine remedy
+    for the evil _yezer_ of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues,
+    it is an aggravation.
+
+  [11] According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
+    use of his son, [Greek: idia cheiri kai megalois grammasin] (cf.
+    Field's _Notes on Translation of the New Testament_, p. 191). If the
+    point of Gal. vi. 11 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot
+    have contemplated copies of the epistle being made. He must have
+    assumed that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2
+    Thess. iii. 17, with E.A. Abbott, _Johannine Grammar_, pp. 530-532).
+
+  [12] For [Greek: egrapsa], the epistolary aorist, at the close of a
+    letter, cf. Xen. _Anab._ i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX)
+    and Lucian, _Dial. Meretr._ x.
+
+  [13] Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the
+    later N.T. literature to Galatians (_Die Ursprunglichkeit des
+    Galaterbriefes_, Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of
+    the literary evidence.
+
+  [14] Cf. especially J. Gloe's _Die jungste Kritik des Galaterbriefes_
+    (Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Steck and Loman
+    (_Exeg.-kritische verhandeling over den Brief van P. aan de Gal._,
+    1889). The English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already
+    referred to) and Dr R.J. Knowling's _The Testimony of St Paul to
+    Christ_ (1905), 28 f.
+
+  [15] Compare the minute analysis of the whole epistle in F. Blass,
+    _Die Rhythmen der asianischen und romischen Kunstprosa_ (1905), pp.
+    43-53, 204-216, where, however, this feature is exaggerated into
+    unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. iii. 1 ([Greek: emoi men
+    ouk okneron, hymin d' asphales]) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv.
+    33, a reminiscence of Menander.
+
+  [16] This affects even the vocabulary which has also "einen gewissen
+    vulgaren Zug" (Nageli, _Der Wortschatz des Apostels Paulus_, 1905,
+    pp. 78-79).
+
+
+
+
+GALATINA, a town of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, from which
+it is 14 m. S. by rail, 233 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) 12,917
+(town); 14,086 (commune). It is chiefly remarkable for the fine Gothic
+church of St Caterina, built in 1390 by Raimondello del Balzo Orsini,
+count of Soleto, with a fine portal and rose-window. The interior
+contains frescoes by Francesco d' Arezzo (1435). The apse contains the
+fine mausoleum of the son of the founder (d. 1454), a canopy supported
+by four columns, with his statue beneath it.
+
+
+
+
+GALATZ (_Galatii_), a city of Rumania, capital of the department of
+Covurlui; on the left bank of the river Danube, 90 m. W. by N. of its
+mouth at Sulina. Pop. (1900) 62,678, including 12,000 Jews. The Danube
+is joined by the Sereth 3 m. S.W. of Galatz, and by the Pruth 10 m. E.
+Galatz is built on a slight eminence among the marshes which line the
+intervening shore and form, beside the western bank of the Pruth, the
+shallow mere called Lake Bratych (_Bratesul_), more than 50 sq. m. in
+extent. With the disappearance, towards the close of the 19th century,
+of most of its older quarters in which the crooked, ill-paved streets
+and insanitary houses were liable to be flooded every year, the city
+improved rapidly. Embankments and fine quays were constructed along the
+Danube; electric tramways were opened in the main streets, which were
+lighted by gas or electricity, and pure water was supplied. The higher,
+or north-western part of the city, which is the more open and
+comfortable, contains many of the chief buildings. These include the
+prefecture, consulate, prison, barracks, civil and military hospitals
+and the offices of the international commission for the control of the
+Danube (q.v.). The bishop of the lower Danube resides at Galatz. There
+are many Orthodox Greek, Roman Catholic and other churches; the most
+interesting being the cathedral, and St Mary's church, in which is the
+tomb of the famous Cossack chief, Mazeppa (1644-1709), said to have been
+rifled of its contents by the Russians. Galatz is a naval station, and
+the headquarters of the III. army corps, protected by a line of
+fortifications which extends for 45 m. E. to Focshani and is known as
+the Sereth line. But the main importance of the city is commercial.
+Galatz is the chief Moldavian port of entry, approached by three
+waterways, the Danube, Sereth and Pruth, down which there is a continual
+volume of traffic, except in mid-winter; and by the railways which
+intersect all the richest portions of the country. Textiles, machinery,
+and coal make up the bulk of imports. Besides a large trade in petroleum
+and salt, Galatz ranks first among Rumanian cities in its export of
+timber, and second to Braila in its export of grain. It possesses many
+saw-mills, paste-mills, flour-mills, roperies, chemical works and
+petroleum refineries; manufacturing also metal ware, wire, nails, soap
+and candles. Vessels of 2500 tons can discharge at the quays, but
+cargoes consigned to Galatz are often transhipped into lighters at
+Sulina. The shipping trade is largely in foreign hands, the principal
+owners being British.
+
+
+
+
+GALAXY, properly the MILKY WAY, from the Greek name [Greek: ho
+galaxias], sc. [Greek: kyklos], from [Greek: gala], milk, cf. the Lat.
+_via lactea_ (see STAR). The word is more generally employed in its
+figurative or transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant
+or distinguished persons or objects.
+
+
+
+
+GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general and orator. He served under
+Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian War. As praetor in 151
+B.C. in farther Spain he made himself infamous by the treacherous murder
+of a number of Lusitanians, with their wives and children, after
+inducing them to surrender by the promise of grants of land. For this in
+149 he was brought to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by
+holding up his little children before the people to gain their sympathy.
+He was consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an
+eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in Cicero's
+opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His speeches, however, were
+almost forgotten in Cicero's time.
+
+  Livy xlv. 35; Appian, _Hisp._ 58-60; Cicero, _De orat._ i. 53, iii. 7;
+  Brutus 21.
+
+
+
+
+GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman emperor (June A.D. 68 to January 69),
+born near Terracina, on the 24th of December 5 B.C. He came of a noble
+family and was a man of great wealth, but unconnected either by birth or
+by adoption with the first six Caesars. In his early years he was
+regarded as a youth of remarkable abilities, and it is said that both
+Augustus and Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, _Annals_,
+vi. 20; Suetonius, _Galba_, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he
+acquired a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany,
+Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and
+impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation of his
+friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served Claudius. For the
+first half of Nero's reign he lived in retirement, till, in 61, the
+emperor bestowed on him the province of Hispania Tarraconensis. In the
+spring of 68 Galba was informed of Nero's intention to put him to death,
+and of the insurrection of Julius Vindex in Gaul. He was at first
+inclined to follow the example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of
+the latter renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus, the
+praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived Galba's
+spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the legate of the
+senate and Roman people; after the murder of Nero, he assumed the title
+of Caesar, and marched straight for Rome. At first he was welcomed by
+the senate and the party of order, but he was never popular with the
+soldiers or the people. He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by
+scornfully refusing to pay them the reward promised in his name, and
+disgusted the mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His
+advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in the hands
+of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions of Germany, who demanded
+that the senate should choose another emperor, first made him aware of
+his own unpopularity and the general discontent. In order to check the
+rising storm, he adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius
+Piso Frugi Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His
+choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a sign of
+fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the usual donative was
+not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly governor of Lusitania, and
+one of Galba's earliest supporters, disappointed at not being chosen
+instead of Piso, entered into communication with the discontented
+praetorians, and was adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at
+once set out to meet the rebels--he was so feeble that he had to be
+carried in a litter--was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near
+the Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial
+administration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due either to
+a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the growing infirmities
+of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would have pronounced him worthy
+of empire if he had never been emperor ("omnium consensu capax imperii
+nisi imperasset").
+
+  See his life by Plutarch and Suetonius; Tacitus, _Histories_, i. 7-49;
+  Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B.W. Henderson, _Civil War and
+  Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 69-70_ (1908); W.A. Spooner, _On
+  the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitellius_ in Introd. to his edition
+  (1891) of the _Histories_ of Tacitus.
+
+
+
+
+GALBANUM (Heb. _Helbenah_; Gr. [Greek: chalbane]), a gum-resin, the
+product of _Ferula galbaniflua_, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps also
+of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or soft,
+irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or occasionally
+in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or greenish-yellow
+colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a peculiar, somewhat musky
+odour, and a specific gravity of 1.212. It contains about 8% of terpene;
+about 65% of a resin which contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a
+very small quantity of the colourless crystalline substance
+_umbelliferone_, C9H6O3. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In
+Exodus xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the
+making of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in
+medicine, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 13) ascribes to it extraordinary
+curative powers, concluding his account of it with the assertion that
+"the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium is sufficient to kill
+a serpent." The drug is occasionally given in modern medicine, in doses
+of from five to fifteen grains. It has the actions common to substances
+containing a resin and a volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however,
+obsolescent.
+
+
+
+
+GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes of Ferghana, Kohistan and
+Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks,
+are identified with the _Calcienses populi_ of the lay Jesuit Benedict
+Goes, who crossed the Pamir in 1603 and described them as "of light hair
+and beard like the Belgians." The word "Galcha," which has been
+explained as meaning "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the
+mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik
+family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably simply
+the Persian _galcha_, "clown" or "rustic," in reference to their uncouth
+manners. The Galchas conform physically to what has been called the
+"Alpine or Celtic European race," so much so that French anthropologists
+have termed them "those belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy
+describes them as tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy
+cheeks, black, chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes,
+never oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face
+and round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas
+represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through Armenia
+and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The Galchas for the most
+part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.
+
+  See Robert Shaw, "On the Galtchah Languages," in _Journ. As. Soc.
+  Bengal_, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, _Tribes of
+  the Hindoo-Koosh_ (Calcutta, 1880); Hon. Mountstuart Elphinstone, _An
+  Account of the Kingdom of Caubul_ (1815); _Bull. de la societe
+  d'anthropologie de Paris_ (1887); Charles Eugene D'Ujfalvy de
+  Mezoe-Koevesd, _Les Aryens_ (1896), and in _Revue d'anthropologie_
+  (1879), and _Bull. de la soc. de geogr._ (June 1878); W.Z. Ripley,
+  _Races of Europe_ (New York, 1899).
+
+
+
+
+GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist divine, was born in
+1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where his father was vicar. In
+1647 he was entered at Magdalen College, Oxford, where he took his B.A.
+degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652. In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor
+of his college. He remained some years at Oxford, discharging actively
+the duties of tutor, and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester
+cathedral. In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and
+was ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he
+accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy, returning to
+England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he passed in London as
+assistant to John Rowe, an Independent minister who had charge of an
+important church in Holborn; Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in
+the following year. His principal work, _The Court of the Gentiles_,
+which appeared in parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse
+of miscellaneous philosophical learning. It resembles the _Intellectual
+System_ of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work both in
+general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's endeavour (based on
+a hint of Grotius in _De veritate_, i. 16) is to prove that the whole
+philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or mangled reproduction of
+Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth referred the Democritean doctrine of
+atoms to Moses as the original author, so Gale tries to show that the
+various systems of Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources.
+Like so many of the learned works of the 17th century, the _Court of
+the Gentiles_ is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is
+rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical
+discrimination.
+
+  His other writings are: _A True Idea of Jansenism_ (1669); _Theophil,
+  or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ_ (1671);
+  _Anatomie of Infidelitie_ (1672); _Idea theologiae_ (1673);
+  _Philosophia generalis_ (1676).
+
+
+
+
+GALE, THOMAS (?1636-1702), English classical scholar and antiquarian,
+was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated at Westminster school
+and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. In 1666 he
+was appointed regius professor of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high
+master of St Paul's school, in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a
+fellow of the Royal Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York
+on the 7th (or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, _Opuscula
+mythologica, ethica, et physica_, and editions of several Greek and
+Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old works
+bearing on Early English history, entitled _Historiae Anglicanae
+scriptores_ and _Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae, Anglo-Danicae
+scriptores XV_. He was the author of the inscription on the London
+Monument in which the Roman Catholics were accused of having originated
+the great fire.
+
+  See J.E.B. Mayor, _Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne_, 448-450.
+
+
+
+
+GALE. 1. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from Dan. _gal_,
+mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense of boisterous) a
+wind of considerable power, considerably stronger than a breeze, but not
+severe enough to be called a storm. In nautical language it is usually
+combined with some qualifying word, as "half a gale," a "stiff gale." In
+poetical and figurative language "gale" is often used in a pleasant
+sense, as in "favouring gale"; in America, it is used in a slang sense
+for boisterous or excited behaviour.
+
+2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals; a "hanging
+gale" is an arrear of rent left over after each successive "gale" or
+rent day. The term survives in the Forest of Dean, for leases granted to
+the "free miners" of the forest, granted by the "gaveller" or agent of
+the crown, and the term is also applied to the royalty paid to the
+crown, and to the area mined. The word is a contracted form of the O.
+Eng. _gafol_, which survives in "gavel," in gavelkind (q.v.), and in the
+name of the office mentioned above. The root from which these words
+derive is that of "give." Through Latinized forms it appears in
+_gabelle_ (q.v.).
+
+3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or gaul,
+sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of the word is
+_gagel_. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub found on bogs
+and moors in the British Islands, and widely distributed in the north
+temperate zone. It has narrow, short-stalked leaves and inconspicuous,
+apetalous, unisexual flowers borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like
+fruit is attached to the persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea
+and as a country medicine. John Gerard (_Herball_, p. 1228) describes it
+as sweet willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The
+genus _Myrica_ is the type of a small, but widely distributed order,
+_Myricaceae_, which is placed among the apetalous families of
+Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow family.
+_Myrica cerifera_ is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-tree (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, FREIHERR VON (1606-1678), prince bishop of
+Munster, belonged to a noble Westphalian family, and was born on the
+12th of October 1606. Reduced to poverty through the loss of his
+paternal inheritance, he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him
+from fighting on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the
+concluding stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1650 he succeeded
+Ferdinand of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of Munster. After
+restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality, Galen
+had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of the
+citizens of Munster; but at length this was crushed, and the bellicose
+bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an important personage in
+Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of the directors of the imperial army
+raised to fight the Turk; and after the peace which followed the
+Christian victory at St Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English
+king Charles II. in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of
+Louis XIV. and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to make
+a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again attacked Holland six
+years later he was in alliance with Louis, but he soon deserted his new
+friend, and fought for the emperor Leopold I. against France. Afterwards
+in conjunction with Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of
+Sweden, and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the 19th
+of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform the church,
+but his chief energies were directed to increasing his power and
+prestige.
+
+  See K. Tucking, _Geschichte des Stifts Munster unter C.B. von Galen_
+  (Munster, 1865); P. Corstiens, _Bernard van Galen, Vorst-Bisschop van
+  Munster_ (Rotterdam, 1872); A. Husing, _Furstbischof C.B. von Galen_
+  (Munster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the _English Historical Review_,
+  vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum a poem printed in
+  1666, entitled _Letter to the bishop of Munster containing a
+  Panegyrick of his heroick achievements in heroick verse_.
+
+
+
+
+GALEN (or GALENUS), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer and other
+writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of ancient medical
+writers, was born at Pergamus, in Mysia, about A.D. 130. His father
+Nicon, from whom he received his early education, is described as
+remarkable both for excellence of natural disposition and for mental
+culture; his mother, on the other hand, appears to have been a second
+Xanthippe. In 146 Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his
+twentieth year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself
+under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and of the
+peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited other cities,
+and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus. A few years later he
+went for the first time to Rome. There he healed Eudemus, a celebrated
+peripatetic philosopher, and other persons of distinction; and ere long,
+by his learning and unparalleled success as a physician, earned for
+himself the titles of "Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and
+"Paradoxopoeus," the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and
+envy of his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to
+his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in Venetia, by
+the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. In 170 he returned to
+Rome with the latter, who, on departing thence to conduct the war on the
+Danube, having with difficulty been persuaded to dispense with his
+personal attendance, appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus.
+In Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his reputation
+as a physician, and writing some of his most important treatises. It
+would appear that he eventually betook himself to Pergamus, after
+spending some time at the island of Lemnos, where he learned the method
+of preparing a certain popular medicine, the "terra lemnia" or
+"sigillata." Whether he ever revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are
+the time and place of his death. According to Suidas, he died at the age
+of seventy, or in the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If,
+however, we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took
+place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one of the
+most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He composed, it is
+said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects, including logic, ethics
+and grammar. Of the published works attributed to him, 83 are recognized
+as genuine, 19 are of doubtful authenticity, 45 are confessedly
+spurious, 19 are fragments, and 15 are notes on the writings of
+Hippocrates.
+
+Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic philosophy,
+was an unusually prolific writer on logic. Of the numerous commentaries
+and original treatises, a catalogue of which is given in his work _De
+propriis libris_, one only has come down to us, the treatise on
+_Fallacies in dictione_ ([Greek: Peri ton kata ten lexin sophismaton]).
+Many points of logical theory, however, are discussed in his medical and
+scientific writings. His name is perhaps best known in the history of
+logic in connexion with the fourth syllogistic figure, the first
+distinct statement of which was ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no
+evidence from Galen's own works that he did make this addition to the
+doctrines of syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides
+Minas from a Greek commentator on the _Analytics_, referring the fourth
+figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not, as generally
+supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an amplification or
+alteration of the indirect moods of the first figure already noted by
+Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.
+
+In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the
+superscription _Galenus_, entitled [Greek: Galenou eisagoge dialektike].
+Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth figure,
+and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of the Aristotelian
+and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest contempt. He shows
+demonstratively that it cannot be regarded as a writing of Galen's, and
+ascribes it to some one or other of the later Greek logicians. A full
+summary of its contents will be found in the 1st vol. of the _Geschichte
+der Logik_ (pp. 591-610), and a notice of the logical theories of the
+true Galen in the same work, pp. 559-577.
+
+  There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's
+  works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned Jo.
+  Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
+  Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
+  Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore Goulston,
+  Caspar Hoffman, Rene Chartier, Haller and Kuhn. Of Latin translations
+  Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-two in the following
+  century. The Greek text was edited at Venice, in 1525, 5 vols. fol.;
+  at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols. fol.; at Paris, with Latin version by Rene
+  Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, 13 vols. fol.; and at Leipzig, in
+  1821-1833, by C.G. Kuhn, considered to be the best, 20 vols. 8vo. An
+  epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates and Galen, by J.R.
+  Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846. A new edition of Galen's
+  smaller works by J. Marquardt, Iwan Muller and G. Helmreich was
+  published in three volumes at Leipzig in 1884-1909.
+
+  Further details as to the life and an account of the anatomical and
+  medical knowledge of Galen will be found in the historical articles
+  under the headings of ANATOMY and MEDICINE. See also Rene Chartier's
+  Life, in his edition of Galen's works; N.F.J. Eloy, _Dictionnaire
+  historique de la medecine_, s.v. "Galien," tom. i. (1778); F. Adams's
+  "Commentary" in his _Medical Works of Paulus Aegineta_ (London and
+  Aberdeen, 1834); J. Kidd, "A Cursory Analysis of the Works of Galen,
+  so far as they relate to Anatomy and Physiology," _Trans. Provincial
+  Med. and Surg. Assoc._ vi., 1837, pp. 299-336; C.V. Daremberg,
+  _Exposition des connaissances de Galien sur l'anatomie, la physiologie
+  et la pathologie du systeme nerveux_ (These pour le Doctorat en
+  Medecine) (Paris, 1841); J.R. Gasquet, "The Practical Medicine of
+  Galen and his Time," _The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical
+  Rev._, vol. xi., 1867, pp. 472-488; and Ilberg, "Die Schriften des
+  Claudius Galenos," _Rheinisches Museum fur Philologie_, 1889, 1892 and
+  1896.
+
+
+
+
+GALENA, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county, Illinois,
+U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena (formerly the
+Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi, about 165 m.
+W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 5005, of whom 918 were foreign-born;
+(1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago, Burlington & Quincy, the
+Chicago & North-Western and the Illinois Central railways; the Galena
+river has been made navigable by government locks at the mouth of the
+river, but the river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky
+limestone bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river,
+and a number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected
+by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General U.S.
+Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of the Civil War. In
+the vicinity there are the most important deposits of zinc and lead in
+the state, and the city derives its name from the deposits of sulphide
+of lead (galena), which were the first worked about here; below the
+galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or smithsonite) ores, which was the
+main zone worked between 1860 and 1890; still lower is a zone of blende,
+or zinc sulphide, now the principal source of the mineral wealth of the
+region. The production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is
+unimportant. The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery,
+flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is afforded by
+the river. Galena was originally a trading post, called by the French
+"La Pointe" and by the English "Fever River," the river having been
+named after le Fevre, a French trader who settled near its mouth. In
+1826 Galena was laid out as a town and received its present name; it was
+incorporated in 1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre
+was opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father
+of the celebrated actor of that name.
+
+
+
+
+GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the extreme S.E.
+part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring river. Pop. (1890)
+2496; (1900) 10,155, of whom 580 were negroes and 251 were foreign-born;
+(1905) 6449; (1910) 6096. It is situated at the intersection of the
+Missouri, Kansas & Texas, and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis
+("Frisco System") railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region,
+extremely valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in
+1877. Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing
+establishments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring
+river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies
+founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1905, 982), the former S. of
+Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated in 1877,
+and in 1907 Empire City was annexed to it.
+
+
+
+
+GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide (PbS). The
+mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name, and it is sometimes now
+known as lead-glance (Ger. _Bleiglanz_). It crystallizes in the cubic
+system, and well-developed crystals are of common occurrence; the usual
+form is the cube or the cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important character,
+and one by which the mineral may always be recognized, is the perfect
+cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is brilliant and metallic. The
+colour of the mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; it is opaque; the
+hardness is 2-1/2 and the specific gravity 7.5. Twinned crystals are not
+common, but the presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by
+fine striations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage
+surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure are of
+common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such masses present a
+spangled appearance owing to the numerous bright cleavages.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86.6 and sulphur 13.4%. The
+mineral nearly always contains a small amount of silver, and sometimes
+antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium, &c. Argentiferous galena is
+an important source of silver; this metal is present in amounts rarely
+exceeding 1%, and often less than 0.03% (equivalent to 10-3/4 ounces per
+ton). Since argentite (Ag2S) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable
+that the silver isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that
+native silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.
+
+Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metalliferous
+veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and limestones, and also
+as pockets in limestones. It is often associated with blende and
+pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz, barytes, chalybite and
+pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the upper oxidized parts of the
+deposits, cerussite and anglesite occur as alteration products. The
+mineral has occasionally been observed as a recent formation replacing
+organic matter, such as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal.
+As small concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sandstone
+at Kommern in the Eifel. In the lead-mining districts of Derbyshire and
+the north of England the ore occurs as veins and flats in the
+Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall the veins traverse
+clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead region of Missouri, Illinois,
+Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills large cavities or chambers in
+limestone.
+
+Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of localities
+which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the following may be
+selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in Cumberland, Laxey in the
+Isle of Man (where crystals measuring almost a foot across have been
+found), Neudorf in the Harz, Rossie in New York and Joplin in Missouri.
+Good crystals have also been obtained as a furnace product.
+
+Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then known
+as "potters' ore" or alquifoux.
+
+The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as
+argentite (q.v.). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite (lead
+selenide, PbSe) and altaite (lead telluride, PbTe), which, with their
+lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely resemble galena in
+appearance; these species are named after the localities at which they
+were originally found, namely, Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai
+mountains in Asiatic Russia. Altaite is of interest as being one of the
+tellurides found associated with gold.     (L. J. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GALEOPITHECUS, the scientific designation of the Colugo (q.v.) or
+Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone representing the
+family _Galeopithecidae_. Much uncertainty has prevailed among
+naturalists as to the systematic position of this animal, or rather
+these animals (for there are two species); and while some have referred
+it to the lemurs, others have placed it with the bats, and others again
+among the _Insectivora_, as the representative of a special subordinal
+group, the _Dermoptera_. Dr H.C. Chapman, who has made a special study
+of the creature, writes, however, as follows: "It appears, at least in
+the judgment of the author, that _Galeopithecus_ cannot be regarded as
+being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands alone,
+the sole representative of an ancient group, _Galeopithecidae_, as
+_Hyrax_ does of _Hyracoidea_. While _Galeopithecus_ is but remotely
+related to the _Lemuroidea_ and _Insectivora_, it is so closely related
+to _Chiroptera_, more particularly in regard to the structure of its
+patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus, &c., that
+there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the descendants of
+Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the descendants of a
+Galeopithecus-like ancestor." Without going quite so far as this, it may
+be definitely admitted that the colugo is entitled to represent an order
+by itself, the characters of which will be as follows: Herbivorous,
+climbing, unguiculate mammals, provided with a very extensive
+flying-membrane, and having the dental formula i. 2/2, c. 0/1, p. 3/3,
+m. 3/3, total 34. The lower incisors are directed forwards and have a
+comb-like structure of their crowns, while the outermost of these teeth
+and the canines are double-rooted, being in these respects, taken
+together, quite unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have
+numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of milk-molars
+by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded by bone, and the
+tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external meatus. The ulna and
+fibula are to some extent inclined backwards; the carpus has a
+scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-toed. The hemispheres of the brain
+are short and but slightly convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a
+large caecum; the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus
+is two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two pairs of
+pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a birth.
+
+[Illustration: Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur
+(_Galeopithecus philippinensis_).]
+
+It will be obvious that if other representatives of the _Dermoptera_
+were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the family
+_Galeopithecidae_.
+
+There are two species, _Galeopithecus volans_, ranging from Burma, Siam
+and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and Java, and _G.
+philippinensis_ of the Philippine group. The former, which is nearly 2
+ft. in total length, is distinguished by its larger upper incisors,
+shorter ears and smaller skull. In both species not only are the long
+and slender limbs connected by a broad integumentary expansion
+extending outwards from the sides of the neck and body, but there is
+also a web between the fingers and toes as far as the base of the claws
+(fig.); and the hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion
+passing outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws,
+and, inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true
+interfemoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats
+altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-rooted
+outer incisors and canines, _Galeopithecus_ contrasts strongly with that
+order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and in the great
+length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in _Chiroptera_. From
+the lemurs, on the other hand, the form of the brain, the character of
+the teeth, the structure of the skull, and the deciduate discoidal
+placenta at once separate the group.     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GALERIUS [GALERIUS VALERIUS MAXIMIANUS], Roman emperor from A.D. 305 to
+311, was born near Sardica in Thrace. He originally followed his
+father's occupation, that of a herdsman, whence his surname of
+_Armentarius_ (Lat. _armentum_, herd). He served with distinction as a
+soldier under Aurelian and Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar
+along with Constantius Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's
+daughter Valeria, and at the same time being entrusted with the care of
+the Illyrian provinces. In 296, at the beginning of the Persian War, he
+was removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign ended
+in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing through the
+mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory over Narses (q.v.)
+and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on the abdication of Diocletian
+and Maximianus, he at once assumed the title of Augustus, with
+Constantius his former colleague, and having procured the promotion to
+the rank of Caesar of Flavius Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and
+Daia (Maximinus), his nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to
+become sole master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was
+defeated by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on
+the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and Maxentius
+in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in 307 he elevated his
+friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and, moderating his ambition,
+devoted the few remaining years of his life "to the enjoyment of
+pleasure and to the execution of some works of public utility." It was
+at the instance of Galerius that the first of the celebrated edicts of
+persecution against the Christians was published, on the 24th of
+February 303, and this policy of repression was maintained by him until
+the appearance of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his
+own name and in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311
+A.D.
+
+  See Zosimus ii. 8-11; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutropius ix. 24, x. 1.
+
+
+
+
+GALESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Knox county, Illinois, U.S.A.,
+in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1890)
+15,264; (1900) 18,607; of whom 3602 were foreign-born; (census, 1910)
+22,089. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, and the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and
+coeducational), which was chartered here in 1837 as the "Knox Manual
+Labor College" (the present name was adopted in 1857), was opened in
+1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628 students, of whom
+more than half were in the Conservatory of Music, a department of the
+college, and 79 were in the Academy. Lombard College (coeducational;
+Universalist), which was chartered as the "Illinois Liberal Institute"
+in 1851, was known as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard,
+a benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal Arts,
+the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of music and domestic
+science, and in 1907-1908 had 18 instructors and 117 students. Here also
+are Corpus Christi College (Roman Catholic), St Joseph's Academy (Roman
+Catholic) and Brown's Business College (1874). There is a public
+library, founded in 1874. The industries consist mainly of the
+construction and repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the
+Chicago, Burlington & Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and
+machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements and
+machinery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
+$2,217,772, being 52.9% more than in 1900. Galesburg was named in honour
+of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1789-1862), a prominent Presbyterian
+preacher, who in 1827-1834 had founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute
+at Whitestown, Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college
+in the Mississippi Valley to supply "an evangelical and able ministry"
+to "spread the Gospel throughout the world," and also wishing to
+counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he interested a
+number of people in the project, formed a society for colonization, and
+in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the "Mesopotamia in the
+West." Knox College was founded to fulfil his educational purpose.
+Galesburg was an important "station" of the Underground Railroad, one of
+the conditions of membership in the "Presbyterian Church of Galesburg"
+(the name of Mr Gale's society) being opposition to slavery; and in 1855
+this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery. Galesburg was
+chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October 1858 one of the
+famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the grounds of Knox College.
+
+
+
+
+GALGACUS, or perhaps rather CALGACUS, a Caledonian chief who led the
+tribes of North Britain against the invading Roman army under Cn. Julius
+Agricola about A.D. 85 and was defeated at the battle of Mons Graupius
+(Tac. _Agric._ 29). The name recurs much later, in Adamnan's _Life of
+Columba_, in the name of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or
+Roboretum Calgachi, "the wood of Calgacus": it may be Celtic and denote
+"the man with the sword."
+
+
+
+
+GALIANI, FERDINANDO (1728-1787), Italian economist, was born at Chieti
+on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully educated by his uncle
+Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome with a view to entering the
+Church. Galiani gave early promise of distinction as an economist, and
+even more as a wit. At the age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders,
+he had produced two works by which his name became widely known far
+beyond the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his _Trattato della
+moneta_, in which he shows himself a strong supporter of the mercantile
+school, deals with many aspects of the question of exchange, but always
+with a special reference to the state of confusion then presented by the
+whole monetary system of the Neapolitan government. The other, _Raccolta
+in Morte del Boia_, established his fame as a humorist, and was highly
+popular in Italian literary circles at the end of the 18th century. In
+this volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of
+discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the most
+pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day. Galiani's political
+knowledge and social qualities now pointed him out to the discriminating
+eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles III. of Spain, and his liberal
+minister Tanucci, and he was appointed in 1759 secretary to the
+Neapolitan embassy at Paris. This post he held for ten years, when he
+returned to Naples and was made a councillor of the tribunal of
+commerce, and in 1777, minister of the royal domains. His economic
+reputation was made by a book written in French and published in Paris,
+namely, his _Dialogues sur le commerce des bles_. This work, by its
+light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it abounded,
+delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the production of which
+Plato and Moliere might have been combined! The author, says Pecchio,
+treated his arid subject as Fontenelle did the vortices of Descartes, or
+Algarotti the Newtonian system of the world. The question at issue was
+that of the freedom of the corn trade, then much agitated, and, in
+particular, the policy of the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the
+exportation of grain so long as the price had not arrived at a certain
+height. The general principle he maintains is that the best system in
+regard to this trade is to have no system--countries differently
+circumstanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment.
+He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the
+mercantilists--holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even Verri, that
+one country cannot gain without another losing, and in his earlier
+treatise going so far as to defend the action of governments in debasing
+the currency. Until his death at Naples on the 30th of October 1787,
+Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends a correspondence, which
+was published in 1818.
+
+  See _L'Abate Galiani_, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his
+  correspondence with Tanucci in Viesseux's _L'Archivio storico_
+  (Florence, 1878).
+
+
+
+
+GALICIA (Ger. _Galizien_; Pol. _Halicz_), a crownland of Austria,
+bounded E. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and W. by
+Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,299 sq. m., and is
+the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old kingdoms of Galicia
+and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and Zator, and the grand duchy
+of Cracow.
+
+Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which with their
+offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of the country. The
+surface gradually sinks down by undulating terraces to the valleys of
+the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and E. of these rivers Galicia forms
+a continuation of the great plains of Russia, intersected only by a few
+hills, which descend from the plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which
+attain in some places an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians,
+which, extending in the form of an arc, form the boundary between
+Galicia and Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides,
+which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif of the
+Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia Gora (5650 ft.), the Wolowiec
+(6773 ft.) and the Cserna Gora (6505 ft.). The principal passes are
+those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of Dukla, Vereczke Korosmezo or
+Delatyn in the East Beskides. The river Vistula, which becomes navigable
+at Cracow, and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia,
+receives the Sola, the Skawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with its affluents
+the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San and the Bug. The
+Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of
+Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor, and receives on the right the
+Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and the Bystrzyca, and on the left the
+Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards
+Russia. The Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the
+territory of Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives
+the Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few lakes
+in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable morasses exist
+about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the San, while the ponds or
+dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated to cover an area of over 200
+sq. m. The most frequented mineral springs are the alkaline springs at
+Szczawnica and Krynica, the sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and
+Lubian, and the iodine springs at Iwonicz.
+
+Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and shut out by
+the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds, Galicia has the severest
+climate in Austria. It has long winters, with an abundant snowfall,
+short and wet springs, hot summers and long and steady autumns. The mean
+annual temperature at Lemberg is 46.2 deg. F., and at Tarnopol only 43
+deg. F.
+
+Of the total area 48.45% is occupied by arable land, 11.16% by meadows,
+9.19% by pastures, 1.39% by gardens and 25.76% by forests. The soil is
+generally fertile, but agriculture is still backward. The principal
+products are barley, oats, rye, wheat, maize and leguminous plants.
+Galicia has the largest area under potatoes and legumes in the whole of
+Austria, and hemp, flax, tobacco and hops are of considerable
+importance. The principal mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum.
+Salt is extracted at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and
+Kosow. Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza
+near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum fields in
+Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and are worked at
+Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka and Potok near Krosno,
+Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c. Great quantities of ozocerite are
+also extracted in the petroliferous region of the Carpathians. Other
+mineral products are zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the
+Cracow region, amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria,
+iron ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur mines
+of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since 1598, were
+abandoned in 1884.
+
+The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly developed. The
+first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose output amounts to
+nearly 40% of the total production of spirits in Austria. Then follow
+the petroleum refineries and kindred industries, saw-mills and the
+fabrication of various wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar
+factory at Tlumacz and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the
+largest establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is
+concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens is
+pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian region,
+the latter in eastern Galicia. The commerce, which is mainly in the
+hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit trade to Russia and
+to the East is also of considerable importance.
+
+Galicia had in 1900 a population of 7,295,538, which is equivalent to
+241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal nationalities are the Poles
+(45%) and the Ruthenians (42%), the former predominating in the west and
+in the big towns, and the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the
+Carpathians are distinguished as Goralians (from _gory_, mountain), and
+those of the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian
+highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly Roman
+Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there are over
+770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are Catholics and stand
+under the jurisdiction of an Armenian archbishop at Lemberg.
+
+The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg, and three
+bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the Greek Catholic
+Church is represented by an archbishop, at Lemberg, and two bishops, at
+Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the head of the educational institutions
+stand the two universities of Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy
+of science at Cracow.
+
+The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3 archbishops,
+the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities, and Galicia sends
+78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For administrative purposes, the
+province is divided into 78 districts and 2 autonomous
+municipalities--Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the capital, and Cracow
+(91,310). Other principal towns are: Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea
+(34,188), Tarnow (31,548), Tarnopol (30,368), Stanislau (29,628), Stryj
+(23,673), Jaroslau (22,614), Drohobycz (19,146), Podgorze (18,142),
+Brody (17,360), Sambor (17,027), Neusandec (15,724), Rzeszow (14,714),
+Zloczow (12,209), Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504),
+Sniatyn (11,498), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671),
+Chrzanow (10,170), Jaworow (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and Biala (8265).
+
+Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring
+principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th
+century--the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch.
+Disputes between the Galician and Lodomerian houses led to the
+interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in 1190 assumed the
+title of king, and appointed his son Andreas lieutenant of the kingdom.
+Polish assistance, however, enabled Vladimir, the former possessor, to
+expel Andreas, and in 1198 Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself
+master of Galicia also. On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland
+and Hungary for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 1215 it was
+arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be invested with
+Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian king, with Galicia.
+Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav of Novgorod; and in his turn
+Andreas, Mstislav's nominee, was expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a
+powerful prince, who by a flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his
+position. Though in 1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary,
+yet, when he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu,
+he called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown of
+Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when Innocent
+disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former connexion with
+the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line in 1340 Casimir III. of
+Poland incorporated Galicia and Lemberg; on Casimir's death in 1370
+Louis the Great of Hungary, in accordance with previous treaties, became
+king of Poland, Galicia and Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of
+Louis's daughter with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which he had regarded as
+part of his Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became
+definitively assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in
+1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria, and to this
+was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1795; but at the peace
+of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were surrendered to the
+grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in 1810 part of East Galicia, including
+Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This latter portion was recovered by
+Austria at the peace of Paris (1814), and the former came back on the
+suppression of the independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the
+introduction of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a
+larger degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian
+empire.
+
+  See _Die osterreichisch-ungarische Monarchie in Wort und Bild_, vol.
+  19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); _Die Lander Osterreich-Ungarns in Wort
+  und Bild_, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable sketches of
+  Galician life are to be found in the works of the German novelist
+  Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).
+
+
+
+
+GALICIA (the ancient _Gallaecia_ or _Callaecia_, [Greek: Kallaikia] or
+[Greek: Kalaikia]), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom,
+countship and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded on
+the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S. by Portugal,
+and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (1900) 1,980,515; area, 11,254 sq. m.
+In 1833 Galicia was divided for administrative purposes into the
+provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and Pontevedra.
+
+Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded as a
+continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is further broken
+in the east by the westernmost ridges of that system, which, running in
+a south-westerly direction, rise above the basin of the Mino. The high
+land north of the headwaters of the Mino forms the sole connecting link
+between the Cantabrians properly so-called and the mountains of central
+and western Galicia. The average elevation of the province is
+considerable, and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Pena
+Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.
+
+The principal river is the Mino (Portuguese _Minho_; Lat. _Minius_; so
+named, it is said, from the _minium_ or vermilion found in its bed).
+Rising near Mondonedo, within 25 m. of the northern coast, the Mino
+enters the Atlantic near the port of Guardia, after a course of 170 m.
+S. and S.W. Its lower reaches are navigable by small vessels. Of its
+numerous affluents the most important is the Sil, which rises among the
+lofty mountains between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a
+westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and the Lerez
+or Ler, which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or _rias_ called
+respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria de Pontevedra.
+The rivers of the northern versant, such as the Nera, are, like those of
+Asturias, for the most part short, rapid and subject to violent floods.
+
+The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is everywhere bold
+and deeply indented, presenting a large number of secure harbours, and
+in this respect forming a marked contrast to the neighbouring province.
+The Eo, which bounds Galicia on the east, has a deep estuary, the
+Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero
+Bay and the Ria del Barquero y Vares are of a similar character; while
+the harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief
+naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite side of
+Betanzos Bay (the [Greek: megas limen] or _Portus Magnus_ of the
+ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Coruna. The principal port on
+the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered bay of Vigo,
+but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubion under Cape Finisterre,
+at Marin and at Carril.
+
+The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the interior,
+owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1500 ft. above
+sea-level), has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is
+exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations for
+a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole fertile,
+and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of timber is grown
+on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures support large herds of
+cattle, while the abundance of oaks and chestnuts favours the rearing of
+swine. In the lowland districts good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats
+and rye, as well as of turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit
+also is of excellent quality and in great variety, although the culture
+of the vine is limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern
+districts. The _dehesas_ or moorlands abound in game, and fish are
+plentiful in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province,
+which are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients.
+Strabo (c. 63 B.C.-A.D. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny (A.D.
+23-79) mentions the _gemma Gallaica_, a precious stone. Galicia is also
+remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other warm springs, the
+most important of which are those at Lugo, and those from which Orense
+is said to take its name (_Aquae urentes_).
+
+Ethnologically the Galicians (_Gallegos_) are allied to the Portuguese,
+whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in habits more than the
+other inhabitants of the peninsula. The men are well known all over
+Spain and Portugal as hardy, honest and industrious, but for the most
+part somewhat unskilled, labourers; indeed the word _Gallego_ has come
+to be almost a synonym in Madrid for a "hewer of wood and drawer of
+water." It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning "boor." Agriculture
+engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and
+female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed.
+The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,971); Santiago de
+Compostela is the ancient capital and an archiepiscopal see; Lugo, Tuy,
+Mondonedo and Orense are bishoprics.
+
+_Gallaecia_, the country of the Galacci, _Callaici_ or _Gallaici_, seems
+to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier geographers.
+According to Eratosthenes (276-196 B.C.) the entire population of the
+peninsula were at one time called _Galatae_. The region properly called
+by their name, bounded on the south by the Douro and on the east by the
+Navia, was first entered by the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus
+in 137-136 B.C. (Livy lv., lvi., _Epit._); but the final subjugation
+cannot be placed earlier than the time of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14). On
+the partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the
+Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaecia fell to the lot of the first named
+(A.D. 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly 200 years, the
+Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic dominions under Leovigild
+in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the Moors, who in turn were driven out
+by Alphonso I. of Asturias, in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it
+was the subject of dispute between more than one count of Galicia and
+the suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans.
+When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063, Galicia
+was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the three. In 1072
+it was forcibly reannexed by Garcia's brother Alphonso VI. of Castile
+and thenceforward it remained an integral part of the kingdom of Castile
+or of Leon. The honorary title of count of Galicia has frequently been
+borne by younger sons of the Spanish sovereign.
+
+  See Annette B. Meakin, _Galicia, the Switzerland of Spain_ (London,
+  1909).
+
+
+
+
+GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), newspaper publisher, was born
+at Brescia, Italy, in 1752. After living some time in London, he went to
+Paris, where he started in 1800 an English library, and in 1808 a
+monthly publication, the _Repertory of English Literature_. In 1814 he
+began to publish, in Paris, _Galignani's Messenger_, a daily paper
+printed in English. At his death in 1821 the paper was carried on by his
+two sons, Jean-Antoine (1796-1873) and Guillaume (1798-1882). Under
+their management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy was to promote
+good feeling between England and France. The brothers established and
+endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-sur-Seine. In recognition of
+their generosity the city of Corbeil erected a monument in their honour.
+In 1884 the Galignani family disposed of their interest in _Galignani's
+Messenger_, and from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the
+paper appeared under the title of the _Daily Messenger_.
+
+
+
+
+GALILEE (Heb. [Hebrew: Galil], "border" or "ring," Gr. [Greek:
+Galilaia]), a Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S.
+by Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the Leontes
+(Litani), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of Phoenicia. Its maximum
+extent was about 60 m. north to south and 30 east to west. The name in
+the Hebrew Scriptures hardly had a definite territorial significance. It
+literally means a ring or circuit, and, like analogous words in English,
+could be applied to various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel
+(iii. 4) refer to the _Geliloth_ ("borders, coast") of the Philistines
+or of Palestine; Joshua again (xxii. 10, 11) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8)
+mention the Jordan valley plain as the "Geliloth of Jordan" in "the
+Eastern Gelilah." In its more restricted connotation, denoting the
+district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found
+in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, 1 Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was situated
+the town of Kadesh; and in 1 Kings ix. 11, the district of "worthless"
+cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. 1 we find the full name of
+the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally "the ring, circuit or border of
+the foreigners"--referring to the Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by
+whose country the province was on three sides surrounded. In 1 Kings xv.
+29 it is specified as one of the districts whose population was deported
+by Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, however,
+Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the unit of
+territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial, and though
+such important events as those associated with the names of Barak,
+Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within its borders, yet these
+belong rather to the histories of Issachar, Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali,
+whose territories together almost correspond with Galilee, than to the
+province itself.
+
+After the Jewish return from exile the population confined itself to
+Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed multitude of
+successors established there by the Assyrians. When it once more came
+into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is generally supposed that its
+reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus. Before very long it developed a
+nationalism and patriotism as intense as that of Judaea itself,
+notwithstanding the contempt with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem
+looked down upon the Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such
+as "Out of Galilee cometh no prophet" (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha,
+and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common.
+Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the Galileans; it
+appears that they confused the gutturals in pronunciation.
+
+Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate governed by
+members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was tetrarch of Galilee in
+47 B.C.; in 4 B.C. he was succeeded by his son Antipas. Galilee was the
+land of Christ's boyhood and the chief centre of His active work, and in
+His various ministries here some of His chief discourses were uttered
+(as the Sermon on the Mount, Matt. v.) and some of His chief miracles
+performed.
+
+After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic schools took
+refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised. No ancient remains
+of Jewish synagogues exist except those that have been identified in
+some of the ancient Galilean towns, such as Tell Hum (Talhum), Kerazeh,
+Kefr Bir'im, and elsewhere. One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was
+Safed, still a sacred city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members
+of that faith. Near here is Meirun, a place much revered by the Jews as
+containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai; a yearly
+festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At Tiberias also
+are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers, including Maimonides.
+
+  The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower Galilee,
+  the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which prolonged
+  would cut the Jordan about midway between Huleh and the Sea of
+  Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf and Esdraelon.
+
+
+    Lower Galilee.
+
+  The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by
+  volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up
+  towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed over the
+  plateau above the sea of Galilee. In this district the highest hills
+  are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The ridge of Nazareth rises
+  north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and north of this again is the
+  fertile basin of the Buttauf, separated from the sea-coast plains by
+  low hills. East of the Buttauf extends the basaltic plateau called
+  Sahel el Ahma ("the inaccessible plain"), rising 1700 ft. above the
+  Sea of Galilee. North of the Buttauf is a confused hill country, the
+  spurs falling towards a broad valley which lies at the foot of the
+  mountains of Upper Galilee. This broad valley, running westwards to
+  the coast, is perhaps the old boundary of Zebulun--the valley of
+  Jiphthah-el (Josh, xix. 14). The great plain of Esdraelon is of
+  triangular form, bounded by Gilboa on the east and by the ridge which
+  runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m. long from Jenin to the
+  Nazareth hills, and its southern border is about 20 m. long. It rises
+  200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both sides being some 1500 ft.
+  higher. The whole drainage is collected by the Kishon, which runs
+  through a narrow gorge at the north-west corner of the plain,
+  descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea. The broad valley of
+  Jezreel on the east, descending towards the Jordan valley, forms the
+  gate by which Palestine is entered from beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor
+  stands isolated in the plain at the north-east corner, and rather
+  farther south the conical hill called Nebi Duhi rises between Tabor
+  and Gilboa. The whole of Lower Galilee is well watered. The Kishon is
+  fed by springs from near Tabor and from a copious stream from the west
+  side of the plain of Esdraelon. North-west of Nazareth is Wadi el
+  Melek, an open valley full of springs. The river Belus, just south of
+  Acre, rising in the sea-coast marshes, drains the whole valley above
+  identified with Jiphthah-el. On the east the broad valley of Jezreel
+  is full of magnificent springs, many of which are thermal. The plains
+  of Esdraelon, and the Buttauf, and the plateau of el-Ahma are all
+  remarkable for the rich basaltic soil which covers them, in which
+  corn, cotton, maize, sesame, tobacco, millet and various kinds of
+  vegetable are grown, while indigo and sugar-cane were cultivated in
+  former times. The Nazareth hills and Gilboa are bare and white, but
+  west of Nazareth is a fine oak wood, and another thick wood spreads
+  over the northern slopes of Tabor. The hills west of the great plain
+  are partly of bare white chalk, partly covered with dense thickets.
+  The mountains north of the Buttauf are rugged and covered with scrub,
+  except near the villages, where fine olive groves exist. The principal
+  places of importance in Lower Galilee are Nazareth (10,000
+  inhabitants), Sepphoris (now Seffuria), a large village standing above
+  the Buttauf on the spurs of the southern hills, and Jenin (En Gannim),
+  a flourishing village, with a palm garden (3000 inhabitants). The
+  ancient capital, Jezreel (Zerin), is now a miserable village on a
+  precipitous spur of Gilboa; north of this are the small mud hamlets,
+  Solam (Shunem), Endur (Endor), Nein (Nain); on the west side of the
+  plain is the ruin of Lejjun (the Legio of the 4th century, which was
+  then a place of importance). In the hills north of the Buttauf is
+  Jefat, situated on a steep hill-top, and representing the Jotapata
+  defended by Josephus. Kefr Kenna, now a flourishing Christian village
+  at the foot of the Nazareth hills, south of the Buttauf, is one of the
+  sites identified with Cana of Galilee, and the ruin Kana, on the north
+  side of the same plain, represents the site pointed out to the
+  pilgrims of the 12th and 13th centuries.
+
+
+    Upper Galilee.
+
+  The mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the
+  drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the
+  rocky range of Jebel Jarmuk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above the sea; on
+  the east a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms the watershed, with steep
+  eastern slopes falling towards Jordan. Immediately west of the
+  watershed are two small plateaus covered with basaltic debris, near
+  el-Jish and Kades. On the west are rugged mountains with deep
+  intricate valleys. The main drains of the country are--first, Wadi el
+  'Ayun, rising north of Jebel Jarmuk, and running north-west as an open
+  valley; and secondly, Wadi el Ahjar, a rugged precipitous gorge
+  running north to join the Leontes. The district is well provided with
+  springs throughout, and the valleys are full of water in the
+  spring-time. Though rocky and difficult, Upper Galilee is not barren,
+  the soil of the plateaus is rich, and the vine flourishes in the
+  higher hills, especially in the neighbourhood of Kefr Bir'im. The
+  principal town is Safed, perched on a white mountain 2700 ft. above
+  the sea. It has a population of about 9000, including Jews, Christians
+  and Moslems.
+
+Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in _Wars_,
+iii. 3. 2: "The Galileans are inured to war from their infancy, and have
+been always very numerous; nor hath the country been ever destitute of
+men of courage or wanted a numerous set of them; for their soil is
+universally rich and fruitful, and full of plantations of trees of all
+sorts, insomuch that it invites the most slothful to take pains in its
+cultivation.... Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very
+many villages there are here are everywhere full of people." Though the
+population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country is still
+remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its water-supply
+draining from the Lebanon mountains.
+
+The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and soap (from
+the olives), with every species of pulse and gourd.
+
+The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone monuments,
+rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous remains of Byzantine
+monasteries and fine churches of the time of the crusades. There are
+also remains of Greek architecture in various places; but the most
+interesting buildings are the ancient synagogues, of which some eleven
+examples are now known. They are rectangular, with the door to the
+south, and two rows of columns forming aisles east and west. The
+architecture is a peculiar and debased imitation of classic style,
+attributed by architects to the 2nd century A.D. In Kefr Bir'im there
+were remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of
+them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At Irbid, above
+Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different character. Traces of
+synagogues have also been found on Carmel, and at Tireh, west of
+Nazareth. It is curious to find the representation of various animals in
+relief on the lintels of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also
+occur, and the carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though
+debased.
+
+In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian kingdom of
+Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected by fortresses, the
+magnificent remains of which still crown the most important strategical
+points. Toron (mod. _Tibnin_) was built in 1104, the first fortress
+erected by the crusaders, and standing on the summit of the mountains of
+Upper Galilee. Beauvoir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a
+precipice above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the
+advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time Chateau Neuf
+(Hunin) was erected above the Huleh lake. Belfort (esh Shukif), on the
+north bank of the Leontes, the finest and most important, dates somewhat
+earlier; and Montfort (Kalat el Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east
+of Acre, completing the chain of frontier fortresses. The town of
+Banias, with its castle, formed also a strong outpost against Damascus,
+and was the scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many
+desperate encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was
+the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Christians. In
+1250 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands extending round Acre
+as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including Safed. These
+possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.
+
+The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the peasants are
+principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek Christians round
+Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper Galilee, however, there is
+a mixture of Jews and Maronites, Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine
+settlers), while the slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering
+Arabs. The Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and
+Moslems in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral people.
+     (C. R. C.; R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or chapel
+which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case at Durham and
+Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name is sometimes given to
+the south-west porch. The name is said to be derived from the scriptural
+expression "Galilee of the Gentiles" (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are
+supposed to have been used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably
+served chiefly for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church.
+The Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey
+church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they were
+related, or from which they could hear divine service. The foundation of
+what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at the west end of
+Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were placed there before
+interment.
+
+
+
+
+GALILEE, SEA OF, a lake in Palestine consisting of an expansion of the
+Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is 13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64
+sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of the Mediterranean, and,
+according to Merrill and Barrois (who have corrected the excessive depth
+said to have been found by Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in
+maximum depth. It is pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In
+the Hebrew Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth
+(probably derived from a town of the same name mentioned in Joshua xi. 2
+and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with [Hebrew: kinor], "a
+harp," is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of Maccabees it is
+named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is usually called Sea of
+Galilee, though once it is called Lake of Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and
+twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. 1, xxi. 1). The modern Arabic name is
+_Bahr Tubariya_, which is often rendered "Lake of Tiberias." Pliny
+refers to it as the Lake of Taricheae.
+
+Like the Dead Sea it is a "rift" lake, being part of the great fault
+that formed the Jordan-Araba depression. Deposits show that originally
+it formed part of the great inland sea that filled this depression in
+Pleistocene times. The district on each side of the lake has a number of
+hot springs, at least one of which is beneath the sea itself, and has
+always shown indications of volcanic and other subterranean
+disturbances. It is especially liable to earthquakes. The water of the
+sea, though slightly brackish and not very clear, is generally used for
+drinking. The shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel;
+some yards from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish
+mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon falls about
+10 deg. F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range of temperature
+affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.; below that depth the water
+is uniformly about 59 deg. F. The sea is set deep in hills which rise on
+the east side to a height of about 2000 ft. Sudden and violent storms
+(such as are described in Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel
+passages) are often produced by the changes of temperature in the air
+resulting from these great differences of level.
+
+  The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western
+  precipices. It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills
+  rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes
+  and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with black
+  basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahel el-Ahma terminates in
+  precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the black rocky
+  tops called "the Horns of Hattin" are conspicuous objects. On the
+  south is a broad valley through which the Jordan flows. On the east
+  are furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the great plateau of the
+  Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the lake through a narrow gorge
+  between lower hills. A marshy plain, 2-1/2 m. long and 1-1/2 broad,
+  called el-Batihah, exists immediately east of the Jordan inlet. There
+  is also on the west side of the lake a small plain called el-Ghuweir,
+  formed by the junction of three large valleys. It measures 3-1/4 m.
+  along the shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain, naturally fertile, but
+  now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be the plain of Gennesareth,
+  described by Josephus (B. J. iii. 10, 8). On the east the hills
+  approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water, but there is
+  generally a width of about 3/4 of a mile from the hills to the beach.
+  On the west the flat ground at the foot of the hills has an average
+  width of about 200 yds. A few scattered palms dot the western shores,
+  and a palm grove is to be found near Kefr Harib on the south-east. The
+  hot baths south of Tiberias include seven springs, the largest of
+  which has a temperature of 137 deg. F. In these springs a distinct
+  rise in temperature was observed in 1837, when Tiberias and Safed were
+  destroyed by an earthquake. The plain of Gennesareth, with its
+  environs, is the best-watered part of the lake-basin. North of this
+  plain are the five springs of et-Tabighah, the largest of which was
+  enclosed about a century ago in an octagonal reservoir by 'Ali, son of
+  Dhahr el-Amir, and the water led off by an aqueduct 52 ft. above the
+  lake. The Tabighah springs, though abundant, are warm and brackish. At
+  the north end of the plain is 'Ain et-Tineh ("spring of the
+  fig-tree"), also a brackish spring with a good stream; south of the
+  plain is 'Ain el-Bardeh ("the cold spring"), which is sweet, but
+  scarcely lower in temperature than the others. One of the most
+  important springs is 'Ain el-Madawwera ("the round spring"), situated
+  1 m. from the south end of the plain and half a mile from the shore.
+  The water rises in a circular well 32 ft. in diameter, and is clear
+  and sweet, with a temperature of 73 deg. F. The bottom is of loose
+  sand, and the fish called _coracinus_ by Josephus (B.J. iii. 10, 8) is
+  here found (see below). Dr Tristram was the first explorer to identify
+  this fish, and on account of its presence suggested the identification
+  of the "round spring" with the fountain of _Capharnaum_, which,
+  according to Josephus, watered the plain of Gennesareth. There is,
+  however, a difficulty in this identification; there are no ruins at
+  'Ain el-Madawwera.
+
+  _Fauna and Flora._--For half the year the hillsides are bare and
+  steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation.
+  Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows at 'Ain
+  et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms with
+  fish, which are caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose boats
+  are the only representatives of the many ships and boats which plied
+  on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a lucrative
+  industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws regulating
+  it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and unclean, the
+  good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong to the genera
+  _Chromis_, _Barbus_, _Capoeta_, _Discognathus_, _Nemachilus_,
+  _Blennius_ and _Clarias_; and there is a great affinity between them
+  and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There are eight
+  species of _Chromis_, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their
+  young in the buccal cavities of the males. The _Chromis simonis_ is
+  popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece of
+  money (Matt. xvii. 27). _Clarias macracanthus_ (Arab. _Burbur_) is the
+  _coracinus_ of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs of 'Ain
+  el-Madawwera, 'Ain et-Tineh and 'Ain et-Tabighah, on the lake shore
+  where muddy, and in Lake Huleh. It is a scaleless, snake-like fish,
+  often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the _C. anguillaris_ of
+  Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be
+  unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of Matt.
+  vii. 10 and Luke xi. 11. Large numbers of grebes--great crested,
+  eared, and little,--gulls and pelicans frequent the lake. On its
+  shores are tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable
+  sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of
+  _Melania_, _Melanopsis_, _Neritina_, _Corbicula_ and _Unio_ have been
+  found.
+
+_Antiquities._--The principal sites of interest round the lake may be
+enumerated from north to west and from south to east. Kerazeh, the
+undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur 900 ft. above the
+lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and scattered stones cover
+the slopes and the flat valley below. On the west is a rugged gorge. In
+the middle of the ruins are the scattered remains of a synagogue of
+richly ornamental style built of black basalt. A small spring occurs on
+the north. Tell Hum (as the name is generally spelt, though _Talhum_
+would probably be preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin
+on the shore, south of the last-mentioned site. The remains consist of
+foundations and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic
+thistles) extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations
+of a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white
+limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has been erected
+close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell Hum synagogue. Since
+the 4th century Tell Hum has been pointed out by all the Christian
+writers of importance as the site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers
+question this identification, but without sufficient reason (see
+CAPERNAUM). Minyeh is a ruined site at the north end of the plain of
+Gennesareth, 2-1/2 m. from the last, and close to the shore. There are
+extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and foundations.
+Masonry of well-dressed stones has also been here discovered in course
+of excavation. Near the ruins are remains of an old khan, which appears
+to have been built in the middle ages. This is another suggested
+identification for Capernaum; but all the remains belong to the Arab
+period. Between Tell Hum and Minyeh is _Tell 'Oreimeh_, the site of a
+forgotten Amorite city.
+
+South of the supposed plain of Gennesareth is Mejdel, commonly supposed
+to represent the New Testament town of Magdala. A few lotus trees and
+some rock-cut tombs are here found beside a miserable mud hamlet on the
+hill slope, with a modern tombhouse (_kubbeh_). Passing beneath rugged
+cliffs a recess in the hills is next reached, where stands Tubariya, the
+ancient Tiberias or Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half
+of whom are Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly
+destroyed by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el-Amir, as was
+the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were erected by
+his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders' church, and the tomb of the
+celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town, while Rabbi Aqiba and Rabbi
+Meir lie buried outside. The ruins of the ancient city, including
+granite columns and traces of a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards
+a mile beyond the modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought
+water a distance of 9 m. from the south.
+
+Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a peninsula
+surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan, and by a broad water
+ditch, while on the north-west a narrow neck of land remains. The
+plateau thus enclosed is partly artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft.
+above the water. A ruined citadel remains on the north-west, and on the
+east was a bridge over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of
+sculptured stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the
+description given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30
+stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities.
+Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the cliffs, and
+partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a plain (the
+Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at the south end of
+the Sea of Galilee. _Sinn en-Nabreh_, a ruin on a spur of the hills
+close to the last-mentioned site, represents the ancient Sennabris,
+where Vespasian (Josephus, _B.J._ iii. 9, 7) fixed his camp, advancing
+from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae and Tiberias. Sennabris was 30
+stadia from Tiberias, or about the distance of the ruin now existing.
+
+The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully explored
+than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly recovered. The site
+of Hippos, one of the cities of Decapolis, is fixed by Clermont-Ganneau
+at Khurbet Susieh. Kalat el-Hosn ("castle of the stronghold") is a ruin
+on a rocky spur opposite Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain,
+with traces of an old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong
+wall once surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the east
+where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the site on the
+north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut tombs are found beneath
+the ruin. This site is not identified; the suggestion that it is Gamala
+is doubtful, and not borne out by Josephus (_War_, iv. 1, 1), who says
+Gamala was over against Taricheae. Kersa, an insignificant ruin north of
+the last, is thought to represent the Gerasa or Gergesa of the 4th
+century, situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill
+south of this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine "ran
+violently down a steep place" (Matt. viii. 32).
+     (C. R. C; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)
+
+
+
+
+GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and experimental
+philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of February 1564. His father,
+Vincenzio, was an impoverished descendant of a noble Florentine house,
+which had exchanged the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the
+election, in 1343, of one of its members, Tommaso de' Bonajuti, to the
+college of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen times
+represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier to Florence,
+flourished with the republic and declined with its fall. Vincenzio
+Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was a competent
+mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on the theory and
+practice of music, and was especially distinguished amongst his
+contemporaries for the grace and skill of his performance upon the lute.
+By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Pescia, he had three sons and four
+daughters.
+
+From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family, was
+remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical
+invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original and
+ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary studies was
+equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallombrosa, near Florence,
+where his education was principally conducted, he not only made himself
+acquainted with the best Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of
+the Greek tongue, thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and
+elegant style. From one of the monks he also received instruction in
+logic; but the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly
+distasteful to him. A document published by F. Selmi in 1864 proves that
+he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to have
+joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs for him,
+seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to withdraw him
+permanently from the care of the monks. Having had personal experience
+of the unremunerative character both of music and of mathematics, he
+desired that his son should apply himself to the cultivation of
+medicine, and, not without some straining of his slender resources,
+placed him, before he had completed his eighteenth year, at the
+university of Pisa. He accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of
+November 1581, and immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures
+of the celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Cesalpino.
+
+The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time equally ready
+to develop in any direction towards which choice or hazard might incline
+them. In musical skill and invention he already vied with the best
+professors of the art in Italy; his personal taste would have led him to
+choose painting as his profession, and one of the most eminent artists
+of his day, Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he
+was mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while
+watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed that,
+whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably executed in
+equal times. The experimental verification of this fact led him to the
+important discovery of the isochronism of the pendulum. He at first
+applied the new principle to pulse-measurement, and more than fifty
+years later turned it to account in the construction of an astronomical
+clock. Up to this time he was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his
+father having carefully held him aloof from a study which he rightly
+apprehended would lead to his total alienation from that of medicine.
+Accident, however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given
+by Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced,
+tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his attention
+was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he threw all his
+energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly presented to him. With
+Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered the elements of the science, and
+eventually extorted his father's reluctant permission to exchange
+Hippocrates and Galen for Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was
+withdrawn from the university, through lack of means, before he had
+taken a degree, and returned to Florence, where his family habitually
+resided. We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy
+on the site and dimensions of Dante's _Inferno_; and he shortly
+afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the
+hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known throughout Italy.
+His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo del Monte of Pesaro, a man
+equally eminent in science, and influential through family connexions.
+At the Marchese's request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of
+gravity in solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of
+"the Archimedes of his time," the honourable though not lucrative post
+of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During the ensuing two
+years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable series of experiments by
+which he established the first principles of dynamics and earned the
+undying hostility of bigoted Aristotelians. From the leaning tower of
+Pisa he afforded to all the professors and students of the university
+ocular demonstration of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that
+heavy bodies fall with velocities proportional to their weights, and
+with unanswerable logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the
+schools regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or
+levity. But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his adversaries.
+The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not calculated to soothe
+the susceptibilities of men already smarting under the deprivation of
+their most cherished illusions. He seems, in addition, to have
+compromised his position with the grand-ducal family by the imprudent
+candour with which he condemned a machine for clearing the port of
+Leghorn, invented by Giovanni de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo
+I. Princely favour being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show
+itself. He was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to
+resign his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1591. Through the
+death of his father in July of that year family cares and
+responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to the chair
+of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by the influence of
+the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian senate, was welcome both as
+affording a relief from pecuniary embarrassment and as opening a field
+for scientific distinction.
+
+His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of eighteen years,
+from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted prosperity. His
+appointment was three times renewed, on each occasion with the
+expressions of the highest esteem on the part of the governing body, and
+his yearly salary was progressively raised from 180 to 1000 florins. His
+lectures were attended by persons of the highest distinction from all
+parts of Europe, and such was the charm of his demonstrations that a
+hall capable of containing 2000 people had eventually to be assigned for
+the accommodation of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His
+invention of the proportional compass or sector--an implement still used
+in geometrical drawing--dates from 1597; and about the same time he
+constructed the first thermometer, consisting of a bulb and tube filled
+with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of water. In this
+instrument the results of varying atmospheric pressure were not
+distinguishable from the expansive and contractive effects of heat and
+cold, and it became an efficient measure of temperature only when
+Rinieri, in 1646, introduced the improvement of hermetically sealing the
+liquid in glass. The substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water
+completed the modern thermometer.
+
+Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the
+Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from avowing his
+opinions--as is proved by his letter to Kepler of August 4, 1597--by the
+fear of ridicule rather than of persecution. The appearance, in September
+1604, of a new star in the constellation Serpentarius afforded him indeed
+an opportunity, of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an
+onslaught upon the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the
+heavens; but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to
+Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent implement
+of research in the shape of the telescope (q.v.) placed at his command
+startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as to the constitution and
+mutual relations of the heavenly bodies. Galileo was not the original
+inventor of the telescope.[1] That honour must be assigned to Johannes
+Lippershey, an obscure optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October
+1608, petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive
+rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the apparent
+size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention, which reached
+Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the track; and after one
+night's profound meditation on the principles of refraction, he succeeded
+in producing a telescope of threefold magnifying power. Upon this first
+attempt he rapidly improved, until he attained to a power of thirty-two,
+and his instruments, of which he manufactured hundreds with his own
+hands, were soon in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only--a
+plano-convex and a plano-concave--were needed for the composition of
+each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the
+construction of opera-glasses. Galileo's direction of his new instrument
+to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy. Discoveries
+followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in bewildering variety. The
+_Sidereus Nuncius_, published at Venice early in 1610, contained the
+first-fruits of the new mode of investigation, which were sufficient to
+excite learned amazement on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous
+configuration of the moon's surface was there first described, and the
+so-called "phosphorescence" of the dark portion of our satellite
+attributed to its true cause--namely, illumination by sunlight reflected
+from the earth.[2] All the time-worn fables and conjectures regarding the
+composition of the Milky Way were at once dissipated by the simple
+statement that to the eye, reinforced by the telescope, it appeared as a
+congeries of lesser stars, while the great nebulae were equally declared
+to be resolvable into similar elements. But the discovery which was at
+once perceived to be most important in itself, and most revolutionary in
+its effects, was that of Jupiter's satellites, first seen by Galileo on
+the 7th of January 1610, and by him named _Sidera Medicea_, in honour of
+the grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and was
+about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the general run of
+mankind, more powerful to convince than an argument; and the cogency of
+the visible plea for the Copernican theory offered by the miniature
+system, then first disclosed to view, was recognizable in the triumph of
+its advocates as well as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.
+
+In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for Florence. His
+researches with the telescope had been rewarded by the Venetian senate
+with the appointment for life to his professorship, at an
+unprecedentedly high salary. His discovery of the "Medicean Stars" was
+acknowledged by his nomination (July 12, 1610) as philosopher and
+mathematician extraordinary to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments
+of this office, which involved no duties save that of continuing his
+scientific labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of
+increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism, which
+induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of which had
+indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610 the memorable cycle
+of discoveries begun in the previous year was completed by the
+observation of the ansated or, as it appeared to Galileo, triple form of
+Saturn (the ring-formation was first recognized by Christiaan Huygens in
+1655), of the phases of Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards
+sun-spots, however, Johann Fabricius of Osteel in Friesland can claim
+priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring of
+1611 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the Quirinal
+Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most eminent
+personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the flattering
+reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his _Letters on the Solar
+Spots_, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more decided position
+towards that doctrine on the establishment of which, as he avowed in a
+letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the grand-duke, "all his life
+and being henceforward depended." Even in the time of Copernicus some
+well-meaning persons, especially those of the reformed persuasion, had
+suspected a discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and
+certain passages of Scripture--a suspicion strengthened by the
+anti-Christian inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the
+question was never formally debated until Galileo's brilliant
+disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic zeal,
+irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities.
+Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be
+admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself into it
+with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to precipitate a
+decision which it was his interest to avert. In December 1613 a
+Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castelli, at that time professor of
+mathematics at the university of Pisa, wrote to inform Galileo of a
+recent discussion at the grand-ducal table, in which he had been called
+upon to defend the Copernican doctrine against theological objections.
+This task Castelli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan
+astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation and success.
+Galileo's answer, written, as he said himself, _currente calamo_, was an
+exposition of a formal theory as to the relations of physical science to
+Holy Writ, still further developed in an elaborate apology addressed by
+him in the following year (1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager
+grand-duchess of Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts,
+he met his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and
+endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system which seemed
+to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to the scientific few a
+beautiful but daring innovation. The rising agitation on the subject,
+fomented for their own purposes by the rabid Aristotelians of the
+schools, was heightened rather than allayed by these manifestoes, and on
+the fourth Sunday of the following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of
+Santa Maria Novella. Padre Caccini's denunciation of the new astronomy
+was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors;
+nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican monk named
+Lorini laid Galileo's letter to Castelli before the Inquisition.
+
+Cardinal Robert Bellarmin was at that time by far the most influential
+member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast learning and upright
+piety, but, although personally friendly to Galileo, there is no doubt
+that he saw in his scientific teachings a danger to religion. The year
+1615 seems to have been a period of suspense. Galileo received, as the
+result of a conference between Cardinals Bellarmin and Del Monte, a
+semi-official warning to avoid theology, and limit himself to physical
+reasoning. "Write freely," he was told by Monsignor Dini, "but keep
+outside the sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself
+to dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome, full of
+confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity of his
+eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical court to his
+views. He was cordially received, and eagerly listened to, but his
+imprudent ardour served but to injure his cause. On the 24th of February
+1616 the consulting theologians of the Holy Office characterized the two
+propositions--that the sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and
+that the earth has a diurnal motion of rotation--the first as "absurd in
+philosophy, and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy
+Scripture," and the second as "open to the same censure in philosophy,
+and at least erroneous as to faith." Two days later Galileo was, by
+command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned to the palace of Cardinal
+Bellarmin, and there officially admonished not thenceforward to "hold,
+teach or defend" the condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to
+obey. On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree
+reiterating, with the omission of the word "heretical," the censure of
+the theologians, suspending, _usque corrigatur_, the great work of
+Copernicus, _De revolutionibus orbium coelestium_, and absolutely
+prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini, which
+treated the same subject from a theological point of view. At the same
+time it was given to be understood that the new theory of the solar
+system might be held _ex hypothesi_, and the trivial verbal alterations
+introduced into the Polish astronomer's book in 1620, when the work of
+revision was completed by Cardinal Gaetani, confirmed this
+interpretation. This edict, it is essential to observe, the
+responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary congregation in no
+sense representing the church, was never confirmed by the pope, and was
+virtually repealed in 1757 under Benedict XIV.
+
+Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased, as his
+letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He brought with
+him, for the refutation of calumnious reports circulated by his enemies,
+a written certificate from Cardinal Bellarmin, to the effect that no
+abjuration had been required of or penance imposed upon him. During a
+prolonged audience he had received from the pope assurances of private
+esteem and personal protection; and he trusted to his dialectical
+ingenuity to find the means of presenting his scientific convictions
+under the transparent veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere
+Catholic, he seems to have laid but little stress on the secret
+admonition of the Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged
+him gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written
+memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, according to his
+own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin's certificate, in
+which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather than expressly
+recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during which he led a life of
+studious retirement in the Villa Segni at Bellosguardo, near Florence,
+he maintained an almost unbroken silence. At the end of that time he
+appeared in public with his _Saggiatore_, a polemical treatise written
+in reply to the _Libra astronomica_ of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym
+of Lotario Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The
+subject in debate was the nature of comets, the conspicuous appearance
+of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished the occasion of the
+controversy. Galileo's views, although erroneous, since he held comets
+to be mere atmospheric emanations reflecting sunlight after the
+evanescent fashion of a halo or a rainbow, were expressed with such
+triumphant vigour, and embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his
+opponent did not venture upon a reply. The _Saggiatore_ was printed at
+Rome in October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincei, of which Galileo was
+a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and
+notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of Copernican
+opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesiastical, no less than
+by scientific authorities.
+
+Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken prosperity to
+Galileo's career. Maffeo Barberini, his warmest friend and admirer in
+the Sacred College, was, by the election of the 8th of August 1623,
+seated on the pontifical throne; and the marked distinction with which
+he was received on his visit of congratulation to Rome in 1624
+encouraged him to hope for the realization of his utmost wishes. He
+received every mark of private favour. The pope admitted him to six long
+audiences in the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to
+the grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only for his
+distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and granted a
+pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards transferred to
+himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the end of his life. But
+on the subject of the decree of 1616, the revocation of which Galileo
+had hoped to obtain through his personal influence, he found him
+inexorable. Yet there seemed reason to expect that it would at least be
+interpreted in a liberal spirit, and Galileo's friends encouraged his
+imprudent confidence by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance
+which it was possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal
+Hohenzollern, Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the
+earth's motion had not been and could not be condemned as heretical, but
+only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican monk Tommaso
+Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had expressed to him in
+conversation his disapproval of the prohibitory decree. Thus, in the
+full anticipation of added renown, and without any misgiving as to
+ulterior consequences, Galileo set himself, on his return to Florence,
+to complete his famous but ill-starred work, the _Dialogo dei due
+massimi sistemi del mondo_. Finished in 1630, it was not until January
+1632 that it emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book
+was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected obstacles
+interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the death of Prince
+Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an outbreak of plague impeded
+communication between the various Italian cities; and the _imprimatur_
+was finally extorted, rather than accorded, under the pressure of
+private friendship and powerful interest. A tumult of applause from
+every part of Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult
+to find in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style
+are so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific
+exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati, Sagredo,
+and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which the work is
+composed. The first-named expounds the views of the author; the second
+is an eager and intelligent listener; the third represents a
+well-meaning but obtuse Peripatetic, whom the others treat at times with
+undisguised contempt. Salviati and Sagredo took their names from two of
+Galileo's early friends, the former a learned Florentine, the latter a
+distinguished Venetian gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from
+the Cilician commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless
+instigated by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word.
+There were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to
+depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party; and
+the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by certain
+imprudences of expression, which Urban was not permitted to ignore.
+
+It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable work was
+in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen years before its
+publication, as well as with the author's personal pledge of conformity
+to it. The ironical submission with which it opened, and the assumed
+indetermination with which it closed, were hardly intended to mask the
+vigorous assertion of Copernican principles which formed its substance.
+It is a singular circumstance, however, that the argument upon which
+Galileo mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the
+truth of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow of
+the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial double
+movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the absolute
+velocities through space of the various parts of the earth's surface,
+due to its rotation. To this notion, which took its rise in a confusion
+of thought, he attached capital importance, and he treated with scorn
+Kepler's suggestion that a certain occult attraction of the moon was in
+some way concerned in the phenomenon. The theological censures which the
+book did not fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt.
+Towards the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of
+October the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his
+age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the obstacles
+to travel caused by quarantine regulations; but the pope was sternly
+indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude and insubordination, and
+no excuse was admitted. At length, on the 13th of February 1633, he
+arrived at the residence of Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the
+pontifical court, and there abode in retirement for two months. From the
+12th to the 30th of April he was detained in the palace of the
+Inquisition, where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with
+unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the hospitality of
+Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation against him was that he had
+written in contravention of the decree of 1616, and in defiance of the
+command of the Holy Office communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin;
+and his defence consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an
+appeal to his good intentions. On the 21st of June he was finally
+examined under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his
+assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the Index,
+he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the publication of the
+documents relating to this memorable trial, there can no longer be any
+doubt, not only that the threat of torture was not carried into
+execution, but that it was never intended that it should be. On the 22nd
+of June, in the church of Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his
+recantation, and received his sentence. He was condemned, as "vehemently
+suspected of heresy," to incarceration at the pleasure of the tribunal,
+and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a week for three years
+the seven penitential psalms. This sentence was signed by seven
+cardinals, but did not receive the customary papal ratification. The
+legend according to which Galileo, rising from his knees after repeating
+the formula of abjuration, stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, "_Eppur
+si muove!_" is, as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its
+earliest ascertained appearance is in the Abbe Irailh's _Querelles
+litteraires_ (vol. iii. p. 49, 1761).
+
+Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the 21st to the
+24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the Villa Medici on the
+Trinita de' Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July, he was permitted to
+depart for Siena, where he spent several months in the house of the
+archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one of his numerous and trusty friends.
+It was not until December that his earnest desire of returning to
+Florence was realized, and the remaining eight years of his life were
+spent in his villa at Arcetri called "Il Giojello," in the strict
+seclusion which was the prescribed condition of his comparative freedom.
+Domestic afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to
+embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family, who came
+to live with him on his return from Rome, perished shortly afterwards of
+the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634 died, to the inexpressible
+grief of her father, his eldest and best-beloved daughter, a nun in the
+convent of San Matteo at Arcetri. Galileo was never married; but by a
+Venetian woman named Marina Gamba he had three children--a son who
+married and left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an
+early age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to the
+last. In 1636 he completed his _Dialoghi delle nuove scienze_, in which
+he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and mature
+meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in many respects his
+most valuable work was printed by the Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and
+excited admiration equally universal and more lasting than that accorded
+to his astronomical treatises. His last telescopic discovery--that of
+the moon's diurnal and monthly librations--was made in 1637, only a few
+months before his eyes were for ever closed in hopeless blindness. It
+was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited him at
+Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet extinct. He
+continued his scientific correspondence with unbroken interest and
+undiminished logical acumen; he thought out the application of the
+pendulum to the regulation of clockwork, which Huygens successfully
+realized fifteen years later; and he was engaged in dictating to his
+disciples, Viviani and Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of
+impact when he was seized with the slow fever which in two months
+brought him to the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long
+life of triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval between
+the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.
+
+The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are virtually
+summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theoretical perfection
+of the science he contributed little or nothing. He pointed out indeed
+that the so-called "third motion," introduced by Copernicus to account
+for the constant parallelism of the earth's axis, was a superfluous
+complication. But he substituted the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a
+magnetic attraction, and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be
+explained was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the
+absence of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously
+detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the
+discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his
+contemporaries. Kepler's first and second laws were published in 1609,
+and his third ten years later. By these momentous inductions the
+geometrical theory of the solar system was perfected, and a hitherto
+unimagined symmetry was perceived to regulate the mutual relations of
+its members. But by Galileo they were passed over in silence. In his
+_Dialogo dei massimi sistemi_, printed not less than thirteen years
+after the last of the three laws had been given to the world, the
+epicycles by which Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of
+uniform circular motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the
+irregularities of the planetary movements, were neither expressly
+adopted nor expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that
+this grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps
+unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not
+originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that vast
+extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has rendered
+modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his telescopic
+observations are a standing monument to his sagacity and acumen.
+
+With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic features
+of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his inferences, except
+when distorted by polemical exigencies, have been strikingly confirmed
+by modern investigations. Of his two capital errors, regarding
+respectively the theory of the tides and the nature of comets, the first
+was insidiously recommended to him by his passionate desire to find a
+physical confirmation of the earth's double motion; the second was
+adopted for the purpose of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded
+on the planetary analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within
+two years of their first discovery, he had constructed approximately
+accurate tables of the revolutions of Jupiter's satellites, and he
+proposed their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes,
+not only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great
+stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular glass,
+and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was offered by him in
+1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards to that of Tuscany, but
+in each case unsuccessfully; and the close of his life was occupied with
+prolonged but fruitless negotiations on the same subject with the
+states-general of Holland. The idea, though ingenious, has been found of
+little practical utility at sea.
+
+A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the principal
+appearances revealed by modern instruments in the solar spots. He
+pointed out that they were limited to a certain defined zone on the
+sun's surface; he noted the _faculae_ with which they are associated,
+the penumbra by which they are bordered, their slight proper motions and
+their rapid changes of form. He inferred from the regularity of their
+general movements the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of
+little less than a month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the
+paths seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive,
+argument in favour of the earth's annual revolution. Twice in the year,
+he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in straight
+lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he referred with
+great acuteness to the slight inclination of the sun's axis of rotation
+to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the earth finds herself in the
+plane of the sun's equator, which occurs at two opposite points of her
+orbit, the spots, travelling in circles parallel with that plane,
+necessarily appear to describe right lines; but when the earth is above
+or below the equatorial level, the paths of the spots open out into
+curves turned downwards or upwards, according to the direction in which
+they are seen. But the explanation of this phenomenon is equally
+consistent with the geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the
+solar system. The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have
+hovered on the borders of this great man's mind, without ever fully
+entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which holds the
+moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels Jupiter's satellites
+to circulate round their primary, and the attraction exercised by the
+earth on bodies at its surface;[3] but he failed to conceive the
+combination of central force with tangential velocity, and was disposed
+to connect the revolutions of the planets with the axial rotation of the
+sun. This notion, it is plain, tended rather towards Descartes's theory
+of vortices than towards Newton's theory of gravitation. More valid
+instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found in his
+prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be found for
+some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Saturnian planets would at some
+future time be ascertained to exist, and in his conviction that light
+travels with a measurable, although, in relation to terrestrial
+distances, infinite velocity.
+
+The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his first
+biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to him. Such an
+instrument was made as early as 1590 by Zacharias Jansen of Middleburg;
+and although Galileo discovered, in 1610, a means of adapting his
+telescope to the examination of minute objects, he did not become
+acquainted with the compound microscope until 1624 when he saw one of
+Drebbel's instruments in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity,
+immediately introduced some material improvements into its construction.
+
+The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work
+consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establishment of
+mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts and theorems
+had been previously discovered and proved, but it was he who first
+clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical agent, and extended to
+the external world the conception of the invariability of the relation
+between cause and effect. From the time of Archimedes there had existed
+a science of equilibrium, but the science of motion began with Galileo.
+It is not too much to say that the final triumph of the Copernican
+system was due in larger measure to his labours in this department than
+to his direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is
+essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical conceptions of
+the dependence of motion upon force which Galileo familiarized to men's
+minds, that problem might have remained a sealed book even to the
+intelligence of Newton. The interdependence of motion and force was not
+indeed formulated into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on
+dynamics are everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of
+dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extraordinary advances
+made by him in this branch of knowledge were owing to his happy method
+of applying mathematical analysis to physical problems. As a pure
+mathematician he was, it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than
+one among his pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative
+grasp of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with
+Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or Leibnitz.
+Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his powerful and
+original mind left notable traces of its working. He studied the
+properties of the cycloid, and attempted the problem of its quadrature;
+and in the "infinitesimals," which he was one of the first to introduce
+into geometrical demonstrations, was contained the fruitful germ of the
+differential calculus. But the method which was peculiarly his, and
+which still forms the open road to discoveries in natural science,
+consisted in the combination of experiment with calculation--in the
+transformation of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous
+comparison of results. The first-fruits of the new system of
+investigation was his determination of the laws of falling bodies.
+Conceiving that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he
+assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth
+descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence that the
+velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces traversed in the
+duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the beginning of motion;
+finally, he proved, by observing the times of descent of bodies falling
+down inclined planes, that the postulated law was the true law. Even
+here, he was obliged to take for granted that the velocities acquired in
+descending from the same height along planes of every inclination are
+equal; and it was not until shortly before his death that he found the
+mathematical demonstration of this not very obvious principle.
+
+The first law of motion--that which expresses the principle of
+inertia--is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly accelerated
+velocity. The recognition of the second--that of the independence of
+different motions--must be added to form the true theory of projectiles.
+This was due to Galileo. Up to his time it was universally held in the
+schools that the motion of a body should cease with the impulse
+communicated to it, but for the "reaction of the medium" helping it
+forward. Galileo showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once
+impressed is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that
+the effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another
+commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by more than
+one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed that a cannon ball,
+or other projectile, moves forward in a right line until its first
+impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to the ground. In the
+fourth of Galileo's dialogues on mechanics, he demonstrated that the
+path described by a projectile, being the result of the combination of a
+uniform transverse motion with a uniformly accelerated vertical motion,
+must, apart from the resistance of the air, be a parabola. The
+establishment of the principle of the composition of motions formed a
+conclusive answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against
+the rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly
+brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the systems
+of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a body flung upward
+or cast downward would, if the earth were in motion, be left behind by
+the rapid translation of the point from which it started; Galileo proved
+on the contrary that the reception of a fresh impulse in no way
+interfered with the movement already impressed, and that the rotation of
+the earth was insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its
+surface. His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his
+satisfactory definition of "momentum," led him towards the third law of
+motion. We find Newton's theorem, that "action and reaction are equal
+and opposite," stated with approximate precision in his treatise _Della
+scienza meccanica_, which contains the substance of lectures delivered
+during his professorship at Padua; and the same principle is involved in
+the axiom enunciated in the third of his mechanical dialogues, that "the
+propensity of a body to fall is equal to the least resistance which
+suffices to support it." The problems of percussion, however, received
+no definitive solution until after his death.
+
+His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the kinetical
+division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory demonstration of
+equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to the level by a sound
+and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by establishing the theory of
+"virtual velocities," he laid down the fundamental principle which, in
+the opinion of Lagrange, contains the general expression of the laws of
+equilibrium. He studied with attention the still obscure subject of
+molecular cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on
+the question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first
+brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his _Discorso
+intorno alle cose che stanno su l'acqua_, published in 1612, he used the
+principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more important
+theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the equilibrium of fluid in a
+siphon, and proved against the Aristotelians that the floating of solid
+bodies in a liquid depends not upon their form, but upon their specific
+gravities relative to such liquid.
+
+In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by Galileo in
+natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate the confused and
+erroneous opinions prevailing on all such subjects in his time. His best
+eulogium, it has been truly said, consists in the fallacies which he
+exposed. The scholastic distinctions between corruptible and
+incorruptible substances, between absolute gravity and absolute levity,
+between natural and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear
+from scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place of
+honour in the controversies of the learned. Discarding these obscure and
+misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and levity are relative
+terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even those which, like the air,
+are invisible; that motion is the result of force, instantaneous or
+continuous; that weight is a continuous force, attracting towards the
+centre of the earth; that, in a vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal
+velocities; that the "inertia of matter" implies the continuance of
+motion, as well as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the
+heavenly bodies is equally "corruptible" with that of the earth. These
+simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of development and
+investigation, and were not only true but the prelude to further truth;
+while those they superseded defied inquiry by their vagueness and
+obscurity. Galileo was a man born in due time. He was superior to his
+contemporaries, but not isolated amongst them. He represented and
+intensified a growing tendency of the age in which he lived. It was
+beginning to be suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature,
+and some were found who no longer treated the _ipse dixit_ of the
+Stagirite as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but
+ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind traditions
+of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and Campanella, and
+the revolution which Galileo completed had been prepared by his
+predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so effectually
+accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality of genius. He
+struck out for himself the happy middle path between the _a priori_ and
+the empirical systems, and exemplified with brilliant success the method
+by which experimental science has wrested from nature so many of her
+secrets. His mind was eminently practical. He concerned himself above
+all with what fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others
+the larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to
+the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty
+generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work has
+proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations. His keen
+intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argument, his
+fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made him
+irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs of scornful
+controversy have given place to the sedate applause of a long-lived
+posterity.
+
+  The first complete edition of Galileo's writings was published at
+  Florence (1842-1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of Signor
+  Eugenio Alberi. Besides the works already enumerated, it contained the
+  _Sermones de motu gravium_ composed at Pisa between 1589 and 1591; his
+  letters to his friends, with many of their replies, as well as several
+  of the essays of his scientific opponents; his laudatory comments on
+  the _Orlando Furioso_, and depreciatory notes on the _Gerusalemme
+  Liberata_, some stanzas and sonnets of no great merit, together with
+  the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint of Viviani's _Life_, with
+  valuable notes and corrections. The original documents from the
+  archives of the Inquisition, relating to the events of 1616 and 1633,
+  recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts of Count Rossi, and now in
+  the Vatican Library, were to a limited extent made public by Monsignor
+  Marino-Marini in 1850, and more unreservedly by M. Henri de l'Epinois,
+  in an essay entitled _Galilee, son proces, sa condemnation_,
+  published in 1867 in the _Revue des questions historiques_. He was
+  followed by M. Karl von Gebler, who, in an able and exhaustive but
+  somewhat prejudiced work, _Galileo Galilei und die romische Curie_
+  (Stuttgart, 1876), sought to impeach the authenticity of a document of
+  prime importance in the trial of 1633. He was victoriously answered by
+  Signor Domenico Berti, in _Il Processo originale di Galileo Galilei_
+  (Rome, 1876), and by M. de l'Epinois, with _Les pieces du proces de
+  Galilee_ (Rome, Paris, 1877). The touching letters of Galileo's eldest
+  daughter, Sister Maria Celeste, to her father were printed in 1864 by
+  Professor Carlo Arduini, in a publication entitled _La Primogenita di
+  Galileo Galilei_.
+
+  The issue of a "national edition" of the Works of Galileo, in 20 large
+  volumes, was begun at Florence in 1890. It includes a mass of
+  previously inedited correspondence and other documents, collected by
+  the indefatigable director, Professor Antonio Favaro, among whose
+  numerous publications on Galilean subjects may be mentioned: _Galileo
+  e lo studio di Padova_ (2 vols., 1883); _Scampoli Galileani_ (12
+  series, 1886-1897); _Nuovi Studii Galileani_ (1891); _Galileo Galilei
+  e Suor Maria Celeste_ (1891). See also Th. Henri Martin's _Galilee,
+  les droits de la science et la methode des sciences physiques_ (1868);
+  _Private Life of Galileo_ (by Mrs Olney, 1870); J.J. Fahie's _Galileo;
+  his Life and Work_ (1903); _Galilee et Marius_, by J.A.C. Oudemans and
+  J. Bosscha (1903). The relations of Galileo to the Church are
+  temperately and ably discussed by F.R. Wegg-Prosser in _Galileo and
+  his Judges_ (1889), and in two articles published in the _American
+  Catholic Quarterly_ for April and July 1901.     (A. M. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word _telescope_, from [Greek: tele], far, [Greek: skopein],
+    to view, was invented by Demiscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at
+    the request of Prince Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was
+    used by Galileo as early as 1612, but was not introduced into England
+    until much later. In 1655 the word _telescope_ was inserted and
+    explained in Bagwell's _Mysteries of Astronomy_, _trunk_ or
+    _cylinder_ being the terms until then ordinarily employed.
+
+  [2] Leonardo da Vinci, more than a hundred years earlier, had come to
+    the same conclusion.
+
+  [3] The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in
+    the original:--"Le parti della Terra hanno tal propensione al centro
+    di essa, che quando ella cangiasse luogo, le dette parti, benche
+    lontane dal globo nel tempo delle mutazioni di esso, lo seguirebbero
+    per tutto; esempio di cio sia il seguito perpetuo delle Medicee,
+    ancorche separate continuamente da Giove. L'istesso si deve dire
+    della Luna, obbligata a seguir la Terra."--_Dialogo dei massimi
+    sistemi_, Giornata terza, p. 351 of Alberi's edition.
+
+
+
+
+GALION, a city of Crawford County, Ohio, U.S.A., about 75 m. S.W. of
+Cleveland. Pop. (1890) 6326; (1900) 7282 (703 foreign-born); (1910)
+7214. It is served by the Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago & St Louis, and
+the Erie railways, and by an interurban electric railway. The city is
+about 1165 ft. above sea level, and has extensive railway shops (of the
+Erie railway) and manufactories of brick and tile machinery, carriages
+and wagons, and grain and seed cleaners. The municipality owns and
+operates its electric-lighting plant. Galion was laid out as a town in
+1831, was incorporated as a borough in 1840, and was chartered as a city
+in 1878.
+
+
+
+
+GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828), anatomist, physiologist, and founder of
+phrenology (q.v.), was born at Tiefenbrunn near Pforzheim, Baden, on the
+9th of March 1758. After completing the usual literary course at Baden
+and Bruchsal, he began the study of medicine under J. Hermann
+(1738-1800) at Strassburg, whence, attracted by the names of Gerhard van
+Swieten (1700-1772) and Maximilian Stoll (1742-1788), he removed to
+Vienna in 1781. Having received his diploma, he began to practise as a
+physician there in 1785; but his energies were mainly devoted to the
+scientific investigation of problems which had occupied his attention
+from boyhood. At a comparatively early period he formed the
+generalization that in the human subject at least a powerful memory is
+invariably associated with prominent eyes; and further observation
+enabled him, as he thought, also to define the external characteristics
+indicative of special talents for painting, music and the mechanical
+arts. Following out these researches, he gradually reached the strong
+conviction, not only that the talents and dispositions of men are
+dependent upon the functions of the brain, but also that they may be
+inferred with perfect exactitude and precision from the external
+appearances of the skull. Gall's first appearance as an author was made
+in 1791, when he published the first two chapters of a (never completed)
+work entitled _Philosophisch-medicinische Untersuchungen uber Natur u.
+Kunst im kranken u. gesunden Zustande des Menschen_. The first public
+notice of his inquiries in cranioscopy, however, was in the form of a
+letter addressed to a friend, which appeared in C.M. Wieland's
+_Deutscher Mercur_ in 1798; but two years previously he had begun to
+give private courses of phrenological lectures in Vienna, where his
+doctrines soon attracted general attention, and met with increasing
+success until, in 1802, they were interdicted by the government as being
+dangerous to religion. This step on the part of the authorities had the
+effect of greatly stimulating public curiosity and increasing Gall's
+celebrity.
+
+In March 1805 he finally left Vienna in company with his friend and
+associate J.C. Spurzheim, and made a tour through Germany, in the course
+of which he lectured in Berlin, Dresden, Magdeburg and several of the
+university towns. His expositions, which he knew how to make popular and
+attractive, were much resorted to by the public, and excited
+considerable controversy in the scientific world. He had almost reached
+the zenith of his fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and
+established himself there as a medical practitioner, at the same time
+continuing his activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1808 appeared his
+_Introduction au cours de physiologie du cerveau_, which was followed in
+1809 by the _Recherches sur le systeme nerveux en general, et sur celui
+du cerveau en particulier_ (originally laid before the Institute of
+France in March 1808), and in 1810 by the first instalment of the
+_Anatomie et physiologie du systeme nerveux en general, et du cerveau en
+particulier, avec des observations sur la possibilite de reconnaitre
+plusieurs dispositions intellectuelles et morales de l'homme et des
+animaux par la configuration de leurs tetes._ The _Recherches_ and the
+first two volumes of the _Anatomie_ bear the conjoint names of Gall and
+Spurzheim. The latter work was completed in 1819, and appeared in a
+second edition of six volumes in 1822-1825. In 1811 he replied to a
+charge of Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against
+him, by a treatise entitled _Des dispositions innees de l'ame et de
+l'esprit_, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater work. In
+1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his efforts two years
+afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy of Sciences, although
+supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, were unsuccessful. In 1823 he
+visited London with the intention of giving a series of phrenological
+lectures, but his reception was not what he had anticipated, and he
+speedily abandoned his plans. He continued to lecture and practise in
+Paris until the beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic
+seizure. His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of
+August 1828.
+
+
+
+
+GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf. Dutch _gal_, and
+Ger. _Galle_; the Indo-European root appears in Gr. [Greek: chole] and
+Lat. _fel_; possibly connected with "yellow," with reference to the
+colour of bile), the secretion of the liver known as "bile," the term
+being also used of the pear-shaped _diverticulum_ of the bile-duct,
+which forms a reservoir for the bile, more generally known as the
+"gall-bladder" (see LIVER). From the extreme bitterness of the
+secretion, "gall," like the Lat. _fel_, is used for anything extremely
+bitter, whether actually or metaphorically. From the idea that the
+gall-bladder was the dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament,
+"gall" was formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one
+very ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang, with
+the meaning "impudence" or "assurance."
+
+"Gall," meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a horse, may
+be the same word, derived from an early use of the word as meaning
+"poison." On the other hand, in Romanic languages, the Fr. _galle_, Sp.
+_agalla_, a wind-gall or puffy distension of the synovial bursa on the
+fetlock joint of a horse, is derived from the Lat. _galla_, oak-apple,
+from which comes the English "gall," meaning an excrescence on trees
+caused by certain insects. (See GALLS.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLABAT, or GALABAT, called by the Abyssinians Matemma (Metemma), a
+town of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, in 13 deg. N. 36 deg. 12' E. It is
+built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank of a tributary of
+the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which forms here the
+Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 90 m. W. by N. of Gondar, the
+capital of Amhara, and being on the main route from Sennar to Abyssinia,
+is a trade centre of some importance. Pop. about 3000. The majority of
+the buildings are grass _tukls_. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and
+hides were formerly the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was
+closed about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the
+town was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later
+the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other. About
+1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886 was attacked by
+the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a dervish raiding party
+penetrated to Gondar, which they looted. In revenge an Abyssinian army
+under King John attacked the dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889.
+The dervishes suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a
+stray bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see EGYPT: _Military Operations_,
+1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered Gallabat.
+The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result of frontier
+arrangement the town was definitely included in the Sudan, though
+Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since 1899 the trade of the
+place has revived, coffee and live stock being the most important items.
+
+The town and district form a small ethnographical island, having been
+peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri from Darfur, who,
+finding the spot a convenient resting-place for their fellow-pilgrims on
+their way to Mecca and back, obtained permission from the negus of
+Abyssinia to make a permanent settlement. They are an industrious
+agricultural race, and cultivate cotton with considerable success. They
+also collect honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged
+throwing knives, which are said to have been brought from their original
+home in the Upper Congo regions.
+
+
+
+
+GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at Tournay, in
+Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He first studied in his native
+town under Hennequin. In 1832 his first picture, "Tribute to Caesar,"
+won a prize at the exhibition at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to
+prosecute his studies under Mathieu Ignace Van Bree, and in the
+following year exhibited at the Brussels Salon "Christ Healing the
+Blind." This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the
+cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he sent to the
+Belgian Salons "Job on the Dunghill," "Montaigne Visiting Tasso in
+Prison"; and, in 1841, "The Abdication of Charles V.," in the Brussels
+Gallery. This was hailed as a triumph, and gained for the painter a
+European reputation. Official invitations then caused him to settle at
+Brussels, where he died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater
+works may be named: "The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont and Horn by
+the Corporations of the Town of Brussels," now at Tournay; "The Death of
+Egmont," in the Berlin gallery; the "Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of
+Constantinople," painted for Versailles; "The Temptation of St Anthony,"
+in the palace at Brussels; "The Siege of Antioch," "Art and Liberty," a
+"Portrait of M.B. Dumortier" and "The Plague at Tournay," all in the
+Brussels gallery. "A Gipsy Woman and her Children" was painted in 1852.
+"M. Gallait has all the gifts that may be acquired by work, taste,
+judgment and determination," wrote Theophile Gautier; his art is that of
+a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment but
+superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the example of the
+Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment of Belgian classical
+painters and the French Romantic school, sincerely aimed at truth;
+unfortunately, misled by contemporary taste, he could not conceive of it
+excepting as dressed in sentimentality. As an artist employed by the
+State he exercised considerable influence, and for a long period he was
+the leader of public taste in Brussels.
+
+  See Teichlin, _Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschland_ (1853);
+  J. Dujardin, _L'Art flamand_ (1899); C. Lemonnier, _Histoire des
+  beaux-arts en Belgique_ (1881).
+
+
+
+
+GALLAND, ANTOINE (1646-1715), French Orientalist and archaeologist, the
+first European translator of the _Arabian Nights_, was born on the 4th
+of April 1646 at Rollot, in the department of Somme. The completion of
+his school education at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to
+a trade, from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic
+studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time in making a
+catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sorbonne, he was, in 1670,
+attached to the French embassy at Constantinople; and in 1673 he
+travelled in Syria and the Levant, where he copied a great number of
+inscriptions, and sketched, and in some cases removed historical
+monuments. After a brief visit to France, where his collection of
+ancient coins attracted some attention, Galland returned to the Levant
+in 1676; and in 1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by
+the French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert; on
+the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the government to
+continue his researches, and had the title of "antiquary to the king"
+conferred upon him. During his prolonged residences abroad he acquired a
+thorough knowledge of the Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and
+literatures, which, on his final return to France, enabled him to render
+valuable assistance to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to
+Barthelemy d'Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some time at Caen
+under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721), the intendant of Caen,
+himself no mean archaeologist; and there he began the publication (12
+vols., 1704-1717) of _Les mille et une nuits_, which excited immense
+interest during the time of its appearance, and is still the standard
+French translation. It had no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the
+coarseness of the language was modified to suit European taste, but the
+narrative was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted
+into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed to the
+chair of Arabic in the College de France. He continued to discharge the
+duties of this post until his death, which took place on the 17th of
+February 1715.
+
+  Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the department
+  of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic, Persian
+  and Turkish, entitled _Paroles remarquables, bons mots et maximes des
+  orientaux_ (1694), and a translation from an Arabic manuscript, _De
+  l'origine et du progres du cafe_ (1699). The former of these works
+  appeared in an English translation in 1795. His _Contes et fables
+  indiennes de Bidpai et de Lokman_ was published (1724) after his
+  death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts are a translation of
+  the Koran and a _Histoire generale des empereurs turcs_. His _Journal_
+  was published by M. Charles Schefer in 1881.
+
+
+
+
+GALLARATE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of Milan, from
+which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1901) 12,002. The town is of
+medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its textile factories. It
+is the junction of railways to Varese, Laveno and Arona (for the
+Simplon). Six miles to the W. are the electric works of Vizzola, the
+largest in Europe, where 23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.
+
+
+
+
+GALLARS [in Lat. GALLASIUS], NICOLAS DES (c. 1520-c. 1580), Calvinistic
+divine, first appears as author of a _Defensio_ of William Farel,
+published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-1549) by translations into
+French of three tracts by Calvin. In 1551 he was admitted burgess of
+Geneva, and in 1553 made pastor of a country church in the
+neighbourhood. In 1557 he was sent to minister to the Protestants at
+Paris; his conductor, Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in
+his possession, was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing
+suspicious about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the
+Strangers' church in London (1560), he, being then minister at Geneva,
+came to London to organize the French branch; and in 1561 he published
+_La Forme de police ecclesiastique instituee a Londres en l'Eglise des
+Francois_. In the same year he assisted Beza at the colloquy of Poissy.
+He became minister to the Protestants at Orleans in 1564; presided at
+the synod of Paris in 1565; was driven out of Orleans with other
+Protestants in 1568; and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d'Albret, queen
+of Navarre. Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis,
+and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegetical and
+polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on Exodus (1560); edited
+an annotated French Bible (1562) and New Testament (1562); and published
+tracts against Arians (1565-1566). His main work was his edition of
+Irenaeus (1570) with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London,
+and giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text. His
+collaboration with Beza in the _Histoire des Eglises Reformees du
+royaume de France_ (1580) is doubted by Bayle.
+
+  See Bayle, _Dictionnaire hist. et crit._; Jean Senebier, _Hist.
+  litteraire de Geneve_ (1786); _Nouvelle Biog. gen._ (1857),
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+GALLAS, MATTHIAS, COUNT OF CAMPO, DUKE OF LUCERA (1584-1647), Austrian
+soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and in Savoy with the Spaniards,
+and subsequently joined the forces of the Catholic League as captain. On
+the general outbreak of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an
+infantry regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of
+Stadtlohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as _General-Feldwachtmeister_
+under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the capture of
+Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service, he returned to
+Germany for the campaign against Gustavus Adolphus. In command of a
+corps of Wallenstein's army, he covered Bohemia against the Swedes in
+1631-1632, and served at the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Lutzen.
+Further good service against Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar commended General
+Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-general in
+his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators against Wallenstein,
+and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed to the command of the army
+which Wallenstein had formed and led. At the great battle of Nordlingen
+(23rd of August 1634) in which the army of Sweden was almost
+annihilated, Gallas commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next
+command was in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so
+much from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still more
+was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas commanded against
+the Swedish general Baner in 1637 and 1638. At first driving the Swedes
+before him, in the end he made a complete failure of the campaign, lost
+his command, and was subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather
+the indiscipline of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's
+methods) than his own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat
+across North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to
+endeavour to stop Torstenson's victorious advance, only to be shut up in
+Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant of his forces. Once
+more relieved of his command, he was again recalled to make head against
+the Swedes in 1645 (after their victory at Jankow). Before long, old and
+warworn, he resigned his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army
+had earned for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and
+rapacious force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his _Merode Bruder_
+have survived in the word _marauder_. Like many other generals of that
+period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial possessions
+(the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates). He was the
+founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which furnished many
+distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.
+
+
+
+
+GALLAS, or more correctly GALLA, a powerful Hamitic people of eastern
+Africa, scattered over the wide region which extends for about 1000 m.
+from the central parts of Abyssinia to the neighbourhood of the river
+Sabaki in British East Africa. The name "Galla" or "Gala" appears to be
+an Abyssinian nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves _Ilm'
+Orma_, "sons of men" or "sons of Orma," an eponymous hero. In Shoa
+(Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gala in Guragie, on the
+banks of which a great battle is said to have been fought between the
+Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud d'Abbadie says that the Abyssinian
+Moslems recount that, when summoned by the Prophet's messenger to adopt
+Islam, the chief of the Galla said "No,"--in Arabic _kal_ (or _gal_)
+_la_,--and the Prophet on hearing this said, "Then let their very name
+imply their denial of the Faith." Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla are
+the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them (c. 1860) at from
+six to eight millions; later authorities put them at not much over three
+millions. Individual tribes are said to be able to bring 20,000 to
+30,000 horsemen into the field.
+
+Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early home of
+the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern part of its
+present territory since the 16th century. According to Hiob Ludolf and
+James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the Abyssinian frontiers
+in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a district along the northern side
+of the river Abai) tell how their savage forefathers came from the
+south-east from a country on the other side of a bahr (lake or river),
+and the Yejju and Raia Galla also point towards the east and commemorate
+the passage of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be
+mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the country now
+occupied by the Somali. Their original home was possibly in the district
+east of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near Mount Kenya are stated to
+go on periodical pilgrimages to the mountain, making offerings to it as
+if to their mother. A theory has been advanced that the great exodus
+which it seems certain took place among the peoples throughout eastern
+Africa during the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of
+Kenya and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical term
+Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central regions of the
+Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla are numerically
+strongest. There is no sharp dividing line between the territory
+occupied respectively by the Galla and by the Somali.
+
+In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast eastern
+Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the Somali, the Afars
+(Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the eastern Hamites, there is a
+perceptible strain of Negro blood in the Galla, who are, however,
+described by Sir Frederick Lugard as "a wonderfully handsome race, with
+high foreheads, brown skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the
+wool of the Bantus." As a rule their features are quite European. Their
+colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla are of a coffee and
+milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the Limmu and Gudru on
+the river Abai.
+
+  The Galla are for the most part still in the nomadic and pastoral
+  stage, though in Abyssinia they have some agricultural settlements.
+  Their dwellings, circles of rough stones roofed with grasses, are
+  generally built under trees. Their wealth consists chiefly in cattle
+  and horses. Among the southern tribes it is said that about seven or
+  eight head of cattle are kept for every man, woman and child; and
+  among the northern tribes, as neither man nor woman ever thinks of
+  going any distance on foot, the number of horses is very large. The
+  ordinary food consists of flesh, blood, milk, butter and honey, the
+  last being considered of so much importance by the southern Galla that
+  a rude system of bee-keeping is in vogue, and the husband who fails to
+  furnish his wife with a sufficient supply of honey may be excluded
+  from all conjugal rights. In the south monogamy is the rule, but in
+  the north the number of a man's wives is limited only by his wishes
+  and his wealth. Marriage-forms are numerous, that of bride-capture
+  being common. Each tribe has its own chief, who enjoys the strange
+  privilege of being the only merchant for his people, but in all public
+  concerns must take the advice of the fathers of families assembled in
+  council. The greater proportion of the tribes are still pagan,
+  worshipping a supreme god Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess
+  Oglieh and Atetieh, whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen and
+  sheep. With a strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at a
+  certain time of the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to the
+  wants of their enemies the Somali, whom also he has created. Some
+  tribes, and notably the Wollo Galla, have been converted to
+  Mahommedanism and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. In the
+  north, where the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a kind of
+  superficial Christianization has taken place, to the extent at least
+  that the people are familiar with the names of Maremma or Mary,
+  Balawold or Jesus, Girgis or St George, &c.; but to all practical
+  intents paganism is still in force. The serpent is a special object of
+  worship, the northern Galla believing that he is the author of the
+  human race. There is a belief in were-wolves (_buda_), and the
+  northern Galla have sorcerers who terrorize the people. Though cruel
+  in war, all Galla respect their pledged word. They are armed with a
+  lance, a two-edged knife, and a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide.
+  A considerable number find employment in the Abyssinian armies.
+
+  Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each
+  instance being compounded with Galla) are the Ramatta, the Kukatta,
+  the Baole, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Ilani, the Arrar and the
+  Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be considered to
+  mark the division between north and south; and in the north we find
+  the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the Wollo, the Ambassil, the Aijjo,
+  and the Azobo Galla.
+
+  See C.T. Beke, "On the Origin of the Gallas," in _Trans. of Brit.
+  Assoc._ (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, _Travels in Eastern Africa_ (1860);
+  and _Vocabulary of the Galla Language_ (London, 1842); Arnaud
+  d'Abbadie, _Douze Ans dans la Haute-Ethiopie_ (1868); Ph. Paulitschke,
+  _Ethnographie Nord-Ost-Afrikas_; _Die geistige Kultur der Dan'akil,
+  Galla u. Somal_ (Berlin, 1896); P.M. de Salviac, _Les Galla_ (Paris,
+  1901).
+
+
+
+
+GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849), American statesman, was born in Geneva
+(Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The Gallatins were both an
+old and a noble family. They are first heard of in Savoy in the year
+1258, and more than two centuries later they went to Geneva (1510),
+united with Calvin in his opposition to Rome, and associated their
+fortunes with those of the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and
+with one or two other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth
+many representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the
+service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the eve
+of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva, occupying
+the same position which they had held for two hundred years. Albert
+Gallatin's father died in 1765, his mother five years later, and his
+only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan at nine, he was by no means
+lonely or unprotected. His grandparents, a large circle of near
+relatives and Mlle Catherine Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his
+mother, cared for him during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at
+the schools of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or
+academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to enter the army
+of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve "a tyrant," and a
+year later slipped away from Geneva and embarked for the United States.
+A competent fortune, good prospects, social position, and a strong
+family connexion were all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New
+World. His relatives very properly opposed his course, but they
+nevertheless did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to
+treat him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their
+opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the
+established order of things, and some political enthusiasm imbibed from
+the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons which can now be assigned
+for Gallatin's desertion of home and friends.
+
+In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 1784) landed in
+Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope and courage, as well
+as a little money, and at once entered into business. The times,
+however, were unfavourable. The great convulsion of the Revolution was
+drawing to a close, and everything was in an unsettled condition. The
+young Genevans failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds
+of Maine, and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a
+living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not without
+success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New England repelled
+him, and he made his way to the South. In the backwoods of Pennsylvania
+and Virginia there seemed to be better chances for a young adventurer.
+Gallatin engaged in land speculations, and tried to lay the foundation
+of his fortune in a frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allegre,
+and every prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered
+again. After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and Gallatin
+was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier life became now
+more dreary than ever; he flung himself into politics, the only outside
+resource open to him, and his long, and eventful public career began.
+
+The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and Gallatin, with
+his dislike of strong government still upon him, threw himself into
+opposition and became one of the founders of the Anti-Federalist, or, as
+it was afterwards called, the Republican party. He was a member of the
+Pennsylvania Constitutional Convention of 1789-1790, and of the
+Pennsylvania Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising
+rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak English
+with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by his sound
+education; but the true cause of his success lay in his strong sense,
+untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and great intellectual
+force. In 1793 he was chosen United States senator from Pennsylvania by
+the votes of both political parties. No higher tribute was ever paid to
+character and ability than that conveyed by this election. But the
+staunch Federalists of the senate, who had begun to draw the party lines
+rather sharply, found the presence of the young Genevan highly
+distasteful. They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a
+man of levelling principles. His seat was contested on account of a
+technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in
+February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the session,
+the senate annulled the election and sent him back to Pennsylvania with
+all the glory of political martyrdom.
+
+The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the "Whisky Insurrection"
+in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt, been an efficient cause in
+his rejection by the senate. He intended fully to restrain within legal
+bounds the opposition which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked,
+but he made the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the
+character of the backwoods population. When legal resistance developed
+into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and
+prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the 29th of
+August 1794, before the "Committee of Sixty" who were appointed to
+represent the disaffected people, he opposed with vigorous eloquence the
+use of force against the government, and refused to be intimidated by an
+excited band of riflemen who happened to be in the vicinity and
+represented the radical element. He effectively checked the excitement,
+and when a month later an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon
+the western counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of
+all the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin
+alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the national house
+of representatives, and took his seat in December 1795. There, by sheer
+force of ability and industry, he wrested from all competitors the
+leadership of the Republicans, and became the most dangerous opponent
+whom the Federalists had ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a
+hatred of France just then rising to the dignity of a party principle,
+they found in Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion
+peculiarly obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in
+vain. His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and
+action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most
+effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His clear
+mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance. He became
+the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his cardinal doctrines
+of simplicity and economy, and was an effective critic of the measures
+of government. Cool and temperate, Gallatin, when following his own
+theories, was usually in the right, although accused by his followers of
+trimming. Thus, in regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the
+constitutional right of the house to consider the treaty, but he did not
+urge rejection in this specific case. On the other hand, when following
+a purely party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the
+mainspring of Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commercial
+treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion. On these
+points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed his views after a
+good deal of bitter experience.
+
+The greatest period of Gallatin's career in congress was in 1798, after
+the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches. The insults of
+Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort bribes from the
+American commissioners, roused the deep anger of the people against
+France. The Federalists swept all before them, and the members of the
+opposition either retired from Philadelphia or went over to the
+government. Alone and single-handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in
+congress. The Federalists bore down on him unmercifully, and even
+attempted (1798) a constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship,
+partly, it appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on,
+making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying very
+little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson and
+Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong measures of the
+Federalists shocked the country; the leaders of the dominant party
+quarrelled fiercely among themselves; and the Republicans carried the
+elections of 1800. In the exciting contest for the presidency in the
+house of representatives between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who
+led the Republicans.
+
+When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801), there were
+two men whose commanding abilities marked them for the first places in
+the cabinet. James Madison became secretary of state, and Albert
+Gallatin secretary of the treasury. Wise, prudent and conservative,
+Gallatin made few changes in Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve
+years administered the national finances with the greatest skill. He and
+Jefferson were both imbued with the idea that government could be
+carried on upon a priori principles resting on the assumed perfectness
+of human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory fell
+upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity of
+administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and everything bent to
+these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary pirates was a mere
+question of expense. It was cheaper to seize Louisiana than to await the
+settlement of doubtful points. Commercial warfare was to be avoided
+because of the cost. All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded
+it was less extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared.
+Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself in the
+matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six years the public
+debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana purchase) by $14,260,000,
+a large surplus was on hand, a comprehensive and beneficent scheme of
+internal improvements was ready for execution, and the promised land
+seemed in sight. Then came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched
+neutrality at home, fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair
+structure of government by a priori theories based on the goodness of
+unoppressed humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown helplessly
+back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of government according to
+circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets, but the position was a trying
+one. The sworn foe of strong government, he was compelled, in pursuance
+of Jefferson's policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other
+radical and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain.
+Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and Jefferson,
+having entangled foreign relations and brought the country to the verge
+of civil war, retired to private life, leaving to his successor Madison,
+and to Gallatin, the task of extricating the nation from its
+difficulties. From 1809 the new administration, drifting steadily
+towards war, struggled on from one abortive and exasperating negotiation
+to another. It was a period of sore trial to Gallatin. The peace policy
+had failed, and nothing else replaced it. He had lost his hold upon
+Pennsylvania and his support in the house, while a cabal in the senate,
+bitterly and personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the
+administration and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At
+last, however, in June 1812, congress on Madison's recommendation
+declared war against England.
+
+Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished schemes
+were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had come, and he
+believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and progress of America. He
+therefore put the finances in the best order he could, and set himself
+to mitigate the evil effects of the war by obtaining an early peace.
+With this end in view he grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of
+Russia, and without resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May
+1813.
+
+Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered, catching at
+every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his labours came the
+news that the senate had refused to confirm his appointment as peace
+commissioner. He still toiled on unofficially until, the objection of
+the senate having been met by the appointment of a new secretary of the
+treasury, his second nomination was approved, and he was able to proceed
+with direct negotiations. The English and American commissioners finally
+met at Ghent, and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued
+Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in managing his
+colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John Quincy Adams, able
+men of strong wills and jarring tempers. He succeeded in preserving
+harmony, and thus established his own reputation as an able diplomatist.
+Peace was his reward; on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was
+signed; and after visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood,
+and assisting in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England
+by which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July 1815
+returned to America.
+
+While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become minister to
+France; this appointment he accepted in January 1816, and adhered to his
+acceptance in spite of his being asked in April 1816 to serve once more
+as secretary of the treasury. He remained in France for the next seven
+years. He passed his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing
+everybody of note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of
+his official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted
+patience to settle the commercial relations of his adopted country with
+the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard Rush, then United
+States minister in London, in negotiating a commercial convention with
+Great Britain to take the place of that negotiated in 1815.
+
+In June 1823 he returned to the United States, where he found himself
+plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress for the
+presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal friend William H.
+Crawford, whom he regarded as the true heir and representative of the
+old Jeffersonian principles. With these feelings he consented in May
+1824 to stand for the vice-presidency on the Crawford ticket. But
+Gallatin had come home to new scenes and new actors, and he did not
+fully appreciate the situation. The contest was bitter, personal,
+factious and full of intrigue. Martin Van Buren, then in the Crawford
+interest, came to the conclusion that the candidate for the second
+place, by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in October
+Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the
+popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the choice of
+John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from his retirement and
+sent him as minister to England to conduct another complicated and
+arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked at his new task with his usual
+industry, tact and patience, but the results were meagre, although an
+open breach on the delicate question of the north-east boundary of the
+United States was avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king
+of the Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the United
+States and bade farewell to public life.
+
+Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839 president of
+the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank) of New York, but his
+duties were light, and he devoted himself chiefly to the congenial
+pursuits of science and literature. In both fields he displayed much
+talent, and by writing his _Synopsis of the Indian Tribes within the
+United States East of the Rocky Mountains and in the British and Russian
+Possessions in North America_ (1836), and by founding the American
+Ethnological Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of "Father
+of American Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest himself in
+public affairs, although no longer an active participant, and in all
+financial questions, especially in regard to the bank charter, the
+resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837, he exerted a
+powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question touched him nearly.
+Gallatin had always been a consistent opponent of slavery; he felt
+keenly, therefore, the attempts of the South to extend the slave power
+and confirm its existence, and the remnant of his strength was devoted
+in his last days to writing and distributing two able pamphlets against
+the war with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the
+24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of Texas;
+and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling New York mob with
+the same cool, unflinching courage which he had displayed half a century
+before when he faced the armed frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During
+the winter of 1848-1849 his health failed, and on the 12th of August
+1849, at the home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed
+peacefully away.
+
+Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he married in November
+1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of New York, the daughter of Com. James
+Nicholson (1737-1804), an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of
+the navy from 1777 until August 1781, when with his ship the "Virginia,"
+he was taken by the British "Iris" and "General Monk." By her he had
+three children, two sons and a daughter, who all survived him. In
+personal appearance he was above middle height, with strongly-marked
+features, indicating great strength of intellect and character. He was
+reserved and very reticent, cold in manner and not sympathetic. There
+was, too, a certain Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much
+beloved by his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have
+a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood, with
+Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won his place by
+force of character, courage, application and intellectual power. His
+eminent and manifold services to his adopted country, his great
+abilities and upright character, assure him a high position in the
+history of the United States.
+
+  _The Writings of Albert Gallatin_, edited by Henry Adams, were
+  published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these
+  volumes was published an excellent biography, _The Life of Albert
+  Gallatin_, also by Henry Adams; another good biography is John Austin
+  Stevens's _Albert Gallatin_ (Boston, 1884) in the "American Statesmen"
+  series.      (H. C. L.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-1851), American educator of the deaf and
+dumb, was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot
+ancestry, on the 10th of December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805,
+where he was a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology
+at Andover, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having determined to
+abandon the ministry and devote his life to the education of deaf mutes,
+he visited Europe in 1815-1816, and studied the methods of the abbe
+Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas Braidwood (1715-1806) and his successor
+Joseph Watson (1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United
+States in 1816, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of
+Laurent Clerc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbe Sicard, a
+school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress, largely through the
+influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant, and which Gallaudet presided
+over with great success until ill-health compelled him to retire in
+1830. It was the first institution of the sort in the United States, and
+served as a model for institutions which were subsequently established.
+He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851.
+
+  There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, _Life,
+  Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet_ (Hartford,
+  1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford, 1858), and a third (and
+  the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).
+
+His son, THOMAS GALLAUDET (1822-1902), after graduating at Trinity
+College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal ministry, settled in
+New York City, and there in 1852 organized St Anne's Episcopal church,
+where he conducted services for deaf mutes. In 1872 he organized and
+became general manager of the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885
+founded the Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at
+Wappingers Falls, near Poughkeepsie, New York.
+
+Another son, EDWARD MINER GALLAUDET (b. 1837), was born at Hartford,
+Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and graduated at Trinity
+College in 1856. After teaching for a year in the institution for deaf
+mutes founded by his father at Hartford, he removed with his mother,
+Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1798-1877), to Washington, D.C., where at the
+request of Amos Kendall (1789-1869), its founder, he organized and took
+charge of the Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received
+support from the government, and of which he became president. This
+institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate education for
+deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees), and was
+successful from the start. The Gallaudet College (founded in 1864 as the
+National Deaf Mute College and renamed in 1893 in honour of Thomas H.
+Gallaudet) and the Kendall School are separate departments of this
+institution, under independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but
+under the management of one board of directors.
+
+
+
+
+GALLE, or POINT DE GALLE, a town and port of Ceylon on the south-west
+coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and divided into the five
+districts of the Fort, Callowelle, Galopiadde, Hirimbure and
+Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile in circumference,
+overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded by a range of hills.
+Within its enclosure are not only several government buildings, but an
+old church erected by the Dutch East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan
+chapel, a hospital, and a considerable number of houses occupied by
+Europeans. The old Dutch building known as the queen's house, or
+governor's residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated
+state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in 1873.
+Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note, but the general
+style of domestic architecture is pleasant and comfortable, though not
+pretentious. One of the most delightful features of the place is the
+profusion of trees, even within the town, and along the edge of the
+shore--suriyas, palms, coco-nut trees and bread-fruit trees. The
+ramparts towards the sea furnish fine promenades. In the harbour deep
+water is found close to the shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but
+the south-west monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrequently
+drives vessels from their moorings.
+
+The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of a
+breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and most of
+the commercial steamers to the capital of the island, seriously
+diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few steamers still call
+to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of the Peninsular and
+Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced the port to a subordinate
+position; nor has the extension of the railway from Colombo, and beyond
+Galle to Matara, very much improved matters. The tea-planting industry
+has, however, spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in
+digging plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronella
+oil. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil, plumbago,
+coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade cotton goods are the
+chief item. Both the export and import trade for the district, however,
+now chiefly passes through Colombo. Pop. (1901) 37,165.
+
+  Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers, unless
+  the identification with Ptolemy's Avium Promontorium or Cape of Birds
+  be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native chronicles before
+  1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th century, distinctly
+  states that Kali--that is, Galle--was a _small_ town. It was not till
+  the period of Portuguese occupation that it rose to importance. When
+  the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese they strengthened the
+  fortifications, which had been vigorously defended against their
+  admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the place had the rank of a
+  commandancy. In the marriage treaty of the infanta of Portugal with
+  Charles II. of England it was agreed that if the Portuguese recovered
+  Ceylon they were to hand over Galle to the English; but as the
+  Portuguese did not recover Ceylon the town was left to fall into
+  English hands at the conquest of the island from the Dutch in 1796.
+  The name Galle is derived from the Sinhalese _galla_, equivalent to
+  "rock"; but the Portuguese and Dutch settlers, being better fighters
+  than philologists, connected it with the Latin _gallus_, a cock, and
+  the image of a cock was carved as a symbol of the town in the front of
+  the old government house.
+
+
+
+
+GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE (1810-1895), Italian author and
+patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of November 1810, was the eldest son
+of a Piedmontese of good family, who served for ten years in the French
+army under Massena and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the
+university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused a ferment
+in Italy. He sympathized with the movement, and within a few months was
+successively a conspirator, a state prisoner, a combatant and a
+fugitive. For the next five years he lived a wandering life in France,
+Spain and Africa. In August 1836 he embarked for New York, and three
+years later he proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a
+translator and teacher of languages. His first book, _Italy; General
+Views of its History and Literature_, which appeared in 1841, was well
+received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of the
+Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in communication with
+the insurgents. He filled the post of Charge d'Affaires for Piedmont at
+Frankfort in 1848-1849, and for the next few years he travelled
+incessantly between Italy and England, working for the liberation of his
+country. In 1854, through Cavour's influence, he was elected a deputy to
+the Italian parliament. He retained his seat until 1864, passing the
+summer in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in
+the winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-French War of 1859 he
+proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of _The Times_. The campaign
+was so brief that the fighting was over before he arrived, but his
+connexion with _The Times_ endured for twenty years. He was a forcible
+and picturesque writer, with a command of English remarkable for an
+Italian. He materially helped to establish that friendly feeling towards
+Italy which became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased
+the Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he
+retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December 1895. He
+was twice married. Among his chief works are an _Historical Memoir of
+Fra Dolcino and his Times_ (1853); a _History of Piedmont_ (3 vols.,
+1855; Italian translation, 1856); _Country Life in Piedmont_ (1858);
+_The Invasion of Denmark_ (2 vols., 1864); _The Pearl of the Antilles_
+[travels in Cuba] (1873); _Italy Revisited_ (2 vols., 1875); _Two Years
+of the Eastern Question_ (2 vols., 1877); _The Pope_ [Pius IX.] _and the
+King_ [Victor Emmanuel] (2 vols., 1879); _South America_ (1880); _A
+Summer Tour in Russia_ (1882); _Iberian Reminiscences_ (2 vols., 1883);
+_Episodes of my Second Life_ (1884); _Italy, Present and Future_ (2
+vols., 1887). Gallenga's earlier publications appeared under the
+pseudonym of Luigi Mariotti.
+
+
+
+
+GALLERY (through Ital. _galleria_, from Med. Lat. _galeria_, of which
+the origin is unknown),[1] a covered passage or space outside a main
+wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the ground floor, and as a
+balcony if on an upper floor and supported by columns, piers or corbels;
+similarly the upper seats in a theatre or a church, on either side as in
+many 17th-century churches, or across the west end under the organ. The
+word is also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place
+various rooms in communication with one another; but if of narrow width
+this is usually called a corridor or passage. When of sufficient width
+the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures and other art treasures. In
+the 16th century the picture gallery formed the largest room or hall in
+English mansions, with wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster
+ceiling; the principal examples are those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft.
+by 34 ft.); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 ft. by 22 ft.); Hatfield,
+Hertfordshire (163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, near Birmingham
+(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17 ft.); and
+Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.). Hence the application of
+the term to art museums (the National Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller
+rooms with top-light in which temporary exhibitions are held.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Du Cange, _Glossarium, s.v._ "Galeria," suggests an origin from
+    _galera_, a galley, on the analogy of "nave," from _navis_, the
+    galley being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, _alii alia
+    opinantur_.
+
+
+
+
+GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. _galee_, _galie_, from the Med. Lat.
+_galea_, Ital. _galea_, Port. _gale_, of uncertain origin; from the Med.
+Lat. variant form _galera_ are derived the Mod. Fr. _galere_, Span. and
+Ital. _galera_), a long single or half decked vessel of war, with low
+free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps; but also having masts
+for sails. The word is used generally of the ancient war vessels of
+Greece and Rome of various types, whose chief propelling power was the
+oar or sweep, but its more specific application is to the medieval war
+vessel which survived in the navies of the Mediterranean sea-powers
+after the general adoption of the larger many-decked ship of war,
+propelled solely by sail-power. Lepanto (1571) was the last great naval
+battle in which the galley played the principal part. The "galleass" or
+"galliass" (Med. Lat. _galeasea_, Ital. _galeazza_, an augmented form of
+_galea_) was a larger and heavier form of galley; it usually carried
+three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated structure. The
+"galliot" (O. Fr. _galiot_, Span. and Port. _galeota_, Ital. _galeotta_,
+a diminutive of _galea_) was a small light type of galley. The "galleon"
+(formerly in English "galloon," Fr. _galion_, derived from the Med. Lat.
+_galio_, _galionis_, a derivative of _galea_) was a sailing ship of war
+and trade, shorter than the galley and standing high out of the water
+with several decks, chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th
+century in the carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or
+sweeps varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the
+galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men. This
+labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves or
+prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediterranean powers to
+sentence condemned criminals to row in the war galleys of the state.
+Traces of this in France can be found as early as 1532, but the first
+legislative enactment is in the _Ordonnance d'Orleans_ of 1561. In 1564
+Charles IX. forbade the sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less
+than ten years. The galley-slaves were branded with the letters _Gal._
+At the end of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war
+purposes had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not
+incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the galleys
+and of the convict rowers (_galeriens_) was at Marseilles. The majority
+of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others were sent to
+Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work in the arsenal. At
+Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on the galleys, which were
+moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore prisons were, however, provided
+for them, known as _bagnes_, baths, a name given to such penal
+establishments first by the Italians (_bagno_), and said to have been
+derived from the prison at Constantinople situated close by or attached
+to the great baths there. The name _galerien_ was still given to all
+convicts, though the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the
+French Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed
+to _forcat_. In Spain _galera_ is still used for a criminal condemned to
+penal servitude.
+
+  A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
+  Jean Marteilhes's _Memoirs of a Protestant_, translated by Oliver
+  Goldsmith (new edition, 1895), which describes the experiences of one
+  of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict of
+  Nantes.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. _Cis_, on this side, i.e. of the Alps), in
+ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of Liguria and
+Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited by various Celtic and
+other peoples, of whom the Celts were in continual hostility to Rome. In
+early times it was bounded on the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in
+Caesar's time by Liguria and the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War
+(203 B.C.) these tribes were severely punished by the Roman generals for
+the assistance they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district
+into two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was made
+directly subject to the government at Rome, while the northern portion
+was put under a distinct authority, probably similar to the usual
+transmarine commands (see Mommsen, _Hist. of Rome_, Eng. trans., bk. iv.
+c. 10).
+
+  For the early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
+  district see ITALY (ancient), and ROME: _History, Ancient_.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIC ACID, trioxybenzoic acid (HO)3(3.4.5.)C6H2CO2H.H2O, the _acidum
+gallicum_ of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K. W. Scheele; it
+occurs in the leaves of the bearberry, in pomegranate root-bark, in tea,
+in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3%, and in other vegetable
+productions. It may be prepared by keeping moist and exposed to the air
+for from four to six weeks, at a temperature of 20 deg. to 25 deg. C., a
+paste of powdered gall-nuts and water, and removing from time to time
+the mould which forms on its surface; the paste is then boiled with
+water, the hot solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic
+acid drained, and purified by dissolving in boiling water,
+recrystallization at about 27 deg. C., and washing of the crystals with
+ice-cold water. The production of the acid appears to be due to the
+presence in the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained
+by boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol and
+ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced by heating an
+aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with excess of alkaline
+carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid with moist silver oxide,
+and by other methods. It crystallizes in white or pale fawn-coloured
+acicular prisms or silky needles, and is soluble in alcohol and ether,
+and in 100 parts of cold and 3 of boiling water; it is without odour and
+has an astringent and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200
+deg. C., and at 210 deg. to 215 deg. it is resolved into carbon dioxide
+and pyrogallol, C6H3(OH)3. With ferric salts its solution gives a deep
+blue colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an
+insoluble, blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali
+metals give with it four series of salts; these are stable except in
+alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown. Solution
+of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on exposure to the air,
+of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid, gallic acid does not
+precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids, or, except when mixed
+with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver are reduced by it, slowly in
+cold, instantaneously in warm solutions, hence its employment in
+photography. With phosphorus oxychloride at 120 deg. C. gallic acid
+yields tannic acid, and with concentrated sulphuric acid at 100 deg.,
+_rufigallic acid_, C14H8O8, an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents,
+such as arsenic acid, convert it into _ellagic acid_, C14H8O9 + H2O,
+probably a fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts,
+in the external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and probably in
+many plants, and composes the "bezoar stones" found in the intestines of
+Persian wild goats. Medicinally, gallic acid has been, and is still,
+largely used as an astringent, styptic and haemostatic. Gallic acid,
+however, does not coagulate albumen and therefore possesses no local
+astringent action. So far is it from being an haemostatic that, if
+perfused through living blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its
+rapid neutralization in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any
+remote actions.
+
+
+
+
+GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories maintaining that
+the church and king of France had ecclesiastical rights of their own,
+independent and exclusive of the jurisdiction of the pope. Gallicanism
+had two distinct sides, a constitutional and a dogmatic, though both
+were generally held together, the second serving as the logical basis of
+the first. And neither is intelligible, except in relation to the rival
+theory of Ultramontanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
+the question of ecclesiastical government. It maintained that the
+church's infallible authority was committed to pope and bishops jointly.
+The pope decided in the first instance, but his judgments must be
+tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops before they had the force
+of law. This ancient theory survived much longer in France than in other
+Catholic countries. Hence the name of Gallican is loosely given to all
+its modern upholders, whether of French nationality or not.
+Constitutional Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state
+in France. It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the
+theocratic pretensions of the medieval popes. They claimed that they, as
+vicars of Christ, had the right to interfere in the temporal concerns of
+princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they disapproved.
+Gallicanism answered that kings held their power directly of God; hence
+their temporal concerns lay altogether outside the jurisdiction of the
+pope. During the troubles of the Reformation era, when the papal
+deposing power threatened to become a reality, the Gallican theory
+became of great importance. It was elaborated, and connected with
+dogmatic Gallicanism, by the famous theologian, Edmond Richer
+(1559-1631), and finally incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration
+of the French Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that
+the temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2) that a
+general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient liberties of the
+Gallican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible teaching authority
+of the church belongs to pope and bishops jointly. This declaration led
+to a violent quarrel with Rome, and was officially withdrawn in 1693,
+though its doctrines continued to be largely held. They were asserted in
+an extreme form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which
+almost severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802 Napoleon
+contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration textually in a
+statute. Long before his time, however, the issue had been narrowed down
+to determining exactly how far the pope should be allowed to interfere
+in French ecclesiastical affairs. Down to the repeal of the Concordat in
+1905 all French governments continued to uphold two of the ancient
+"Gallican Liberties." The secular courts took cognizance of
+ecclesiastical affairs whenever the law of the land was alleged to have
+been broken; and papal bulls were not allowed to be published without
+the leave of the state. (See also FEBRONIANISM.)      (St. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (1849-   ), French soldier and colonial
+administrator, was born at Saint-Beat, in the department of
+Haute-Garonne, on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military academy
+of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the Marines,
+becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He saw service in the
+Franco-German War, and between 1877 and 1881 took an important part in
+the explorations and military expeditions by which the French dominion
+was extended in the basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly
+valuable service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
+almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce on the
+upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the Societe de
+Geographie. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed in Martinique. On
+the 24th of June 1886 he attained the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and
+on the 20th of December was nominated governor of Upper Senegal. He
+obtained several successes against Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory
+to agree to a treaty by which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger
+(see SENEGAL: _History_). In connexion with his service in West Africa,
+Gallieni published two works--_Mission d'exploration du Haut-Niger,
+1879-1881_ (Paris, 1885), and _Deux Campagnes au Sudan francais_ (Paris,
+1891)--which, besides possessing great narrative interest, give
+information of considerable value in regard to the resources and
+topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an officer of the
+Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of colonel, and from 1893
+to 1895 he served in Tongking, commanding the second military division
+of the territory. In 1899 he published his experiences in _Trois
+Colonnes au Tonkin_. In 1896 Madagascar was made a French colony, and
+Gallieni was appointed resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to
+governor-general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administration
+of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out against the
+French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni succeeded in completing
+the subjugation of the island. He also turned his attention to the
+destruction of the political supremacy of the Hovas and the restoration
+of the autonomy of the other tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle,
+Ratsimamanga, and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior,
+in October 1896, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in 1897,
+on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up the Hova hegemony, and
+made an end of Hova intrigues against French rule. The task of
+government was one of considerable difficulty. The application of the
+French customs and other like measures, disastrous to British and
+American trade, were matters for which Gallieni was not wholly
+responsible. His policy was directed to the development of the economic
+resources of the island and was conciliatory towards the non-French
+European population. He also secured for the Protestants religious
+liberty. In 1899 he published a _Rapport d'ensemble sur la situation
+generale de Madagascar_. In 1905, when he resigned the governorship,
+Madagascar enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In
+1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army corps and
+military government of Lyons. He reviewed the results of his Madagascar
+administration in a book entitled _Neuf Ans a Madagascar_ (Paris, 1908).
+
+
+
+
+GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS LICINIUS EGNATIUS, Roman emperor from A.D. 260 to
+268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about 218. From 253 to 260 he
+reigned conjointly with his father, during which time he gave proof of
+military ability and bravery. But when his father was taken prisoner by
+Shapur I. of Persia, in 260, Gallienus made no effort to obtain his
+release, or to withstand the incursions of the invaders who threatened
+the empire from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in
+literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up
+chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of their
+military and provincial commands, which were transferred to equites.
+During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful pestilence; and the
+chief cities of Greece were sacked by the Goths, who descended on the
+Greek coast with a fleet of five hundred. His generals rebelled against
+him in almost every province of the empire, and this period of Roman
+history came to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless,
+these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by maintaining
+order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians. Gallienus was killed
+at Mediolanum by his own soldiers while besieging Aureolus, who was
+proclaimed emperor by the Illyrian legions. His sons Valerianus and
+Saloninus predeceased him.
+
+  Life by Trebellius Pollio in _Script. Hist. Aug._; on coins see
+  articles in _Numism. Zeit._ (1908) and _Riv. ital. d. num._ (1908).
+
+
+
+
+GALLIFFET, GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTE, MARQUIS DE, Prince de Martignes
+(1830-1909), French general, was born in Paris on the 23rd of January
+1830. He entered the army in 1848, was commissioned as sub-lieutenant in
+1853, and served with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in
+the Italian campaign of 1859, and in Algeria in 1860, after which for a
+time he served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon III. He
+displayed great gallantry as a captain at the siege and storm of
+Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded. When he
+returned to France to recover from his wounds he was entrusted with the
+task of presenting the captured standards and colours to the emperor,
+and was promoted _chef d'escadrons_. He went again to Algeria in 1864,
+took part in expeditions against the Arabs, returned to Mexico as
+lieutenant-colonel, and, after winning further distinction, became in
+1867 colonel of the 3rd Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of
+1870-71 he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until
+promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At the battle
+of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in the heroic charge
+of General Margueritte's cavalry division, which extorted the admiration
+of the old king of Prussia. Made prisoner of war at the capitulation, he
+returned to France during the siege of Paris by the French army of
+Versailles, and commanded a brigade against the Communists. In the
+suppression of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly,
+and on that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout
+his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army,
+made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the chamber of
+deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna subdivision of Algeria,
+and commanded an expedition against El Golea, surmounting great
+difficulties in a rapid march across the desert, and inflicting severe
+chastisement on the revolted tribes. On the general reorganization of
+the army he commanded the 31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of
+division in 1875, he successively commanded the 15th infantry division
+at Dijon, the IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps
+at Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur de la
+Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive years, and
+attained a European reputation on all cavalry questions, and, indeed, as
+an army commander. Decorated with the grand cross of the Legion of
+Honour in 1887, he received the military medal for his able conduct of
+the autumn manoeuvres in 1891, and after again commanding at the
+manoeuvres of 1894 he retired from the active list. Afterwards he took
+an important part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1899
+to 29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet, and distinguished
+himself by the firmness with which he dealt with cases of unrest in the
+army, but he then retired into private life, and died on the 8th of July
+1909.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally LUCIUS ANNAEUS NOVATUS), son of the
+rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca
+the philosopher, was born at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of
+the Christian era. At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a
+rhetorician of some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio.
+His brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises _De Ira_ and _De
+Vita Beata_, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded to by
+the poet Statius (_Silvae_, ii. 7, 32). It is probable that he was
+banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned together to
+Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to Nero. Towards the
+close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was proconsul of the newly
+constituted senatorial province of Achaea, but seems to have been
+compelled by ill-health to resign the post within a few years. During
+his tenure of office (in 53) he dismissed the charge brought by the Jews
+against the apostle Paul (Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion
+("But Gallio cared for none of these things") shows the impartial
+attitude of the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days.
+He survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death by
+order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.
+
+  Tacitus, _Annals_, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, lxii. 25; Sir W.M.
+  Ramsay, _St Paul the Traveller_, pp. 257-261; art. in Hastings' _Dict.
+  of the Bible_ (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given by
+  Anatole France in _Sur la pierre blanche_.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIPOLI (anc. _Callipolis_), a seaport town and episcopal see of
+Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lecce, 31 m. S. by W. of it by rail,
+46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901) town, 10,399; commune, 13,459. It is
+situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of Taranto, but is united to the
+mainland by a bridge, protected by a castle constructed by Charles I.
+of Anjou. The other fortifications have been removed. The handsome
+cathedral dates from 1629. The town was once famous for its exports of
+olive-oil, which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the
+rock. This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine,
+however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.
+
+The ancient Callipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its name
+("beautiful city") shows. It is hardly mentioned in ancient times. Pliny
+tells us that in his time it was known as Anxa. It lay a little off the
+road from Tarentum to Hydruntum, but was reached by a branch from
+Aletium (the site is marked by the modern church of S. Maria della
+Lizza), among the ruins of which many Messapian inscriptions, but no
+Latin ones, have been found.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+GALLIPOLI (Turk. _Gelibolu_, anc. [Greek: Kallipolis]), a seaport and
+city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at the
+north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula 132 m.
+W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 90 m. S. of Adrianople, in 40 deg. 24' N.
+and 26 deg. 40' 30" E. Pop. (1905) about 25,000. Nearly opposite is
+Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is here about 2 m.
+wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appearance; its streets are narrow
+and dirty, and many of its houses are built of wood, although there are
+a few better structures, occupied by the foreign residents and the
+richer class of Turkish citizens. The only noteworthy buildings are the
+large, crowded and well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There are
+several mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman and
+Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor Justinian
+(483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to Bayezid I.
+(1389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly called the tombs of
+the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built on a cliff, has a fine
+appearance as seen from the Dardanelles. Gallipoli is the seat of a
+Greek bishop. It has two good harbours, and is the principal station for
+the Turkish fleet. From its position as the key of the Dardanelles, it
+was occupied by the allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the
+isthmus a few miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was
+fortified with strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly
+on the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifications
+were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the Russians threatening
+to take possession of Constantinople. The peninsula thus isolated by the
+fortified positions has the Gulf of Saros on the N.W., and extends some
+50 m. S.W. The guns of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before the
+strait joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly
+fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the
+Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.
+
+The district (_sanjak_) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well
+adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and comprises
+four _kazas_ (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its excellent
+cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli, noted for its
+cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and canary seed; (3)
+Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi (Peristeri) on the coast of the
+Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the
+neighbourhood formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and
+largely exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however,
+amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit of the
+viticulturists, most of whom uprooted their vines and replanted their
+lands with mulberry trees, making sericulture their occupation.
+
+There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli itself,
+except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line of railway
+between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been prejudicial to the
+transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts have been made to
+obtain concessions for the construction of a railway that would connect
+this port with the Turkish railway system. Steamers to and from
+Constantinople call regularly. In 1904 the total value of the exports
+was L80,000. Wheat and maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to
+Turkish ports on the mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great
+Britain; canary seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain.
+Semolina and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock,
+principally sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople
+and Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also
+exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from Italy,
+Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from Germany and
+Austria. These goods are imported through Constantinople. Cordage is
+chiefly obtained from Servia. Other imports are fuel, iron and
+groceries.
+
+The Macedonian city of Callipolis was founded in the 5th century B.C. At
+an early date it became a Christian bishopric, and in the middle ages
+developed into a great commercial city, with a population estimated at
+100,000. It was fortified by the East Roman emperors owing to its
+commanding strategic position and its valuable trade with Greece and
+Italy. In 1190 the armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor
+Frederick I. (Barbarossa), embarked here for Asia Minor. After the
+capture of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into
+the power of Venice. In 1294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force in
+the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Florus, established
+themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their leader massacred
+almost all the citizens; they were vainly besieged by the allied troops
+of Venice and the Empire, and withdrew in 1307, after dismantling the
+fortifications. About the middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded
+Europe, and Gallipoli was the first city to fall into their power. The
+Venetians under Pietro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 1416.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-seat of Gallia county, Ohio, U.S.A.,
+on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of Cincinnati. Pop. (1890)
+4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910) 5560. It is served by the
+Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways,
+and (at Gallipolis Ferry, West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the
+Baltimore & Ohio railway. The city is built on a level site several feet
+above the river's high-water mark. It has a United States marine
+hospital and a state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's
+manufactures are lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The
+municipality owns and operates its water-works. Gallipolis was settled
+in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received worthless deeds to
+lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company, founded by Col. William Duer
+(1747-1799) and others in 1787 and officially organized in 1789 as the
+Compagnie du Scioto in Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his
+associates abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen.
+This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for the use of
+about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the Scioto, on which the
+Ohio Company had secured an option only. The dishonesty of those who
+conducted the sales in France, the unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and
+the failure of Duer and his associates to meet their contract with the
+Ohio Company, caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1790,
+and two subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about 150,000
+acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and in October
+1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained for two months at
+Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of Gallipolis, where rude huts
+had been built for them. This land, however, fell within the limits of
+the tract bought outright by the Ohio Company, which sold it to the
+Scioto Company, and to which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto
+Company to pay. In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United
+States, decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the
+Ohio Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were legally
+vested in the Ohio Company. In 1795 the Ohio Company sold to the French
+settlers for $1.25 an acre the land they occupied and adjacent improved
+lots, and the United States government granted to them 24,000 acres in
+the southern part of what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this
+land (still known as the "French Grant"), however, was ever occupied by
+them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was first
+chartered as a city in 1865.
+
+  See Theodore T. Belote, _The Scioto Speculation and the French
+  Settlement at Gallipolis_ (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, vol. iii. No.
+  3 of the _University Studies_ of the University of Cincinnati.
+
+
+
+
+GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840), American Roman Catholic
+priest, called "The Apostle of the Alleghanies," was born at the Hague
+on the 22nd of December 1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.),
+the Russian family from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich
+Gallitzin (1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate
+friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many years
+was his mother, Countess Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau (1748-1806),
+until a severe illness in 1786 led her back to the Roman Catholic
+church, in which she had been reared. At the age of seventeen he too
+became a member of that church. His father had planned for him a
+diplomatic or military career, and in 1792 he was aide-de-camp to the
+commander of the Austrian troops in Brabant; but, after the
+assassination of the king of Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was
+dismissed from the service. He then set out to complete his education by
+travel, and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland,
+where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was ordained priest
+in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic priest ordained in
+America, and then worked in the mission at Port Tobacco, Maryland,
+whence he was soon transferred to the Conewago district. His impulsive
+objection to some of Bishop Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked,
+and he was recalled to Baltimore. But in 1796 he removed to Taneytown,
+Maryland, and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such
+misdirected zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved by
+his bishop in 1798. In the Alleghanies, in 1799, he planned a settlement
+in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and bought up much land
+which he gave or sold at low prices to Catholic immigrants, spending
+$150,000 or more in the purchase of some 20,000 acres in a spot
+singularly ill suited for such an enterprise. In 1808, after his
+father's death, he was disinherited by the emperor Alexander I. of
+Russia "by reason of your Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical
+profession"; and although his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his
+half of the valuable estate and sent him money from time to time, after
+her death her brother received little or nothing from the estate. The
+priest, who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of
+Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had taken his
+real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was a loan from
+Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for the see of
+Philadelphia in 1814, Bishop Carroll gave as an objection Gallitzin's
+"great load of debt rashly, though for excellent and charitable
+purposes, contracted." In 1815 Gallitzin was suggested for the bishopric
+of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for the proposed see of Pittsburg,
+and he refused the bishopric of Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the
+settlement he had founded in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840.
+Among his parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in
+building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania cannot be
+estimated; but it is said that at his death there were 10,000 members of
+his church in the district where forty years before he had found a scant
+dozen. One of the villages he founded bears his name. Among his
+controversial pamphlets are: _A Defence of Catholic Principles_ (1816),
+_Letter to a Protestant Friend on the Holy Scriptures_ (1820), _Appeal
+to the Protestant Public_ (1834), and _Six Letters of Advice_ (1834), in
+reply to attacks on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.
+
+  See Sarah M. Brownson, _Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Priest_
+  (New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A.A. Lambing in
+  _American Catholic Records_ (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, October 1886,
+  pp. 58-68); and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middleton in _The
+  Gallitzin Memorandum Book_, in _American Catholic Historical Society
+  of Philadelphia, Records_, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.
+
+
+
+
+GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 69.9), one of the metallic chemical
+elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its spectrum, in a specimen
+of zinc blende by Lecoq de Boisbaudran (_Comptes rendus_, 1875, 81, p.
+493, and following years). The chief chemical and physical properties of
+gallium had been predicted many years before by D. Mendeleeff (c. 1869)
+from a consideration of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc
+(see ELEMENT). The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only
+contains it in very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an
+acid, and precipitating the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate
+is dissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by
+sulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fractionally
+precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the gallium before
+the zinc. This precipitate is converted into gallium sulphate and
+finally into a pure specimen of the oxide, from which the metal is
+obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline solution. Gallium
+crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which melt at 30.15 deg. C. to a
+silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but slightly malleable and
+flexible, although in thin plates it may be bent several times without
+breaking. The specific gravity of the solid form is 5.956 (24.5 deg.
+C.), of the liquid 6.069, whilst the specific heats of the two varieties
+are, for the solid form 0.079 (12-23 deg. C.) and for the liquid 0.082
+(106-119 deg.) [M. Berthelot, _Comptes rendus_, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is
+not appreciably volatilized at a red heat. Chlorine acts on it readily
+in the cold, bromine not so easily, and iodine only when the mixture is
+heated. The atomic weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de
+Boisbaudran by ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer
+and K. Seubert.
+
+  _Gallium oxide_ Ga2O3 is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
+  solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
+  forms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
+  On heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish mass
+  which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium forms
+  colourless salts, which in neutral dilute aqueous solutions are
+  converted on heating into basic salts. The gallium salts are
+  precipitated by alkaline carbonates and by barium carbonate, but not
+  by sulphuretted hydrogen unless in acetic acid solution. Potassium
+  ferrocyanide gives a precipitate even in very dilute solution. In
+  neutral solutions, zinc gives a precipitate of gallium oxide. By
+  heating gallium in a regulated stream of chlorine the _dichloride_
+  GaCl2 is obtained as a crystalline mass, which melts at 164 deg. C.
+  and readily decomposes on exposure to moist air. The trichloride GaCl3
+  is similarly formed when the metal is heated in a rapid stream of
+  chlorine, and may be purified by distillation in an atmosphere of
+  nitrogen. It forms very deliquescent long white needles melting at
+  75.5 deg. C. and boiling at 215-220 deg. C. The bromide, iodide and
+  sulphate are known, as is also gallium ammonium alum. Gallium is best
+  detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines
+  of wave length 4171 and 4031.
+
+
+
+
+GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids, but also
+used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four quarts. The word
+was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. _galon_, Central Fr. _jalon_, and was
+Latinized as _galo_ and _galona_. It appears to be connected with the
+modern French _jale_, a bowl, but the ultimate origin is unknown; it has
+been referred without much plausibility to Gr. [Greek: gaulos], a milk
+pail. The British imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277.274 cub.
+in. The old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard
+gallon of the United States.
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and politician, one of the
+most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in West River, Anne Arundel
+county, Maryland, in 1731. He early removed to Philadelphia, where he
+acquired a high standing as a lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in
+1764) he was one of the most influential members of the Pennsylvania
+Assembly, over which he presided in 1766-1773. During this period, with
+his friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Proprietary
+government, and in 1764 and 1765 attempted to secure a royal charter for
+the province. With the approach of the crisis in the relations between
+Great Britain and the American colonies he adopted a conservative
+course, and, while recognizing the justice of many of the colonial
+complaints, discouraged radical action and advocated a compromise. As a
+member of the First Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September
+1774) a "Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the
+Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It provided
+for a president-general appointed by the crown, who should have supreme
+executive authority over all the colonies, and for a grand council,
+elected triennially by the several provincial assemblies, and to have
+such "rights, liberties and privileges as are held and exercised by and
+in the House of Commons of Great Britain"; the president-general and
+grand council were to be "an inferior distinct branch of the British
+legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the grand
+council and of the British parliament was to be "requisite to the
+validity of all ... general acts or statutes," except that "in time of
+War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared by the grand
+council and approved by the president-general, shall be valid and passed
+into a law, without the assent of the British parliament." The
+individual colonies, however, were to retain control over their strictly
+internal affairs. The measure was debated at length, was advocated by
+such influential members as John Jay and James Duane of New York and
+Edward Rutledge of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by
+the vote of six colonies to five. Galloway declined a second election to
+Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New Brunswick, New Jersey
+(December 1776), advised the British to attack Philadelphia by the
+Delaware, and during the British occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778)
+was superintendent of the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of
+the city. In October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until
+his death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803. After
+he left America his life was attainted, and his property, valued at
+L40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania Assembly, a loss for which
+he received a partial recompense in the form of a small parliamentary
+pension. He was one of the clearest thinkers and ablest political
+writers among the American Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler,
+"shared with Thomas Hutchinson the supreme place among American
+statesmen opposed to the Revolution."
+
+  Among his pamphlets are _A Candid Examination of the Mutual Claims of
+  Great Britain and the Colonies_ (1775); _Historical and Political
+  Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion_
+  (1780); _Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
+  American Independence_ (1780); and _The Claim of the American
+  Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles of
+  Law and Justice_ (1788).
+
+  See Thomas Balch (Ed.), _The Examination of Joseph Galloway by a
+  Committee of the House of Commons_ (Philadelphia, 1855); Ernest H.
+  Baldwin, _Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician_ (New Haven, 1903);
+  and M.C. Tyler, _Literary History of the American Revolution_ (2
+  vols., New York, 1897).
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician, was born at
+Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February 1796. In 1812 he entered
+the university of Edinburgh, where he distinguished himself specially in
+mathematics. In 1823 he was appointed one of the teachers of mathematics
+at the military college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed
+actuary to the Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of
+that kind in London; in which situation he remained till his death on
+the 1st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for the
+most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting paper is "On the
+Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was published in the _Phil.
+Trans._, 1847. He contributed largely to the seventh edition of the
+_Encyclopaedia Britannica_, and also wrote several scientific papers for
+the _Edinburgh Review_ and various scientific journals. His
+_Encyclopaedia_ article, "Probability," was published separately.
+
+  See _Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society_ (1852).
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, comprising the
+counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was the _Novantia_ of the
+Romans, and till the end of the 12th century included Carrick, now the
+southern division of Ayrshire. Though the designation has not been
+adopted civilly, its use historically and locally has been long
+established. Thus the Bruces were lords of Galloway, and the title of
+earl of Galloway (created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts.
+Galloway also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black
+hornless cattle. See KIRKCUDBRIGHTSHIRE and WIGTOWNSHIRE.
+
+
+
+
+GALLOWS[1] (a common Teutonic word--cf. Goth. _galga_, O.H. Ger.
+_galgo_, Mod. Ger. _Galgen_, A.S. _galzan_, &c.--of uncertain origin),
+the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by hanging. It usually
+consists of two upright posts and a cross-beam, but sometimes of a
+single upright with a beam projecting from the top. The Roman gallows
+was the cross, and in the older translations of the Bible "gallows" was
+used for the cross on which Christ suffered (so _galga_ in Ulfilas's
+Gothic Testament).[2] Another form of gallows in the middle ages was
+that of which the famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type.
+This was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected in
+each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath, into which
+the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the weather.
+
+According to actual usage the condemned man stands on a platform or drop
+(introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs from the cross-beam, and
+the noose at its end is placed round his neck. He is hanged by the
+falling of the drop, the knot in the noose being so adjusted that the
+spinal cord is broken by the fall and death instantaneous. In old times
+the process was far less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in
+a cart, which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to mount a
+ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman. Until 1832 malefactors
+in England were sometimes hanged by being drawn up from the platform by
+a heavy weight at the other end of the rope. Death in these cases was by
+strangulation. At the present time executions in the United Kingdom are
+private, the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set
+apart for the purpose inside the gaol.
+
+The word "gibbet," the Fr. _gibet_, gallows, which appears in the first
+instance to have meant a crooked stick,[3] was originally used in
+English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes still is. Its later
+and more special application, however, was to the upright posts with a
+projecting arm on which the bodies of criminals were suspended after
+their execution. These gibbets were erected in conspicuous spots, on the
+tops of hills (Gallows Hill is still a common name) or near frequented
+roads. The bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid
+decomposition, hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the
+gruesome custom comes the common use of the word "to gibbet" for any
+holding up to public infamy or contempt.
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The word "gallows" is the plural of a word (_galwe_, _galowe_,
+    _gallow_) which, according to the _New English Dictionary_, was
+    occasionally used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th
+    century onwards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of
+    "a gallows," and, in the older form, of "a pair of gallows," this
+    referring probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century
+    onwards "gallows" has been consistently treated as a singular form, a
+    new plural, "gallowses," having come into use. "The latter, though
+    not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt to
+    be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural in
+    commonly evaded" (_New Eng. Dict._ s.v. "Gallows").
+
+  [2] In Med. Lat. "gallows" was translated by _furia_ and _patibulum_,
+    both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument of
+    punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. _Furia_, in
+    feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major
+    jurisdiction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.
+
+  [3] Cf. Wace, _Roman de Rou_, iii. 8349:
+
+      "Et il a le gibet saisi
+       Qui a son destre braz pendi."
+
+
+
+
+GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or under the skin of living
+mammals and birds, and are produced by Acaridea, and by dipterous
+insects of the genus _Oestrus_. Signor Moriggia[1] has described and
+figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length, from the back of
+the human hand, which was caused by _Acarus domesticus_. What are
+commonly known as galls are vegetable excrescences, and, according to
+the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers, comprise "all abnormal vegetable
+productions developed on plants by the action of animals, more
+particularly by insects, whatever may be their form, bulk or situation."
+For the larvae of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance.
+The exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls,
+appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus,
+secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the
+puncture made by her ovipositor in the cortical or foliaceous parts of
+plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision of the
+cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval or
+larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part in the
+formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers remarks, a certain
+relation is necessary between the "stimulus" and the "supporter of the
+stimulus," as evidenced by the limitation in the majority of cases of
+each species of gall-insect to some one vegetable structure, still it
+must be the quality of the irritant of the tissues, rather than the
+specific peculiarities or the part of the plant affected, that
+principally determines the nature of the gall. Thus the characteristics
+of the currant-gall of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., which occurs alike
+on the leaves and on the flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to
+the act of oviposition, and not to the functions of the parts producing
+it; the bright red galls of the saw-fly _Nematus gallicola_ are found on
+four different species of willow, _Salix fragilis_, _S. alba_, _S.
+caprea_ and _S. cinerea_;[2] and the galls of a Cynipid, _Biorhiza
+aptera_, usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been
+procured also from the deodar.[3] Often the gall bears no visible
+resemblance to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly,
+however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving to the
+gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or less
+modified special organs of the plant. The gall of _Cecidomyia
+strobilina_, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves the
+stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small, smooth,
+seed-shaped gall of the American _Cynips seminator_, Harris, according
+to W.F. Bassett,[4] is the petiole, and its terminal tuft of woolly
+hairs the enormously developed pubescence of the young oak-leaf. The
+moss-like covering of the "bedeguars" of the wild rose, the galls of a
+Cynipid, _Rhodites rosae_, represents leaves which have been developed
+with scarcely any parenchyma between their fibro-vascular bundles; and
+the "artichoke-galls" or "oak-strobile," produced by _Aphilothrix
+gemmae_, L., which insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists
+of a cupule to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached,
+with a peduncular, oviform, inner gall.[5] E. Newman held the view that
+many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: "to produce an acorn
+has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has frustrated the
+attempt." Their formation from buds which normally would have yielded
+leaves and shoots is explained by Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at
+fructification induced by oviposition, such as has been found to result
+in several plants from injury by insect-agency or otherwise.[6] Galls
+vary remarkably in size and shape according to the species of their
+makers. The polythalamous gall of _Aphilothrix radicis_, found on the
+roots of old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls
+of another Cynipid, _Andricus occultus_, Tschek,[7] which occurs on the
+male flowers of _Quercus sessiliflora_, is 2 millimetres, or barely a
+line, in length. Many galls are brightly coloured, as, for instance, the
+oak-leaf hairy galls of _Spathegaster tricolor_, which are of a crimson
+hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light. The variety
+of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns or cups, others
+lenticular. The "knoppern" galls of _Cynips polycera_, Gir., are cones
+having the broad, slightly convex upper surface surrounded with a
+toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese galls, "some are as symmetrical as a
+composite flower when in bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry;
+some protected by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of
+long cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs."[8] The
+characters of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic,
+even when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American
+willow, _Salix humilis_, it is difficult or impossible to tell the
+full-grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree of
+complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably. Some are
+monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-maker, whilst
+others are many-celled and numerously inhabited. The largest class are
+the unilocular, or simple, external galls, divided by Lacaze-Duthiers
+into those with and those without a superficial protective layer or
+rind, and composed of hard, or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common
+gall-nut that authority distinguished seven constituent portions: an
+epidermis; a subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer,
+composing the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a
+complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard protective layer;
+and lastly, within that, an alimentary central mass inhabited by the
+growing larva.[9]
+
+Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the Hymenoptera are
+the gall-wasps (_Cynips_ and its allies), which infect the various
+species of oak. They are small insects, having straight antennae, and a
+compressed, usually very short abdomen with the second or second and
+third segments greatly developed, and the rest imbricated, and
+concealing the partially coiled ovipositor. The transformations from the
+larval state are completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or
+perfect insect, tunnels its way,--usually in autumn, though sometimes,
+as has been observed of some individuals of _Cynips Kollari_, after
+hibernation.
+
+Among the commoner of the galls of the _Cynipidae_ are the "oak-apple"
+or "oak-sponge" of _Andricus terminalis_, Fab.; the "currant" or "berry
+galls" of _Spathegaster baccarum_, L., above mentioned; and the
+"oak-spangles" of _Neuroterus lenticularis_,[10] Oliv., generally
+reputed to be fungoid growths, until the discovery of their true nature
+by Frederick Smith,[11] and the succulent "cherry-galls" of _Dryophanta
+scutellaris_, Oliv. The "marble" or "Devonshire woody galls" of
+oak-buds, which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are
+produced by _Cynips Kollari_,[12] already alluded to. They were first
+introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become common near
+Birmingham by 1866, and two or three years later were observed in
+several parts of Scotland.[13] They contain about 17% of tannin.[14] On
+account of their regular form they have been used, threaded on wire, for
+making ornamental baskets. The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah
+galls,[15] produced on a species of oak by _Cynips insana_, Westw., have
+been regarded by many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (_mala
+insana_), or apples of Sodom (_poma sodomitica_), alluded to by Josephus
+and others, which, however, are stated by E. Robinson (_Bibl. Researches
+in Palestine_, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be the singular
+fruit called by the Arabs _'Osher_, produced by the _Asclepias gigantea_
+or _procera_ of botanists. What in California are known as "flea seeds"
+are oak-galls made by a species of _Cynips_; in August they become
+detached from the leaves that bear them, and are caused to jump by the
+spasmodic movements of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity.[16]
+
+Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey, or Levant
+galls of commerce (Ger. _Gallapfel_, _levantische Gallen_; Fr. _noix de
+Galle_), are produced on _Quercus infectoria_, a variety of _Q.
+Lusitanica_, Webb, by _Cynips_ (_Diplolepis_, Latr.) _tinctoria_, L., or
+_C. gallae tinctoriae_ Oliv. Aleppo galls (_gallae halepenses_) are
+brittle, hard, spherical bodies, 2/5-4/5 in. in diameter, ridged and
+warty on the upper half, and light brown to dark greyish-yellow within.
+What are termed "blue," "black," or "green" galls contain the insect;
+the inferior "white" galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so
+compact, heavy or astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig.
+1.). Less valued are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence
+the name "Tarablous galls"). The most esteemed Syrian galls, according
+to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of
+nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe for
+various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on analysis from 26
+(H. Davy) to 77 (Buchner) % of tannin (see Vinen, _loc. cit._), with
+gallic and ellagic acids, ligneous fibre, water, and minute quantities
+of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free sugar and, in the cells around the
+inner shelly chamber, calcium oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by
+Theophrastus, Dioscorides (i. 146), and other ancient writers, including
+Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be
+produced "in a single night." Their insect origin appears to have been
+entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times, though
+Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is produced in
+certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes oak-apples as "an
+exudation of plants joined with putrefaction." Pomet[17] thought that
+gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a similar opinion obtains among
+the modern Chinese, who apply to them the term _Mu-shih-tsze_, or
+"fruits for the foodless."[18] Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for
+their astringent properties, and Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xxiv. 5) recommends
+them as a remedy in affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the
+mouth and some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts are
+used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments _unguentum
+gallae_ and _unguentum gallae cum opio_, and of the tinctura gallae, and
+also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid (q.v.). They have from
+very early times been resorted to as a means of staining the hair of a
+dark colour, and they are the base of the tattooing dye of the Somali
+women.[19]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--_a_, Aleppo "blue" gall; _b_, ditto in section,
+showing central cavity for grub; _c_, Aleppo "white" gall, perforated by
+insect; _d_, the same in section (natural size).]
+
+The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the _Cynipidae_ proper,
+certain species of the genus _Eurytoma_ (_Isosoma_, Walsh) and family
+_Chalcididae_, e.g. _E. hordei_, the "joint-worm" of the United States,
+which produces galls on the stalks of wheat;[20] also various members of
+the family _Tenthredinidae_, or saw-flies. The larvae of the latter
+usually vacate their galls, to spin their cocoons in the earth, or, as
+in the case of _Athalia abdominalis_, Klg., of the clematis, may emerge
+from their shelter to feed for some days on the leaves of the
+gall-bearing plant.
+
+The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-gnats
+(_Cecidomyidae_), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies usually
+covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the back. Some of
+them build cocoons within their galls, others descend to the ground or
+become pupae. The true willow-galls are the work either of these or of
+saw-flies. Their galls are to be met with on a great variety of plants
+of widely distinct genera, e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak,[21]
+grape-vine,[22] alder, gooseberry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle,
+fennel, meadowsweet,[23] common cabbage and cereals. In the northern
+United States, in May, "legions of these delicate minute flies fill the
+air at twilight, hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong
+north-west wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the
+farmer."[24] Other gall-making dipterous flies are members of the family
+_Trypetidae_, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the
+family _Mycetophilidae_, such as the species _Sciara tilicola_,[25] Low,
+the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of the young
+shoots and leaves of the lime.
+
+Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects of the
+families _Tingidae_, _Psyllidae_, _Coccidae_ and _Aphidae_. _Coccus
+pinicorticis_ causes the growth of patches of white flocculent and downy
+matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the white pine in
+America.[26] The galls of examples of the last family are common objects
+on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of the poplar. An American Aphid of
+the genus _Pemphigus_ produces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped
+excrescences on the young branches of the hickory.
+
+  The Chinese galls of commerce (_Woo-pei-tsze_) are stated to be
+  produced by _Aphis Chinensis_, Bell, on _Rhus semialata_, Murr. (_R.
+  Bucki-amela_, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N. India,
+  China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly pyriform,
+  tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered externally
+  with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like matter, and
+  insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect takes place on
+  the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle, probably when,
+  after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for several generations,
+  male winged insects are developed. The galls are gathered before the
+  frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill the insects.[27]
+
+  Chinese galls examined by Viedt[28] yielded 72% of tannin, and less
+  mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls are
+  produced by Aphides on species of _Pistacia_.
+
+  M.J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of the
+  Aphis of Pistachio galls, _Anopleura lentisci_, is hatched an apterous
+  insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young Aphides
+  (emigrants), and that these, having acquired wings, fly to the roots
+  of certain grasses (_Bromus sterilis_ and _Hordeum vulgare_), and by
+  budding underground give rise to several generations of apterous
+  insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pupifera). These
+  last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and on it deposit
+  their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed sexual individuals,
+  the females of which lay fecundated eggs productive of gall-founders,
+  thus recommencing the biological cycle (see _Compt. rend._, Nov. 18,
+  1878, p. 782, quoted in _Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist._, 1879, p. 174).
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--_a_, Chinese gall (abt. 1/2 natural size); _b_,
+ditto broken, showing thin-walled cavity; _c_, Japanese gall (natural
+size).]
+
+Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers there are,
+among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-weevils), and species
+of the exotic _Sagridae_ and _Lamiadae_ and an American beetle,
+_Saperda inornata_ (_Cerambycidae_), which forms the pseudo-galls of
+_Salix longifolia_ and _Populus angulata_, or cottonwood. Among the
+Lepidoptera are gall-forming species belonging to the _Tineidae_,
+_Aegeriidae_, _Tortricidae_ and _Pterophoridae_. The larva of a New
+Zealand moth, _Morova subfasciata_, Walk. (_Cacoecia gallicolens_), of
+the family _Drepanulidae_, causes the stem of a creeping plant, on the
+pith of which it apparently subsists, to swell up into a fusiform
+gall.[29]
+
+Mite-galls, or _acarocecidia_, are abnormal growths of the leaves of
+plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus _Phytoptus_
+(gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of thickened
+portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophied on the upper surface,
+so that the lower is drawn up into the interior, producing a bursiform
+cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore, pear, plum, ash, alder, vine,
+mulberry and many other plants; and formerly, e.g. the gall known as
+_Erineum quercinum_, on the leaves of _Quercus Cerris_, were taken for
+cryptogamic structures. The lime-leaf "nail-galls" of _Phytoptus tiliae_
+closely resemble the "trumpet-galls" formed on American vines by a
+species of _Cecidomyia_.[30] Certain minute Nematoid worms, as
+_Anguillula scandens_, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise
+to galls.
+
+Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls usually
+contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are termed guest-flies
+or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of _Cynips_ and its allies are inhabited
+by members of other cynipideous genera, as _Synergus_, _Amblynotus_ and
+_Synophrus_; and the pine-cone-like gall of _Salix strobiloides_, as
+Walsh has shown,[30] is made by a large species of _Cecidomyia_, which
+inhabits the heart of the mass, the numerous smaller cecidomyidous
+larvae in its outer part being mere inquilines. In many instances the
+lodgers are not of the same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some
+saw-flies, for example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and
+some gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford
+harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the
+case of the Curculio beetle _Conotrachelius nenuphar_, Hbst., of which
+one brood eats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and another lives
+in the "black knot" of the plum-tree, regarded by Walsh as probably a
+true cecidomyidous gall. The same authority (_loc. cit._ p. 550)
+mentions a willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with
+food and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
+that altogether some twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, are
+dependent for their existence on what to the common observer appears to
+be nothing but "an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the numerous insects
+parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are hymenopterous flies of the
+family _Proctotrypidae_, and of the family _Chalcididae_, e.g.
+_Callimome regius_, the larva of which preys on the larvae of both
+_Cynips glutinosa_ and its lodger _Synergus facialis_. The oak-apple
+often contains the larvae of _Braconidae_ and _Ichneumonidae_, which Von
+Schlechtendal (_loc. sup. cit._ p. 33) considers to be parasites not on
+the owner of the gall, _Andricus terminalis_, but on inquilinous
+_Tortricidae_. Birds are to be included among the enemies of
+gall-insects. Oak-galls, for example, are broken open by the titmouse in
+order to obtain the grub within, and the "button-galls" of _Neuroterus
+numismatis_, Oliv., are eaten by pheasants.
+
+A great variety of deformations and growths produced by insects and
+mites as well as by fungi have been described. They are in some cases
+very slight, and in others form remarkably large and definite
+structures. The whole are now included under the term Cecidia; a prefix
+gives the name of the organism to which the attacks are due, e.g.
+Phytoptocecidia are the galls formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls
+are those that arise when only one member of a plant is involved;
+compound galls are the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most
+remarkable galls recently discovered we may mention those found on
+Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia. They are
+remarkable for their variety, and are due to small scale-insects of the
+peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As regards the mode of production of
+galls, the most important distinction is between galls that result from
+the introduction of an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the
+plant, and those that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in
+the latter case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to
+enclose its producers. The form and nature of the gall are the result of
+the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been known, and
+is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be produced when the
+tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or prior to, the actual
+development of the tissue. Little more than this is known. The power
+that gall-producers possess of influencing by direct interference the
+growth of the cells of the plant that affords them the means of
+subsistence is an art that appears to be widely spread among animals,
+but is at the same time one of which we have little knowledge. The views
+of Adler as to the alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies
+have been fully confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct
+observation that the galls and the insects produced from them in one
+generation are entirely different from the next generation; and it has
+also been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate
+generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is supposed
+that these remarkable phenomena have gradually been evoked by difference
+in the nutrition of the alternating generations. When two different
+generations are produced in one year on the same kind of tree it is
+clear the properties of the sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse
+so that the two generations are adapted to different conditions. In some
+cases the alternating generations are produced on different species of
+trees, and even on different parts of the two species.
+
+  On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further--J.T.C.
+  Ratzeburg, _Die Forst-Insecten_, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844);
+  T.W. Harris, _Insects injurious to Vegetation_ (Boston, U.S., 2nd ed.,
+  1852); C.L. Koch, _Die Pflanzenlause Aphiden_ (Nuremberg, 1854); T.
+  Hartig, _Die Familien der Blattwespen und Holzwespen_ (Berlin, 1860);
+  Walsh, "On the Insects, Coleopterous, Hymenopterous and Dipterous,
+  inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," _Proc. Ent. Soc.
+  Philadelphia_, iii. (1863-1864), pp. 543-644, and vi. (1866-1867), pp.
+  223-288; T.A. Marshall, "On some British Cynipidae," _Ent. Month.
+  Mag._ iv. pp. 6-8, &c.; H.W. Kidd and Albert Muller, "A List of
+  Gall-bearing British Plants," _ib._ v. pp. 118 and 216; G.L. Mayr,
+  _Die mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen in Wort und Bild_ (Vienna,
+  1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in the
+  _Entomologist_, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, "Die
+  Einmiethler der mitteleuropaischen Eichengallen," _Verhandl. d.
+  zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxii. pp. 669-726; and "Die europaischen
+  Torymiden," _ib._ xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in _Cistula
+  entomologica_, i., London, 1869-1876); F. Low, "Beitrage zur Kenntnis
+  der Gallmucken," _ib._ pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J.E. von Bergenstamm
+  and P. Low, "Synopsis Cecidomyidarum," _ib._ xxvi. pp. 1-104; Perris,
+  _Ann. Soc. Entom. de France_, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185; R.
+  Osten-Sacken, "On the North American Cecidomyidae," _Smithsonian
+  Miscellaneous Collections_, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; E.L. Taschenberg,
+  _Entomologie fur Gartner und Gartenfreunde_ (Leipzig, 1871); J.W.H.
+  Traill, "Scottish Galls," _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871), pp. 123,
+  &c.; Albert Muller, "British Gall Insects," _The Entomologist's Annual
+  for 1872_, pp. 1-22; B. Altum, _Forstzoologie_, iii. "Insecten," pp.
+  250 seq. (Berlin, 1874); J.H. Kaltenbach, _Die Pflanzenfeinde aus der
+  Classe der Insecten_ (Stuttgart, 1874); A. d'Arbois de Jubainville and
+  J. Vesque, _Les Maladies des plantes cultivees_, pp. 98-105 (Paris,
+  1878).     (F. H. B.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Quoted in _Zoological Record_, iv. (1867), p. 192.
+
+  [2] P. Cameron, _Scottish Naturalist_, ii. pp. 11-15.
+
+  [3] _Entomologist_, vii. p. 47.
+
+  [4] See in _Proc. Entom. Soc. of London for the Year 1873_, p. xvi.
+
+  [5] See A. Muller, _Gardener's Chronicle_ (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;
+    and E.A. Fitch, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 129.
+
+  [6] _Entomologist_, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-340.
+
+  [7] _Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxi. p. 799.
+
+  [8] Darwin, _Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication_,
+    ii. p. 282.
+
+  [9] "Recherches pour servir a l'histoire des galles," _Ann. des sci.
+    nat._ xix. pp. 293 sqq.
+
+  [10] According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place
+    between _N. lenticularis_ and _Spathegaster baccarum_ (see E.A.
+    Ormerod, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 34).
+
+  [11] See Westwood, _Introd. to the Mod. Classif. of Insects_, ii.
+    (1840) p. 130.
+
+  [12] For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see
+    _Entomologist_, iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.
+
+  [13] _Scottish Naturalist_, i. (1871) p. 116, &c.
+
+  [14] Vinen, _Journ. de pharm. et de chim._ xxx. (1856) p. 290;
+    "English Ink-Galls," _Pharm. Journ._ 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.
+
+  [15] See Pereira, _Materia Medica_, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; _Pharm.
+    Journ._ 1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.
+
+  [16] See R.H. Stretch and C.D. Gibbes, _Proc. California Acad. of
+    Sciences_, iv. pp. 265 and 266.
+
+  [17] _A Complete History of Drugs_ (translation), p. 169 (London,
+    1748).
+
+  [18] F. Porter Smith, _Contrib. towards the Mat. Medica ... of
+    China_, p. 100 (1871).
+
+  [19] R.F. Burton, _First Footsteps in E. Africa_, p. 178 (1856).
+
+  [20] A.S. Packard, jun., _Guide to the Study of Insects_, p. 205
+    (Salem, 1870).
+
+  [21] On the Cecidomyids of _Quercus Cerris_, see Fitch,
+    _Entomologist_, xi. p. 14.
+
+  [22] See, on _Cecidomyia oenephila_, Von Haimhoffen, _Verhandl. d.
+    zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxv. pp. 801-810.
+
+  [23] See _Entomologist's Month. Mag._ iv. (1868) p. 233; and for
+    figure and description, _Entomologist_, xi. p. 13.
+
+  [24] A.S. Packard, jun., _Our Common Insects_, p. 203 (Salem, U.S.
+    1873). On the Hessian fly, _Cecidomyia destructor_, Say, the May
+    brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of
+    barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch, _The Hessian Fly_ (Albany,
+    1847), reprinted from _Trans. New York State Agric. Soc._ vol. vi.
+
+  [25] J. Winnertz, _Beitrag zu einer Monographie der Sciarinen_, p.
+    164 (Vienna, 1867).
+
+  [26] Asa Fitch, _First and Second Rep. on the Noxious ... Insects of
+    the State of New York_, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).
+
+  [27] See E. Doubleday, _Pharm. Journ._ 1st ser, vol. vii. p. 310: and
+    Pereira, _ib._ vol. iii. p. 377.
+
+  [28] _Dingler's Polyt. Journ._ ccxvi. p. 453.
+
+  [29] For figure and description see _Zoology of the "Erebus" and
+    "Terror,"_ ii. pp. 46, 47 (1844-1875).
+
+  [30] On the mite-galls and their makers, see F. Low, "Beitrage zur
+    Naturgesch. der Gallmilben (_Phytoptus_, Duj.)," _Verhandl. d.
+    zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien_, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and
+    "Uber Milbengallen (Acarocecidien) der Wiener-Gegend," _ib._ pp.
+    495-508; Andrew Murray, _Economic Entomology, Aptera_, pp. 331-374
+    (1876); and F.A.W. Thomas, _Altere und neue Beobachtungen uber
+    Phytopto-Cecidien_ (Halle, 1877).
+
+
+
+
+GALLUPPI, PASQUALE (1770-1846), Italian philosopher, was born on the 2nd
+of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He was of good family, and after
+studying at the university of Naples he entered the public service, and
+was for many years employed in the office of the administration of
+finances. At the age of sixty, having become widely known by his
+writings on philosophy, he was called to the chair of logic and
+metaphysics in the university of Naples, which he held till his death in
+November 1846. His most important works are: _Lettere filosofiche_
+(1827), in which he traces his philosophical development; _Elementi di
+filosofia_ (1832); _Saggio filosofico sulla critica della conoscenza_
+(1819-1832); _Sull' analisi e sulla sintesi_ (1807); _Lezioni di logica
+e di metafisica_ (1832-1836); _Filosofia della volonta_ (1832-1842,
+incomplete); _Storia della filosofia_ (i., 1842); _Considerazioni
+filosofiche sull' idealismo trascendentale_ (1841), a memoir on the
+system of Fichte.
+
+  On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, _Essai sur l'histoire de la
+  philosophie en Italie au XIX^e siecle_, i. (1869); V. Botta in
+  Ueberweg's _Hist. of Philosophy_, ii. app. 2; G. Barzellotti,
+  "Philosophy in Italy," in Mind, iii. (1878); V. Lastrucci, _Pasquale
+  Galluppi. Studio critico_ (Florence, 1890).
+
+GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.), Roman poet, orator and politician,
+was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (_Frejus_) in Gaul. At an
+early age he removed to Rome, where he was taught by the same master as
+Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil, who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.)
+to him, was in great measure indebted to the influence of Gallus for the
+restoration of his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause
+of Octavianus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of
+Egypt (Suetonius, _Augustus_, 66). His conduct in this position
+afterwards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having been
+deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he put an end to
+his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a high reputation among
+his contemporaries as a man of intellect, and Ovid (_Tristia_, iv. 10)
+considered him the first of the elegiac poets of Rome. He wrote four
+books of elegies chiefly on his mistress Lycoris (a poetical name for
+Cytheris, a notorious actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion
+of Chalcis (q.v.); he also translated some of this author's works into
+Latin. Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems
+attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590 and printed
+in A. Riese's _Anthologia Latina_, 1869) are generally regarded as a
+forgery.
+
+  See C. Volker, _De C. Galli vita et scriptis_ (1840-1844); A. Nicolas,
+  _De la vie et des ouvrages de C. Gallus_ (1851), an exhaustive
+  monograph. An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the
+  Egyptian exploits; see M. Schanz, _Geschichte der romischen
+  Litteratur_, and Plessis, _Poesie latine_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24 B.C. By order of Augustus
+he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix, with disastrous results. The
+troops suffered greatly from disease, heat, want of water and the
+obstinate resistance of the inhabitants. The treachery of a foreign
+guide also added to his difficulties. After six months Gallus was
+obliged to return to Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his
+force. He was a friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of
+the expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29; Pliny,
+_Nat. Hist._ vi. 32; C. Merivale, _Hist. of the Romans under the
+Empire_, ch. 34; H. Kruger, _Der Feldzug des A. G. nach dem glucklichen
+Arabien_, 1862). He has been identified with the Aelius Gallus
+frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies are stated to have been used
+with success in an Arabian expedition.
+
+
+
+
+GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign of Nero. When
+the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the outrages of the Roman
+procurators, had seized the fortress of Masada and treacherously
+murdered the garrison of the palace of Herod, Gallus set out from
+Antioch to restore order. On the 17th of November A.D. 66 he arrived
+before Jerusalem. Having gained possession of the northern suburb, he
+attacked the temple mount; but, after five days' fighting, just when
+(according to Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably
+withdrew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by the
+Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in making good his
+escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater part of his army and a
+large amount of war material. Soon after his return Gallus died (before
+the spring of 67), and was succeeded in the governorship by Licinius
+Mucianus, the prosecution of the war being entrusted to Vespasian.
+
+  See Tacitus, _Hist._ v. 10, 13; Suetonius, _Vespasian_, 4; Josephus,
+  _Bell. Jud._ ii. 14-20; E. Schurer, _Hist. of the Jewish People_, div.
+  i. vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).
+
+
+
+
+GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general, statesman and orator. Under
+Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend, he commanded the 2nd legion
+in the campaign against Perseus, king of Macedonia, and gained great
+reputation for having predicted an eclipse of the moon on the night
+before the battle of Pydna (168 B.C.). On his return from Macedonia he
+was elected consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to
+submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and Asia, where
+he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges brought against
+Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives of various cities of Asia
+Minor. Gallus was a man of great learning, an excellent Greek scholar,
+and in his later years devoted himself to the study of astronomy, on
+which subject he is quoted as an authority by Pliny.
+
+  See Livy xliv. 37, _Epit_. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero, _Brutus_,
+  20, _De officiis_, i. 6, _De senectute_, 14; Pliny, _Nat. Hist._ ii.
+  9.
+
+
+
+
+GALOIS, EVARISTE (1811-1832), French mathematician, was born on the 25th
+of October 1811, and killed in a duel on the 31st of May 1832. An
+obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier appeared in the _Revue
+encyclopedique_ (1832); and his collected works are published, _Journal
+de Liouville_ (1846), pp. 381-444, about fifty of these pages being
+occupied by researches on the resolubility of algebraic equations by
+radicals. This branch of algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also
+due the notion of a group of substitutions (see EQUATION: _Theory of
+Equations_; also GROUPS, THEORY OF).
+
+  His collected works, with an introduction by C.F. Picard, were
+  published in 1897 at Paris.
+
+
+
+
+GALSTON, a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire, Scotland.
+Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m. E. by S. of
+Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-Western railway. The
+manufactures include blankets, lace, muslin, hosiery and
+paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the vicinity. About 1 m. to the
+north, amid the "bonnie woods and braes," is Loudoun Castle, a seat of
+the earl of Loudoun.
+
+
+
+
+GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-1893), Canadian statesman, was the
+youngest son of John Galt the author. Born in London on the 6th of
+September 1817, he emigrated to Canada in 1835, and settled in
+Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec, where he entered the service of
+the British American Land Company, of which he rose to be chief
+commissioner. Later he was one of the contractors for extending the
+Grand Trunk railway westward from Toronto. He entered public life in
+1849 as Liberal member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the
+chief measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same
+year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States,
+believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-Saxon
+ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in his native
+province be maintained. In the same year he retired from parliament but
+re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the chief representative of the
+English-speaking Protestants of Quebec province. On the fall of the
+Brown-Dorion administration in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry,
+but declined the task, and became finance minister under Sir John
+Macdonald and Sir George Cartier on condition that the federation of the
+British North American provinces should become a part of their
+programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance minister,
+and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances of Canada into
+order. To him are due the introduction of the decimal system of currency
+and the adoption of a system of protection to Canadian manufactures. To
+his diplomacy was due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and
+Cartier, which carried the federation of the British North American
+provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which followed
+his was one of the chief influences. He became finance minister in the
+first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and mysteriously resigned on the
+4th of November 1867. After his retirement he gave to the administration
+of Sir John Macdonald a support which grew more and more fitful, and
+advocated independence as the final destiny of Canada. In 1871 he was
+again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning these
+views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee on the
+Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and rendered brilliant
+service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian high commissioner to Great
+Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour of Sir Charles Tupper. During
+this period he advocated imperial federation. He was Canadian delegate
+at the Paris Monetary Conference of 1881, and to the International
+Exhibition of Fisheries in 1883. From this date till his death on the
+19th of September 1893 he lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman
+has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain intellectual
+fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague in
+political life.     (W. L. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GALT, JOHN (1779-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at Irvine, Ayrshire,
+on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early education at Irvine and
+Greenock, and read largely from one of the public libraries while
+serving as a clerk in a mercantile office. In 1804 he went to settle in
+London, where he published anonymously a poem on the _Battle of Largs_.
+After unsuccessful attempts to succeed in business Galt entered at
+Lincoln's Inn, but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission
+from a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and
+Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John Hobhouse at
+Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met him again at Athens.
+He was afterwards employed by the Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on
+similar business at Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland.
+His early works are the _Life and Administration of Wolsey_, _Voyages
+and Travels_, _Letters from the Levant_, the _Life of Benjamin West_,
+_Historical Pictures_ and _The Wandering Jew_; and he induced Colburn to
+publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces rejected by London
+managers. These were afterwards edited by Galt as the _New British
+Theatre_, which included some plays of his own. He first showed his real
+power as a writer of fiction in _The Ayrshire Legatees_, which appeared
+in _Blackwood's Magazine_ in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his
+masterpiece--_The Annals of the Parish_; and, at short intervals, _Sir
+Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Steam-Boat_ and _The Provost_ were
+published. These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his
+happiest manner. His next works were _Ringan Gilhaize_ (1823), a story
+of the Covenanters; _The Spaewife_ (1823), which relates to the times of
+James I. of Scotland; _Rothelan_ (1824), a novel founded on the reign of
+Edward III.; _The Omen_ (1825), which was favourably criticized by Sir
+Walter Scott; and _The Last of the Lairds_, another picture of Scottish
+life.
+
+In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land Company. He
+carried out extensive schemes of colonization, and opened up a road
+through what was then forest country between Lakes Huron and Erie. In
+1827 he founded Guelph in upper Canada, passing on his way the township
+of Galt on the Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon.
+But all this work proved financially unprofitable to Galt. In 1829 he
+returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted himself with
+great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first fruit was _Lawrie
+Todd_--one of his best novels. Then came _Southennan_, a tale of
+Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary. In 1830 he was appointed
+editor of the _Courier_ newspaper--a post he soon relinquished. His
+untiring industry was seen in the publication, in rapid succession, of a
+_Life of Byron_, _Lives of the Players_, _Bogle Corbet_, _Stanley
+Buxton_, _The Member_, _The Radical_, _Eben Erskine_, _The Stolen
+Child_, his _Autobiography_, and a collection of tales entitled _Stories
+of the Study_. In 1834 appeared his _Literary Life and Miscellanies_,
+dedicated by permission to William IV., who sent the author a present of
+L200. As soon as this work was published Galt retired to Greenock, where
+he continued his literary labours till his death on the 11th of April
+1839.
+
+Galt, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly unequal. His
+masterpieces are _The Ayrshire Legatees_, _The Annals of the Parish_,
+_Sir Andrew Wylie_, _The Entail_, _The Provost_ and _Lawrie Todd_. _The
+Ayrshire Legatees_ gives, in the form of a number of exceedingly
+diverting letters, the adventures of the Rev. Dr Pringle and his family
+in London. The letters are made the excuse for endless tea-parties and
+meetings of kirk-session in the rural parish of Garnock. _The Annals of
+the Parish_ are told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Galt's finest
+character. This work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before
+_Waverley_ was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned
+Scottish pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour,
+genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by Scott. It
+is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish dialect, and
+preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast passing out of use even
+in country districts. In this novel Mr Galt used, for the first time,
+the term "Utilitarian," which afterwards became so intimately associated
+with the doctrines of John Stuart Mill and Bentham (see _Annals of the
+Parish_, chap. xxxv., and a note by Mill in _Utilitarianism_, chap.
+ii.). In _Sir Andrew Wylie_ the hero entered London as a poor lad, but
+achieved remarkable success by his shrewd business qualities. The
+character is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. _The Entail_
+was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Galt's longer
+novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was considered by
+Byron equal to any female character in literature since Shakespeare's
+time. _The Provost_, in which Provost Pawkie tells his own story,
+portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings and self-seeking of
+municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish burgh. In _Lawrie Todd_ Galt,
+by giving us the Scot in America, accomplished a feat which Sir Walter
+never attempted. This novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater
+love of nature than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted
+with unerring pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much
+more poetical than any of the author's professed poems.
+
+  The best of Galt's novels were reprinted in Blackwood's _Standard
+  Novels_, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.
+
+
+
+
+GALT, a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m. N.N.W. of
+Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk and Canadian Pacific
+railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866. It is named after John Galt,
+the author. It has excellent water privileges which furnish power for
+flour-mills and for manufactures of edge tools, castings, machinery,
+paper and other industries.
+
+
+
+
+GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822-   ), English anthropologist, son of S.T.
+Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the 16th of February
+1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist Erasmus Darwin, and
+Charles Darwin was his cousin. After attending King Edward VI.'s grammar
+school, Birmingham, he studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at
+King's College, London, with the intention of making medicine his
+profession; but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,
+in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in travelling
+in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with Dr John Anderson,
+of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in south-west Africa, starting from
+Walfisch Bay. These tracts had practically never been traversed before,
+and on the appearance of the published account of his journey and
+experiences under the title of _Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical
+South Africa_ (1853) Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal
+Geographical Society. His _Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in
+Wild Countries_ was first published in 1855. In 1860 he visited the
+north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the
+country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which he
+edited, entitled _Vacation Tourists_. He then turned to meteorology, the
+result of his investigations appearing in _Meteorographica_, published
+in 1863. This work was the first serious attempt to chart the weather on
+an extensive scale, and in it also the author first established the
+existence and theory of anti-cyclones. Galton was a member of the
+meteorological committee (1868), and of the Meteorological Council which
+succeeded it, for over thirty years. But his name is most closely
+associated with studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In
+1869 appeared his _Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences_, a work
+which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This was
+followed by _English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture_,
+published in 1874; _Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Development_,
+issued in 1883; _Life-History Album_ (1884); _Record of Family
+Faculties_ (1884) (tabular forms and directions for entering data, with
+a preface); and _Natural Inheritance_ (1889). The idea that systematic
+efforts should be made to improve the breed of mankind by checking the
+birth-rate of the unfit and furthering the productivity of the fit was
+first put forward by him In 1865; he mooted it again in 1884, using the
+term "eugenics" for the first time in _Human Faculty_, and in 1904 he
+endowed a research fellowship in the university of London for the
+promotion of knowledge of that subject, which was defined as "the study
+of agencies under social control that may improve or impair the racial
+qualities of future generations, either physically or mentally." Galton
+was the author of memoirs on various anthropometric subjects; he
+originated the process of composite portraiture, and paid much attention
+to finger-prints and their employment for the identification of
+criminals, his publications on this subject including _Finger Prints_
+(1892), _Decipherment of Blurred Finger Prints_ (1893) and _Finger Print
+Directories_ (1895). From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a
+fellow in 1860, he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal
+in 1902, and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894) and
+Cambridge (1895). In 1908 he published _Memories of My Life_, and in
+1909 he received a knighthood.
+
+
+
+
+GALUPPI, BALDASSARE (1706-1785), Italian musical composer, was born on
+the 18th of October 1706 on the island of Burano near Venice, from which
+he was often known by the nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber,
+and violinist at the local theatre, was his first teacher. His first
+opera, composed at the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he
+determined to study seriously, and entered the Conservatorio degli
+Incurabili at Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully
+producing two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G.B.
+Pescetti, in 1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer
+of operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five in a
+year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a _pasticcio_, _Alexander
+in Persia_, for the Haymarket. Burney considered his influence on
+English music to have been very powerful. In 1740 he became
+_vice-maestro di cappella_ at St Mark's and _maestro_ in 1762. In 1749
+he began writing comic operas to libretti by Goldoni, which enjoyed an
+enormous popularity. He was invited to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766,
+where his operas made a favourable impression, and his influence was
+also felt in Russian church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where
+he had held the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili
+since 1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.
+
+Galuppi's best works are his comic operas, of which _Il Filosofo di
+Campagna_ (1754), known in England as _The Guardian Trick'd_ (Dublin,
+1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive rather than
+original, but his workmanship in harmony and orchestration is generally
+superior to that of his contemporaries. He seems to have been the first
+to extend the concerted finales of Leo and Logroscino into a chain of
+several separate movements, working up to a climax, but in this respect
+he is much inferior to Sarti and Mozart.
+
+Browning's poem, "A Toccata of Galuppi," does not refer to any known
+composition, but more probably to an imaginary extemporization on the
+harpsichord, such as was of frequent occurrence in the musical
+gatherings of Galuppi's day.
+
+  See also Alfred Wotquerme, _Baldassare Galuppi, etude bibliographique
+  sur ses oeuvres dramatiques_ (Brussels, 1902). Many of his autograph
+  scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.
+       (E. J. D.)
+
+
+
+
+GALVANI, LUIGI (1737-1798), Italian physiologist, after whom galvanism
+received its name, was born at Bologna on the 9th of September 1737. It
+was his wish in early life to enter the church, but by his parents he
+was educated for a medical career. At the university of Bologna, in
+which city he practised, he was in 1762 appointed public lecturer in
+anatomy, and soon gained repute as a skilled though not eloquent
+teacher, and, chiefly from his researches on the organs of hearing and
+genito-urinary tract of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His
+celebrated theory of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, "De
+viribus electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius," published in the
+7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna in
+1791, and separately at Modena in the following year, and elsewhere
+subsequently. The statement has frequently been repeated that, in 1786,
+Galvani had noticed that the leg of a skinned frog, on being
+accidentally touched by a scalpel which had lain near an electrical
+machine, was thrown into violent convulsions; and that it was thus that
+his attention was first directed to the relations of animal functions to
+electricity. From documents in the possession of the Institute of
+Bologna, however, it appears that twenty years previous to the
+publication of his _Commentary_ Galvani was already engaged in
+investigations as to the action of electricity upon the muscles of
+frogs. The observation that the suspension of certain of these animals
+on an iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of
+their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first
+experiment with which is described in the third part of the
+_Commentary_, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he constructed
+of two different metals, which, placed in contact the one with a frog's
+nerve and the other with a muscle, caused contraction of the latter. In
+Galvani's view the motions of the muscle were the result of the union,
+by means of the metallic arc, of its exterior or negative electrical
+charge with positive electricity which proceeded along the nerve from
+its inner substance. Volta, on the other hand, attributed them solely to
+the effect of electricity having its source in the junction of the two
+dissimilar metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply
+as conductors. On Galvani's refusal, from religious scruples, to take
+the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he was removed
+from his professorship. Deprived thus of the means of livelihood, he
+retired to the house of his brother Giacomo, where he soon fell into a
+feverish decline. The republican government, in consideration of his
+great scientific fame, eventually, but too late, determined to reinstate
+him in his chair, and he died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.
+
+  A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in 1841-1842,
+  by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under the
+  title _Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani_.
+
+
+
+
+GALVANIZED IRON, sheet iron having its surface covered with a thin
+coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic action has often no part
+in the production of galvanized iron, which is prepared by dipping the
+iron, properly cleaned and pickled in acid, in a bath of molten zinc.
+The hotter the zinc the thinner the coating, but as a high temperature
+of the bath is attended with certain objections, it is a common practice
+to use a moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by
+passing the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers's process a
+thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the
+zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a wooden
+tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride, when tin is
+deposited on them by galvanic action. In "cold galvanizing" the zinc is
+deposited electrolytically from a bath, preferably kept neutral or
+slightly acid, containing a 10% solution of crystallized zinc sulphate,
+ZnSO4.7H2O. The resulting surface is usually duller and less lustrous
+than that obtained by the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming
+a coating of zinc, known as "sherardizing," was invented by Sherard
+Cowper-Coles, who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product
+obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of metallic zinc mixed with
+a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures well below
+the melting point of zinc, become coated with a layer of that metal. In
+carrying out the process the articles are placed in an air-tight vessel
+with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and subjected to a heat of
+250-330 deg. C., the time for which the heating is continued depending
+on the thickness of the deposit required and varying from one-half to
+several hours. If an air-tight receptacle is not available, a small
+percentage of powdered carbon is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent
+increase in the amount of oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to
+make the deposit dull.
+
+Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion by the
+weather, though the protection is not very efficient in the presence of
+acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it is extensively employed for
+roofing, especially in the form of corrugated sheets. The iron wire used
+for wire-netting, telegraphic purposes, &c., is commonly galvanized, as
+also are bolts, nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.
+
+
+
+
+GALVANOMETER, an instrument for detecting or measuring electric
+currents. The term is generally applied to instruments which indicate
+electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary units, as opposed to
+instruments called amperemeters (q.v.), which show directly on a dial
+the value of the current in amperes. Galvanometers may be divided into
+direct current and alternating current instruments, according as they
+are intended to measure one or other of these two classes of currents
+(see ELECTROKINETICS).
+
+  _Direct Current Galvanometers_.--The principle on which one type of
+  direct current galvanometer, called a movable needle galvanometer,
+  depends for its action is that a small magnet when suspended in the
+  centre of a coil of wire tends to set its magnetic axis in the
+  direction of the magnetic field of the coil at that point due to the
+  current passing through it. In the other type, or movable coil
+  galvanometer, the coil is suspended and the magnet fixed; hence the
+  coil tends to set itself with its axis parallel to the lines of force
+  of the magnet. The movable system must be constrained in some way to
+  take up and retain a definite position when no current is passing by
+  means which are called the "control."
+
+
+    Movable needle galvanometer.
+
+    Mirror galvanometers.
+
+  In its simple and original form the movable needle galvanometer
+  consisted of a horizontal magnetic needle suspended within a coil of
+  insulated wire by silk fibres or pivoted on a point like a compass
+  needle. The direction of such a needle is controlled by the direction
+  of the terrestrial magnetic force within the coil. If the needle is so
+  placed that its axis is parallel to the plane of the coil, then when
+  an electric current passes through the coil it is deflected and places
+  itself at an angle to the axis of the coil determined by the strength
+  of the current and of the controlling field. In the early forms of
+  movable needle galvanometer the needle was either a comparatively
+  large magnet several inches in length, or else a smaller magnet was
+  employed carrying a long pointer which moved over a scale of degrees
+  so as to indicate the deflexion. A method of measuring the deflexion
+  by means of a mirror scale and telescope was introduced by K.F. Gauss
+  and W. Weber. The magnet had a mirror attached to it, and a telescope
+  having cross wires in the focus was used to observe the scale
+  divisions of a fixed scale seen reflected in the mirror. Lord Kelvin
+  (Professor W. Thomson) made the important improvement of reducing the
+  size of the needle and attaching it to the back of a very small
+  mirror, the two being suspended by a single fibre of cocoon silk. The
+  mirror was made of silvered microscopic glass about 1/4 in. in
+  diameter, and the magnetic needle or needles consisted of short
+  fragments of watchspring cemented to its back. A ray of light being
+  thrown on the mirror from a lamp the deflexions of the needle were
+  observed by watching the movements of a spot of light reflected from
+  it upon a fixed scale. This form of mirror galvanometer was first
+  devised in connexion with submarine cable signalling, but soon became
+  an indispensable instrument in the physical laboratory.
+
+
+    Astatic galvanometers.
+
+  In course of time both the original form of single needle galvanometer
+  and mirror galvanometer were improved by introducing the astatic
+  principle and weakening the external controlling magnetic field. If
+  two magnetic needles of equal size and moment are attached rigidly to
+  one stem parallel to each other but with poles placed in opposite
+  directions an astatic system results; that is, if the needles are so
+  suspended as to be free to move in a horizontal plane, and if they are
+  made exactly equal in magnetic strength, the system will have no
+  directive power. If one needle is slightly weaker than the other, the
+  suspended system will set itself with some axis parallel to the lines
+  of force of a field in which it is placed. In a form of astatic needle
+  galvanometer devised by Professor A. Broca of Paris, the pair of
+  magnetized needles are suspended vertically and parallel to each other
+  with poles in opposite directions. The upper poles are included in one
+  coil and the lower poles within another coil, so connected that the
+  current circulates in the right direction in each coil to displace the
+  pairs of poles in the same direction. By this mode of arrangement a
+  greater magnetic moment can be secured, together with more perfect
+  astaticity and freedom from disturbance by external fields. The
+  earth's magnetic field can be weakened by means of a controlling
+  magnet arranged to create in the space in the interior of the
+  galvanometer coils an extremely feeble controlling magnetic field. In
+  instruments having a coil for each needle and designed so that the
+  current in both coils passes so as to turn both needles in the same
+  direction, the controlling magnet is so adjusted that the normal
+  position of the needles is with the magnetic axis parallel to the
+  plane of the coil. An astatic magnetic system used in conjunction with
+  a mirror galvanometer gives a highly sensitive form of instrument
+  (fig. 1); it is, however, easily disturbed by stray magnetic fields
+  caused by neighbouring magnets or currents through conductors, and
+  therefore is not suitable for use in many places.
+
+
+    Movable coil galvanometer.
+
+  This fact led to the introduction of the movable coil galvanometer
+  which was first devised by Lord Kelvin as a telegraphic signalling
+  instrument but subsequently modified by A. d'Arsonval and others into
+  a laboratory galvanometer (fig. 2). In this instrument a permanent
+  magnet, generally of the horseshoe shape, is employed to create a
+  strong magnetic field, in which a light movable coil is suspended. The
+  suspension is bifilar, consisting of two fine wires which are
+  connected to the ends of the coil and serve to lead the current in and
+  out. If such a coil is placed with its plane parallel to the lines of
+  force of the permanent magnet, then when a current is passing through
+  it it displaces itself in the field, so as to set with its axis more
+  nearly parallel to the lines of force of the field. The movable coil
+  may carry a pointer or a mirror; in the latter form it is well
+  represented by several much used laboratory instruments. The movable
+  coil galvanometer has the great advantage that it is not easily
+  disturbed by the magnetic fields caused by neighbouring magnets or
+  electric currents, and thus is especially useful in the electrical
+  workshop and factory.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 1.--Kelvin Astatic Mirror Galvanometer. Elliott
+  square pattern.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 2.--Movable Coil Galvanometer.]
+
+
+    Construction and use.
+
+  In the practical construction of the suspended needle fixed coil
+  galvanometer great care must be taken with the insulation of the wire
+  of the coil. This wire is generally silk-covered, wound on a frame,
+  the whole being thoroughly saturated with paraffin wax. In some cases
+  two wires are wound on in parallel, constituting a "differential
+  galvanometer." When properly adjusted this instrument can be used for
+  the exact comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if
+  an electric current is passed through one wire and creates certain
+  deflexions of the needle, the current which annuls this deflexion when
+  passed through the other wire must be equal to the first current. In
+  the construction of a movable coil galvanometer, it is usual to
+  intensify the magnetic field by inserting a fixed soft iron core in
+  the interior of the movable coil. If the current to be measured is too
+  large to be passed entirely through the galvanometer, a portion is
+  allowed to flow through a circuit connecting the two terminals of the
+  instrument. This circuit is called a _shunt_ and is generally arranged
+  so as to take 0.9, 0.99, or 0.999 of the total current, leaving 0.1,
+  0.01 or 0.001 to flow through the galvanometer. W.E. Ayrton and T.
+  Mather have designed a universal shunt box or resistance which can be
+  applied to any galvanometer and by which a known fraction of any
+  current can be sent through the galvanometer when we know its
+  resistance (see _Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond_., 1894, 23, p. 314). A
+  galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of its deflexion
+  determined, by passing through it an electric current of known value
+  and observing the deflexion of the needle or coil. The known current
+  can be provided in the following manner:--a single secondary cell of
+  any kind can have its electromotive force measured by the
+  potentiometer (q.v.), and compared with that of a standard voltaic
+  cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer through
+  a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is shunted, that
+  is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S, then if the
+  resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G, the whole
+  resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance has a value
+  represented by R + GS/(G + S), and therefore the current through the
+  galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of the cell is
+  represented by
+
+         SE
+    -------------.
+    R(G + S) + GS
+
+  Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil or
+  spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the value
+  of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation between the
+  deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the galvanometer
+  is meant the deflexion produced by a known electromotive force put
+  upon its terminals or a known current sent through it. It is usual to
+  specify the sensitiveness of a mirror galvanometer by requiring a
+  certain deflexion, measured in millimetres, of a spot of light thrown
+  on the scale placed at one metre from the mirror, when an
+  electromotive force of one-millionth of a volt (microvolt) is applied
+  to the terminals of the galvanometer; it may be otherwise expressed by
+  stating the deflexion produced under the same conditions when a
+  current of one microampere is passed through the coil. In modern
+  mirror galvanometers a deflexion of 1 mm. of the spot of light upon a
+  scale at 1 metre distance can be produced by a current as small as one
+  hundred millionth (10^-8) or even one ten thousand millionth (10^-10)
+  of an ampere. It is easy to produce considerable sensitiveness in the
+  galvanometer, but for practical purposes it must always be controlled
+  by the condition that the zero remains fixed, that is to say, the
+  galvanometer needle or coil must come back to exactly the same
+  position when no current is passing through the instrument. Other
+  important qualifications of a galvanometer are its time-period and its
+  dead-beatness. For certain purposes the needle or coil should return
+  as quickly as possible to the zero position and with either no, or
+  very few, oscillations. If the latter condition is fulfilled the
+  galvanometer is said to be "dead-beat." On the other hand, for some
+  purposes the galvanometer is required with the opposite quality, that
+  is to say, there must be as little retardation as possible to the
+  needle or coil when set in motion under an impulsive blow. Such a
+  galvanometer is called "ballistic." The quality of a galvanometer in
+  this respect is best estimated by taking the logarithmic decrement of
+  the oscillations when the movable system is set swinging. This last
+  term is defined as the logarithm of the ratio of one swing to the next
+  succeeding swing, and a galvanometer of which the logarithmic
+  decrement is large, is said to be highly damped. For many purposes,
+  such as for resistance measurement, it is desirable to have a
+  galvanometer which is highly damped; this result can be obtained by
+  affixing to the needles either light pieces of mica, when it is a
+  movable needle galvanometer, or by winding the coil on a silver frame
+  when it is a movable coil galvanometer. On the other hand, for the
+  comparison of capacities of condensers and for other purposes, a
+  galvanometer is required which is as little damped as possible, and
+  for this purpose the coil must have the smallest possible frictional
+  resistance to its motion through the air. In this case the moment of
+  inertia of the movable system must be decreased or the control
+  strengthened.
+
+  The Einthoven string galvanometer is another form of sensitive
+  instrument for the measurement of small direct currents. It consists
+  of a fine wire or silvered quartz fibre stretched in a strong magnetic
+  field. When a current passes through the wire it is displaced across
+  the field and the displacement is observed with a microscope.
+
+
+    Tangent galvanometer.
+
+  For the measurement of large currents a "tangent galvanometer" is
+  employed (fig. 3). Two fixed circular coils are placed apart at a
+  distance equal to the radius of either coil, so that a current passing
+  through them creates in the central region between them a nearly
+  uniform magnetic field. At the centre of the coils is suspended a
+  small magnetic needle the length of which should not be greater than
+  1/10 the radius of either coil. The normal position of the needle is
+  at right angles to the line joining the centre of the coils. If a
+  current is passed through the coils, the needle will be deflected, and
+  the tangent of the angle of its deflexion will be nearly proportional
+  to the current passing through the coil, provided that the controlling
+  field is uniform in strength and direction, and that the length of the
+  magnetic needle is so short that the space in which it rotates is a
+  practically uniform magnetic field.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 3.--Helmholtz Tangent Galvanometer.]
+
+  _Alternating Current Galvanometers._--For the detection of small
+  alternating currents a magnetic needle or movable coil galvanometer is
+  of no utility. We can, however, construct an instrument suitable for
+  the purpose by suspending within a coil of insulated wire a small
+  needle of soft iron placed with its axis at an angle of 45 deg. to the
+  axis of the coil. When an alternating current passes through the coil
+  the soft iron needle tends to set itself in the direction of the axis
+  of the coil, and if it is suspended by a quartz fibre or metallic wire
+  so as to afford a control, it can become a metrical instrument.
+  Another arrangement, devised by J.A. Fleming in 1887, consists of a
+  silver or copper disk suspended within a coil, the plane of the disk
+  being held at 45 deg. to that of the coil. When an alternating current
+  is passed through the coil, induced currents are set up in the disk
+  and the mutual action causes the disk to endeavour to set itself so
+  that these currents are a minimum. This metal disk galvanometer has
+  been made sufficiently sensitive to detect the feeble oscillatory
+  electric currents set up in the receiving wire of a wireless telegraph
+  apparatus. The Duddell thermal ammeter is another very sensitive form
+  of alternating current galvanometer. In it the current to be detected
+  or measured is passed through a high resistance wire or strip of
+  metal leaf mounted on glass, over which is suspended a closed loop of
+  bismuth and antimony, forming a thermoelectric couple. This loop is
+  suspended by a quartz fibre in a strong magnetic field, and one
+  junction of the couple is held just over the resistance wire and as
+  near it as possible without touching. When an alternating current
+  passes through the resistance it creates heat which in turn acts on
+  the thermo-junction and generates a continuous current in the loop,
+  thus deflecting it in the magnetic field. The sensitiveness of such a
+  thermal ammeter can be made sufficiently great to detect a current of
+  a few microamperes.
+
+  References.--J.A. Fleming, _A Handbook for the Electrical Laboratory
+  and Testing Room_, vol. i. (London, 1901); W.E. Ayrton, T. Mather and
+  W.E. Sumpner, "On Galvanometers," _Proc. Phys. Soc. London_ (1890),
+  10, 393; H.R. Kempe, _A Handbook of Electrical Testing_ (London,
+  1906); A. Gray, _Absolute Measurements in Electricity and Magnetism_,
+  vol. ii. part ii. (London, 1893). Useful information is also contained
+  in the catalogues of all the principal electrical instrument
+  makers--Messrs. Elliott Bros., Nalder, The Cambridge Scientific
+  Instrument Company, Pitkin, Hartmann and Braun, Queen and others.
+       (J. A. F.)
+
+
+
+
+GALVESTON, a city and port of entry and the county-seat of Galveston
+county, Texas, U.S.A., on the Gulf of Mexico, near the N.E. extremity of
+Galveston Island and at the entrance to Galveston Bay. It is about 48 m.
+S.E. of Houston and 310 m. W. of New Orleans. Pop. (1890) 29,084; (1900)
+37,789, (6339 were foreign-born and 8291 negroes); (1910) 36,981; land
+area (1906) 7.8 sq. m. It is served by the Galveston, Houston &
+Henderson, the Galveston, Harrisburg & San Antonio, the Gulf, Colorado &
+Santa Fe, the Trinity & Brazos Valley, the International & Great
+Northern, and the Missouri, Kansas & Texas railways, and by numerous
+steamship lines to Gulf ports in the United States and Mexico, and to
+Cuba, South America, Europe and the Atlantic ports of the United States.
+Galveston Island is a low, sandy strip of land about 28 m. long and
+1-1/2 to 3-1/2 m. wide, lying from 2 to 3 m. off the mainland. The city,
+which extends across the island from Gulf to Bay, faces and has its
+harbour on the latter. The island was connected with the mainland before
+the 1900 storm by a road bridge and several railway bridges, which, a
+short distance W. of the city, crossed the narrow strip of water
+separating the West Bay from Galveston Bay proper; the bridge least
+harmed (a single-track railway bridge) was repaired immediately and was
+for a time the city's only connexion with the mainland, but in 1908
+bonds were issued for building a concrete causeway, accommodating four
+railway tracks, one interurban car track, and a roadway for vehicles and
+pedestrians. An enormous sea-wall (completed in 1904 at a cost of
+$2,091,000) was constructed on the eastern and Gulf sides of the city,
+about 5 m. long, 17 ft. above mean low tide (1.5 ft. above the
+high-water mark of the storm of 1900 and 7.5 ft. above the previous
+high-water mark, that of September 1875), 16 ft. wide at the base and 5
+ft. at the top, weighing 20 tons to the lineal foot, and with a granite
+rip-rap apron extending out 27 ft. on the Gulf side. The entire grade of
+the city was raised from 1 to 15 ft. above the old level. Between the
+sea-wall and the sea there is a splendid beach, the entire length of
+which is nearly 30 m. Among the principal buildings are the city hall,
+the court-house, the masonic temple, the Federal custom-house and
+post-office, the Y.M.C.A. building and the public library. The United
+States government maintains a marine hospital, a live-saving station, an
+immigrant landing station, and the state and the Federal government
+separate quarantine stations. In addition to the Ball public high
+school, Galveston is the seat of St Mary's University (1854), the Sacred
+Heart and Ursuline academies, and the Cathedral school, all under Roman
+Catholic control.
+
+The government of the municipality was long vested in a council of ward
+aldermen, controlled by a "machine," which was proved corrupt in 1894 by
+an investigation undertaken at the personal expense of the mayor; it
+gave place in 1895 to a city council of aldermen at large, which by 1901
+had proved its inefficiency especially in the crisis following the storm
+of the preceding year. Government then seemed a business question and
+was practically undertaken by the city's commercial experts, the
+Deepwater commission, whose previous aim had been harbour improvement,
+and who now drew up a charter providing for government by a board of
+five appointed by the governor of the state. A compromise measure making
+three members appointees of the governor and two elected by the voters
+of the city was in force for a time but was declared unconstitutional. A
+third charter was adopted providing for five commissioners, chosen by
+the people, dividing among themselves the posts of mayor-president and
+commissioners of finance and revenue, of water-works and sewerage, of
+streets and public property, and of police and fire protection, each
+commissioner being held individually responsible for the management of
+his department. These are business departments carefully systematized by
+their heads. The legislative power is vested in the commission as a
+whole, over whose meetings the mayor-president presides; he has a vote
+like every other commissioner, and has no veto power. The success of
+this commission government has been remarkable: in 1901-1908 the city,
+without issuing bonds except for grade raising, paid off a large debt,
+raised the salaries of city employees, paid its running expenses in
+cash, planned and began public improvements and sanitary reforms, and
+did much for the abolition of gambling and the regulation of other vice.
+The Galveston Plan and similar schemes of government have been adopted
+in many other American cities.
+
+Galveston's manufactories, the products of which in 1900 were valued at
+$5,016,360, a decrease of 12.4% from 1890 (value of products under
+"factory system," $3,675,323 in 1900; $2,996,654 in 1905, a decrease of
+18.5%), include cotton-seed oil refineries, flour and feed mills, lumber
+mills, wooden-ware factories, breweries, cement works, creosoting works,
+ship-yards and ice factories. There are extensive cotton warehouses,
+coal and grain elevators, and large wholesale supply depots. The Gulf
+Fisheries Company has its fleet's headquarters and large packing-houses
+at Galveston. It is as a commercial port that Galveston is chiefly
+important. In 1907 it was the second port in the United States in the
+value of its exports (domestic and foreign, $196,627,382, or 10.22% of
+the total), being surpassed only by New York City; and was the first of
+the Gulf ports (having 45.43% of the total value), New Orleans being
+second with $164,998,540. Galveston's imports in 1907 were valued at
+$7,669,458. Galveston is the greatest cotton-exporting port in the
+Union, its exports of cotton in 1907 being valued at $163,564,445. Other
+exports of great value are cotton seed products (oil and cake,
+$10,188,594 in 1907), Indian corn ($3,457,279 in 1907), wheat
+($9,443,901 in 1906), lumber and flour. The electric lighting and
+water-supply systems are owned and operated by the municipality.
+
+The harbour of Galveston seems to have been named about 1782 by Spanish
+explorers in honour either of Jose de Galvez, Marquis of Sonora, or his
+nephew Bernardo, governor of Louisiana; and in the early days of the
+19th century was the principal rendezvous of a powerful band of
+buccaneers and pirates, of whom, for many years, the notorious Jean
+Lafitte was chief. After much difficulty these were finally dispersed
+about 1820 by the United States authorities, and in 1837 the first
+settlement from the United States was made on the site of the present
+city. The town was incorporated by the legislature of the Republic of
+Texas in 1839. On the 8th of October 1862 the city was taken by a
+Federal naval force under Commander William B. Renshaw (1816-1863).
+After a sharp engagement a Confederate force under General John B.
+Magruder (1810-1871) retook the city on the 1st of January 1863, one of
+the Federal ships, the "Harriet Lane," falling into Confederate hands,
+and another, the "Westfield," being blown up with Commander Renshaw on
+board. Thereafter Galveston remained in Confederate hands, although
+rigidly blockaded by the Federal navy, until the close of the war. On
+the 8th of September 1900 the city was seriously damaged by a West
+Indian hurricane, which, blowing steadily for eighteen hours, reached a
+velocity of 135 m. an hour. The waters of the Gulf were piled up in
+enormous waves that swept across a large part of the city, destroying or
+badly damaging more than 8000 buildings, entailing a loss of about 5000
+lives, and a property loss estimated at about $17,000,000. Liberal
+contributions came from all over the country, and the state partially
+remitted the city's taxes for 17 years. The city was rapidly rebuilt on
+a more substantial plan.
+
+
+
+
+GALWAY, a county in the west of Ireland, in the province of Connaught,
+bounded N. by Mayo and Roscommon; E. by Roscommon, King's County and
+Tipperary; S. by Clare and Galway Bay; and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. The
+area is 1,519,699 acres or about 2375 sq. m., the county being second in
+size to Cork among the Irish counties.
+
+The county is naturally divided by Lough Corrib into two great
+divisions. The eastern, which comprehends all the county except the four
+western baronies, rests on a limestone base, and is, generally speaking,
+a level champaign country, but contains large quantities of wet bog. Its
+southern portion is partly a continuation of the Golden Vale of
+Limerick, celebrated for its fertility, and partly occupied by the
+Slievebaughty Mountains. The northern portion of the division contains
+rich pasture and tillage ground, beautifully diversified with hill and
+dale. Some of the intermediate country is comparatively uncultivated,
+but forms excellent pasturage for sheep. The western division of the
+county has a substratum of granite, and is barren, rugged and
+mountainous. It is divided into the three districts of Connemara,
+Jar-Connaught and Joyce's Country; the name of Connemara is, however,
+often applied to the whole district. Its highest mountains are the grand
+and picturesque group of Bunnabeola, or the Twelve Bens or Pins, which
+occupy a space of about 25 sq. m., the highest elevation being 2695 ft.
+Much of this district is a gently sloping plain, from 100 to 300 ft.
+above sea-level. Joyce's Country, farther north, is an elevated tract,
+with flat-topped hills 1300 to 2000 ft. high, and deep narrow valleys
+lying between them.
+
+Galway possesses the advantage of a very extended line of sea-coast,
+indented by numerous harbours, which, however, are rarely used except by
+a few coasting and fishing vessels. At the boundary with the county Mayo
+in the north is Killary Harbour which separates the two counties. The
+first bay on the western coast capable of accommodating large ships is
+Ballynakill, sheltered by Freaghillaun or Heath Island. Next in
+succession is Cleggan Bay. Off these inlets lie the islands of
+Inishbofin and Inishark, with others. Streamstown is a narrow inlet,
+within which are the inhabited islands of Omey, Inishturk and Turbot.
+Ardbear harbour is divided into two inlets, the northern terminating at
+the town of Clifden, with excellent anchorage; the southern inlet has
+also good anchorage within the bar, and has a good salmon fishery.
+Mannin Bay, though large, is much exposed and little frequented by
+shipping. From Slyne Head the coast turns eastward to Roundstone Bay,
+which has its entrance protected by the islands of Inishnee and
+Inishlacken. Next in order is Bertraghboy Bay, studded with islets and
+rocks, but deep and sheltered. Kilkieran Bay, the largest on this coast,
+has a most productive kelp shore of nearly 100 m.; its mouth is but 3 m.
+broad. Between Gorumna Island and the mainland is Greatman's Bay and
+close to it Costello Bay, the most eastern of those in Connemara. The
+whole of the coast from Greatman's Bay eastward is comprehended in the
+Bay of Galway, the entrance of which is protected by the three limestone
+islands of Aran, Inishmore (or Aranmore), Inishmann and Inisheer.
+
+The rivers are few, and, except the Shannon, of small size. The Suck,
+which forms the eastern boundary of the county, rises in Roscommon, and
+passing by Ballinasloe, unites with the Shannon at Shannonbridge. The
+Shannon forms the south-eastern boundary of the county, and passing
+Shannon Harbour, Banagher, Meelick and Portumna, swells into the great
+expanse of water called Lough Derg, which skirts the county as far as
+the village of Mount Shannon. The Claregalway flows southward through
+the centre of the county, and enters Lough Corrib some 4 m. above the
+town of Galway. The Ballynahinch, considered one of the best
+salmon-fishing rivers in Connaught, rises in the Twelve Pins, passes
+through Ballynahinch Lake, and after a short but rapid course falls into
+Bertraghboy Bay. Lakes are numerous. Lough Corrib extends from Galway
+town northwards over 30,000 acres, with a shore of 50 m. in extent. The
+lake is studded with many islands, some of them thickly inhabited. The
+district west of Lough Corrib contains a vast number of lakes, about
+twenty-five of them more than a mile in length. Lough Rea, by the town
+of the same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent.
+Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called
+turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the year.
+Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder, and contain
+large trout. Galway, with the Screab Waters, draining into Camus Bay, a
+branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess and the Ballynahinch waters, are
+the best fishing centres. On account of its scenic beauty, both coastal
+and inland, together with its facilities for sport, county Galway is
+frequented by summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were
+difficult of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the
+western counties generally, the Galway and Clifden railway assisted
+private enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains, broken
+by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as by the
+innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts, afford scenes
+varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded along the water's
+edge to wild, bare moorlands among the heights, while the summits are
+usually bold and rocky cones. Several small fishing villages have
+acquired the dignity of watering-places from the erection of hotels,
+which have also been planted in previously untenanted situations of high
+scenic attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the head of
+Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letterfrack on
+Ballynakill Bay, Streamstown and Clifden, and Cashel on Bertraghboy Bay.
+Inland are Recess, near Lough Derryclare, and Ballynahinch, on the lough
+of that name, both on the railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.
+
+  _Geology_.--The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous
+  Limestone plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore
+  and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock appears
+  freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over almost
+  level land. Its west branches, however, run up into "Dalradian" hills,
+  which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara. A broad mass of
+  ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough Corrib and Galway Bay,
+  cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest the presence of an
+  east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve Bens owe their supremacy to
+  the quartzites, which are here well bedded and associated with
+  limestone and mica-schist. Silurian conglomerates and sandstones, with
+  andesitic lavas, overlie the Dalradians, with marked unconformity,
+  south of Leenane and round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard
+  rocks admirably record the action of ice throughout the county. There
+  is black Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway; and the
+  well-known "Connemara Marble" is a banded serpentinous crystalline
+  limestone in the Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown.
+  Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west of
+  Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.
+
+  _Climate and Industries_.--The climate is mild and healthy but
+  variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon. Frost or
+  snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle of every
+  description continue unhoused during the winter. The eastern part of
+  the county produces the best wheat. Oats are frequently sown after
+  potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat. The flat shores of
+  the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for manure. Limestone,
+  gravel and marl are to be had in most other parts. When a sufficient
+  quantity of manure for potatoes cannot be had, the usual practice is
+  to pare and burn the surface. In many places on the seashore fine
+  early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand manured with seaweed, and
+  the crop is succeeded by barley. Those parts of the eastern district
+  less fitted for grain are employed in pasturage. Heathy sheep-walks
+  occupy a very large tract between Monivea and Galway. An extensive
+  range from Athenry, stretching to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also
+  chiefly occupied by sheep. Over half the total acreage of the county
+  is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep, pigs and poultry are extensively
+  reared. The proportion of tillage to pasturage is roughly as one to
+  four; and owing to the nature of the country fully one-third of the
+  total area is quite barren.
+
+  Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by the
+  domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels and
+  blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and
+  Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit woollen
+  stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called bandle linen, is
+  also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving factory at
+  Oughterard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great source of profit
+  on the western shores, is still carried on to some extent. Feathers
+  and sea-fowls' eggs are brought in great quantities from the islands
+  of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-fowl that frequent
+  the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many of the inhabitants, the
+  industry having as its centres the ports of Galway and Clifden.
+
+  The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at Ballinasloe,
+  and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension to Oughterard (Lough
+  Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern & Western line from Sligo to
+  Limerick traverses the county from N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry
+  and Gort.
+
+_Population and Administration._--The population of county Galway
+(211,227 in 1891; 192,549 in 1901) decreased by more than half in the
+last seventy years of the 19th century, and the decrease continues, as
+emigration is heavy. About 97% of the population are Roman Catholics,
+and a somewhat less percentage are rural. The Erse tongue is maintained
+by many in this remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13,426),
+Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4904) and Loughrea (2815), with the smaller
+towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford, Oughterard and
+Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four parliamentary divisions
+(returning one member each); north, south, east and Connemara, while the
+town of Galway returns one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes
+are held at Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden,
+Gort, Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county comprises
+parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of Killaloe; and of the
+Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway, Clonfert and Killaloe.
+
+_History._--The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure, and
+nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its legend
+with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for mastery
+undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of the Spanish Armada
+on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose influence is still to be
+traced. The formation of Galway into a county was effected about 1579 by
+Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim
+(q.v.) the decisive battle of the English Revolution was fought in 1691.
+Among the antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is
+at Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning considerably
+out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are numerous and several
+cromlechs are to be seen in good preservation. The ruins of monastic
+buildings are also numerous. That of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam,
+said to have been founded in 1180 by Cathal O'Connor, was adorned with
+rude fresco paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable
+as being the best authentic representations existing of ancient Irish
+costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-Norman settlers
+are frequently met with; some have been kept in repair, but the greater
+number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam, built in 1161 by Roderick
+O'Connor, king of Ireland, at the period of the English invasion, is
+said to have been the first building of this description of stone and
+mortar in Ireland. The remains of a round castle, a form of building
+very uncommon in the military architecture of the country, are to be
+seen between Gort and Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and
+monastic ruins on the Aran Islands (q.v.) must be mentioned; and the
+town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe all show
+interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the south of the
+county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a cathedral, the diocese of
+which was united with Kilfenora, Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.
+
+
+
+
+GALWAY, a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county town of county
+Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway Bay, and on the main line
+of the Midland Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (1901)
+13,426. Some of the streets are very narrow, and contain curious
+specimens of old buildings, chiefly in antique Spanish style, being
+square, with a central court, and a gateway opening into the street. The
+most noteworthy of these is the pile known as Lynch's Castle. This
+residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch
+Fitzstephen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose severity as a
+magistrate is exemplified in the story that he executed his own son, and
+thus gave origin (according to one of several theories) to the familiar
+term of Lynch law. The principal streets are broad and contain good
+shops. St Nicholas church is a fine cruciform building founded in 1320,
+and containing monuments, and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to
+have been brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not
+known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward VI. created
+the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it; but the old college
+buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the church ceased to be
+collegiate in 1840. There are remains of a Franciscan friary founded in
+1296. St Augustine's church (Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town
+is the seat of a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and
+industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College,
+Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University
+College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey
+limestone. It was founded as Queen's College, with other colleges of the
+same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of 1845, and its name was
+changed when it was granted a new charter pursuant to the Irish
+Universities Act 1908. The harbour comprises an extensive line of quays,
+and is connected for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping
+trade is considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited
+unsuccessfully. The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are important. The
+chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and black marble, which is
+polished in local mills. Other industrial establishments include
+corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and brush and bag factories.
+The borough, which returned two members to parliament until 1885, now
+returns one.
+
+Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb known as
+the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a curious collection of
+small cottages, where communal government by a locally elected mayor
+long prevailed, together with peculiar laws and customs, strictly
+exclusive inter-marriage, and a high moral and religious standard.
+Specimens of the distinctive Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and
+treasured as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive
+dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their vestiges
+remain.
+
+The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome residences.
+The most interesting point in the vicinity is Roscam, with its round
+tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill, with golf links, is a
+waterside residential suburb.
+
+Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival of the
+English, at which time it was under the protection of O'Flaherty, who
+possessed the adjoining district to the west. On the extinction of the
+native dynasty of the O'Connors, the town fell into the hands of the De
+Burgos, the head of a branch of which, under the name of M'William
+Eighter, long governed it by magistrates of his own appointment. After
+it had been secured by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and are
+still in part traceable, it became the residence of a number of
+enterprising settlers, through whom it attained a position of much
+commercial celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen
+in number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of Norman,
+Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in their relationships
+that dispensations were frequently requisite for the canonical legality
+of marriages among them. The town rapidly increased from this period in
+wealth and commercial rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival
+city of Limerick. Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with
+liberal privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had the
+right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no evidence to show
+that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in 1545,
+extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran, permitted
+the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and woollens, and
+confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers of Cromwell's
+soldiers are said to have settled in the town; and there are many traces
+of Spanish blood among the population. Its municipal privileges were
+extended by a charter from James I., whereby the town, and a district of
+two miles round in every direction, were formed into a distinct county,
+with exclusive jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates.
+During the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was
+surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote; after
+which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and their property
+was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly from England. On the
+accession of James II. the old inhabitants entertained sanguine hopes of
+recovering their former rights. But the successes of King William soon
+put an end to their expectations; and the town, after undergoing
+another siege, again capitulated to the force brought against it by
+General Ginkell.
+
+
+
+
+GAMA, VASCO DA (c. 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and discoverer of
+the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small seaport in the
+province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama's early history little is known. His
+descent, according to the _Nobiliario_ of Antonio de Lima, was derived
+from a noble family which is mentioned in the year 1166; but the line
+cannot be traced without interruption farther back than the year 1280,
+to one Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevao da Gama, civil
+governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born probably about the
+year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the Navigator, to whose
+intelligence and foresight must be traced back all the fame that
+Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and 16th centuries. Explorers
+sent out at his instigation discovered the Azores and unknown regions on
+the African coast, whence continually came reports of a great monarch,
+"who lived east of Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both
+temporal and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings," a
+story which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of "Prester John"
+which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests, that John
+II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea and by land the
+attempt should be made to reach the country of this potentate. For this
+purpose Pedro de Covilham and Affonso de Payva were despatched eastward
+by land; while Bartholomeu Diaz (q.v.), in command of two vessels, was
+sent westward by sea (see ABYSSINIA, 14). That there was in truth an
+ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned in December
+1488 with the report that when sailing southward he was carried far to
+the east by a succession of fierce storms, past--as he discovered only
+on his return voyage--what he ascertained to be the southern extremity
+of the African continent. The condition of John's health and concerns of
+state, however, prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition;
+and it was not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to
+the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were
+completed--hastened, doubtless, by Columbus's discovery of America in
+the meanwhile.
+
+For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected Vasco da
+Gama, who had in his youth fought in the wars against Castile, and in
+his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid mariner. The fleet,
+consisting of four vessels specially built for this mission, sailed down
+the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after prayers and confession made by
+the officers and crews in a small chapel on the site where now stands
+the church of S. Maria de Belem (see LISBON), afterwards built to
+commemorate the event. Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St
+Helena Bay, South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the
+beginning of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa.
+Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained from
+Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived at Calicut, on
+the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1498, and set up, according to the
+custom of his country, a marble pillar as a mark of conquest and a proof
+of his discovery of India. His reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler
+of Calicut, would have in all probability been favourable enough, had it
+not been for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for
+their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da Gama
+was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having seen enough of
+India to assure him of its great resources, he returned to Portugal in
+September 1499. The king received him with every mark of distinction,
+granted him the use of the prefix _Dom_, thus elevating him to the rank
+of an untitled noble, and conferred on him pensions and other property.
+In prosecution of da Gama's discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships
+was immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who, in
+sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on reaching
+his destination established a factory at Calicut. The natives, again
+instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose up in arms and murdered all
+whom Cabral had left behind. To avenge this outrage a powerful armament
+of ten ships was fitted out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first
+given to Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who
+received the title admiral of India (January 1502). A few weeks later
+the fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately bombarded
+the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery too horrible to
+describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November to Cochin, "doing all
+the harm he could on the way to all that he found at sea," and having
+made favourable trading terms with it and with other towns on the coast,
+he returned to Lisbon in September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and
+his captains were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received
+additional privileges and revenues.
+
+Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora,
+possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he expected, but
+more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and position which he had
+acquired; for he was now one of the richest men in the kingdom. He had
+married, probably in 1500, a lady of good family, named Catherina de
+Ataide, by whom he had six sons. According to Correa, he continued to
+advise King Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime
+policy up to 1505, and there are extant twelve documents dated 1507-1522
+which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour. The most
+important of these is a grant dated December 1519 by which Vasco da Gama
+was created count of Vidigueira, with the extraordinary privileges of
+civil and criminal jurisdiction and ecclesiastical patronage. During
+this time the Portuguese conquests increased in the East, and were
+presided over by successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so
+unfortunate that da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel's
+successor, John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in
+April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during September of
+the same year, he immediately set himself to correct with vigour the
+many abuses which had crept in under the rule of his predecessors. He
+was not destined, however, to prosecute far the reforms he had
+inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve following his arrival, he died at
+Cochin after a short illness, and was buried in the Franciscan monastery
+there. In 1538 his body was conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the
+town of Vidigueira. In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence
+to have been his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria
+de Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching Portugal, and
+raising her to one of the foremost places among the nations of Europe,
+and eventually the far greater one of bringing to pass the colonization
+of the East by opening its commerce to the Western world.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Vasco da Gama's First Voyage_, by Dr E. Ravenstein
+  (London, Hakluyt Society, 1898), is a translation with notes, &c., of
+  the anonymous _Roteiro_ (Journal or Itinerary), written by one of
+  Vasco da Gama's subordinates who sailed on board the "S. Raphael,"
+  which was commanded by the admiral's brother Paulo da Gama. This is
+  the most important of the original authorities; five accounts of the
+  voyage in letters contemporary with it are appended to the Hakluyt
+  Society's translation. See also J. de Barros, _Decadas da India_
+  (Lisbon, 1778-1788, written c. 1540); F.L. de Castanheda, _Historia do
+  descobrimento da India_ (Coimbra, 1551, largely based on the
+  _Roteiro_); _The Three Voyages of Vasco da Gama and his Viceroyalty_,
+  by Gaspar Correa (Hakluyt Society, 1869), chiefly valuable for the
+  events of 1524; _The Lusiads_ of Camoens, the central incident in
+  which is Vasco da Gama's first voyage; _Calcoen_ (i.e. _Calicut_), _a
+  Dutch Narrative of the Second Voyage of Vasco da Gama_, written by
+  some unknown seaman of the expedition, printed at Antwerp about 1504,
+  reprinted in facsimile, with introduction and translation, by J. Ph.
+  Berjeau (London, 1874); Thome Lopes, narrative (1502) in vol. i. of
+  Ramusio.
+
+
+
+
+GAMALIEL ([Hebrew: Gamliel]). This name, which in Old Testament times
+figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh (_vide_ Num.
+i. 10, &c.), was hereditary among the descendants of Hillel. Six persons
+bearing the name are known.
+
+1. GAMALIEL I., a grandson of Hillel, and like him designated Ha-Zaqen
+(the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that he was numbered among
+the Sanhedrin, the high council of Jerusalem. According to the tradition
+of the schools of Palestine Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his
+father (of the latter nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as _Nasi_,
+or president of the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not
+correspond with historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel
+took a leading position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest
+repute as an authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the
+interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name was
+prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in the Acts
+of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted in the
+Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were threatened with
+death, and on this occasion he is designated as a Pharisee and as being
+"had in reputation among all the people" ([Greek: nomodidaskalos timios
+panti to lao]). In the Mishna (_Gittin_ iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the
+author of certain legal ordinances affecting the welfare of the
+community (the expression in the original is "_tiqqun ha-'olam_," i.e.
+improvement of the world) and regulating certain questions as to
+conjugal rights. In the tradition was also preserved the text of the
+epistles regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent
+to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (i.e. southern Palestine)
+and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and elsewhere). He
+figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser of the king and queen,
+i.e. Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris (Pesahim 88 b). His function as a
+teacher is proved by the fact that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat
+at the feet of Gamaliel (Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the
+saying preserved in Aboth i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of
+scrupulousness in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very
+remarkable characterization of the different natures of the scholars
+remains (Aboth di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in later days is
+summed up in the words (Mishna, end of Sotah): "When Rabban Gamaliel the
+Elder died, regard for the Torah (the study of the Law) ceased, and
+purity and piety died." As Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose
+name is mentioned in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian
+legend, and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstratensian)
+relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel's commentary on the
+Old Testament, thereby most probably meaning the Talmud.
+
+2. GAMALIEL II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of Jerusalem's
+foremost men in the war against the Romans (_vide_ Josephus, _Bellum
+Jud_. iv. 3, 9, _Vita_ 38), and grandson of Gamaliel I. To distinguish
+him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel of Jabneh. In Jabneh
+(Jamnia), where during the siege of Jerusalem the scribes of the school
+of Hillel had taken refuge by permission of Vespasian, a new centre of
+Judaism arose under the leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a
+school whose members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of
+Jerusalem. Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai's successor, and
+rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration of
+Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the destruction
+of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political autonomy. He put
+an end to the division which had arisen between the spiritual leaders of
+Palestinian Judaism by the separation of the scribes into the two
+schools called respectively after Hillel and Shammai, and took care to
+enforce his own authority as the president of the chief legal assembly
+of Judaism with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he
+himself said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in
+order that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel's position
+was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the end of
+Domitian's reign (c. A.D. 95) he went to Rome in company with the most
+prominent members of the school of Jabneh, in order to avert a danger
+threatening the Jews from the action of the terrible emperor. Many
+interesting particulars have been given regarding the journey of these
+learned men to Rome and their sojourn there. The impression made by the
+capital of the world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an
+overpowering one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
+In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend Judaism in
+polemical discussions with pagans, and also with professed Christians.
+In an anecdote regarding a suit which Gamaliel was prosecuting before a
+Christian judge, a converted Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the
+words of Jesus in Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 a, b). Gamaliel devoted
+special attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after
+the cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important. He gave
+the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its final
+revision, and declared it every Israelite's duty to recite it three
+times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were not Jews, and
+was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when the latter died he
+mourned for him as for a beloved member of his own family. He loved
+discussing the sense of single portions of the Bible with other
+scholars, and made many fine expositions of the text. With the words of
+Deut. xiii. 18 he associated the lesson: "So long as thou thyself art
+merciful, God will also be merciful to thee." Gamaliel died before the
+insurrections under Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At
+his funeral obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos),
+reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value of
+seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his body was
+to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this he wished to
+check the extravagance which had become associated with arrangements for
+the disposal of the dead, and his end was attained; for his example
+became the rule, and it also became the custom to commemorate him in the
+words of consolation addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 b). Gamaliel's
+son, Simon, long after his father's death, and after the persecutions
+under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his descendants
+handed on from father to son.
+
+3. GAMALIEL III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna, and his
+successor as _Nasi_ (patriarch). The redaction of the Mishna was
+completed under him, and some of his sayings are incorporated therein
+(Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows: "Beware of those in
+power, for they permit men to approach them only for their own uses;
+they behave as friends when it is for their advantage, but they do not
+stand by a man when he is in need." Evidently this was directed against
+the self-seeking of the Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the
+first half of the 3rd century.
+
+4. GAMALIEL IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter half of
+the 3rd century: about him very little is known.
+
+5. GAMALIEL V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillel II.: beyond
+his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the latter half of the 4th
+century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel whom Jerome mentions in his letter
+to Pamachius, written in 393.
+
+6. GAMALIEL VI., grandson of the above, the last of the patriarchs, died
+in 425. With him expired the office, which had already been robbed of
+its privileges by a decree of the emperors Honorius and Theodosius II.
+(dated the 17th of October 415). Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and
+a celebrated remedy of his is mentioned by his contemporary Marcellus
+(_De Medicamentis_, liber 21).     (W. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMBETTA, LEON (1838-1882), French statesman, was born at Cahors on the
+2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who had established himself as
+a grocer and had married a Frenchwoman named Massabie, is said to have
+been his son's prototype in vigour and fluency of speech. In his
+sixteenth year young Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left
+eye, which eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation,
+he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors, and in
+1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern vehemence gave him
+great influence among the students of the Quartier Latin, and he was
+soon known as an inveterate enemy of the imperial government. He was
+called to the bar in 1859, but, although contributing to a Liberal
+review, edited by Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the
+17th of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist
+Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a monument to
+the representative Baudin, who was killed in resisting the _coup d'etat_
+of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity and assailed both the _coup
+d'etat_ and the government with an eloquence of invective which made him
+immediately famous.
+
+In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first
+circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte Carnot
+for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for the latter. He
+elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no opportunity of attacking the
+Empire in the Assembly. He was at first opposed to the war with
+Germany, but when satisfied that it had been forced upon France he did
+not, like some of his colleagues, refuse to vote supplies, but took the
+patriotic line of supporting the flag. When the news of the disaster at
+Sedan reached Paris, Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself
+proclaimed the fall of the emperor at the _corps legislatif_, and the
+establishment of a republic at the hotel de ville. He was one of the
+first members of the new government of national defence, becoming
+minister of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and
+conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice was
+rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a delegation to
+organize resistance in the provinces was despatched to Tours, but when
+this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta himself (7th October) quitted
+Paris in a balloon, and upon arriving at Tours took the supreme
+direction of affairs as minister of the interior and of war. Aided by M.
+de Freycinet, then a young officer of engineers, as his assistant
+secretary of war, he displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He
+speedily organized an army, which might possibly have effected the
+relief of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Bazaine
+brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success was
+impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans early in
+December the seat of government had to be transferred to Bordeaux, and
+when Paris surrendered at the end of January, Gambetta, though resisting
+and protesting, was compelled to submit to the capitulation concluded
+with Prince Bismarck. He immediately resigned his office. Elected by
+nine departments to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the
+1st of March 1871) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of
+the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification was to
+be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he resigned in
+protest and retired to Spain.
+
+He returned to France in June, was elected by three departments in July,
+and commenced an agitation for the definitive establishment of the
+Republic. On the 5th of November 1871 he established a journal, _La
+Republique francaise_, which soon became the most influential in France.
+His orations at public meetings were more effective than those delivered
+in the Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and
+that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he spoke of
+political power having passed to les _nouvelles couches sociales_. When
+Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873, and a Royalist was placed
+at the head of the government in the person of Marshal MacMahon,
+Gambetta gave proof of his statesmanship by unceasingly urging his
+friends to a moderate course, and by his tact and parliamentary
+dexterity, no less than by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in
+the voting of the constitution in February 1875. This policy he
+continued during the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and
+gave it the appropriate name of "opportunism." It was not until the 4th
+of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was notorious,
+and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the restoration of the
+temporal power of the pope, that he delivered his famous speech
+denouncing "clericalism" as "the enemy." On the 16th of May Marshal
+MacMahon, in order to support the clerical reactionaries, perpetrated
+his parliamentary _coup d'etat_, and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in
+a speech at Lille, gave him the alternative se _soumettre ou se
+demettre_. He then undertook a political campaign to rouse the
+republican party throughout France, which culminated in a speech at
+Romans (September 18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally
+unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to
+dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry under the
+premiership of Dufaure.
+
+When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about the abdication
+of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to become a candidate for the
+presidency, but gave his support to Grevy; nor did he attempt to form a
+ministry, but accepted the office of president of the chamber of
+deputies (January 1879). This position, which he filled with much
+ability, did not prevent his occasionally descending from the
+presidential chair to make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty
+to the communards, was especially memorable. Although he really
+directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought that
+the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to direct the
+policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe a neutral
+attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on, and early in
+1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement for restoring _scrutin
+de liste_, or the system by which deputies are returned by the entire
+department which they represent, so that each elector votes for several
+representatives at once, in place of _scrutin d'arrondissement_, the
+system of small constituencies, giving one member to each district and
+one vote to each elector. A bill to re-establish _scrutin de liste_ was
+passed by the Assembly on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on
+the 19th of June.
+
+But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the country
+his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at the election.
+His supporters were in a large majority, and on the reassembling of the
+chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned. Gambetta was unwillingly
+entrusted by Grevy on the 14th of November 1881 with the formation of a
+ministry--known as _Le Grand Ministere_. He now experienced the Nemesis
+of his over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of
+compromising his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at a
+dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice, were
+directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on the 26th of
+January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six days. Had he remained
+in office his declarations leave no doubt that he would have cultivated
+the British alliance and cooperated with Great Britain in Egypt; and
+when the Freycinet administration, which succeeded, shrank from that
+enterprise only to see it undertaken with signal success by England
+alone, Gambetta's foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were
+presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of December
+1882, at his house in Ville d'Avray, near Sevres, he died by a shot from
+a revolver which accidentally went off. Then all France awoke to a sense
+of her obligation to him, and his public funeral on the 6th of January
+1883 evoked one of the most overwhelming displays of national sentiment
+ever witnessed on a similar occasion.
+
+Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by preserving her
+self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance he organized during
+the German War, by his tact in persuading extreme partisans to accept a
+moderate Republic, and by his energy in overcoming the usurpation
+attempted by the advisers of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early
+age of forty-four, cut short a career which had given promise of still
+greater things, for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the
+future of his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been
+potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his life was
+his connexion with Leonie Leon (d. 1906), the full details of which were
+not known to the public till her death. This lady, with whom Gambetta
+fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a French artillery officer.
+She became his mistress, and the _liaison_ lasted till he died. Gambetta
+himself constantly urged her to marry him during this period, but she
+always refused, fearing to compromise his career; she remained, however,
+his confidante and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is
+understood that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and
+the date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which caused
+his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory accounts have indeed
+been given as to this fatal episode, but that it was accidental, and not
+suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the influence of Leonie was absorbing,
+both as lover and as politician, and the correspondence which has been
+published shows how much he depended upon her. But in various matters of
+detail the serious student of political history must be cautious in
+accepting her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in
+the writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took
+place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta after 1875
+felt strongly that the relations between France and Germany might be
+improved, and that he made it his object, by travelling incognito, to
+become better acquainted with Germany and the adjoining states, may be
+accepted, but M. Laur appears to have exaggerated the extent to which
+any actual negotiations took place. On the other hand, the increased
+knowledge of Gambetta's attitude towards European politics which later
+information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost
+prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April 1905 a
+monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was unveiled by President
+Loubet.
+
+  Gambetta's _Discours et plaidoyers politiques_ were published by J.
+  Reinach in 11 vols. (Paris, 1881-1886); his _Depeches, circulaires,
+  decrets_ ... in 2 vols. (Paris, 1886-1891). Many biographies have
+  appeared. The principal are J. Reinach, _Leon Gambetta_ (1884),
+  _Gambetta orateur_ (1884) and _Le Ministere Gambetta, histoire et
+  doctrine_ (1884); Neucastel, _Gambetta, sa vie, et ses idees
+  politiques_ (1885); J. Hanlon, _Gambetta_ (London, 1881); Dr Laborde,
+  _Leon Gambetta biographie psychologique_ (1898); P.B. Gheusi,
+  Gambetta, _Life and Letters_ (Eng. trans. by V.M. Montagu, 1910). See
+  also G. Hanotaux, _Histoire de la France contemporaine_ (1903, &c.).
+  F. Laur's _Le Coeur de Gambetta_ (1907, Eng. trans., 1908) contains
+  the correspondence with Leonie Leon; see also his articles on
+  "Gambetta and Bismarck" in _The Times_ of August 17 and 19, 1907, with
+  the correspondence arising from them.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIA, an important river of West Africa, and the only river of Africa
+navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for over 200 m. from its
+mouth. It rises in about 11 deg. 25' N. and 12 deg. 15' W., within 150
+m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarpment of the Futa Jallon
+highlands, the massif where also rise the head-streams of the Senegal
+and some of the Niger tributaries, besides the Rio Grande and many other
+rivers flowing direct to the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in
+its lower course, is very serpentine, and although the distance from the
+source to the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct
+line, the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first
+N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12 deg. 35' N.
+takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it leaves the
+fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the lower district is
+marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a ledge of rock stretching
+across the river. Between 30 and 50 m. above the falls the Gambia is
+joined by two considerable affluents, the Nieriko from the north and the
+Kuluntu or Grey river from the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the
+Atlantic the Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this
+distance the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year
+round by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatenda, a few miles below
+Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry season, of over 300
+ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls to McCarthy's Island, a
+distance of 200 m., the river valley, which here presents a park-like
+appearance, is enclosed by low rocky hills of volcanic character. For 50
+m. below the island, where the stream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks
+of the river are steep and thickly wooded. They then become low and are
+fringed with mangrove swamps. From Devil's Point, a sharp promontory on
+the north bank--up to which place the water is salt--the river widens
+considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13-1/2 deg. N. and 16-1/2
+deg. W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river on the south
+side is St Mary's Island (3-1/2 m. long by 1-1/2 broad), and opposite on
+the north bank is Barra Point, the river being here contracted to 2-1/2
+m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance from shore to shore is 27 m.
+There is a sand-bar at the entrance to the river, but at the lowest
+state of the tide there are 26 ft. of water over the bar. The Gambia is
+in flood from November to June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable
+by small boats. Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m.
+Politically the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and
+France--Britain possessing both banks of the river up to, but not
+including, Yarbatenda.
+
+The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the Carthaginian in his
+famous voyage along the west coast of Africa. It was known to Ptolemy
+and the Arabian geographers, and was at one time supposed to be a mouth
+of the Nile, and, later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was
+possibly visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly
+discovered by the Portuguese c. 1446, but was first explored for any
+distance from its mouth (1455) by the Venetian Alvise Cadamosto (q.v.),
+who published an account of his travels at Vicenza in 1507 (_La Prima
+Navigazione per l'Oceano alle terre de' Negri della Bassa Ethiopia_).
+Afterwards the Gambia became a starting-place for explorers of the
+interior, among them Mungo Park, who began both his journeys (1795 and
+1805) from this river. It was not until 1818 that the sources of the
+Gambia were reached, the discovery being made by a Frenchman, Gaspard
+Mollien, who had travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle
+course of the river was explored in 1851 by R.G. MacDonnell, then
+governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V.S. Gouldsbury also
+navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind was seen above
+Barraconda. The more correct name of the river is Gambra, and it is so
+called in old books of travel.
+
+  See Mungo Park's _Travels_ (London, 1799); G. Mollien, _Travels ... to
+  the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia ..._, edited by T.E. Bowdich
+  (London, 1820); the account of Dr Gouldsbury's journey in the Blue
+  Book C 3065 (1881); also under the country heading below.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIA, the most northerly of the British West African dependencies. It
+consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the lower Gambia. The
+colony, with the protectorate dependent upon it, has an area of about
+4000 sq. m. and a population officially estimated (1907) at 163,000. The
+colony proper (including St Mary's Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded
+Mile, McCarthy's Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m.
+The protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres
+(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about 200 m. in
+a direct line from the sea. The land outside these limits is French.
+Within the protectorate are various petty kingdoms, such as Barra, to
+the north of the Gambia, and Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the
+colony near the coast is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The
+greatest breadth is 39 m.
+
+  _Physical Features, Fauna and Flora._--The colony, as its name
+  implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia (q.v.),
+  which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony,
+  while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth
+  and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river
+  banks, the country is largely "bush." The region above McCarthy's
+  Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The
+  fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys,
+  bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part of the
+  river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The birds most common are
+  bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and sand-grouse. Bees
+  are very numerous in parts of the country. The flora resembles that of
+  West Africa generally, the mangrove being common. Mahogany and
+  rosewood (_Pterocarpus erinaceus_) trees are found, though not in
+  large numbers, and the rubber-vine and oil-palm are also comparatively
+  scarce. There are many varieties of fern. The cassava (manioca) and
+  indigo plants are indigenous.
+
+  _Climate._--The climate during the dry season (November-June) is the
+  best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is then
+  considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of the
+  malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean
+  temperature at Bathurst is 77 deg. F., the shade minimum being 56 deg.
+  and the solar maximum 165 deg. Upriver the variation in temperature is
+  even greater than at Bathurst, from 50 deg. in the morning to 100
+  deg.-104 deg. at 3 P.M. being common at McCarthy's Isle. The average
+  rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June
+  there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first
+  instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in 1906.
+  The dry east wind known as the harmattan blows intermittently from
+  December to March.
+
+_Inhabitants._--The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and industrious,
+are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the chief tribes
+represented being the Mandingo (q.v.), the Jolof and the Jola. Numbers
+of Fula (q.v.) are also settled in the country. Fully four-fifths of the
+natives are Mahommedans. The few European residents are officials,
+traders or missionaries.
+
+_Towns and Trade._--Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief town of the
+colony, in 13 deg. 24' N., 16 deg. 36' W., is built on St Mary's Island,
+which lies at the mouth of the river near its south bank and is
+connected with the mainland by a bridge across Oyster Creek. It was
+founded in 1816 and is named after the 3rd earl Bathurst, secretary of
+state for the colonies from 1812 to 1827. Bathurst is a fairly
+well-built town, the chief material employed being red sandstone. It
+lies about 12 to 14 ft. above the level of the river. The principal
+buildings face the sea, and include Government House, barracks, a
+well-appointed hospital, founded by Sir R.G. MacDonnell (administrator,
+1847-1852), and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine
+avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no other
+towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called Georgetown is
+situated on McCarthy's Island, so named after Sir Charles McCarthy, the
+governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was captured and beheaded by the
+Ashanti at the battle of Essamako. Albreda, a small port on the north
+bank of the river, of some historic interest (see below), is in the
+Barra district.
+
+  _Products._--Ground-nuts (_Arachis hypogaea_), rubber, beeswax, palm
+  kernels, rice, cotton, and millet are the chief productions. Millet
+  and rice are the staple food of the people. The curing of hides, the
+  catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the weaving
+  of cotton into cloths called "pagns," afford employment to a
+  considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal exports,
+  besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being obtained
+  from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between 1830 and 1840
+  from 1500 to 2000 oz. of gold were exported annually, but shipments
+  ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of gold-dust can still
+  be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export of hides received a
+  severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of nearly all the cattle,
+  but after an interval of seven or eight years the industry gradually
+  revived. The value of hides exported increased from L520 in 1902 to
+  L9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber was started about 1880, but
+  the trade has not assumed large proportions. In 1907 the value of the
+  rubber exported was L4602. The export of wax, valued at L37,000 in
+  1843, had dwindled in 1907 to L2325. The cultivation of the
+  ground-nut, first exported in 1830, assumed importance by 1837, and by
+  1850 had become the chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of
+  the nuts was L256,685, over 11/12 of the total exports (exclusive of
+  specie). Nearly the whole male population is engaged in the industry
+  for eight months of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains,
+  the crop is reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (4/5
+  to Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as
+  olive oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the
+  beginning of the planting season of thousands of men from a distance,
+  "strange farmers," as they are called, who are housed and fed and
+  given farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce
+  to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the "strange
+  farmer" goes off, often not returning for years.
+
+  Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural
+  resources of the country are undeveloped. Large herds of cattle are
+  kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their
+  wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-one
+  years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier is
+  unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical
+  station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and
+  Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment proved
+  discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting farmers to
+  grow cotton for export, as unless carried on on highly scientific
+  lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of the ground-nut.
+  The principal imports, of which over 2/3 come from Great Britain or
+  British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone),
+  tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the
+  average annual value of the exports was L301,000, of the imports
+  L316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent mineral
+  wealth, except ridges of ironstone in the regions above McCarthy's
+  Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with Europe and the
+  rest of Africa. There are no railways in the colony, but it is
+  traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft. The
+  Liverpool mail steamers call at the port every fortnight. A government
+  steamer runs regularly from Bathurst to McCarthy's Island, and a
+  smaller boat plies on the upper river. The shipping trade is chiefly
+  British; French and German tonnage coming next.
+
+  Surrounded on all sides, save seawards, by French territory, the
+  colony largely depends, economically, upon France, to which country
+  most of the exports go. A considerable entrepot trade is also done
+  with the neighbouring French colonies. The extent of French influence
+  is indicated by the fact that the five-franc piece, locally known as a
+  dollar, is largely circulated throughout the protectorate, and is
+  accepted as legal tender, although the currency in the colony proper
+  is the English coinage.
+
+  _Administration, Revenue, &c._--The Gambia is administered by a
+  governor, assisted by an executive and a legislative council. On the
+  last-named body nominated unofficial members have seats. The colony is
+  self-supporting and has no public debt. The revenue, which in 1906 for
+  the first time exceeded L60,000, is mainly derived from customs. A
+  company of the West African Frontier Force is maintained. Travelling
+  commissioners visit the five districts into which, for administrative
+  purposes, the protectorate is divided, and in which the native form of
+  government prevails. From the native law-courts appeal can be made to
+  the supreme court at Bathurst. There is also at Bathurst a Mahommedan
+  court, established in 1906, for the trial of cases involving the civil
+  status of Moslems.
+
+  Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denominations,
+  and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have also a
+  secondary and a technical school. There is a privately supported
+  school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans, Wesleyans and Roman
+  Catholics have numerous converts.
+
+_History._--Of the early history of the Gambia district there is scant
+mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars (apparently of a
+"Druidical" character), whose ruins are found at several places along
+the upper Gambia, were erected is not known. Those at Lamin Koto, on the
+right bank of the river opposite McCarthy's Island, are still in good
+preservation, and are an object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see
+_Geog. Journ._ vol. xii., 1898). The country appears to have formed
+part, successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The
+relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with the
+north and east; consequently no large town was founded on the banks of
+the river, nor any trade carried on (before the coming of the white man)
+by vessels sailing the ocean. About the 11th century the district came
+under Mahommedan influence.
+
+The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the 15th century, and in the
+beginning of the 16th century were trading in the lower river. Embassies
+were sent from the Portuguese stations inland to Melle to open up trade
+with the interior, but about the middle of the century this
+trade--apparently mostly in gold and slaves--declined. At the end of the
+century the river was known as the resort of banished men and fugitives
+from Portugal and Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living
+in England that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to "certain
+merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London for a
+trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea." This company was
+granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its operations led to no
+permanent settlement in the Gambia. In 1618 James I. granted a charter
+to another company named "The Company of Adventurers of London trading
+into Africa," and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich,
+afterwards earl of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold
+Coast. This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then believed
+to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower Gambia in
+considerable quantities. With this object George Thompson (a merchant
+who had traded with Barbary) was sent out in the "Catherine," and
+ascended the Gambia in his ship to Kassan, a Portuguese trading town,
+thence continuing his journey in small boats. In his absence the
+"Catherine" was seized and the crew murdered by Portuguese and
+half-castes, and Thompson himself was later on murdered by natives. Two
+years afterwards Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of
+Adventurers, advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was
+followed, about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who
+on his return to Europe asserted that he had reached a country full of
+gold.
+
+The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth of the
+Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by Captain
+(afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small island 20 m. from the
+mouth of the river and named Fort James, in honour of the duke of York
+(James II.). This fort was built expressly to defend the British trade
+against the Dutch, and from that time the British remained in permanent
+occupation of one or more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain
+Bartholomew Stibbs was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had
+succeeded the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden's reports of gold.
+He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not found.
+The French now became rivals for the trade of the Gambia, but the treaty
+of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in the river to Britain,
+reserving, however, Albreda for French trade, while it assigned the
+Senegal to France, with the reservation of the right of the British to
+trade at Portendic for gum. This arrangement remained in force till
+1857, when an exchange of possessions was effected and the lower Gambia
+became a purely British river. In the period between the signing of the
+treaty of Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the
+colony proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings. St
+Mary's Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy's Isle was bought in 1823;
+the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in 1826; and British
+Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During this period the colony had gone
+through an economic crisis by the abolition of the slave trade (1807),
+which had been since 1662 its chief financial support. The beginning of
+a return to prosperity came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged
+to leave Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the
+Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary's Isle. From that year
+the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river, dates. The
+Gambia witnessed many administrative changes. When the slave trade was
+abolished, the settlement was placed under the jurisdiction of the
+governor of Sierra Leone, and was formally annexed to Sierra Leone on
+the dissolution of the Royal African Company (1822). It so remained
+until 1843, when the Gambia was made an independent colony, its first
+governor being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia became
+a portion of the officially styled "West African Settlements." In 1883
+it was again made a separate government, administered as a crown colony.
+Between the years last mentioned--1866-1888--the colony had suffered
+from the retrograde policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West
+African Settlements (_vide_ Report of the Select Committee of 1865).
+
+In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great Britain on the
+basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West Africa. Suspended
+owing to the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian War the negotiations were
+resumed in 1876. "Definite proposals were at that time formulated by
+which the Gambia was to be exchanged for all posts by France between the
+Rio Pongas (Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have
+been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong a
+feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was manifested
+in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies, that the government of
+the day was unable to press the scheme."[1] Nothing was done, however,
+to secure for the Gambia a suitable _hinterland_, and in 1877 the 4th
+earl of Carnarvon (then colonial secretary) warned British traders that
+they proceeded beyond McCarthy's Isle at their own risk. Meantime the
+French from Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British
+settlements, so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement
+of the 10th of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to secure
+only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This document
+fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at a radius of 10
+m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda; which town is situated at
+the limit of navigability of the Gambia from the sea. By Art. 5 of the
+Anglo-French convention of the 8th of April 1904, Yarbatenda was ceded
+to France, with the object of giving that country a port on the river
+accessible to sea-going merchantmen.
+
+Since 1871 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the acquirement
+of the protectorate it was decided, in order to balance increasing
+expenditure, to impose a "hut tax" on the natives. This was done in
+1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum for a family, met with no
+opposition.
+
+In 1892 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be forcibly
+expelled from British territory. In 1894 another slave-raider, Fodi
+Silah, gave much trouble to the protectorate. An expedition under
+Captain E.H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble succeeded in routing him, and
+Fodi Silah took refuge in French territory, where he died. During the
+expedition Captain Gamble was led into an ambush, and in this engagement
+lost 15 killed and 47 wounded. In 1900 trouble again arose through the
+agency of Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French
+territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F.C. Sitwell and Mr Silva)
+were murdered in June of that year, at a place called Suankandi, and a
+punitive expedition was sent out under Colonel H.E. Brake. Suankandi was
+captured and, the French co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi
+Kabba being killed on the 23rd of March 1901.
+
+The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and contented,
+and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision was moreover made by
+an ordinance of 1906 for the extinction of slavery itself throughout the
+protectorate, it being enacted that henceforth all children born of
+slaves were free from birth, and that all slaves became free on the
+death of their master.
+
+  See the _Annual Reports_ on the colony published by the colonial
+  office, London, which give the latest official information; C.P.
+  Lucas's _Historical Geography of the British Colonies_, vol. iii.,
+  _West Africa_ (2nd ed., Oxford, 1900) (this book contains valuable
+  bibliographical notes); and _The Gambia Colony and Protectorate_, an
+  official handbook (with map and considerable historical information),
+  by F.B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early accounts
+  of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley's _New
+  General Collection of Voyages and Travels_ (London, 1745-1747). See
+  also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, _Travels in Western Africa in
+  1818-1821, from the River Gambia ... to the River Niger_ (London,
+  1829). The flora has been the subject of a special study, A. Rancon,
+  _La Flore utile du bassin de la Gambie_ (Bordeaux, 1895). Most of the
+  books mentioned under GOLD COAST also deal with the Gambia.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the British
+    ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 1892.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER, BARON (1756-1833), English admiral, was born on
+the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas, of which his father, John
+Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-governor. He entered the navy in
+1767 as a midshipman on board the "Yarmouth," under the command of his
+uncle; and, his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he
+was raised in 1778 to the rank cf post-captain, and appointed to the
+"Raleigh," a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was placed on
+half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the French Revolution, he
+was appointed to the command of the 74-gun ship "Defence," under Lord
+Howe; and in her he had an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of
+June 1794. In recognition of his services on this occasion, Captain
+Gambier received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines; the
+following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral, and
+appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he continued
+for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral of 1799,
+hoisted his flag on board the "Neptune," of 98 guns, as third in command
+of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Cornwallis, where, however, he
+remained for but a year, when he was appointed governor of Newfoundland
+and commander-in-chief of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he
+returned to the admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806,
+continued there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his
+uncle, Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805 he was raised
+to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807, whilst still a lord
+of the admiralty, he was appointed to the command of the fleet ordered
+to the Baltic, which, in concert with the army under Lord Cathcart,
+reduced Copenhagen, and enforced the surrender of the Danish navy,
+consisting of nineteen ships of the line, besides frigates, sloops,
+gunboats, and naval stores. This service was considered by the
+government as worthy of special acknowledgment; the naval and military
+commanders, officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both
+Houses of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.
+
+In the spring of the following year he gave up his seat at the admiralty
+on being appointed to the command of the Channel Fleet; and in that
+capacity he witnessed the partial, and prevented the total, destruction
+of the French fleet in Basque Roads, on the 12th of April 1809. It is in
+connexion with this event, which might have been as memorable in the
+history of the British navy as it is in the life of Lord Dundonald (see
+DUNDONALD), that Lord Gambier's name is now best known. A court-martial,
+assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over by a warm
+partisan, "most honourably acquitted" him on the charge "that, on the
+12th of April, the enemy's ships being then on fire, and the signal
+having been made that they could be destroyed, he did, for a
+considerable time, neglect or delay taking effectual measures for
+destroying them"; but this decision was in reality nothing more than a
+party statement of the fact that a commander-in-chief, a supporter of
+the government, is not to be condemned or broken for not being a person
+of brilliant genius or dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the
+French fleet should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had
+Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of many of
+his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the Channel Fleet for
+the full period of three years, at the end of which time--in 1811--he
+was superseded. In 1814 he acted in a civil capacity as chief
+commissioner for negotiating a treaty of peace with the United States;
+for his exertions in which business he was honoured with the Grand Cross
+of the Bath. In 1830 he was raised to the high rank of admiral of the
+fleet, and he died on the 19th of April 1833.
+
+Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious principle,
+and of undoubted courage; but the administration of the admiralty has
+seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as during the time when he
+was a member of it; and through the whole war the self-esteem of the
+navy suffered no such wound as during Lord Gambier's command in the Bay
+of Biscay.
+
+  The so-called _Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral Lord
+  Gambier_, by Lady Chatterton (1861), has no historical value. The life
+  of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall's _Royal Naval Biography_,
+  in Ralfe's _Naval Biography_, in Lord Dundonald's _Autobiography of a
+  Seaman_, in the Minutes of the Courts-Martial and in the general
+  history of the period.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBIER, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio, U.S.A., on
+the Kokosing river, 5 m. E. of Mount Vernon. Pop. (1900) 751; (1910)
+537. It is served by the Cleveland, Akron & Columbus railway. The
+village is finely situated, and is the seat of Kenyon College and its
+theological seminary, Bexley Hall (Protestant Episcopal), and of
+Harcourt Place boarding school for girls (1889), also Protestant
+Episcopal. The college was incorporated in 1824 as the "Theological
+Seminary of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio"; but
+in 1891 "Kenyon College," the name by which the institution has always
+been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held at
+Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-1852), first
+Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west Territory, by whose
+efforts the funds for its endowment had been raised in England in
+1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords Kenyon and Gambier. The first
+permanent building, "Old Kenyon" (still standing, and used as a
+dormitory), was erected on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a
+forest. In 1907-1908 the theological seminary had 18 students and the
+collegiate department 119.
+
+  Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop
+  Chase's _Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the
+  Principal Events in the Author's Life to 1847_ (2 vols., New York,
+  1848).
+
+
+
+
+GAMBOGE (from Camboja, a name of the district whence it is obtained), a
+gum-resin procured from _Garcinia Hanburii_, a dioecious tree with
+leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow flowers, and usually
+square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a member of the natural order
+Guttiferae, and indigenous to Cambodia and parts of Siam and of the
+south of Cochin China, formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The
+juice, which when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark
+of the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from
+this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being placed to
+receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce in cylindrical
+pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also, usually of inferior
+quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is of a dirty orange
+externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a conchoidal and
+reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a brilliant yellow
+powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first slight, but subsequently
+acrid; forms with water an emulsion; and consists of from 20 to 25% of
+gum soluble in water, and from 70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest
+adulterants are rice-flour and pulverized bark.
+
+Gamboge (_Cambogia_) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, causing much
+griping and irritation of the intestine. A small quantity is absorbed,
+adding a yellow ingredient to the urine and acting as a mild diuretic.
+Its irritant action on the skin may cause the formation of pustules. It
+is less active only than croton oil and elaterium, and may be given in
+doses of half to two grains, combined with some sedative such as
+hyoscyamus, in apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used
+as a pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to
+have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East at the
+close of the 16th century.
+
+
+
+
+GAMBRINUS, a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the first
+brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of Jan Primus,
+i.e. Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant, from 1261 to 1294,
+who was president of the Brussels gild of brewers; his portrait with a
+foaming glass of ale in his hand had the place of honour in the
+gild-hall, and this led in time, it is suggested, to the myth of the
+beer-king who is usually represented outside a barrel with a tankard in
+his hand.
+
+
+
+
+GAME, a word which in its primary and widest significance means any
+amusement or sport, often combined in the early examples with "glee,"
+"play," "joy" or "solace." It is a common Teutonic word, in O. Eng.
+_gamen_, in O.H.G. _gaman_, but only appears in modern usage outside
+English in Dan. _gammen_ and Swed. _gamman_. The ulterior derivation is
+obscure, but philologists have identified it with the Goth. _gaman_,
+companion or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the
+prefix _ga_-, with, and the root seen in "man." Apart from its primary
+and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first to a
+contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in
+accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those wild
+animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as used for
+food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry, and from the
+flesh of deer, to which the name "venison" is given. For "game," from
+the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its pursuit and capture see
+GAME LAWS. The athletic contests of the ancient Greeks ([Greek: agones])
+and the public shows (_ludi_) of the arena and amphitheatre of the
+ancient Romans are treated below (GAMES, CLASSICAL); the various forms
+of modern games, indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or
+chance, are dealt with under their specific titles. A special use
+("gaming" or "gambling") restricts the term to the playing of games for
+money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in
+horse-racing, &c. (see GAMING AND WAGERING). "Gamble," "gambler" and
+"gambling" appear very late in English. The earliest quotations in the
+_New English Dictionary_ for the three words are dated 1775, 1747 and
+1784 respectively. They were first regarded as cant or slang words, and
+implied a reproach, either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to
+those who played recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the
+words is obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation
+_gammle_ of the M.E. _gamenian_. From this word must, of course, be
+distinguished "gambol," to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms
+(_gambald, gambaud_) show, is from the Fr. _gambade_, leap, jump, of a
+horse, It. _gambado_, _gamba_, leg (Mod. Fr. _jambe_).
+
+
+
+
+GAME LAWS. This title in English law is applied to the statutes which
+regulate the right to pursue and take or kill certain kinds of wild
+animals (see above). The existence of these statutes is due to the rules
+of the common law as to the nature of property, and the interest of the
+Norman sovereigns and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or
+the chase. The substantial basis of the law of property is physical
+possession of things and the power to deal with them as we see fit. By
+the common law wild animals are regarded as _res nullius_, and as not
+being the subject of private property until reduced into possession by
+being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a bird in the
+bush is not. Even bees do not become property until hived. "Though a
+swarm lights in my tree," says Bracton, "I have no more property therein
+than I have in the birds which make their nests thereon." If reclaimed
+or confined they become property. If they escape, the rights of the
+owner continue only while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, i.e. no
+other person can in the meantime establish a right of property against
+him by capturing the animal. A swarm of bees "which fly out of my hive
+are mine so long as I can keep them in sight and have power to pursue
+them." But the right of recapture does not entitle the owner to follow
+his animals on to the lands of another, and the only case in which any
+right to follow wild animals on to the lands of others is now expressly
+recognized is when deer or hares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds.
+This recognition merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal
+game trespass, and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags
+are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the
+consent of the occupier (_Paul v. Summerhayes_, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. 9).
+
+It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one can claim
+any property belong to the crown by its prerogative: this rule has been
+applied to wild animals, and in particular to deer and what is now
+called "game." The crown rights may pass to a subject by grant or
+equivalent prescription. In the course of time the exclusive right to
+take game, &c., on lands came to be regarded as incidental to the
+ownership or occupation of the lands. This is described as the right to
+game _ratione soli_. In certain districts of England which are crown
+forests or chases or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren,
+the right to take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the
+soil, but is in the crown by prerogative, or _ratione privilegii_ in the
+grantee of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior
+to and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over
+which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these special
+rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is treated
+as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of the land on
+which they are found, and there is no public right to take them on
+private land or even on a highway; nor is there any method known to the
+law by which the public at large or an undefined body of persons can
+lawfully acquire the right to take wild animals _in alieno solo_.
+
+In the nature of things the right to take wild animals is valuable as to
+deer and the animals usually described as game, and not as to those
+which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply valueless, as small birds.
+Upon the rules of the common law there has been grafted much legislation
+which up till the end of the 18th century was framed for the
+preservation of deer and game for the recreation and amusement of
+persons of fortune, and to prevent persons of inferior rank from
+squandering in the pursuit of game time which their station in life
+required to be more profitably employed. These enactments included the
+rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see FOREST LAWS), as well
+as what are usually called the Game Laws.
+
+In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed early
+in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389) to 1831, no
+person might kill game unless qualified by estate or social standing, a
+qualification raised from a 40s. freehold in 1389 to an interest of L100
+a year in freehold or L150 in long leaseholds (1673). In 1831 this
+qualification by estate was abolished as to England. But in Scotland the
+right to hunt is theoretically reserved to persons who have in heritage
+that unknown quantity a "plough-gate of land" (Scots Act 1621, c. 31);
+and in Ireland qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing
+game and keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 1698, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In
+England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts of 1828
+and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention Act 1862, and
+the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From the fact that the right of
+landowners over wild animals on their land does not amount to ownership
+it follows that they cannot prosecute any one for stealing live wild
+animals: and that apart from the game laws the only remedy against
+poachers is by civil action for trespass. As between trespasser and
+landowner the law is peculiar (_Blades_ v. _Higgs_, 1865, 11 H.L.C.
+621). If A starts and kills a hare on B's land the dead hare belongs to
+B (_ratione soli_) and not to A, though he has taken the hare by his own
+efforts (_per industriam_). But if A hunts the hare from B's land on to
+C's land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and not to B or
+C. It is not B's because it was not taken on his land, and it is not C's
+because it was not started on his land. In other words the right of each
+owner is limited to animals both started and killed on his own land, and
+in the case of conflicting claims to the animal taken (made _ratione
+soli_) the captor can make title (_per industriam_) against both
+landowners. If he is a trespasser he is liable to civil or criminal
+proceedings by both landowners, but the game is his unless forfeited
+under a statute. Another peculiar result of the law is that where
+trespassers (e.g. poachers) kill and carry off game or rabbits as part
+of one continuous transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of
+game trespass (_R_. v. _Townley_, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is
+theft for a trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the
+owner of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an
+independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals belong (_propter
+impotentiam_) to the owner of the land until they are able to fly or run
+away. This right does not extend to the eggs of wild birds. But the
+owner can reduce the eggs into possession by taking them up and setting
+them under hens or in enclosures. And if this is done persons who take
+them are thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for
+wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game preserve
+in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to the ordinary
+incidents of the law as to animals _ferae naturae_.
+
+  The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England is
+  as follows:--
+
+  1. Beasts of forest are hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all
+  beasts of venery.
+
+  2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox,
+  marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.
+
+  3. Beasts of (free) warren are roe, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant,
+  woodcock, quail, rail and heron.
+
+  4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the Game Act
+  of 1831, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse, bustard and
+  hare. In France game (_gibier_) includes everything eatable that runs
+  or flies.
+
+  5. Wild fowl not in any of the previous lists which are nevertheless
+  prized for sport, e.g. duck, snipe, plovers, &c.
+
+  6. Wild birds not falling within class 4 are more or less protected
+  against destruction by the Wild Birds Protection Acts, which were,
+  however, passed with quite other objects than the game laws.
+
+  As regards class 1 no subject without special authority of the crown
+  may kill within a forest or its purlieus or on adjacent highways,
+  rivers or enclosures. The right to the animals in a forest does not
+  depend on ownership of the land but on the royal prerogative as to the
+  animals, i.e. it exists not _ratione soli_ but _ratione privilegii_:
+  and this right is not in any way altered by the Game Act 1831. A chase
+  is a forest in the hands of a subject and a legal park (which is an
+  enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription founded
+  on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee are in substance the same
+  as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on ownership of
+  the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee usually but not
+  necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which the right of
+  warren runs. The right of free warren depends on crown grant or
+  prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a right of property
+  over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within the franchise. As
+  will appear from the list above, some game birds are not fowl of
+  warren, e.g. black game and red grouse (_Duke of Devonshire_ v.
+  _Lodge_, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite different from
+  ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred by the owner of
+  the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such warrens is protected
+  under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by the game laws. In
+  manors, of which none have been created since 1290, the lord by his
+  franchise had the sporting rights over the manor, but at the present
+  time this right is restricted to the commons and wastes of the manor,
+  the freehold whereof is in him, and does not extend to enclosed
+  freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copyholds, unless at the
+  time of enclosure the sporting rights were reserved to him by the
+  Enclosure Act or award (_Sowerby_ v. _Smith_, 1873, L.R. 8 C.P. 514).
+  In other words his rights exist ratione _soli_ and not _ratione
+  privilegii_. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of manors and privileged
+  persons certain rights as to appointing gamekeepers with special
+  powers to protect game within the district over which their rights
+  extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws in no way cut down the
+  special privileges as to forest, park, chase or free warren (1831, s.
+  9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of manors on the wastes of
+  the manor (1831, s. 10). As to all lands not affected by these rights,
+  the right to kill or take game on the land is presumably in the
+  occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject to the qualifications
+  hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right to kill or take
+  "game" or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently with or in
+  exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in the landlord
+  the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for breaches of
+  covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on summary
+  conviction if without the lessor's authority he pursues, kills or
+  takes any "game" upon the land or gives permission to others to do so
+  (1831, s. 12). In effect he is made criminally liable for game
+  trespass on lands in his own occupation, so far as relates to game,
+  but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, snipe, woodcock, quails or
+  rails.
+
+  The net effect of the common law and the game laws is to give the
+  occupier of lands and the owner of sporting rights over them the
+  following remedies against persons who infringe their right to kill or
+  take wild animals on the land. A stranger who enters on the land of
+  another to take any wild animals is liable to the occupier for
+  trespass on the land and for the animals started and killed on the
+  land by the trespasser. He is also criminally liable for game trespass
+  if he has entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of "game" or
+  woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or rabbits. If the trespass is in
+  the daytime (whether on lands of the subject or in royal forests,
+  &c.), the penalty on conviction may not exceed 40s., unless five or
+  more persons go together, in which case the maximum penalty is L5. If
+  a single offender refuses his name or address or gives a false address
+  to the occupier or to the owner of the sporting rights or his
+  representatives, or refuses to leave the land, he may be arrested by
+  them, and is liable to a penalty not exceeding L5, and if five or more
+  concerned together in game trespass have a gun with them and use
+  violence, intimidation or menace, to prevent the approach of persons
+  entitled to take their names or order them off the land, they incur a
+  further penalty up to L5.
+
+  If the trespass is in search or pursuit of game _or rabbits_ in the
+  nighttime, the maximum penalty on a first conviction is imprisonment
+  with hard labour for not over three months; on a second, imprisonment,
+  &c., for not over six months, and the offender may be put under
+  sureties not to offend again for a year after a first conviction or
+  for two years after a second conviction. For a first or second offence
+  the conviction is summary, subject to appeal to quarter sessions, but
+  for a third offence the offender is tried on indictment and is liable
+  to penal servitude (3-7 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2
+  years). The offenders may be arrested by the owner or occupier of the
+  land or their servants, and if the offenders assault or offer violence
+  by firearms or offensive weapons they are liable to be indicted and on
+  conviction punished to the same extent as in the last offence. In 1844
+  the above penalties were extended to persons found by night on
+  highways in search or pursuit of game. If three or more trespass
+  together on land by night to take or destroy game or rabbits, and any
+  of them is armed with firearms, bludgeon or other offensive weapon,
+  they are liable to be indicted and on conviction sentenced to penal
+  servitude (3-14 years) or imprisonment with hard labour (2 years). By
+  "day" time is meant from the beginning of the first hour before
+  sunrise to the end of the first hour after sunset, and by "night" from
+  the end of the first hour after sunset to the beginning of the first
+  hour before sunrise (act of 1828, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34). The time
+  is reckoned by local and not by Greenwich time.
+
+  The penalties for night poaching are severe, but encounters between
+  the owners of sporting rights and armed gangs of poachers have often
+  been attended by homicide. It is to be observed that it is illegal and
+  severely punishable to set traps or loaded spring guns for poachers
+  (Offences against the Person Act 1861, s. 31), whereby any grievous
+  bodily harm is intended or may be caused even to a trespasser, so that
+  the incursions of poachers can be prevented only by personal
+  attendance on the scene of their activities; and it is to be observed
+  also that the provisions of the Game Laws above stated are, so far as
+  concerns private land, left to be enforced by private enterprise
+  without the interference of the police, with the result that in some
+  districts there are scenes of private nocturnal war. Even in the Night
+  Poaching Act 1844, which applies to highways, the arrest of offenders
+  is made by owners, occupiers or their gamekeepers. The police were not
+  given any direct authority as to poachers until the Poaching
+  Prevention Act 1862, under which a constable is empowered "on any
+  highway, street or public place, to search any person whom he may have
+  good cause to suspect of coming from any land where he shall have been
+  unlawfully in search or pursuit of 'game,' or any persons aiding or
+  abetting such person, and having in his possession any game unlawfully
+  obtained, or any gun, part of gun, or nets or engines used for the
+  killing or taking game; and also to stop and search any cart or other
+  conveyance in or upon which such constable or peace officer shall have
+  good cause to suspect that any such game, or any such article or
+  thing, is being carried by such person." If any such thing be found
+  the constable is to detain it, and apply for a summons against the
+  offender, summoning him to appear before a petty sessional court, on
+  conviction before which he may be fined not more than L5, and forfeits
+  the game, guns, &c., found in his possession. In this act "game"
+  includes woodcock, snipe and rabbits, and the eggs of game birds other
+  than bustards; and the act applies to poaching either by night or by
+  day. In all cases of summary conviction for poaching an appeal lies to
+  quarter sessions. In all cases of poaching the game, &c., taken may be
+  forfeited by the court which tries the poacher.
+
+  _Close Time._--On certain days, and within periods known as "close
+  time," it is illegal to kill deer or game. The present close times are
+  as follows:--
+
+    +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
+    |                      |       England.      |         Ireland.        |      Scotland.     |
+    +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
+    | Hare                 |        None         | April 21 to Aug. 11*    |        None        |
+    | Red deer (male)      |        None         | Jan. 1 to June 9        |        None        |
+    | Fallow deer          |        None         | Sept. 29 to June 10     |        None        |
+    | Roe deer             |        None         |         None            |        None        |
+    | Pheasant             | Feb. 1 to Sept. 30  | Feb.1 to Sept. 30 (1845)| Feb. 1 to Sept. 30 |
+    | Partridge            | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31   | Feb. 1 to Aug. 31 (1899)| Feb. 1 to Aug. 31  |
+    | Black game           | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20**| Dec. 10 to Aug. 20      | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 |
+    | Red grouse           | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12  | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12      | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 |
+    | Ptarmigan            |        None         | Dec. 10 to Aug. 20      | Dec. 10 to Aug. 12 |
+    | Bustard (wild turkey)| March 1 to Sept. 1  | Jan. 10 to Sept. 1      |        None        |
+    +----------------------+---------------------+-------------------------+--------------------+
+      * Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.
+     ** Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1.
+
+  In England and Ireland the winged game above named and hares may not
+  be killed on Sundays or Christmas Day. It is illegal to sell or expose
+  for sale hares or leverets in March, April, May, June and July. It is
+  illegal throughout the United Kingdom to buy or sell winged game birds
+  after ten days from the beginning of the close season as fixed by the
+  English law (1831, s. 4; 1860, s. 13). This prohibition applies to the
+  sale of live game, British or foreign, and to the sale of British dead
+  game. It is illegal to lay poison for game or rabbits except in rabbit
+  holes, and it is illegal to kill game by firearms at night. Wild birds
+  not within the list above given but of interest for sport are
+  protected by close times fixed under the Wild Birds Protection Acts,
+  which may vary in each county of each kingdom.
+
+  _Licences_.--Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill
+  game which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the
+  lands on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by
+  the laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the
+  right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the lord
+  of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social rank of the
+  person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which ranged from a
+  40s. freehold (in 1389) to L100 a year (1671). These restrictions were
+  abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was made conditional on
+  the possession of a game certificate, now called a game licence in
+  Great Britain (act of 1831, ss. 6, 23). By s. 4 of the Game Licences
+  Act 1860 "any person, before he shall in Great Britain take, kill or
+  pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking, killing or
+  pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun, net or other
+  engine for the purpose of taking, killing or pursuing any game, or any
+  woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any deer, shall
+  take out a proper licence to kill game under this act"--subject to a
+  penalty of L20. There are certain exceptions and exemptions as to
+  royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with reference to taking
+  woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing or hunting hares or
+  deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares Acts 1848, Game
+  Licences Act 1860) in certain enclosed lands by the owners or
+  occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and assistants who go
+  out with holders of a game licence. The licence is granted by the
+  Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regulated by the Game Licences
+  Act 1860 as amended by the Customs and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The
+  licences now in use are of four kinds:--
+
+  Those taken out after 31st July--
+
+      To expire on the next 31st July           L3 0 0
+      To expire on the next 31st October         2 0 0
+
+  Those taken out after 1st November--
+
+      To expire on the next 31st July            2 0 0
+
+  Those taken out for any continuous period of
+    fourteen days specified in the licence       1 0 0
+
+  In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer pays
+  the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is L2, but the
+  licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a right to
+  kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right and not as
+  gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United Kingdom. The
+  game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands of others in
+  search of game nor the shooting of game, &c., at night, and is
+  forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30; 1860, s. 11).
+  Persons who have game licences need not have a gun licence, but the
+  possession of a gun licence does not qualify the holder to kill game
+  or even rabbits.
+
+  The sale of game when killed is also subject to statutory regulation.
+  Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their
+  employer (1831, ss. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence may
+  sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game.
+  These licences are annual (expiring on the 1st of July), and are
+  granted in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England
+  by the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the
+  dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27),
+  and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the
+  licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop. The
+  following persons are disqualified for holding the licence:
+  innkeepers, persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners,
+  guards or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances,
+  carriers and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with
+  the grant of game licences to large stores which also have licences to
+  sell beer. The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons
+  who are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under
+  the Game Act 1831 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must
+  also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of L2 is
+  charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling game
+  killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning of
+  close time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated
+  under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in 1860
+  extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were in 1893 applied
+  to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect of the system
+  of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by poachers rather than
+  to benefit the revenue.
+
+  _Deer_.--Deer are not included within the definition of game in any of
+  the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously punished by
+  the old law, and under an act of 9 George I. c. 22, known as the
+  Waltham Black Act, passed because of the depredations of disguised
+  deer-stealers in Epping Forest, it was under certain circumstances
+  made a capital offence. At present offences with reference to deer are
+  included in the Larceny Act 1861. It is a felony to hunt or kill deer
+  in enclosures in forests, chases or purlieus, or in enclosed land
+  where deer is usually kept, or after a previous conviction to hunt or
+  kill deer in the open parts of a forest, &c., and certain minor
+  provisions are made as to arrest by foresters, forfeiture of venison
+  unlawfully possessed and for unlawfully setting traps for deer. These
+  enactments do not prevent a man from killing on his own land deer
+  which have strayed there (_Threlkeld_ v. _Smith_, 1901, 2 K.B. 531).
+  In Scotland the unlawful killing of deer is punished as theft.
+
+  _Eggs_.--The owner or occupier of land has no property in the eggs of
+  wild birds found on his lands unless he takes them up. But under s. 24
+  of the Game Act 1831 a penalty of 5s. per egg is incurred by persons
+  who unlawfully (i.e. without being, or having licence from, the person
+  entitled to kill the game) and wilfully take from the nest or destroy
+  in the nest the eggs of any game bird, or of a swan, wild duck, teal
+  or widgeon. Similar provisions exist in Ireland under an act of 1698,
+  and by the Poaching Prevention Act 1862 (United Kingdom) power is
+  given to constables to search persons suspected of poaching and to
+  take from them the eggs of pheasants, partridges, grouse or black
+  game. And the Wild Birds Protection Acts deal with the eggs of all
+  wild birds except game and swans.
+
+  _Damage to Crops by Game_.--Where an occupier of lands has not the
+  right to kill game or rabbits he runs the risk of suffering damage by
+  the depredations of the protected animals, which he may not kill
+  without incurring a liability to summary conviction or for breach of
+  the conditions on which he holds the land. At common law the owner of
+  land who has reserved to himself the sporting rights, and his sporting
+  tenants, must use the reserved rights reasonably. They are liable for
+  any damage wilfully or unnecessarily done to the crops, &c., of the
+  occupier, such as trampling down standing crops or breaking hedges or
+  fences. They are not directly liable to the occupier for damage done
+  to the crops by game bred on the land or frequenting it in the
+  ordinary course of nature; but are not entitled to turn down game or
+  rabbits on the land. And if game or rabbits are for the purposes of
+  sport imported or artificially raised on land, the person who breeds
+  or brings them there is liable for the damage done to the crops of
+  adjoining owners or occupiers (_Farrer_ v. _Nelson_, 1885, 15 Q.B.D.
+  258; _Birkbeck_ v. _Paget_, 31 Beav. 403; _Hilton_ v. _Green_, 1862, 2
+  F. & F. 821).
+
+  Recent legislation has greatly increased the rights of the occupiers
+  of land as against the owners of sporting rights over it. As regards
+  hares and rabbits the occupier's rights are regulated by the Ground
+  Game Act 1880 (which is expressed to be made "in the interests of good
+  husbandry and for the better security of capital and labour invested
+  in the cultivation of the soil"). By that act the occupier of land as
+  incident to and inseparable from his occupation has the right to kill
+  and take hares and rabbits on the land. The right is indefeasible and
+  cannot be divested by contract with the owner or landlord or even by
+  letting the occupier's sporting rights to another. But where apart
+  from the act the right to kill game on the land is vested in a person
+  other than the occupier, such person has a right concurrent with the
+  statutory right of the occupier to take hares and rabbits on the land.
+  The act does not extend to common lands nor to lands over which rights
+  of grazing or pasturage for not more than nine months in the year
+  exist. Consequently over such lands exclusive rights of killing ground
+  game still continue, and the law appears not to apply in cases where a
+  special right of killing or taking ground game vested before the 7th
+  of September 1880 in any person (other than the landlord) by statute,
+  charter or franchise (s. 5). The mode of exercise of the occupier's
+  right is subject to certain limitations. The ground game is only to be
+  taken by him or by persons whom he has duly authorized in writing, who
+  must be members of his family or his servants or bona fide employed by
+  him for reward to take ground game. The written authority must be
+  produced on demand to persons having concurrent rights to take and
+  kill the ground game (s. 1 (1) (c)). Firearms may not be used by
+  night, nor may poison be used, nor may spring traps be set except in
+  rabbit holes (s. 6); nor may ground game be killed on days or seasons
+  or by methods prohibited by statute in 1880 (s. 10).
+
+  In the case of moorland and unenclosed lands (which are not arable and
+  do not consist of small detached portions of less than 25 acres) the
+  occupier may between the 1st of September and the 31st of March kill
+  and take ground game; but between the 1st of September and the 10th of
+  December firearms may not be used (1880, s. 1 (3); 1906, s. 2). In the
+  case of such lands the occupiers and the owners of the sporting rights
+  may between the 1st of September and the 10th of December make and
+  enforce for their joint benefit agreements for taking the ground game.
+  The Agricultural Holdings Act 1906 (operating from 1909) deals, _inter
+  alia_, with damage to crops by deer and winged game, but does not
+  apply to damage by hares or rabbits. The tenant of agricultural land
+  is entitled to compensation for damage to his crops exceeding 1s. per
+  acre over the area affected if caused by game, "the right to kill or
+  take which is vested neither in him nor in any one claiming under him
+  other than the landlord and which the tenant has not permission in
+  writing to kill" (s. 2). The right of the tenant is indefeasible and
+  cannot be contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by
+  arbitration; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing
+  crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops
+  before carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before
+  the 1st of January 1909, allowances are to be made if by their terms
+  compensation for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of
+  an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing the
+  rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to his right
+  to be indemnified in cases where the sporting rights are not vested in
+  him.
+
+  _Sporting Rights_.--Sporting rights (i.e. rights of fowling or of
+  shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing),
+  when severed from the occupation of land, are subject to income or
+  property tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating
+  Act 1874); and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of
+  the sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of
+  value in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights
+  are the landlord's, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by
+  the tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is
+  reserved and let, the rating authority may rate either the landlord or
+  the sporting tenant as occupier of the right. The Ground Game Acts
+  have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights of
+  killing hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent
+  right granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.), 385-387). The ownership
+  of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of the
+  land over which they are exercisable is not an interest in land giving
+  the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land is
+  taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts.
+
+  _Scotland_.--By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege
+  of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which
+  does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or in
+  the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is liable to
+  the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in exercise of
+  his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage by
+  over-preserving or over-stocking. Under an act of 1877 he was liable
+  for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or retained
+  under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1878, or reserved by
+  presumption of common law; this act from 1909 onwards is superseded by
+  the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings Act 1906. Night poaching
+  is punished by the same act as in England, and day poaching by an act
+  of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887 poaching by night under arms
+  was a capital offence. The definition of game in Scotland for purposes
+  of night poaching is the same as in England. The provisions of the act
+  of 1832 as to game trespass by day apply also to deer, roe, rabbits,
+  woodcock, snipe, rails and wild duck; but in other respects closely
+  resemble those of the English act of 1831.
+
+  Offences against the game laws are not triable by justices of the
+  peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time for game birds in
+  Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is
+  concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game may not be
+  killed between the 10th of December and the 25th of August, nor
+  ptarmigan between the 10th of December and the 20th of August. There
+  is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an old
+  Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of such
+  acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not own a
+  plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified.
+
+  _Ireland_.--The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as for
+  England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts passed
+  prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts limited
+  to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole United
+  Kingdom.
+
+  Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not a
+  freehold worth L40 a year or L1000 net personality, and elaborate
+  provisions are made by that and later acts against the keeping of
+  sporting dogs by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British
+  officers and soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted to
+  poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of 1698
+  and 1707.
+
+  Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass on
+  lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by
+  reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act of
+  1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe,
+  quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act
+  1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement of
+  the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the
+  exclusive right of taking "game" as above defined.
+
+  A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But in
+  other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences
+  to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain.
+
+  _British Possessions Abroad_.--The English game laws have not been
+  carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists,
+  nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial
+  legislation. But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to
+  preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of
+  these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These
+  statutes are free from feudal prepossessions as to sporting rights,
+  and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acts
+  than on the English game laws, but in some possessions, e.g. Quebec,
+  sporting leases by the crown are recognized. The acts since 1895 are
+  indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished in
+  the _Journal_ of the Society of Comparative Legislation.
+
+  See also Oke's _Game Laws_, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897); Warry,
+  _Game Laws of England_ (1897); Marchant and Watkins, _Wild Birds
+  Protection Act_ (1897).     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMES, CLASSICAL. 1. _Public Games_.--The public games of Greece
+([Greek: agones]) and Rome (_Ludi_) consisted in athletic contests and
+spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and forming part
+of a religious observance. Probably no institution exercised a greater
+influence in moulding the national character, and producing that unique
+type of physical and intellectual beauty which we see reflected in Greek
+art and literature, than the public contests of Greece (see ATHLETE;
+ATHLETIC SPORTS). For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they
+were the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought his
+wares, and the common ground of union for every member of the Hellenic
+race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the earliest form and
+the fullest development of ancient games. The shows of the Roman circus
+and amphitheatre were at best a shadow, and in the later days of the
+empire a travesty, of the Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory
+notice.
+
+
+  Greek.
+
+The earliest games of which we have any record are those at the funeral
+of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-third Iliad. They are
+noteworthy as showing that Greek games were in their origin clearly
+connected with religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites,
+or else instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a
+victory gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime.
+Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred place and
+is associated with some deity or mythical hero. It was not before the
+4th century that this honour was paid to a living man (see Plutarch,
+_Lysander_, 18). The games of the _Iliad_ and those of the _Odyssey_ at
+the court of Alcinous are also of interest as showing at what an early
+date the distinctive forms of Greek athletics--boxing, wrestling,
+putting the weight, the foot and the chariot race--were determined.
+
+The _Olympian_ games were the earliest, and to the last they remained
+the most celebrated of the four national festivals. Olympia was a
+naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis, bounded on the N. by
+the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S. and W. by the Alpheus and
+its tributary the Cladeus. There was the grove of Altis, in which were
+ranged the statues of the victorious athletes, and the temple of
+Olympian Zeus with the chryselephantine statue of the god, the
+masterpiece of Pheidias. There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar
+has introduced in one of his finest odes), when he had conquered Elis
+and slain its king Augeas, consecrated a temenos and instituted games in
+honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies
+historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and
+ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help, and was
+bidden restore the games which had fallen into desuetude; and there was
+in the time of Pausanias, suspended in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a
+bronze disk whereon were inscribed, with the regulations of the games,
+the names of Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that
+the games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and
+first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of Sparta.
+The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities, during the month
+in which the games were held, is also credited to Iphitus.
+
+In 776 B.C. the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman Coroebus
+as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have an almost unbroken
+list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad or fourth recurrent
+year. For the next fifty years no names occur but those of Eleians or
+their next neighbours. After 720 B.C. we find Corinthians and Megareans,
+and later still Athenians and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first
+was nothing more than a village feast became a bond of union for all the
+branches of the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to
+which every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly to
+the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived even the
+extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed twelve centuries
+when it was abolished by the decree of the Christian emperor
+Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign. The last Olympian victor was
+a Romanized Armenian named Varastad.
+
+Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy days must
+have presented as the great festival approached. Heralds had proclaimed
+throughout Greece the "truce of God." So religiously was this observed
+that the Spartans chose to risk the liberties of Greece, when the
+Persians were at the gates of Pylae, rather than march during the holy
+days. Those white tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the
+olive groves belong to the Hellanodicae, or ten judges of the games,
+chosen one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already
+ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or most of
+the athletes must have arrived, for they have been undergoing the
+indispensable training in the gymnasium of the Altis. But along the
+"holy road" from the town of Elis there are crowding a motley throng.
+Conspicuous in the long train of pleasure-seekers are the [Greek:
+theoroi] or sacred deputies, clad in their robes of office, and bearing
+with them in their carriages of state offerings to the shrine of the
+god. Nor is there any lack of distinguished visitors. It may be
+Alcibiades, who, they say, has entered no less than seven chariots; or
+Gorgias, who has written a famous [Greek: epideixis] for the occasion;
+or the sophist Hippias, who boasts that all he bears about him, from the
+sandals on his feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, are his
+own manufacture; or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage
+of Alexander and Roxana--the picture which gained him no less a prize
+than the daughter of the Hellanodices Praxonides; or, in an earlier age,
+the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar himself. One feature of the
+medieval tournament and the modern racecourse is wanting. Women might
+indeed compete and win prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the
+priestesses of Demeter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to
+enter the enclosure.
+
+At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Bouleuterium, where
+the presidents were sitting, and proved by witnesses that they were of
+pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain, religious or civil, on their
+character. Laying their hands on the bleeding victim, they swore that
+they had duly qualified themselves by ten months' continuous training in
+the gymnasium, and that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred
+contests. Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to
+the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, "Let the runners
+put their feet to the line," and called on the spectators to challenge
+any disqualified by blood or character. If no objection was made, they
+were started by the note of the trumpet, running in heats of four,
+ranged in the places assigned them by lot. The presidents seated near
+the goal adjudged the victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four
+Olympian contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not suppose
+that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the 77th
+Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the feast was
+extended to five.
+
+  The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture,
+  but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was
+  followed. We will now describe in this order the most important.
+
+  (1) The _Foot-race_.--For the first 13 Olympiads the [Greek: dromos],
+  or single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only
+  contest. The [Greek: diaulos], in which the course was traversed
+  twice, was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the 15th the [Greek:
+  dolichos], or long race, of 7, 12 or, according to the highest
+  computation, 24 laps, about 2-2/3 m. in length. We are told that the
+  Spartan Ladas, after winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal.
+  There was also, for a short time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato
+  highly commends as a preparation for active service. (2) _Wrestling_
+  was introduced in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this
+  exercise is shown by the very word _palaestra_, and Plutarch calls it
+  the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice differed
+  little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler's limbs were
+  anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third throw, which
+  decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and struggling on the
+  ground, such as we see in the famous statue at Florence, was not
+  allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was introduced
+  the [Greek: pentathlon] (pentathlon), a combination of the five games
+  enumerated in the well-known pentameter ascribed to Simonides:--
+
+    [Greek: halma, podokeien, diskon, hakonta, palen].
+
+  Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised
+  seems to have been the long jump. The leapers increased their momentum
+  by means of [Greek: halteres] or dumb-bells, which they swung in the
+  act of leaping and dropped as they "took off." The take-off may have
+  been slightly raised, and some commentators with very little warrant
+  have stated that spring-boards were used. The record jump with which
+  Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible with or without
+  a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in all five contests,
+  or in three at least, was required to win the [Greek: pentathlon]. (4)
+  The rules for boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring (see
+  PUGILISM), and the chief difference was in the use of the _caestus_.
+  This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the
+  boxer's fists and wrists; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal
+  studs, which made the caestus more like a "knuckle-duster" than a
+  boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an
+  antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for
+  a prize but was severely punished. The use of ear-guards and the comic
+  allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer did
+  not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill fashion,
+  like the modern rustic. In the _pancratium_, a combination of
+  wrestling and boxing, the use of the caestus, and even of the clenched
+  fist, was disallowed. (5) The _chariot-race_ had its origin in the
+  23rd Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain, but
+  from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimensions
+  were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there ran a bank
+  of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-post round which
+  the chariots had to pass. "To shun the goal with rapid wheels"
+  required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a more
+  important part in the race than even the modern jockey. Pausanias
+  tells us that horses would shy as they passed the fatal spots. The
+  places of the chariots were determined by lot, and there were
+  elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of
+  chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain. Pindar
+  (_Pyth._ v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrene for having brought off
+  his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took
+  part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors, and
+  even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in the list of
+  victors we find the names of Cylon, the would-be tyrant of Athens,
+  Pausanias the Spartan king, Archelaus of Macedon, Gelon and Hiero of
+  Syracuse, and Theron of Agrigentum. Chariot-races with mules, with
+  mares, with two horses in place of four, were successively introduced,
+  but none of these present any special interest. Races on horseback
+  date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the course was the same, success must
+  have depended on skill as much as on swiftness. Lastly, there were
+  athletic contests of the same description for boys, and a competition
+  of heralds and trumpeters, introduced in the 93rd Olympiad.
+
+  The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic
+  value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest was
+  a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from the
+  kallistephanos, the sacred tree brought by Hercules "from the dark
+  fountains of Ister in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a shelter
+  common to all men and a crown of noble deeds" (Pindar, _Ol._ iii. 18).
+  Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with complacency on the
+  magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing but honour and were
+  content to struggle for a corruptible crown. But though the Greek
+  games present in this respect a favourable contrast to the greed and
+  gambling of the modern racecourse, yet to represent men like Milon and
+  Damoxenus as actuated by pure love of glory is a pleasing fiction of
+  the moralists. The successful athlete received in addition to the
+  immediate honours very substantial rewards. A herald proclaimed his
+  name, his parentage and his country; the Hellanodicae took from a
+  table of ivory and gold the olive crown and placed it on his head, and
+  in his hand a branch of palm; as he marched in the sacred revel to the
+  temple of Zeus, his friends and admirers showered in his path flowers
+  and costly gifts, singing the old song of Archilochus, [Greek: tenella
+  kallinike], and his name was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh
+  honours and rewards awaited him on his return home. If he was an
+  Athenian he received, according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and
+  free rations for life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his
+  prerogative the post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonides
+  and Euripides sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and
+  Praxiteles were engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read
+  of a breach in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the
+  common road were not good enough for such a hero; and there are
+  well-attested instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered
+  to a successful athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was
+  regarded as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman's
+  contempt for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian
+  victor receives more honours than a triumphant general at Rome, and
+  tells the story of the Rhodian Diagoras, who, having himself won the
+  prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day, was
+  addressed by a Laconian in these words:--"Die, Diagoras, for thou hast
+  nothing short of divinity to desire." Alcibiades, when setting forth
+  his services to the state, puts first his victory at Olympia, and the
+  prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent display. But perhaps
+  the most remarkable evidence of the exaggerated value which the Greeks
+  attached to athletic prowess is a casual expression which Thucydides
+  employs when describing the enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at
+  Scione. The state, he says, voted him a crown of gold, and the
+  multitude flocked round him and decked him with garlands, _as though
+  he were an athlete_.
+
+The _Pythian_ games originated in a local festival held at Delphi,
+anciently called Pytho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo, and were
+limited to musical competitions. The date at which they became a
+Panhellenic [Greek: agon] (so Demosthenes calls them) cannot be
+determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era date from 527 B.C.,
+by which time music had been added to all the Panhellenic contests. Now,
+too, these were held at the end of every fourth year; previously there
+had been an interval of eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the
+prize was a chaplet of laurel.
+
+The _Nemean_ games were biennial and date from 516 B.C. They were by
+origin an Argive festival in honour of Nemean Zeus, but in historical
+times were open to all Greece and provided the established round of
+contests, except that no mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of
+wild celery was the prize.
+
+The _Isthmian_ games, held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the first and
+third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius, from 523 B.C.
+They are variously reported to have been founded by Poseidon or Sisyphus
+in honour of Melicertes, or by Theseus to celebrate his victory over the
+robbers Sinis and Sciron. Their early importance is attested by the law
+of Solon which bestowed a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who
+gained a victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and after
+the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 B.C.) the presidency passed to
+the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth (46 B.C.). They
+probably continued to exist till Christianity became the religion of the
+Roman empire. The Athenians were closely connected with the festival,
+and had the privilege of _proedria_, the foremost seat at the games,
+while the Eleans were absolutely excluded from participation. The games
+included gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little
+from those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made
+at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later period of
+pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later times is shown by
+the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion for proclaiming the
+liberation of Greece, 196 B.C. That at a later anniversary (A.D. 67)
+Nero repeated the proclamation of Flamininus, and coupled with it the
+announcement of his own infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the
+hollowness of the first gift and the degradation which had befallen the
+Greek games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality.
+
+
+  Roman.
+
+The _Ludi Publici_ of the Romans included feasts and theatrical
+exhibitions as well as the public games with which alone we are
+concerned. As in Greece, they were intimately connected with religion.
+At the beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls to
+vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth, and the
+expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus, at no cost to themselves,
+the Roman public were enabled to indulge at the same time their
+religious feelings and their love of amusement. Their taste for games
+naturally grew till it became a passion, and under the empire games were
+looked upon by the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The
+aediles who succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to
+supplement the state allowance from their private purse. Political
+adventurers were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and
+what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon men of
+wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian horde or the death of
+a relation served as the pretext for a magnificent display. But the
+worst extravagance of private citizens was eclipsed by the reckless
+prodigality of the Caesars, who squandered the revenues of whole
+provinces in catering for the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour
+their throne depended. But though public games played as important a
+part in Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman
+historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet,
+regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of
+interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how any man
+of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary round of fights
+and races.
+
+It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games of Greece
+and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were actors, the Romans
+from first to last were spectators. It is true that even in Greek games
+the professional element played a large and ever-increasing part. As
+early as the 6th century B.C. Xenophanes complains that the wrestler's
+strength is preferred to the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides,
+in a well-known fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering
+athlete. But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be
+such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal. No
+Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in person for the
+Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior in gymnastic exercises,
+kept strictly to the privacy of the palaestra; and for a patrician to
+appear in public as a charioteer is stigmatized by the satirist as a
+mark of shameless effrontery.
+
+Roman games are generally classified as _fixed_, _extraordinary_ and
+_votive_; but they may be more conveniently grouped according to the
+place where they were held, viz. the circus or the amphitheatre.
+
+For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a
+fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring, and a
+playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says that in his
+day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason to doubt the
+precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus Maximus there were
+seats for 350,000 spectators.
+
+  Of the various _Ludi Circenses_ it may be enough here to give a short
+  account of the most important, the _Ludi Magni_ or _Maximi_.
+
+  Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the _Ludi Magni_
+  were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised by the
+  general when he took the field, and performed on his return from the
+  annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of a military
+  spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force, which
+  marched in solemn procession from the capitol to the forum and thence
+  to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aventine. First came
+  the sons of patricians mounted on horseback, next the rest of the
+  burghers ranged according to their military classes, after them the
+  athletes, naked save for the girdle round their loins, then the
+  company of dancers with the harp and flute players, next the priestly
+  colleges bearing censers and other sacred instruments, and lastly the
+  simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on their shoulders or drawn in
+  cars. The games themselves were fourfold:--(1) the chariot race; (2)
+  the _ludus Troiae_; (3) the military review; and (4) gymnastic
+  contests. Of these only the first two call for any comment. (1) The
+  chariot employed in the circus was the two-wheeled war car, at first
+  drawn by two, afterwards by four, and more rarely by three horses.
+  Originally only two chariots started for the prize, but under Caligula
+  we read of as many as twenty-four heats run in the day, each of four
+  chariots. The distance traversed was fourteen times the length of the
+  circus or nearly 5 m. The charioteers were apparently from the first
+  professionals, though the stigma under which the gladiator lay never
+  attached to their calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in
+  popularity and fortune with a modern jockey. The drivers were divided
+  into companies distinguished by the colours of their tunics, whence
+  arose the faction of the circus which assumed such importance under
+  the later emperors. In republican times there were two factions, the
+  white and the red; two more, the green and the blue, were added under
+  the empire, and for a short time in Domitian's reign there were also
+  the gold and the purple. Even in Juvenal's day party spirit ran so
+  high that a defeat of the green was looked upon as a second Cannae.
+  After the seat of empire had been transferred to Constantinople these
+  factions of the circus were made the basis of political cabals, and
+  frequently resulted in sanguinary tumults, such as the famous Nika
+  revolt (A.D. 532), in which 30,000 citizens lost their lives. (2) The
+  Ludus Troiae was a sham-fight on horseback in which the actors were
+  patrician youths. A spirited description of it will be found in the
+  5th Aeneid. (See also CIRCUS.)
+
+  The two exhibitions we shall next notice, though occasionally given in
+  the circus, belong more properly to the amphitheatre. _Venatio_ was
+  the baiting of wild animals who were pitted either with one another or
+  with men--captives, criminals or trained hunters called _bestiarii_.
+  The first certain instance on record of this amusement is in 186 B.C.,
+  when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in the arena. The taste for
+  these brutalizing spectacles grew apace, and the most distant
+  provinces were ransacked by generals and proconsuls to supply the
+  arena with rare animals--giraffes, tigers and crocodiles. Sulla
+  provided for a single show 100 lions, and Pompey 600 lions, besides
+  elephants, which were matched with Gaetulian hunters. Julius Caesar
+  enjoys the doubtful honour of inventing the bull-fight. At the
+  inauguration of the Colosseum 5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were
+  killed, and to commemorate Trajan's Dacian victories there was a
+  butchery of 11,000 beasts. The _naumachia_ was a sea-fight, either in
+  the arena, which was flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and
+  sluices, or on an artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by
+  prisoners of war or criminals, who often fought till one side was
+  exterminated. In the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the
+  emperor Claudius, 100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged.
+
+  But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the _munus
+  gladiatorium_, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and
+  Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 B.C. It was
+  probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common savage
+  custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a warrior or
+  chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein of coarseness
+  and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise noble character of the
+  Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows. We can fancy how
+  Pericles, or even Alcibiades, would have loathed a spectacle that
+  Augustus tolerated and Trajan patronized. Only after the conquest of
+  Greece we hear of their introduction into Athens, and they were then
+  admitted rather out of compliment to the conquerors than from any love
+  of the sport. In spite of numerous prohibitions from Constantine
+  downwards, they continued to flourish even as late as St Augustine. To
+  a Christian martyr, if we may credit the story told by Theodoret and
+  Cassiodorus, belongs the honour of their final abolition. In the year
+  404 Telemachus, a monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred
+  mission, rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the
+  combatants. He was instantly despatched by the praetor's orders; but
+  Honorius, on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games,
+  which were never afterwards revived. (See GLADIATORS.)
+
+  Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice. The
+  _Ludi Apollinares_ were established in 212 B.C., and were annual after
+  211 B.C.; mainly theatrical performances. The _Megalenses_ were in
+  honour of the great goddess, Cybele: instituted 204 B.C., and from 191
+  B.C. celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or priests of Cybele,
+  was a leading feature. Under the empire the festival assumed a more
+  orgiastic character. Four of Terence's plays were produced at these
+  games. The _Ludi Saeculares_ were celebrated at the beginning or end
+  of each _saeculum_, a period variously interpreted by the Romans
+  themselves as 100 or 110 years. The celebration by Augustus in 17 B.C.
+  is famous by reason of the Ode composed by Horace for the occasion.
+  They were solemnized by the emperor Philip A.D. 248 to commemorate the
+  millennium of the city.
+
+2. _Private Games._--These may be classified as outdoor and indoor
+games. There is naturally all the world over a much closer resemblance
+between the pursuits and amusements of children than of adults. Homer's
+children built castles in the sand, and Greek and Roman children alike
+had their dolls, their hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses,
+their kites, their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the
+tug-of-war, pitch and toss, blind-man's buff, hide and seek, and kiss in
+the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were popular in
+Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there were five distinct
+kinds of ball and more ways of playing with them. For particulars the
+dictionary of antiquities must be consulted. It is strange that we can
+find in classical literature no analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or
+polo, and though the _follis_ resembled our football, it was played with
+the hand and arm, not with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at
+Athens and Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove
+their pluck.
+
+Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and games of
+skill, though in some of them the two elements are combined. _Tesserae_,
+shaped and marked with pips like modern dice, were evolved from the
+_tali_, knuckle-bones with only four flat sides. The old Roman threw a
+hazard and called a main, just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of
+gambling was lashed by Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The
+Latin name for a dice-box has survived in the _fritillary_ butterfly and
+flower.
+
+The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simultaneously held
+up by the player and his opponent is still popular in Italy where it is
+known as "morra." The proverbial phrase for an honest man was _quicum in
+tenebris mices_, one you would trust to play at morra in the dark.
+
+Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and playing at
+[Greek: pessoi], some kind of draughts. The invention of the game was
+ascribed to Palamedes. In its earliest form it was played on a board
+with five lines and with five pieces. Later we find eleven lines, and a
+further development was the division of the board into squares, as in
+the game of [Greek: poleis] (cities). In the Roman _latrunculi_
+(soldiers), the men were distinguished as common soldiers and "rovers,"
+the equivalent of crowned pieces.
+
+_Duodecim scripta_, as the name implies, was played on a board with
+twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our backgammon.
+There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the moves were determined by
+a throw of the dice; "blots" might be taken, and the object of the
+player was to clear off all his own men. Lastly must be mentioned the
+_Cottabus_ (q.v.), a game peculiar to the Greeks, and with them the
+usual accompaniment of a wine party. In its simplest form each guest
+threw what was left in his cup into a metal basin, and the success of
+the throw, determined partly by the sound of the wine in falling, was
+reckoned a divination of love. For the various elaborations of the game
+(in Sicily we read of Cottabus houses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be
+consulted.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Daremberg et Saglio, _Dictionnaire des antiquites
+  grecques et romaines_, articles "Agon," "Athleta," "Circus," "Ludi,"
+  "Olympia," "Spiele"; Curtius and Adler, _Olympia_ (5 vols., 1890,
+  &c.); Hachtmann, _Olympia und seine Festspiele_; Blumner, _Home Life
+  of the Ancient Greeks_; J.P. Mahaffy, _Old Greek Education_; P.
+  Gardner and F.B. Jevons, _Manual of Greek Antiquities_; E.N. Gardiner,
+  _Greek Athletic Sports_ (1910); Becker-Marquardt, _Handbuch der
+  romischen Altertumer_ (5 vols.).     (F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GAMING AND WAGERING. It is somewhat difficult exactly to define or
+adequately to distinguish these terms of allied meaning. The word "game"
+(q.v.) is applicable to most pastimes and many sports, irrespective of
+their lawful or unlawful character. "Gaming" is now always associated
+with the staking of money or money's worth on the result of a game of
+pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and "gambling" has the same
+meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive or the practice
+otherwise reprehensible, while "wager" and "wagering" are applied to
+money hazarded on any contingency in which the person wagering has no
+interest at risk other than the amount at stake. "Betting" is usually
+restricted to wagers on events connected with sports or games, and
+"lottery" applies to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance.
+
+At English common law no games were unlawful and no penalties were
+incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-houses, unless by reason of
+disorder they became a public nuisance. From very early times, however,
+the English statute law has attempted to exercise control over the
+sports, pastimes and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view
+have been taken: (1) their competition with military exercises and
+training; (2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them
+from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of Sunday;
+(4) their combination with betting or gambling as causing impoverishment
+and dishonesty in children, servants and other unwary persons; (5) the
+use of fraud or deceit in connexion with them. The legislation has
+assumed several forms: (1) declaring certain games unlawful either
+absolutely or if accompanied by staking or betting money or money's
+worth on the event of the game; (2) declaring the keeping of
+establishments for betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting
+the use of streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting
+the enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts.
+
+
+    Games, lawful and unlawful.
+
+  The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the
+  interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to
+  render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute of Richard
+  II. (1388) directed servants and labourers to have bows and arrows and
+  to use them on Sundays and holidays, and to cease from playing
+  football, quoits, dice, putting the stone, kails and other such
+  importune games. A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (11 Hen.
+  IV. c. 4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV. c. 3) on
+  persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises. These
+  acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute passed
+  on the petition of the bowyers, fletchers (_flechiers_), stringers and
+  arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force) is
+  entitled an "act for maintenance of archery and debarring of unlawful
+  games"; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of 3 & 6 Hen.
+  VIII.) "divers and many subtil inventative and crafty persons have
+  found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty games and plays,
+  as logating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise called shove-groat,
+  as well within the city of London as elsewhere in many other and
+  divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays and alleys for the
+  maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is sore decayed, and
+  daily is like to be more minished, and divers bowyers and fletchers,
+  for lack of work, gone and inhabit themselves in Scotland and other
+  places out of this realm, there working and teaching their science, to
+  the puissance of the same, to the great comfort of strangers and
+  detriment of this realm." Accordingly penalties are imposed on all
+  persons keeping houses for unlawful games, and all persons resorting
+  thereto (s. 8). The games specified are dicing, table (backgammon) or
+  carding, or any game prohibited by any statute theretofore made or any
+  unlawful new game then or thereafter invented or to be invented. It is
+  further provided that "no manner of artificer or craftsman of any
+  handicraft or occupation, husbandman, apprentice, labourer, servant at
+  husbandry, journeyman or servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen,
+  watermen, or any serving man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice,
+  cards, bowls, clash, coyting, logating or any other unlawful game out
+  of Christmas under the pain of xxs. to be forfeit for every time; and
+  in Christmas to play at any of the said games in their masters' houses
+  or in their masters' presence; and also that no manner of person shall
+  at any time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden
+  or orchard" (s. 11). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment,
+  crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the
+  preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the
+  statute--the maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between
+  games of skill and games of chance, and no reference is made to
+  playing for money or money's worth. The _Book of Sports_ of James I.
+  (1617), republished by Charles I. (1633), was aimed at encouraging
+  certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of
+  Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act 1625
+  prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the
+  Lord's Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been
+  attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act goes on
+  to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes, common plays
+  or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by parishioners within
+  their own parishes. According to Blackstone (iv. _Comm._ c. 13) the
+  principal ground of complaint leading to legislation in the 18th
+  century was "gambling in high life." He collects the statutes made
+  with this view, but only those still in force need have been
+  mentioned.
+
+  The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing games
+  was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c. 7) "against deceitful, disorderly and
+  excessive gaming" which deals with games both of skill and chance at
+  which people cheat, or play otherwise than with ready money, or lose
+  more than L100 on credit. In 1698 (13 Will. III. c. 23) legislation
+  was passed against lotteries, therein described as "mischievous and
+  unlawful games." This act was amended in 1710 (9 Anne c. 6), and in
+  the same year was passed a statute which is the beginning of the
+  modern legislation against gambling (9 Anne c. 19). It includes within
+  its scope money won by "gaming or playing" at cards, &c., and money
+  won by "betting" on the sides or hands of those who game at any of the
+  forbidden games. But it refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games
+  with cards and dice.
+
+  The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in
+  _Oliphant on Horses, &c._ (6th ed.): horse-races, steeplechases,
+  trotting matches, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas,
+  rowing matches, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives,
+  rackets, bowls, skittles, quoits, curling, putting the stone,
+  football, and presumably every bona-fide variety, e.g. croquet, knurr
+  and spell, hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have
+  been unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting
+  animals to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty to
+  Animals Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist and other
+  lawful games at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess,
+  draughts and dominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these
+  games or at skittles or "skittle pool" or "puff and dart" on licensed
+  premises is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The earlier acts
+  declared unlawful the following games of skill: football, quoits,
+  putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or
+  cloyshcayls, logating, half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and
+  backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with backgammon
+  tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-racing, long under
+  restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665 and many 18th-century
+  acts, was fully legalized in 1840 (3 & 4 Vict. c. 35). The act of
+  1541, so far as it declared any game of mere skill unlawful, was
+  repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is legal in private houses
+  or clubs and in public places duly licensed. The following games have
+  been declared by the statutes or the judges to be unlawful, whether
+  played in public or in private, unless played in a royal palace where
+  the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts, pharaoh (faro), basset and
+  hazard (1738), passage, and every game then invented or to be invented
+  with dice or with any other instrument, engine or device in the nature
+  of dice having one or more figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulet
+  or roly-poly (1744), and all lotteries (except Art Union lotteries),
+  _rouge et noir_, _baccarat-banque_ (1884), _chemin de fer_ (1895), and
+  all games at cards which are not games of mere skill. The definition
+  of unlawful game does not include whist played for a prize not
+  subscribed to by the players, but it does include playing cards for
+  money in licensed premises; even in the private room of the licensee
+  or with private friends during closing hours.
+
+  The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries "by dice,
+  lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other
+  way whatsoever." An act of 1721 prohibited lotteries which under the
+  name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land, jewels,
+  &c., by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722, 1733 and 1823
+  prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers in
+  foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as unlawful
+  were in 1738 declared to be "games or lotteries by cards or dice," and
+  in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include "little-goes
+  and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament, drawn by dice,
+  lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any other way,
+  contrivance or device whatsoever." This wide definition reaches
+  raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of foreign or
+  illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 1836 and 1844. In 1846 art
+  unions were exempted from the scope of the Lottery Acts. Attempts have
+  been made to suppress the sale in England of foreign lottery tickets,
+  but the task is difficult, as the post-office distributes the
+  advertisements, although, under the Revenue Act 1898, the Customs
+  treat as prohibited goods advertisements or notices as to foreign
+  lotteries. More success has been obtained in putting down various
+  devices by newspapers and shopkeepers to attract customers by
+  instituting "missing word competitions" and "racing coupon
+  competitions"; by automatic machines which give speculative chances in
+  addition to the article obtained for the coin inserted; by
+  distribution of prizes by lot or chance to customers; by holding
+  sweepstakes at public-houses, by putting coins in sweetmeats to tempt
+  street urchins by cupidity to indigestion; or by gratuitous
+  distribution of medals giving a chance of a prize from a newspaper. An
+  absolutely gratuitous distribution of chances seems not to be within
+  the acts, but a commercial distribution is, even if individuals who
+  benefit do not pay for their chance.
+
+  As already stated, the keeping of a gaming-house was at common law
+  punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of 1541
+  imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful games.
+  Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but these were
+  abolished in 1555 (2 & 3 Phil. and Mar.). In 1698 lotteries were
+  declared public nuisances, and in 1802 the same measure was meted out
+  to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are provided for
+  those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with cards or dice,
+  &c. (1738, 1739, 1744). In 1751 inhabitants of a parish were enabled
+  to insist on the prosecution of gaming-houses. The act of 1802 imposed
+  severe penalties on persons publicly or privately keeping places for
+  any lottery. This statute hits at the deliberate or habitual use of a
+  place for the prohibited purpose, and does not touch isolated or
+  incidental uses on a single occasion, e.g. at a bazaar or show; but
+  under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery tickets is in itself an
+  offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the search of suspected
+  gaming-houses and the proof that they are such. It provides that, to
+  prove any house to be a common gaming-house, it "shall be sufficient
+  to show that it is kept or used for playing therein at any unlawful
+  game, and that a bank is kept there by one or more of the players
+  exclusively of the others, or that the chances of any game played
+  therein are not alike favourable to all the players, including among
+  the players the banker or other person by whom the game is managed, or
+  against whom the other players stake, play or bet." Gambling, it will
+  be noticed, is still in this definition connected with some kind of
+  game. The act also provides that proof that the gaming was for money
+  shall not be required, and that the presence of cards, dice and other
+  instruments of gaming shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was
+  used as a common gaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with
+  gaming-houses is of 1854, which provides summary remedies against the
+  keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It may
+  be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by cheating at
+  any game or wager punishable in the same way as obtaining money by
+  false pretences. At the present time proceedings for keeping
+  gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is commonly understood
+  are comparatively rare, and are usually against foreigners. The
+  statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses (see the Park Club
+  case, _Jenks_ v. _Turpin_, 1884, 13 Q.B.D. 505, the leading case on
+  unlawful games). The proprietor and the person who keeps the bank at
+  an unlawful game are both within the statute: the players are not, but
+  the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that they can be put under
+  recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses. Under the Licensing Act
+  1872 penalties are incurred by licensed victuallers who suffer any
+  gaming or unlawful game to be played on their premises. A single
+  instance of playing an unlawful game for money in a private house is
+  not within the statutes (_R_. v. _Davies_, 1897, 2 Q.B. 199).
+
+  In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at cards
+  is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pastimes, or
+  speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The legislation
+  against betting _eo nomine_ began in 1853. In the Betting Act 1853 it
+  is described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the injury and
+  demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of places called
+  betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money _in advance_ by
+  the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises to pay money on
+  events or horse races and like contingencies. This act strikes at
+  ready money betting as distinguished from betting on credit ("on the
+  nod"). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open to all and sundry as
+  distinguished from private betting clubs such as Tattersall's. The act
+  seeks to punish persons who keep a house, office, room or other place
+  for the purpose (_inter alia_) of any person betting with persons
+  "resorting thereto" or of receiving deposits in consideration of bets
+  on contingencies relating to horse-races or other races, fights,
+  games, sports or exercises. The act especially excepts persons who
+  receive or hold prizes or stakes to be paid to the winner of a race or
+  lawful sport, game or exercise, or to the owner of a horse engaged in
+  a race (s. 6). Besides the penalties incurred by keeping such places,
+  the keeper is liable to repay to depositors the sums deposited (s. 5).
+
+  By the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed persons
+  who allow their houses to be used in contravention of the Betting Act
+  1853. There has been a great deal of litigation as to the meaning and
+  scope of this enactment, and a keen contest between the police and the
+  Anti-gambling League (which has been very active in the matter) and
+  the betting confraternity, in which much ingenuity has been shown by
+  the votaries of sport in devising means for evading the terms of the
+  enactment. The consequent crop of legal decisions shows a considerable
+  divergence of judicial opinion. The House of Lords has held that the
+  Tattersall's enclosure or betting ring on a racecourse is not a
+  "place" within the statute; and members of a bona-fide club who bet
+  with each other in the club are not subject to the penalties of the
+  act. But the word "place" has been held to include a public-house bar,
+  an archway, a small plot of waste ground, and a bookmaker's stand, and
+  even a bookmaker's big umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from
+  the judges any clear indication of the nature of the "places" to which
+  the act applies. The act is construed as applying only to ready-money
+  betting, i.e. when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only
+  to places used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto;
+  so that bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its
+  penalties. The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as
+  thieves "welshers," who receive and make off with deposits on bets
+  which they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an
+  offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for
+  betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties on
+  persons advertising as to betting. But this has been read as applying
+  to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not prohibit the
+  publication of betting news or sporting tips in newspapers. A few
+  newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in some public
+  libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts crowds of
+  undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great extent
+  effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of them to
+  Holland and other places. But it has been deemed expedient to
+  legislate against betting in the streets, which has been found too
+  attractive to the British workman.
+
+
+    Street betting.
+
+  By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons
+  assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London or
+  county of London for the purpose of betting and deemed to be
+  obstructing the street, may be arrested without warrant by a constable
+  and fined a sum not exceeding L5. The Vagrancy Act 1873 (36 & 37 Vict.
+  c. 38) provides that "Every person playing or betting by way of
+  wagering or gaming on any street, road, highway or other open and
+  public place, or in any open place to which the public have, or are
+  permitted to have, access, at or with any table or instrument of
+  gaming, or any coin, card, token or other article used as an
+  instrument or means of gaming, at any game or pretended game of
+  chance, shall be deemed a rogue and vagabond." This act amended a
+  prior act of 1868, passed to repress the practice of playing pitch and
+  toss in the streets, which had become a public nuisance in the
+  colliery districts. The powers of making by-laws for the peace, order
+  and good government of their districts, possessed by municipal
+  boroughs--and since 1888 by county councils--and extended in 1899 to
+  the new London boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by
+  making by-laws forbidding any person to "frequent or use any street or
+  other public place, on behalf either of himself or any other person,
+  for the purpose of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to
+  bet or wager with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling
+  bets." This and similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found
+  inadequate, and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c. 43),
+  passed by the efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence
+  for any person to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on
+  behalf of himself or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking
+  or betting or wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or
+  receiving or settling bets. The punishment for a first offence is fine
+  up to L10, for a second fine up to L20, and the punishment is still
+  higher in the case of a third or subsequent offence, or where the
+  accused while committing the offence has any betting transaction with
+  a person under the age of sixteen. The act does not apply to ground
+  used for a course for horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on
+  which races take place; but the expression public place includes a
+  public park, garden or sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which
+  the public for the time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places
+  other than public parks or gardens to which the public have a
+  restricted right of access with or without payment, if the owners or
+  persons controlling the place exhibit conspicuously a notice
+  prohibiting betting therein. A constable may arrest without warrant
+  persons offending and seize all books, papers, cards and other
+  articles relating to betting found in their possession, and these
+  articles may be forfeited on conviction. Besides the above provision
+  against betting with infants the Betting and Loans (Infants) Act
+  1892, passed at the instance of the late Lord Herschell, makes it a
+  misdemeanour to send, with a view to profit, to any one known by the
+  sender to be an infant, a document inviting him to enter into a
+  betting or wagering transaction. The act is intended to protect lads
+  at school and college from temptation by bookmakers.
+
+
+  Wagering.
+
+We must now turn from the public law with respect to gaming to the
+treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of their obligation
+on the individuals who lose them. A wager may be defined as "a promise
+to give money or money's worth upon the determination or ascertainment
+of an uncertain event" (Anson, _Law of Contract_, 11th ed., p. 206). The
+event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because its
+happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a wager the
+determination of the event must be the sole condition of the bargain.
+According to the view taken in England of the common law, bets or wagers
+were legally enforceable, subject to certain rules dictated by
+considerations of public policy, e.g. that they did not lead to
+immorality or breach of the peace, or expose a third person to
+ridicule.[1] The courts were constantly called upon to enforce wagers
+and constantly exercised their ingenuity to discover excuses for
+refusing. A writer on the law of contracts[2] discovers here the origin
+of that principle of "public policy" which plays so important a part in
+English law. Wagering contracts were rejected because the contingencies
+on which they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common
+weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared void
+because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the king's
+enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest in
+compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the amount of the
+hop-duty was held to be against public policy, because it tended to
+expose the condition of the king's revenue to all the world. A bet
+between two hackney coachmen, as to which of them should be selected by
+a gentleman for a particular journey, was void because it tended to
+expose the customer to their importunities. When no such subtlety could
+be invented, the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the
+fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by the
+judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an action, he
+could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision of more
+important cases.
+
+Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law within
+narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial wagers, and both
+by general and temporary enactments. An example of the latter was 7 Anne
+c. 16 (1710), avoiding all wagers and securities relating to the then
+war with France. The earliest general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7
+(1665), prohibiting the recovery of a sum exceeding L100 lost in games
+or pastimes, or in betting on the sides or hands of the players, and
+avoiding securities for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities
+for such wagers for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders
+for value without notice, and enabled the loser of L10 or upwards to sue
+for and recover the money he had lost within three months of the loss.
+Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering were declared void,
+in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the case of other risks in
+1774. It was not until 1845 that a general rule was made excluding
+wagers from the courts. Section 18 of the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after
+a parliamentary inquiry in 1844 as to gaming) enacted "that all
+contracts or agreements, whether by parole or in writing, by way of
+gaming or wagering shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be
+brought or maintained in any court of law or equity for recovering any
+sum of money or valuable thing alleged to be won upon any wager, or
+which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person to abide the
+event on which any wager shall have been made; provided always that this
+enactment shall not be deemed to apply to any subscription or
+contribution, or agreement to subscribe or contribute, for or towards
+any plate, prize or sum of money to be awarded to the winner or winners
+of any lawful game, sport, pastime or exercise."
+
+The construction put on this enactment enabled turf commission agents
+to recover from their principals bets made and paid for them. But the
+Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any promise, express or implied,
+to repay to any person any sum of money paid by him under, or in respect
+of, any contract or agreement rendered null and void by the Gaming Act
+1845, or to pay any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or
+otherwise in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any
+services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and provided
+that no action should be brought or maintained to recover any such sum.
+By the combined effect of these two enactments the recovery by the
+winner from the loser or stakeholder of bets or of stakes on games
+falling within s. 18 of the Gaming Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but
+persons who have deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not
+debarred from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is
+decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the stake is
+paid over to the winner;[3] and a man who pays a bet for a friend, or a
+turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet for a principal, has
+now no legal means of recovering the money, unless some actual deceit
+was used to induce him to pay in ignorance that it was a bet. But a
+person who has received a bet on account of another can still, it would
+seem, be compelled to pay it over, and the business of a betting man is
+treated as so far lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and
+actions between parties in such a business for the taking of partnership
+accounts have been entertained.
+
+The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares or
+other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to be
+correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two persons,
+having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event (past or
+future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that on the
+determination of the event one shall win, and the other shall pay over a
+sum of money, or other stake, neither party having any other interest in
+the event than the sum or stake to be won or lost. This definition does
+not strike at contracts in "futures," under which the contractors are
+bound to give or take delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in
+existence at the date of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered
+void because they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact,
+their legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
+Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or wagering on
+events in which the assured has no interest present or prospective
+whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774) or maritime risks
+(Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act known as Sir John Barnard's Act (7
+Geo. II. c. 8, entitled "An act to prevent the infamous practice of
+stock jobbing") prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any
+public stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but
+this act was repealed in 1860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks and
+shares are not now void because entered into by way of speculation and
+not for purposes of investment. The only limitation on such contracts is
+that contained in Leeman's Act (30 & 31 Vict. c. 29) as to contracts for
+the sale of shares in joint-stock banking companies. But a transaction
+in any commodity, though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming
+Acts if in substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the
+commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not matter whether
+the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it is entered into on
+the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange, or elsewhere; nor is it
+conclusive in favour of the validity of the bargain that it purports to
+bind the parties to take or deliver the article dealt in. The courts are
+entitled to examine into the true nature of the transaction; and where
+the substantial intention of the parties is merely to gamble in
+differences, to make what is called "a time bargain," the fact that it
+is carried out by a series of contracts, regular and valid in form, will
+not be sufficient to exclude the application of the Gaming Acts.
+
+In very many cases transactions with "outside stockbrokers" or "bucket
+shops" have been held to be mere wagers, although the contracts
+purported to give "put" or "call" options to demand delivery or
+acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the cover deposited by the
+"client" has been treated as a mere security for performance of the
+bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time, i.e. before it is used for
+the purpose for which it is deposited. There was not up to 1909 any
+authoritative decision as to the application of the Gaming Act 1892 to
+transactions on the London Stock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a
+member of "the House"; but the same principle appears to be applicable
+where the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the
+intention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive
+differences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the Stock
+Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people from setting up a
+gaming act defence: as each contract entitles the holder to call for
+delivery or acceptance of the stock named therein. In the event of the
+bankruptcy of a person involved in speculations, the bankruptcy
+officials exclude from proof against the estate all claims founded on
+any dealing in the nature of a wager; and on the same principle the
+bankrupt's trustee cannot recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming
+transactions, but unexhausted "cover" on uncompleted transactions may be
+recovered back.
+
+
+  Gambling debts.
+
+Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or wagers by
+action there has also been a good deal of legislation dealing with
+securities given in respect of "gambling debts." The earliest (1665)
+dealt with persons playing at games otherwise than for ready money and
+losing L100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from
+recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning it.
+An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes, bills,
+bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the consideration
+is for money or valuable security won by gaming at cards, stocks or
+other games, or by betting on the sides or hands of the gamesters, or
+for reimbursing money knowingly advanced for such gaming or betting.
+This act draws a distinction between gaming and other bets or wagers.
+Under this act the securities were void even in the hands of innocent
+transferees. In 1841 the law was altered, declaring such securities not
+void but made upon an "illegal" consideration. The effect of the change
+is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note or
+cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the original
+taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to put on him
+the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder for value. In the
+case of a negotiable security given for a wager not within the acts of
+1710 or 1841 (e.g. a bet on a contested election), but within the act of
+1845, a third person holding it would be presumed to be a holder for
+value and on the person prima facie liable under the security falls the
+burden of proving that no consideration was given for it. It has been
+decided after considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action
+will not lie in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a
+cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at
+baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the game.
+The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming Acts of 1845 and
+1892 as the _lex fori_ prohibit the English courts from enforcing gaming
+debts wherever incurred (_Moulis_ v. _Owen_, 1907, 1 K.B. 746).
+
+  _Scotland._--A Scots act of 1621 c. 14 (said still to be in force)
+  forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry, and
+  directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding or
+  dicing or at wagers on horse races should be at once sent to the
+  treasurer of the kirk session. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1698,
+  apply to Scotland; and the Betting House Act 1853 was extended to
+  Scotland in 1874. The Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scotland, and
+  gaming houses can be suppressed under the Burgh Police Act 1892, and
+  street betting, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903.
+
+  The Scots courts refuse to try actions on wagers, as being _sponsiones
+  ludicrae_, unbecoming the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 19 and 5 &
+  6 Will. IV. c. 41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of judicial
+  opinion is that the Gaming Act 1845 does not.
+
+  _Ireland._--The British Acts against lotteries were extended to
+  Ireland in 1780, and the general law as to gaming is the same in both
+  countries.
+
+  _British Possessions._--Certain of the earlier imperial acts are in
+  force in British possessions, e.g. the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is
+  in force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the Straits
+  Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordinances directed
+  against gambling and lotteries, and particularly against forms of
+  gambling introduced by the Chinese. Under these ordinances the money
+  paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law. In the Transvaal
+  betting houses were suppressed by proclamation (No. 33) soon after the
+  annexation. An invention known in France as the _pari mutuel_, and in
+  Australia as the totalizator, is allowed to be used on race-courses in
+  most of the states (but not in New South Wales). In Queensland, South
+  Australia, Tasmania and Western Australia the state levies a duty on
+  the takings of the machine. In Tasmania the balance of the money
+  retained by the stewards of the course less the tax must be applied
+  solely for improving the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria
+  under an act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by advertisement duly
+  posted make betting on the ground illegal.
+
+  _Egypt._--By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with
+  certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or
+  offer them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the
+  notice of the public. The authorized lotteries are those for
+  charitable purposes, e.g. those of the benevolent societies of the
+  various foreign communities.
+
+  _United States._--In the United States many of the states make gaming
+  a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse race, or
+  a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given upon a bet
+  are often made void, and this may destroy a gaming note in the hands
+  of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies outside of the
+  province of the federal government. By the legislation of some states
+  the loser may recover his money if he sue within a limited time, as he
+  might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Brandt on _Games_ (1872); Oliphant, _Law of Horses, &c._
+  (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the _Stock Exchange_ (1905);
+  Melsheimer on the _Stock Exchange_ (4th ed., 1905); Coldridge and
+  Hawksford, _The Law of Gambling_ (1895); Stutfield, _Betting_ (3rd
+  ed., 1901).     (W. F. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Leake on _Contracts_ (4th ed.), p. 529.
+
+  [2] Pollock, _Contracts_ (7th ed.), p. 313.
+
+  [3] _Burge_ v. _Ashby_, 1900, 1 Q.B. 744.
+
+
+
+
+GAMUT (from the Greek letter _gamma_, used as a musical symbol, and
+_ut_, the first syllable of the medieval hymn _Sanctus Johannes_), a
+term in music used to mean generally the whole compass or range of notes
+possessed by an instrument or voice. Historically, however, the sense
+has developed from its stricter musical meaning of a scale (the
+recognized musical scale of any period), originating in the medieval
+"great scale," of which the invention has usually been ascribed to Guido
+of Arezzo (q.v.) in the 11th century. The whole question is somewhat
+obscure, but, in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical
+alphabetical system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more
+properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales the
+semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord, as G, A,
+[flat]B, C, so the [natural]B and # F of the second octave were in false
+relation to the [flat]B and [natural]F of the first two tetrachords. To
+this scale of four notes, G, A, [flat]B, C, were subsequently added a
+note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with the semitone
+between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as F, G, A, [flat]B, C, D. It
+was at a much later date that the 7th, our leading note, was admitted
+into a key, and for this the first two letters of the last line of the
+above-named hymn, "Sanctus Johannes," would have been used, save for the
+notion that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel
+should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the syllable Si
+was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable Ut was replaced by
+Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France; and in these two
+countries, with whatever others employ their nomenclature, the original
+Ut and the substituted Do stand for the sound defined by the letter C in
+English and German terminology. The literal musical alphabet thus
+accords with the syllabic: A (La), B (Si), C (Ut or Do), D (Re), E (Mi),
+F (Fa), G (Sol). In Germany a remnant of Greek use survives. A was
+originally followed in the scale by the semitone above, as the classical
+Mese was followed by Paramese, and this note, namely [flat]B, is still
+called B in German, English [natural]B (French and Italian Si) being
+represented by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted, did
+not pass out of use until the 19th century, regarded the hexachord and
+not the octachord, employed both letters and syllables, made the former
+invariable while changing the latter according to key relationship, and
+acknowledged only the three keys of G, C and F; it took its name from
+having the Greek letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the
+Latin letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the
+other notes.
+
+
+
+
+GANDAK, a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal-Himalayas,
+flows south-west until it reaches British territory, where it forms the
+boundary between the United Provinces and Bengal for a considerable
+portion of its course, and falls into the Ganges opposite Patna. It is a
+snow-fed stream, and the surrounding country in the plains, lying at a
+lower level than its banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is
+accordingly enclosed by protective embankments.
+
+The LITTLE GANDAK rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur district
+about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just within the Saran
+district of Bengal.
+
+The BURHI (or old) GANDAK also rises in the Nepal hills, and follows a
+course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak, of which it
+represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and joining the Ganges
+nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal tributary is the Baghmati,
+which rises in the hills N. of Kathmandu, flows in a southerly direction
+through Tirhut, and joins the Burhi Gandak close to Rusera.
+
+
+
+
+GANDAMAK, a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad on the road to
+Kabul. On the retreat from Kabul of General Elphinstone's army in 1842,
+a hill near Gandamak was the scene of the massacre of the last survivors
+of the force, twenty officers and forty-five British soldiers. It is
+also notable for the treaty of Gandamak, which was signed here in 1879
+with Yakub Khan. (See AFGHANISTAN.)
+
+
+
+
+GANDERSHEIM, a town of Germany in the duchy of Brunswick, in the deep
+valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick, on the railway
+Boissum-Holzminden. Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two Protestant churches of
+which the convent church (_Stiftskirche_) contains the tombs of famous
+abbesses, a palace (now used as law courts) and the famous abbey (now
+occupied by provincial government offices). There are manufactures of
+linen, cigars, beet-root sugar and beer.
+
+The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of Saxony, who
+removed here in 856 the nuns who had been shortly before established at
+Brunshausen. His own daughter Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was
+succeeded on her death by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga's
+government Louis III. granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess
+was to continue in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was
+found competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the abbey
+a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop of Hildesheim
+and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested with each other about its
+supervision, Pope Innocent III. declared it altogether independent of
+both. The abbey was ultimately recognized as holding directly of the
+Empire, and the abbess had a vote in the imperial diet. The conventual
+estates were of great extent, and among the feudatories who could be
+summoned to the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the
+king of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1568, and Magdalena,
+the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant abbesses
+were appointed to the foundation, and continued to enjoy their imperial
+privileges till 1803, when Gandersheim was incorporated with Brunswick.
+The last abbess, Augusta Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the
+ducal house, and kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim
+will long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the famous
+Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the 9th century; and the
+rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim ranks as in all probability
+the earliest historical work composed in low German.
+
+  The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the
+  monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the _Monumenta Germ. historica_
+  (1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse
+  (Gottingen, 1872). See also "Agii vita Hathumodae abbatissae
+  Gandershemensis primae," in J.G. von Eckhart's _Veterum monumentorum
+  quaternio_ (Leipzig, 1720); and Hase, _Mittelalterliche Baudenkmaler
+  Niedersachsens_ (1870).
+
+
+
+
+GANDHARVA, in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote (1) in the
+Rig-Veda usually a minor deity; (2) in later writings a class of divine
+beings. As a unity Gandharva has no special attributes but many duties,
+and is in close relation with the great gods. Thus he is director of the
+sun's horses; he is guardian of soma, the sacred liquor, and therefore
+is regarded as the heavenly physician, soma being a panacea. He is
+servant of Agni the god of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is
+omnipresent: in the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the
+keeper of heaven's secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men.
+He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife he has
+the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her became father
+of the first mortals, Yama and Yami. He is the tutelary deity of women
+and presides over marriage ceremonies. In their collective capacity the
+Gandharva share the duties allotted to the single deity. They live in
+the house of Indra and with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time
+by singing, acting and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as
+numbering twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In
+Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual consent and
+without formality.
+
+
+
+
+GANDIA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of Valencia; on the
+Gandia-Alcoy and Alcira-Denia railways. Pop. (1900) 10,026. Gandia is on
+the left bank of the river Alcoy or Serpis, which waters one of the
+richest and most populous plains of Valencia and enters the
+Mediterranean Sea at the small harbour of Gandia (_El Grao_), 3 m. N.E.
+The chief ancient buildings of Gandia are the Gothic church, the
+college, founded by San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the
+order of Jesus (1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandia--a
+title held in the 15th and 16th centuries by members of the princely
+house of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and the
+palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manufactures of
+leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandia has a thriving export trade in
+fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour. In 1904, 400 vessels,
+of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour.
+
+
+
+
+GANDO, a sultanate of British West Africa, included in the protectorate
+of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger above Borgu. The
+sultanate was established, c. 1819, on the death of Othman Dan Fodio,
+the founder of the Fula empire, and its area and importance varied
+considerably during the 19th century, several of the Fula emirates being
+regarded as tributaries, while Gando itself was more or less dependent
+on Sokoto. Gando in the middle of the century included both banks of the
+Niger at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British
+protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been in treaty
+relations with the British, and in 1903 the part assigned to the British
+sphere by agreement with France came definitely under the control of the
+administration in Nigeria. Gando now forms the sub-province of the
+double province of Sokoto. The emir was appointed under British
+authority after the conquest of Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the
+province has been organized for administration on the same system as the
+rest of the protectorate of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native
+courts of justice have been established, roads have been opened, the
+slave trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new
+scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga and
+Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto, the first
+considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about 60 m. S.W. of
+the town of Sokoto.
+
+
+
+
+GANESA, or GANESH, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom and prudence,
+always represented with an elephant's head possibly to indicate his
+sagacity. He is the son of Siva and Parvati. He is among the most
+popular of Indian deities, and almost every act, religious or social, in
+a Hindu's life begins with an invocation to him, as do most books. He
+typifies not the wisdom of knowledge but that worldly wisdom which
+results in financial success, and thus he is particularly the god of the
+Hindu shopkeeper. In his divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of
+heaven, the spirits which come and go to do Indra's will.
+
+
+
+
+GANGES (GANGA), a great river of northern India, formed by the drainage
+of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This mighty stream, which in
+its lower course supplies the river system of Bengal, rises in the
+Garhwal state, and falls into the Bay of Bengal after a course of 1500
+m. It issues, under the name of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the
+foot of a Himalayan snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level
+of the sea.
+
+  During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it
+  receives the Jahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the
+  Alaknanda, after which the united stream takes the name of the Ganges.
+  Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place of
+  pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream. At
+  Sukhi it pierces through the Himalayas, and turns south-west to
+  Hardwar, also a place of great sanctity. It proceeds by a tortuous
+  course through the districts of Dehra Dun, Saharanpur, Muzaffarnagar,
+  Bulandshahr and Farukhabad, in which last district it receives the
+  Ramganga. Thus far the Ganges has been little more than a series of
+  broad shoals, long deep pools and rapids, except, of course, during
+  the melting of the snows and throughout the rainy season. At
+  Allahabad, however, it receives the Jumna, a mighty sister stream,
+  which takes its rise also in the Himalayas to the west of the sources
+  of the Ganges. The combined river winds eastwards by south-east
+  through the United Provinces, receiving the Gumti and the Gogra. The
+  point of junction with both the Gumti and the Gogra has more or less
+  pretension to sanctity. But the tongue of land at Allahabad, where the
+  Jumna and the Ganges join, is the true Prayag, _the_ place of
+  pilgrimage, to which hundreds of thousands of devout Hindus repair to
+  wash away their sins in the sacred river. It is here that the great
+  festival called the Magh mela is held.
+
+  Shortly after passing the holy city of Benares the Ganges enters
+  Behar, and after receiving an important tributary, the Sone from the
+  south, passes Patna, and obtains another accession to its volume from
+  the Gandak, which rises in Nepal. Farther to the east it receives the
+  Kusi, and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply to the
+  southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur. By this
+  time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flies, from the
+  sea. About 20 m. farther on it begins to branch out over the level
+  country, and this spot marks the commencement of the delta, 220 m. in
+  a straight line, or 300 by the windings of the river, from the Bay of
+  Bengal. The main channel takes the name of the Padma or Padda, and
+  proceeds in a south-easterly direction, past Pabna to Goalanda, above
+  which it is joined by the Jamuna or main stream of the Brahmaputra.
+  The vast confluence of waters rushes towards the sea, receiving
+  further additions from the hill country on the east, and forming a
+  broad estuary known under the name of the Meghna, which enters the Bay
+  of Bengal near Noakhali. This estuary, however, is only the largest
+  and most easterly of a great number of mouths or channels. The most
+  westerly is the Hugli, which receives the waters of a number of
+  distributary channels that start from the parent Ganges above
+  Murshidabad. Between the Hugli on the west and the Meghna on the east
+  lies the delta. The upper angle of it consists of rich and fertile
+  districts, such as Murshidabad, Nadia, Jessore and the 24 Parganas.
+  But towards its southern base, resting on the sea, the country sinks
+  into a series of great swamps, intercepted by a network of innumerable
+  channels. This wild waste is known as the Sundarbans, from the
+  _sundari_ tree, which grows in abundance in the seaboard tracts.
+
+  The most important channel of the Ganges for commerce is the Hugli, on
+  which stands Calcutta, about 90 m. from the mouth. Beyond this city
+  the navigation is conducted by native craft,--the modern facilities
+  for traffic by rail and the increasing shoals in the river having put
+  an end to the previous steamer communication, which plied until about
+  1860 as high up as Allahabad. Below Calcutta important boat routes
+  through the delta connect the Hugli with the eastern branches of the
+  river, for both native craft and steamers.
+
+  The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities: Calcutta, Monghyr,
+  Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction
+  with the Jumna; and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are on the
+  Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges is bounded on the
+  N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan range, on the S. by
+  the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the ranges which separate
+  Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin thus enclosed embraces 432,480
+  sq. m. According to the latest calculations, the length of the main
+  stream of the Ganges is 1540 m., or with its longest affluent, 1680;
+  breadth at true entrance into the sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in
+  dry season, 1-1/4 to 2-1/4 m.; depth in dry season, 30 ft.; flood
+  discharge, 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second; ordinary discharge, 207,000
+  cub. ft.; longest duration of flood, about 40 days. The average fall
+  from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in. per mile; from Benares to Calcutta,
+  between 4 and 5 in.; from Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great
+  changes take place from time to time in the river-bed, which alter the
+  face of the country. Extensive islands are thrown up, and attach
+  themselves to the mainland, while the river deserts its old bed and
+  seeks a new channel, it may be many miles off. Such changes are so
+  rapid and on so vast a scale, and the corroding power of the current
+  on the bank so irresistible, that in Lower Bengal it is considered
+  perilous to build any structure of a large or permanent character on
+  its margin. Many decayed or ruined cities attest the changes in the
+  river-bed in ancient times; and within our own times the main channel
+  which formerly passed Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the
+  town high and dry, 7 m. from the bank.
+
+  The Ganges is crossed by six railway bridges on its course as far as
+  Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been sanctioned.
+
+  The UPPER GANGES CANAL and the LOWER GANGES CANAL are the two
+  principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Provinces. The
+  Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousie in 1854, and irrigates
+  978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of the original
+  canal, has been in operation since 1878 and irrigates 830,000 acres.
+  The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna, command the greater
+  portion of the Doab lying between the Ganges and the Jumna, above
+  Allahabad. Navigation in either is insignificant.     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among the Himalaya
+Mountains. It is situated in the native state of Garhwal in the United
+Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief head-stream of the Ganges, which
+is here not above 15 or 20 yds. broad, with a moderate current, and not
+in general above 3 ft. deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and
+on the bank near Gangotri there is a small temple about 20 ft. high, in
+which are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of
+mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century. The bed of
+the river adjoining the temple is divided off by the Brahmans into three
+basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of these portions is dedicated to
+Brahma, another to Vishnu and the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to
+Gangotri is considered efficacious in washing away the sins of the
+devotee, and ensuring him eternal happiness in the world to come. The
+water taken from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and
+sold at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the sea is
+10,319 ft.
+
+
+
+
+GANGPUR, a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until 1905 among
+the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by Ranchi district, E. by the
+Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the
+Central Provinces. The country is for the most part an undulating plain,
+broken by detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range,
+possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from the
+plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with two
+flanking peaks. The rivers are the Ib and the Brahmani, formed here by
+the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both navigable by canoes. The
+Ib was formerly famous on account of diamonds found in its bed, and its
+sands are still washed for gold. One of the largest coalfields in India
+extends into the state, and iron ore is also found. Jungle
+products--lac, silk cocoons, catechu and resin, which are exported; wild
+animals--bisons, buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals,
+wild dogs and many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901)
+238,896; estimated revenue, L16,000.
+
+
+
+
+GANGRENE (from Gr. [Greek: gangraina], an eating sore, from [Greek:
+grainein], to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (q.v.), or
+a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the circulation
+by various causes.
+
+
+
+
+GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and politician, was born
+at Allanche in Cantal on the 6th of January 1758. He was educated for
+the profession of law and practised as _avocat_. During the troubled
+period which culminated in the taking of the Bastille on the 14th of
+July 1789, he came prominently forward in public affairs, and was one of
+the seven members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat
+at the hotel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of Terror, and
+was only released by the counter-revolution of the 9th Thermidor. During
+the first consulate he was called to the tribunate, but was excluded in
+1802. In 1815 he was elected deputy for Cantal, and finally left the
+Chamber on its dissolution in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best
+known as the most vigorous defender of the mercantile school in
+opposition to the views of Adam Smith and the English economists.
+
+  His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision with
+  which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess much
+  value for the student of political economy. He wrote _Essai politique
+  sur le revenue des peuples de l'antiquite, du moyen age, &c._ (1808);
+  _Des systemes d'economie politique_ (1809); _Theorie d'economie
+  politique_ (1815); _Dictionnaire analytique de l'economie politique_
+  (1826).
+
+
+
+
+GANJAM, a district of British India, in the extreme north-east of the
+Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8372 sq. m. Much of the district is
+exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is interspersed with open valleys
+and fertile plains. Pleasant groves of trees in the plains give to the
+scenery a greener appearance than is usually met with in the districts
+to the south. The mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of
+the Eastern Ghats, has an average height of about 2000 ft.--its
+principal peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4923) and
+Devagiri (4535). The hilly region forms the agency of Ganjam, with an
+area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 321,114, mostly wild
+backward tribes, incapable of being governed under ordinary conditions
+and therefore ruled by an agent of the governor with special powers. The
+chief rivers are the Rushikulya, the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The
+sea and river fisheries afford a livelihood to a considerable section of
+the population. The hilly region abounds in forests consisting
+principally of _sal_, with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller
+quantities.
+
+Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its early history
+is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the Gajapati dynasty
+ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract became even nominally a
+part of their dominions. Owing to the nature of the country the rising
+Mahommedan power was long kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a
+century after the first invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor
+was sent to govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present
+district of Ganjam. In 1753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were
+made over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his
+French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an English force
+sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to abandon Ganjam and
+their other factories in the north. In 1765 the Northern Circars
+(including Ganjam) were granted to the English by imperial firman, and
+in August 1768 an English factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a
+fort. The present district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the
+earlier years of British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in
+the administration of the district; and on more than one occasion the
+refractory large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular
+troops. In 1816 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in 1836 occurred
+the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came into contact with the
+aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose practice of human sacrifice
+was successfully accomplished. A petty rising of a section of the Kondhs
+occurred in 1865, which was, however, suppressed without the aid of
+regular troops.
+
+In 1901 the pop. of the district was 2,010,256, showing an increase of
+20% in the decade. There are two systems of government irrigation: (1)
+the Rushikulya project, and (2) the Ganjam minor rivers system. The
+principal crops are rice, other food grains, pulse, oil seeds and a
+little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is evaporated, as a government
+monopoly, along the coast. Sugar is refined, according to German
+methods, at Aska, where rum also is produced. A considerable trade is
+conducted at the ports of Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open
+roadsteads. The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast
+railway (Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to Madras
+in 1900. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlakimedi. The
+headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of Ganjam occupied this
+position till 1815, when it was found unhealthy, and its importance has
+since declined.
+
+
+
+
+GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS (1791-1852), French chemist, was born at
+Sarre-Louis on the 28th of July 1791. In 1808 he entered the medical
+department of the French army, and witnessed the retreat from Moscow in
+1812. After the downfall of the empire he worked at the Ecole
+Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at the Faculty of Sciences as
+assistant to L.J. Thenard. His contributions to technical chemistry
+included a method of refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers
+formed of gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for
+manufacturing glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c. The Institute
+awarded him a Montyon prize in 1827 for his advocacy of chlorine as a
+remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for his discovery of the
+efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and chloride for preserving
+anatomical preparations. In the latter part of his life he turned his
+attention to embalmment, his method depending on the injection of
+solutions of aluminium salts into the arteries. He died at Paris in
+January 1852. His son FELIX, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the
+question of the disposal of the dead, among his publications being _Mort
+reelle et mort apparente_ (1868), _Inhumation et cremation_ (1876), and
+_Les Cimetieres_ (1885), a work on the history and law of burial, of
+which only one volume appeared.
+
+
+
+
+GANNET (O.E. _ganot_) or SOLAN GOOSE,[1] the _Pelecanus bassanus_ of
+Linnaeus and the _Sula bassana_ of modern ornithologists, a large
+sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose of breeding,
+to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of Forth, and to certain
+other islands off the coast of Britain, of which four are in Scottish
+waters--namely, Ailsa Craig, at the mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the
+group known collectively as St Kilda; Suleskerry, some 40 m. north-east
+of the Butt of Lewis; and the Stack and Skerry, about the same distance
+westward of Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the
+coast of Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and
+it resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel--its only
+English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settlements are
+Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and various small islands
+off the coast of Iceland, of which the Vestmannaeyjar, the Reykjanes
+Fuglasker and Grimsey are the chief. On the western side of the Atlantic
+it appears to have but five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four
+rocks in the Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird
+arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn when
+its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-season many of
+the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions at a vast distance
+from their home, while at other times of the year their range is greater
+still, for they not only frequent the North Sea and the English Channel,
+but stray to the Baltic, and, in winter, extend their flight to the
+Madeiras, while the members of the species of American birth traverse
+the ocean from the shores of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.
+
+[Illustration: Gannet, or Solan Goose.]
+
+Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail, the
+gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is white,
+tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer edge and
+principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare spaces round the
+eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin. The first plumage of the
+young is of a deep brown above, but paler beneath, and each feather is
+tipped with a triangular white spot. The nest is a shallow depression,
+either on the ground itself or on a pile of turf, grass and
+seaweed--which last is often conveyed from a great distance. The single
+egg it contains has a white shell of the same chalky character as a
+cormorant's. The young are hatched blind and naked, but the
+slate-coloured skin with which their body is covered is soon clothed
+with white down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark
+colour already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be
+attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the majority of
+gannets, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood of their
+breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sea, follow the
+shoals of herrings and other fishes (the presence of which they are most
+useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great distance from land. Their
+prey is almost invariably captured by plunging upon it from a height,
+and a company of gannets fishing presents a curious and interesting
+spectacle. Flying in a line, each bird, when it comes over the shoal,
+closes its wings and dashes perpendicularly into the waves, whence it
+emerges after a few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers,
+mounts in a wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the
+string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself
+above its prey.[2]
+
+Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note, such as its
+closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all connected by a
+web--characters which it possesses in common with most of the other
+members of the group of birds (_Steganopodes_) to which it belongs. But
+more remarkable still is the system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of
+large size, pervading almost the whole surface of the body,
+communicating with the lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied
+at the will of the bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of
+several writers--Montagu, Sir R. Owen (_Proc. Zool. Soc._, 1831, p. 90),
+and Macgillivray.
+
+In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two nearly
+allied but somewhat smaller forms--one, _Sula capensis_, inhabiting the
+coast of South Africa, and the other, _S. serrator_, the Australian
+seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but the former seems to
+have a permanently black tail, and the latter a tail the four middle
+feathers of which are blackish-brown with white shafts.
+
+Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the smaller
+birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extraordinary stupidity
+they commonly display. They differ, however, in having no median stripe
+of bare skin down the front of the throat; they almost invariably breed
+upon trees and are inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, _S.
+cyanops_, when adult has much of the aspect of a gannet, but _S.
+piscator_ is readily distinguishable by its red legs, and _S.
+leucogaster_ by its upper plumage and neck of deep brown. These three
+are widely distributed within the tropics, and are in some places
+exceedingly abundant. The fourth, _S. variegata_, which seems to
+preserve throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the
+immature _S. bassana_, has a much more limited range, being as yet only
+known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which
+contribute to the formation of guano. (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The phrase _ganotes baed_ (gannet's bath), a periphrasis for the
+    sea, occurs in the _Anglo-Saxon Chronicle_, in reference to events
+    which took place A.D. 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose
+    learned treatise on this bird (_Ibis_, 1866, p. 1) nearly exhausts
+    all that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further
+    on (p. 13) this writer remarks:--"The name gannet is intimately
+    connected with our modern English gander, both words being
+    modifications of the ancient British 'gan' or 'gans,' which is the
+    same word as the modern German 'Gans,' which in its turn corresponds
+    with the old High German 'Kans,' the Greek [Greek: chen], the Latin
+    _anser_, and the Sanskrit 'hansa,' all of which possess the same
+    signification, viz. a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland,
+    sulan, sula and haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is
+    not so obvious. Martin [_Voy. St Kilda_] informs us that 'some
+    imagine that the word solan comes from the Irish souler, corrupted
+    and adapted to the Scottish language, _qui oculis irretortis e
+    longinquo respiciat praedam_.' The earlier writers in general derive
+    the word from the Latin _solea_, in consequence of the bird's
+    supposed habit of hatching its egg with its foot; and in a note
+    intercalated into Ray's description of the solan goose in the edition
+    of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society, and edited by Dr
+    Lankester, we are told, though no authority for the statement is
+    given, that 'the gannet, _Sula alba_, should be written solent goose,
+    i.e. a channel goose.'" Hereon an editorial note remarks that this
+    last statement appears to have been a suggestion of Yarrell's, and
+    that it seems at least as possible that the "Solent" took its name
+    from the bird.
+
+  [2] The large number of gannets, and the vast quantity of fish they
+    take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations on
+    this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that
+    in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as
+    plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were
+    more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by
+    Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at
+    12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in
+    1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their
+    number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (_Report on the Herring
+    Fisheries of Scotland_, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171),--being a diminution
+    of one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice as great as on the Bass.
+
+
+
+
+GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel on the teeth),
+a group of specialized North American Lower and Middle Eocene mammals of
+uncertain affinity. The group includes _Hemiganus_, _Psittacotherium_
+and _Conoryctes_ from the Puerco, _Calamodon_ and _Hemiganus_ from the
+Wasatch, and _Stylinodon_ from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of
+_Conoryctes_, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests
+affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-bones.
+The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be considered
+ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the molars when first
+developed have tritubercular summits, but these soon become worn away,
+leaving tall columnar crowns, with a subcircular surface of dentine
+exposed at the summit of each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a
+comparatively full series of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested
+with enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth
+never develop roots but grow continuously throughout life. These and
+other features induced Dr J.L. Wortman to regard the Ganodonta as an
+ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this view is not accepted by Prof.
+W.B. Scott. Teeth provisionally assigned to _Calamodon_ have been
+obtained from the Lower Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.
+
+  See J.L. Wortman, "The Ganodonta and their Relationship to the
+  Edentata," _Bull. Amer. Mus._ vol. ix. p. 59 (1897); W.B. Scott,
+  "Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata," _Rep. Princeton Exped. to
+  Patagonia_, vol. v. (1903-1904).     (R. L.*)
+
+
+
+
+GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at Berlin on the 22nd
+of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents. He studied law first at
+Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at Heidelberg, where he attended
+Hegel's lectures, and became thoroughly imbued with the principles of
+the Hegelian philosophy. In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he
+returned to Berlin as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and
+the following year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary,
+professor in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical
+school of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Gans, predisposed
+owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied the
+method to one special branch--the right of succession. His great work,
+_Erbrecht in weltgeschichtlicher Entwicklung_ (1824, 1825, 1829 and
+1835), is of permanent value, not only for its extensive survey of
+facts, but for the admirable manner in which the general theory of the
+slow evolution of legal principles is presented. In 1830, and again in
+1835, Gans visited Paris, and formed an intimate acquaintance with the
+leaders of literary culture and criticism there. The liberality of his
+views, especially on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure
+of the Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of
+the last fifty years (published as _Vorlesungen uber d. Geschichte d.
+letzten funfzig Jahre_, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He died at
+Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. In addition to the works above mentioned,
+there may be noted the treatise on the fundamental laws of property
+(_Uber die Grundlage des Besitzes_, Berlin, 1829), a portion of a
+systematic work on the Roman civil law (_System des romischen
+Civil-Rechts_, 1827), and a collection of his miscellaneous writings
+(_Vermischte Schriften_, 1832). Gans edited the _Philosophie der
+Geschichte_ in Hegel's _Werke_, and contributed an admirable preface.
+
+  See _Revue des deux mondes_ (Dec. 1839).
+
+
+
+
+GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844), Austrian musical composer, was
+born in 1778 at Sterzing in Tirol. His father, a schoolmaster and
+teacher of music, undertook his son's early education, which the boy
+continued under various masters till 1802, when he became the pupil of
+the celebrated Abbe G.J. Vogler. To his connexion with this artist and
+with his fellow-pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits,
+Gansbacher's permanent place in the history of music is due; for it was
+during his second stay with Vogler, then (1810) living at Darmstadt,
+that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the close
+friendship which sprang up among the three young musicians, and was
+dissolved by death only, has become celebrated in the history of their
+art. But Gansbacher was himself by no means without merit. He creditably
+filled the responsible and difficult post of director of the music at St
+Stephen's cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844);
+and his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They consist
+chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies, motets,
+offertories, &c., being amongst the number. He also wrote several
+sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor compositions of a dramatic
+kind.
+
+
+
+
+GANTE, a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft. It is largely
+used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has the appearance of
+a fine hessian cloth.
+
+
+
+
+GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of Dardania, and
+Callirrhoe. He was the most beautiful of mortals, and was carried off by
+the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself, or by Zeus in the form of
+an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12;
+Virgil, _Aeneid_, v. 254; Ovid, _Metam._ x. 255). By way of
+compensation, Zeus presented his father with a team of immortal horses
+(or a golden vine). Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of
+the fountains of the Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and
+identified by astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac. Thus the
+divinity that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius
+who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When pederasty
+became common in Greece, an attempt was made to justify it and invest it
+with dignity by referring to the rape of the beautiful boy by Zeus; in
+Crete, where the love of boys was reduced to a system, Minos, the
+primitive ruler and law-giver, was said to have been the ravisher of
+Ganymede. Thus the name which once denoted the good genius who bestowed
+the precious gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar
+Latin under the form _Catamitus_. Ganymede being carried off by the
+eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor
+Leochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E. Veckenstedt
+(_Ganymedes_, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that Ganymede is the
+genius of intoxicating drink ([Greek: methu], mead, for which he
+postulates a form [Greek: medos]), whose original home was Phrygia.
+
+  See article by P. Weizsacker in Roscher's _Lexikon der Mythologie_. In
+  the article GREEK ART, fig. 53 (Pl. 1.) gives an illustration of
+  Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.
+
+
+
+
+GAO, GAO-GAO, or GARO, a town of French West Africa, in the Upper
+Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger, 400 m. by river
+below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The present town dates from the French
+occupation in 1900; of the ancient city there are scanty ruins, the
+chief being a truncated pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century)
+of Mahommed Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque.
+According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient times
+and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with the Egyptians.
+It is known, however, that the city of which the French settlement is
+the successor was founded by the Songhoi, probably in the 7th or 8th
+century, and became the capital of their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears
+to have been the correct name of the Songhoi city, though it was also
+known as Gogo and Kuku (Kaougha)[1]. In the 12th century Idrisi
+describes Kuku as a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and
+industry; it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao
+but to another town somewhat to the south--at that period the middle
+course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks. In the
+14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and its great
+mosque was built (c. 1325) by the Melle sovereign Kunkur Musa on his
+return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the 15th century the Songhoi
+regained power and Gao attained its greatest prosperity in the reign of
+Askia. It did not enjoy the commercial importance of Jenne nor the
+intellectual supremacy of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the
+western Sudan for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power
+the city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the _Ruma_
+of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the Tuareg, the last
+named surrendering possession to the French. The first European to reach
+Gao was Mungo Park (1805); he was followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth,
+and in 1896 by the French naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the
+headquarters of a military district. A caravan route leads from it to
+Kano and Bornu. From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.
+
+  See TIMBUKTU. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article by F.
+  Dubois in _L'Afrique francaise_ (January 1909).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake Chad in
+    the country now known as Bagirmi. It was the seat of the Bulala
+    dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose rule in the
+    15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The existence of the
+    state was first mentioned by Leo Africanus. To the Bornuese it was
+    known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which persists as that of a
+    district in French Congo (see BORNU). The similarity of the name
+    Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given rise to much
+    confusion.
+
+
+
+
+GAOL, or JAIL, a prison (q.v.). The two forms of the word are due to the
+parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French respectively,
+_jaiole_ or _jaole_, and _gaiole_ or _gayolle_. The common origin is the
+med. Lat. _gabiola_, a diminutive formed from _cavea_, a hollow, a den,
+from which the English "cave" is derived. The form "gaol" still commonly
+survives in English, and is in official usage, e.g. "gaol-delivery," but
+the common pronunciation of both words, "jail," shows the real surviving
+word.
+
+
+
+
+GAON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural _Geonim_), the title given to the
+heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia, Sura and Pumbeditha.
+Though the name is far older, it is chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived
+between the close of the Talmud and the transference of the centre of
+Judaism from Asia to Europe--i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle
+of the 11th century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the
+Exilarchs (see EXILARCH) but were otherwise independent. They exercised
+wide authority and were appealed to in settlement of the social and
+religious affairs of the diaspora. To them must be assigned the
+arrangement of the main lines of the present Synagogue liturgy. Their
+chief literary activity took the form of Answers to Questions--a form
+which was extensively used in later centuries. The most noted of the
+Geonim, who will be found treated under their respective names, were
+Ahai, Amram, Semach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038,
+closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a half
+centuries.
+
+  A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the _Jewish
+  Encyclopaedia_, vol. v. p. 571.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes Alpes. Pop.
+(1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built at a height of 2418 ft.
+on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent of the Durance), in an
+agreeable position, and is dominated afar by snowy peaks on the N.E. The
+little city has the look of a Provencal town, being white. The
+17th-century cathedral church has been entirely reconstructed
+(1866-1905). In the prefecture is the tomb of the constable de
+Lesdiguieres (1543-1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine
+sculptor, Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific
+and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives, which
+include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c. There are a few
+small manufactories of purely local importance. Gap is connected by
+railway with Briancon (51-1/2 m.) and with Grenoble (85-1/2 m.), while
+from the railway junction of Veynes (16-1/2 m. W. of Gap) it is 122 m.
+by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal see of Gap, now in the
+ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence, is first certainly mentioned
+in the 6th century, and in 1791 was enlarged by the annexation of that
+of Embrun (then suppressed).
+
+Gap is the _Vapincum_ of the Romans, and was founded by Augustus about
+14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in 1232 most of the region
+passed by marriage to the dauphins of Viennois. The town itself,
+however, remained under the rule of the bishops until 1512, when it was
+annexed to the crown of France. The bishops continued to bear the title
+of count of Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the
+Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692. It was the
+birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Farel (1489-1565), who first
+preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562, but then took refuge in
+Switzerland.
+
+  See J. Roman, _Histoire de la ville de Gap_ (Gap, 1892).
+       (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon, Philippine Islands,
+3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop. (1903) 11,278. It is situated
+in a rich rice-growing region, and extensive forests in its vicinity
+contain fine hardwoods. Its climate is comparatively cool and healthy.
+The principal native dialects spoken are Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is
+the oldest town of the province.
+
+
+
+
+GARARISH (KARARISH), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic origin, dwelling
+along the right bank of the Nile from Wadi Halfa to Merawi. Many members
+of the tribe are agriculturists, others act as guides or transport
+drivers. They declare themselves kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are
+more Arab than Beja.
+
+
+
+
+GARASHANIN, ILIYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was the son of a
+Servian peasant, who made money by exporting cattle and pigs to Austria
+and by his intelligence and wealth attained to a certain influence in
+the country. He wanted to give his son as good an education as possible,
+and therefore sent him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in
+a German school. Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular
+although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very quickly
+came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him a colonel and
+commander of the then just organized regular army of Servia. In 1842 he
+was called to the position of assistant to the home minister, and from
+that time until his retirement from public life in 1867 he was
+repeatedly minister of home affairs, distinguishing himself by the
+energy and justice of his administration. But he rendered far greater
+services to his country as minister for foreign affairs. He was the
+first Servian statesman who had a political programme, and who worked to
+replace the Russian protectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate
+of all the great powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in
+1853 he was decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against
+Turkey and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in Prince
+Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853, peremptorily
+demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander Karageorgevich) his
+dismissal. But although dismissed, his personal influence in the country
+secured the neutrality of Servia during the Crimean War. He enjoyed
+esteem in France, and it was due to him that France proposed to the
+peace conference of Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to
+Servia by Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be
+replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a European
+international commission. But the agreement of the powers was not
+secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander Karageorgevich to convoke a
+national assembly, which had not been called to meet for ten years. The
+assembly was convoked for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to
+dethrone Prince Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh
+Obrenovich. When after the death of his father Milosh (in 1860) Prince
+Michael ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign
+affairs to Iliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that Servia
+was given a new, although somewhat conservative, constitution, and that
+she obtained, without war, the evacuation of all the fortresses
+garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the Servian territory, including the
+fortress of Belgrade (1867). Garashanin was preparing a general rising
+of the Balkan nations against the Turkish rule, and had entered into
+confidential arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians,
+Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro. But the
+execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden resignation (at the
+end of 1867), and more especially by the assassination of Prince Michael
+a few months later (the 10th of June 1868). Although he was a
+Conservative in politics, and as such often in conflict with the leader
+of the Liberal movement, Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the
+ablest statesmen whom Servia had in the 19th century.     (C. Mi.)
+
+
+
+
+GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1740-1833), French writer and politician, was
+born at Bayonne on the 8th of September 1749. After receiving a good
+education under the direction of a relation who was a cure, and having
+been an advocate at Bordeaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained
+introductions to the most distinguished writers of the time, and became
+a contributor to the _Encyclopedie methodique_ and the _Mercure de
+France_. He gained considerable reputation by an eloge on Michel de
+L'Hopital in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy
+for eloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was named
+professor of history at the _Lycee_, where his lectures enjoyed an equal
+popularity with those of G.F. Laharpe on literature. Being chosen a
+deputy to the states-general in 1789, he rendered important service to
+the popular cause by his narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly
+contributed to the _Journal de Paris_. Possessing strongly optimist
+views, a mild and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable
+convictions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great
+political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying out
+the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of justice in 1792,
+and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he called the _commission
+affreuse_ of communicating to Louis XVI. his sentence of death. In 1793
+he became minister of the interior. In this capacity he proved himself
+quite inefficient. Though himself uncorrupt, he winked at the most
+scandalous corruption in his subordinates, and in spite of the admirably
+organized detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every
+movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order, which
+might easily have been done by a moderate display of firmness. At last,
+disgusted with the excesses which he had been unable to control, he
+resigned (August 15, 1793). On the 2nd of October he was arrested for
+Girondist sympathies but soon released, and he escaped further
+molestation owing to the friendship of Barras and, more especially, of
+Robespierre, whose literary _amour-propre_ he had been careful to
+flatter. On the 9th Thermidor, however, he took sides against
+Robespierre, and on the 12th of September 1794 he was named by the
+Convention as a member of the executive committee of public instruction.
+In 1798 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following year
+he became a member, then president, of the Council of the Ancients.
+Alter the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was chosen a senator by
+Napoleon and created a count. During the Hundred Days he was a member of
+the chamber of representatives. In 1803 he was chosen a member of the
+Institute of France, but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name
+was, in 1816, deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of
+1830 he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and Political
+Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonne, April 25, 1833. His writings
+are characterized by elegance, grace and variety of style, and by the
+highest kind of rhetorical eloquence; but his grasp of his subject is
+superficial, and as his criticisms have no root in fixed and
+philosophical principles they are not unfrequently whimsical and
+inconsistent. He must not be confounded with his elder brother Dominique
+(1735-1799), who was also a deputy to the states-general.
+
+  The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned,
+  _Considerations sur la Revolution Francaise_ (Paris, 1792); _Memoires
+  sur la Revolution, ou expose de ma conduite_ (1795); _Memoires sur la
+  vie de M. Suard, sur ses ecrits, et sur le XVIII^e siecle_ (1820);
+  eloges on Joubert, Kleber and Desaix; several notices of distinguished
+  persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals. Valuable
+  materials for the history of Garat's tenure of the ministry, notably
+  the police reports of Dutard, are given in W.A. Schmidt's _Tableaux de
+  la Revolution Francaise_ (3 vols., Leipzig, 1867-1870).
+
+
+
+
+GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew of Dominique
+Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 25th of April 1764. Gifted
+with a voice of exceptional timbre and compass he devoted himself, from
+an early age, to the cultivation of his musical talents. On account of
+his manifesting a distaste for the legal profession, for which his
+father wished him to study, he was deprived of his allowance, but
+through the patronage of a friend he obtained the office of secretary to
+Comte d'Artois, and was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to
+the queen of France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied
+Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in concerts.
+He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he became a
+professional singer, and on account of a song which he had composed in
+reference to the misfortunes of the royal family he was thrown into
+prison. On regaining his liberty he went to Hamburg, where he at once
+achieved extraordinary success; and by his subsequent appearances in
+Paris, and his visits to Italy, Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for
+himself a reputation as a singer unequalled by any other of his own
+time. He was a keen partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the
+institution of the Conservatoire de Musique he became its professor of
+singing. He also composed a number of songs, many of which have
+considerable merit. He died on the 1st of March 1823 in Paris.
+
+
+
+
+GARAY, JANOS (1812-1853), Hungarian poet and author, was born on the
+10th of October 1812, at Szegszard, in the county of Tolna. From 1823 to
+1828 he studied at Funfkirchen, and subsequently, in 1829, at the
+university of Pest. In 1834 he brought out an heroic poem, in
+hexameters, under the title _Csatar_. After this he issued in quick
+succession various historical dramas, among which the most successful
+were _Arbocz, Orszagh Ilona_ and _Bathori Erzsebet_,--the first two
+published at Pest in 1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic
+journalist, and in 1838 he removed to Pressburg, where he edited the
+political journal _Hirnok_ (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1839, when
+he was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy of
+Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society, of which
+he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian literature with
+numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The first collection of his
+poems was published at Pest in 1843; and his prose tales appeared in
+1845, under the title of _Tollrajzok_ (Sketches with the Pen). His
+historical ballads and legends, styled _Arpadok_ (Pest, 1847, 2nd ed.
+1848), showed him to be a master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of
+his lyrical poems also are excellent, as, for example, _Balatoni
+Kagylok_ (Shells from the Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend
+_Bosnyak Zsofia_ (Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance _Frangepan
+Kristofne_ (Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prize
+of the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an
+historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title _Szent Laszlo_ (Saint
+Ladislaus) (Eger, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863). Garay was
+professor of Hungarian language and literature to the university of Pest
+in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness he died on the 5th of
+November 1853, in great want. A collective edition of his poems was
+published at Pest the year after his death by F. Ney (2nd ed. 1860), and
+several of his poems were translated by Kertbeny.
+
+  See _Garay Janos Osszes koltemenyei_ (2nd ed., Pest, 1860); and
+  _Dichtungen von Johann Garay_ (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).
+
+
+
+
+GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab. _gharbala_, to sift, and related
+to _ghirbal_, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin, probably
+from the Lat. _cribrum_, a sieve), originally a medieval commercial term
+in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to sort out, or to sift merchandize,
+such as corn, spices, &c., in order to separate what was good from the
+refuse or waste; hence to select the best of anything for retention.
+Similarly a "garbler" was an official who was appointed to sort out, or
+test the work of those who had already sorted, the spices or drugs
+offered for sale in the London markets. In this original sense the word
+is now obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, "garble" now
+means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary works,
+or from public speeches, some portion which twists, mutilates, or
+renders ineffective the meaning of the author or speaker.
+
+
+
+
+GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA (1724-1772), Portuguese lyric poet,
+was the son of Philippe Correa da Serra, a _fidalgo_ of the royal house
+who held an important post in the foreign office; his mother was of
+French descent. The poet's health was frail, and after going through a
+Jesuit school in Lisbon and learning English, French and Italian at
+home, he proceeded in 1742 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a
+legal career. He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was
+created a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with D.
+Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him to live in ease
+and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit reduced him to
+poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the _Lisbon Gazette_. In 1756, in
+conjunction with Cruz e Silva and others, Garcao founded the _Arcadia
+Lusitana_ to reform the prevailing bad taste in literature, identified
+with _Seicentismo_, which delighted in conceits, windy words and
+rhetorical phrases. The _Arcadia_ fulfilled its mission to some extent,
+but it lacked creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of
+inanition. Garcao was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing
+the name of "Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dissertations,
+with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at its meetings. He
+lived much in the society of the English residents in Lisbon, and he is
+supposed to have conceived a passion for an English married lady which
+completely absorbed him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his
+literary activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the night of the
+9th of April 1771, and committed to prison by Pombal, whose displeasure
+he had incurred by his independence of character. The immediate cause of
+his incarceration would appear to have been his connexion with a love
+intrigue between a young friend of his and the daughter of a Colonel
+Elsden, but he was never brought to trial, and the matter must remain in
+doubt. After much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order
+for her husband's release on the 10th of November 1772, but it came too
+late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life, Garcao
+expired that very day in the Limoeiro, at the age of forty-seven.
+
+Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment, scholarship and
+wide reading, Garcao set out to raise and purify the standard of
+poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by a classical
+simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets _ad sodales_ show a
+charming personality; his vigorous and elegant odes and epistles are
+sententious in tone and reveal an inspired poet and a man chastened by
+suffering. His two comedies in hendecasyllables, the _Theatro Novo_
+(played in January 1766) and the _Assemblea_, are excellent satires on
+the social life of the capital; and in the _Cantata de Dido_, included
+in the latter piece, the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of
+form, making this composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century
+poetry.
+
+  Garcao wrote little and spent much time on the _labor limae_. His
+  works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most complete and
+  accessible edition is that of J.A. de Azevedo Castro (Rome, 1888). An
+  English version of the _Cantata de Dido_ appeared in the Academy
+  (January 19th, 1895). See Innocencio da Silva, _Diccionario
+  bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. vi. pp. 386-393, and vol. xvii. pp.
+  182-184; also Dr Theophilo Braga, _A Arcadia Lusitana_ (Oporto, 1899).
+       (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL (1775-1832), Spanish singer and
+composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of January 1775. He became a
+chorister at the cathedral of Seville, and studied music under the best
+masters of that city. At seventeen he made his debut on the stage at
+Cadiz, in an operetta, in which were included songs of his own
+composition. Soon afterwards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold
+capacity of singer and composer. His reputation being established, he
+proceeded to Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in
+Paer's opera _Griselda_. Here also he was received with great applause,
+his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further
+improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself, where
+he continued his successes. His opera _Il Califo di Bagdad_ was
+favourably received at Naples in 1812, but his chief successes were
+again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera _La Morte di Tasso_
+was produced in 1821 in Paris, where it was followed in 1823 by his _Il
+Fazzoletto_. In 1824 he went to London, and thence proceeded to America
+(1825) with a company of artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and
+his daughter Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran.
+In New York was produced his opera _La Figlia dell' aria_ in 1827. He
+extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the point of
+returning to Europe in order to retire from public life when he was
+robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his way to Vera Cruz.
+Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired from the stage, and
+devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He died in Paris on the 2nd of
+June 1832. His method of teaching was famous, and some of the most
+celebrated singers of the early part of the century were amongst his
+pupils. He also wrote an excellent book on the art of singing called
+_Metodo di canto_, of which the essence was subsequently incorporated by
+his son Manoel in his admirable _Traite complet de l'art du chant_
+(1847). His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty in
+all, but with the exception of those quoted, and _El Poeta calculista_,
+produced when he was thirty, none are remarkable. Besides the children
+already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame Viardot (1821-1910),
+worthily continued the tradition for the best singing with which his
+name had become associated.
+
+His son, MANOEL GARCIA (1805-1906), who celebrated his hundredth
+birthday in London on the 17th of March 1905, was born at Madrid, and
+after his father's death devoted himself to teaching. He was a professor
+at the Paris Conservatoire from 1830 to 1848, from that time to 1895 was
+a professor at the Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous
+for his invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his
+position as the greatest representative of the old "_bel canto_" style
+of singing.
+
+
+
+
+GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787), Spanish dramatist, was
+born at Zafra on the 9th of March 1734, and was educated at Salamanca.
+At Madrid he soon attracted attention by his literary arrogance and
+handsome person; and at an early age became chief of the National
+Library, a post from which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of
+his numerous enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection
+of Spanish plays entitled _Theatro Hespanol_ (1785-1786) exposed him to
+severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason. He died at
+Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying into effect his
+avowed intention of reviving the national drama. His _Agamemnon vengado_
+derives from Sophocles, his _Jaire_ is translated from Voltaire, and
+even his once famous _Raquel_, though Spanish in subject, is classic in
+form.
+
+
+
+
+GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier and duellist, was
+a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain. He never commanded an army
+or rose to the position of a general, but he was a notable figure in the
+wars of the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th century, when
+personal prowess had still a considerable share in deciding the result
+of actions. His native town and its district, which lie between Talavera
+and Madrid, produced many of the most noted _conquistadores_ of America,
+including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth in the
+war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted him to shine in
+operations largely composed of night marches, escalades, surprises and
+hand-to-hand combats. The main scene of his achievements was in Italy,
+and he betook himself to it--on his own showing--not in search of glory,
+but because he had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas,
+in a street fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to
+Rome, then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation
+to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope
+Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the Romagna and
+took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier of the pope till he
+killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it necessary to pass over
+to the enemy. Now he became acquainted with the Colonnas, who
+appreciated his services. The wars between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the
+Catholic king) and Louis XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The
+Spanish general Gonsalvo de Cordoba, who knew his value, employed him
+and trusted him; and he took part in all the wars of Italy on the
+frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube, till
+1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many Munchausen-like stories
+of personal prowess. It was said that he held a bridge single-handed
+against 200 Frenchmen, that he stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so
+forth. In the "Brief Summary" of his life and deeds attributed to him,
+and printed at the end of the _Chronicle of the Great Captain_,
+published in 1584 at Alcala de Henares, he lays no claim to having done
+more than was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in
+1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping-match with some of the younger
+officers of the army. His body was carried to his native town Trujillo,
+and buried in the church of Santa Maria Mayor in 1545.
+
+
+
+
+GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO (1812-1884), Spanish dramatist, was born at
+Chiclana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July 1812, and studied medicine in his
+native town. In 1832 he removed to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by
+translating plays of Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success,
+he was on the point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as
+the author of _El Trovador_, which was played for the first time on the
+1st of March 1836. Garcia Gutierrez never surpassed this first effort,
+which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement in Spain,
+and which became known all over Europe through Verdi's music. His next
+great success was _Simon Bocanegra_ (1843), but, as his plays were not
+lucrative, he emigrated to Spanish America, working as a journalist in
+Cuba and Mexico till 1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of
+his later period are a _zarzuela_ entitled _El Grumete_ (1853), _La
+Venganza catalana_ (1864) and _Juan Lorenzo_ (1865). He became head of
+the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th of August
+1884. His _Poesias_ (1840) and another volume of lyrics, entitled _Luz y
+tinieblas_ (1842), are unimportant; but the brilliant versification of
+his plays, and his power of analysing feminine emotions, give him a
+foremost place among the Spanish dramatists of the 19th century.
+
+
+
+
+GARD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part of the old
+province of Languedoc. Pop. (1906) 421,166. Area 2270 sq. m. It is
+bounded N. by the departments of Lozere and Ardeche, E. by the Rhone,
+which separates it from Vaucluse and Bouches-du-Rhone, S. by the
+Mediterranean, S.W. by Herault and W. by Aveyron. Gard is divided into
+three sharply-defined regions. Its north-western districts are occupied
+by the range of the Cevennes, which on the frontier of Lozere attain a
+height of 5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its
+fruitful valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and
+the chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the mountains
+are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a dry, hilly region
+of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation of cereals, the vine
+and olive, stretches from the foot of the Cevennes over the centre of
+the department, covering about half its area. The southern portion,
+which extends to the sea, and was probably at one time covered by it, is
+a low plain with numerous lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is
+prosperous, and comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.
+
+Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E., and the
+Ardeche, the lower course of which forms part of its boundary on the N.,
+the principal rivers are the Ceze, Gard, Vidourle and Herault. The most
+northern of these is the Ceze, which rises in the Cevennes, and after a
+course of about 50 m. in an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above
+Roquemaure. The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its
+name, is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cevennes from
+several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a length
+of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course it flows through a
+succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the melting of the snows on
+the Cevennes is subject to inundations, which often cause great damage.
+Its waters not infrequently rise 18 or 20 ft. in a few hours, and its
+bed is sometimes increased in width to nearly a mile. Near Remoulins it
+is crossed by a celebrated Roman aqueduct--the Pont du Gard (see
+AQUEDUCT). The Vidourle flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near
+Le Vigan, and after a course of about 50 m. falls into the sea. Below
+Sommieres it forms the western boundary of the department. The Herault
+has its source and part of its course in the west of Gard. The Canal de
+Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which
+communicates with the Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by means of the
+Grand-Roubine canal.
+
+The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-west; it is
+rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The cold and violent
+north-west wind known as the mistral is its worst drawback. Les Fumades
+(near Allegre) and Euzet have mineral springs. The chief grain crops are
+wheat and oats. Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed
+for its cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of
+which is of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk-worms it ranks
+first among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the olive,
+mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated and yields
+excellent red and white wines. The department is rich in minerals, and
+the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt, zinc, lead and copper, which
+are for the most part situated in the neighbourhoods of Alais and La
+Grand'-Combe, constitute one of the chief sources of its wealth. Great
+quantities of salt are obtained from the salt marshes along the coast.
+The quarries of building and other stone employ a considerable number of
+workmen. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are extensive,
+and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre, cotton
+and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Anduze), liquorice,
+gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There are also breweries
+and distilleries, and important metallurgical works, the chief of which
+are those of Besseges. The exports of Gard include coal, lignite, coke,
+asphalt, building-stone, iron, steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives,
+grapes and truffles.
+
+The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is divided into
+the arrondissements of Nimes, Alais, Uzes and Le Vigan, with 40 cantons
+and 351 communes. The chief town is Nimes, which is the seat of a
+bishopric of the province of Avignon and of a court of appeal. Gard
+belongs to the 15th military region, which has its headquarters at
+Marseilles, and to the academie (educational division) of Montpellier.
+Nimes, Alais, Uzes, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire, Saint-Gilles, Besseges, La
+Grand'-Combe and Villeneuve-les-Avignon are the principal places.
+Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont-St-Esprit the Rhone is crossed
+by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long built by the Pontiff
+brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with several old houses, carries on
+silk-spinning.
+
+
+
+
+GARDA, LAKE OF (the _Lacus Benacus_ of the Romans), the most easterly
+and the most extensive of the great Lombard lakes, being only surpassed
+in the Alpine region by those of Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme
+northern extremity (Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in
+1517), the whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of
+Verona and Brescia. Its broad basin orographically represents the
+southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river now flows
+through a narrow trench which is separated from the lake by the long
+narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.). Nowadays the lake is fed by
+the Sarca, that flows in at its north end from the glaciers of the
+Adamello, while at the southern extremity of the lake the Mincio flows
+out, on its way to join the Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq.
+m., its length is 32-1/4 m., its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the
+height of its surface above sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth
+yet measured is 1916 ft. Its upper or northern end is narrow, but
+between Garda (E.) and Salo (W.) the lake expands gradually into a
+nearly circular basin, which at the southern extremity is divided into
+two parts by the long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the
+southern shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this
+conformation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds, which
+Virgil alludes to in his well-known line (_Georg_. ii. line 160):
+_fluctibus et fremitu assurgens, Benace, marino_. The most dangerous of
+these winds is the _Borea_ or _Suer_, that sweeps down from the north as
+through a funnel. In the southern portion of the lake the _Vinessa_, an
+E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. The _Ora_ is a regular wind coming from
+the east which, on reaching the lake, blows from S. to N. The steep
+grey limestone crags of Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake,
+contrast strongly with the rich vegetation on the western and southern
+shores. The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to
+Salo is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that not
+merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing lemons, figs,
+mulberries, olives, &c.), but is frequented in winter, and has been
+given the name of the _Riviera Benacense_. The lovely promontory of
+Sermione, at the southern end of the lake, has also an extremely
+luxuriant vegetation, while it contains many remains of buildings of
+Roman and later date, having been the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided
+here and celebrated its beauties in many of his poems. In 1827 a boat
+with paddles set in motion by horses was put on the lake, but the first
+steamer dates only from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W.
+respectively of the promontory of Sermione, are the towns of Peschiera
+(14-1/4 m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Desenzano (17-1/2 m.
+by rail from Brescia on the west), which are 8-3/4 m. distant from each
+other. On the west shore of the lake are Salo, Toscolano, Gargnano and
+Limone, while the rugged east shore can boast only of Bardolino and
+Garda. At the northern tip of the lake, and in Tirol, is Riva, the most
+considerable town on the lake, and 15-1/2 m. by rail from the Mori
+station on the main Brenner line.     (W. A. B. C.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU, COUNT (1766-1818), French general and
+diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January 1766. He entered the army
+and rose rapidly during the revolutionary wars, becoming captain in 1793.
+In May 1799 he distinguished himself by saving a division of the French
+army which was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of
+Bassignana, and was named at once brigadier-general by Moreau. He
+incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty shortly before
+the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in 1805 was appointed to be
+aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief distinction, however, was to be
+won in the diplomatic sphere. In the spring of 1807, when Russia and
+Prussia were at war with France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia
+was also engaged in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a
+mission to the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the
+east of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian
+alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle; and
+Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cementing of that
+alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up for Gardane, and
+signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as showing the strong oriental
+trend of the emperor's policy. France was to guarantee the integrity of
+Persia, to recognize that Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians)
+belonged to the shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring
+that territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms, officers
+and workmen, in the number and to the amount demanded by him. Napoleon on
+his side required Persia to declare war against Great Britain, to expel
+all Britons from her territory, and to come to an understanding with the
+Afghans with a view to a joint Franco-Perso-Afghan invasion of India.
+Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long and
+dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at Teheran in
+December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-Russian treaty at Tilsit in
+July 1807 rendered the mission abortive. Persia longed only for help
+against Russia and had no desire, when all hope of that was past, to
+attack India. The shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant
+to France a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely
+replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir John Malcolm
+to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally, however, Gardane saw
+that nothing much was to be hoped for in the changed situation of
+European affairs, and abruptly left the country (April 1809). This
+conduct was not wholly approved by Napoleon, but he named him count and
+in 1810 attached him to Massena's army in Portugal. There, during the
+disastrous retreat from Santarem to Almeida, he suffered a check which
+brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no notice.
+He died in 1818. The report which he sent to Champagny (dated April
+23rd, 1809) on the state of Persia and the prospects of a successful
+invasion of India is of great interest. He admitted the difficulties of
+this enterprise, but thought that a force of picked French troops, aided
+by Persians and Afghans, might under favourable conditions penetrate into
+India by way of Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were
+distracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius.
+
+  See Count Alfred de Gardane, _Mission du general Gardane en Perse_
+  (Paris, 1865); and P.A.L. de Driault, _La Politique orientale de
+  Napoleon: Sebastiani et Gardane_ (Paris, 1904).     (J. Hl. R.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDELEGEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on the right bank of
+the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main line of railway
+Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a Roman Catholic and three
+Evangelical churches, a hospital, founded in 1285, and a high-grade
+school. There are considerable manufactures, notably agricultural
+machinery and buttons, and its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was
+founded in the 10th century, and was for a long time the seat of a line
+of counts. It suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in
+1775 was burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave Louis
+I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the Mild of
+Brunswick.
+
+
+
+
+GARDEN (from O. Fr. _gardin_, mod. Fr. _jardin_; this, like our words
+"garth," a paddock attached to a building, and "yard," comes from a
+Teutonic word for an enclosure which appears in Gothic as _gards_ and
+O.H. Ger. _gart_, cf. Dutch _gaarde_ and Ger. _garten_), the ground
+enclosed and cultivated for the growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables
+(see HORTICULTURE). The word is also used for grounds laid out
+ornamentally, used as places of public entertainment. Such were the
+famous Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in
+zoological gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or
+streets. From the fact that Epicurus (q.v.) taught in the gardens at
+Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as [Greek:
+hoi apo ton kepon] (so Diog. Laertius x. 10); and Cicero (_De finibus_
+v. 1. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the _Horti Epicuri_. Thus as the
+"Academy" refers to the Platonic and the "Porch" ([Greek: stoa]) to the
+Stoic school, so the "Garden" is the name given to the Epicurean school
+of philosophy. Apollodorus was known as [Greek: kepotyrannos], the
+tyrant of the garden.
+
+
+
+
+GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaceae, containing
+about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs, natives of the warmer
+parts of the old world. Several are grown in stoves or greenhouses for
+their handsome, sweet-scented white flowers. The flowers are developed
+singly at the end of a branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or
+salver-shaped with a long tube. The double forms of _Gardenia florida_
+(a native of China) and _G. radicans_ (a native of Japan) are amongst
+the most beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias
+are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by
+cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the growing
+season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy bug, green
+fly, red spider and scale-insect.
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, JAMES (1688-1745), Scottish soldier, was born at Carriden in
+Linlithgowshire, on the 11th of January 1688. At the age of fourteen he
+entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch service, and was afterwards
+present at the battle of Ramillies, where he was wounded. He
+subsequently served in different cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was
+advanced to the rank of lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of
+colonel. He fell at the battle of Prestonpans, the 21st of September
+1745. The circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's
+_Waverley_. In his early years he was distinguished for his recklessness
+and profligacy, but in 1719 a supernatural vision, as he regarded it,
+led to his conversion, and from that time he lived a life of great
+devoutness and of thorough consistency with his Christian profession. Dr
+Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk, author of an autobiography, says that he
+was "very ostentatious" about his conversion--speaks of him as weak, and
+plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in Col. Gardiner's
+account of his sins.
+
+  His life was written by Dr Philip Doddridge and has been often
+  reprinted.
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English historian, son of Rawson
+Boddam Gardiner, was born near Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March
+1829. He was educated at Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he
+obtained a first class in _literae humaniores_. He was subsequently
+elected to fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some
+years he was professor of modern history at King's College, London, and
+devoted his life to historical work. He is the historian of the Puritan
+revolution, and has written its history in a series of volumes,
+originally published under different titles, beginning with the
+accession of James I.; the seventeenth (the third volume of the _History
+of the Commonwealth and Protectorate_) appeared in 1901. This was
+completed in two volumes by C.H. Firth as _The Last Years of the
+Protectorate_ (1909). The series is _History of England from the
+Accession of James I. to the Outbreak of the Civil War_, 1603-1642 (10
+vols.); _History of the Great Civil War_, 1642-1649 (4 vols.); and
+_History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate, 1649-1660_. His treatment
+is exhaustive and philosophical, taking in, along with political and
+constitutional history, the changes in religion, thought and sentiment
+during his period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original
+authorities on which his work is founded many of great value exist only
+in manuscript, and his researches in public and private collections of
+manuscripts at home, and in the archives of Simancas, Venice, Rome,
+Brussels and Paris, were indefatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is
+universally acknowledged. He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by
+the fact of his descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly
+written of it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his
+judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his
+appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of perception
+and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these qualities it will be
+enough to refer to what he says of the characters of James I., Bacon,
+Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On constitutional matters he writes with
+an insight to be attained only by the study of political philosophy,
+discussing in a masterly fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes
+of government proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a
+prominent place to everything which illustrates human progress in moral
+and religious, as well as political conceptions, and specially to the
+rise and development of the idea of religious toleration, finding his
+authorities not only in the words and actions of men of mark, but in the
+writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers, whose essays indicate
+currents in the tide of public opinion. His record of the relations
+between England and other states proves his thorough knowledge of
+contemporary European history, and is rendered specially valuable by his
+researches among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound
+for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.
+
+Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years which it
+covers are a period of exceptional importance in many directions, and
+the actions and characters of the principal persons in it demand careful
+analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an exaggerated importance to some
+of the authorities which he was the first to bring to light, to see a
+general tendency in what may only be the expression of an individual
+eccentricity, to rely too much on ambassadors' reports which may have
+been written for some special end, to enter too fully into the details
+of diplomatic correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not
+the result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely
+unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals constantly to the
+intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom picturesque, though
+in describing a few famous scenes, such as the execution of Charles I.,
+he writes with pathos and dignity. The minuteness of his narrative
+detracts from its interest; though his arrangement is generally good,
+here and there the reader finds the thread of a subject broken by the
+intrusion of incidents not immediately connected with it, and does not
+pick it up again without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his
+supreme qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of
+character; his work lacks enthusiasm, and leaves the reader cold and
+unmoved. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, it is not without
+beauties, for it is marked by loftiness of thought, a love of purity
+and truth, and refinement in taste and feeling. He wrote other books,
+mostly on the same period, but his great history is that by which his
+name will live. It is a worthy result of a life of unremitting labour, a
+splendid monument of historical scholarship. His position as an
+historian was formally acknowledged: in 1862 he was given a civil list
+pension of L150 per annum, "in recognition of his valuable contributions
+to the history of England"; he was honorary D.C.L. of Oxford, LL.D. of
+Edinburgh, and Ph.D. of Gottingen, and honorary student of Christ
+Church, Oxford; and in 1894 he declined the appointment of regius
+professor of modern history at Oxford, lest its duties should interfere
+with the accomplishment of his history. He died on the 24th of February
+1902.
+
+  Among the more noteworthy of Gardiner's separate works are: _Prince
+  Charles and the Spanish Marriage_ (2 vols., London, 1869);
+  _Constitutional Documents of the Puritan Revolution, 1625-1660_ (1st
+  ed., Oxford, 1889; 2nd ed., Oxford, 1899); _Oliver Cromwell_ (London,
+  1901); _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (London, 1897); _Outline of English
+  History_ (1st ed., London, 1887; 2nd ed., London, 1896); and
+  _Student's History of England_ (2 vols., 1st ed., London, 1890-1891;
+  2nd ed., London, 1891-1892). He edited collections of papers for the
+  Camden Society, and from 1891 was editor of the _English Historical
+  Review_.     (W. Hu.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, STEPHEN (c. 1493-1555), English bishop and lord chancellor,
+was a native of Bury St Edmunds. The date of his birth as commonly
+given, 1483, seems to be about ten years too early, and surmises which
+have passed current that he was some one's illegitimate child are of no
+authority. His father is now known to have been John Gardiner, a
+substantial cloth merchant of the town where he was born (see his will,
+printed in _Proceedings of the Suffolk Archaeological Institute_, i.
+329), who took care to give him a good education. In 1511 he, being then
+a lad, met Erasmus at Paris (Nichols's _Epistles of Erasmus_, ii. 12,
+13). But he had probably already been to Cambridge, where he studied at
+Trinity Hall and greatly distinguished himself in the classics,
+especially in Greek. He afterwards devoted himself to the canon and
+civil law, in which subjects he attained so great a proficiency that no
+one could dispute his pre-eminence. He received the degree of doctor of
+civil law in 1520, and of canon law in the following year.
+
+Ere long his abilities attracted the notice of Cardinal Wolsey, who made
+him his secretary, and in this capacity he is said to have been with him
+at More Park in Hertfordshire, when the conclusion of the celebrated
+treaty of the More brought Henry VIII. and the French ambassadors
+thither. It is stated, and with great probability, that this was the
+occasion on which he was first introduced to the king's notice, but he
+does not appear to have been actively engaged in Henry's service till
+three years later. In that of Wolsey he undoubtedly acquired a very
+intimate knowledge of foreign politics, and in 1527 he and Sir Thomas
+More were named commissioners on the part of England in arranging a
+treaty with the French ambassadors for the support of an army in Italy
+against the emperor. That year he accompanied Wolsey on his important
+diplomatic mission to France, the splendour and magnificence of which
+are so graphically described by Cavendish. Among the imposing train who
+went with the cardinal--including, as it did, several noblemen and privy
+councillors--Gardiner alone seems to have been acquainted with the real
+heart of the matter which made this embassy a thing of such peculiar
+moment. Henry was then particularly anxious to cement his alliance with
+Francis I., and gain his co-operation as far as possible in the object
+on which he had secretly set his heart--a divorce from Catherine of
+Aragon. In the course of his progress through France he received orders
+from Henry to send back his secretary Gardiner, or, as he was called at
+court, Master Stevens, for fresh instructions; to which he was obliged
+to reply that he positively could not spare him as he was the only
+instrument he had in advancing the king's "secret matter." Next year
+Gardiner, still in the service of Wolsey, was sent by him to Italy along
+with Edward Fox, provost of King's College, Cambridge, to promote the
+same business with the pope. His despatches on this occasion are still
+extant, and whatever we may think of the cause on which he was engaged,
+they certainly give a wonderful impression of the zeal and ability with
+which he discharged his functions. Here his perfect familiarity with the
+canon law gave him a great advantage. He was instructed to procure from
+the pope a decretal commission, laying down principles of law by which
+Wolsey and Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal.
+The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not only unusual
+but clearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at Orvieto, and had just
+recently escaped from captivity at St Angelo at the hands of the
+imperialists. But fear of offending the emperor could not have induced
+him to refuse a really legitimate request from a king like Henry. He
+naturally referred the question to the cardinals about him; with whom
+Gardiner held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little
+browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of a
+spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the wanderer his
+way? The king and lords of England would be driven to think that God had
+taken away from the Holy See the key of knowledge, and that pontifical
+laws which were not clear to the pope himself might as well be committed
+to the flames.
+
+This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was obliged to
+be content with a general commission for Campeggio and Wolsey to try the
+cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw, was quite inadequate for the
+purpose in view; and he again instructed Gardiner, while thanking the
+pope for the commission actually granted, to press him once more by very
+urgent pleas, to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was
+only to be shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise,
+he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even be
+tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At last the
+pope--to his own bitter regret afterwards--gave what was desired on the
+express conditions named, that Campeggio was to show it to the king and
+Wolsey and no one else, and then destroy it, the two legates holding
+their court under the general commission. After obtaining this Gardiner
+returned home; but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings
+were delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once more
+to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing. The pope would
+make no further concessions, and would not even promise not to revoke
+the cause to Rome, as he did very shortly after.
+
+Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was appointed
+the king's secretary. He had been already some years archdeacon of
+Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was added to it in March 1529,
+which two years later he resigned for that of Leicester. In 1530 he was
+sent to Cambridge to procure the decision of the university as to the
+unlawfulness of marriage with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance
+with the new plan devised for settling the question without the pope's
+intervention. In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of
+artifice, more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In
+November 1531 the king rewarded him for his services with the bishopric
+of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was unexpected,
+and was accompanied by expressions from the king which made it still
+more honourable, as showing that if he had been in some things too
+subservient, it was from no abject, self-seeking policy of his own.
+Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remonstrated boldly with his sovereign
+on some points, and Henry now reminded him of the fact. "I have often
+_squared_ with you, Gardiner," he said familiarly, "but I love you never
+the worse, as the bishopric I give will convince you." In 1532,
+nevertheless, he excited some displeasure in the king by the part he
+took in the preparation of the famous "Answer of the Ordinaries" to the
+complaints brought against them in the House of Commons. On this subject
+he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own defence.
+
+His next important action was not so creditable; for he was, not
+exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but, according to
+Cranmer's own expression, "assistant" to him as counsel for the king,
+when the archbishop, in the absence of Queen Catherine, pronounced her
+marriage with Henry null and void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately
+afterwards he was sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between
+the pope and Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry
+stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his most cordial
+ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause in the matter
+of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner intimated the
+appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case the pope should
+venture to proceed to sentence against him. This appeal, and also one on
+behalf of Cranmer presented with it, were of Gardiner's drawing up. In
+1535 he and other bishops were called upon to vindicate the king's new
+title of "Supreme Head of the Church of England." The result was his
+celebrated treatise _De vera obedientia_, the ablest, certainly, of all
+the vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an
+unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his diocese. He
+was also employed to answer the pope's brief threatening to deprive
+Henry of his kingdom.
+
+During the next few years he was engaged in various embassies in France
+and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that he had little influence
+upon the king's councils. But in 1539 he took part in the enactment of
+the severe statute of the Six Articles, which led to the resignation of
+Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and the persecution of the Protestant party.
+In 1540, on the death of Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected
+chancellor of the university of Cambridge. A few years later he
+attempted, in concert with others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon
+Archbishop Cranmer in connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and
+but for the personal intervention of the king he would probably have
+succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal supremacy,
+a thorough opponent of the Reformation in a doctrinal point of view, and
+it was suspected that he even repented his advocacy of the royal
+supremacy. He certainly had not approved of Henry's general treatment of
+the church, especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was
+frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he schooled
+himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of his own, named
+German Gardiner, whom he employed as his secretary, was put to death for
+treason in reference to the king's supremacy, and his enemies insinuated
+to the king that he himself was of his secretary's way of thinking. But
+in truth the king had need of him quite as much as he had of Cranmer;
+for it was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious to
+prove that England had not fallen away from the faith, while Cranmer's
+authority as primate was necessary to upholding that supremacy. Thus
+Gardiner and the archbishop maintained opposite sides of the king's
+church policy; and though Gardiner was encouraged by the king to put up
+articles against the archbishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could
+always rely on the king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining
+ground in high places, especially after the king's marriage with
+Catherine Parr; and there seems to be some truth in the story that the
+queen herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner,
+with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions in
+conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men of the Court
+were condemned at Windsor and three of them were burned. The fourth, who
+was the musician Marbeck, was pardoned by Gardiner's procurement.
+
+Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., his name was
+omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry was believed to
+have intended making him one of his executors. Under Edward VI. he was
+completely opposed to the policy of the dominant party both in
+ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The religious changes he objected
+to both on principle and on the ground of their being moved during the
+king's minority, and he resisted Cranmer's project of a general
+visitation. His remonstrances, however, were met by his own committal to
+the Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his
+imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released, it was not long before he
+was called before the council, and, refusing to give them satisfaction
+on some points, was thrown into the Tower, where he continued during the
+whole remainder of the reign, a period slightly over five years. During
+this time he in vain demanded his liberty, and to be called before
+parliament as a peer of the realm. His bishopric was taken from him and
+given to Dr Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before
+been made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the duke
+of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the Tower
+along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into London, set them
+all at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his bishopric and appointed
+lord chancellor, and he set the crown on the queen's head at her
+coronation. He also opened her first parliament and for some time was
+her leading councillor.
+
+He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of the
+work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years--to
+vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness of her
+mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to recant what he
+himself had written touching the royal supremacy. It is said that he
+wrote a formal _Palinodia_ or retractation of his book _De vera
+obedientia_, but it does not seem to be now extant; and the reference is
+probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday 1554, after Cardinal Pole had
+absolved the kingdom from schism. As chancellor he had the onerous task
+of negotiating the queen's marriage treaty with Philip, to which he
+shared the general repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In
+executing it, however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous
+for England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards
+should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the
+country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconciliation of
+the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high favour. How far
+he was responsible for the persecutions which afterwards arose is a
+debated question. He no doubt approved of the act, which passed the
+House of Lords while he presided there as chancellor, for the revival of
+the heresy laws. Neither is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on
+Bishop Hooper, and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not
+exactly to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The
+natural consequence of this, indeed, was that when they declined, even
+as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were handed over to the
+secular power to be burned. Gardiner, however, undoubtedly did his best
+to persuade them to save themselves by a course which he conscientiously
+followed himself; nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission
+along with a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he
+could very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese no
+victim of the persecution is known to have suffered till after his
+death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents, there are
+strong evidences that his natural disposition was humane and generous.
+In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the English commissioners
+to promote peace with France; but their efforts were ineffectual. In
+October 1555 he again opened parliament as lord chancellor, but towards
+the end of the month he fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of
+November, when he died over sixty years of age.
+
+Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the subject of so
+much ill-merited abuse at the hands of popular historians. That his
+virtue was not equal to every trial must be admitted, but that he was
+anything like the morose and narrow-minded bigot he is commonly
+represented there is nothing whatever to show. He has been called
+ambitious, turbulent, crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a
+good many other things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in
+addition to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was
+despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of him as a
+tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted to remain five
+years in prison rather than change his principles is not very clearly
+explained; and as to his being despised, we have seen already that
+neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any means despicable. The truth
+is, there is not a single divine or statesman of that day whose course
+throughout was so thoroughly consistent. He was no friend to the
+Reformation, it is true, but he was at least a conscientious opponent.
+In doctrine he adhered to the old faith from first to last, while as a
+question of church policy, the only matter for consideration with him
+was whether the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally
+justifiable.
+
+His merits as a theologian it is unnecessary to discuss; it is as a
+statesman and a lawyer that he stands conspicuous. But his learning
+even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part that he was allowed
+to take in the drawing up of doctrinal formularies in Henry VIII.'s time
+is not clear; but at a later date he was the author of various tracts in
+defence of the Real Presence against Cranmer, some of which, being
+written in prison, were published abroad under a feigned name.
+Controversial writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he
+had several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry VIII.'s
+ambassador.
+
+He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great interest
+especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge. He was,
+however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing the language
+introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to him and Sir Thomas
+Smith upon the subject, in which, according to Ascham, his opponents
+showed themselves the better critics, but he the superior genius. In his
+own household he loved to take in young university men of promise; and
+many whom he thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as
+bishops, ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was
+spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special abode of
+the muses.
+
+He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his effigy is
+still to be seen.     (J. Ga.)
+
+
+
+
+GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the confluence of
+Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m. below Augusta. Pop. (1890)
+5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-born); (1910) 5311. It is served by the
+Maine Central railway. The site of the city is only a few feet above
+sea-level, and the Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this
+point; the water of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a
+mile, furnishes the city with good power for its manufactures (chiefly
+paper, machine-shop products, and shoes). The city exports considerable
+quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by Dr
+Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement was called
+Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a town, the founder
+being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston. But in 1803, when that part
+of Pittston which lay on the W. bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as
+a separate town and new life was given to it by the grandson of the
+founder, the present name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a city
+in 1849. The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a
+population of 1177 in 1900.
+
+
+
+
+GARDNER, PERCY (1846-   ), English classical archaeologist, was born in
+London, and was educated at the City of London school and Christ's
+College, Cambridge (fellow, 1872). He was Disney professor of
+archaeology at Cambridge from 1880 to 1887, and was then appointed
+professor of classical archaeology at Oxford, where he had a stimulating
+influence on the study of ancient, and particularly Greek, art. He also
+became prominent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his
+works are: _Types of Greek Coins_ (1883); _A Numismatic Commentary on
+Pausanias_ (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); _New Chapters in Greek
+History_ (1892), an account of excavations in Greece and Asia Minor;
+_Manual of Greek Antiquities_ (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd ed. 1898); _Grammar
+of Greek Art_ (1905); _Exploratio Evangelica_ (1899), on the origin of
+Christian belief; _A Historic View of the New Testament_ (1901); _Growth
+of Christianity_ (1907).
+
+His brother, ERNEST ARTHUR GARDNER (1862-   ), educated at the City of
+London school and Caius College, Cambridge (fellow, 1885), is also well
+known as an archaeologist. From 1887 to 1895 he was director of the
+British School of Archaeology at Athens, and later became professor of
+archaeology at University College, London. His publications include:
+_Introduction to Greek Epigraphy_ (1887); _Ancient Athens_ (1902);
+_Handbook of Greek Sculpture_ (1905); _Six Greek Sculptors_ (1910). He
+was elected first Public Orator of London University in 1910.
+
+
+
+
+GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Pop.
+(1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were foreign-born; (1910
+census) 14,699. The township is traversed by the Boston & Maine railway.
+It has an area of 21.4 sq. m. of hill country, well watered with streams
+and ponds, and includes the villages of Gardner (15 m. by rail W. of
+Fitchburg), South Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the
+state colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital, and
+the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a memorial to Levi
+Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local manufacturer of chairs, who
+invented various kinds of chair-making machinery. By far the principal
+industry of the township (dating from 1805) is the manufacture of
+chairs, the township having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the
+world; among the other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages,
+silver-ware and oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the
+township was valued at $5,019,019, the furniture product alone amounting
+to $4,267,064, or 85.2% of the total. Gardner, formed from parts of
+Ashburnham, Templeton, Westminster and Winchenden, was incorporated in
+1785, and was named in honour of Col. Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a
+patriot leader of Massachusetts, who was mortally wounded in the battle
+of Bunker Hill.
+
+  See W.D. Herrick, _History of the Town of Gardner_ (Gardner, 1878),
+  covering the years 1785-1878.
+
+
+
+
+GARE-FOWL[1] (Icelandic, _Geirfugl_; Gaelic, _Gearbhul_), the anglicized
+form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now considered extinct,
+formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish islands, the Great Auk of
+most English book-writers, and the _Alca impennis_ of Linnaeus. In size
+it was hardly less than a tame goose, and in appearance it much
+resembled its smaller and surviving relative the razor-bill (_Alca
+torda_); but the glossy black of its head was varied by a large patch of
+white occupying nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in
+place of the razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore
+eight or more deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and
+the ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise the
+coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory evidence that
+the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that of the breeding-season
+just as is ordinarily the case in other members of the family _Alcidae_
+to which it belongs. The most striking characteristic of the gare-fowl,
+however, was the comparatively abortive condition of its wings, the
+distal portions of which, though the bird was just about twice the
+linear dimensions of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same
+size as in that species--proving, if more direct evidence were wanting,
+its inability to fly.
+
+[Illustration: Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.]
+
+The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is one which
+has been repeated so often, and in books of such generally good repute
+and wide dispersal, that a successful refutation seems almost hopeless.
+This is the notion that it was a bird possessing a very high northern
+range, and consequently to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this
+error arose would take too long to tell, but the fact remains
+indisputable that, setting aside general assertions resting on no
+evidence worthy of attention, there is but a single record deserving any
+credit at all of a single example of the species having been observed
+within the Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who
+had the best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.[2]
+It is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the
+better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements have
+been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another error which,
+if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since Sir R. Owen
+unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird "has not been specially
+hunted down like the dodo and dinornis, but by degrees has become more
+scarce." If any reliance can be placed upon the testimony of former
+observers, the first part of this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the
+dodo all we know is that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at
+the time the island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had
+ceased to exist--the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture,
+and a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's acts
+it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (_Phil. Trans._, 1869, p.
+354). The extinction of the _Dinornis_ lies beyond the range of recorded
+history. Supposing it even to have taken place at the very latest period
+as yet suggested--and there is much to be urged in favour of such a
+supposition--little but oral tradition remains to tell us how its
+extirpation was effected. That it existed after New Zealand was
+inhabited by man is indeed certain, and there is nothing extraordinary
+in the proved fact that the early settlers (of whatever race they were)
+killed and ate moas. But evidence that the whole population of those
+birds was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is wholly
+wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In Iceland there
+is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down from their lips by
+one of the most careful naturalists who ever lived, John Wolley, that
+the latest survivors of the species were caught and killed by
+expeditions expressly organized with the view of supplying the demands
+of caterers to the various museums of Europe. In like manner the fact is
+incontestable that its breeding-stations in the western part of the
+Atlantic were for three centuries regularly visited and devastated with
+the combined objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from
+very early days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard
+Bonnycastle (_Newfoundland in 1842_, i. p. 232), was owing to "the
+ruthless trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the
+chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared through
+volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old Geirfuglasker drove
+some at least of the birds which frequented it to a rock nearer the
+mainland, where they were exposed to danger from which they had in their
+former abode been comparatively free; yet on this rock (Eldey =
+fire-island) they were "specially hunted down" whenever opportunity
+offered, until the stock there was wholly extirpated in 1844.
+
+A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould in his _Birds
+of Great Britain_, where he says that "formerly this bird was plentiful
+in all the northern parts of the British Islands, particularly the
+Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commencement of the 19th century,
+however, its fate appears to have been sealed; for though it doubtless
+existed, and probably bred, up to the year 1830, its numbers annually
+diminished until they became so few that the species could not hold its
+own." Now of the Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795,
+says in his posthumously-published _Fauna Orcadensis_ that he could not
+find it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 1812 he was told,
+says Montagu (_Orn. Dict. App._), that one male only had made its
+appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully hunted,
+but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate had been
+killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen there since. As
+to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality recorded for it, and the
+last example known to have been obtained there, or in its neighbourhood,
+was that given to Fleming (_Edinb. Phil. Journ._ x. p. 96) in 1821 or
+1822, having been some time before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass.
+That the gare-fowl was not plentiful in either group of islands is
+sufficiently obvious, as also is the impossibility of its continuing to
+breed "up to the year 1830."
+
+But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors. As on the
+death of an ancient hero myths gathered round his memory as quickly as
+clouds round the setting sun, so have stories, probable as well as
+impossible, accumulated over the true history of this species, and it
+behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise more than common
+caution in sifting the truth from the large mass of error. Americans
+have asserted that the specimen which belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar
+College) was obtained by him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there
+is Macgillivray's distinct statement (_Brit. Birds_, v. p. 359) that
+Audubon procured it in London. The account given by Degland (_Orn.
+Europ._ ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his
+work by M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd
+that it deserves to be quoted in full: "Il se trouvait en assez grand
+nombre il y a une quinzaine d'annees aux Orcades; mais le ministre
+presbyterien dans le Mainland, en offrant une forte prime aux personnes
+qui lui apportaient cet oiseau, a ete cause de sa destruction sur ces
+iles." The same author claims the species as a visitor to the shores of
+France on the testimony of Hardy (_Annuaire normand_, 1841, p. 298),
+which he grievously misquotes both in his own work and in another place
+(_Naumannia_, 1855, p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English
+writer (_Nat. Hist. Rev._, 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.
+
+John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former resorts of the
+gare-fowl, or "penguin," as it was there called, in the Newfoundland
+seas, a place where bones had before been obtained by Stuvitz, and
+natural mummies so lately as 1863 and 1864. Landing on this rock at the
+risk of his life, he brought off a rich cargo of its remains, belonging
+to no fewer than fifty birds, some of them in size exceeding any that
+had before been known. His collection was subsequently dispersed, most
+of the specimens finding their way into various public museums.
+
+  A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting the
+  gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which are
+  without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be especially
+  mentioned:--J.J.S. Steenstrup, "Et Bidrag til Geirfuglens
+  Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskaben om dens tidligere
+  Udbredningskreds," _Naturh. Foren. Vidensk. Meddelelser_ (Copenhagen,
+  1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," _Trans. Tyneside Nat.
+  Field Club_, iv. p. 111; "Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's Researches in
+  Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1861), p. 374; W. Preyer,
+  "_Uber Plautus impennis_," _Journ. fur Orn._ (1862), pp. 110, 337;
+  K.E. von Baer, "Uber das Aussterben der Tierarten in physiologischer
+  und nicht physiologischer Hinsicht," _Bull. de l'Acad. Imp. de
+  St-Petersb._ vi. p. 513; R. Owen, "Description of the Skeleton of the
+  Great Auk," _Trans. Zool. Soc._ v. p. 317; "The Gare-fowl and its
+  Historians," _Nat. Hist. Rev._ v. p. 467; J.H. Gurney, jun., "On the
+  Great Auk," _Zoologist_ (2nd ser.), pp. 1442, 1639; H. Reeks, "Great
+  Auk in Newfoundland," &c., _op. cit._ p. 1854; V. Fatio, "Sur l'Alca
+  impennis," _Bull. Soc. Orn. Suisse_, ii. pp. 1, 80, 147; "On existing
+  Remains of the Gare-fowl," _Ibis_ (1870), p. 256; J. Milne, "Relics of
+  the Great Auk," _Field_ (27th of March, 3rd and 10th of April 1875).
+  Lastly, reference cannot be omitted to the happy exercise of poetic
+  fancy with which Charles Kingsley was enabled to introduce the chief
+  facts of the gare-fowl's extinction (derived from one of the
+  above-named papers) into his charming _Water Babies_.     (A. N.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The name first appears, and in this form, in the _Account of
+    Hirta_ (St Kilda) _and Rona, &c._, by the lord register, Sir George
+    M'Kenzie, of Tarbat, printed by Pinkerton in his _Collection of
+    Voyages and Travels_ (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald's _Scotia
+    illustrata_ (1684). Martin soon after, in his _Voyage to St Kilda_,
+    spelt it "Gairfowl." Sir R. Owen adopted the form "garfowl," without,
+    as would seem, any precedent authority.
+
+  [2] The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen; the doubt lies as to
+    the locality where it was obtained, whether at Disco, which is
+    within, or at the Fiskernas, which is without, the Arctic Circle.
+
+
+
+
+GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president of the United
+States, was born on the 19th of November 1831 in a log cabin in the
+little frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga county, Ohio. His early years
+were spent in the performance of such labour as fell to the lot of
+every farmer's son in the new states, and in the acquisition of such
+education as could be had in the district schools held for a few weeks
+each winter. But life on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he
+left home and set off to make a living in some other way. A book of
+stories of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when
+a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He decided,
+therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping across the country
+to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment from the captain of a lake
+schooner. But the captain drove him from the deck, and, wandering on in
+search of work, he fell in with a canal boatman who engaged him. During
+some months young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a
+canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on recovery, having
+resolved to attend a high school and fit himself to become a teacher, he
+passed the next four years in a hard struggle with poverty and in an
+earnest effort to secure an education, studying for a short time in the
+Geauga Seminary at Chester, Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter
+and a farmer; studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic
+Institute at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and
+finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1856, Garfield
+became professor of ancient languages and literature in the Eclectic
+Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen to the presidency of the
+institution.
+
+Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days of the
+Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas struggle were
+exciting the whole country, and during the campaigns of 1857 and 1858,
+he became known as an effective speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His
+reward for his services was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the
+member from Portage and Summit counties. When the "cotton states"
+seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous measures. He
+was one of the six Ohio senators who voted against the proposed
+amendment to the Federal Constitution (Feb. 28th, 1861) forbidding any
+constitutional amendment which should give Congress the power to abolish
+or interfere with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the
+government to coerce seceded states; defended the "Million War Bill"
+appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses; and
+when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio furnish 20,000
+soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share. He had just been
+admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of war he at once offered his
+services to the governor, and became lieutenant-colonel and then colonel
+of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers, recruited largely from among his former
+students. He served in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of
+brigadier-general of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second
+day's fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under
+Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at Chickamauga,
+and was made a major-general of volunteers for gallantry in that battle.
+In 1862 he was elected a member of Congress from the Ashtabula district
+of Ohio, and, resigning his military commission, took his seat in the
+House of Representatives in December 1863. In Congress he joined the
+radical wing of the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of
+Confederate property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto
+denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized as a hard
+worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought him places on
+important committees--he was chairman successively of the committee on
+military affairs, the committee on banking and currency, and the
+committee on appropriations,--and his ability as a speaker enabled him
+to achieve distinction on the floor of the House and to rise to
+leadership. Between 1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of
+importance on "The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," "The
+Freedman's Bureau," "The Reconstruction of the Rebel States," "The
+Public Debt and Specie Payments," "Reconstruction," "The Currency,"
+"Taxation of United States Bonds," "Enforcing the 14th Amendment,"
+"National Aid to Education," and "the Right to Originate Revenue Bills."
+The year 1874 was one of disaster to the Republican party. The greenback
+issue, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South, the
+Credit Mobilier and the "Salary Grab," disgusted thousands of
+independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the country.
+Garfield himself was accused of corruption in connexion with the Credit
+Mobilier scandal, but the charge was never proved. A Republican
+convention in his district demanded his resignation, and re-election
+seemed impossible; but he defended himself in two pamphlets, "Increase
+of Salaries" and "Review of the Transactions of the Credit Mobilier
+Company," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious. In 1876
+Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his district; and
+afterwards as one of the two representatives of the Republicans in the
+House, he was a member of the Electoral Commission which decided the
+dispute regarding the presidential election of 1876. When, in 1877,
+James G. Blaine was made a senator from Maine, the leadership of the
+House of Representatives passed to Garfield, and he became the
+Republican candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in
+the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president, having chosen
+John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury, an effort was made to
+send Garfield to the United States Senate in Sherman's place. But the
+president needed his services in the House, and he was not elected to
+the Senate until 1880.
+
+The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party must nominate a
+candidate for the presidency. General Grant had served two terms
+(1869-1877), and the unwritten law of custom condemned his being given
+another. But the "bosses" of the Republican party in three great
+States--New York, Pennsylvania and Illinois--were determined that he
+should be renominated. These men and their followers were known as the
+"stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions, one supporting
+James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John Sherman, of Ohio. When the
+convention met and the balloting began, the contest along these
+factional lines started in earnest. For eight-and-twenty ballots no
+change of any consequence was noticeable. Though votes were often cast
+for ten names, there were but two real candidates before the convention,
+Grant and Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of
+the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the
+supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the cry
+"Anything to beat Grant!" an effort was made to find some man on whom
+the opposition could unite. Such a man was Garfield. His long term of
+service in the House, his leadership of his party on its floor, his
+candidacy for the speakership, and his recent election to the United
+States Senate, marked him out as the available man. Between the casting
+of the first and the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader
+of Sherman's adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or
+two votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received
+seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire vote
+hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared nominated. During
+the campaign Garfield was subject to violent personal abuse; the fact
+that he was alleged to have received $329 from the Credit Mobilier as a
+dividend on stock led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of "329,"
+and this number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed
+in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged "Morey letter," in
+which he was made to appear as opposed to the exclusion of the Chinese,
+was widely circulated and injured his candidacy in the West. That the
+charges against Garfield were not generally credited, however, is shown
+by the fact that he received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155.
+He was inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.
+
+Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of composing
+the differences in his party. For his secretary of state he chose James
+G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator Roscoe Conkling
+(q.v.), the leader of the New York "stalwarts." Without consulting the
+New York senators, Garfield appointed William H. Robertson, another
+political enemy of Conkling's, to the desirable post of Collector of the
+Port of New York, and thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony.
+On the 2nd of July, while on his way to attend the commencement
+exercises at Williams College, the new president was shot in a
+Washington railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles
+J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat influenced by the
+abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents; and on the
+19th of September 1881, he died at Elberon, New Jersey, whither he had
+been removed on the 6th. He was buried in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1890
+a monument was erected by popular subscription to his memory.
+
+In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom he had seven
+children. His son, HARRY AUGUSTUS GARFIELD (b. 1863) graduated at
+Williams College in 1885, practised law in Cleveland, Ohio, in
+1888-1903, was professor of politics at Princeton University in
+1903-1908, and in 1908 became president of Williams College. Another
+son, JAMES RUDOLPH GARFIELD (b. 1865), also graduated at Williams
+College in 1885 and practised law in Cleveland; he was a Republican
+member of the Ohio Senate in 1896-1899, was commissioner of
+corporations, Department of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907,
+attracting wide attention by his reports on certain large industrial
+organizations, and was secretary of the interior (1907-1909) in the
+cabinet of President Roosevelt.
+
+  President Garfield's writings, edited by Burke A. Hinsdale, were
+  published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882.     (J. B. McM.)
+
+
+
+
+GAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (_Belone_) found in nearly
+all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recognized by their
+long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by their jaws being
+produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-toothed beak. About
+fifty species are known from different parts of the globe, some
+attaining to a length of 4 or 5 ft. One species is common on the British
+coasts, and is well known by the names of "long-nose," "green-bone," &c.
+The last name is given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green
+colour of their bones, which deters many people from eating them,
+although their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The
+skipper (_Scomberesox_) and half-beak (_Hemirhamphus_), in which the
+lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the gar-pikes.
+
+
+
+
+GARGANEY[1] (North-Italian, _Garganello_), or SUMMER-TEAL, the _Anas
+querquedula_ and _A. circia_ of Linnaeus (who made, as did Willughby and
+Ray, two species out of one), and the type of Stephens's genus
+_Querquedula_. This bird is one of the smallest of the _Anatidae_, and
+has gained its common English name from being almost exclusively a
+summer-visitant to England where nowadays it only regularly resorts to
+breed in some of the East-Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it
+was found at the same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly
+larger than the common teal (_A. crecca_), the male is readily
+distinguished therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of
+which are nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks,
+while a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the eyes.
+The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars black with a white
+shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (_speculum_) greyish green bordered
+above and below by white. The female closely resembles the hen teal, but
+possesses no wing-spot. In Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very
+rare, and though it is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence
+of its occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range, and
+its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it breeds in many
+parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be common; but it ranges far
+to the eastward in Asia--even to Formosa, according to Swinhoe--and
+yearly visits India in winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in
+Norfolk arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast
+reed-beds which border the Broads--a situation rarely or never chosen by
+the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the trachea in the male
+garganey differs in form from that described in any other drake, being
+more oval and placed nearly in the median line of the windpipe, instead
+of on one side, as is usually the case.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (_Orn._, lib.
+    iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never
+    to have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being
+    invariably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous
+    as "summer-teal."
+
+
+
+
+GARGANO, MONTE (anc. _Garganus Mons_), a massive mountainous peninsula
+projecting E. from the N. coast of Apulia, Italy, and belonging
+geologically to the opposite Dalmatian coast; it was indeed separated
+from the rest of Italy by an arm of the sea as late as the Tertiary
+period. The highest point (Monte Calvo) is 3465 ft. above sea-level. The
+oak forests for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely
+disappeared.
+
+
+
+
+GARGOYLE, or GURGOYLE (from the Fr. _gargouille_, originally the throat
+or gullet, cf. Lat. _gurgulio_, _gula_, and similar words derived from
+root _gar_, to swallow, the word representing the gurgling sound of
+water; Ital. _doccia di grande_; Ger. _Ausguss_), in architecture, the
+carved termination to a spout which conveys away the water from the
+gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque figures. The term is applied
+more especially to medieval work, but throughout all ages some means of
+throwing the water off the roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been
+adopted, and in Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the
+washing of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the
+flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the roof
+passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved or modelled
+in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice. At Pompeii large
+numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been found which were modelled in
+the shape of various animals.
+
+
+
+
+GARHWAL, or GURWAL. 1. A district of British India, in the Kumaon
+division of the United Provinces. It has an area of 5629 sq. m., and
+consists almost entirely of rugged mountain ranges running in all
+directions, and separated by narrow valleys which in some cases become
+deep gorges or ravines. The only level portion of the district is a
+narrow strip of waterless forest between the southern slopes of the
+hills and the fertile plains of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in
+the north, the principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet
+(25,413), Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,210), Dunagiri (23,181) and
+Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of the
+Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of the district.
+At Devaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi, and thenceforward the
+united streams bear the name of the Ganges. Cultivation is principally
+confined to the immediate vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for
+purposes of irrigation. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty
+chieftainships, each chief with his own independent fortress (_garh_).
+Nearly 500 years ago, one of these chiefs, Ajai Pal, reduced all the
+minor principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal
+kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the adjacent state
+of Tehri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when the Gurkhas invaded
+Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal chief into the plains. For
+twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the country with a rod of iron, until a
+series of encroachments by them on British territory led to the war with
+Nepal in 1814. At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon
+were converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality was
+restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation, Garhwal has
+rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop. (1901) 429,900. Two
+battalions of the Indian army (the 39th Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in
+the district, which also contains the military cantonment of Lansdowne.
+Grain and coarse cloth are exported, and salt, borax, live-stock and
+wool are imported, the trade with Tibet being considerable. The
+administrative headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is
+the largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara, the
+terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway from Najibabad.
+
+2. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area 4180 sq.
+m.; pop. (1901) 268,885. It adjoins the district mentioned above, and
+its topographical features are similar. It contains the sources of both
+the Ganges and the Jumna, which are visited by thousands of Hindu
+pilgrims. The gross revenue is about L28,000, of which nearly half is
+derived from forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.
+
+
+
+
+GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1807-1882), Italian patriot, was born at Nice on
+the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from home to escape a clerical
+education, but afterwards joined his father in the coasting trade. After
+joining the "Giovine Italia" he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a
+number of companions on board the frigate "Euridice," plotted to seize
+the vessel and occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's
+Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being discovered,
+Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by default on the 3rd of June
+1834. Escaping to South America in 1836, he was given letters of marque
+by the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which had revolted against Brazil.
+After a series of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and
+subjected to severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining
+liberty, he renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro.
+During the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable
+companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and Menotti.
+Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to Corrientes with a
+small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but was overtaken by Admiral
+Brown, against whose fleet he fought for three days. When his ammunition
+was exhausted he burned his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo,
+he formed the Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and
+Sant' Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of Uruguay.
+Refusing all honours and recompense, he prepared to return to Italy upon
+receiving news of the incipient revolutionary movement. In October 1847
+he wrote to Pius IX., offering his services to the Church, whose cause
+he for a moment believed to be that of national liberty.
+
+Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword at the
+disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties with the
+Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000 strong, but shortly
+after taking the field was obliged, by the defeat of Custozza, to flee
+to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman
+republic with the defence of San Pancrazio against the French, where he
+gained the victory of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the
+saddle, although wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From
+the 3rd of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged against
+the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere, dispersing an
+army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After the fall of Rome he left
+the city at the head of 4000 volunteers, with the idea of joining the
+defenders of Venice, and started on that wonderful retreat through
+central Italy pursued by the armies of France, Austria, Spain and
+Naples. By his consummate generalship and the matchless endurance of his
+men the pursuers were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly
+diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his devoted
+wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice, where the tricolor
+still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of Ravenna; the Austrians
+were seeking him in all directions, and most of his legionaries were
+captured and shot. Anita died near Comacchio, and he himself fled across
+the peninsula, being assisted by all classes of the people, to Tuscany,
+whence he escaped to Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in
+order to earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a
+trading skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and
+purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house
+thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was placed in
+command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the Austrians at Casale on the
+8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the 23rd of May, and, after a series
+of victorious fights, liberating Alpine territory as far as the frontier
+of Tirol. When about to enter Austrian territory proper his advance was,
+however, checked by the armistice of Villafranca.
+
+Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom he had been
+aided during the campaign, he was apprised, immediately after the
+wedding, of certain circumstances which caused him at once to abandon
+that lady and to start for central Italy. Forbidden to invade the
+Romagna, he returned indignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and
+Bertani he planned the invasion of Sicily. Assured by Sir James Hudson
+of the sympathy of England, he began active preparations for the
+expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but Crispi
+succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the 5th of May 1860
+with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of 1070 strong. Calling at
+Talamone to embark arms and money, he reached Marsala on the 11th of
+May, and landed under the protection of the British vessels "Intrepid"
+and "Argus." On the 12th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was
+proclaimed at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were
+routed at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the
+6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine frigates and
+protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate. Once established
+at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to liberate Naples and march
+upon Rome, a plan opposed by the emissaries of Cavour, who desired the
+immediate annexation of Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling
+Lafarina and driving out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi
+routed the Neapolitans at Milazzo on the 20th of July. Messina fell on
+the 20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,
+secretly departed for Aranci Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was fitting
+out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour, however, obliged the
+expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning to Messina, Garibaldi found a
+letter from Victor Emmanuel II. dissuading him from invading the kingdom
+of Naples. Garibaldi replied asking "permission to disobey." Next day he
+crossed the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August,
+accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San Giovanni and
+of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon Naples became a triumphal
+progress, which the wiles of Francesco II. were powerless to arrest. On
+the 7th of September Garibaldi entered Naples, while Francesco fled to
+Gaeta. On the 1st of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army
+40,000 strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had occupied
+the Marches, Umbria and the Abruzzi, a battalion of Bersaglieri reaching
+the Volturno in time to take part in the battle. Their presence put an
+end to the plan for the invasion of the papal states, and Garibaldi
+unwillingly issued a decree for the _plebiscite_ which was to sanction
+the incorporation of the Two Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th
+of November Garibaldi accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn
+entry into Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after
+disbanding his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the
+regular army.
+
+Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect of his
+followers by the Italian government induced him to return to political
+life. Elected deputy in 1861, his anger against Cavour found violent
+expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile them, but the publication by
+Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi provoked a hostility which, but
+for the intervention of the king, would have led to a duel between
+Cialdini and Garibaldi. Returning to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events.
+Cavour's successor, Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular
+army; Rattazzi, who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an
+expedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his
+followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms
+against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo and gathered
+an army under the banner "Roma o morte." Rattazzi, frightened at the
+prospect of an attack upon Rome, proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily,
+sent the fleet to Messina, and instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi.
+Circumventing the Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to
+Melito with 3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and
+wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of August.
+Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once more to Caprera amidst
+general sympathy.
+
+In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded an
+enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city. From England
+he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of war in 1866 he assumed
+command of a volunteer army and, after the defeat of the Italian troops
+at Custozza, took the offensive in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of
+July he defeated the Austrians at Monte Saello, on the 7th at Lodrone,
+on the 10th at Darso, on the 16th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on
+the 21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he was
+ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous reply "Obbedisco" ("I
+obey") has often been cited as a classical example of military obedience
+to a command destructive of a successful leader's hopes, but documents
+now published (cf. _Corriere della sera_, 9th of August 1906) prove
+beyond doubt that Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to
+evacuate the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the
+9th of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th of July
+to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition, Austria would not
+cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the evacuation was inevitable.
+Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply. From the Trentino he returned to
+Caprera to mature his designs against Rome, which had been evacuated by
+the French in pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of
+September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867, he prepared
+to enter papal territory, but was arrested at Sinalunga by the Italian
+government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding the surveillance of the
+Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence, and, with the complicity of
+the second Rattazzi cabinet, entered Roman territory at Passo Corese on
+the 23rd of October. Two days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd
+of November his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and papal
+troops. Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and
+taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by
+writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer corps and
+went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops at Chatillon,
+Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the Versailles assembly, he
+resigned his mandate in anger at French insults, and withdrew to Caprera
+until, in 1874, he was elected deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm
+induced the Conservative Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of
+L40,000 with an annual pension of L2000 be conferred upon him as a
+recompense for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by
+parliament (27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon
+the advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and
+pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber
+embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time he
+succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the countess
+Raimondi (with whom he had never lived) and contracted another marriage
+with the mother of his children, Clelia and Manlio. In 1880 he went to
+Milan for the inauguration of the Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited
+Naples and Palermo, but was prevented by illness from being present at
+the 600th anniversary of the Sicilian Vespers. On the 2nd of June 1882
+his death at Caprera plunged Italy into mourning.
+
+  See Garibaldi, _Epistolario_, ed. E.E. Ximenes (2 vols., Milan, 1885),
+  and _Memorie autografiche_ (11th ed., Florence, 1902; Eng. translation
+  by A. Werner, with supplement by J.W. Mario in vol. iii. of 1888 ed.);
+  Giuseppe Guerzoni, _Garibaldi_ (2 vols., Florence, 1882); Jessie White
+  Mario, _Garibaldi e i suoi tempi_ (Milan, 1884); G.M. Trevelyan,
+  _Garibaldi's Defence of the Roman Republic_ (London, 1907), which
+  contains an excellent sketch of Garibaldi's early career, of the
+  events leading up to the proclamation of the Roman Republic, and a
+  picturesque, detailed and authoritative account of the defence of Rome
+  and of Garibaldi's flight, with a very full bibliography; also
+  Trevelyan's _Garibaldi and the Thousand_ (1909).     (H. W. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GARIN LE LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century _chanson de geste_
+of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and most sanguinary
+narratives left by the _trouveres_. This local cycle of Lorraine, which
+is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers de Metz, Anseis, fils de Girbert
+and Yon, is obviously based on history, and the failure absolutely to
+identify the events recorded does not deprive the poems of their value
+as a picture of the savage feudal wars of the 11th and 12th centuries.
+The episodes are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the
+_trouveres_ to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Nevertheless
+no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet been
+offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F. Settegast,
+_Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_, 1904) that these poems
+resume historical traditions going back to the Vandal irruption of 408
+and the battle fought by the Romans and the West Goths against the Huns
+in 451. The cycle relates three wars against hosts of heathen invaders.
+In the first of these Charles Martel and his faithful vassal Hervis of
+Metz fight by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have
+destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in a great
+battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in Metz by the
+"Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who defers his assistance
+by the advice of the traitor Hardre. Hervis then transfers his
+allegiance to Anseis of Cologne, by whose help the invaders are
+repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the third Thierry, king of
+Moriane[1] sends to Pippin for help against four Saracen kings. He is
+delivered by a Frankish host, but falls in the battle. Hervis of Metz
+was the son of a citizen to whom the duke of Lorraine had married his
+daughter Aelis, and his sons Garin and Begue are the heroes of the
+_chanson_ which gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had
+desired that his daughter Blanchefleur should marry Garin, but when
+Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux puts
+himself forward as his rival and Hardre, Fromont's father, is slain by
+Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war that ensues between
+the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux. They finally submit their
+differences to the king, only to begin their disputes once more.
+Blanchefleur becomes the wife of Pippin, while Garin remains her
+faithful servant. One of the most famous passages of the poem is the
+assassination of Begue by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying
+waste his enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs
+continue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin Paris,
+the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of Aquitaine, the last
+of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed and slain by Pippin the
+Short, king of the Franks; but the _trouveres_ had in mind no doubt the
+wars which marked the end of the Carolingian dynasty.
+
+  See _Li Romans de Garin le Loherain_, ed. P. Paris (Paris, 1833);
+  _Hist. litt. de la France_, vol. xxii. (1852); J.M. Ludlow, _Popular
+  Epics of the Middle Ages_ (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. Lot,
+  _Etudes d'histoire du moyen age_ (Paris, 1896); F. Settegast,
+  _Quellenstudien zur gallo-romanischen Epik_ (Leipzig, 1904). A
+  complete edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first
+  volume of which, _Hervis de Mes_ (Gesellschaft fur roman. Lit.,
+  Dresden), appeared in 1903.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] i.e. Maurienne, now a district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne)
+    of Savoy.
+
+
+
+
+GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known as Johannes
+Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes de Garlandia, was born in
+England, though most of his life was spent in France. John Bale in his
+_Catalogus_, and John Pits, following Bale, placed him among the writers
+of the 11th century. The main facts of his life, however, are stated in
+a long poem _De triumphis ecclesiae_ contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A
+x in the British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe
+Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of his time from the point of
+view of the victories gained by the church over heretics at home and
+infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a certain John of London,
+whom it is difficult to distinguish from others of the same name; but he
+must have been in Paris in or before 1202, for he mentions as one of his
+teachers Alain de Lisle, who died in that year or the next. Garland was
+one of the professors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse,
+and remained in the south during the Albigensian crusade, of which he
+gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the hatred of
+the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe for the professors
+of the university, who had been installed by the Catholic party. Garland
+was one of the first to fly, and the rest of his life was spent in
+Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252. Garland's grammatical works
+were much used in England, and were often printed by Richard Pynson and
+Wynkyn de Worde. He was also a voluminous Latin poet. Works on
+mathematics and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription
+may have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus, a
+canon of Besancon in the 12th century. The treatise on alchemy,
+_Compendium alchimiae_, often printed under his name, was by a
+14th-century writer named Martin Ortolan, or Lortholain.
+
+The best known of his poems beside the "De Triumphis Ecclesiae" is
+"Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis," contained in the same MS. Among
+his other works are his "Dictionarius," a Latin vocabulary, printed by
+T. Wright in the _Library of National Antiquities_ (vol. i., 1857);
+_Compendium totius grammatices ..._, printed at Deventer, 1489; two
+metrical treatises, entitled _Synonyma_ and _Equivoca_, frequently
+printed at the close of the 15th century.
+
+  For further bibliographical information see the British Museum
+  catalogue; J.A. Fabricius, _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et infimae
+  aetatis ..._, vol. iii. (1754); G. Brunet, _Manuel du libraire, &c._
+  See also _Histoire litt. de la France_, vols. viii., xxi., xxiii. and
+  xxx.; the prefaces to the editions by T. Wright mentioned above; P.
+  Meyer, _La Chanson de la croisade contre les Albigeois_, vol. ii. pp.
+  xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr A. Scheler, _Lexicographie latine du
+  XII^e et du XIII^e siecles_ (Leipzig, 1867); the article by C.L.
+  Kingsford in the _Dict. Nat. Biog._, giving a list also of the works
+  on alchemy, mathematics and music, rightly or wrongly ascribed to him;
+  J.E. Sandys, _Hist. of Class. Schol._ i. (1906) 549.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+GARLIC (O. Eng. _garleac_, i.e. "spear-leek"; Gr. [Greek: skorodon];
+Lat. _allium_; Ital. _aglio_; Fr. _ail_; Ger. _Knoblauch_), _Allium
+sativum_, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Liliaceae,
+indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has long, narrow, flat,
+obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spathe, and a globose umbel of
+whitish flowers, among which are small bulbils. The bulb, which is the
+only part eaten, has membranous scales, in the axils of which are 10 or
+12 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From these new bulbs can be procured by
+planting out in February or March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in
+a dry place. If of fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. To
+prevent the plant from running to leaf, Pliny (_Nat. Hist._ xix. 34)
+advises to bend the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, he
+observes, may be prevented by twisting the stalk.
+
+Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (q.v.). It is
+stated to have been grown in England before the year 1548. The
+percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly (_Trans. Hort.
+Soc. Lond._, new ser., iii. p. 60) as water 84.09, organic matter 13.38,
+and inorganic matter 1.53--that of the leaves being water 87.14, organic
+matter 11.27 and inorganic matter 1.59. The bulb has a strong and
+characteristic odour and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively
+smelling oil, essence of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C3H5)2S
+(see Hofmann and Cahours, _Journ. Chem. Soc._ x. p. 320). This, when
+garlic has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity
+of which it promotes. From the earliest times garlic has been used as an
+article of diet. It formed part of the food of the Israelites in Egypt
+(Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed by Cheops in the
+construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in Egypt, where,
+however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed (see Rawlinson's
+_Herodotus_, ii. 125). It was largely consumed by the ancient Greek and
+Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes (cf. Virg. _Ecl_. ii. 11),
+and, as Pliny tells us (_N.H._ xix. 32), by the African peasantry. Galen
+eulogizes it as the rustic's _theriac_ (see F. Adams's _Paulus
+Aegineta_, p. 99), and Alexander Neckam, a writer of the 12th century
+(see Wright's edition of his works, p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a
+palliative of the heat of the sun in field labour. "The people in places
+where the simoon is frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (_An Account
+of the Kingdom of Caubul_, p. 140, 1815), "eat garlic, and rub their
+lips and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer, to
+prevent their suffering by the simoon." "O dura messorum ilia," exclaims
+Horace (_Epod_. iii.), as he records his detestation of the popular
+esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign of vulgarity (cf.
+Shakespeare, _Coriol_. iv. 6, and _Meas. for Meas._ iii. 2). In England
+garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning, but in the southern
+countries of Europe it is a common ingredient in dishes, and is largely
+consumed by the agricultural population. Garlic was placed by the
+ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at cross-roads, as a supper for
+Hecate (Theophrastus, _Characters_, [Greek: Deisidaimonias]); and
+according to Pliny garlic and onions were invocated as deities by the
+Egyptians at the taking of oaths. The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower
+Egypt, who worshipped the onion, are said to have held both it and
+garlic in aversion as food. Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic
+properties, and was of old, as still sometimes now, employed as a
+medicinal remedy. Pliny (_N.H._ xx. 23) gives an exceedingly long list
+of complaints in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham
+valued it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullen
+(_Mat. Med._ ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it alone.
+In the United States the bulb is given in doses of 1/2-2 drachms in
+cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis. Garlic may also be
+prescribed as an extract consisting of the inspissated juice, in doses
+of 5-10 grains, and as the _syrupus allii aceticus_, in doses of 1-4
+drachms. This last preparation has recently been much extolled in the
+treatment of pulmonary tuberculosis or phthisis.
+
+The wild "crow garlic" and "field garlic" of Britain are the species
+_Allium vineale_ and _A. oleraceum_ respectively.
+
+
+
+
+GARNET, or GARNETT, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit, son of Brian
+Garnett, a schoolmaster at Nottingham, was educated at Winchester and
+afterwards studied law in London. Having become a Roman Catholic, he
+went to Italy, joined the Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under
+Bellarmine and others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he
+joined the mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the
+imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the dispute
+between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the "Wisbech Stirs"
+(1595-1596) he zealously supported Weston in his resistance to any
+compromise with the civil government. His antagonism to the secular
+clergy was also shown later, when in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was
+the means of betraying to the government the "Bye Plot," contrived by
+William Watson, a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four
+vows.
+
+Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with conspicuous
+success. His life was one of concealment and disguises; a price was put
+on his head; but he was fearless and indefatigable in carrying on his
+propaganda and in ministering to the scattered Catholics, even in their
+prisons. The result was that he gained many converts, while the number
+of Jesuits in England increased during his tenure of office from three
+to forty. It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he
+is best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death, needs
+discussion in greater detail.
+
+In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII. directing that no
+person unfavourable to the Catholic religion should be allowed to
+succeed to the throne. About the same time he was consulted by Catesby,
+Tresham and Winter, all afterwards involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on
+the subject of the mission to be sent to Spain to induce Philip III. to
+invade England. According to his own statement he disapproved, but he
+gave Winter a recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person
+at Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy Fawkes
+when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham when he went to Rome
+(see GUNPOWDER PLOT). The preparations for the plot had now been
+actively going forward since the beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of
+June 1605 Garnet was asked by Catesby whether it was lawful to enter
+upon any undertaking which should involve the destruction of the
+innocent together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the
+affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged in a
+town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according to his own
+accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the death of "not only
+innocents but friends and necessary persons for a commonwealth," and
+showed him a letter from the pope forbidding rebellion. According to Sir
+Everard Digby, however, Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief,
+replied "that they were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or
+procure stirs, but yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the
+pope's mind they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good....
+This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me, gave me
+absolute belief that the matter in general was approved, though every
+particular was not known." Both men were endeavouring to exculpate
+themselves, and therefore both statements are subject to suspicion. A
+few days later, according to Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known
+as Greenway, informed him of the whole plot "by way of confession,"
+when, as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged
+Greenway to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently, after
+his trial, Garnet said he "could not certainly affirm" that Greenway
+intended to relate the matter to him in confession.
+
+Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a matter of
+considerable controversy not only between Roman Catholics and
+Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers themselves. Father
+Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600, discusses the exact case of
+the revelation of a plot in confession. Almost all the learned doctors,
+he says, declare that the confessor may reveal it, but he adds, "the
+contrary opinion is the safer and better doctrine, and more consistent
+with religion and with the reverence due to the holy rite of
+confession." According to Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and
+defender, "If the person confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a
+priest to break the seal of confession in order to avert a great
+calamity"; but he justifies Garnet's silence by insisting that it was
+not lawful to disclose a treasonable secret to a heretical king.
+According to Garnet's own opinion a priest cognizant of treason against
+the state "is bound to find all lawful means to discover it _salvo
+sigillo confessionis_." In this connexion it is worth pointing out that
+Garnet had not thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue
+with the king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this
+case that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his
+inactivity now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that
+he was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Greenway's
+information, he had still Catesby's earlier revelations to act upon. He
+appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent the crime, beyond
+writing to Rome in vague terms that "he feared some particular desperate
+courses," which aroused no suspicions in that quarter. At the same time
+he wrote to Father Parsons on the 4th of September that "as far as he
+could now see the minds of the Catholics were quieted."
+
+His movements immediately prior to the attempt were certainly
+suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected meeting of
+parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a pilgrimage to St
+Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started from Gothurst (now
+Gayhurst), Sir Everard Digby's house in Buckinghamshire, included
+Rokewood, and stopped at the houses of John Grant and Robert Winter,
+three others of the conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for
+the prayers of the company "for some good success for the Catholic cause
+at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went on the 29th of
+October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which place it had been
+settled the conspirators were to assemble after the explosion. On the
+6th of November, Bates, Catesby's servant and one of the conspirators,
+brought him a letter with the news of the failure of the plot and
+desiring advice. On the 30th Garnet addressed a letter to the government
+in which he protested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, "as one
+who hopeth for everlasting salvation."
+
+It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and Greenway
+were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the plot; and on the
+same day Garnet removed from Coughton to Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a
+house furnished with cleverly-contrived hiding-places for the use of the
+proscribed priests. Here he remained some time in concealment in company
+with another priest, Oldcorne _alias_ Hall, but at last on the 30th of
+January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer, they
+surrendered and were taken up to London, being well treated during the
+journey by Salisbury's express orders. He was examined by the council on
+the 13th of February and frequently questioned during the following
+days, but refused to incriminate himself, and a threat to inflict
+torture had no effect upon his resolution. Subsequently Garnet and
+Oldcorne having been placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to
+communicate with one another, their conversations were overheard on
+several separate occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet
+at first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th of
+March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at the
+Guildhall on the 28th.
+
+Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having
+concealed his knowledge of the crime, an offence which exposed him to
+perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property; for the law of
+England took no account of religious scruples or professional etiquette
+when they permit the execution of a preventable crime. Strangely enough,
+however, the government passed over the incriminating conversation with
+Greenway, and relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to
+support the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was
+not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more modern days.
+The rules of evidence which now govern the procedure in criminal cases
+did not then exist, and Garnet's trial, like many others, was influenced
+by the political situation, the case against him being supported by
+general political accusations against the Jesuits as a body, and with
+evidence of their complicity in former plots against the government. The
+prisoner himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false
+statements, and still more by his adherence to the doctrine of
+equivocation. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of
+equivocation to cases "of necessary defence from injustice and wrong or
+of the obtaining some good of great importance when there is no danger
+of harm to others," and he could justify his conduct in lying to the
+council by their own conduct towards him, which included treacherous
+eavesdropping and fraud, and also threats of torture. Moreover, the
+attempt of the counsel for the crown to force the prisoner to
+incriminate himself was opposed to the whole spirit and tradition of the
+law of England. He was declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of
+the irregularity and unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial
+justice was done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd
+of May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for his
+concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he had never
+approved it. The king, who had shown him favour throughout and who had
+forbidden his being tortured, directed that he should be hanged till he
+was quite dead and that the usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.
+
+Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw" was
+circulated all over Europe, according to which a blood-stained straw
+from the scene of execution which came into the hands of one John
+Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who was present,
+developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the credence which the
+story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was commissioned by the privy
+council to discover and punish the impostors. Garnet's name was included
+in the list of the 353 Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England
+in 1880, and in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales
+compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of the
+province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is styled "a
+martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation." The passage in
+_Macbeth_ (Act II. Scene iii.) on equivocators no doubt refers
+especially to Garnet. His _aliases_ were Farmer, Marchant, Whalley,
+Darcey Meaze, Phillips, Humphreys, Roberts, Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was
+the author of a letter on the Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, _alias_ John
+Jones, in Diego Yepres's _Historia particular de la persecucion de
+Inglaterra_ (1599); a _Treatise of Schism_, a MS. treatise in reply to
+_A Protestant Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician_; a
+translation of the _Stemma Christi_ with supplements (1622); a treatise
+on the Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Of the great number of works embodying the controversy
+  on the question of Garnet's guilt the following may be mentioned, in
+  order of date: _A True and Perfect Relation of the whole Proceedings
+  against ... Garnet a Jesuit and his Confederates_ (1606, repr. 1679),
+  the official account, but incomplete and inaccurate; _Apologia pro
+  Henrico Garneto_ (1610), by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the pseudonym
+  Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, _Antilogia versus
+  Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes_, in which the whole subject is well
+  treated; Henry More, _Hist. Provinciae Anglicanae Societatis_ (1660);
+  D. Jardine, _Gunpowder Plot_ (1857); J. Morris, S.J., _Condition of
+  the Catholics under James I._ (1872), containing Father Gerard's
+  narrative; J.H. Pollen, _Father Henry Garnet and the Gunpowder Plot_
+  (1888); S.R. Gardiner, _What Gunpowder Plot was_ (1897), in reply to
+  John Gerard, S.J., _What was the Gunpowder Plot?_ (1897); J. Gerard,
+  _Contributions towards a Life of Father Henry Garnet_ (1898). See also
+  _State Trials II._, and _Cal. of State Papers Dom._, (1603-1610). The
+  original documents are preserved in the _Gunpowder Plot Book_ at the
+  Record Office.
+
+
+
+
+
+GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related minerals, many of
+which are used as gem-stones. The name probably comes from the Lat.
+_granaticus_, a stone so named from its resemblance to the pulp of the
+pomegranate in colour, or to its seeds in shape; or possibly from
+_granum_, "cochineal," in allusion to the colour of the stone. The
+garnet was included, with other red stones, by Theophrastus, under the
+name of [Greek: anthrax], while the common garnet seems to have been his
+[Greek: anthrakion]. Pliny groups several stones, including garnet,
+under the term _carbunculus_. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet
+(almandine) cut _en cabochon_, or with a smooth convex surface,
+frequently hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of
+colour, and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see ALMANDINE). The Hebrew
+word _nophek_, translated [Greek: anthrax] in the Septuagint, seems to
+have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst _bareketh_ ([Greek: smaragdos]
+of the Septuagint), though also rendered "carbuncle," was probably
+either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie,
+rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt. Though not
+extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for engraved gems, it
+was much used for this purpose by the Romans of the Empire. Flat
+polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon
+and Merovingian jewelry, the material used being almandine, or "precious
+garnet."
+
+Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the variation is
+limited within a certain range. All are orthosilicates, conformable to
+the general formula R''3R'''2(SiO4)3, where R'' = Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and
+R''' = Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many kinds of garnet they may be
+reduced to the following six types, which may occur intermixed
+isomorphously:--
+
+  1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (_Grossularite_), Ca3Al2Si3O12.
+
+  2. Calcium-ferric garnet (_Andradite_), Ca3Fe2Si3O12.
+
+  3. Calcium-chromium garnet (_Uvarovite_), Ca3Cr2Si3O12.
+
+  4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (_Pyrope_), Mg3Al2Si3O12.
+
+  5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (_Almandine_), Fe3Al2Si3O12.
+
+  6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (_Spessartine_), Mn3Al2Si3O12.
+
+These are frequently called respectively:--(1) Lime-alumina garnet; (2)
+lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magnesia-alumina garnet;
+(5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.
+
+The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of some of
+their elements.
+
+[Illustration]
+
+All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic
+dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two forms
+(see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced octahedron
+occurs in some of the combinations. Cleavage obtains parallel to the
+dodecahedron, but is imperfect. The hardness varies according to
+composition from 6.5 to 7.5, and the specific gravity in like manner has
+a wide range, varying from 3.4 in the calcium-aluminium garnets to 4.3
+in the ferrous-aluminium species. Sir Arthur H. Church found that many
+garnets when fused yielded a product of lower density than the original
+mineral. The colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or
+even black, while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets
+are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur, leading
+some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really cubic. The
+refractive power of garnet is high, so that in microscopic sections,
+viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands out in relief.
+
+  Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline schists,
+  gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, serpentine, and occasionally
+  in volcanic rocks. With omphacite and smaragdite, garnet forms the
+  peculiar rock called eclogite. The garnets used for industrial
+  purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits, weathered from
+  the parent rock, though in some important workings the rock is
+  quarried. The garnets employed as gem-stones are described under their
+  respective headings (see ALMANDINE, CINNAMON STONE, DEMANTOID and
+  PYROPE). Most of the minerals noticed in this article are of
+  scientific rather than commercial interest.
+
+  Grossularite or "gooseberry-stone," is typically a brownish-green
+  garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied also to
+  vesuvianite, q.v.), from the river Wilui where it occurs. It is
+  related to hessonite, or cinnamon-stone. A Mexican variety occurs in
+  rose-pink dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of
+  grossularia-type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov.
+  Andradite was named by J.D. Dana after B.J. d'Andrada e Silva, who
+  described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian
+  garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes most
+  of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact masses,
+  sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be referred melanite,
+  a black garnet well known from the volcanic tuffs near Rome, used
+  occasionally in the 18th century for mourning jewelry. Another black
+  garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees, is called pyreneite.
+  Under andradite may also be placed topazolite, a honey-yellow garnet,
+  rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colophonite, a brown resin-like
+  garnet, with which certain kinds of idocrase have been confused;
+  aplome, a green garnet from Saxony and Siberia; and jelletite, a green
+  Swiss garnet named after the Rev. J.H. Jellet. Here also may be placed
+  the green Siberian mineral termed demantoid (q.v.), sometimes
+  improperly called olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a
+  Russian minister, Count S.S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from
+  Siberia and Canada, but though of fine colour is never found in
+  crystals large enough for gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine,
+  named after Spessart, a German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet,
+  cut for jewelry when sufficiently clear, and rather resembling
+  cinnamon-stone. It is found in Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines
+  in Amelia county, Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red
+  garnet, forming a fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county,
+  N.C., and has been described by W.E. Hidden and Dr J.H. Pratt under
+  the name of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope,
+  and shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets
+  largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (q.v.).
+
+  Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of
+  pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes.
+  Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of
+  sandpaper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the
+  boot-trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in
+  the United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of
+  the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much of
+  the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common garnet,
+  where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent in
+  metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially, and is
+  known as a furnace-product.
+
+  It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to the
+  mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in
+  icositetrahedra.     (F. W. R.*)
+
+
+
+
+GARNETT, RICHARD (1835-1906), English librarian and author, son of the
+learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett (1789-1850), priest-vicar of
+Lichfield cathedral and afterwards keeper of printed books at the
+British Museum, who came of a Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on
+the 27th of February 1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern
+philological research in England; his articles in the _Quarterly Review_
+(1835, 1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic
+question, and his essays in the _Transactions_ of the Philological
+Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of the
+English language. The son, who thus owed much to his parentage, was
+educated at home and at a private school, and in 1851, just after his
+father's death, entered the British Museum as an assistant in the
+library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent of the reading-room, and
+from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he was keeper of the printed books.
+In 1883 he was given the degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour
+repeated by other universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B.
+
+His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the value of his
+services there, made him a well-known figure in the literary world, and
+he published much original work in both prose and verse. His chief
+publications in book-form were: in verse, _Primula_ (1858), _Io in
+Egypt_ (1859), _Idylls and Epigrams_ (1869, republished in 1892 as _A
+Chaplet from the Greek Anthology_), _The Queen and other Poems_ (1902),
+_Collected Poems_ (1893); in prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887),
+Emerson (1887), Milton (1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume
+of remarkably original and fanciful tales, _The Twilight of the Gods_
+(1888); a tragedy, _Iphigenia in Delphi_ (1890); _A Short History of
+Italian Literature_ (1898); _Essays in Librarianship and Bibliophily_
+(1899); _Essays of an Ex-librarian_ (1901). He was an extensive
+contributor to the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_ and the _Dictionary of
+National Biography_, editor of the _International Library of Famous
+Literature_, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the elaborate _English
+Literature: an illustrated Record_. So multifarious was his output,
+however, in contributions to reviews, &c., and as translator or editor,
+that this list represents only a small part of his published work. He
+was a member of numerous learned literary societies, British and
+foreign. His facility as an expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute
+generalization, together with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his
+work an authority which was universally recognized, though it sometimes
+suffered from his relying too much on his memory and his power of
+generalizing--remarkable as both usually were--in cases requiring
+greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But as an
+interpreter, whether of biography or _belles lettres_, who brought an
+unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best sense, interestingly
+and comprehensibly before a large public, and at the same time
+acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship, Dr Garnett's writing
+was always characterized by clearness, common sense and sympathetic
+appreciation. His official career at the British Museum marked an epoch
+in the management of the library, in the history of which his place is
+second only to that of Panizzi. Besides introducing the "sliding press"
+in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the general
+catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841, was resumed under
+him in 1880, and gradually completed. The antipodes of a Dryasdust, his
+human interest in books made him an ideal librarian, and his courtesy
+and helpfulness were outstanding features in a personality of singular
+charm. The whole bookish world looked on him as a friend. Among his
+"hobbies" was a study of astrology, to which, without associating his
+name with it in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the
+pseudonym of "A.G. Trent" he published in 1880 an article (in the
+_University Magazine_) on "The Soul and the Stars"--quoted in Wilde and
+Dodson's _Natal Astrology_. He satisfied himself that there was more
+truth in the old astrology than modern criticism supposed, and he had
+intended to publish a further monograph on the subject, but the
+intention was frustrated by the ill-health which led up to his death on
+the 13th of April 1906. He married (1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney
+Singleton (d. 1903), and had a family of six children; his son Edward
+(b. 1868) being a well-known literary man, whose wife translated
+Turgeneff's works into English.     (H. Ch.)
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (1813-1881), French economist, was born at Beuil
+(Alpes maritimes) on the 3rd of October 1813. Coming to Paris he studied
+at the Ecole de Commerce, of which he eventually became secretary and
+finally a professor. In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin
+(1801-1864) the Societe d'Economie politique, becoming its secretary, a
+post which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the
+Association pour la Liberte des Echanges. He also helped to establish
+and edited for many years the _Journal des economistes_ and the
+_Annuaire de l'economie politique_. Of the school of _laissez faire_, he
+was engaged during his whole life in the advancement of the science of
+political economy, and in the improvement of French commercial
+education. In 1873 he became a member of the Institute, and in 1876 a
+senator for the department in which he was born. He died at Paris on the
+25th of September 1881. Of his writings, the following are the more
+important: _Traite d'economie politique_ (1845), _Richard Cobden et la
+Ligue_ (1846), _Traite des finances_ (1862), and _Principes du
+population_ (1857).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, GERMAIN, MARQUIS (1754-1821), French politician and economist,
+was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November 1754. He was educated for the
+law, and obtained when young the office of _procureur_ to the Chatelet
+in Paris. On the calling of the states-general he was elected as one of
+the _deputes suppleants_ of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator
+of the department of Paris. After the 10th of August 1792 he withdrew to
+the Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1795. In public
+life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In 1797 he
+was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800 he was prefect
+of Seine-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator and in 1808 a count.
+After the Restoration he obtained a peerage, and on the return of Louis
+XVIII., after the Hundred Days, he became minister of state and member
+of privy council, and in 1817 was created a marquis. He died at Paris on
+the 4th of October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his
+facile power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation
+depends rather on his later works on political economy, especially his
+admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's _Wealth
+of Nations_ (1805) and his _Histoire de la monnaie_ (2 vols., 1819),
+which contains much sound and well-arranged material. His _Abrege des
+principes de l'econ. polit._ (1796) is a very clear and instructive
+manual. The valuable _Description geographique, physique, et politique
+du departement de Seine-et-Oise_ (1802) was drawn up from his
+instructions. Other works are _De la propriete_ (1792) and _Histoire des
+banques d'escompte_ (1806).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES (1825-1898), French architect, was born in
+Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He was educated in a primary school,
+and it was intended that he should pursue his father's craft, that of a
+wheelwright. His mother, however, having heard that with a little
+previous study he might enter an architect's office and eventually
+become a measuring surveyor (_verificateur_), and earn as much as six
+francs a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health
+he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing and
+mathematics at the Petite Ecole de Dessin, in the rue de Medecine, the
+cradle of so many of the great artists of France. His progress was such
+as to justify his being sent first into an architect's office and then
+to the well-known atelier of Lebas, where he began his studies in
+preparation for the examination of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, which he
+passed in 1842, at the age of seventeen. Shortly after his admission it
+became necessary that he should support himself, and accordingly he
+worked during the day in various architects' offices, among them in that
+of M. Viollet-le-Duc, and confined his studies for the Ecole to the
+evening. In 1848 he carried off, at the early age of twenty-three, the
+Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture, engraving and
+music, set off for the Villa de Medicis. His principal works were the
+measured drawings of the Forum of Trajan and the temple of Vesta in
+Rome, and the temple of Serapis at Pozzuoli. In the fifth year of his
+travelling studentship he went to Athens and measured the temple at
+Aegina, subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its
+polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph in 1877.
+The elaborate set of drawings which he was commissioned by the duc de
+Luynes to make of the tombs of the house of Anjou were not published,
+owing to the death of his patron; and since Garnier's death they have
+been given to the library of the Ecole des Beaux Arts, along with other
+drawings he made in Italy. On his return to Paris in 1853 he was
+appointed surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very
+moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor Baltard
+to make two water-colour drawings of the Hotel de Ville, to be placed in
+the album presented to Queen Victoria in 1855, on the occasion of her
+visit to Paris, proved very acceptable. These two drawings are now in
+the library at Windsor.
+
+In 1860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was announced for
+a design for a new imperial academy of music, and out of 163 competitors
+Garnier was one of five selected for a second competition, in which, by
+unanimous vote, he carried off the first prize, and the execution of the
+design was placed in his hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its
+completion by the Franco-German War, it was not till 1875 that the
+structure of the present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a
+cost of about 35,000,000 francs (L1,420,000). During the war the
+building was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The
+staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the
+interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been
+approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are the Casino
+at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighera, the Hotel du
+Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs, those of the
+musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Masse and Duprato. In 1874 he was elected a
+member of the Institute of France, and after passing through the grades
+of chevalier, officer and commander of the Legion of Honour, received in
+1895 the rank of grand officer, a high distinction that had never before
+been granted to an architect. Charles Garnier's reputation was not
+confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of Europe,
+and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal of the Royal
+Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria. Besides his monograph
+on the temple of Aegina, he wrote several works, of which _Le Nouvel
+Opera de Paris_ is the most valuable. For the International Exhibition
+of 1889 he designed the buildings illustrating the "History of the
+House" in all periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards
+published by him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his
+claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he
+rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the Institute
+of France, and the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, services which in France are
+rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died on the 3rd of August
+1898.     (R. P. S.)
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [FRANCIS] (1839-1873), French officer and
+explorer, was born at St Etienne on the 25th of July 1839. He entered
+the navy, and after voyaging in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he
+obtained a post on the staff of Admiral Charner, who from 1860 to 1862
+was campaigning in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France he
+returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of the
+natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administration of
+Cho-lon, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion that the marquis
+de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a mission to explore the valley
+of the Mekong, but as Garnier was not considered old enough to be put in
+command, the chief authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart de Lagree.
+In the course of the expedition--to quote the words of Sir Roderick
+Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he was
+presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical Society of
+London--from Kratie in Cambodia to Shanghai 5392 m. were traversed, and
+of these 3625 m., chiefly of country unknown to European geography, were
+surveyed with care, and the positions fixed by astronomical
+observations, nearly the whole of the observations being taken by
+Garnier himself. Volunteering to lead a detachment to Talifu, the
+capital of Sultan Suleiman, the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in
+Yunnan, he successfully carried out the more than adventurous
+enterprise. When shortly afterwards Lagree died, Garnier naturally
+assumed the command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to
+the Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return to
+France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of his narrative
+was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and during the siege of Paris
+he served as principal staff officer to the admiral in command of the
+eighth "sector." His experiences during the siege were published
+anonymously in the feuilleton of _Le Temps_, and appeared separately as
+_Le Siege de Paris, journal d'un officier de marine_ (1871). Returning
+to Cochin-China he found the political circumstances of the country
+unfavourable to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China,
+and in 1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the
+waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupre, governor of
+Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a new colony in
+Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took Hanoi, the capital of
+Tongking, and on the 21st of December he was slain in fight with the
+Black Flags. His chief fame rests on the fact that he originated the
+idea of exploring the Mekong, and carried out the larger portion of the
+work.
+
+  The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873, as _Voyage
+  d'exploration en Indo-Chine effectue pendant les annees 1866, 1867 et
+  1868, publie sous la direction de M. Francis Garnier, avec le concours
+  de M. Delaporte et de MM. Joubert et Thorel_ (2 vols.). An account of
+  the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen is given in the _Bulletin de la
+  Soc. de Geog._ (1874). His _Chronique royale du Cambodje_, was
+  reprinted from the _Journal Asiatique_ in 1872. See _Ocean Highways_
+  (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh Clifford, _Further
+  India_, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545-c. 1600), French tragic poet, was born at Ferte
+Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his first work while still a
+law-student at Toulouse, where he won a prize (1565) in the _jeux
+floraux_. It was a collection of lyrical pieces, now lost, entitled
+_Plaintes amoureuses de Robert Garnier_ (1565). After some practice at
+the Parisian bar, he became conseiller du roi au siege presidial et
+senechaussee of Le Maine, his native district, and later
+lieutenant-general criminel. His friend Lacroix du Maine says that he
+enjoyed a great reputation as an orator. He was a distinguished
+magistrate, of considerable weight in his native province, who gave his
+leisure to literature, and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized
+by his own generation. He died at Le Mans probably in 1599 or 1600.
+
+In his early plays he was a close follower of the school of dramatists
+who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these productions there is
+little that is strictly dramatic except the form. A tragedy was a series
+of rhetorical speeches relieved by a lyric chorus. His pieces in this
+manner are _Porcie_ (published 1568, acted at the hotel de Bourgogne in
+1573), _Cornelie_ and _Hippolyte_ (both acted in 1573 and printed in
+1574). In _Porcie_ the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the
+subject of an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death
+of the nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group
+of tragedies--_Marc-Antoine_ (1578), _La Troade_ (1579), _Antigone_
+(acted and printed 1580)--shows an advance on the theatre of Etienne
+Jodelle and Jacques Grevin, and on his own early plays, in so much that
+the rhetorical element is accompanied by abundance of action, though
+this is accomplished by the plan of joining together two virtually
+independent pieces in the same way.
+
+In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces _Bradamante_ and _Les
+Juives_. In _Bradamante_, which alone of his plays has no chorus, he cut
+himself adrift from Senecan models, and sought his subject in Ariosto,
+the result being what came to be known later as a tragi-comedy. The
+dramatic and romantic story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands,
+though even there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the
+stage. The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic
+interest in the manner of Corneille. _Les Juives_ is the pathetic story
+of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the Jewish king Zedekiah
+and his children. The Jewish women lamenting the fate of their children
+take a principal part in this tragedy, which, although almost entirely
+elegiac in conception, is singularly well designed, and gains unity by
+the personality of the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French
+tragedies of the 16th and 17th centuries it is, with _Athalie_, the best
+constructed with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual
+representation is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is,
+in fact, visually conceived.
+
+Garnier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of his
+century and the precursor of the great achievements of the next.
+
+  The best edition of his works is by Wendelin Foerster (Heilbronn, 4
+  vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found in
+  Emile Faguet, _La Tragedie francaise au XVI^e siecle_ (1883, pp.
+  183-307).
+
+
+
+
+GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841), French politician, was
+born at Marseilles on the 27th of December 1801. Soon after his birth
+his father Jean Francois Garnier, a naval surgeon, died, and his mother
+married Simon Pages, a college professor, by whom she had a son. The
+boys were brought up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pages.
+Etienne found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and
+then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study law, and
+made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of the Restoration, he
+joined various democratic societies, notably the _Aide-toi, le ciel
+t'aidera_, an organization for purifying the elections. He took part in
+the revolution of July 1830; became secretary of the _Aide-toi, le ciel
+t'aidera_, whose propaganda he brought into line with his
+anti-monarchical ideas; and in 1831 was sent from Isere to the chamber
+of deputies. He was concerned in the preparation of the _Compte rendu_
+of 1832, and advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker,
+and his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked
+influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on the 23rd
+of June 1841.
+
+His half-brother, LOUIS ANTOINE GARNIER-PAGES (1803-1878), fought on the
+barricades during the revolution of July 1830, and after Etienne's death
+was elected to the chamber of deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter
+of reform, and was a leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet
+fixed for the 22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional
+government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the 5th of March
+1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred great unpopularity by
+the imposition of additional taxes. He was a member of the Constituent
+Assembly and of the Executive Commission. Under the Empire he was
+conspicuous in the republican opposition and opposed the war with
+Prussia, and after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the
+Government of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the
+National Assembly (the 8th of February 1871), he retired into private
+life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He wrote _Histoire
+de la revolution de 1848_ (1860-1862); _Histoire de la commission
+executive_ (1869-1872); and _L'Opposition et l'empire_ (1872).
+
+
+
+
+GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now particularly
+used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from the O. Fr. _garnisant_
+or _guarnissant_, participle of _garnir_, _guarnir_, to furnish, equip.
+This is of Teutonic origin, the base being represented in O. Eng.
+_warnian_, to take warning, beware, and Ger. _warnen_, to warn, Eng.
+_warn_; the original sense would be to guard against, fortify, hence
+equip or fit out. The meaning of "warn" is seen in the law term
+"garnishee," a person who owes money to or holds money belonging to
+another and is "warned" by order of the court not to pay it to his
+immediate creditor but to a third person who has obtained final judgment
+against that creditor. (See ATTACHMENT; EXECUTION; BANKRUPTCY.)
+
+
+
+
+GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of
+Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a tribe of
+doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom it is almost
+entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section of the great Bodo
+tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of Assam. According to
+the census of 1901 they numbered 128,117. In the 18th century they are
+mentioned as being frequently in conflict with the inhabitants of the
+plains below their hills, and in 1790 the British government first tried
+to reduce them. No permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the
+Garos were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were
+again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in 1861,
+but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was now posted
+among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the district was
+constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was committed against a
+native on the survey staff, there was little opposition when an
+expedition was sent in 1872-1873 to bring the whole district into
+submission, and there were thereafter no further disturbances.
+
+The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which here
+run down almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that river
+debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great sweep to the
+south. The administrative headquarters are at Tura. The area of the
+district is 3140 sq. m. In 1901 the population was 138,274, showing an
+increase of 14% in the decade. The American missionaries maintain a
+small training school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were
+entirely destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in
+the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures. Coal in
+large quantities and petroleum are known to exist. The chief exports are
+cotton, timber and forest products. Trade is small, though the natives,
+according to their own standard, are prosperous. They are fair
+agriculturists. Communications within the district are by cart-roads,
+bridle-paths and native tracks.
+
+
+
+
+GARONNE (Lat. _Garumna_), a river of south-western France, rising in the
+Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a wide curve to the
+Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents, one of which has a
+subterranean course of 2-1/2 m., disappearing in the sink known as the
+Trou du Taureau ("bull's hole") and reappearing at the Goueil de Joueou.
+After a course of 30 m. in Spanish territory, during which it flows
+through the fine gorge called the Vallee d'Aran, the Garonne enters
+France in the department of Haute Garonne through the narrow defile of
+the Pont du Roi, and at once becomes navigable for rafts. At Montrejeau
+it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at this point the
+vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn abruptly east, flowing in a
+wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint Martory it gives off the irrigation
+canal of that name. At this point the Garonne enters a fertile plain,
+and supplies the motive power to several mills. It is joined on the
+right by various streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the
+Salat, at whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize
+and the Ariege (both names signifying "river"). From Toulouse the
+Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern border of the
+plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the principal streams
+being the Save, the Gers and the Baise. On its right hand the Garonne is
+swelled by its two chief tributaries, the Tarn, near Moissac, and the
+Lot, below Agen; farther down it is joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and
+on the left by the Ciron. Between Toulouse and Castets, 33-1/2 m. above
+Bordeaux, and the highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend,
+the river is accompanied at a distance of from a 1/2 to 3 m. by the
+so-called "lateral canal" of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856. This
+canal is about 120 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches, one of
+which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn. From Toulouse
+to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of the Garonne, crossing
+the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while another magnificent aqueduct
+of twenty-three arches carries it at Agen from the right to the left
+bank of the river. It has a fall of 420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is
+navigable for vessels having the maximum dimensions of 98-1/2 ft.
+length, 19 ft. breadth and 6-1/2 ft. draught. The carrying trade upon it
+is chiefly in agricultural produce and provisions, building materials,
+wood and industrial products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the
+Canal du Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets
+the Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160 yds.
+broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its great
+commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing width between
+two flat shores to the Bec d'Ambes (15-1/2 m.), where, after a course of
+357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to form the vast estuary known as
+the Gironde. The triangular peninsula lying between these two great
+tidal rivers is called Entre-deux-mers ("between two seas") and is
+famous for its wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000
+sq. m. Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly. The
+most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the flood level
+at Castets attained the record height of 42-1/2 ft. above low-water
+mark.
+
+
+
+
+GARRET (from the O. Fr. _garite_, modern _guerite_, a watch-tower,
+connected ultimately with "guard" and "ward"), properly a small look-out
+tower built on a wall, and hence the name given to a room on the top
+storey of a building, the sloping ceiling of which is formed by the
+roof.
+
+
+
+
+GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DA SILVA LEITAO DE ALMEIDA, VISCONDE DE
+ALMEIDA-GARRETT (1799-1854), perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since
+Camoens, was of Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the
+Quinta do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French
+invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett made
+his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early age under
+the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of Bocage. Going to the
+university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon earned notoriety by the precocity
+of his talents and his fervent Liberalism, and there he gained his first
+oratorical and literary successes. His tragedy _Lucrecia_ was played
+there in February 1819, and during this period he also wrote _Merope_ as
+well as a great part of _Cato_, all these plays belonging to the
+so-called classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he
+proceeded to Lisbon, and on the 11th of November 1822 married D. Luiza
+Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal separation took
+place in 1839.
+
+The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of 1820 reached
+its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal by order of the
+Absolutist ministry then in power, and went to England. He became
+acquainted with the masterpieces of the English and German romantic
+movements during his stay abroad.
+
+Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 1824 at Havre the
+poem "Camoes," which destroyed the influence of the worn-out classical
+and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following year composed the patriotic
+poem "D. Branca," or "The Conquest of the Algarve." He was permitted to
+return to Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism.
+With the publication of _O Portuguez_, he raised the tone of the press,
+exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language then unknown
+in political controversy, and he introduced the "feuilleton." But his
+defence of Liberal principles brought him three months' imprisonment,
+and when D. Miguel was proclaimed absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828,
+Garrett had again to leave the country. In London, where he sought
+refuge, he continued his adhesion to romanticism by publishing
+_Adozinda_ and _Bernal-Francez_, expansions of old folk-poems, which met
+with the warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamson. He
+spent the next three years in and about Birmingham, Warwick and London,
+engaged in writing poetry and political pamphlets, and by these and by
+his periodicals he did much to unite the Portuguese _emigres_ and to
+keep up their spirit amid their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning
+that an expedition was being organized in France for the liberation of
+Portugal, Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a
+volunteer. Sailing in February 1832, he disembarked at Terceira, whence
+he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal government. Here he
+became a co-operator with the statesman Mousinho da Silveira, and
+assisted him in drafting those laws which were to revolutionize the
+whole framework of Portuguese society, this important work being done
+far from books and without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote
+some of the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into _Flores sem
+Fructo_. He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on
+the 8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the
+siege he sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the
+historical romance _Arco de Sant' Anna_, descriptive of the city in the
+reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the Home and
+Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmella, drafted many important
+royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and commercial codes. In the
+following November he was despatched as secretary to the marquis on a
+diplomatic mission to foreign courts, which involved him in much
+personal hardship. In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to
+return home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of
+public instruction.
+
+In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and charge d'affaires at
+Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most difficult
+circumstances, for which he received no thanks and little pay. When he
+got back, the government employed him to draw up a proposal for the
+construction of a national theatre and for a conservatoire of dramatic
+art, of which he became the head. He instituted prizes for the best
+plays, himself revising nearly all that were produced, and a school of
+dramatists and actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he
+proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subjects from
+Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the _Auto de Gil Vicente_,
+considering that the first step towards the recreation of the Portuguese
+drama was to revive the memory of its founder, and he followed this up
+in 1842 by the _Alfageme de Santarem_, dealing with the Holy Constable,
+and in 1843 by _Frei Luiz de Sousa_, one of the few great tragedies of
+the 19th century, a work as intensely national as _The Lusiads_. The
+story, which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being
+simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. Joao de Portugal, who
+was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns, years
+afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and the mother
+of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the pair separate and enter
+religion, and Manoel becomes the famous chronicler, _Frei Luiz de Sousa_
+(q.v.). The characters live and move, especially Telmo, the old servant,
+who would never believe in the death of his former master D. Joao, and
+the consumptive child Maria, who helps Telmo to create the atmosphere
+of impending disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the
+return of D. Joao and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the
+language is Portuguese of the best.
+
+Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as an orator. In
+that year he delivered many notable discourses in defence of liberal
+ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright bill, which, when it
+became law in 1851, served as a precedent for similar legislation in
+England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his famous speech known as _Porto
+Pyreu_, in which he skilfully turned the well-known anecdote of the "mad
+Athenian" against his opponents. While attending with assiduity to his
+duties as a deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama _D. Filippa de
+Vilhena_, founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for
+representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the session of
+1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his speech against the
+law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to Santarem resulted in his
+prose masterpiece _Viagens na minha terra_, at once a novel and a
+miscellany of literary, political and philosophic criticism, written
+without plan or method, easy, jovial and epigrammatic. He took no part
+in the civil war that followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but
+continued his literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy _A Sobrinha
+do Marquez_, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an historical
+memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of the year 1850 in
+finishing his _Romanceiro_, a collection of folk-poetry of which he was
+the first to perceive the value; and in June 1851 he was created a
+viscount. In the following December he drew up the additional act to the
+constitutional charter, and his draft was approved by the ministers at a
+cabinet meeting in his house. Further, he initiated the _Conselho
+Ultramarino_; and the _Law of the Misericordias_, with its preamble,
+published in 1852, was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became
+for a short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out
+_Folhas Cahidas_, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion and
+exquisite in form, of which his friend Herculano said: "if Camoens had
+written love verses at Garrett's age, he could not have equalled him."
+His final literary work was a novel, _Helena_, which he left unfinished,
+and on the 10th of February 1854 he made his last notable speech in the
+House. He died on the 9th of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903
+his remains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos at
+Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet, novelist,
+journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark of Rebello da
+Silva: "Garrett was not a man of letters only but an entire literature
+in himself."
+
+Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a deep
+sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular capacity
+for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able jurist, he was
+bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic temperament
+explains his many-sided activity, his expansive kindliness, his
+seductive charm, especially for women, his patriotism, his aristocratic
+pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism, and the ingenuousness that
+absolves him from many faults in an irregular life. From his rich
+artistic nature sprang his profound, sincere, sensual and melancholy
+lyrics, the variety and perfection of his scenic creations, the
+splendour of his eloquence, the truth of his comic vein, the elegance of
+his lighter compositions. Two books stand out in bold relief from among
+his writings: _Folhas Cahidas_, and that tragedy of fatality and pity,
+_Frei Luiz de Sousa_, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the
+truest realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection
+of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several
+editions.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Gomes de Amorim, _Garrett, memorias biographicas_ (3
+  vols., Lisbon, 1881-1888); D. Romero Ortiz, _La Litteratura Portuguesa
+  en el siglo XIX_ (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-221; Dr Theophilo Braga,
+  _Garrett e o romantismo_ (Oporto, 1904), and _Garrett e os dramas
+  romanticos_ (Oporto, 1905), with a full bibliography; Innocencio da
+  Silva, _Diccionario bibliographico Portuguez_, vol. iii. pp. 309-316,
+  and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See _Revue encyclopedique Larousse_, No. 284,
+  for a bibliography of the foreign translations of Garrett. _Frei Luiz
+  de Sousa_ was translated by Edgar Prestage under the title _Brother
+  Luiz de Sousa_ (London, 1909).     (E. Pr.)
+
+
+
+
+
+GARRETTING, properly Galletting, a term in architecture for the process
+in which the "gallets" or small splinters of stone are inserted in the
+joints of coarse masonry to protect the mortar joints; they are stuck in
+while the mortar is wet.
+
+
+
+
+GARRICK, DAVID (1717-1779), English actor and theatrical manager, was
+descended from a good French Protestant family named Garric or Garrique
+of Bordeaux, which had settled in England on the revocation of the Edict
+of Nantes. His father, Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella
+Clough, the daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a
+recruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Hereford on
+the 19th of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had made his home at
+Lichfield, where he had a large family, in 1731 rejoined his regiment at
+Gibraltar. This kept him absent from home for many years, during which
+letters were written to him by "little Davy," acquainting him with the
+doings at Lichfield. When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a
+short visit to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine
+merchant. On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had
+previously been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was,
+largely by the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the
+ecclesiastical court, sent with his brother George to the "academy" at
+Edial, just opened in June or July 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by
+seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary was, however,
+closed in about six months, and on the 2nd of March 1736/7 both Johnson
+and Garrick left Lichfield for London--Johnson, as he afterwards said,
+"with twopence halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick "with
+three-halfpence in his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy
+of _Irene_, was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however,
+before the end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John
+Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain Garrick
+died about a month after David's arrival in London. Soon afterwards, his
+uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having left David a sum of L1000, he
+and his brother entered into partnership as wine merchants in London and
+Lichfield, David taking up the London business. The concern was not
+prosperous--though Samuel Foote's assertion that he had known Garrick
+with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine
+merchant need not be taken literally--and before the end of 1741 he had
+spent nearly half of his capital.
+
+His passion for the stage completely engrossed him; he tried his hand
+both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship. His first
+dramatic piece, _Lethe_, or _Aesop in the Shades_, which he was
+thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound transcript to
+King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played at Drury Lane on the
+15th of April 1740; and he became a well-known frequenter of theatrical
+circles. His first appearance on the stage was made in March 1741,
+_incognito_, as harlequin at Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill,
+having allowed him to take his place during a few scenes of the
+pantomime entitled _Harlequin Student_, or _The Fall of Pantomime with
+the Restoration of the Drama_. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party
+of players from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first
+part as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan (in
+Southerne's _Oroonoko_). His success in this and other parts determined
+his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he made his appearance at
+Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and gained the most enthusiastic
+applause. Among the audience was Macklin, whose performance of Shylock,
+early in the same year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so
+rapidly to pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to his
+brother at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal
+from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on the
+part of his family, met by him with the utmost consideration, were
+ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had added to his
+popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who, like Horace Walpole, at
+first held out against the _furore_) declared, was "horn-mad" about him.
+Before his Richard had exhausted its original effect, he won new
+applause as Aboan, and soon afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Otway's
+_Venice Preserved_, as well as in several comic characters (including
+that of Bayes). Glover ("Leonidas") attended every performance; the
+duke of Argyll, Lords Cobham and Lyttelton, Pitt, and several other
+members of parliament testified their admiration. Within the first six
+months of his theatrical career he acted in eighteen characters of all
+kinds, and from the 2nd of December he appeared in his own name. Pope
+went to see him three times during his first performances, and
+pronounced that "that young man never had his equal as an actor, and he
+will never have a rival." Before next spring he had supped with "the
+great Mr Murray, counsellor," and was engaged to do so with Mr Pope
+through Murray's introduction, while he was dining with Halifax,
+Sandwich and Chesterfield. "There was a dozen dukes of a night at
+Goodman's Fields," writes Horace Walpole. Garrick's farce of _The Lying
+Valet_, in which he performed the part of Sharp, was at this time
+brought out with so much success that he ventured to send a copy to his
+brother.
+
+His fortune was now made, and while the managers of Covent Garden and
+Drury Lane resorted to the law to make Giffard, the manager of Goodman's
+Fields, close his little theatre, Garrick was engaged by Fleetwood for
+Drury Lane for the season of 1742. In June of that year he went over to
+Dublin, where he found the same homage paid to his talents as he had
+received from his own countrymen. He was accompanied by Margaret (Peg)
+Woffington, of whom he had been for some time a fervent admirer. (His
+claim to the authorship of the song to Lovely Peggy is still _sub
+judice_. There remains some obscurity as to the end of their liaison.)
+From September 1742 to April 1745 he played at Drury Lane, after which
+he again went over to Dublin. Here he remained during the whole season,
+as joint-manager with Sheridan, in the direction and profits of the
+Theatre Royal in Smock Alley. In 1746-1747 he fulfilled a short
+engagement with Rich at Covent Garden, his last series of performances
+under a management not his own. With the close of that season
+Fleetwood's patent for the management of Drury Lane expired, and
+Garrick, in conjunction with Lacy, purchased the property of the
+theatre, together with the renewal of the patent; contributing L8000 as
+two-thirds of the purchase-money. In September 1747 it was opened with a
+strong company of actors, Johnson's prologue being spoken by Garrick,
+while the epilogue, written by him, was spoken by Mrs Woffington. The
+negotiations involved Garrick in a bitter quarrel with Macklin, who
+appears to have had a real grievance in the matter. Garrick took no part
+himself till his performance of Archer in the _Beaux' Stratagem_, a
+month after the opening. For a time at least "the drama's patrons" were
+content with the higher entertainment furnished them; in the end Garrick
+had to "please" them, like most other managers, by gratifying their love
+of show. Garrick was surrounded by many players of eminence, and he had
+the art, as he was told by Mrs Clive, "of contradicting the proverb that
+one cannot make bricks without straw, by doing what is infinitely more
+difficult, making actors and actresses without genius." He had to
+encounter very serious opposition from the old actors whom he had
+distanced, and with the younger actors and actresses he was involved in
+frequent quarrels. But to none of them or their fellows did he, so far
+as it appears, show that jealousy of real merit from which so many great
+actors have been unable to remain free. For the present he was able to
+hold his own against all competition. The naturalness of his acting
+fascinated those who, like Partridge in _Tom Jones_, listened to
+nature's voice, and justified the preference of more conscious critics.
+To be "pleased with nature" was, as Churchill wrote, in the _Rosciad_
+(1761),[1] to be pleased with Garrick. For the stately declamation, the
+sonorous, and beyond a doubt impressive, chant of Quin and his fellows,
+Garrick substituted rapid changes of passion and humour in both voice
+and gesture, which held his audiences spellbound. "It seemed," wrote
+Richard Cumberland, "as if a whole century had been stepped over in the
+passage of a single scene; old things were done away, and a new order at
+once brought forward, bright and luminous, and clearly destined to
+dispel the barbarisms of a tasteless age, too long superstitiously
+devoted to the illusions of imposing declamation." Garrick's French
+descent and his education may have contributed to give him the vivacity
+and versatility which distinguished him as an actor; and nature had
+given him an eye, if not a stature, to command, and a mimic power of
+wonderful variety. The list of his characters in tragedy, comedy and
+farce is large, and would be extraordinary for a modern actor of high
+rank; it includes not less than seventeen Shakespearian parts. As a
+manager, though he committed some grievous blunders, he did good service
+to the theatre and signally advanced the popularity of Shakespeare's
+plays, of which not less than twenty-four were produced at Drury Lane
+under his management. Many of these were not pure Shakespeare; and he is
+credited with the addition of a dying speech to the text of _Macbeth_.
+On the other hand, Tate Wilkinson says that Garrick's production of
+_Hamlet_ in 1773 was well received at Drury Lane even by the galleries,
+"though without their favourite acquaintances the gravediggers." Among
+his published adaptations are an opera, _The Fairies_ (from _Midsummer
+Night's Dream_) (1755); an opera _The Tempest_ (1756); _Catherine and
+Petruchio_ (1758); _Florizel and Perdita_ (1762). But not every
+generation has the same notions of the way in which Shakespeare is best
+honoured. Few sins of omission can be charged against Garrick as a
+manager, but he refused Home's _Douglas_, and made the wrong choice
+between _False Delicacy_ and _The Good Natur'd Man_. For the rest, he
+purified the stage of much of its grossness, and introduced a relative
+correctness of costume and decoration unknown before. To the study of
+English dramatic literature he rendered an important service by
+bequeathing his then unrivalled collection of plays to the British
+Museum.
+
+After escaping from the chains of his passion for the beautiful but
+reckless Mrs Woffington, Garrick had in 1749 married Mademoiselle
+Violette (Eva Maria Veigel), a German lady who had attracted admiration
+at Florence or at Vienna as a dancer, and had come to England early in
+1746, where her modest grace and the rumours which surrounded her
+created a _furore_, and where she found enthusiastic patrons in the earl
+and countess of Burlington. Garrick, who called her "the best of women
+and wives," lived most happily with her in his villa at Hampton,
+acquired by him in 1754, whither he was glad to escape from his house in
+Southampton Street. To this period belongs Garrick's quarrel with Barry,
+the only actor who even temporarily rivalled him in the favour of the
+public. In 1763 Garrick and his wife visited Paris, where they were
+cordially received and made the acquaintance of Diderot and others at
+the house of the baron d'Holbach. It was about this time that Grimm
+extolled Garrick as the first and only actor who came up to the demands
+of his imagination; and it was in a reply to a pamphlet occasioned by
+Garrick's visit that Diderot first gave expression to the views
+expounded in his _Paradoxe sur le comedien_. After some months spent in
+Italy, where Garrick fell seriously ill, they returned to Paris in the
+autumn of 1764 and made more friends, reaching London in April 1765.
+Their union was childless, and Mrs Garrick survived her husband until
+1822. Her portrait by Hogarth is at Windsor Castle.
+
+Garrick practically ceased to act in 1766, but he continued the
+management of Drury Lane, and in 1769 organized the Shakespeare
+celebrations at Stratford-on-Avon, an undertaking which ended in dismal
+failure, though he composed an "Ode upon dedicating a building and
+erecting a Statue to Shakespeare" on the occasion. (See, _inter alia,
+Garrick's Vagary, or England Run Mad; with particulars of the Stratford
+Jubilee_, 1769.) Of his best supporters on the stage, Mrs Cibber, with
+whom he had been reconciled, died in 1766, and Mrs (Kitty) Clive retired
+in 1769; but Garrick contrived to maintain the success of his theatre.
+He sold his share in the property in 1776 for L35,000, and took leave of
+the stage by playing a round of his favourite characters--Hamlet, Lear,
+Richard and Benedick, among Shakespearian parts; Lusignan in _Zara_,
+Aaron Hill's adaptation of Voltaire's _Zaire_; and Kitely in his own
+adaptation of Ben Jonson's _Every Man in his Humour_; Archer in
+Farquhar's _Beaux' Stratagem_; Abel Drugger in Ben Jonson's
+_Alchemist_; Sir John Brute in Vanbrugh's _Provoked Wife_; Leon in
+Fletcher's _Rule a Wife and have a Wife_. He ended the series, as Tate
+Wilkinson says, "in full glory" with "the youthful Don Felix" in Mrs
+Centlivre's _Wonder_ on the 10th of June 1776. He died in London on the
+20th of January 1779. He was buried in Westminster Abbey at the foot of
+Shakespeare's statue with imposing solemnities. An elegy on his death
+was published by William Tasker, poet and physiognomist, in the same
+year.
+
+In person, Garrick was a little below middle height; in his later years
+he seems to have inclined to stoutness. The extraordinary mobility of
+his whole person, and his power of as it were transforming himself at
+will, are attested by many anecdotes and descriptions, but the piercing
+power of his eye must have been his most irresistible feature.
+
+Johnson, of whose various and often merely churlish remarks on Garrick
+and his doings many are scattered through the pages of Boswell, spoke
+warmly of the elegance and sprightliness of his friend's conversation,
+as well as of his liberality and kindness of heart; while to the great
+actor's art he paid the exquisite tribute of describing Garrick's sudden
+death as having "eclipsed the gaiety of nations, and impoverished the
+public stock of harmless pleasure." But the most discriminating
+character of Garrick, slightly tinged with satire, is that drawn by
+Goldsmith in his poem of _Retaliation_. Beyond a doubt he was not
+without a certain moral timidity contrasting strangely with his eager
+temperament and alertness of intellect; but, though he was not cast in a
+heroic mould, he must have been one of the most amiable of men. Garrick
+was often happy in his epigrams and occasional verse, including his
+numerous prologues and epilogues. He had the good taste to recognize,
+and the spirit to make public his recognition of, the excellence of
+Gray's odes at a time when they were either ridiculed or neglected. His
+dramatic pieces, _The Lying Valet_, adapted from Motteux's _Novelty
+Lethe_ (1740), _The Guardian_, _Linco's Travels_ (1767), _Miss in her
+Teens_ (1747), _Irish Widow_, &c., and his alterations and adaptations
+of old plays, which together fill four volumes, evinced his knowledge of
+stage effect and his appreciation of lively dialogue and action; but he
+cannot be said to have added one new or original character to the drama.
+He was joint author with Colman of _The Clandestine Marriage_ (1766), in
+which he is said to have written his famous part of Lord Ogleby. The
+excellent farce, _High Life below Stairs_, appears to have been wrongly
+attributed to Garrick, and to be by James Townley. His _Dramatic Works_
+(1798) fill three, his _Poetic_ (1735) two volumes.
+
+Garrick's _Private Correspondence_ (published in 1831-1832 with a short
+memoir by Boaden, in 2 vols. 4to), which includes his extensive _Foreign
+Correspondence_ with distinguished French men and women, and the notices
+of him in the memoirs of Cumberland, Hannah More and Madame D'Arblay,
+and above all in Boswell's _Life of Johnson_, bear testimony to his many
+attractive qualities as a companion and to his fidelity as a friend.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--A collection of unprinted Garrick letters is in the
+  Forster library at South Kensington. A list of publications of all
+  kinds for and against Garrick will be found in R. Lowe's
+  _Bibliographical History of English Theatrical Literature_ (1887). The
+  earlier biographies of Garrick are by Arthur Murphy (2 vols., 1801)
+  and by the bookseller Tom Davies (2 vols., 4th ed., 1805), the latter
+  a work of some merit, but occasionally inaccurate and confused as to
+  dates; and a searching if not altogether sympathetic survey of his
+  verses is furnished by Joseph Knight's valuable Life (1894). A memoir
+  of Garrick is included in a volume of French _Memoirs of Mlle Clairon
+  and others_, published by Levain (H.L. Cain) at Paris in 1846; and an
+  Italian _Biografia di Davide Garrick_ was published by C. Blasis at
+  Milan in 1840. Mr Percy Fitzgerald's _Life_ (2 vols., 1868; new
+  edition, 1899) is full and spirited, and has been reprinted, with
+  additions, among Sir Theodore Martin's _Monographs_ (1906). A
+  delightful essay on Garrick appeared in the _Quarterly Review_ (July
+  1868), directing attention to the admirable criticisms of Garrick's
+  acting in 1775 in the letters of G.C. Lichtenberg (_Verm. Schriften_,
+  iii., Gottingen, 1801). See also for a very valuable survey of
+  Garrick's labours as an actor, with a bibliography, C. Gaehde, _David
+  Garrick als Shakespeare-Darsteller_, &c. (Berlin, 1904). Mrs Parsons'
+  _Garrick, and his Circle_ and _Some unpublished Correspondence of
+  David Garrick_, ed. G.P. Baker (Boston, Mass., 1907), are interesting
+  additions to the literature of the subject. There is also a Life by
+  James Smyth, _David Garrick_ (1887). T.W. Robertson's play _David
+  Garrick_, first acted by Sothern, and later associated with Sir
+  Charles Wyndham, is of course mere fiction.
+
+  As to the portraits of Garrick, see W.T. Lawrence in The _Connoisseur_
+  (April 1905). That by Gainsborough at Stratford-on-Avon was preferred
+  by Mrs Garrick to all others. Several remain from the hand of Hogarth,
+  including the famous picture of Garrick as Richard III. The portraits
+  by Reynolds include the celebrated "Garrick between Tragedy and
+  Comedy." Zoffany's are portraits in character. Roubiliac's statue of
+  Shakespeare, for which Garrick sat, and for which he paid the sculptor
+  three hundred guineas, was originally placed in a small temple at
+  Hampton, and is now in the entrance hall at the British Museum.
+       (R. Ca.; A. W. W.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the subsequent _Apology addressed to the Critical Reviewers_,
+    Churchill revenged himself for the slight which he supposed Garrick
+    to have put upon him, by some spiteful lines, which, however, Garrick
+    requited by good-humoured kindness.
+
+
+
+
+GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD (1805-1879), the American anti-slavery leader,
+was born in Newburyport, Massachusetts, U.S.A., on the 10th of December
+1805. His parents were from the British province of New Brunswick. The
+father, Abijah, a sea-captain, went away from home when William was a
+child, and it is not known whether he died at sea or on land. The
+mother, whose maiden name was Lloyd, is said to have been a woman of
+high character, charming in person and eminent for piety. She died in
+1823. William had a taste for books, and made the most of his limited
+opportunities. His mother first set him to learn the trade of a
+shoemaker, first at Newburyport, and then, after 1815, at Baltimore,
+Maryland, and, when she found that this did not suit him, let him try
+his hand at cabinet-making (at Haverhill, Mass.). But this pleased him
+no better. In October 1818, when he was in his fourteenth year, he was
+made more than content by being indentured to Ephraim W. Allen,
+proprietor of the Newburyport _Herald_, to learn the trade of a printer.
+He soon became an expert compositor, and after a time began to write
+anonymously for the _Herald_. His communications won the commendation of
+the editor, who had not at first the slightest suspicion that he was the
+author. He also wrote for other papers with equal success. A series of
+political essays, written by him for the Salem _Gazette_, was copied by
+a prominent Philadelphia journal, the editor of which attributed them to
+the Hon. Timothy Pickering, a distinguished statesman of Massachusetts.
+His skill as a printer won for him the position of foreman, while his
+ability as a writer was so marked that the editor of the _Herald_, when
+temporarily called away from his post, left the paper in his charge.
+
+The printing-office was for him, what it has been for many another poor
+boy, no mean substitute for the academy and for the college. He was full
+of enthusiasm for liberty; the struggle of the Greeks to throw off the
+Turkish yoke enlisted his warmest sympathy, and at one time he seriously
+thought of entering the West Point Academy and fitting himself for a
+soldier's career. His apprenticeship ended in 1826, when he began the
+publication of a new paper (actually the old one under a new name), the
+_Free Press_, in his native place. The paper, whose motto was "Our
+Country, our Whole Country, and nothing but our Country," was full of
+spirit and intellectual force, but Newburyport was a sleepy place and
+the enterprise failed. Garrison then went to Boston, where, after
+working for a time as a journeyman printer, he became the editor of the
+_National Philanthropist_, the first journal established in America to
+promote the cause of total abstinence from intoxicating liquors. His
+work in this paper was highly appreciated by the friends of temperance,
+but a change in the proprietorship led to his withdrawal before the end
+of the year. In 1828 he was induced to establish the _Journal of the
+Times_ at Bennington, Vermont, to support the re-election of John Quincy
+Adams to the presidency of the United States. The new paper, though
+attractive in many ways, and full of force and fire, was too far ahead
+of public sentiment on moral questions to win a large support. In Boston
+he had met Benjamin Lundy (q.v.), who had for years been preaching the
+abolition of slavery. Garrison had been deeply moved by Lundy's appeals,
+and after going to Vermont he showed the deepest interest in the slavery
+question. Lundy was then publishing in Baltimore a small monthly paper,
+entitled _The Genius of Universal Emancipation_, and he resolved to go
+to Bennington and invite Garrison to join him in the editorship. With
+this object in view he walked from Boston to Bennington, through the
+frost and snow of a New England winter, a distance of 125 m. His mission
+was successful. Garrison was deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal
+and devotion, and he resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter
+to the work of abolishing slavery.
+
+In pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn of 1829,
+and thenceforth the _Genius_ was published weekly, under the joint
+editorship of the two men. It was understood, however, that Garrison
+would do most of the editorial work, while Lundy would spend most of his
+time in lecturing and procuring subscribers. On one point the two
+editors differed radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and
+Garrison of immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the
+idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonized somewhere
+beyond the limits of the United States; the latter held that they should
+be emancipated on the soil of the country, with all the rights of
+freemen. In view of this difference it was agreed that each should speak
+on his own individual responsibility in the paper, appending his initial
+to each of his articles for the information of the reader. It deserves
+mention here that Garrison was then in utter ignorance of the change
+previously wrought in the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth
+Heyrick's pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual
+emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the duty of
+immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was perfectly
+manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and denounce the evils
+of slavery, while responsibility for the system was placed upon former
+generations, and the duty of abolishing it transferred to an indefinite
+future. His demand for immediate emancipation fell like a tocsin upon
+the ears of slaveholders. For general talk about the evils of slavery
+they cared little, but this assertion that every slave was entitled to
+instant freedom filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for
+they saw that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the
+proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The _Genius_, now that it
+had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a paper to be
+feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one of the centres of the
+domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic Garrison heaped the
+strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in Newburyport having taken a
+cargo of slaves from Baltimore to New Orleans, he characterized the
+transaction as an act of "domestic piracy," and avowed his purpose to
+"cover with thick infamy" those engaged therein. He was thereupon
+prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted in
+costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His imprisonment
+created much excitement, and in some quarters, in spite of the
+pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of indignant comment in
+public as well as private. The excitement was fed by the publication of
+two or three striking sonnets, instinct with the spirit of liberty,
+which Garrison inscribed on the walls of his cell. One of these,
+_Freedom of Mind_, is remarkable for freshness of thought and terseness
+of expression.
+
+John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry Clay to pay
+Garrison's fine and thus release him from prison. To the credit of the
+slaveholding statesman it must be said that he responded favourably, but
+before he had time for the requisite preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a
+philanthropic merchant of New York, contributed the necessary sum and
+set the prisoner free after an incarceration of seven weeks. The
+partnership between Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual
+consent, and the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in
+which, upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of
+immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African colonization. He
+was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore, that a movement against
+slavery resting upon any less radical foundation than this would be
+ineffectual. He first proposed to establish his paper at Washington, in
+the midst of slavery, but on returning to New England and observing the
+state of public opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little
+could be done at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending
+her influence, through political, commercial, religious and social
+channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore, to
+publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus, set
+himself to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by means of
+lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the North. It was
+an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and indifference to his wrongs
+were almost universal. In Boston, then a great cotton mart, he tried in
+vain to procure a church or vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and
+thereupon announced in one of the daily journals that if some suitable
+place was not promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of
+infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844), who had
+previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor of a
+Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small hall; and,
+no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully, and
+delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which he unfolded
+his principles and plans. He visited privately many of the leading
+citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and merchants, and besought
+them to take the lead in a national movement against slavery; but they
+all with one consent made excuse, some of them listening to his plea
+with manifest impatience. He was disappointed, but not disheartened. His
+conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and dangers
+of slavery, and of the absolute necessity of the contemplated movement,
+was intensified by opposition, and he resolved to go forward, trusting
+in God for success.
+
+On the 1st of January 1831, without a dollar of capital, and without a
+single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knapp (1804-1843) issued the
+first number of the _Liberator_, avowing their "determination to print
+it as long as they could subsist on bread and water, or their hands
+obtain employment." Its motto was, "Our country is the world--our
+countrymen are mankind"; and the editor, in his address to the public,
+uttered the words which have become memorable as embodying the whole
+purpose and spirit of his life: "I am in earnest--I will not
+equivocate--I will not excuse--I will not retreat a single inch--and I
+will be heard." Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison and his
+brave partner, who died long before the end of the conflict, made their
+bed on the floor of the room, "dark, unfurnished and mean," in which
+they printed their paper, and where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston,
+in compliance with the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South
+Carolina, "ferreted them out" in "an obscure hole," "their only visible
+auxiliary a negro boy." But the paper founded under such inauspicious
+circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and lived to record not only
+President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipation, but the adoption of an
+amendment to the constitution of the United States for ever prohibiting
+slavery. It was the beginning and the nucleus of an agitation that
+eventually pervaded and filled every part of the country. Other
+newspapers were afterwards established upon the same principles;
+anti-slavery societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate
+emancipation, sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into
+political parties, into the press, and into legislative and
+ecclesiastical assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking
+alarm from the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to
+slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safeguards of
+the system, seceded from the Union and set up a separate government.
+
+Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone. He knew
+that the national government had no power over the system in any state,
+though it could abolish it at the national capital, and prohibit it in
+the territories. He thought it should bring its moral influence to bear
+in favour of abolition; but neither he nor his associates ever asked
+Congress to exercise any unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine
+the moral influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel
+upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern churches
+and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of Christianity to bear
+against the slave system, and to advocate the rights of the slaves to
+immediate and unconditional freedom. He was a man of peace, hating war
+not less than he did slavery; but he warned his countrymen that if they
+refused to abolish slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner
+or later ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be
+overthrown, if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society
+organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his
+principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which adopted its
+constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this year Garrison issued
+his _Thoughts on African Colonization_, in which he showed by ample
+citations from official documents that the American Colonization Society
+was organized in the interest of slavery, and that in offering itself to
+the people of the North as a practical remedy for that system it was
+guilty of deception. His book, aided by others taking substantially the
+same view, smote the society with a paralysis from which it never
+recovered. Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having
+succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its character
+and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New England Anti-Slavery
+Society to visit England for the purpose of counteracting their
+influence. He went in the spring of 1833, when he was but twenty-seven
+years of age, and was received with great cordiality by British
+Abolitionists, some of whom had heard of his bold assaults upon American
+slavery, and had seen a few numbers of the _Liberator_. The struggle for
+emancipation in the West Indies was then at the point of culmination;
+the leaders of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled
+in London, and Garrison was at once admitted to their councils and
+treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with him a
+"protest" against the American Colonization Society, signed by
+Wilberforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney, William Evans, S.
+Lushington, T. Fowell Buxton, James Cropper, Daniel O'Connell and
+others, in which they declared their deliberate judgment that "its
+precepts were delusive," and "its real effects of the most dangerous
+nature." He also received assurances of the cordial sympathy of British
+Abolitionists with him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He
+gained a hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the
+confidence of those whom he addressed by his evident earnestness,
+sincerity and ability.
+
+Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people and press of
+the United States at the outset, and when he returned home in September
+with the "protest" against the Colonization Society, and announced that
+he had engaged the services of George Thompson as a lecturer against
+American slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The
+American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of that year
+(1833), putting forth a masterly declaration of its principles and
+purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added fresh fuel to the public
+excitement, and when Thompson came over in the next spring, the
+hostility to the cause began to manifest itself in mobs organized to
+suppress the discussion of the slavery question. Now began what Harriet
+Martineau called "the martyr age in America." In the autumn of 1835
+Thompson was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly
+for England. Just before his departure the announcement that he would
+address the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society of Boston created "a mob of
+gentlemen of property and standing," from which, if he had been present,
+he could hardly have escaped with his life. The whole city was in an
+uproar. Garrison, almost denuded of his clothing, was dragged through
+the streets with a rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great
+difficulty, and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be
+secretly removed from the city.
+
+Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the North, and
+many men of influence, both in the church and in the state, were won to
+the cause. Garrison, true to his original purpose, never faltered or
+turned back. The Abolitionists of the United States were a united body
+until 1839-1840, when divisions sprang up among them. Garrison
+countenanced the activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of
+allowing them to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and
+appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed in the
+political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was opposed
+upon social and religious grounds. Then there were some who thought
+Garrison dealt too severely with the churches and pulpits for their
+complicity with slavery, and who accused him of a want of religious
+orthodoxy; indeed, according to the standards of his time he was
+decidedly heterodox, though he had an intensely religious nature and was
+far from being an infidel, as he was often charged with being. He was,
+moreover, not only a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political
+systems based on force. "As to the governments of this world," he said,
+"whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove that in
+their essential elements, as at present administered, they are all
+anti-Christ; that they can never by human wisdom be brought into
+conformity with the will of God; that they cannot be maintained except
+by naval and military power to carry them into effect; that all their
+penal enactments, being a dead letter without any army to carry them
+into effect, are virtually written in human blood; and that the
+followers of Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor,
+power, and emolument--at the same time 'submitting to every ordinance of
+man for the Lord's sake' and offering no physical resistance to any of
+their mandates, however unjust or tyrannical." These views were very
+distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt that Garrison greatly injured
+abolitionism by causing it to be associated in men's minds with these
+unpopular views on other subjects. The dissentients from his opinions
+determined to form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in
+working by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These
+differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-Slavery
+Society in 1840, and to the formation of the "Liberty Party" (q.v.) in
+politics. (See BIRNEY, JAMES G.) The two societies sent their delegates
+to the World's Anti-Slavery Convention in London in 1840, and Garrison
+refused to take his seat in that body, because the women delegates from
+the United States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years
+served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the
+constitution of the United States as a shield and support of slavery;
+and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came to the
+conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and that it was
+therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The Southern states had
+greatly enlarged representation in Congress on account of their slaves,
+and the national government was constitutionally bound to assist in the
+capture of fugitive slaves, and to suppress every attempt on their part
+to gain their freedom by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison,
+adopting a bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution
+as "a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and chose as his
+motto, "No union with slaveholders."
+
+One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by strained
+interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others, admitting that
+they were immoral, felt themselves obliged, notwithstanding, to support
+the constitution in order to avoid what they thought would be still
+greater evils. The American Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was
+the president from 1843 to the day of emancipation, was during all this
+period the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which was
+greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the field of
+politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his convictions. On
+the other hand, he always had the highest respect for every earnest and
+faithful opponent of slavery, however far their special views might
+differ. When in 1861 the Southern states seceded from the Union and took
+up arms against it, he saw clearly that slavery would perish in the
+struggle, that the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery
+clauses, and that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure
+foundations of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore
+ceased from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to the
+task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable event. His
+services at this period were recognized and honoured by President
+Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole country knew that the
+agitation which made the abolition of slavery feasible and necessary was
+largely due to his uncompromising spirit and indomitable courage.
+
+In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being
+abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled a
+dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting that it had
+become _functus officiis_, and that whatever needed to be done for the
+protection of the freedmen could best be accomplished by new
+associations formed for that purpose. The _Liberator_ was discontinued
+at the end of the same year, after an existence of thirty-five years. He
+visited England for the second time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he
+was received with distinguished honours, public as well as private. In
+1877, when he was there for the last time, he declined every form of
+public recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in the
+seventy-fourth year of his age, and was buried in Boston, after a most
+impressive funeral service, four days later. In 1843 a small volume of
+his _Sonnets and other Poems_ was published, and in 1852 appeared a
+volume of _Selections from his Writings and Speeches_. His wife, Helen
+Eliza Benson, died in 1876. Four sons and one daughter survived them.
+
+Garrison's son, WILLIAM LLOYD GARRISON (1838-1909), was a prominent
+advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's suffrage, and of the
+repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an opponent of imperialism;
+another son, WENDELL PHILLIPS GARRISON (1840-1907), was literary editor
+of the New York _Nation_ from 1865 to 1906.
+
+  The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the account
+  given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson (reprinted
+  from his _Garrison: an Outline of his Life_, New York, 1879). The
+  writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist, editor, and an
+  intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the _Liberator_ during
+  Garrison's absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor or an
+  associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil War,
+  the New York _Tribune_ and the New York _Evening Post_. He also
+  published an excellent brief biography in _William Lloyd Garrison and
+  his Times_ (Boston, 1880).
+
+  The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and candid
+  work of his sons, W.P. and F.J. Garrison, _William Lloyd Garrison
+  1805-1879: The Story of his Life told by his Children_ (4 vols., New
+  York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student of the
+  anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith's _The Moral Crusader:
+  a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison_ (New York, 1892) is a
+  brilliant sketch.
+
+
+
+
+GARRISON, originally a term for stores or supplies, also a defence or
+protection, now confined in meaning to a body of troops stationed in a
+town or fortress for the purpose of defence. In form the word is derived
+from O. Fr. _garison_, modern _guerison_, from _guerir_, to furnish with
+stores, to preserve, but in its later meaning it has been confused with
+the Fr. _garnison_, the regular word for troops stationed for purposes
+of defence. In English "garnison" was used till the 16th century, when
+"garrison" took its place. In the British army "garrison troops,"
+especially "garrison artillery," are troops trained and employed for
+garrison work as distinct from field operations.
+
+
+
+
+GARROTE (Spanish for "cudgel"), an appliance used in Spain and Portugal
+for the execution of criminals condemned to death. The criminal is
+conducted to the place of execution (which is public) on horseback or in
+a cart, wearing a black tunic, and is attended by a procession of
+priests, &c. He is seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by
+an iron collar (the garrote), and a knob worked by a screw or lever
+dislocates his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column
+at the base of the brain. (See CAPITAL PUNISHMENT.) Originally a stout
+cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal, who was seated
+in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and the neck a stick was
+inserted (hence the name) and twisted till strangulation ensued.
+
+"Garrotting" is the name given in England to a form of robbery with
+violence which became rather common in the winter of 1862-1863. The
+thief came up behind his victim, threw a cord over his head, and
+tightened it nearly to strangulation point, while robbing him. An act of
+1863, imposing the penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude
+for this offence, had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely.
+At any rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of any
+sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the penalty, that
+view has always been taken by the English judges who had experience of
+such cases.
+
+
+
+
+GARRUCHA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province of Almeria;
+on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of the river Antas. Pop.
+(1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha, which is defended by an ancient
+castle, affords shelter to large ships, and is the natural outlet for
+the commerce of a thriving agricultural and mining district. Despite its
+small size and the want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a
+considerable trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit,
+&c. Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and
+clear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons
+entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and in the
+same year the value of the exports reached L478,000, and that of the
+imports L128,000. Both imports and exports trebled their value in the
+ten years 1892-1902.
+
+
+
+
+GARSTON, a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of Lancashire,
+England, on the Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool. Pop. (1891) 13,444;
+(1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the London & North Western
+railway company, employ most of the working population. There is about a
+mile of quayage, with special machinery for the shipping of coal, which
+forms the chief article of export.
+
+
+
+
+GARTH, SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician and poet, was born of a
+good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered Peterhouse, Cambridge, in
+1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and
+became a member of the College of Physicians in 1691. In 1697 he
+delivered the Harveian oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating
+from some ten years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of
+the sick poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries. In
+1699 he published a mock-heroic poem, _The Dispensary_, in six cantos,
+which had an instant success, passing through three editions within a
+year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and their allies among the
+physicians. The poem has little interest at the present day, except as a
+proof that the heroic couplet was written with smoothness and polish
+before the days of Pope. Garth was a member of the Kit-Kat Club, and
+became the leading physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffe was of the
+Tories. In 1714 he was knighted by George I. and he died on the 18th of
+January 1719. He wrote little besides his best-known work _The
+Dispensary_ and _Claremont_, a moral epistle in verse. He made a Latin
+oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the _Life of Otho_ in
+the fifth volume of Dryden's Plutarch. In 1717 he edited a translation
+of Ovid's _Metamorphoses_, himself supplying the fourteenth and part of
+the fifteenth book.
+
+
+
+
+GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the Indus on
+the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla. In accordance
+with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together with Yatung and Gyantse,
+was thrown open to British trade. On the return of the column from Lhasa
+in that year Gartok was visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who
+found only a few dozen people in winter quarters, their houses being in
+the midst of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade between
+Tibet and Ladakh passes through this place.
+
+
+
+
+GARY, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern end of
+Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, Ill. Pop. (1910 census)
+16,802. Gary is served by the Baltimore & Ohio, the Lake Shore &
+Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central, the Pennsylvania, the Wabash,
+and (for freight only) the Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the
+Indiana Harbor Belt railways, and by several steamship lines plying the
+Great Lakes. There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but
+the city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the
+time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps intersected from
+east to west by the Grand Calumet and the Little Calumet rivers, small
+streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S. of the lake shore. In 1906 the
+United States Steel Corporation bought this tract to establish on it a
+great industrial community, as direct water connexion with the Lake
+Superior ore region was possible, and it was comparatively accessible to
+West Virginia coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad
+facilities. The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town
+in June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate
+system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution of
+water, gas and electricity. The water-supply is taken from the lake at a
+point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public utilities the
+Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about 500 dwellings, two
+hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small patch of land, now within the
+limits of the city, has been from the beginning in the hands of private
+owners, but the remainder of the lots (except those already sold) are
+owned by the Steel Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions
+intended to prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide
+improvement of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating
+drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been dredged out into
+a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel Corporation, covering
+about 1200 acres. All the machinery in this great plant is driven by
+electricity from generators whose motive power is supplied by the
+combustion of gases from the blast furnaces. From the same sources is
+also supplied the electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is
+operated by three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000
+horse-power capacity. The city was chartered in 1906 and was named in
+honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of
+directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United States
+Steel Corporation.
+
+
+
+
+GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation of
+matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous product
+formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other carbonaceous
+matter (see below, section _Gas Manufacture_; for gas engines see the
+separate heading GAS ENGINE).
+
+_The Gaseous State._--Matter is studied under three physical
+phases--solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes
+grouped as "fluids." The study of the physical properties of fluids in
+general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and their
+applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special science
+dealing with the physical properties of gases is named pneumatics.
+
+The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our atmosphere.
+Though practically invisible, it appeals in its properties to other of
+our senses, so that the evidences of its presence are manifold. Thus we
+feel it in its motion as wind, and observe the dynamical effects of this
+motion in the quiver of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It
+offers resistance to the passage of bodies through it, destroying their
+motion and transforming their energy--as is betrayed to our hearing in
+the whiz of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.
+
+The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids may be
+stated in dynamical language thus:--solids can sustain a longitudinal
+pressure without being supported by a lateral pressure; fluids cannot.
+Hence any region of space enclosed by a rigid boundary can be easily
+filled with a fluid, which then takes the form of the bounding surface
+at every point of it. But here we distinguish between fluids according
+as they are gases or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the
+region, however small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the
+remainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On the other
+hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the region.
+Remove any portion and a part of the space will be left unoccupied by
+liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then otherwise conditioned than by
+the form of the wall or bounding surface of the region; and if the
+portion of the wall not in contact with the liquid is removed the form
+and quantity of the liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be
+kept in an open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of
+Sir Oliver Lodge: "A solid has volume and shape; a liquid has volume,
+but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape."
+
+It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a "vapour." The latter
+possesses the physical property stated above which distinguishes a gas
+from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being readily condensible to
+a liquid, either by lowering the temperature or moderately increasing
+the pressure. The study of the effects of pressure and temperature on
+many gases led to the introduction of the term "permanent gases" to
+denote gases which were apparently not liquefiable. The list included
+hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases
+have been liquefied and even solidified, thus rendering the term
+meaningless (see LIQUID GASES). The term "perfect gas" is applied to an
+imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation of
+molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which any molecule
+is influenced by other molecules is infinitesimally small compared with
+the time during which it traverses its mean free path. It serves as a
+means of research, more particularly in mathematical investigations, the
+simple laws thus deduced being subsequently modified by introducing
+assumptions in order to co-ordinate actual experiences.
+
+The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for instance, in Greek
+cosmology, "air" ([Greek: pneuma]) was one of the fundamental elements.
+The alchemists used such terms as _spiritus_, _flatus_, _halitus_,
+_aura_, _emanatio nubila_, &c., words implying a "wind" or "breath." The
+word "gas" was invented by J.B. van Helmont in his _Ortus medicinae_,
+posthumously published in 1648, in the course of his description of the
+gas now known as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning
+yielded a "spirit," which he named _spiritus sylvestris_ on account of
+its supposed untamable nature ("Gas sylvestre sive incoercibile, quod in
+corpus cogi non potest visibile"); and he invented the word "gas" in the
+expression: "... this spirit, hitherto unknown, ... I call by a new name
+_gas_" ("hunc spiritum, incognitum hactenus, novo nomine _gas_ voco").
+The word was suggested by the Gr. [Greek: chaos], chaos, for he also
+writes: "I have called this spirit _gas_, it being scarcely
+distinguishable from the Chaos of the ancients" ("halitum illum _Gas_
+vocavi, non longe a Chao veterum secretum"). The view that the word was
+suggested by the Dutch _geest_, spirit, is consequently erroneous. Until
+the end of the 18th century the word "air," qualified by certain
+adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known--a custom due
+in considerable measure to the important part which common air played in
+chemical and physical investigations.
+
+The study of gases may be divided into two main branches: the physical
+and the chemical. The former investigates essentially general
+properties, such as the weight and density, the relation between
+pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric and thermometric
+properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion, viscosity, electrical
+and thermal conductivity, &c., and generally properties independent of
+composition. These subjects are discussed in the articles DENSITY;
+THERMOMETRY; CALORIMETRY; DIFFUSION; CONDUCTION OF HEAT; and
+CONDENSATION OF GASES. The latter has for its province the preparation,
+collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations in
+which they combine; in general it deals with specific properties. The
+historical development of the chemistry of gases--pneumatic
+chemistry--is treated in the article CHEMISTRY; the technical analysis
+of gaseous mixtures is treated below under _Gas Analysis_. Connecting
+the experimental study of the physical and chemical properties is the
+immense theoretical edifice termed the kinetic theory of gases. This
+subject, which is discussed in the article MOLECULE, has for its purpose
+(1) the derivation of a physical structure of a gas which will agree
+with the experimental observations of the diverse physical properties,
+and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical
+composition.
+
+_Gas Analysis._--The term "gas analysis" is given to that branch of
+analytical chemistry which has for its object the quantitative
+determination of the components of a gaseous mixture. The chief
+applications are found in the analysis of flue gases (in which much
+information is gained as to the completeness and efficiency of
+combustion), and of coal gas (where it is necessary to have a product of
+a definite composition within certain limits). There are, in addition,
+many other branches of chemical technology in which the methods are
+employed. In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is
+absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume noted, or it
+is absorbed in water and the amount determined by titration with a
+standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult and tedious, and
+consequently the laboratory methods are not employed in technology,
+where time is an important factor and moderate accuracy is all that is
+necessary. In this article an outline of the technical practice will be
+given.
+
+The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vessel, and (2) a series of
+absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring vessel is that
+devised by W. Hempel. It consists of two vertical tubes provided with
+feet and connected at the bottom by flexible rubber tubing. One tube,
+called the "measuring tube," is provided with a capillary stopcock at
+the top and graduated downwards; the other tube, called the "level
+tube," is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube is
+completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes, raising
+the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock, which is then
+turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock, by means of a fine tube
+which has been previously filled with water or in which the air has been
+displaced by running the gas through. By opening the stopcock and
+lowering the level tube any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated
+over. In cases where a large quantity of gas, i.e. sufficient for
+several tests, is to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a
+large bottle.
+
+[Illustration: (By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.)
+
+  FIG. 1.
+
+  FIG. 2.]
+
+The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by bringing
+the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading the graduation on
+the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors associated with
+recording the coincidence of a graduation with a meniscus. The
+temperature and atmospheric pressure are simultaneously noted. If the
+tests be carried out rapidly, the temperature and pressure may be
+assumed to be constant, and any diminution in volume due to the
+absorption of a constituent may be readily expressed as a percentage.
+If, however, the temperature and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced
+to 0 deg. and 760 mm. by means of the formula V0 = V(P-p)/(1 +
+.00366t)760, in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric
+pressure, p the vapour tension of water at the temperature t of the
+experiment. This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.
+
+Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs. 1 and 2. The
+simpler form consists of two bulbs connected at the bottom by a wide
+tube. The lower bulb is provided with a smaller bulb bearing a capillary
+through which the gas is led to the apparatus, the higher bulb has a
+wider outlet tube. The arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand.
+Sometimes the small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette
+varies with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which
+remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other cases a
+composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the absorbent is
+protected by a second pipette containing water. In the case of solid
+reagents, e.g. phosphorus, the absorbing bulb has a tubulure at the
+bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing liquid is brought to the outlet
+of the capillary by tilting or by squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the
+wide end, and the liquid is maintained there by closing with a clip. The
+capillary is connected with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously
+filled with water. The clip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the
+level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas passes
+into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the pipette being
+shaken from time to time. It is then run back into the measuring tube by
+lowering the level tube, the stopcock is closed, and the volume noted.
+The operation is repeated until there is no further absorption.
+
+The choice of absorbents and the order in which the gases are to be
+estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to cases where
+titration methods are not employed, the general order is as follows:
+carbon dioxide, olefines, oxygen, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane and
+nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is particularly applicable to
+coal-gas. Carbon dioxide is absorbed by a potash solution containing one
+part of potash to between two and three of water; the stronger solution
+absorbs about 40 volumes of the gas. The olefines--ethylene, &c.--are
+generally absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding
+sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture which solidifies
+when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed. Oxygen is absorbed
+by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated pipette filled with water.
+The temperature must be above 18 deg.; and the absorption is prevented by
+ammonia, olefines, alcohol, and some other substances. An alkaline
+solution of pyrogallol is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs
+oxygen, becoming black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the
+solution immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a
+solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in
+ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate as carbon
+dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash; when large in
+amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniacal cuprous chloride and the
+residue burned. Hydrogen may be estimated by absorption by heated
+palladium contained in a capillary through which the gas is passed, or
+by exploding (under reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and
+measuring the diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of
+hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas is
+contained over water, and is improved by using mercury. Methane cannot
+be burnt in this way even when there is much hydrogen present, and
+several other methods have been proposed, such as mixing with air and
+aspirating over copper oxide heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen
+and burning in a platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide
+formed being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water,
+such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen, sulphur
+dioxide, &c., are estimated by passing a known volume of the gas through
+water and titrating the solution with a standard solution. Many types of
+absorption vessel are in use, and the standard solutions are generally
+such that 1 c.c. of the solution corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under
+normal conditions.
+
+[Illustration: (By permission of Messrs Baird & Tatlock.)
+
+  FIG. 3.]
+
+Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the commonest
+is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in the graduated
+cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a water jacket and
+provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is connected by a
+capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of absorbing vessels,
+the connexion being effected by stopcocks. These vessels consist of two
+vertical cylinders joined at the bottom by a short tube. The cylinder in
+direct communication with the capillary is filled with glass tubes so as
+to expose a larger surface of the absorbing solution to the gas. The
+other cylinder is open to the air and serves to hold the liquid ejected
+from the absorbing cylinder. Any number of bulbs can be attached to the
+horizontal capillary; in the form illustrated there are four, the last
+being a hydrogen pipette in which the palladium is heated in a
+horizontal tube by a spirit lamp. At the end of the horizontal tube
+there is a three-way cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To
+use the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with water by
+raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels are then about half
+filled with the absorbents, and, by opening the cocks and aspirating,
+the liquid is brought so as completely to fill the bulbs nearer the
+capillary. The cocks are then closed. By opening the three-way cock to
+the supply of the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any
+desired amount can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is
+effected by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the
+levelling bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions
+pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.
+
+  Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by Scheele,
+  Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and others, the
+  methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who began his researches
+  in 1838. He embodied his results in his classical _Gasometrische
+  Methoden_ (1857, second edition 1877), a work translated into English
+  by H. Roscoe. Clemens Winkler contributed two works, _Anleitung zur
+  chemischen Untersuchung der Industriegase_ (1876-1877) and _Lehrbuch
+  der technischen Gasanalyse_ (2nd ed., 1892), both of which are very
+  valuable for the commercial applications of the methods. W. Hempel's
+  researches are given in his _Neue Methode zur Analyse der Gase_ (1880)
+  and _Gasanalytische Methoden_ (1890, 3rd ed. 1900).
+
+
+GAS MANUFACTURE
+
+  Historical.
+
+1. _Illuminating Gas._--The first practical application of gas distilled
+from coal as an illuminating agent is generally ascribed to William
+Murdoch, who between the years of 1792 and 1802 demonstrated the
+possibility of making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on
+a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton, dean of Kildare,
+filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained by the distillation of
+coal, and showed that on pricking the bladders and applying a light to
+the escaping gas it burnt with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen
+Hales published the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of
+Newcastle coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean
+Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the university of
+Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at Maestricht, made
+experiments on distilling gas from coal with the view of obtaining a
+permanent gas sufficiently light for filling balloons, and in 1785
+experimentally lighted his lecture room with gas so obtained as a
+demonstration to his students, but no commercial application was made of
+the fact. Lord Dundonald, in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the
+production of tar and oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and
+even used it for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from
+these facts that, prior to Murdoch's experiments, it was known that
+illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation of
+coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792, and which
+culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt & Co.'s engine works
+at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, undoubtedly demonstrated the
+practical possibility of making the gas on a large scale, and burning it
+in such a way as to make coal-gas the most important of the artificial
+illuminants. An impression exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch's early
+experiments were made, that it was a millwright named Hornblower who
+first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as has been
+shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained from coal by
+distillation was known a century before Murdoch made his experiments,
+and the most that can be claimed for him is that he made the first
+successful application of it on a practical scale.
+
+In 1799 a Frenchman named Philippe Lebon took out a patent in Paris for
+making an illuminating gas from wood, and gave an exhibition of it in
+1802, which excited a considerable amount of attention on the European
+continent. It was seen by a German, F.A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer
+for his secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined,
+and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how the gas
+could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering this, he in 1803
+exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick a series of experiments
+with lighting gas made from wood and from coal. Looking upon London as a
+promising field for enterprise, he came over to England, and at the
+commencement of 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where he gave
+demonstrations of his process. He then proceeded to float a company,
+and in 1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall
+Mall, whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the
+National Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million
+sterling. This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of his
+priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming to
+parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in getting it
+passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter being granted later
+in 1812, the company was called the Chartered Gas Light and Coke
+Company, and was the direct forerunner of the present London Gas Light
+and Coke Company. During this period Frederick C. Accum (1769-1838), Dr
+W. Henry and S. Clegg did so much by their writings and by the
+improvements they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and
+burning of coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected
+with the subject.
+
+
+  The growth of gas lighting.
+
+In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the streets of
+Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it became common in
+London. After this so rapid was the progress of this new mode of
+illumination that in the course of a few years it was adopted by all the
+principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting streets as well as
+shops and public edifices. In private houses it found its way more
+slowly, partly from an apprehension of danger attending its use, and
+partly from the discomfort which was experienced in many cases through
+the gas being distributed without purification, and to the careless and
+imperfect manner in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was
+during the last four decades of the 19th century that the greatest
+advance was made, this period having been marked not only by many
+improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a complete
+revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the production of light.
+In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of 3.2 candles illuminating
+power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle gas, was looked upon as the
+most perfect burner of the day, and little hope was entertained that any
+burner capable of universal adoption would surpass it in its power of
+developing light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the
+century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric burner
+yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand for the
+consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day, by supplying gas at
+an increased pressure, a light of ten times the power may be obtained.
+Since the advent of the incandescent mantle, the efficiency of which is
+dependent upon the heating power of the gas more than on its
+illuminating power, the manufacture of coal gas has undergone
+considerable modifications.
+
+
+    Coals used for gas-making.
+
+  Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a process of
+  destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition (see
+  COAL), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen, known as
+  bituminous coal, that can with advantage be utilized in gas
+  manufacture. Coals of this character are obtained in England from the
+  Newcastle and Durham field, South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley
+  districts, and an idea of their ultimate composition may be derived
+  from the following  table:--
+
+    +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+
+    |                          |Carbon.|Hydro-|Sulphur.|Nitro-|Oxygen.| Ash. |Moist-|
+    |                          |       | gen. |        | gen. |       |      | ure. |
+    +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+
+    | Newcastle gas coal       | 82.16 | 4.83 |  1.00  | 1.23 |  6.82 | 3.20 | 0.76 |
+    | Durham gas coal          | 84.34 | 5.30 |  0.73  | 1.73 |  4.29 | 2.42 | 1.14 |
+    | South Yorkshire silkstone| 80.46 | 5.09 |  1.66  | 1.67 |  6.79 | 3.30 | 1.03 |
+    | Derbyshire silkstone     | 76.96 | 5.04 |  2.39  | 1.77 |  6.92 | 3.28 | 3.64 |
+    | Barnsley gas coal        | 75.64 | 4.94 |  2.84  | 1.65 |  7.25 | 4.28 | 3.40 |
+    +--------------------------+-------+------+--------+------+-------+------+------+
+
+  Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total
+  amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials
+  which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of
+  the way in which these bodies are combined. This being so, the
+  ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value
+  for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily
+  arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. Bituminous coal,
+  however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple
+  hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin
+  series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen,
+  nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
+
+
+    Destructive distillation of coal.
+
+  On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive
+  distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the
+  products will vary very considerably with the temperature existing in
+  the retorts, with the size of the charge of coal used, with its
+  distribution in the retort, with the length of time the distillation
+  has been going on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or
+  less complex nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low
+  temperature, the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of
+  light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin hydrocarbons
+  are present in the original coal. These paraffins, under the influence
+  of heat, split up into simpler members of the same series and into
+  olefines; and if we imagine the action in its simplest form, we should
+  have the gases, as they were evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and
+  ethylene. These have now to pass down the heated retort on their way
+  to the ascension pipe, and the contact with the heated sides of the
+  retort, and the baking from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an
+  infinity of changes. Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up
+  into ethylene and hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to methane and
+  acetylene, and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene,
+  styrolene, retene, &c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time
+  loses some hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed
+  by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the
+  hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances
+  containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation of
+  the phenols in the tar.
+
+  There is very little doubt that the general course of the
+  decompositions follows these lines; but any such simple explanation of
+  the actions taking place is rendered impossible by the fact that,
+  instead of the breaking-down of the hydrocarbons being completed in
+  the coal, and only secondary reactions taking place in the retort, in
+  practice the hydrocarbons to a great extent leave the coal as the
+  vapours of condensible hydrocarbons, and the breaking down of these to
+  such simple gaseous compounds as ethylene is proceeding in the retort
+  at the same time as the breaking up of the ethylene already formed
+  into acetylene and methane, and the polymerization of the former into
+  higher compounds. Starting with a solid hydrocarbon of definite
+  composition, it would be theoretically possible to decompose it
+  entirely into carbon, hydrogen, ethylene and methane, and, by rapidly
+  removing these from the heating zone before any secondary actions took
+  place, to prevent formation of tar. But any such ideal is hopeless in
+  practice, as the coal is not a definite compound, and it is impossible
+  to subject it to a fixed temperature.
+
+
+    Effect of temperature in the retort.
+
+  If the retorts are at a temperature of 1000 deg. C. when the charge of
+  coal is put in, the temperature of the distillation will vary from
+  about 800 deg. C. close to the walls, to about 400 deg. C. in the
+  centre of the coal; and in the same way, in the space above the coal,
+  the products which come in contact with the sides of the retort are
+  heated to 1000 deg. C., whilst the gas near the coal is probably
+  heated to only 600 deg. C. Moreover, the gases and vapours in the
+  retort are subjected to a period of heating which varies widely with
+  the distance from the mouth of the retort of the coal that is
+  undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the coal near the mouth
+  of the retort is quickly washed out into the ascension pipe by the
+  push of the gas behind, and the period for which it has been exposed
+  to the radiant heat from the walls of the retort is practically nil;
+  whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the retort farthest from the
+  mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution to drive it forward, and
+  has to traverse the longest run possible in the retort, exposed during
+  the whole of that period to radiant heat and to contact with the
+  highly heated surface of the retort itself. Hence we find that the tar
+  is formed of two distinct sets of products, the first due to
+  incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary reactions due to
+  the products of the decomposition being kept too long in the zone of
+  heat.
+
+  Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as
+  examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent the
+  second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great loss to
+  the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of benzene
+  carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only useless in
+  the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble, because
+  any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden changes of
+  temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes, whilst
+  their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large proportion of
+  the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these secondary
+  products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heating, to
+  simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and such bodies
+  as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability that, when
+  once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose them by heat,
+  short of the temperature which breaks them up into methane, carbon and
+  hydrogen.
+
+  The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal combining
+  with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen becoming
+  distributed amongst all three classes of products. The following table
+  will give an approximate idea of the proportions which go to each:--
+
+                                            Per cent.
+
+    Nitrogen as ammonia                       14.50
+       "     as cyanogen                       1.56
+       "     free in gas and combined in tar  35.26
+       "     remaining in coke                48.68
+                                             ------
+                                             100.00
+
+  The effect produced by alteration in the temperature of the retort
+  upon the composition of both gas and tar is very marked. As the
+  temperature is raised, the yield of gas from a given weight of coal
+  increases; but with the increase of volume there is a marked decrease
+  in the illuminating value of the gas evolved. Lewis T. Wright found,
+  in a series of experiments, that, when four portions of the same coal
+  were distilled at temperatures ranging from a dull red heat to the
+  highest temperature attainable in an iron retort, he obtained the
+  following results as to yield and illuminating power:--
+
+    +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+
+    |                 | Cubic ft. of|Illuminating|  Total  |
+    |  Temperature.   | Gas per ton.|   Power,   | Candles |
+    |                 |             |  Candles.  | per ton.|
+    +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+
+    | 1. Dull red     |    8,250    |    20.5    | 33.950  |
+    | 2. Hotter       |    9,693    |    17.8    | 34.510  |
+    | 3.    "         |   10,821    |    16.7    | 36.140  |
+    | 4. Bright orange|   12,006    |    15.6    | 37.460  |
+    +-----------------+-------------+------------+---------+
+
+    _Composition of the Gas._
+
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                 |     1.    |     2.    |     4.    |
+    |                 | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    | Hydrogen        |   38.09   |   43.77   |   48.02   |
+    | Marsh gas       |   42.72   |   34.50   |   30.70   |
+    | Olefines        |    7.55   |    5.83   |    4.51   |
+    | Carbon monoxide |    8.72   |   12.50   |   13.96   |
+    | Nitrogen        |    2.92   |    3.40   |    2.81   |
+    |                 +-----------+-----------+-----------+
+    |                 |  100.00   |  100.00   |  100.00   |
+    +-----------------+-----------+-----------+-----------+
+
+  The gas analysis of No. 3 was lost, but the illuminating power shows
+  that it was intermediate in composition between Nos. 2 and 4. From
+  this it will be seen that, with the increase of temperature, the
+  hydrocarbons--the olefines and marsh gas series--gradually break up,
+  depositing carbon in the crown of the retort, and liberating hydrogen,
+  the percentage of which steadily increases with the rise of
+  temperature.
+
+  The tar formed is affected to an even greater extent than the gas by
+  alterations in the temperature at which the destructive distillation
+  takes place. The lower the temperature, the smaller will be the volume
+  of gas produced, and the lighter the specific gravity of the tar,
+  whilst with increase of temperature, the volume of gas rapidly rises,
+  and so does the specific gravity of the tar. Working with a caking
+  coal Wright obtained the following results:--
+
+    +--------------+------------------+
+    | Yield of Gas | Specific Gravity |
+    |   per ton,   |     of Tar.      |
+    |   Cub. ft.   |                  |
+    +--------------+------------------+
+    |     6,600    |      1.086       |
+    |     7,200    |      1.120       |
+    |     8,900    |      1.140       |
+    |    10,162    |      1.154       |
+    |    11,700    |      1.206       |
+    +--------------+------------------+
+
+  Analysis of the tar showed that the increase of the specific gravity
+  was due to the increase in the quantity of pitch, which rose from
+  28.89 to 64.08% in the residuals; whilst the ammonia, naphtha and
+  light oils steadily fell in quantity, the creosote and anthracene oils
+  doing the same, but to a smaller extent. Naphthalene also begins to
+  show in quantity in the tar as soon as the yield of gas reaches 10,000
+  cub. ft. per ton of coal carbonized.
+
+  In spite of these variations, however, the products in their main
+  characteristics will remain the same. They may be divided into--(a)
+  Solids, such as the coke and retort carbon; (b) liquids, consisting of
+  the tar and ammoniacal liquor; and (c) gases, consisting of the
+  unpurified coal gas. The proportions in which the products are
+  approximately obtained from a ton of gas coal have been given as
+  follows:--
+
+    10,000 cub. ft. of gas =  380  lb. =  17.0 per cent.
+    10 gallons of tar      =  115   "  =   5.1    "
+    Gas liquor[1]          =  177   "  =   7.9    "
+    Coke                   = 1568   "  =  70.0    "
+                             ----        -----
+                             2240        100.0
+
+
+    Solid products.
+
+  The chief solid residue, coke, is not absolutely pure carbon, as it
+  contains the mineral non-volatile constituents which remain behind as
+  ash when the original coal is burnt, and which, to a great extent,
+  existed in the sap that filled the cells of the plant from which the
+  coal was formed. The retort carbon formed as a dense deposit on the
+  crown of the retort by the action of the high temperature on the
+  hydrocarbons is, however, carbon in a very pure form, and, on account
+  of its density, is largely used for electrical purposes.
+
+
+    Liquid products.
+
+  The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar
+  and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous coal is a
+  black, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific gravity from 1.1 to
+  1.2. The ultimate composition of tar made in the London Gas Works is
+  approximately as follows:--
+
+    Carbon       77.53
+    Hydrogen      6.33
+    Nitrogen      1.03
+    Sulphur       0.61
+    Oxygen       14.50
+                ------
+                100.00
+
+  These elements in tar are built up into an enormous number of
+  compounds (see COAL TAR), and its value as a by-product may be
+  gathered from the fact that on fractional distillation it yields--(1)
+  benzene and its homologues, from which aniline, the source of most of
+  the coal-tar colours, can be derived; (2) carbolic acid, from which
+  picric acid, used as a dye, a powerful explosive, and to give the
+  bitter flavour to some kinds of beer, is made, also many most valuable
+  disinfectants; (3) naphthalene, used for disinfecting, and also as the
+  "Albo-carbon" employed in an enriching burner for gas; (4) pitch,
+  extensively used in path-making, from which such bodies as anthracene
+  and saccharin can be extracted.
+
+  The second liquid product of the destructive distillation of coal is
+  the ammoniacal or gas liquor, which consists of water containing
+  ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from the hot gas, and
+  partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It contains, as its
+  principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined with carbonic acid
+  and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compounds which are decomposed on
+  boiling, with evolution of ammonia gas, and partly combined with
+  stronger acids to form compounds which require to be acted upon by a
+  strong alkali before the ammonia contained in them can be liberated.
+  The ammonia in the first class of compounds is technically spoken of
+  as "free"; that present in the latter as "fixed." The following
+  analysis by L.T. Wright will give an idea of the relative quantities
+  in which these compounds exist in the liquor:--
+
+                               Grammes per litre.
+
+           / Ammonium sulphide        3.03
+    Free  <  Ammonium carbonate      39.16
+           \ Ammonium chloride       14.23
+           / Ammonium thiocyanate     1.80
+    Fixed <  Ammonium sulphate        0.19
+           | Ammonium thiosulphate    2.80
+           \ Ammonium ferrocyanide    0.41
+
+  From a scientific point of view, the term "free" is absolutely
+  incorrect, and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that
+  in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on
+  simply boiling the liquor.
+
+
+    Gaseous products.
+
+  The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal, and
+  which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite compound,
+  but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some of which are reduced
+  to the lowest limit, in order to develop as fully as possible the
+  light-giving properties of the most important constituents of the gas.
+  The following analysis gives a fair idea of the composition of an
+  average sample of gas made from coal, purified but without
+  enrichment:--
+
+    Hydrogen                  52.22
+    Unsaturated hydrocarbons   3.47
+    Saturated hydrocarbons    34.76
+    Carbon monoxide            4.23
+    Carbon dioxide             0.60
+    Nitrogen                   4.23
+    Oxygen                     0.49
+                             ------
+                             100.00
+
+  These constituents may be divided into--(a) light-yielding
+  hydrocarbons, (b) combustible diluents and (c) impurities. The
+  hydrocarbons, upon which the luminosity of the flame entirely depends,
+  are divided in the analysis into two groups, saturated and
+  unsaturated, according to their behaviour with a solution of bromine
+  in potassium bromide, which has the power of absorbing those termed
+  "unsaturated," but does not affect in diffused daylight the gaseous
+  members of the "saturated" series of hydrocarbons. They may be
+  separated in a similar way by concentrated sulphuric acid, which has
+  the same absorbent effect on the one class, and not on the other. The
+  chief unsaturated hydrocarbons present in coal gas are: ethylene,
+  C2H4, butylene, C4H8, acetylene, C2H2, benzene, C6H6, and naphthalene,
+  C10H8, and the saturated hydrocarbons consist chiefly of methane, CH4,
+  and ethane, C2H6.
+
+  The light-giving power of coal gas is undoubtedly entirely due to the
+  hydrocarbons. The idea held up to about 1890 was that the illuminating
+  value depended upon the amount of ethylene present. This, however, is
+  manifestly incorrect, as, if it were true, 4% of ethylene mixed with
+  96% of a combustible diluent such as hydrogen should give 16- to
+  17-candle gas, whereas a mixture of 10% of ethylene and 90% of
+  hydrogen is devoid of luminosity. In 1876 M.P.E. Berthelot came to
+  the conclusion that the illuminating value of the Paris coal gas was
+  almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But here again another mistaken
+  idea arose, owing to a faulty method of estimating the benzene, and
+  there is no doubt that methane is one of the most important of the
+  hydrocarbons present, when the gas is burnt in such a way as to evolve
+  from it the proper illuminating power, whilst the benzene vapour,
+  small as the quantity is, comes next in importance and the ethylene
+  last. It is the combined action of the hydrocarbons which gives the
+  effect, not any one of them acting alone.
+
+  The series of operations connected with the manufacture and
+  distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation,
+  condensation, exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing,
+  dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains
+  whence the consumer's supply is drawn.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Plan of Works.]
+
+
+    Site of gas works.
+
+  The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local
+  circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready
+  means of transport available, and for this reason the works should be
+  built upon the banks of a navigable river or canal, and should have a
+  convenient railway siding. By this means coal may be delivered direct
+  to the store or retort-house, and in the same way residual products
+  may be removed. The fact that considerable area is required and that
+  the works do not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions,
+  and although economy of space should be considered, arrangements
+  should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works whose
+  daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is usual
+  to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit to the
+  size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas is dealt
+  with in separate streams, which mix when the holder is reached. From
+  the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4) it will be possible
+  to gain an idea of the order in which the operations in gas
+  manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Cross Section of Retorts.]
+
+
+    Retorts.
+
+  The retorts in which the coal is carbonized are almost universally
+  made of fire-clay, and in all but small country works the old
+  single-ended retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given way to
+  a more economical construction known as doubles, double-ended, or
+  "through" retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft. long, and as it is
+  found inconvenient to produce this length in one piece, they are
+  manufactured in three sections, the jointing together of which demands
+  great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at one end to take an
+  iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally employed for retorts are
+  known as "D-shaped," "oval" and "round" (fig. 5). The "D" form is
+  mostly adopted owing to its power of retaining its shape after long
+  exposure to heat, and the large amount of heating surface it presents
+  at its base. The life of this retort is about thirty working months. A
+  cast iron mouthpiece and lid is bolted to the exterior end of each
+  retort, the mouthpiece carrying a socket end to receive the ascension
+  pipe, through which the gas passes on leaving the retort. The retorts
+  are heated externally and are set in an arch, the construction
+  depending upon the number of retorts, which varies from three to
+  twelve. The arch and its retorts is termed a bed or setting, and a row
+  of beds constitutes a bench. It is usual to have a separate furnace
+  for each setting, the retorts resting upon walls built transversely in
+  the furnace.
+
+  The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the "direct
+  firing" or by the "regenerative" system, the latter affording marked
+  advantages over the former method, which is now becoming extinct. In
+  the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon monoxide and
+  nitrogen is produced by passing air through incandescent gas coke in a
+  generator placed below the bench of retorts, and the heating value of
+  the gases so produced is increased in most cases by the admixture of a
+  small proportion of steam with the primary air supply, the steam being
+  decomposed by contact with the red-hot coke in the generator into
+  water gas, a mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen (see FUEL:
+  _Gaseous_). The gases so formed vary in proportion with the
+  temperature of the generator and the amount of steam, but generally
+  contain 32 to 38% of combustible gas, the remainder being the residual
+  nitrogen of the air and carbon dioxide. These gases enter the
+  combustion chamber around the retorts at a high temperature, and are
+  there supplied with sufficient air to complete their combustion, this
+  secondary air supply being heated by the hot products of combustion on
+  their way to the exit flue. This method of firing results in the
+  saving of about one-third the weight of coke used in the old form of
+  furnace per ton of coal carbonized, and enables higher temperatures to
+  be obtained, the heat being also more equally distributed.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Regenerative Setting.]
+
+  There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative
+  principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the
+  general arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is
+  charged at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are
+  placed fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air
+  necessary for the partial combustion of the coke to "producer" gas
+  enters between these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to
+  the combustion chamber E through the nostrils D D, and the secondary
+  air is admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been
+  already heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes
+  place at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on
+  rising are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round
+  the retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they are
+  conducted down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and
+  shaft. The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the
+  circulation of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is
+  regulated by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the
+  "producer" and "spent" gases this amount can be readily gauged.
+
+  Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical
+  position, and the advantages of the one over the other is a question
+  upon which almost every gas engineer has his own views.
+
+
+    Charging and drawing.
+
+  The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has
+  rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal
+  retorts comparatively simple. Formerly it was the practice to carry
+  out such operations entirely by hand, men charging the retorts either
+  by means of shovel or hand-scoop, and the coke produced being
+  withdrawn with hand rakes. Now, however, only the smaller gas works
+  adhere to this system, and this work is done by machinery driven by
+  either compressed air, hydraulic or electric power. In the first two
+  cases a scoop, filled with coal from an overhead hopper carried by the
+  travelling machine, is made to enter the retort and is turned over;
+  the operation is then repeated, but this time the scoop is turned over
+  in the opposite direction, the coal thus assuming such a position that
+  as much of its under surface as possible is exposed to the heated side
+  of the retort. With "through" retorts charging machines feed the
+  retorts at both ends, the scoop, which has a capacity of about 1-1/2
+  cwt., entering and discharging its contents twice at each end, so that
+  the total charge is about 6 cwt., which is allowed from four to six
+  hours to distil off according to the quality of the gas required. The
+  machines charge simultaneously at each end, so that the lids of the
+  retorts may be shut immediately the coal enters. The charging machines
+  travel on lines in front of the retort bench, and the power is
+  transmitted by connexions made with flexible hose. A device of more
+  recent introduction is an electrically-driven charging machine, in
+  which the centrifugal force created by a fly-wheel revolving at high
+  speed is applied to drive coal into the retort. If the velocity is
+  sufficiently high the coal may be carried the whole length of a 20-ft.
+  retort, the coal following banking up until an even layer is formed
+  throughout the length of the retort.
+
+  For the purpose of discharging the coke from the retort either
+  compressed air or hydraulic machinery is employed, a rake being made
+  to enter the retort and withdraw the coke on returning. With this
+  method it is necessary that the rake should enter and discharge
+  several times before the retort is clear, and thus the use of a
+  telescopic ram worked by hydraulic power, which pushes the coke before
+  it and discharges it at the other end, is an advantage. As much as
+  one-third on each ton of coal carbonized is saved by the use of
+  machinery in the retort-house. Taking into account the original cost
+  of such machines, and the unavoidable wear and tear upon the retorts
+  brought about by using labour-saving appliances, and the fact that the
+  coke-dust is very detrimental to the machinery, it is clear that the
+  suggestion of setting the retorts at an incline in order to facilitate
+  the work presented great inducements to the gas manager. The object
+  aimed at in thus setting retorts is to allow gravity to play the part
+  of charging and discharging the coal and coke, the retorts being
+  inclined at an angle to suit the slip of the class of coal used; this
+  angle is between 28 deg. and 34 deg. The coal, previously elevated to
+  hoppers, is dropped into the feeding chambers, which are so arranged
+  that they can travel from end to end of the retort-house and feed the
+  coal into the retorts. When the retort is to be charged, an iron stop
+  or barrier is placed in the lower mouthpiece, and the door closed. The
+  shoot is placed in the upper mouthpiece, and the stop or door, which
+  retains the coal in the chamber, is released; the coal is then
+  discharged into the retort, and rushing down the incline, is arrested
+  by the barrier, and banks up, forming a continuous backing to the coal
+  following. By experience with the class of coal used and the
+  adjustment of the stops in the shoot, the charge can be run into the
+  retort to form an even layer of any desired depth. For the withdrawal
+  of the residual coke at the end of the carbonization, the lower
+  mouthpiece door is opened, the barrier removed and the coke in the
+  lower part of the retort is "tickled" or gently stirred with an iron
+  rod to overcome a slight adhesion to the retort; the entire mass then
+  readily discharges itself. Guides are placed in front of the retort to
+  direct its course to the coke hoppers or conveyer below, and to
+  prevent scattering of the hot material. This system shows a greater
+  economy in the cost of carbonizing the coal, but the large outlay and
+  the wear and tear of the mechanical appliances involved have so far
+  prevented its very general adoption.
+
+  The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with by
+  Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke, the low
+  illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage to the retort
+  itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distillation, it was
+  quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the 20th century, however,
+  the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at Exeter, Messrs
+  Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr Bueb in Germany showed such
+  encouraging results that the idea of the vertical retort again came to
+  the front, and several systems were proposed and tried. The cause of
+  the failure of Murdoch's original vertical retort was undoubtedly that
+  it was completely filled with coal during charging, with the result
+  that the gas liberated from the lower portions of the retort had to
+  pass through a deep bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the
+  gas, destroyed the illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that
+  the question of rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly
+  formed, from the influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort
+  and residual coke, is one of the most important in gas manufacture.
+
+  In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the
+  coal and the retort is of necessity considerable in order to permit
+  the introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a free
+  channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly
+  heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. In the
+  case of inclined retorts this disadvantage is somewhat reduced, but
+  with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly
+  approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the gas
+  per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives the
+  following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the
+  same coal but by different methods of carbonization:--
+
+    Vertical Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft.
+    Inclined    "     584         "          "          "
+    Horizontal  "     570         "          "          "
+
+  Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be
+  decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort or
+  whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular and
+  short intervals; by this latter means (the characteristic feature of
+  the Settle-Padfield process) a continuous layer of coal is in process
+  of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact
+  with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume and
+  value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.
+
+
+    Hydraulic main.
+
+  From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hydraulic
+  main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horizontal
+  position and supported by columns upon the top of the retort stack,
+  and through it is maintained a slow but constant flow of water, the
+  level of which is kept uniform. The ascension pipe dips about 2 in.
+  into the liquid, and so makes a seal that allows of any retort being
+  charged singly without the risk of the gas produced from the other
+  retorts in the bench escaping through the open retort. Coal gas,
+  being a mixture of gases and vapours of liquids having very varying
+  boiling points, must necessarily undergo physical changes when the
+  temperature is lowered. Vapours of liquids of high boiling point will
+  be condensed more quickly than those having lower boiling points, but
+  condensation of each vapour will take place in a definite ratio with
+  the decrease of temperature, the rate being dependent upon the boiling
+  point of the liquid from which it is formed. The result is that from
+  the time the gaseous mixture leaves the retort it begins to deposit
+  condensation products owing to the decrease in temperature.
+  Condensation takes place in the ascension pipe, in the arch piece
+  leading to the hydraulic main, and to a still greater extent in the
+  hydraulic main itself where the gas has to pass through water.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 7.--Hydraulic Main.]
+
+  Ascension pipes give trouble unless they are frequently cleared by an
+  instrument called an "auger," whilst the arch pipe is fitted with hand
+  holes through which it may be easily cleared in case of stoppage. The
+  most soluble of the constituents of crude coal gas is ammonia, 780
+  volumes of which are soluble in one volume of water at normal
+  temperature and pressure, and the water in the hydraulic main absorbs
+  a considerable quantity of this compound from the gas and helps to
+  form the ammoniacal liquor, whilst, although the liquor is well
+  agitated by the gas bubbling through it, a partial separation of tar
+  from liquor is effected by gravitation. The liquor is run off at a
+  constant rate from the hydraulic main to the store tank, and the gas
+  passes from the top of the hydraulic main to the foul main.
+
+
+    Condensation.
+
+  The gas as it leaves the hydraulic main is still at a temperature of
+  from 130 deg. to 150 deg. F., and should now be reduced as nearly as
+  possible to the temperature of the surrounding atmosphere. The
+  operation of efficient condensing is not by any means as simple as
+  might be supposed. The tar and liquor when condensed have a dissolving
+  action on various valuable light-giving constituents of the gas, which
+  in the ordinary way would not be deposited by the lowering of
+  temperature, and for this reason the heavy tar, and especially that
+  produced in the hydraulic main, should come in contact with the gas as
+  little as possible, and condensation should take place slowly.
+
+  The main difficulty which the condenser ought to overcome and upon
+  which its efficiency should depend is the removal of naphthalene: this
+  compound, which is present in the gas, condenses on cooling to a solid
+  which crystallizes out in the form of white flakes, and the trouble
+  caused by pipe stoppages in the works as well as in the district
+  supplied is very considerable. The higher the heat of carbonization
+  the more naphthalene appears to be produced, and gas managers of
+  to-day find the removal of naphthalene from the gas a difficult
+  problem to solve. It was for some time debated as to whether
+  naphthalene added materially to the illuminating value of the gas, and
+  whether an endeavour should be made to carry it to the point of
+  combustion; but it is now acknowledged that it is a troublesome
+  impurity, and that the sooner it is extracted the better. Gas leaves
+  the retorts saturated with naphthalene, and its capacity for holding
+  that impurity seems to be augmented by the presence of water vapour.
+  The condenser, by effecting the condensation of water vapour, also
+  brings about the deposition of solid naphthalene, apart from that
+  which naturally condenses owing to reduction of temperature.
+
+  Condensers are either air-cooled or water-cooled, or both. In the
+  former case the gas traverses pipes exposed to the atmosphere and so
+  placed that the resulting products of condensation may be collected at
+  the lowest point. Water is a more efficient cooling medium than air,
+  owing to its high specific heat, and the degree of cooling may be more
+  easily regulated by its use. In water-cooled condensers it is usual to
+  arrange that the water passes through a large number of small pipes
+  contained in a larger one through which the gas flows, and as it
+  constantly happened that condenser pipes became choked by naphthalene,
+  the so-called reversible condenser, in which the stream of gas may be
+  altered from time to time and the walls of the pipes cleaned by
+  pumping tar over them, is a decided advance.
+
+  The solubility of naphthalene by various oils has led some engineers
+  to put in naphthalene washers, in which gas is brought into contact
+  with a heavy tar oil or certain fractions distilled from it, the
+  latter being previously mixed with some volatile hydrocarbon to
+  replace in the gas those illuminating vapours which the oil dissolves
+  out; and by fractional distillation of the washing oil the naphthalene
+  and volatile hydrocarbons are afterwards recovered.
+
+
+    Exhauster.
+
+  The exhauster is practically a rotary gas pump which serves the
+  purpose of drawing the gas from the hydraulic main through the
+  condensers, and then forcing it through the purifying vessels to the
+  holder. Moreover, by putting the retorts under a slight vacuum, the
+  amount of gas produced is increased by about 12%, and is of better
+  quality, owing to its leaving the heated retort more quickly. A
+  horizontal compound steam-engine is usually employed to drive the
+  exhauster.
+
+  At this point in the manufacturing process the gas has already
+  undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet
+  remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia,
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide. Ammonia
+  is of considerable marketable value, and even in places where the
+  local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed, it is
+  extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and its
+  complete removal from the gas is usually imposed by parliament. As
+  nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted, but most gas
+  companies are now exempt from having to purify the gas from sulphur
+  compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen. Cyanogen compounds also
+  are present in the gas, and in large works, where the total quantity
+  is sufficient, their extraction is effected for the production of
+  either prussiate or cyanide of soda.
+
+  Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at this point to
+  be about
+
+                         per cent. by vol.
+
+    Hydrogen             from 42      to 53
+    Methane                "  32      "  39
+    Carbon monoxide        "   3      "  10
+    Hydrocarbons--
+      Gases                "   2.5    "   4.5
+      Light condensable
+        vapours            "   0.5    "   1.2
+    Carbon dioxide         "   1.1    "   1.8
+    Nitrogen               "   1.0    "   5.0
+    Sulphuretted hydrogen  "   1.0    "   2.0
+    Ammonia                "   0.5    "   0.95
+    Cyanogen               "   0.05   "   0.12
+    Carbon disulphide      "   0.02   "   0.035
+    Naphthalene            "   0.005  "   0.015
+
+
+    Washers.
+
+  It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the
+  extraction of a certain proportion of such compounds as sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the gas is now
+  washed with water and ammoniacal liquor. The process is termed washing
+  or scrubbing, and is carried out in various forms of apparatus, the
+  efficiency of which is dependent upon the amount of contact the
+  apparatus allows between the finely divided gas and water in a unit
+  area and the facility with which it may be cleared out. The "Livesey"
+  washer, a well-known type, is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gas
+  enters in the centre, and to make its escape again it has to pass into
+  long wrought iron inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth
+  of an inch in diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through
+  the washer, and the gas, in order to pass through the perforations,
+  drives the liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to
+  agitation by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into
+  close contact with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in
+  series according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.
+
+
+    Scrubbers.
+
+  The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed a
+  "scrubber," which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards 1/4 in.
+  thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together; water is
+  caused to flow down over the surface of these boards, the object being
+  to break up the gas as much as possible and bring it into close
+  contact with the water. In this wet purifying apparatus the gas is
+  almost wholly freed from ammonia and from part of the sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon disulphide are also
+  partially extracted.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 8.--Purifier.]
+
+
+    Purifiers.
+
+  The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known as
+  "dry purifiers" (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with
+  ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of grids (fig.
+  9), and covered with the purifying material B to a depth of about 6
+  in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes being proportional
+  to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gas enters at the bottom by
+  the pipe C, the inlet being protected from any falling material by the
+  cover D; it forces its way upwards through all the trays until,
+  reaching the lid or cover E, it descends by the exit tube F, which
+  leads to the next purifier. The edges of the lid dip into an external
+  water seal or lute G, whereby the gas is prevented from escaping.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 9.--Purifier Grid.]
+
+  When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well as from
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the removal of
+  carbon dioxide and the greater quantity of the sulphur compounds,
+  whilst a catch box or purifier of oxide of iron served to remove the
+  last traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. Not fewer than four lime
+  purifiers were employed, and as the one which was first in the series
+  became exhausted, i.e. began to show signs of allowing carbon dioxide
+  to pass through it unabsorbed, it was filled with fresh slaked lime
+  and made the last of the series, the one which was second becoming
+  first, and this procedure went on continuously. This operation was
+  necessitated by the fact that carbon dioxide has the power of breaking
+  up the sulphur compounds formed by the lime, so that until all carbon
+  dioxide is absorbed with the formation of calcium carbonate, the
+  withdrawal of sulphuretted hydrogen cannot proceed, whilst since it is
+  calcium sulphide formed by the absorption of sulphuretted hydrogen by
+  the slaked lime that absorbs the vapour of carbon disulphide,
+  purification from the latter can only be accomplished after the
+  necessary calcium sulphide has been formed. The foul gas leaving the
+  scrubbers contains, as a general average, 30 grains of sulphuretted
+  hydrogen, 40 grains of carbon disulphide and 200 grains of carbon
+  dioxide per 100 cub. ft. On entering the first purifier, which
+  contains calcium thiocarbonate and other combinations of calcium and
+  sulphur in small quantity, the sulphuretted hydrogen and disulphide
+  vapour have practically no action upon the material, but the carbon
+  dioxide immediately attacks the calcium thiocarbonate, forming calcium
+  carbonate with the production of carbon disulphide vapour, which is
+  carried over with the gas into the second box. In the connexion
+  between the first and the second box the gas is found to contain 500
+  grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 80 grains of carbon disulphide per
+  100 cub. ft., but no trace of carbon dioxide. In the second box the
+  formation of calcium thiocarbonate takes place by the action of carbon
+  disulphide upon the calcium sulphide with the liberation of
+  sulphuretted hydrogen, which is carried over to the third purifier.
+  The gas in the connecting pipe between the second and third purifier
+  will be found to contain 400 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 20
+  grains of carbon disulphide. The contents of the third box, being
+  mostly composed of slaked lime, take up sulphuretted hydrogen forming
+  calcium sulphide, and practically remove the remaining impurities, the
+  outlet gas showing 20 grains of sulphuretted hydrogen and 8 grains of
+  carbon disulphide per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of
+  iron then removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be
+  noticed that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities
+  is actually increased between the purifiers--in fact, the greater
+  amount of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon
+  disulphide,--but it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the
+  disturbing element, inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of
+  sulphur and calcium; consequently it is a paramount object in this
+  system to prevent this latter impurity finding its way through the
+  first box of the series. The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide
+  in the gas between the first two boxes is generally the signal for a
+  new clean purifier being put into action, and the first one shut off,
+  emptied and recharged with fresh lime, the impregnated material being
+  sometimes sold for dressing certain soils.
+
+  The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the lime
+  purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted
+  hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide
+  for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of free
+  sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon removing
+  the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmosphere the
+  sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen of the
+  air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur, and with
+  moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron. This
+  revivification can be carried on a number of times until the material
+  when dry contains about 50% of free sulphur and even occasionally 60%
+  and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of sulphuric acid to be
+  used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (see SULPHURIC ACID).
+
+  Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort carbon,
+  which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases preparing
+  from their spent purifying material pure chemical products which are
+  in great demand. The most important of these is sulphate of ammonia,
+  which is used for agricultural purposes as a manure, and is obtained
+  by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid and crystallizing out the
+  ammonium sulphate produced. To do this, saturated ammoniacal liquor is
+  decomposed by lime in the presence of steam, and the freed ammonia is
+  passed into strong sulphuric acid, the saturated solution of ammonium
+  sulphate being carefully crystallized. The market value of the salt
+  varies, but an average figure is L12 per ton, whilst the average yield
+  is about 24 lb. of salt per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the
+  sulphuric acid is usually manufactured on the spot from the spent
+  oxide, so that the sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the gas is
+  considered an undesirable impurity, plays a valuable part in the
+  manufacture of an important by-product.
+
+  Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gas, from the
+  spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gas works now
+  produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest developments in
+  the gas chemical industry.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 10.--Gasholder.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 11.--Cup and Grip.]
+
+
+    Gasholder.
+
+  The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known as a
+  gasometer), which may be either single lift, i.e. a simple bell
+  inverted in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the telescopic
+  principle, in which case much ground space is saved, as a holder of
+  much greater capacity can be contained in the same-sized tank. The
+  tank for the gasholder is usually made by excavating a circular
+  reservoir somewhat larger in diameter than the proposed holder. A
+  banking is allowed to remain in the centre, as shown in fig. 10, which
+  is known as the "dumpling," this arrangement not only saving work and
+  water, but acting as a support for the king post of a trussed holder
+  when the holder is empty. The tank must be water-tight, and the
+  precaution necessary to be taken in order to ensure this is dependent
+  upon the nature of the soil; it is usual, however, for the tanks to be
+  lined with concrete. Where the conditions of soil are very bad, steel
+  tanks are built above ground, but the cost of these is much greater.
+  The holder is made of sheet iron riveted together, the thickness
+  depending upon the size of the holder. The telescopic form consists of
+  two or more lifts which slide in one another, and may be described as
+  a single lift holder encircled by other cylinders of slightly larger
+  diameter, but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows the general
+  construction. Gas on entering at A causes the top lift to rise; the
+  bottom of this lift being turned up all round to form a cup, whilst
+  the top of the next lift is turned down to form a so-called grip, the
+  two interlock (see fig. 11), forming what is known as the hydraulic
+  cup. Under these conditions the cup will necessarily be filled with
+  water, and a seal will be formed, preventing the escape of gas. A
+  guide framing is built round the holder, and guide rollers are fixed
+  at various intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at the
+  bottom of the cup guide rollers are also fixed (fig. 11). In the year
+  1892 the largest existing gasholder was built at the East Greenwich
+  works of the South Metropolitan Gas Company; it has six lifts, its
+  diameter is 293 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft. high. The
+  capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.
+
+
+    Governor.
+
+  The governor consists usually of a bell floating in a cast iron tank
+  partially filled with water, and is in fact a small gasholder, from
+  the centre of which is suspended a conical valve controlling the gas
+  inlet and closing it as the bell fills. Any deviation in pressure will
+  cause the floating bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the
+  inlet will be decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.
+
+
+    Enrichment.
+
+  The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16
+  candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate,
+  while every candle power added to the gas increases the cost in an
+  enormous and rapidly growing ratio, has, from the earliest days of
+  the gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to
+  the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly cannel coal was used for
+  producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the ordinary gas,
+  thereby enriching it, but as the supply became limited and the price
+  prohibitive, other methods were from time to time advocated to replace
+  its use in the enrichment of illuminating gas. These may be classified
+  as follows:--
+
+  1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained by
+  decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.
+
+  2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing crude
+  oils by heat.
+
+  3. The carburetting of low-power gas by impregnating it with the
+  vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.
+
+  4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly
+  carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons
+  through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydrocarbon
+  gases.
+
+
+    Enrichment by tar.
+
+  Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for the production
+  and enrichment of gas, and to do this two methods may be adopted:--
+
+  (a) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way, and afterwards using the
+  whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas.
+
+  (b) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the gas
+  and vapours through superheaters.
+
+  If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself is
+  that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends rapidly
+  to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful attempt to
+  make use of certain portions of the liquid products of distillation of
+  coal before condensation by the second method was the Dinsmore
+  process, in which the coal gas and vapours which, if allowed to cool,
+  would form tar, were made to pass through a heated chamber, and a
+  certain proportion of otherwise condensible hydrocarbons was thus
+  converted into permanent gases. Even with a poor class of coal it was
+  claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20- to 21-candle gas could be made by
+  this process, whereas by the ordinary process 9000 cub. ft. of
+  15-candle gas would have been produced. This process, although
+  strongly advocated by the gas engineer who experimented with it, was
+  never a commercial success. The final solution of the question of
+  enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons derived from tar may be arrived at
+  by a process which prevents the formation of part of the tar during
+  the carbonization of the coal, or by the process devised by C.B. Tully
+  and now in use at Truro, in which tar is injected into the
+  incandescent fuel in a water-gas generator and enriches the water gas
+  with methane and other hydrocarbons, the resulting pitch and carbon
+  being filtered off by the column of coke through which the gas passes.
+
+
+    Enrichment by oil gas.
+
+  The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spraying
+  oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization; but
+  experience soon showed that this was not an economical method of
+  working, and that it was far better to decompose the liquid
+  hydrocarbon in the presence of the diluents which are to mingle with
+  it and act as its carrier, since, if this were done, a higher
+  temperature could be employed and more of the heavier portions of the
+  oil converted into gas, without at the same time breaking down the
+  gaseous hydrocarbons too much. In carburetting poor coal gas with
+  hydrocarbons from mineral oil it must be borne in mind that, as coal
+  is undergoing distillation, a rich gas is given off in the earlier
+  stages, but towards the end of the operation the gas is very poor in
+  illuminants, the methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbons, and
+  the increase in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a
+  coal requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the
+  gas at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the
+  following results:--
+
+    _Time after beginning Distillation._
+
+    +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+    |                        |    10    |   1 hour   |  3 hours   |  5 hours   |
+    |                        | minutes. | 30 minutes.| 25 minutes.| 35 minutes.|
+    +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+    | Sulphuretted hydrogen  |   1.30   |    1.42    |    0.49    |    0.11    |
+    | Carbon dioxide         |   2.21   |    2.09    |    1.49    |    1.50    |
+    | Hydrogen               |  20.10   |   38.33    |   52.68    |   67.12    |
+    | Carbon monoxide        |   6.19   |    5.66    |    6.21    |    6.12    |
+    | Saturated hydrocarbons |  57.38   |   44.03    |   33.54    |   22.58    |
+    | Unsaturated     "      |  10.62   |    5.98    |    3.04    |    1.79    |
+    | Nitrogen               |   2.20   |    2.47    |    2.55    |    0.78    |
+    +------------------------+----------+------------+------------+------------+
+
+  This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take place
+  in the quality of the gas during the distillation of the coal. In
+  carburetting such a gas by injecting mineral oil into the retort, many
+  of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours, it
+  would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas is
+  being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension a
+  much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being
+  supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any further
+  quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would have to be
+  completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the temperature
+  necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality of the gas
+  given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation has gone on
+  for three hours, the rich portions of coal have distilled off and the
+  temperature of the retort has reached its highest point, and this is
+  the best time to feed in the oil.
+
+  Undoubtedly the best process which has been proposed for the
+  production of oil gas to be used in the enrichment of coal gas is the
+  "Young" or "Peebles" process, which depends on the principle of
+  washing the oil gas retorted at a moderate temperature by means of oil
+  which is afterwards to undergo decomposition, because in this way it
+  is freed from all condensible vapours, and only permanent gases are
+  allowed to escape to the purifiers. In the course of this treatment
+  considerable quantities of the ethylenes and other fixed gases are
+  also absorbed, but no loss takes place, as these are again driven out
+  by the heat in the subsequent retorting. The gas obtained by the Young
+  process, when tested by itself in the burners most suited for its
+  combustion, gives on the photometer an illuminating value averaging
+  from 50 to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed, and quite correctly,
+  that the enriching power of the gas is considerably greater. This is
+  accounted for by the fact that it is impossible to construct a burner
+  which will do justice to a gas of such illuminating power.
+
+  The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal gas
+  are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as much
+  plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that
+  although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal
+  gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the
+  large scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of
+  such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect
+  mixture by diffusion, layering of the gas is very apt to take place in
+  the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide
+  variations in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.
+
+
+    Enrichment by volatile hydrocarbons.
+
+  The wonderful carburetting power of benzol vapour is well known, a
+  large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being due
+  to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried in suspension.
+  For many years the price of benzol has been falling, owing to the
+  large quantities produced in the coke ovens, and at its present price
+  it is by far the cheapest enriching material that can be obtained.
+  Hence at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so it is
+  used in various forms of carburettor, in which it is volatilized and
+  its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite
+  illuminating power.
+
+
+    Enrichment by carburetted water gas.
+
+  One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now is by
+  means of carburetted water gas mixed with poor coal gas. When steam
+  acts upon carbon at a high temperature the resultant action may be
+  looked upon as giving a mixture of equal volumes of hydrogen and
+  carbon monoxide, both of which are inflammable but non-luminous gases.
+  This water gas is then carburetted, i.e. rendered luminous by passing
+  it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat, the mixture
+  being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22 to 25 candles.
+  This, mixed with the poor coal gas, brings up its illuminating value
+  to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is heated to incandescence
+  by an air blast in a generator lined with fire-brick, and the heated
+  products of combustion as they leave the generator and enter the
+  superheaters are supplied with more air, which causes the combustion
+  of carbon monoxide present in the producer gas and heats up the
+  fire-brick baffles with which the superheater is filled. When the
+  necessary temperature of the fuel and superheater has been reached,
+  the air blast is cut off, and steam is blown through the generator,
+  forming water gas, which meets the enriching oil at the top of the
+  first superheater, called the carburettor, and carries the vapours
+  with it through the main superheaters, where the fixing of the
+  hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advantage of this apparatus is
+  that a low temperature can be used for fixing owing to the enormous
+  surface for superheating, and thus to a great extent the deposition of
+  carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has been very generally
+  adopted in Great Britain as well as in America, and practically all
+  carburetted water-gas plants are founded upon the same set of actions.
+  Important factors in the use of carburetted water gas for enrichment
+  are that it can be made with enormous rapidity and with a minimum of
+  labour; and not only is the requisite increase in illuminating power
+  secured, but the volume of the enriched gas is increased by the bulk
+  of carburetted water gas added, which in ordinary English practice
+  amounts to from 25 to 50%. The public at first strongly opposed its
+  introduction on the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon
+  monoxide, which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30%.
+  Still when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal
+  gas, containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the
+  percentage of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 16%,
+  which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.
+
+  A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the
+  gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas
+  obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or
+  non-luminous water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works,
+  non-luminous water gas is passed into the foul main or through the
+  retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture of water gas and
+  coal gas is then carburetted to the required extent by benzol vapour,
+  a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is distinctly
+  more economical than the use of carburetted water gas. In 1896 Karl
+  Dellwik introduced a modification in the process of making water gas
+  which entirely altered the whole aspect of the industry. In all the
+  attempts to make water gas, up to that date, the incandescence of the
+  fuel had been obtained by "blowing" so deep a bed of fuel that carbon
+  monoxide and the residual nitrogen of the air formed the chief
+  products, this mixture being known as "producer" gas. In the Dellwik
+  process, however, the main point is the adjustment of the air supplied
+  to the fuel in the generator in such a way that carbon dioxide is
+  formed instead of carbon monoxide. Under these conditions producer gas
+  ceases to exist as a by-product, and the gases of the blow consist
+  merely of the incombustible products of complete combustion, carbon
+  dioxide and nitrogen, the result being that more than three times the
+  heat is developed for the combustion of the same amount of fuel, and
+  nearly double the quantity of water gas can be made per pound of fuel
+  than was before possible. The runs or times of steaming can also be
+  continued for longer periods. The possibility of making from 60,000 to
+  70,000 cub. ft. of water gas per ton of coke used in the Dellwik
+  generator as against 34,000 to 45,000 cub. ft. per ton made by
+  previous processes reduces the price of water gas to about 3-1/2d. per
+  thousand, so that the economic value of using it in admixture with
+  coal gas and then enriching the mixture by any cheap carburetting
+  process is manifest. The universal adoption of the incandescent mantle
+  for lighting purposes has made it evident that the illuminating value
+  of the gas is a secondary consideration, and the whole tendency now is
+  to do away with enrichment and produce a gas of low-candle power but
+  good heating power at a cheap rate for fuel purposes and incandescent
+  lighting. (See also LIGHTING: _Gas_.)     (V. B. L.)
+
+2. _Gas for Fuel and Power_--The first gas-producers, which were built
+by Faber du Faur at Wasseralfingen in 1836 and by C.G.C. Bischof at
+Magdesprung (both in Germany), consisted of simple perpendicular shafts
+of masonry contracted at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate
+for the coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought iron
+casing, are even now used to a great extent. Sometimes the purpose of a
+gas-producer is attained in a very simple manner by lowering the grate
+of an ordinary fireplace so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is
+maintained in the fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great
+body of coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace,
+and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed
+immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper part of the
+furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monoxide which later on, on
+the spot where the greatest heat is required, is burned into dioxide by
+admitting fresh air, preferably pre-heated. This simple and inexpensive
+arrangement has the further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized
+immediately after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But
+it is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to
+those cases where all the space round the furnace is required for
+manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar purposes.
+In these cases the producers are arranged outside the iron-works,
+glass-works, &c., in an open yard where all the manipulations of feeding
+them with coal, of stoking, and of removing the ashes are performed
+without interfering with the work inside. But care must always be taken
+to place the producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward
+tendency, in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where it is
+to be burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various means. The
+gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens Brothers, from 1856 onwards,
+were provided with a kind of brick chimney; on the top of this there was
+a horizontal iron tube, continued into an iron down-draught, and only
+from this the underground flues were started which sent the gas into the
+single furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down by
+the action of the air, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the gas out of
+the producer, but it has various drawbacks and has been abandoned in all
+modern constructions. Where the "natural draught" is not sufficient, it
+is aided either by blowing air under the grate or else by suction at the
+other end.
+
+We shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-producers
+producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied in
+practice.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 12[2]--Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation).]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 13.--Lurmann's Producer.]
+
+[Illustration: FIGS. 14 and 15.--Liegel's Producer.]
+
+  The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds have
+  been erected and many may be still at work, is shown in fig. 12. A is
+  the charging-hole; B, the inclined front wall, consisting of a cast
+  iron plate with fire-brick lining; C, the equally inclined
+  "step-grate"; D, a damper by which the producer may be isolated in
+  case of repairs; E, a water-pipe, by which the cinders at the bottom
+  may be quenched before taking away; the steam here formed rises into
+  the producer where it forms some "semi-water gas" (see FUEL:
+  _Gaseous_). Openings like that shown at G serve for introducing a
+  poker in order to clean the brickwork from adhering slags. H is the
+  gas flue; I, the perpendicularly ascending shaft, 10 or 12 ft. high;
+  JJ, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending branch mentioned
+  above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means of the
+  gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch JJ much of the tar
+  and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance where
+  bituminous coal is employed for firing.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 16.--Taylor's Producer.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 17.--Dowson Gas Plant.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 18.--Mond Gas Plant.]
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 19.--Mond Gas Plant.]
+
+  This as well as most other descriptions of gas-producers, is not
+  adapted to being worked with such coal as softens in the heat and
+  forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sinking
+  of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be
+  non-bituminous coal, anthracite or coke, or at least so much of these
+  materials should be mixed with ordinary coal that no semi-solid cakes
+  of the kind just described are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work
+  with coal softening in the fire, Lurmann's producer may be employed,
+  which is shown in fig. 13. V shows a gas-producer of the ordinary
+  kind, which during regular work is filled with the coke formed in the
+  horizontal retort E. The door _b_ serves for removing the slags and
+  ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not fall through the
+  grate. The hot producer-gas formed in V is passed round the retort E
+  in the flues n2 n2, and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace
+  where it is to be used. The retort E is charged with ordinary
+  bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation by the
+  heat communicated through the flues n2 n2 and is thus converted into
+  coke. The gases formed during this process pass into the upper portion
+  of V and get mixed with the producer-gas formed in the lower portion.
+  From time to time, as the level of the coke in V goes down, some of
+  the freshly formed coke in E is pushed into V, whereby the level of
+  the coke in V should assume the shape shown by the dotted line _l ...
+  m_. If the level became too low, such as is shown by the dotted line
+  x ... y, the working of the producer would be wrong, as in this case
+  the layer of coke at the front side would be too low, and carbon
+  dioxide would be formed in lieu of monoxide.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 20.--Blass' Gas Plant.]
+
+  Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegel's producer, the special object of which is
+  to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty slag on
+  combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding the
+  up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they be
+  removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes. To
+  obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat than
+  is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer being
+  pre-heated in the channels e, e. The inside shape of the producer is
+  such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped, as it widens
+  out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion, where the ashes are
+  already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through which the air
+  ascends. The grate b retains any small pieces of fuel, but allows the
+  liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues c, c prevent the
+  brickwork from being melted.
+
+  One of the best-known gas-producers for working with compressed air
+  from below is Taylor's, shown in fig. 16. A is the feeding-hopper, on
+  the same principle as is used in blast-furnaces. L is the
+  producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and peep-holes B1 to B4,
+  passing through the brick lining M. F is the contracted part, leading
+  to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the doors D. An injector I,
+  worked by means of the steam-pipe J, forces air through K into F. The
+  circular grate G can be turned round K by means of the crank E from
+  the outside. This is done, without interfering with the blast, in
+  order to keep the fuel at the proper level in L, according to the
+  indications of the burning zone, as shown through the peep-holes B1 to
+  B4. The ashes collecting at the bottom are from time to time removed
+  by the doors D. As the steam, introduced by J, is decomposed in the
+  producer, we here obtain a "semi-water gas," with about 27% CO and 12%
+  H2.
+
+  Fig. 17 shows the Dowson gas-producer, together with the arrangements
+  for purifying the gas for the purpose of working a gas engine. _a_ is
+  a vertical steam boiler, heated by a central shaft filled with coke,
+  with superheating tubes _b_ passing through the central shaft. _c_ is
+  the steam-pipe, carrying the dry steam into the air-injector _d_. This
+  mixture of steam and air enters into the gas-producer _e_ below the
+  fire-grate _f_. _g_ is the feeding-hopper for the anthracite which is
+  usually employed in this kind of producer. _h_, _h_ are cooling-pipes
+  for the gas where most of the undecomposed steam (say 10% of the whole
+  employed in _d_) is condensed. _i_ is a hydraulic box with water seal;
+  _j_, a coke-scrubber; _k_, a filter; _l_, a sawdust-scrubber; _m_,
+  inlet of gas-holder; _n_, gas-holder; _o_, outlet of same; _p_, a
+  valve with weighted lever to regulate the admission of steam to the
+  gas-producer; _q_, the weight which actuates the lever automatically
+  by the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder. In practical work
+  about 3/4 lb. of steam is decomposed for each pound of anthracite
+  consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon dioxide is found in the
+  resulting gas. The latter has an average calorific power of 1732
+  calories per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U. per cubic foot, at 0 deg. and
+  760 mm.
+
+  The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and 19. The gases produced in the
+  generators G are passed through pipes _r_ into washers W, in which
+  water is kept in violent motion by means of paddle-wheels. The spray
+  of water removes the dust and part of the tar and ammonia from the
+  gases, much steam being produced at the same time. This water is
+  withdrawn from time to time and worked for the ammonia it contains.
+  The gases, escaping from W at a temperature of about 100 deg. C., and
+  containing much steam, pass though _g_ and _a_ into a tower, fed with
+  an acid-absorbing liquid, coming from the tank _s_, which is spread
+  into many drops by the brick filling of the tower. This liquid is a
+  strong solution of ammonium sulphate, containing about 2.5% free
+  sulphuric acid which absorbs nearly all the ammonia from the gases,
+  without dissolving much of the tarry substances. Most of the liquor
+  arriving at the bottom, after mechanically separating the tar, is
+  pumped back into _s_, but a portion is always withdrawn and worked for
+  ammonium sulphate. When escaping from the acid tower, the gas contains
+  about 0.013% NH3, and has a temperature of about 80 deg. C. and is
+  saturated with aqueous vapour. It is passed through _c_ into a second
+  tower B, filled with blocks of wood, where it meets with a stream of
+  comparatively cold water. At the bottom of this the water runs away,
+  its temperature being 78 deg. C.; at the top the gas passes away
+  through _d_ into the distributing main. The hot water from B, freed
+  from tar, is pumped into a third tower C, through which cold air is
+  forced by means of a Root's blower by the pipe _w_. This air, after
+  being heated to 76 deg. C., and saturated with steam in the tower C,
+  passes through _l_ into the generator G. The water in C leaves this
+  tower cold enough to be used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the
+  steam originally employed in the generator is reintroduced into it,
+  leaving only one-third to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the
+  steam-engine. The gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6 X 12
+  ft., several of them being erected in series. The introduction of the
+  air and the removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The
+  bottom is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The
+  air enters just above the water-level, at a pressure of 4 in. The
+  Mond gas in the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10% monoxide,
+  23% hydrogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen. The yield of ammonium
+  sulphate is 75 lb. from a ton of coal (slack with 11.5% ashes and 55%
+  fixed carbon).
+
+  One of the best plants for the generation of _water-gas_ is that
+  constructed by E. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the valve V at
+  D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes away at the bottom
+  through A. The pressure of the gas should not be such that it could
+  get into the pipe conveying the air-blast, by which an explosive
+  mixture would be formed. This is prevented by the water-cooled damper
+  S, which always closes the air-blast when the gas-pipe is open and
+  vice versa. Below the entry W of the air-blast there is a throttle
+  valve _d_ which is closed as soon as the damper S opens the gas canal;
+  thus a second security against the production of a mixture of air and
+  gas is afforded. The water-cooled ring channel K protects the bottom
+  outlet of the generator and causes the cinders to solidify, so that
+  they can be easily removed. But sometimes no such cooling is effected,
+  in which case the cinders run away in the liquid form. Below K the
+  fuel is lying in a conical heap, leaving the ring channel A free.
+  During the period of hot-blowing (heating-up) S is turned so that the
+  air-blast communicates with the generator; _d_ and G are open; _g_
+  (the damper connected with the scrubber) and V are closed. During the
+  period of gas-making G and _d_ are closed, S now closes the air-blast
+  and connects the generator with the scrubber; V is opened, and the gas
+  passes from the scrubber into the gas-holder, the inlet w being under
+  a pressure of 4 in. All these various changes in the opening of the
+  valves and dampers are automatically performed in the proper order by
+  means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards t and
+  shaft _v_. This hand-wheel has merely to be turned one way for
+  starting the hot-blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to open
+  and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible on the
+  part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper E is so arranged that, when
+  the cone e2 opens, e1 is shut, and vice versa, thus no more gas can
+  escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that which is
+  contained in E. G is the pipe through which the blowing-up gas
+  (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it is
+  at once burned) or into a pre-heater for the blast, or into some place
+  where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for 10 or 11
+  minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7 to 1.5% carbon
+  dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64 to 66% nitrogen, and
+  has a heating value of 950 calories per cub. metre. The water-gas
+  itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an average composition of 3.3%
+  carbon dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide, 0.4% methane, 48.6% hydrogen,
+  3.7% nitrogen, and a heating value of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1
+  kilogram coke yields 1.13 cub. metre water-gas and 3.13 Siemens gas.
+  100 parts coke (of 7000 calories) furnish 42% of their heat value as
+  water-gas and 42% as Siemens gas.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 21.--Dellwik-Fleischer Producer.]
+
+  Lastly we give a section of the Dellwik-Fleischer gas-producer (fig.
+  21). The feeding-hoppers A are alternately charged every half-hour, so
+  that the layer of fuel in the generator always remains 4 ft. deep. B
+  is the chimney-damper, C the grate, D the door for removing the slags,
+  E the ash-door, F the inlet of the air-blast, G the upper, G1 the
+  lower outlet for the water-gas which is removed alternately at top and
+  bottom by means of an outside valve, steam being always admitted at
+  the opposite end. The blowing-up generally lasts 1-3/4 minutes, the
+  gas-making 8 or 10 minutes. The air-blast works under a pressure of 8
+  or 9 in. below the grate, or 4 to 4-1/2 in. above the coke. The
+  blowing-up gas contains 17 or 18% carbon dioxide and 1.5% oxygen, with
+  mere traces of carbon monoxide. The water-gas shows 4 to 5% carbon
+  dioxide, 40% carbon monoxide, 0.8% methane, 48 to 51% hydrogen, 4 or
+  5% nitrogen. About 2.5 cub. metres is obtained per kilogram of best
+  coke.
+
+  See Mills and Rowan, _Fuel and its Application_ (London, 1889); Samuel
+  S. Wyer, _Producer-Gas and Gas-Producers_, published by the
+  _Engineering and Mining Journal_ (New York); F. Fischer, _Chemische
+  Technologie der Brennstoffe_ (1897-1901); _Gasformige Heizstoffe_, in
+  Stohmann and Kerl's _Handbuch der technischen Chemie_, 4th edition,
+  iii. 642 et seq.     (G. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Liquor condensed from gas alone, without wash water.
+
+  [2] Figs. 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from
+    Lunge's _Coal-tar and Ammonia_, by permission of Friedr. Vieweg u.
+    Sohn.
+
+
+
+
+GASCOIGNE, GEORGE (c. 1535-1577), English poet, eldest son of Sir John
+Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born probably between 1530
+and 1535. He was educated at Trinity College, Cambridge, and on leaving
+the university is supposed to have joined the Middle Temple. He became
+a member of Gray's Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show
+of evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in 1548 under
+very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt that his escapades
+were notorious, and that he was imprisoned for debt. George Whetstone
+says that Sir John Gascoigne disinherited his son on account of his
+follies, but by his own account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to
+pay the debts contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558
+and 1558-1559, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election at
+Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being "a defamed person and
+noted for manslaughter," "a common Rymer and a deviser of slaunderous
+Pasquelles," "a notorious ruffianne," an atheist and constantly in debt.
+His poems, with the exception of some commendatory verses, were not
+published before 1572, but they were probably circulated in MS. before
+that date. He tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to
+write on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were
+acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow of William
+Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet, Nicholas Breton. In 1568
+an inquiry into the disposition of William Breton's property with a view
+to the protection of the children's rights was instituted before the
+lord mayor, but the matter was probably settled in a friendly manner,
+for Gascoigne continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had
+from his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the
+Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to Brill,
+which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the Dutch. He
+obtained a captain's commission, and took an active part in the
+campaigns of the next two years, during which he acquired a profound
+dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration for William of Orange, who
+had personally intervened on his behalf in a quarrel with his colonel,
+and secured him against the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits
+to a lady at the Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of
+Valkenburg by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn
+of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his
+adventures, "The Fruites of Warres" (printed in the edition of 1575) and
+"Gascoigne's Voyage into Hollande." In 1575 he had a share in devising
+the masques, published in the next year as _The Princely Pleasures at
+the Courte at Kenelworth_, which celebrated the queen's visit to the
+Earl of Leicester. At Woodstock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech
+before Elizabeth, and presented her with the _Pleasant Tale of Hemetes
+the Heremite_[1] in four languages. Most of his works were actually
+published during the last years of his life, after his return from the
+wars. He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where he was the guest of
+George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whetstone wrote a
+long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled "A Remembrance of the
+wel-imployed life and godly end of George Gaskoigne, Esquire."
+
+His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short critical
+treatise, "Certayne Notes of Instruction concerning the making of verse
+or ryme in English, written at the request of Master Edouardo
+Donati,"[2] prefixed to his _Posies_ (1575). He acknowledged Chaucer as
+his master, and differed from the earlier poets of the school of Surrey
+and Wyatt chiefly in the added smoothness and sweetness of his verse.
+His poems were published in 1572 during his absence in Holland,
+surreptitiously, according to his own account, but it seems probable
+that the "editor" who supplied the running comment was none other than
+Gascoigne himself. _A hundreth Sundrie Floures bound up in one small
+Posie. Gathered partely (by translation) in the fyne outlandish Gardens
+of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and others; and partely by
+Invention out of our owne fruitfull Orchardes in Englande, Yelding
+Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and moral discourse, bothe
+pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling noses of learned
+Readers_, was followed in 1575 by an authorized edition, _The Posies of
+G.G. Esquire_ ... (not dated).
+
+Gascoigne had an adventurous and original mind, and was a pioneer in
+more than one direction. In 1576 he published _The Steele Glas_,
+sometimes called the earliest regular English satire. Although this poem
+is Elizabethan in form and manner, it is written in the spirit of _Piers
+Plowman_. Gascoigne begins with a comparison between the sister arts of
+Satire and Poetry, and under a comparison between the old-fashioned
+"glas of trustie steele," and the new-fangled crystal mirrors which he
+takes as a symbol of the "Italianate" corruption of the time, he attacks
+the amusements of the governing classes, the evils of absentee
+landlordism, the corruption of the clergy, and pleads for the
+restoration of the feudal ideal.[3]
+
+His dramatic work belongs to the period of his residence at Gray's Inn,
+both _Jocasta_ (of which Acts i. and iv. were contributed by Francis
+Kinwelmersh) and _Supposes_ being played there in 1566. _Jocasta_ was
+said by J.P. Collier (_Hist. of Dram. Poetry_ iii. 8) to be the "first
+known attempt to introduce a Greek play upon the English stage," but it
+turns out that Gascoigne was only very indirectly acquainted with
+Euripides. His play is a literal version of Lodovico Dolce's _Giocasta_,
+which was derived probably from the _Phoenissae_ in the Latin
+translation of R. Winter. _Supposes_,[4] a version of Ariosto's _I
+Suppositi_, is notable as an early and excellent adaptation of Italian
+comedy, and moreover, as "the earliest play in English prose acted in
+public or private." Udal's _Ralph Roister Doister_ had been inspired
+directly by Latin comedy; _Gammer Gurton's Needle_ was a purely native
+product; but _Supposes_ is the first example of the acclimatization of
+the Italian models that were to exercise so prolonged an influence on
+the English stage. A third play of Gascoigne's, _The Glasse of
+Government_ (published in 1575), is a school drama of the "Prodigal Son"
+type, familiar on the continent at the time, but rare in England. It is
+defined by Mr C.H. Herford as an attempt "to connect _Terentian
+situation_ with a _Christian moral_ in a picture of _school life_," and
+it may be assumed that Gascoigne was familiar with the didactic drama of
+university life in vogue on the continent. The scene is laid at Antwerp,
+and the two prodigals meet with retribution in Geneva and Heidelberg
+respectively.
+
+_The Spoyle of Antwerpe_, written by an eyewitness of the sack of the
+city in 1576, has sometimes been attributed to Gascoigne, but although a
+George Gascoigne was employed in that year to carry letters for
+Walsingham, internal evidence is against Gascoigne's authorship. A
+curious editorial preface by Gascoigne to Sir Humphrey Gilbert's
+_Discourse of a Discoverie for a new Passage to Cataia_ (1576) has led
+to the assertion that Gascoigne printed the tract against its author's
+wish, but it is likely that he was really serving Gilbert, who desired
+the publication, but dared not avow it. The _Wyll of the Devill_ ...
+(reprinted for private circulation by Dr F.J. Furnivall, 1871), an
+anti-popish tract, once attributed, on slender evidence, to Gascoigne,
+is almost certainly by another hand.
+
+  Gascoigne's works not already mentioned include: "G. G. in
+  commendation of the noble Arte of Venerie," prefixed to _The Noble Art
+  of Venerie or Hunting_ (1575); _The Complaynte of Phylomene, bound up
+  with The Steele Glas_ (1576); _The Droomme of Doomes-day_ (1576), a
+  prose compilation from various authors, especially from the _De
+  contemptu mundi sive de miseria humanae conditionis_ of Pope Innocent
+  III., printed with varying titles, earliest ed. (1470?); _A Delicate
+  Diet for daintie mouthde droonkardes ..._ (1576), a free version of St
+  Augustine's _De ebrietate_. _The Posies_ (1572) included _Supposes_,
+  _Jocasta_, _A Discourse of the Adventures of Master F[erdinando]
+  J[eronimi]_, in imitation of an Italian novella, a partly
+  autobiographical _Don Bartholomew of Bath_, and miscellaneous poems.
+  Real personages, some of whom were well known at court, were supposed
+  to be concealed under fictitious names in _The Adventures of Master F.
+  J._, and the poem caused considerable scandal, so that the names are
+  disguised in the second edition. A more comprehensive collection, _The
+  Whole Workes of G. G._ ... appeared in 1587. In 1868-1870 _The
+  Complete Poems of G. G._ ... were edited for the Roxburghe Library by
+  Mr W.C. Hazlitt. In his _English Reprints_ Prof. E. Arber included
+  _Certayne Notes of Instruction, The Steele Glas_ and the _Complaynt of
+  Philomene_. _The Steele Glas_ was also edited for the _Library of
+  English Literature_, by Henry Morley, vol. i. p. 184 (1889). A new
+  edition, _The Works of George Gascoigne_ (The Cambridge English
+  Classics, 1907, &c.) is edited by Dr J.W. Cunliffe. See also _The Life
+  and Writings of George Gascoigne_, by Prof. Felix E. Schelling
+  (Publications of the Univ. of Pennsylvania series in Philology, vol.
+  ii. No. 4 [1894]); C.H. Herford, _Studies in the Literary Relations of
+  England and Germany in the Sixteenth Century_, pp. 149-164 (1886);
+  C.H. Herford, "Gascoigne's Glasse of Government," in _Englische
+  Studien_, vol. ix. (Halle, 1877, &c.).
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] Printed in 1579 in a pamphlet called _The Paradoxe_, the author
+    of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne's name.
+
+  [2] Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood's _Ancient Critical Essays_
+    (1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith's _Elizabethan Critical Essays_
+    (1904).
+
+  [3]  "Againe I see, within my glasse of Steele
+        But foure estates, to serve each country soyle,
+        The King, the Knight, the Pesant, and the Priest.
+        The King should care for al the subjects still,
+        The Knight should fight, for to defend the same,
+        The Pesant, he shoulde labor for their ease,
+        And Priests shuld pray, for them and for themselves."--
+
+          (Arber's ed. p. 57.)
+
+  [4] The influence of this play on the Shakespearian _Taming of the
+    Shrew_ is dealt with by Prof. A.H. Tolman in _Shakespeare's Part in
+    the Taming of the Shrew_ (Pub. of the Mod. Lang. Assoc. vol. v. No.
+    4, pp. 215, 216, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM (c. 1350-1419), chief justice of England in the
+reign of Henry IV. Both history and tradition testify to the fact that
+he was one of the great lawyers who in times of doubt and danger have
+asserted the principle that the head of the state is subject to law, and
+that the traditional practice of public officers, or the expressed voice
+of the nation in parliament, and not the will of the monarch or any part
+of the legislature, must guide the tribunals of the country. He was a
+descendant of an ancient Yorkshire family. The date of his birth is
+uncertain, but it appears from the year-books that he practised as an
+advocate in the reigns of Edward III. and Richard II. On the banishment
+of Henry of Lancaster Gascoigne was appointed one of his attorneys, and
+soon after Henry's accession to the throne was made chief justice of the
+court of king's bench. After the suppression of the rising in the north
+in 1405, Henry eagerly pressed the chief justice to pronounce sentence
+upon Scrope, the archbishop of York, and the earl marshal Thomas
+Mowbray, who had been implicated in the revolt. This he absolutely
+refused to do, asserting the right of the prisoners to be tried by their
+peers. Although both were afterwards executed, the chief justice had no
+part in the transaction. It has been very much doubted, however, whether
+Gascoigne could have displayed such independence of action without
+prompt punishment or removal from office following. The oft-told tale of
+his committing the prince of Wales to prison must also be regarded as
+unauthentic, though it is both picturesque and characteristic. The judge
+had directed the punishment of one of the prince's riotous companions,
+and the prince, who was present and enraged at the sentence, struck or
+grossly insulted the judge. Gascoigne immediately committed him to
+prison, using firm and forcible language, which brought him to a more
+reasonable mood, and secured his voluntary obedience to the sentence.
+The king is said to have approved of the act, but there appears to be
+good ground for the supposition that Gascoigne was removed from his post
+or resigned soon after the accession of Henry V. He died in 1419, and
+was buried in the parish church of Harewood in Yorkshire. Some
+biographies of the judge have stated that he died in 1412, but this is
+clearly disproved by Foss in his _Lives of the Judges_; and although it
+is clear that Gascoigne did not hold office long under Henry V., it is
+not absolutely impossible that the scene in the fifth act of the second
+part of Shakespeare's _Henry IV._ has some historical basis, and that
+the judge's resignation was voluntary.
+
+
+
+
+GASCONY (_Wasconia_), an old province in the S.W. of France. It takes
+its name from the Vascones, a Spanish tribe which in 580 and 587 crossed
+the Pyrenees and invaded the district known to the Romans as
+Novempopulana or Aquitania tertia. Basque, the national language of the
+Vascones, took root only in a few of the high valleys of the Pyrenees,
+such as Soule and Labourd; in the plains Latin dialects prevailed,
+Gascon being a Romance language. In the 7th century the name of Vasconia
+was substituted for that of Novempopulana. The Vascones readily
+recognized the sovereignty of the Merovingian kings. In 602 they
+consented to be governed by a duke called Genialis, but in reality they
+remained independent. They even appointed national dukes, against whom
+Charlemagne had to fight at the beginning of his reign. Finally Duke
+Lupus II. made his submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to
+establish Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known:
+Seguin (Sighivinus), William (Guillaume), and Arnaud (Arnaldus). They
+were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed to the Normans.
+After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of Gascony falls into the
+profoundest obscurity. The lists of the 10th-century dukes prepared by
+ancient and modern historians can only be established by means of
+hypotheses based in many cases on spurious documents (e.g. the charter
+of Alaon), and little confidence can be placed in them. During this
+troubled period Gascony was from time to time attached to one or other
+of the other Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope
+of the Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as
+forming part of France, from which it has never been separated. Disputed
+in the 11th century by the counts of Poitiers, who were also dukes of
+Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the duchy finally passed to
+the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the title of duke of Gascony was
+merged in that of duke of Aquitaine and disappeared. In the feudal
+period Gascony comprised a great number of countships (including
+Armagnac, Bigorre, Fezensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships
+(including Bearn, Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd
+and Maremne), and seigneuries (e.g. Albret, &c.). From the
+ecclesiastical point of view, it corresponded nearly to the
+archbishopric of Auch.
+
+From about 1073 to 1137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of Aquitaine
+and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave the first charter
+of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the duchy was weakened by the
+increasing independence of its great feudatories, especially the
+viscounts of Bearn and the counts of Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her
+father's death, Eleanor, the daughter and heiress of Duke William X.,
+married the king of France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine
+Gascony passed under his direct rule. In 1151, however, this marriage
+was annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou, who
+three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus was the house
+of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh bone of contention
+was thrown between the kings of England and of France. Having
+established himself in the duchy by force of arms, Henry handed it over
+to his son Richard, against whom many of the great Gascon lords
+revolted, and from Richard it passed to his brother John. The crusade
+against the Albigenses was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a
+new impetus to the process of disintegration which was already at work
+in the duchy. King John and his successor Henry III. were weak; the
+neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive; and the
+house of Bearn was growing in strength. Gascony served Henry III. as
+headquarters during his two short and disastrous wars (1230 and 1242)
+with Louis IX., and in 1259 he did homage for it to this king; his son,
+Edward I., lost and then regained the duchy.
+
+During the Hundred Years' War Gascony was obviously a battle-field for
+the forces of England and of France. The French seized the duchy, but,
+aided by the rivalry between the powerful houses of Foix and Armagnac,
+Edward III. was able to recover it, and by the treaty of Bretigny in
+1360 John II. recognized the absolute sovereignty of England therein.
+Handed over as a principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it
+was used by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in
+which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles. The renewal
+of the war between England and France, which took place in 1369, was due
+in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of Gascony, and during its
+course the position of the English was seriously weakened, the whole of
+the duchy save a few towns and fortresses being lost; but the victories
+of Henry V. in northern France postponed for a time the total expulsion
+of the foreigner. This was reserved for the final stage of the war and
+was one result of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing
+the capture of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from
+the duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered severely
+from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or misruled
+without restraint.
+
+The French kings, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the royal
+authority in the duchy, although this was not really accomplished until
+the close of the 15th century when the house of Armagnac was overthrown.
+It was by means of administrative measures that these kings attained
+their object. Gascony was governed on the same lines as other parts of
+France and from the time of Henry IV., who was prince of Bearn, and who
+united his hereditary lands with the crown, its history differs very
+slightly from that of the rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired
+the foundation of educational institutions and the Reformation was
+largely accepted in Bearn, but not in other parts of Gascony. The wars
+of religion swept over the land, which was the scene of some of the
+military exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made some slight changes
+in its government. As may be surmised the boundaries of Gascony varied
+from time to time, but just before the outbreak of the Revolution they
+were the Atlantic Ocean, Guienne, Languedoc and the Pyrenees, and from
+east to west the duchy at its greatest extent measured 170 m.
+
+At the end of the _ancien regime_ Gascony was united with Guienne to
+form a great military government. After the division of France into
+departments, Gascony, together with Bearn, French Navarre and the Basque
+country, formed the departments of Basses-Pyrenees, Landes,
+Hautes-Pyrenees and Gers. Parts of Gascony also now form arrondissements
+and cantons of the departments of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Ariege
+and Tarn-et-Garonne.
+
+  See Arnaud Oihenart, _Notitia utriusque Vasconiae, tam Ibericae quam
+  Aquitanicae_ (1637); L'Abbe Monlezun, _Histoire de la Gascogne_
+  (1846-1850), comprising a number of useful but uncritically edited
+  documents; and Jean de Jaurgain, _La Vasconie, etude historique et
+  critique sur les origines ... du duche de Gascogne ... et des grands
+  fiefs du duche de Gascogne_ (1898-1902), a learned and ingenious work,
+  but characterized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last work was
+  rectified by Ferdinand Lot in his _Etudes sur le regne de Hugues
+  Capet_ (1903; see especially appendix x.). See also Barrau-Dihigo, "La
+  Gascogne," a bibliography of manuscript sources and of printed works
+  published in the _Revue de synthese historique_ (1903).     (C. B.*)
+
+
+
+
+GAS ENGINE. A gas engine is a heat engine in which the working fluid is
+atmospheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It differs from a
+hot-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given to the working fluid
+by combustion within the motive power cylinder. In most gas engines--in
+fact, in all those at present on the market--the working fluid and the
+fuel that supplies it with heat are mixed with each other before the
+combustion of the fuel. The fuel--which in the steam and in most hot-air
+engines is burned in a separate furnace--is, in the gas engine,
+introduced directly to the motor cylinder and burned there; it is,
+indeed, part of the working fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an
+internal combustion engine using gaseous fuel.
+
+  The commercial history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when Dr N.A.
+  Otto patented the well-known engine now in extensive use, but long
+  before that year inventors had been at work, attempting to utilize gas
+  for producing motive power. The first proposal made in Great Britain
+  is found in Street's Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where an explosion
+  engine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by vaporizing spirits
+  of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing the vapour with air in
+  a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a piston by the explosion
+  produced. Most of the early engines were suggested by the fact that a
+  mixture of an inflammable gas and atmospheric air gives an explosion
+  when ignited--that is, produces pressure which can be applied in a
+  cylinder to propel a piston. Lebon, in France, proposed a gas engine
+  in which the gas and air were raised to a pressure above that of the
+  atmosphere before use in the cylinder, but he did not appear to be
+  clear in his ideas.
+
+  Some interesting particulars of early experiments are given in a paper
+  read at the Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled, "On the
+  Application of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power in Machinery,
+  with a description of an Engine which is moved by the pressure of the
+  Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Explosions of Hydrogen Gas and
+  Atmospheric Air." In that paper the Rev. W. Cecil describes an engine
+  of his invention constructed to operate on the explosion vacuum
+  method. This engine was stated to run with perfect regularity at 60
+  revolutions per minute, consuming 17.6 cub. ft. of hydrogen gas per
+  hour. The hydrogen explosion, however, does not seem to have been
+  noiseless, because Mr Cecil states that in building a larger engine
+  "... to remedy the noise which is occasioned by the explosion, the
+  lower end of the cylinder A, B, C, D may be buried in a well or it may
+  be enclosed in a large air-tight vessel." Mr Cecil also mentions
+  previous experiments at Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at
+  his lectures on mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a
+  mixture of gas and air within a cylinder, the explosion taking place
+  from atmospheric pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have
+  operated an engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil
+  appear to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.
+
+  Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill a
+  closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he
+  condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an air engine by
+  exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was evidently
+  suggested by Watt's condensing steam engine, flame being employed
+  instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown's engine is said to have
+  been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat on the Thames, and
+  propel a road carriage. L.W. Wright in 1833 described an explosion
+  engine working at atmospheric pressure and exploding on both sides of
+  the piston. The cylinder is shown as water-jacketed. In William
+  Barnett's engine of 1838 two great advances were made. The engine was
+  so constructed that the mixture of gas and air was compressed to a
+  considerable extent in the motor cylinder before ignition. The method
+  of igniting the compressed charge was also effective. The problem of
+  transferring a flame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure
+  is much in excess of that of the external air was solved by means of a
+  hollow plug cock having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one
+  position the hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet
+  issuing within it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned
+  within the hollow. The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it
+  closed to the external air and opened to the engine cylinder; the
+  flame continued to burn with the air contained in the cock, until the
+  compressed inflammable mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder
+  and ignited at the flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the
+  one adopted by Otto about thirty years later. To Barnett belongs the
+  credit of being the first to realize clearly the great idea of
+  compression before explosion in gas engines, and to show one way of
+  carrying out the idea in practice. Barnett appears to have constructed
+  an engine, but he attained no commercial success. Several attempts to
+  produce gas engines were made between 1838 and 1860, but they were all
+  failures. Several valuable ideas were published in 1855. Drake, an
+  American, described a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture
+  by raising a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857
+  Barsanti and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the
+  explosion propelled a free piston against the atmosphere, and the work
+  was done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial
+  vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never came into
+  commercial use, although the fundamental idea was good.
+
+  Previous to 1860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental
+  stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was
+  attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated 1860, was the inventor of
+  the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The piston,
+  moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy stored in the
+  fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and air at the
+  ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke the valves closed,
+  and an explosion, caused by an electric spark, propelled the piston to
+  the end of its stroke. On the return stroke the burnt gases were
+  discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts. These operations were
+  repeated on both sides of the piston, and the engine was thus
+  double-acting. Four hundred of these engines were said to be at work
+  in Paris in 1865, and the Reading Iron Works Company Limited built and
+  sold one hundred of them in Great Britain. They were quiet, and smooth
+  in running; the gas consumption, however, was excessive, amounting to
+  about 100 cub. ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical
+  ignition also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by
+  the introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success
+  was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langen exhibited their
+  free-piston engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine
+  was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, but Otto
+  succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the engine in a
+  very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed a practical
+  clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one direction but
+  engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the other; it consisted
+  of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets--the same clutch, in fact, as has
+  since been so much used in free-wheel bicycles. This engine consumed
+  about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power per hour--less than
+  half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands were made and sold, but
+  its strange appearance and unmechanical operation raised many
+  objections. Several inventors meanwhile again advocated compression of
+  the gaseous mixture before ignition, among them being Schmidt, a
+  German, and Million, a Frenchman, both in 1861.
+
+  To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of proposing,
+  with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now widely used in
+  compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published in Paris in 1862, he
+  stated that to obtain economy with an explosion engine four conditions
+  are requisite: (1) The greatest possible cylinder volume with the
+  least possible cooling surface; (2) the greatest possible rapidity of
+  explosion; (3) the greatest possible expansion; and (4) the greatest
+  possible pressure at the beginning of the expansion. The sole
+  arrangement capable of satisfying these conditions he stated would be
+  found in an engine operating as follows: (1) Suction during an entire
+  out-stroke of the piston; (2) compression during the following
+  in-stroke; (3) ignition at the dead point, and expansion during the
+  third stroke; (4) forcing out of the burnt gases from the cylinder on
+  the fourth and last return stroke. Beau de Rochas thus exactly
+  contemplated, in theory at least, the engine produced by Dr Otto
+  fourteen years later. He did not, however, put his engine into
+  practice, and probably had no idea of the practical difficulties to be
+  overcome before realizing his conception in iron and steel. To Dr Otto
+  belongs the honour of independently inventing the same cycle, now
+  correctly known as the Otto cycle, and at the same time overcoming all
+  practical difficulties and making the gas engine of world-wide
+  application. This he did in 1876, and his type of engine very rapidly
+  surpassed all others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is
+  manufactured over the whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr
+  Otto used low compression, only about 30 lb. per sq. in. above
+  atmosphere. Year by year compression was increased and greater power
+  and economy were obtained, and at present compressions of more than
+  100 lb. per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.
+
+The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improvement in
+detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to be used with
+safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in dimensions and
+power. In the same period light and heavy oil engines have been
+developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see OIL ENGINE).
+
+Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working process,
+into three well-defined types:--
+
+(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous
+compression.
+
+(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous compression.
+
+(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous compression.
+
+For practical purposes engines of the first type may be disregarded. Gas
+engines without compression are now considered to be much too wasteful
+of gas to be of commercial importance. Those of the second type have
+never reached the stage of extended commercial application; they are
+scientifically interesting, however, and may take an important place in
+the future development of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir
+William Siemens with regard to them have not been realized, although he
+spent many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also devoted
+much thought and work to this second type may be mentioned Brayton
+(1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883); Hargreaves (1888); Clerk (1889);
+and Diesel (1892). Diesel's engines are proving successful as oil
+engines but have not been introduced as gas engines.
+
+  The working cycles of the three types are as follows:--
+
+  _First Type._--Four operations.
+
+    (a) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmospheric
+          pressure.
+    (b) Exploding the charge.
+    (c) Expanding after explosion.
+    (d) Expelling the burnt gases.
+
+  _Second Type._--Five operations.
+
+    (a) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at
+          atmospheric pressure.
+    (b) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver.
+    (c) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of
+          flame, at the pressure of compression.
+    (d) Expanding after admission.
+    (e) Expelling the burnt gases.
+
+  _Third Type._--Five operations.
+
+    (a) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmospheric
+          pressure.
+    (b) Compressing the charge into a combustion space.
+    (c) Exploding the charge.
+    (d) Expanding after explosion.
+    (e) Expelling the burnt gases.
+
+  In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished by
+  the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for the
+  cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete
+  rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its
+  replacement by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at
+  atmospheric temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be
+  repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air
+  engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working fluid
+  to heat or cool through metal surfaces.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.]
+
+_Four-cycle Engines._--Otto-cycle engines belong to the third type,
+being explosion engines in which the combustible mixture is compressed
+previous to explosion. Fig. 1 is a side elevation, fig. 2 is a sectional
+plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine built about 1892 by
+Messrs Crossley of Manchester, who were the original makers of Otto
+engines in Great Britain. In external appearance it somewhat resembles a
+modern high-pressure steam engine, of which the working parts are
+exceedingly strong. In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal
+and open-ended, works a long trunk piston, the front end of which
+carries the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel
+large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the piston
+through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is considerably
+longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full in leaves a space
+into which it does not enter. This is the combustion space, in which the
+charge is first compressed and then burned. On the forward stroke, the
+piston A (fig. 2) takes into the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air
+at atmospheric pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into
+the space Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then
+ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a high
+pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under the pressure of
+the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust valve is opened,
+discharges the products of combustion. The engine is then ready to go
+through the same cycle of operations. It thus takes four strokes or two
+revolutions of the shaft to complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being
+used alternately as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at
+full load, thus gives one impulse for every two revolutions. The valves,
+which are all of the conical-seated lift type, are four in
+number--charge inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting valve, and exhaust
+valve. The igniting valve is usually termed the timing valve, because it
+determines the time of the explosion. Since the valves have each to act
+once in every two revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams or
+eccentrics placed directly on the crank shaft. The valve shaft D is
+driven at half the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by means of
+the skew or worm gear E, one wheel of which is mounted on the crank
+shaft and the other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accomplished by
+means of a metal tube heated to incandescence by a Bunsen burner. At the
+proper moment the ignition or timing valve is opened, and the mixed gas
+and air under pressure being admitted to the interior of the tube, the
+inflammable gases come into contact with the incandescent metal surface
+and ignite; the flame at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its
+contents, thus producing the motive explosion.
+
+  The working parts are as follows:--A the piston, B the connecting rod,
+  C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the skew gearing, F
+  the exhaust valve, G the exhaust valve lever, H the exhaust valve cam,
+  I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the
+  charging valve cam, L the gas inlet valve, M the gas valve cam, N
+  lever and link operating gas valve, O igniting or timing valve, P
+  timing valve cam, Q timing valve lever or tumbler, R igniting tube, S
+  governor, T water jacket and cylinder, U Bunsen burner for heating
+  ignition tube. On the first forward or charging stroke the charge of
+  gas and air is admitted by the inlet valve I, which is operated by the
+  lever J from the cam K, on the valve shaft D. The gas supply is
+  admitted to the inlet valve I by the lift valve L, which is also
+  operated by the lever and link N from the cam M, controlled, however,
+  by the centrifugal governor S. The governor operates either to admit
+  gas wholly, or to cut it off completely, so that the variation in
+  power is obtained by varying the number of the explosions.
+
+  Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built further modifications
+  have been made, principally in the direction of dispensing with or
+  diminishing port space, that is, so arranging the ports that the
+  compression space is not broken up into several separate chambers. In
+  this way the cooling surface in contact with the intensely hot gases
+  is reduced to a minimum. This is especially important when high
+  compressions are used, as then the compression space being small, the
+  port spaces form a large proportion of the total space. For maximum
+  economy it is necessary to get rid of port space altogether; this is
+  done by making the lift valves open directly into the compression
+  space. This arrangement can be readily made in small- and medium-sized
+  engines, but in the larger engines it becomes necessary to provide
+  ports, so as to allow the valves to be more easily removed for
+  cleaning.
+
+The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J.E. Dowson for the
+production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke by the action of
+air mixed with steam, soon led to the development of larger and larger
+Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained consisted of a mixture of carbon
+monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having
+a lower heating value of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot.
+With this gas these engines used about 1 lb. of anthracite per b.h.p.
+per hour.
+
+From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first placed on
+the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in 1894, but then
+presenting many difficulties which were not removed till about nine
+years later when Dowson and others placed effective suction plants in
+use in considerable numbers. Such suction plants are now built by all
+the leading gas engine constructors for powers varying from 10 to 500
+i.h.p.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.]
+
+Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros. also attacked the problem of the
+bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are now at work for
+powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B.H. Thwaite demonstrated that
+the so-called waste gas from blast furnaces could be used in gas
+engines, and this undoubtedly led to the design and construction of the
+very large gas engines now becoming common both in Europe and in
+America. It appears from Thwaite's experiments that the surplus gas from
+the blast furnaces of Great Britain is capable of supplying at least
+three-quarters of a million horse-power continuously day and night, and
+it is calculated that in America nearly three million horse-power is
+available from this source. Thwaite's system was put into operation in
+1895 at the Glasgow Iron Works, and it was also successfully applied
+near Barrow-in-Furness. For many reasons the system did not take
+immediate root in England, but in 1898 the Societe Cockerill of Seraing
+near Liege applied an engine designed by Delamere-Deboutteville to
+utilize blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at 105
+revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an engine giving
+600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for driving a blowing
+cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single cylinder of 51.2 in.
+diameter and a piston stroke of 55.1 in. About 1900 the Gasmotoren
+Fabrik Deutz built an Otto cycle engine of 1000 b.h.p. having four
+cylinders each 33 in. diameter and 39.3 in. stroke, speed 135
+revolutions per minute. It was coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley
+Bros. Ltd. took up the large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p.
+engine by them was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.'s works, Winnington,
+in 1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke, and
+it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.]
+
+Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single acting
+open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the larger engines
+closed cylinders of the double acting type are used. The engine then
+closely resembles a double acting steam engine. It has a cylinder cover
+with packing box of a special type, and, in addition to the water jacket
+surrounding the cylinder and combustion spaces, the piston and piston
+rod are hollow and cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such
+a double acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then
+two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft is
+occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding revolution
+gets two power impulses. For still larger engines two such double acting
+cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that one piston rod runs through
+two pistons and connects to a slide in front and to one crank pin by a
+connecting rod. Such an engine gives two power impulses for every
+revolution of the crank shaft. The greatest power developed in one
+double acting cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Sehmer for a cylinder
+of 45-1/4 in. diameter by 51-1/4 in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per
+minute gives 1100 i.h.p.
+
+_Two-Cycle Engine._--While the Otto or four-cycle engine was developing
+as above described, inventors were hard at work on the two-cycle engine.
+In Britain this work fell mostly upon Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while
+on the continent of Europe the most persevering and determined worker
+was Koerting.
+
+Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876. His first
+patent was dated 1877 and dealt with an engine of the air pressure
+vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of 1878, and the engine there
+described was exhibited at the Royal Agricultural Show at Kilburn,
+London, 1879. In it a pump compressed a mixture of air and gas into a
+reservoir, from which it entered the motor cylinder during the first
+part of its stroke. After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum
+igniter, the piston was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on
+the return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first
+compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for each
+revolution of the crank shaft. It had difficulties, however, which
+prevented it from reaching the market.
+
+The particular type of engine now widely known as operating on the Clerk
+cycle was patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One of the earliest of
+these engines was set up at Lord Kelvin's laboratory at the Glasgow
+university and used for the purpose of driving a Siemens dynamo and
+supplying his house with electric light. The engine was first exhibited
+in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of 1881 and the London Smoke
+Abatement Exhibition of the same year. In this engine the charge was not
+compressed by a separate pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was used,
+but its function was to act merely as a displacer to take in a mixture
+of gas and air and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as low a
+pressure as possible, in such a way that the entering charge displaced
+the exhaust gases through ports which were opened by the overrunning of
+the piston. The motor piston thus timed and controlled the exhaust
+discharge, and gave a power impulse for every revolution of the crank.
+Engines of the Clerk type were built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of
+Glasgow, the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia, U.S.A., the Campbell
+Gas Engine Co., and a modification was made and sold in considerable
+numbers by the Stockport Company. The lapsing of the Otto patent,
+however, in 1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time,
+although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an
+ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine. This
+two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for motor launch
+work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for large gas engines up to
+about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs Koerting of Hanover.
+
+  The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plan
+  at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinders--a power cylinder A and a
+  displacer cylinder B. The function of the displacer cylinder is to
+  take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it to the
+  power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of the
+  previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end of the
+  motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates with the
+  displacer cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift valve which
+  opens into the compression space from a chamber communicating by a
+  pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-end of the motor cylinder
+  are placed V-shaped ports E which open to the atmosphere by an exhaust
+  pipe. The outward travel of the motor piston C causes it to overrun
+  these ports, as seen in fig. 4, and allows the pressure in the
+  cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action of the engine is as
+  follows:--The displacer piston D on its forward movement draws in its
+  charge of gas and air, and it is so timed with reference to the motor
+  piston C that it has returned a small portion of its stroke just when
+  the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports. The overrunning of the
+  exhaust ports at once causes the pressure in the cylinder to fall to
+  atmosphere, and then the pressure in the displacer overcomes the
+  pressure in the motor cylinder and opens the lift valve, when the
+  charge flows in to the motor cylinder through the conical compression
+  space and displaces the exhaust gases through the ports E, while it
+  fills up the cylinder A with the inflammable charge. The exhaust gases
+  are sufficiently displaced and the fresh charge introduced into the
+  cylinder by the time the motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E
+  on the out-stroke and closed them on the return stroke. The two
+  cylinders are so proportioned that the exhaust gases are expelled as
+  completely as possible and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without
+  any material part of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless
+  the proportions are carefully made such an escape is possible. The
+  relative operations of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D
+  are secured by advancing the crank of the displacer about a right
+  angle compared to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke
+  compresses the mixed charge into the conical space G; and, when
+  compression is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F.
+  This produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward
+  until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of operations
+  one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank. The
+  motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual manner,
+  but it is unnecessary to water-jacket the displacer, as the gases are
+  never hot.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 4.--Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1881.]
+
+  Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was taken out
+  in 1877 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents of 1879-1880
+  were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second cylinder was used.
+  The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed by a cover and
+  packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas and air into a
+  reservoir at a few lb. above atmosphere. The motor piston was arranged
+  to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but the exhaust
+  discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift valve controlled
+  the overrun ports and determined when the exhaust should be
+  discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at the end of the stroke
+  the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was admitted by a lift
+  valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining exhaust gases and fill
+  the cylinder with charge. This mixture was compressed into a space at
+  the end of the cylinder and ignited by means of a flame ignition
+  device. Robson's engine was built in considerable numbers by Messrs
+  Tangye of Birmingham, the first exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at
+  the end of 1880. The modern Day engine closely resembles the Robson
+  engine so far as its broad operations are concerned.
+
+  Atkinson's work on the gas engine was begun in 1878, his first patent
+  being No. 3212 of 1879. The engine described in that patent somewhat
+  resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at Kilburn. Atkinson
+  was ingenious and persevering in the invention of two-cycle engines.
+  Two of his engines were made in considerable numbers. The first was
+  known as the "Differential" engine, exhibited at the Inventions
+  Exhibition, London, in 1885. A later engine produced by him was called
+  the "Cycle" engine, and it proved to be the most economical of all the
+  motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of motors for electric
+  lighting in 1888-1889. Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his
+  ingenious contrivances are now at work on the well-known engines of
+  that firm.
+
+Four-cycle engines now practically monopolize the field of the smaller
+internal combustion engines, and very large engines are also constructed
+on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, however, compete
+strongly with the four-cycle for large gas engines using blast furnace
+gas. Koerting engines on the Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000
+i.h.p. per double acting motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this
+method gives two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & Platt build a
+Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of their
+construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and 40-1/2 in. stroke
+gives 700 b.h.p.
+
+  Fig. 5 shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders of a
+  Mather & Platt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle; the power cylinder
+  section is shown above that of the pump cylinders, but it is to be
+  understood that both cylinders are in the same horizontal plane as in
+  the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The Koerting engine, however, is
+  double acting, whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The power
+  cylinder A has a power piston A^1 and compression spaces A^2 A^3. At
+  the centre of the cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the
+  atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A^1 at both ends of the
+  stroke. A^4 and A^5 are inlet valves for gas and air. The single
+  acting pump cylinders BB^1 supply the air required for the charge, and
+  the double acting gas cylinder CC^1 supplies the gas. Both gas and air
+  are led from these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet valves
+  A^4 A^5. The air pump pistons are lettered B^2 B^3 and the gas pump
+  piston C^2. The main crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of
+  the power piston A^1, and the pump crank F to the trunk air pump
+  piston B^2 which drives the other air pump piston B^3 and the gas pump
+  piston C^2 by a piston rod passing through all three. The gas mixture
+  is not made until the inlet valves A^4 A^5 are reached, so that no
+  explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder A. The
+  air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge some of
+  the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the contents of the
+  cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the engine is
+  exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and the
+  arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each other is
+  also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports E, and the
+  incoming charge fills the cylinder in the same way as in the Clerk
+  engine.
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 5.--Longitudinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine
+  (Koerting-Clerk), new type, by Messrs Mather & Platt, Ltd.]
+
+  Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechelhauser,
+  operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan at
+  fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A^1 A^2, A^1 being
+  operated by a centre and A^2 by two outside cranks, side rods, and
+  cross head; the pistons A^1 A^2 thus move in opposite directions and
+  give an effective stroke of double that due to one crank. B is the air
+  and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas on the
+  other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from the pump
+  and to the power cylinder by ports C^1; a similar chamber D opens to a
+  gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power cylinder by
+  ports D^1. The exhaust ports E are provided at the other end of the
+  cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust ports E the
+  pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere; the back
+  piston then opens the air ports C^1 and air under slight pressure
+  flows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight pressure
+  from the gas ports D^1. In this way the power cylinder A is charged
+  with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the pistons A^1 A^2
+  approach each other the charge is compressed into the space between
+  and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons are then forced
+  apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechelhauser engine, which
+  is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardmore of Glasgow, has attained
+  considerable success in driving blowing pumps for blast furnaces, in
+  producing electric light, and in driving iron rolling mills.
+
+  Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be
+  seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in 1908 by Mr
+  R.E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large
+  gas engines which had then been recently manufactured in Europe:--
+
+  [Illustration: FIG. 6.--Arrangement of Oechelhauser Gas Engine.]
+
+  Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motors, with an aggregate of
+  23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer, 59 motors, total, 69,790 h.p.;
+  the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82, total 47,400 h.p.; Gebruder Koerting,
+  198, total 165,760 h.p.; Societe Alsacienne, 55, total 23,410 h.p.;
+  Societe John Cockerill, 148, total 102,925 h.p.; Societe Suisse,
+  Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p.; Vereinigte Maschinenfabriken,
+  Augsburg and Nurnberg, 215, total 256,240 h.p. The mean power of each
+  gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmer and the Augsburg and
+  Nurnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p. It is stated that in one
+  factory there are gas engines representing a total output of 35,000
+  h.p. These European large gas engines thus give nearly 575,000 h.p.
+  between them.
+
+  The installation of large gas engines has made considerable progress
+  in America. Mr E.L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p. was at work or
+  in construction in the United States in 1908. The first large engines
+  were installed at the works of the Lackawanna Steel Co., Buffalo, New
+  York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk type, and were built by the De
+  La Vergne Co. of New York. They included 16 blowing engines, each of
+  2000 h.p., and 8 engines of 1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce
+  electric light. This large power plant was started in 1902. The
+  Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also built large engines, several
+  of which are in operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel
+  Co. These Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type,
+  having two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the
+  cylinders being 38 in. in diameter and the stroke 54 in. The Snow
+  Steam Pump Co. have built similar horizontal tandem engines with
+  cylinders of 42 in. diameter and 54 in. stroke. The English
+  Westinghouse Co. have also designed large gas engines, and they
+  exhibited a very interesting vertical multiple cylinder gas engine
+  having four cranks and eight single-acting cylinders, four pairs, in
+  tandem, at the Franco-British Exhibition of 1908; it gave 750 h.p.,
+  and the pistons were not watered.
+
+  Over two million horse-power of the smaller gas engines are now at
+  work in the world, and certainly above one million horse-power of
+  petrol motors.
+
+The application of large gas engines to marine work, the compounding of
+the gas engine, and many other matters are being strenuously pursued.
+Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels used for towing
+purposes in which the vessel is driven by gas engines operated by means
+of suction gas-producers consuming anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and
+Messrs Beardmore in Great Britain have adopted the Capitaine designs,
+and both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thornycroft to a
+gas launch which has been tested in the Solent, and Beardmore to an old
+gunboat, the "Rattler." The "Rattler" was fitted with five-cylinder Otto
+cycle engines and suction gas-producers giving 500 i.h.p.; and has
+sailed some 1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to
+be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas engines
+can be installed on board ship, but progress is being made, and without
+doubt all difficulties will be ultimately surmounted and gas power
+successfully applied to ships for both large and small power.
+
+The flame and incandescent tube methods of ignition have been displaced
+by electrical ignition of both high and low tension types; all large gas
+engines are ignited electrically and generally by more than one igniter
+per cylinder.
+
+The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so as to keep
+up continuity of impulses by the method either of throttling the charge
+inlet or by varying the point of admission of gas alone or air and gas
+mixed.
+
+It may be said, indeed, without exaggeration, that the whole world is
+now alive to the possibilities of the internal-combustion motor, and
+that progress will be more and more rapid. This motor has almost
+fulfilled the expectations of those engineers who have devoted a large
+part of their lives to its study and advancement. They are looking
+forward now to the completion of the work begun so many years ago, and
+expect, at no distant date, to find the internal-combustion motor
+competing with the steam engine even in its latest form, the steam
+turbine, on sea as vigorously as it does at present on land.
+
+  _Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines._--The Otto and Clerk type
+  engines are usually designated respectively four-cycle and two-cycle,
+  because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to complete the
+  power-producing cycle of the engine and in the Clerk engine two
+  strokes complete the cycle.
+
+  Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the proportion of the
+  total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the explosion
+  and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency may be defined
+  as the proportion of the total heat of combustion which appears as
+  work given out by the engine available for overcoming external
+  resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the effective
+  efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas engines the
+  indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by tests of Otto
+  engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated thermal
+  efficiencies of from 35% to 37% are often obtained. Some experimenters
+  claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher than ordinary
+  best practice of 1909. Table I. has been prepared to show this
+  advance. It shows, in addition to indicated thermal efficiency, the
+  brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical efficiency, together with
+  other particulars such as engine dimensions, types and names of
+  experimenters. It will be seen that brake thermal efficiency has also
+  increased from 14% to 32%; that is, practically one-third of the whole
+  heat of combustion is obtained by these engines in effective work
+  available for all motive power purposes.
+
+  TABLE I.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle
+  Engines from 1882 to 1908._
+
+    +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+
+    |   |Mechanical |     Names of     |      |   Dimensions  | Indicated |   Brake   |     Type of      |
+    |No.|Efficiency.|  Experimenters.  | Year.|   of Engine.  |  Thermal  |  Thermal  |     Engine.      |
+    |   |           |                  |      |               |Efficiency.|Efficiency.|                  |
+    +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+
+    |   | Per cent. |                  |      | Diam. Stroke. | Per cent. | Per cent. |                  |
+    | 1 |   87.6    | Slaby            | 1882 |  6.75"X13.7"  |   16      |    14     | Deutz            |
+    | 2 |   84.2    | Thurston         | 1884 |  8.5" X14"    |   17      |    14.3   | Crossley         |
+    | 3 |   86.1    | Society of Arts  | 1888 |  9.5" X18"    |   22      |    18.9   | Crossley         |
+    | 4 |   80.9    | Society of Arts  | 1888 |  9.02"X14"    |   21      |    17     | Griffin (6-cycle)|
+    | 5 |   87.3    | Kennedy          | 1888 |  7.5" X15"    |   21      |    18.3   | Beck (6-cycle)   |
+    | 6 |   82.0    | Capper           | 1892 |  8.5" X18"    |   22.8    |    17.4   | Crossley         |
+    | 7 |   87.0    | Robinson         | 1898 | 10"   X18"    |   28.7    |    25     | National         |
+    | 8 |   83      | Humphrey         | 1900 | 26"   X36"    |   31      |    25.7   | Crossley         |
+    | 9 |   81.7    | Witz             | 1900 | 51.2" X55.13" |   28      |   22.9    | Cockerill        |
+    |10 |   85.5    | Inst. Civil. Eng.| 1905 | 14"   X22"    |   35[1]   |   29.9    | National         |
+    |11 |   77.1    | Burstall         | 1907 | 16"   X24"    |   41.5[2] |   32      | Premier          |
+    |12 |   87.5    | Hopkinson        | 1908 | 11.5" X21"    |   36.8    |   32.2    | Crossley         |
+    +---+-----------+------------------+------+---------------+-----------+-----------+------------------+
+
+  _Thermal Efficiency of Two-Cycle Engines._--It has been found that
+  two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to
+  obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the
+  thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical
+  difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines improved in
+  indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16.4% attained in 1884
+  to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the same
+  period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not so well
+  established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have been so
+  far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests than those of
+  the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table that the
+  mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%, while in the
+  later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75%.
+
+  _Standards of Thermal Efficiency_.--To set up an absolute standard of
+  thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner the
+  physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous
+  explosion. A great deal of attention has been devoted to gaseous
+  explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of Europe,
+  and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of Mallard and Le
+  Chatelier, Clerk, Langen, Petavel, Hopkinson and Bairstow and
+  Alexander. From these and other experiments it is possible to measure
+  approximately the internal energy or the specific heats of the gases
+  of combustion at very high temperatures, such as 2000 deg. C.; and to
+  advance the knowledge on the subject a committee of the British
+  Association was formed at Leicester in 1907. Recognizing, in 1882,
+  that it was impossible to base any standard cycle of efficiency upon
+  the then existing knowledge of gaseous explosions Dugald Clerk
+  proposed what is called the air standard. This standard has been used
+  for many years, and it was officially adopted by a committee of the
+  Institution of Civil Engineers appointed in 1903, this committee's two
+  reports, dated March 1905 and December 1905, definitely adopting the
+  air-standard cycle as the standard of efficiency for internal
+  combustion engines. This standard assumes that the working fluid is
+  air, that its specific heat is constant throughout the range of
+  temperature, and that the value of the ratio between the specific heat
+  at constant volume and constant pressure is 1.4. The air-standard
+  efficiency for different cycles will be found fully discussed in the
+  report of that committee, but space here only allows of a short
+  discussion of the various cycles using compression previous to
+  ignition.
+
+  TABLE II.--_Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Two-cycle
+  Engines from 1884 to 1908_.
+
+    +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+
+    |Mechanical |    Name of    |      | Dimensions  | Indicated |   Brake   |   Type of    |
+    |Efficiency.| Experimenter. | Year.|  of Motor   |  Thermal  |  Thermal  |    Engine.   |
+    |           |               |      | Cylinders.  |Efficiency.|Efficiency.|              |
+    +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+
+    | Per cent. |               |      |Diam. Stroke.| Per cent. | Per cent. |              |
+    |     84    | Garrett       | 1884 |  9" X  20"  |    16.4   |    14     | Clerk-Sterne |
+    |     ..    | Stockport Co. | 1884 |  ..    ..   |     ..    |    11.2   | Andrews & Co.|
+    |     83    | Clerk         | 1887 |  9" X  15"  |    20.2   |    16.9   | Clerk-Tangye |
+    |     ..    | Atkinson      | 1885 | 7-1/2" ..   |     ..    |    15     | Atkinson     |
+    |     75    | Meyer         | 1903 | 26-5/8" X   |    38     |    29     | Oechelhauser |
+    |           |               |      | (2"X37-1/2")|           |           |              |
+    |     75    | Mather & Platt| 1907 |  ..    ..   |    30.6   |    23     | Koerting     |
+    +-----------+---------------+------+-------------+-----------+-----------+--------------+
+
+  For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic cycles, and
+  each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible for the
+  conditions assumed. The three types may be defined as cycles of (1)
+  constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3) constant volume.
+
+  The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat is
+  added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compression is
+  assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from the lowest
+  to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant temperature,
+  so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant temperature,
+  which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The heat supply is
+  stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adiabatically expands
+  until the temperature falls to the lowest temperature. A compression
+  operation then takes place at the lowest temperature, so that the
+  necessary heat is discharged by isothermal compression at the lower
+  temperature. It will be recognized that this is the Carnot cycle, and
+  the efficiency E is the maximum possible between the temperature
+  limits in accordance with the well-known second law of
+  thermo-dynamics. This efficiency is E = (T - T^1)/T = 1 - T^1/T, where
+  T is the absolute temperature at which heat is supplied and T^1 the
+  absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.
+
+  It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression are
+  here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that if t
+  be the temperature before compression and t_c the temperature after
+  compression, then E = 1 - t/t_c. This equation in effect says that
+  thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the
+  temperatures before and after compression.
+
+  The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to the
+  working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic
+  compression raises the pressure--not the temperature--from the lower
+  to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is added
+  while the working fluid expands at a constant pressure. The
+  temperature thus increases in proportion to increase of volume. When
+  the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and reduces the
+  pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the lower point.
+  Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature. The heat
+  in this case is discharged from the cycle at the lower pressure but at
+  diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this case also that E = 1
+  - t/t_c, that is, that although the maximum temperature of the working
+  fluid is higher than the temperature of compression and the
+  temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion is higher than the lower
+  temperature, yet the proportion of heat convertible into work is
+  determined here also by the ratio of the temperatures before and after
+  compression.
+
+  The constant volume cycle is so called because the heat required is
+  added to the working fluid at constant volume. In this cycle
+  adiabatic compression raises the pressure and temperature of the
+  working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added while
+  the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which the fluid is
+  diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion reduces the pressure
+  and temperature of the working fluid until the volume is the same as
+  the original volume before compression, and the necessary heat is
+  discharged from the cycle at constant volume during falling
+  temperature. Here also it can be shown that the thermal efficiency
+  depends on the ratio between the temperature before compression and
+  the temperature after compression. It is as before E = 1 - t/t_c.
+  Where t is the temperature and v the volume before compression, and
+  t_c the temperature and v_c the volume after adiabatic compression, it
+  can be shown that (vc/v)^([gamma]-1) = t/t_c, so that E may be written
+
+             /vc\^([gamma]-1)
+    E = 1 - ( -- ) ,
+             \v /
+
+  and if v_c/v = 1/r, the compression ratio, then
+
+             /1\^([gamma]-1)
+    E = 1 - ( --) .
+             \r/
+
+  Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature, constant
+  pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency depends only on
+  the ratio of the maximum volume before compression to the volume after
+  compression; and, given this ratio, called 1/r, which does not depend
+  in any way upon temperature determinations but only upon the
+  construction and valve-setting of the engine, we have a means of
+  settling the ideal efficiency proper for the particular engine. Any
+  desired ideal efficiency may be obtained from any of the cycles by
+  selecting a suitable compression ratio. Table III., giving the
+  theoretical thermal efficiency for these three symmetrical cycles of
+  constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a compression
+  ratio of 1/2 to 1/100th. Such compression ratios as
+
+  TABLE III.--_Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical
+  Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume._
+
+    1/r        E    |  1/7      0.55
+    1/2      0.026  |  1/10     0.61
+    1/3      0.36   |  1/20     0.70
+    1/4      0.43   |  1/100    0.85
+    1/5      0.48   |
+
+  100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value in
+  constant volume engines ranges from 1/5th to 1/7th. In the Diesel
+  engine, which is a constant pressure engine, the ratio is usually
+  1/12th. As the value of 1/r increases beyond certain limits, the
+  effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes, because the
+  temperature of compression is rapidly approaching the maximum
+  temperature possible by explosion; thus a compression of 1/100th
+  raises the temperature of air from 17 deg. C. to about 1600 deg. C,
+  and as 2000 deg. C. is the highest available explosion temperature for
+  ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work would
+  be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart from other
+  mechanical considerations. It has long been recognized that constant
+  pressure and constant volume engines have the same thermal efficiency
+  for similar range of compression temperature, but Prof. H.L. Callendar
+  first pointed out the interesting fact that a Carnot cycle engine is
+  equally dependent upon the ratio of the temperature before and after
+  compression, and that its efficiency for a given compression ratio is
+  the same as the efficiencies proper for constant pressure and constant
+  volume engines. Prof. Callendar demonstrated this at a meeting of the
+  Institution of Civil Engineers Committee on thermal standards in 1904.
+  The work of this committee, together with Clerk's investigations,
+  prove that in modern gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may be taken that
+  the best result possible in practice is given by multiplying the
+  air-standard value by .7. For instance, an engine with a compression
+  ratio of one-third has an air-standard efficiency of 0.36, and the
+  actual indicated efficiency of a well-designed engine should be .36
+  multiplied by .7 = 0.25. If, however, the compression ratio be raised
+  to one-fifth, then the air-standard value .48 multiplied by .7 gives
+  .336. The ideal efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to
+  be about 20% short of the air-standard values given.     (D. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The value 35% is deduced by the author from the Inst. C.E.
+    Committee's values.
+
+  [2] This value is, in the author's view, too high; probably due to
+    indicator error.
+
+
+
+
+GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN (1810-1865), English novelist and
+biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810 in Lindsay Row,
+Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make way for Cheyne Walk. Her
+father, William Stevenson (1772-1829), came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and
+had been successively Unitarian minister, farmer, boarding-house keeper
+for students at Edinburgh, editor of the _Scots Magazine_, and
+contributor to the _Edinburgh Review_, before he received the post of
+Keeper of the Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death.
+His first wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell's mother. She was a
+Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county the family
+name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs Stevenson died a
+month after her daughter was born, and the babe was carried into
+Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her
+childhood was spent in the pleasant environment that she has idealized
+in _Cranford_. At fifteen years of age she went to a boarding-school at
+Stratford-on-Avon, kept by Miss Byerley, where she remained until her
+seventeenth year. Then came occasional visits to London to see her
+father and his second wife, and after her father's death in 1829 to her
+uncle, Swinton Holland. Two winters seem to have been spent in
+Newcastle-on-Tyne In the family of William Turner, a Unitarian minister,
+and a third in Edinburgh. On the 30th of August 1832 she was married in
+the parish church of Knutsford to William Gaskell, minister of the
+Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Manchester, and the author of many
+treatises and sermons in support of his own religious denomination. Mr
+Gaskell held the chair of English history and literature in Manchester
+New College.
+
+Henceforth Mrs Gaskell's life belonged to Manchester. She and her
+husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street, and finally
+in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life began with poetry. She
+and her husband aspired to emulate George Crabbe and write the annals of
+the Manchester poor. One poetic "Sketch," which appeared in _Blackwood's
+Magazine_ for January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this
+ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband and
+wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to become a
+successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side with those of
+greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished Unitarian divine,
+whose sermons, lectures and hymns are now all but forgotten. In her
+earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly occupied with domestic
+duties--she had seven children--and philanthropic work among the poor.
+Her first published prose effort was probably a letter that she
+addressed to William Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume
+entitled _Visits to Remarkable Places_. She then told the legend of
+Clopton Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and
+Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published in
+1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been commenced
+until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs Gaskell visited North
+Wales, where their only son "Willie" died of scarlet fever at the age of
+ten months, and it was, it is said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her
+sorrow that her husband suggested a long work of fiction, and _Mary
+Barton_ was begun. There were earlier short stories in _Howitt's
+Journal_, where "Libbie Marsh's Three Eras" and "The Sexton's Hero"
+appeared in 1847. But it was _Mary Barton: A Tale of Manchester Life_
+that laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell's literary career. It was
+completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it unread. It
+was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the manuscript for a year
+without reading it or communicating with the author. A reminder,
+however, led to its being sought for, considered and accepted, the
+publishers agreeing to pay the author L100 for the copyright. It was
+published anonymously in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide
+popularity, and its author secured first the praise and then the
+friendship of Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in
+1850 to become a contributor to his new magazine _Household Words_, and
+here the whole of _Cranford_ appeared at intervals from December 1851 to
+May 1853, exclusive of one sketch, reprinted in the "World's Classics"
+edition (1907), that was published in _All the Year Round_ for November
+1863. Earlier than this, indeed, for the very first number of _Household
+Words_ she had written "Lizzie Leigh." Mrs Gaskell's second book,
+however, was _The Moorland Cottage_, a dainty little volume that
+appeared at Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the
+Christmas number of _Household Words_ for 1853 appeared "The Squire's
+Story," reprinted in _Lizzie Leigh and other Tales_ in 1865. In 1853
+appeared another long novel, _Ruth_, and the incomparable _Cranford_.
+This last--now the most popular of her books--is an idyll of village
+life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knutsford and its people.
+In _Ruth_, which first appeared in three volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to
+a delicate treatment of a girl's betrayal and her subsequent rescue.
+Once more we are introduced to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the
+little Unitarian chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in
+early years. In 1855 _North and South_ was published. It had previously
+appeared serially in _Household Words_. Then came--in 1857--the _Life of
+Charlotte Bronte_, in two volumes. Miss Bronte, who had enjoyed the
+friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged visits, died in March 1855.
+Two years earlier she had begged her publishers to postpone the issue of
+her own novel _Villette_ in order that her friend's _Ruth_ should not
+suffer. This biography, by its vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy
+and indeed tragic story of the three Bronte sisters, greatly widened the
+interest in their writings and gave its author a considerable place
+among English biographers. But much matter was contained in the first
+and second editions that was withdrawn from the third. Certain
+statements made by the writer as to the school of Charlotte Bronte's
+infancy, an identification of the "Lowood" of _Jane Eyre_ with the
+existing school, and the acceptance of the story of Bramwell Bronte's
+ruin having been caused by the woman in whose house he had lived as
+tutor, brought threats of libel actions. Apologies were published, and
+the third edition of the book was modified, as Mrs Gaskell declares, by
+"another hand." The book in any case remains one of the best biographies
+in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to the then popular
+novel, _Mabel Vaughan_, was also included in her work of this year 1857,
+but no further book was published by her until 1859, when, under the
+title of _Round the Sofa_, she collected many of her contributions to
+periodical literature. _Round the Sofa_ appeared in two volumes, the
+first containing only "My Lady Ludlow," the second five short stories.
+These stories reappeared the same year in one volume as _My Lady Ludlow
+and other Tales_. In the next year 1860 appeared yet another volume of
+short stories, entitled _Right at Last and other Tales_. The title story
+had appeared two years earlier in _Household Words_ as "The Sin of a
+Father." In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a little book by Colonel
+Vecchj, translated from the Italian--_Garibaldi and Caprera_, and in
+1863 she published her last long novel, _Sylvia's Lovers_, dedicated "to
+My dear Husband by her who best knows his Value." After this we have--in
+1863--a one-volume story, _A Dark Night's Work_, and in the same year
+_Cousin Phyllis and other Tales_ appeared. Reprinted short stories from
+_All the Year Round_, _Cornhill Magazine_, and other publications, tend
+to lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during her
+lifetime. _The Grey Woman and other Tales_ appeared in 1865.
+
+Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn, Alton,
+Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the profits of her
+writings as a present for her husband. She was buried in the little
+graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church. Her unfinished novel _Wives
+and Daughters_ was published in two volumes in 1866.
+
+Mrs Gaskell has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her death.
+_Cranford_ has been published in a hundred forms and with many
+illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a classic. Scarcely less
+recognition is awarded to the _Life of Charlotte Bronte_, which is in
+every library. The many volumes of novels and stories seemed of less
+secure permanence until the falling in of their copyrights revealed the
+fact that a dozen publishers thought them worth reprinting. The most
+complete editions, however, are the "Knutsford Edition," edited with
+introductions by A.W. Ward, in eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the
+"World's Classics" edition, edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes
+(Henry Froude, 1908).
+
+  There is no biography of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the
+  publication of any of her letters. See, however, the biographical
+  introduction to the "Knutsford" _Mary Barton_ by A.W. Ward; the
+  _Letters of Charles Dickens_; _Women Writers_, by C.J. Hamilton,
+  second series; _H.B. Stowe's Life and Letters_, edited by Annie
+  Fields; _Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher_; _Mrs Gaskell and Knutsford_,
+  by G.A. Payne; _Cranford_, with a preface by Anne Thackeray Ritchie;
+  _Ecrivains modernes de l'Angleterre_, by Emile Montegut.
+       (C. K. S.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 11, Slice 4, by Various
+
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