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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils, by 
+Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils
+
+Author: Peter Gray
+        B. B. Woodward
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2011 [EBook #37119]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS.
+
+  BY
+
+  PETER GRAY, A.B.S. EDIN.;
+
+  AND
+
+  B. B. WOODWARD,
+
+  _Of the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington._
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  LONDON:
+  SWAN SONNENSCHEIN, LE BAS & LOWREY,
+  PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
+
+
+  BUTLER & TANNER,
+  THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS
+  FROME, AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+SEA-WEEDS.
+
+BY PETER GRAY.
+
+
+Algĉ, popularly known as sea-weeds, although many species are
+inhabitants of fresh water, or grow on moist ground, may be briefly
+described as cellular, flowerless plants, having no proper roots, but
+imbibing nutriment by their whole surface from the medium in which
+they grow. As far as has been ascertained, the total number of species
+is about 9000 or 10,000. Many of them are microscopic, as the Desmids
+and Diatoms, others, as Lessonia, and some of the larger Laminariĉ
+(oarweeds), are arborescent, covering the bed of the sea around the
+coast with a submarine forest; while in the Pacific, off the
+northwestern shores of America, Nereocystis, a genus allied to
+Laminaria, has a stem over 300 feet in length, which, although not
+thicker than whipcord, is stout enough to moor a bladder,
+barrel-shaped, six or seven feet long, and crowned with a tuft of
+fifty leaves or more, each from thirty to forty feet in length. This
+vegetable buoy is a favourite resting place of the sea otter; and
+where the plant exists in any quantity, the surface of the sea is
+rendered impassable to boats. The stem of Macrocystis, which "girds
+the globe in the southern temperate zone," is stated to extend
+sometimes to the enormous length of 1500 feet. It is no thicker than
+the finger anywhere, and the upper branches are as slender as
+pack-thread; but at the base of each leaf there is placed a buoy, in
+the shape of a vesicle filled with air.
+
+Although the worthlessness of Algĉ has been proverbial, as in the
+"alga inutile" of Horace and Virgil's "projecta vilior alga," they are
+not without importance in botanical economics. A dozen or more species
+found in the British seas are made use of, raw or prepared in several
+ways, as food for man. Of these edible Algĉ, Dr. Harvey considers the
+two species of Porphyra, or laver, the most valuable. Berkeley says,
+"The best way of preparing this vegetable or condiment, which is
+extremely wholesome, is to heat it thoroughly with a little strong
+gravy or broth, adding, before it is served on toast, a small quantity
+of butter and lemon juice." A species of Nostoc is largely consumed in
+China as an ingredient in soup. A similar use is made of Enteromorpha
+intestinalis in Japan. Many species of fish and other animals, turtle
+included, live upon sea-weed. Fucus vesiculosus is a grateful food for
+cattle. In Norway, cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are largely fed
+upon it, and on our own coasts cattle eagerly browse on that and
+kindred species at low water. In some northern countries, Fucus
+serratus sprinkled with meal is used as winter fodder.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 1. Group of Sea-weeds (chiefly Laminariĉ)]
+
+All the marine Algĉ contain iodine; and even before the value of that
+substance in glandular complaints had been ascertained, stems of a
+sea-weed were chewed as a remedy by the inhabitants of certain
+districts of South America where goître is prevalent. Chondrus crispus
+and (Gigartina) mamillosa constitute the Irish moss of commerce, which
+dissolves into a nutritious and delicate jelly, and the restorative
+value of which in consumption doubtless depends in some degree on the
+presence of iodine. The freshwater Algĉ not only furnish abundant and
+nourishing food to the fish and other animals living in ponds and
+streams, but by their action in the decomposition of carburetted
+hydrogen and other noxious gases purify the element in which they
+live, thus becoming important sanitary agents. The value of aquatic
+plants in the aquarium is well known. A Chinese species of Gigartina
+is much employed as a glue and varnish; and also much used in China in
+the manufacture of lanterns and transparencies, and in that country
+and Japan for glazing windows. Handles for table knives and forks,
+tools, and other implements have been made from the thick stems of
+oarweeds, and fishing lines from Chorda filum. Tripoli powder,
+extensively used for polishing, consists mainly of the silicious
+shells of Diatoms. On various parts of our coast, the coarser species
+of sea-weed, now used as a valuable manure, were formerly extensively
+burnt for kelp, an impure carbonate of soda. This industry, when
+carried on upon a large scale, became a fruitful source of income to
+some of the poorest districts in the kingdom, bringing, in the last
+decade of last century, nearly £30,000 per annum into Orkney alone.
+Since the production of soda from rock salt has become general, kelp
+is now only burnt for the extraction of iodine, this being the easiest
+way of obtaining that substance.
+
+Although the vegetable structure and mode of reproduction are
+essentially the same in all Algĉ, as regards the former they vary from
+the simple cell, through cells arranged in threads, to a stem and
+leaves simulating the vegetation of higher tribes. And although the
+simpler kinds are obviously formed of threads, most of the more
+compound may also be resolved into the same structure by maceration in
+hot water or diluted muriatic acid. In substance some are mere masses
+of slime or jelly, others are silky to the feel, horny, cartilaginous
+or leather-like, and even apparently woody. A few species secrete
+carbonate of lime from the water, laying it up in their tissues;
+others cover themselves completely with that mineral, while some coat
+themselves with silex or flint. Many Algĉ are beautifully coloured,
+even when growing at depths to which very little light penetrates. As
+in their vegetative organs, so in their reproductive, Algĉ exhibit
+many modifications of structure without much real difference. In the
+green sea-weeds reproduction is effected by simple cell division in
+the unicellular species, and by spores resulting from the union of the
+contents of two cells in the others. The red sea-weeds have a double
+system of reproduction, a distinctly sexual one, by spores and
+antheridia, and another by tetraspores, which by some are considered
+to be of the nature of gemmĉ, or buds. The spores are generally
+situated in distinct hollow conceptacles (favellĉ, ceramidium,
+coccidium). The tetraspore is also sometimes contained in a
+conceptacle. It consists of a more or less globular, transparent cell,
+which when mature contains within it four (rarely three) sporules.
+Reproduction in the olive sea-weeds is also double, by zoospores,
+generally considered gemmĉ, and by spores and antherozoids, which is a
+sexual process.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 2. A, Species of Gleocapsa, one of the
+   Palmelleĉ, in various stages. A becomes B, C, D, and E by
+   repeated division. Magnified 300 diameters.]
+
+Following the classification adopted by Professor Harvey, which is
+that generally employed in English systematic manuals, we divide the
+order into three sub-orders, named from the prevailing colour of their
+spores. 1. Chlorospermeĉ, with green spores; 2. Rhodospermeĉ, with red
+spores; and 3. Melanospermeĉ, with olive-coloured spores. The entire
+plant in the first group is usually grass-green, but occasionally
+olive, purple, blue, and sometimes almost black; in the second it is
+some shade or other of red, very seldom green; and in the third, while
+generally olive green, it is occasionally brown olive or yellow.
+
+The Chlorospermeĉ are extremely varied in form, often threadlike, and
+are propagated either by the simple division of the contents of their
+cells (endochrome), by the transformation of particular joints, or by
+the change of the contents of the cells into zoospores, which are
+cells moving freely in water by means of hairlike appendages. In their
+lower forms they are among the most rudimentary of all plants, and
+thus of special interest physiologically, as representing the
+component parts of which higher plants are formed. They are subdivided
+into twelve groups, as follows:
+
+The first group, Palmelleĉ, are unicellular plants, the cells of which
+are either free or surrounded by a gelatinous mass, and they are
+propagated by the division of the endochrome. One of the most
+remarkable of the species of this family is Protococcus cruentus,
+which is found at the foot of walls having a northern aspect, looking
+as if blood had been poured out on the ground or on stones.
+Protococcus nivalis, again, is the cause of the red snow, of which
+early arctic navigators used to give such marvellous accounts.
+(Fig. 2.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 3. A, Fragment of a Filament of Zygnema,
+   one of the Conjugateĉ; B, Closterium; C, Euastrium; two
+   desmids.]
+
+The Desmideaceĉ, together with the plants of the next succeeding
+group, are favourite subjects of investigation or observation by the
+possessors of microscopes, an attention they merit from the beauty and
+variety of their forms. They are minute plants of a green colour,
+consisting of cells generally independent of each other, but sometimes
+forming brittle threads or minute fronds, and are reproduced by spores
+generated by the conjugation of two distinct individuals. The process
+of conjugation in Desmids and Diatoms consists in the union of the
+endochrome of two individuals, each of which in these families is
+composed of a single cell. This ultimately forms a rounded body or
+resting spore, which afterwards germinates, the resulting plant not
+however acquiring the normal form until the third generation. (Fig.
+3.)
+
+The Diatomaceĉ, closely allied to the preceding group in structure and
+reproduction, are however distinguished from them by their flinty
+shells, which are often beautifully sculptured. Their endochrome is a
+golden brown, instead of green as in the Desmideaceĉ. The latter,
+also, are confined to fresh water, while the Diatomaceĉ are found,
+though not exclusively, in the sea, where their shells sometimes,
+microscopically minute as they are individually, form banks extending
+several hundred miles. It is stated that in the collection made by Sir
+Joseph Hooker in the Himalayas the species closely resemble our own.
+
+In the next group, Confervaceĉ, we are introduced to forms more like
+the general notion of what a plant should be. The individuals of which
+it consists are composed of threads, jointed, either simple or
+branched, mostly of a grass-green colour, and propagating either by
+minute zoospores or by metamorphosed joints. They are found both in
+fresh and salt water, and in damp situations. The number of species is
+very great. A considerable number consist of unbranched threads; the
+branched forms grow sometimes so densely as to assume the form of
+solid balls. After floods, when the water stands for several days,
+they sometimes increase to such an extent, as to form on its
+subsidence a uniform paper-like stratum, which while decomposing is
+extremely disagreeable. The name Conferva has been almost discontinued
+as a generic title, the majority of British species being now ranged
+under Clado- and Chĉto-phora. The latter are branched, and require
+great care and attention in order to distinguish them, on account of
+their general resemblance to each other. Good characters are however
+to be found in their mode of branching and the form and comparative
+size of the terminal joints.
+
+The Batrachospermeĉ constitute a small but very beautiful group,
+consisting of gelatinous threads variously woven into a branched
+cylindrical frond. The branches are sometimes arranged, as in the
+British species, so that the plants appear like necklaces. In colour
+they pass from green, through intermediate shades of olive and purple,
+to black. In common with some of the higher Algĉ, the threads of the
+superficial branches send joints down the stem, changing it from
+simple to compound. The native species are all fluviatile.
+
+The Hydrodicteĉ are among the most remarkable of Algĉ. Hydrodictyon
+utriculatum, the solitary British species, is found in the large pond
+at Hampton Court, and in similar situations in various parts of the
+country, but not very generally. It resembles a green purse or net,
+from four to six inches in length, with delicate and regular meshes,
+the reticulations being about four lines long. Its method of
+reproduction is no less than its form. Each of the cells
+forms within itself an enormous mass of small elliptic grains. These
+become attached by the extremities so as to form a network inside the
+cell, and, its walls being dissolved, a new plant is set free to grow
+to the size of the parent Hydrodictyon.
+
+The Nostochineĉ grow in fresh water, or attached to moist soil. They
+consist of slender, beaded threads surrounded by a firm jelly, and
+often spreading into large, wavy fronds. The larger beads on the
+inclosed threads are reproductive spores. (Fig. 4, A.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 4. A, Fragment of a Filament of Nostoc. B,
+   End of a Filament of Oscillatoria.]
+
+The Oscillatoreĉ are another remarkable group, on account of the
+peculiar animal-like motions they exhibit. They occur both in salt and
+fresh water, and on almost every kind of site in which there is
+sufficient moisture. The threads of which they are composed are
+jointed, and generally unbranched; they are of various tints of blue,
+red, and green, and, where their fructification has been ascertained,
+are propagated by cell division. The most curious point about them is,
+however, the movements of their fronds. According to Dr. Harvey, these
+are of three kinds--a pendulum-like movement from side to side,
+performed by one end, whilst the other remains fixed, so as to form a
+pivot; a movement of flexure of the filament itself, the oscillating
+extremity bending over from one side to the other, like the head of a
+worm or caterpillar seeking something on its line of march; and
+lastly, a simple onward movement of progression, the whole phenomenon
+being, Dr. Harvey thinks, resolvable into a spiral onward movement of
+the filament. Whatever is the cause of this motion, it is not, as used
+to be supposed, of an animal nature; for the individuals of this group
+are undoubted plants. (Fig. 4, B.) Several species of Rivularia,
+belonging to the Oscillatoreĉ, are found both in the sea and in fresh
+water. They are gelatinous, and have something of the appearance of
+Nostoc, in aspect as well as in minute structure.
+
+The Conjugatĉ are freshwater articulated Algĉ, which reproduce
+themselves by the union of two endochromes. They are very interesting
+objects under the microscope, owing to the spiral or zigzag
+arrangement of the endochrome of many of them, and the delicacy of
+all.
+
+The Bulbochĉteĉ constitute a small group, some half-a-dozen species
+being British. They are freshwater plants, composed of articulate
+branched filaments, with fertile bulbshaped branchlets. The endochrome
+is believed to be fertilized by bodies developed in antheridia, the
+contents of each fertilized cell dividing into four ovate zoospores.
+
+The last two groups of green sea-weeds consist chiefly of marine
+plants. Of these the first, Siphoneĉ, is so called because the plant,
+however complicated, is composed invariably of a single cell. It
+propagates by minute zoospores, by large quiescent spores, or by large
+active spores clothed with cilia. It includes the remarkable genus
+Codium, three species of which inhabit the British seas. In Codium
+Bursa the filamentous frond is spherical and hollow, presenting more
+the appearance of a round sponge or puff-ball than a sea-weed, and is
+somewhat rare. Another species greatly resembles a branched sponge,
+and the third forms a velvety crust on the surface of rocks. Another
+genus, Vaucheria, is of a beautiful green colour, forming a velvety
+surface on moist soil, on mud-covered rocks overflowed by the tide, or
+parasitic on other sea-weeds. The most attractive plants of this
+family are however those of the genus Bryopsis, two of which are found
+on the British shores. The most common one is B. plumosa, the fronds
+of which grow usually in the shady and sheltered sides of rock pools.
+
+The fronds of the last of the green-weed groups, the Ulvaceĉ, are
+membranous, and either flat or tubular. Two of them, Ulva latissima,
+the green, and Porphyra laciniata, the purple laver, are among the
+most common sea-weeds, growing well up from low-water mark. The
+propagation in all of them is by zoospores. An allied genus,
+Enteromorpha, is protean in its forms, which have been classed under
+many species. They may, however, be reduced to half a dozen. Some of
+them are very slender, so as almost to be mistaken for confervoid
+plants.
+
+With the Rhodospermeĉ we enter a sub-order of Algĉ, exclusively
+marine, the plants in which have always held out great attractions to
+the collector. In structure they are expanded or filamentous, nearly
+always rose-coloured or purple in colour. Of the fourteen groups into
+which they are divided by Harvey, the first is Ceramiaceĉ, articulate
+Algĉ, constituting a large proportion of the marine plants of our
+shores. Of the genus Ceramium, C. rubrum is the most frequent, and it
+is found in every latitude, almost from pole to pole. It is very
+variable in aspect, but can always be recognized by its fruit. C.
+diaphanum is a very handsome species, growing often in rock pools
+along with the other. There are about fifteen native species
+altogether, some of them rare, and all very beautiful, both as
+displayed on paper and seen under the microscope. Crouania attenuata
+is a beautiful plant, parasitic upon a Cladostephus or Corallina
+officinalis. It is however extremely rare, being only found in England
+about Land's End. A more common and conspicuous, but equally handsome
+plant is Ptilota plumosa (Fig. 9), which is mostly confined to our
+northern coasts; although P. sericea, a smaller species, or variety,
+is common in the south, and easily distinguished from its congener,
+which it otherwise greatly resembles, by its jointed branchlets and
+pinnules. Callithamnion, Halurus and Griffithsia, articulate like
+Ceramium, furnish also several handsome species. (Fig. 5.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 5. Species of Callithamnion.]
+
+The group Spyridiaceĉ contains only one English plant, Spyridia
+filamentosa, which is curiously and irregularly branched, the branches
+being articulate and of a pinky red. One of its kinds of fruit,
+consisting of crimson spores, is contained in a transparent network
+basket, formed by the favellĉ, or short branches, whence its name.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 6. Chondrus crispus.]
+
+The Cryptonemiaceĉ are very numerous in genera and species. They all
+have inarticulate branches, some are thread-like. Grateloupia filicina
+is a neat little plant, met with rarely on the south and west coasts.
+Gigartina mamillosa, a common plant everywhere, is the plant sold,
+along with Chondrus crispus, as Irish or Carrageen moss. A handsome
+little plant, Stenogramme interrupta, is very rare, but it has been
+gathered both on the Irish and English coasts. The Phyllophorĉ, one
+species of which is frequent on all our shores, may be recognised by
+the way in which the points and surfaces of their fronds throw out
+proliferous leaves. Gymnogongrus has two British species, one much
+resembling Chondrus crispus, already named, of which it was formerly
+considered a congener. Their fructification is however very different.
+Ahnfeltia plicata is a curiouswiry, entangled plant, almost black in
+colour, and like horse-hair when dry, and can scarcely be mistaken.
+Cystoclonium purpurascens is very commonly cast up by the tide on most
+of our coasts. It varies in colour, but is easily distinguished by the
+spore-bearing tubercles imbedded in its slender branches. Callophyllis
+laciniata is a handsome species, of a rich crimson colour, and
+sometimes a foot square. It can scarcely have escaped the notice of
+the sea-side visitor, for it is widely distributed and often thrown
+out in great abundance; one writer describes the shore near Tynemouth
+as having been red for upwards of a mile with this superb sea-weed.
+Kalymenia reniformis is another of the broad, flat Algĉ, but it is
+scarcer, and of a colour not so conspicuous. Among the most frequent
+of our sea-weeds, both as growing in the rock pools and cast ashore,
+is Chondrus crispus, already twice referred to in connexion with its
+officinal uses. It is very variable in form, one author figuring as
+many as thirty-six different varieties. (Fig. 6.) Chylocladia
+clavellosa, which is sometimes cast ashore a foot and a half long, is
+closely set with branches, and these again clothed with branchlets in
+one or two series. The whole plant is fleshy, of a rose-red or
+brilliant pink colour, turning to golden yellow in decay. There is
+another small species, confined to the extreme north of Britain.
+Halymenia ligulata is another flat red weed, but sometimes very narrow
+in its ramifications. Furcellaria fastigiata has a round, branched,
+taper stem, swollen at the summit, which contains the fruit,
+consisting of masses of tetraspores in a pod-like receptacle.
+Schizymenia edulis, better known perhaps by its old name Iridea, is a
+flat, inversely egg-shaped leaf with scarcely any stem. It is one of
+the edible Algĉ, and pretty frequent in shady rock pools.
+Gloiosiphonia capillaris is a remarkably beautiful plant, and not
+common, being confined to certain parts of the southern coasts. The
+stem is very soft and gelatinous; the spores are produced in red
+globular masses imbedded in the marginal filaments, which have a fine
+appearance under the microscope when fresh.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 7. Rhodomenia palmata.]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 8. Wormskioldia sanguinea.]
+
+The Rhodomeniaceĉ are purplish or blood-red sea-weeds, inarticulate,
+membranaceous, and cellular. Among the dark-coloured is Rhodomenia
+palmata, better known as dulse, a common and edible species. (Fig. 7.)
+Wormskioldia sanguinea is not only the most beautiful sea-weed, but
+the finest of all leaves or fronds. It is usually about six inches
+long, but sometimes nearly double that length and six inches broad,
+with a distinct midrib and branching veins, and a delicate wavy
+lamina, pink or deep red. The fruit is produced in winter from small
+leaflets growing upon the bare midrib. (Fig. 8.) The commonest of all
+red sea-weeds on our coast, one of the most elegant, and much sought
+after by sea-weed picture makers, Plocamium coccineum, belongs to this
+group. Calliblepharis ciliata and jubata are coarser plants, the
+latter being the more frequent. They were formerly included in the
+genus Rhodymenia, from which they were removed when their fruit was
+better understood.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 9. Ptilota plumosa.]
+
+Wrangelia and Naccaria are the only British genera in Wrangeliaceĉ.
+There is only one native species in each, both being rare, the latter
+especially.
+
+The Helminthocladiĉ are also a limited group, of a gelatinous
+structure; so much so that on being gathered they feel like a bunch of
+slimy worms, whence the name of the family. Helminthora purpurea and
+divaricata with Nemaleon multifidum and Scinaia furcellata represent
+them in Britain. They are nearly all very rare, pretty plants, and
+very effective as microscopic objects.
+
+The Squamariĉ, formerly included in the Corallinaceĉ, are a small
+group of inconspicuous plants resembling lichens, of a leathery
+texture, and growing on rocks and shells attached by their lower
+surface.
+
+A single genus only, Polyides, represents the Spongiocarpeĉ. Polyides
+rotundus resembles Furcellaria fastigiata very closely, but differs
+widely in the fruit, which consists of spongy warts surrounding the
+frond, composed of spores and articulated threads.
+
+Of the next group represented in Britain, Gelidiaceĉ, we have only one
+plant, Gelidium corneum, very common on our shores, and perhaps the
+most variable of all vegetable species.
+
+The Sphĉrococcidĉ include both membranaceous and cartilaginous
+species. Of the latter is Sphĉrococcus coronopifolius, which cannot
+easily be mistaken, owing to the numerous berry-like fruits that tip
+its branchlets. It is rather rare on the northern, but often thrown
+ashore in large quantities on the southern coasts. The genus
+Delesseria has four British species, the largest being the well-known
+D. sinuosa, the fronds of which resemble an oak leaf in outline. The
+handsomest are D. ruscifolia and D. hypoglossum, which are more
+delicate and of a finer colour than sinuosa. There are three British
+species of Gracillaria, in two of which the branches are cylindrical,
+and in the other flat. G. compressa makes an excellent preserve and
+pickle, but unfortunately it is the rarest of the three. Nitophyllum
+is one of the greatest ornaments of this tribe. There are six British
+species, which are amongst the most delicate and beautiful of our
+native Algĉ.
+
+The Corallinaceĉ are remarkable for the property they possess of
+absorbing carbonate of lime into their tissues, so that they appear as
+a succession of chalky articulations or incrustations. The most common
+is Corallina officinalis. There are two British species of Corallina,
+and two also of the nearly allied genus, Jania. Of the foliaceous
+group there are likewise two British genera, Melobesia and
+Hildenbrantia.
+
+The next group, the Laurenciaceĉ, are cartilaginous and cylindrical or
+compressed, the frond in the greater portion of them being
+inarticulate and solid. They contain several species valued by
+collectors, although some of them are amongst our commonest plants.
+Their colour is, when perfect, a dull purple or brownish red, but they
+change under the influence of light and air, while fresh water is
+rapidly destructive to their tints. (Fig. 10.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 10. Laurencia pinnatifida.]
+
+The Chylocladiĉ are curiously jointed plants, removed by Agardh to a
+new genus, Lomentaria, and a new order Chondriĉ. Bonnemaisonia
+asparagoides is the most rare and beautiful of the tribe.
+
+The last tribe of red weeds, Rhodomelaceĉ, varies greatly in the
+structure of the frond, but the fruit is more uniform. Polysiphonia
+and Dasya contain the finest of the filiform division; the leafy one,
+Odonthalia, a northern form, is a very beautiful sea-weed both as
+respects form and colour. Well-grown specimens are not unlike a
+hawthorn twig, and of a blood red colour.
+
+The plants of the sub-order Melanospermeĉ, are, like the red
+sea-weeds, exclusively marine. They are usually large and coarse, and
+confined mostly to comparatively shallow water. In the Laminariaceĉ we
+find the gigantic oarweeds already briefly referred to. Lessonia,
+which encircles in submarine forests the antarctic coasts, is an
+erect, tree-like plant, with a trunk from five to ten feet high,
+forked branches, and drooping leaves, one to three feet in length, and
+has been compared to a weeping willow. Sir Joseph Hooker says, that
+from a boat there may on a calm day be witnessed in the antarctic
+regions, over these submarine groves, "as busy a scene as is presented
+by the coral reefs of the tropics. The leaves of the Lessoniĉ are
+crowded with Sertulariĉ and Mollusca, or encircled with Flustra; on
+the trunks parasitic Algĉ abound, together with chitons, limpets, and
+other shells; at the base and among the tangled roots swarm thousands
+of Crustaceĉ and Radiata, while fish of several species dart among the
+leaves and branches." Of these and other gigantic melanosperms, flung
+ashore by the waves, a belt of decaying vegetable matter is formed,
+miles in extent, some yards broad, and three feet in depth; and Sir J.
+Hooker adds that the trunks of Lessonia so much resemble driftwood
+that no persuasion could prevent an ignorant shipmaster from employing
+his crew, during two bitterly cold days, in collecting this
+incombustible material for fuel. Macrocystis and Nereocystis are also
+giant members of this sub-order. Some of the Laminariĉ which form a
+belt around our own coasts not seldom attain a length of from eight to
+twelve feet. The common bladder-wrack (Fucus vesiculosus) sometimes
+grows in Jutland to a height of ten feet, and in clusters several feet
+in diameter. The colour of most of the plants in this sub-order is
+some shade of olive, but several of them turn to green in drying.
+
+The first group, Ectocarpeĉ, is composed of thread-like jointed
+plants, the fructification of which consists of external spores,
+sometimes formed by the swelling of a branchlet. The typical genus,
+Ectocarpus, abounds in species, a dozen or so of which, very nearly
+allied plants, being found around our own shores. One or two of them
+are very handsome. There are also some very beautiful plants in the
+genus Sphacelaria, belonging to this group, several of them resembling
+miniature ferns. All the Sphacelariĉ are easily recognized by the
+withered appearance of the tips of the fruiting branches. Myriotrichia
+is a genus of small parasitical plants, the two British species of
+which grow chiefly on the sea thongs (Chorda).
+
+The Chordariĉ are sometimes gelatinous in structure, in other cases
+cartilaginous. The fruit is contained in the substance of the frond.
+The genus Chordaria consists of plants which have the appearance of
+dark coloured twine. There are two British species, one being rather
+common. Chorda filum, sea-rope, another string-like sea-weed, grows in
+tufts from a few inches to many feet in length, and tapering at the
+roots to about the thickness of a pig's bristle. In quiet land-locked
+bays with a sandy or muddy bottom, it sometimes extends to forty feet
+in length, forming extensive meadows, obstructing the passage of
+boats, and endangering the lives of swimmers entangled in its slimy
+cords, whence probably its other name of "dead men's lines."
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 11. Padina pavonia.]
+
+The Mesogloieĉ in a fresh state resemble bundles of green, slimy
+worms. There are three British species, two of which are not uncommon.
+Although so unattractive in external aspect, they, like many others of
+the same description, prove very interesting under the microscope. One
+of the cartilaginous species, Leathsia tuberiformis, has the
+appearance, when growing, of a mass of distorted tubers.
+
+The species of Elachista, composed of minute parasites, are, as well
+as unattractive like the Mesogloieĉ, inconspicuous, but are beautiful
+objects when placed under the microscope. Myrionemĉ are also
+parasitic, and even smaller than the plants of the preceding genus.
+
+In the Dictyoteĉ the frond is mostly flat, with a reticulated surface,
+which is sprinkled when in fruit with groups of naked spores or spore
+cysts. This tribe includes not a few of the most elegant among the
+Algĉ. In structure they are coriaceous, and include plants both with
+broad and narrow, branched and unbranched fronds. In Haliseris there
+is a distinct midrib. The largest of the British Dictyoteĉ is Cutleria
+multifida, sometimes found a foot and a half long; and the best known
+is doubtless Padina pavonia, much sought after by seaside visitors
+where it grows. Its segments are fan-shaped, variegated with lighter
+curved lines, and fringed with golden tinted filaments. (Fig. 11.)
+Owing to its power of decomposing light, its fronds, when growing
+under water, suggest the train of the peacock, whence its specific
+name. Taonia atomaria somewhat resembles Cutleria, but exhibits also
+the wavy lines of Padina. The plant of this group most often cast
+ashore is Dictyota dichotoma. It makes a handsome specimen when well
+dried, and is interesting on account of the manner in which it varies
+in the breadth of its divisions. The variety intricata is curiously
+curled and entangled. Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, the solitary
+British example of its genus, is a bushy filiform plant, remarkable
+for the beautiful net-like markings of its surface. The Punctariĉ have
+flattened fronds, marked with dots, which sufficiently distinguish
+them from all the others. A small form is often found parasitic on
+Chorda filum, spreading out horizontally like the hairs of a bottle
+brush. Asperococcus derives its name from its roughened surface,
+occasioned by the thickly scattered spots of fructification.
+
+The Laminariaceĉ are inarticulate, mostly flat, often strap-shaped.
+Their spores occur in superficial patches, or covering the whole
+frond. The plants of this order, as we have already seen, include the
+giants of submarine vegetation. In point of mass they constitute the
+larger part of our native Algĉ, although they number only a few
+species. They are popularly known as tangle or oarweeds, and the stems
+of Laminaria saccharina and the midrib of Alaria esculenta are used as
+food.
+
+The Sporochnaceĉ are a small but beautiful tribe, inarticulate, and
+producing their spores in jointed filaments or knob-like masses, and
+remarkable for their property of turning from olive brown to a
+verdigris green when exposed to the atmosphere.
+
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 12. Fucus serratus, showing a transverse
+   section of the Conceptacle, and Antheridium with Antherozoids
+   escaping.]
+
+
+They are deep sea plants, or at least grow about low water mark. The
+largest of the group is Desmarestia ligulata, which, with the other
+British species, D. aculeata, is often cast ashore. The latter
+species, at an early period of its existence, is clothed with tufts of
+slender hairs, springing from the margin of the frond. Desmarestia
+viridis is the most delicate and also the rarest of the three. Nothing
+like fruit has been discovered on any of them. Arthocladia villosa and
+Sporochnus pedunculatus are branched sea-weeds, covered also with
+tufts of closely set hairs. Carpomitra Cabrerĉ, a rare species, bears,
+in common with the two preceding species, its spores in a special
+receptacle. In the first the receptacle is pod-like; in the second
+knotted; and in the last mitriform.
+
+The concluding group of Algĉ is the Fucaceĉ, including the universally
+known sea wrack (Fucus). The frond in all of them is jointless. They
+are reproduced by means of antheridia and oogonia developed in
+conceptacles, clustered together at the apex of the branches. Both
+from their bulk and their decided sexual distinctions, they deserve to
+rank at the head of the order. Of all sea-weeds they are also perhaps
+of the greatest use to man. One of the most interesting among them is
+the Gulfweed (Sargassum bacciferum), occupying a tract of the Atlantic
+extending over many degrees of latitude. Pieces of it, and of its
+congener, S. vulgare, are occasionally drifted to our shores, and they
+consequently find a place in works on British Algĉ, although they have
+no claim to be considered native plants. On rocky coasts the various
+species of Fucus occupy the greater part of the space between
+tide-marks, the most plentiful being Fucus vesiculosus. F. serratus
+(Fig. 12) is the handsomest of the genus, the other species being F.
+nodosus, said to be the most useful for making kelp, and F.
+canaliculatus. Halidrys siliquosa is remarkable for its spore
+receptacles, which have quite the appearance of the seed vessel of a
+flowering plant. The species of Cystoseira, chiefly confined to the
+southern coasts, are also very interesting. Their submerged fronds are
+beautifully iridescent, and the stems, of the largest species at
+least, are generally covered with a great variety of parasites, animal
+and vegetable, the former consisting of Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, and
+other curious forms. Himanthalia lorea is another remarkable plant. It
+has conspicuous forked fruit-bearing receptacles; but the real plants
+are the small cones at the base of these, and from which they are shed
+when ripe.
+
+As to conditions of site and geographical distribution, Algĉ do not
+differ from land plants. Latitude, depth of water, and currents
+influence them in the same way as latitude, elevation, and station
+operate on the latter; and the analogy is maintained in the almost
+cosmopolitan range of some, and the restricted habitat of others. Not
+many extra-European species of Desmids are known, but those of Diatoms
+are far more widely diffused, and extend beyond the limits of all
+other vegetation, existing wherever there is water sufficient to allow
+of their production; and they are found not only in water, but also
+on the moist surface of the ground and on other plants, in hot springs
+and amid polar ice. They are said to occur in such countless myriads
+in the South Polar Sea as to stain the berg and pack ice wherever
+these are washed by the surge. A deposit of mud, chiefly consisting of
+the shells of Diatoms, 400 miles long, 120 miles broad, and of unknown
+thickness, was found at a depth of between 200 and 400 feet on the
+flanks of Victoria Land in 70° south latitude. Such is their abundance
+in some rivers and estuaries that Professor Ehrenberg goes the length
+of affirming that they have exercised an important influence in
+blocking up harbours and diminishing the depth of channels. The trade
+and other winds distribute large quantities over the earth, which may
+account for the universality of their specific distribution; for Sir
+Joseph Hooker found the Himalayan species to closely resemble our own.
+Common British species also occur in Ceylon, Italy, Virginia, and
+Peru. The typical species of the Confervaceĉ are also distributed over
+the whole surface of the globe. They inhabit both fresh and salt
+water, and are found alike in the polar seas and in the boiling
+springs of Iceland, in mineral waters and in chemical solutions. Some
+of the tropical ones are exceedingly large and dense. Batrachospermum
+vagum, in the next tribe, a native of England, is also found in New
+Zealand. An edible species of Nostochineĉ, produced on the boggy
+slopes bordering the Arctic Ocean, is blown about by the winds
+sometimes ten miles from land, where it is found lying in small
+depressions in the snow upon the ice. The common Nostoc of moist
+ground in England occurs also in Kerguelen's Land, high in the
+southern hemisphere. Floating masses of Monormia are often the cause
+of the green hue assumed by the water of ponds and lakes. Certain
+species of Oscillatoria of a deep red colour live in hot springs in
+India, and the Red Sea is supposed to have derived its name from a
+species of this tribe, which covers it with a scum for many miles,
+according to the direction of the wind. The lake of Glaslough in
+County Monaghan, Ireland, owes its colour and its name to Oscillatoria
+ĉrugescens, and large masses of water in Scotland and Switzerland are
+tinted green or purple by a similar agency. A few species of Siphoneĉ
+have a very wide range, two British species of Codium occurring in New
+Zealand. The Ulvaceĉ abound principally in the colder latitudes.
+Enteromorpha intestinalis, a common British species, is as frequent in
+Japan, where it is used, when dried, in soup. The Rhodosperms are
+found in every sea, although the geographical boundaries of genera are
+often well-marked. Gloiosiphonia, one of our rarest and most
+beautiful Algĉ, is widely diffused. Of Melanosperms the Laminariĉ
+affect the higher northern latitudes, Sargassa abound in the warmer
+seas, while Durvillĉa, Lessonia, and Macrocystis characterize the
+marine flora of the Southern Ocean. The Fucaceĉ are most abundant
+towards the poles, where they attain their greatest size. The marine
+meadows of Sargassum, conceived by some naturalists to mark the site
+of the lost Atlantis, and which give its name to the Sargasso Sea,
+extending between 20° and 25° north latitude, in 40° west longitude,
+occupy now the same position as when the early navigators, with
+considerable trepidation, forced through their masses on the way to
+the New World. Sargassum is drifted into this tract of ocean by
+currents, the plants being all detached; and they do not produce fruit
+in that state, being propagated by buds, which originate new branches
+and leaves. (Fig. 13.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 13. The Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciforum).]
+
+Owing to their soft, cellular structure, Algĉ are not likely to be
+preserved in a fossil state; but what have been considered such have
+been found as low down as the Silurian formation, although their
+identity has been disputed, and several of them, it is more than
+probable, belong to other orders, and some even to the animal kingdom.
+Freshwater forms, all of existing genera and species, are believed to
+have been detected in the carboniferous rocks of Britain and France;
+others also of the green-coloured division are said to occur from the
+Silurian to the Eocene, and the Florideĉ to be represented from the
+Lias to the Miocene. The indestructible nature of the shells of the
+Diatomaceĉ has enabled them to survive where the less protected
+species may have perished. Tripoli stone, a Tertiary rock, is entirely
+composed of the remains of microscopic plants of this tribe. It is
+from their silicious shells that mineral acquires its use in the arts,
+as powder for polishing stones and metals. Ehrenberg estimates that in
+every cubic inch of the tripoli of Bilin, in Bohemia, there are
+41,000,000 of Gaillonella distans. Districts recovered from the sea
+frequently contain myriads of Diatoms, forming strata of considerable
+thickness; and similar deposits occur in the ancient sites of lakes in
+this and other countries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Before setting out in search of Algĉ the collector ought to provide
+himself with a pair of stout boots to guard his feet from the
+sharp-pointed rocks, as well as a staff or pole to balance himself in
+rock-climbing, which ought to have a hook for drawing floating weed
+ashore. A stout table-knife tied to the other end will be found very
+useful. A basket--a fishing-basket does very well--or a waterproof
+bag, for stowing away his plants, is also necessary. It is advisable
+to carry a few bottles for the very small and delicate plants, and
+care should be taken to keep apart, and in sea-water, any specimens of
+the Sporochnaceĉ; for they are not only apt to decay themselves but to
+become a cause of corruption in the other weeds with which they come
+in contact. These bottles should always be carried in the bag or
+pocket, never in the hand.
+
+Sea-weeds, as every visitor to the coast knows, are torn up in great
+numbers by the waves, especially during storms, and afterwards left on
+the shore by the retiring tide. Many shallow-growing species are also
+to be found attached to the rocks, and in the rock pools, between high
+and low water mark. There are three points on the beach where the
+greatest accumulations of floating Algĉ are found: high water mark,
+mid-tide level, and low water mark. Low water occurs about five or
+five and a half hours after high water. The best time for the
+collector to commence is half an hour or so before dead low water. He
+can then work to the lowest point safely, and, retiring before the
+approaching tide, examine the higher part of the beach up to high
+water mark. If the coarse weeds in the rock pools and chinks are
+turned back, many rare and delicate Algĉ will be found growing under
+them, especially at the lowest level. The most effective method of
+collecting the plants of deeper water is by dredging, or going round
+with a boat at the extreme ebb, and taking them from the rocks and
+from the Laminaria stems, on which a great number have their station.
+Stems of Laminaria thrown out by the waves should also be carefully
+examined. In all cases the weed should be well rinsed in a clear rock
+pool before being put away in the bag or other receptacle.
+
+The next thing to be considered is the laying out and preserving of
+the specimens selected for the herbarium. Wherever possible these
+should be laid out on paper, and put under pressure as soon as
+gathered, or on the same day at all events. When this is
+impracticable, they may be spread between the folds of soft and thick
+towels and rolled up. Thus treated the most delicate plants will keep
+fresh until next day. Another way is to pack the plants in layers of
+salt, like herrings; but the most usual method of roughly preserving
+sea-weeds collected during an unprepared visit to the shore is by
+moderately drying them in an airy room out of the direct rays of the
+sun. They are then to be placed lightly in bags, and afterwards
+relaxed by immersion and prepared in the usual way. The finer plants,
+however, suffer more or less by this delay. If carried directly home
+from the sea the plants should be emptied into a vessel of sea-water.
+A flat dish, about fourteen inches square and three deep, is then to
+be filled with clean water. For most plants this may be fresh, for
+some it is essential that it should be salt. Some of the Polysiphonias
+and others begin to decompose at once if placed in fresh water. The
+Griffithsias burst and let out their colouring matter, and a good many
+change their colour. The appliances required are some fine white
+paper--good printing demy, thirty-six pounds or so in weight per ream,
+does very well,--an ample supply of smooth blotting paper, the coarse
+paper used by grocers and called "sugar royal," or, best of all,
+Bentall's botanical drying paper, pieces of well-washed book muslin, a
+camel's hair brush, a bodkin for assisting to spread out the plants, a
+pair of scissors, and a pair of forceps. The mounting paper may be cut
+in three sizes: 5 in. by 4 in., 7½ in. by 5ĵ in., and 10 in. by
+7½ in. Then having selected a specimen, place it in the flat dish
+referred to above, and prune it if necessary. Next take a piece of
+the mounting paper of suitable size, and slip it into the water
+underneath the plant, keeping hold of it with the thumb of the left
+hand. Having arranged the plant in a natural manner on the paper,
+brush it gently with the camel's hair brush to remove any dirt or
+fragments, draw out paper and plant gently and carefully in an oblique
+direction, and set them on end for a short time to drain. Having in
+this way transferred as many specimens as will cover a sheet of drying
+paper, lay them upon it neatly side by side, and cover them with a
+piece of old muslin. Four sheets of drying paper are then to be placed
+upon this, then another layer of plants and muslin and four more
+sheets of drying paper, until a heap, it may be six or eight inches
+thick, is built up. Place this between two flat boards, weighted with
+stones, bricks, or other weights; but the pressure should be moderate
+at first, otherwise the texture of the muslin may be stamped on both
+paper and plant. The papers must be changed in about three hours'
+time, and afterwards every twelve hours. In three or four days,
+according to the state of the weather, the muslin may be removed, the
+plants again transferred to dry paper, and subjected to rather severe
+pressure for several days.
+
+The very gelatinous plants require particular treatment. One way is to
+put them in drying paper and under a board but to apply no other
+pressure, change the drying paper at least twice during the first half
+hour, and after the second change of dryers apply very gentle
+pressure, increasing it until the specimens are fully dry. A safer and
+less troublesome way, for the efficacy of which we can vouch, is to
+lay down the plants and dry them without any pressure, afterwards
+damping the back of the mounting papers and placing them in the drying
+press. Some Algĉ will scarcely adhere to paper. These should be
+pressed until tolerably dry, then be immersed in skim-milk for a
+quarter of an hour, and pressed and dried as before. A slight
+application of isinglass, dissolved in alcohol, to the under side of
+the specimen is sometimes necessary. Before mounting, or at all events
+before transference to the herbarium, care should be taken to write in
+pencil on the back of the paper the name of the plant, if known, the
+place where gathered, and the date. The coarse olive weeds, such as
+the bladder-wrack, Halidrys, and the like, may in the case of a short
+visit to the coast be allowed to dry in an airy place, and taken home
+in the rough. Before pressing, in any case, they should be steeped in
+boiling water for about half an hour to extract the salt, then washed
+in clean fresh water, dried between coarse towels, and pressed and
+dried in the same way as flowering plants. A collection of Algĉ may be
+fastened on sheets of paper of the usual herbarium size and kept in a
+cabinet or portfolios, or attached to the leaves of an album. For
+scientific purposes, however, the latter is the least convenient way.
+
+There are few objects more beautiful than many of the sea-weeds when
+well preserved; but the filiform species, especially those of the
+first sub-order, do not retain their distinguishing characters when
+pressed as has been described. Portions of these, however, as well as
+sections of stems and fruit, may be usefully dried on small squares of
+thin mica, for subsequent microscopic examination, or they may be
+mounted on the ordinary microscope slides. This is the only course
+possible with Desmids and Diatoms. The former are to be sought in
+shallow pools, especially in open boggy moors. The larger species
+commonly lie in a thin gelatinous stratum at the bottom of the pools,
+and by gently passing the fingers under them they will be caused to
+rise towards the surface, when they can be lifted with a scoop. Other
+species form a greenish or dirty cloud on the stems and leaves of
+other aquatic plants, and by stripping the plant between the fingers
+these also may be similarly detached and secured. If they are much
+diffused through the water, they may be separated by straining through
+linen; and this is a very common way of procuring them. Living Diatoms
+are found on aquatic plants, on rocks and stones, under water or on
+mud, presenting themselves as coloured fringes, cushion-like tufts, or
+filmy strata. In colour the masses vary from a yellowish brown to
+almost black. They are difficult, both when living and dead, to
+separate from foreign matter; but repeated washings are effectual in
+both cases, and, for the living ones, their tendency to move towards
+the light may also be taken advantage of. When only the shells are
+wanted for mounting, the cell contents are removed by means of
+hydrochloric and nitric acid. The most satisfactory medium for
+preserving fresh Desmids and Diatoms is distilled water, and if the
+water is saturated with camphor, or has dissolved in it a grain of
+alum and a grain of bay salt to an ounce of water, confervoid growths
+will be prevented. For larger preparations of Algĉ, Thwaites' fluid is
+strongly recommended. This is made by adding to one part of rectified
+spirit as many drops of creasote as will saturate it, and then
+gradually mixing with it in a pestle and mortar some prepared chalk,
+with sixteen parts of water; an equal quantity of water saturated with
+camphor is then to be added, and the mixture, after standing for a
+few days, to be carefully filtered.
+
+For authorities on the morphology and classification of the Algĉ,
+students may be referred to Sachs' "Text Book" and Le Maout's "System
+of Botany," of which there are good translations, and the
+"Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany," by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley; for
+descriptions and the identification of species, to the text and
+figures of Harvey's "Phycologia Britannica," and "Nature-Printed
+Sea-weeds." Both of these are however costly. Among the cheaper works
+are "British Sea-weeds," by S. O. Gray (Lovell, Reeve & Co.),
+"Harvey's Manual" and an abridgment by Mrs. A. Gatty, with reduced but
+well executed copies of the figures, of the Phycologia. This synopsis
+can often be picked up cheap at second-hand book-stalls; and there is
+a very excellent low-priced work suitable for amateurs, Grattann's
+"British Marine Algĉ," containing recognizable figures of nearly all
+our native species. Landsborough's "Popular History of British
+Sea-weeds," and Mrs. Lane Clarke's "Common Sea-weeds," are also cheap
+and useful manuals on the subject.
+
+   [Illustration: Floral design]
+
+
+
+
+SHELLS.
+
+BY
+
+B. B. WOODWARD.
+
+
+[Illustration: POND SNAILS.]
+
+
+
+
+SHELLS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+In the very earliest times, long before there was any attempt at the
+scientific classification and arrangement of shells, they appear to
+have been objects of admiration, and to have been valued on account of
+their beauty, for we find that the pre-historic men, who, in company
+with the mammoth, or hairy elephant, and other animals now extinct,
+inhabited Southern France in days long gone by, used to bore holes in
+them, and, like the savage of to-day, wear them as ornaments. The
+Greek physician and philosopher, Aristotle, is said to have been the
+first to study the formation of shells, and to raise the knowledge
+thus acquired into the position of a science; by him shells were
+divided into three orders--an arrangement preserved, with some small
+changes, by Linnĉus. It is possible that the world-wide renown of the
+Swedish naturalist during the last century, and the ardour with which
+he pursued his investigations, may have given an impetus to the study
+of natural objects, for we find that at that period large sums were
+often given by collectors for choice specimens of shells. Nor is this
+to be wondered at, for few things look nicer, or better repay trouble
+expended on them, than does a well-arranged and carefully mounted and
+named collection of shells. Certainly nothing looks worse than a
+number of shells of all descriptions, of every kind, shape, and
+colour, thrown promiscuously into a box, like the unfortunate animals
+in a toy Noah's ark, to the great detriment of their value and beauty;
+for, as the inevitable result of shaking against each other, the
+natural polish is taken off some, the delicate points and ornaments
+are broken off others, the whole collection becoming in time unsightly
+and disappointing, and all for want of a little care at the outset.
+
+In this, as in every other undertaking, "how to set about it" is the
+chief difficulty with beginners; and here, perhaps, a few hints
+gathered from experience may not be without value. One thing a young
+collector should always bear in mind, however, is, that no
+instructions can be of any avail to him unless, for his part, he is
+prepared to bring patience, neatness, and attention to detail, to bear
+upon his work.
+
+Since it is important to know the best way of storing specimens
+already acquired, we will, in the first place, devote a few words to
+this point, and then proceed to describe the best means of collecting
+specimens, and of naming, mounting, and arranging the same.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE A CABINET.
+
+
+It is a common mistake, both with old and young, to imagine that a
+handsome cabinet is, in the first instance, a necessity; but no
+greater blunder can be made: the cabinet should be considered merely
+an accessory, the collection itself being just as valuable, and
+generally more useful, when kept in a series of plain wooden or
+cardboard boxes. We intend, therefore, to describe the simplest
+possible means of keeping a collection of shells, leaving elaborate
+and costly methods to those who value the case more than its contents.
+
+The first thing required is some method of keeping the different
+species of shells apart, so that they may not get mixed, or be
+difficult to find when wanted. The simplest plan of doing this is to
+collect all the empty chip match-boxes you can find, throw away the
+cases in which they slide, and keep the trays, trying to get as many
+of a size as possible. (The ordinary Bryant & May's, or Bell &
+Black's, are the most useful, and with them the trays of the small
+Swedish match-boxes, two of which, placed side by side, occupy nearly
+exactly the same space as one and a half of the larger size, and so
+fit in with them nicely.) In these trays your shells should be placed,
+one kind in each tray; but although very convenient for most
+specimens, they will of course be too small for very many, and so the
+larger trays must be made. This may easily be done as follows: cut a
+rectangular piece of cardboard two inches longer one way than the
+length of the match-tray, and two inches more the other way than twice
+the width of the match-tray; then with a pencil rule lines one inch
+from the edges and parallel with them (Fig. 1); next cut out the
+little squares (_a_ _a_, _a_ _a_) these lines form in the corners of
+the piece of cardboard, and then with a penknife cut _half_ through the
+card, exactly on the remaining pencil-lines, and bend up the pieces,
+which will then form sides for your tray; and by binding it round with
+a piece of blue paper, you will have one that will look neat, uniform
+with the others, and yet be just twice their size. If required, you
+can make in the same way any size, only take care that they are all
+multiples of one standard size, as loss of space will thereby be
+avoided when you come to the next process in your cabinet. This is, to
+get a large box or tray in which to hold your smaller ones.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 1. How to cut a cardboard tray.]
+
+      +---+-----------+---+
+      |_a_|           |_a_|
+      +---+-----------+---+
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      +---+-----------+---+
+      |_a_|           |_a_|
+      +---+-----------+---+
+
+The simplest plan is to get some half-dozen cardboard boxes (such as
+may be obtained for the asking or for a very trifling cost at any
+draper's), having a depth of from one to two inches (according to the
+size of your shells); in these your trays may be arranged in columns,
+and the boxes can be kept one above the other in a cupboard or in a
+larger box. More boxes and trays can, from time to time, be added as
+occasion requires, and thus the whole collection may be kept in good
+working order at a trifling cost. A more durable form of cheap cabinet
+may be made by collecting the wooden boxes so common in grocers'
+shops, cleaning them with sand-paper, staining and varnishing them
+outside, and lining them inside with paper; or, if handy at
+carpentering, you may make all your boxes, or even a real cabinet, for
+yourself.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO COLLECT SHELLS.
+
+
+Provision being thus made for the comfortable accommodation of your
+treasures, the next consideration is, how to set about collecting
+them. Mollusca are to be found all over the globe, from the frozen
+north to the sun-baked tropics, on the land or in lakes, rivers, or
+seas--wherever, in fact, they can find the food and other conditions
+suitable for their growth and development; but the collector who is
+not also a great traveller, must of course rely for his foreign
+specimens upon the generosity of friends, or else procure them from
+dealers. In most districts of our own country, there are, however, to
+be found large numbers of shells whose variety and beauty will
+astonish and reward the efforts of any patient seeker. Begin with your
+own garden,--search in the out-of-the-way, and especially damp,
+corners; turn over the flower-pots and stones which have lain longest
+in one place, search amongst the roots of the grass growing under
+walls, and in the moss round the roots of the trees, and you will be
+surprised at the number of different shells you may find in a very
+short space of time. When the resources of the garden have been
+exhausted, go into the nearest lanes and again search the grass and at
+the roots of plants, especially the nettles which grow beside ditches
+and in damp places; hunt amongst the dead leaves in plantations, and
+literally leave no stone unturned. All the apparatus it is necessary
+to take on these excursions consists of a few small match or
+pill-boxes in which to carry home the specimens; a pair of forceps to
+pick up the smaller ones, or to get them out of cracks; a hooked stick
+to beat down and pull away the nettles; and, above all, sharp eyes
+trained to powers of observation. The best time to go out, is just
+after a warm shower, when all the grass and leaves are still wet, for
+the land-snails are very fond of moisture, and the shower entices them
+out of their lurking-places. Where the ground is made of chalk or
+limestone, they will be found most abundant; for as the snail's shell
+is composed of layers of animal tissue, strengthened by depositions of
+calcareous earthy-matter which the creature gets from the plants on
+which it feeds, and these in their turn obtain from the soil--it
+naturally follows that the snail prefers to dwell where that article
+is most abundant, as an hour's hunt on any chalk-down will soon show.
+
+When garden and lanes are both exhausted, you may then turn to the
+ponds and streams in the neighbourhood, where you will find several
+new kinds. Some will be crawling up the rushes near the margin of the
+water, others will be found in the water near the bank, while others
+may be obtained by pulling on shore pieces of wood and branches that
+may be floating in the water; but the best are sure to be beyond the
+reach of arm or stick, and it will be necessary to employ a net, which
+may be easily made by bending a piece of wire into a circle of about
+four inches in diameter, and sewing to it a small gauze bag; it may be
+mounted either on a long bamboo, or, better still, on one of those
+ingenious Japanese walking-stick fishing-rods. For heavier work,
+however, such as getting fresh-water mussels and other mollusca from
+the bottom, you will require a net something like the accompanying
+figure (Fig. 2), about one foot in diameter. This, when attached to a
+long rope, may be thrown out some distance and dragged through the
+water-weeds to the shore, or if made with a square instead of a
+circular mouth, it may be so weighted that it will sink to the bottom,
+and be used as a dredge for catching the mussels which live
+half-buried in the mud. To carry the water-snails home, you will find
+it necessary to have tin boxes (empty mustard-tins are the best), as
+match-boxes come to pieces when wetted.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 2. Net for taking water-snails.]
+
+The finest collections of shells, however, are to be made at the
+sea-side, for the marine mollusca are both more varied in kind and
+more abundant than the land and fresh-water ones, and quite an
+extensive collection may be made in the course of an afternoon's
+ramble along the shore; it is necessary, however, to carefully reject
+such specimens as are worn by having been rolled by the waves upon the
+beach, as they are not of any great value in a collection; it is
+better, in fact, if possible, to go down to the rocks at low water and
+collect the living specimens. Search well about and under the
+sea-weeds, and in the rock-pools, and, when boating, throw your
+dredge-net out and tow it behind, hauling it in occasionally to see
+what you have caught, and to empty the stones and rubbish out.
+
+At low tide also, look out for rocks with a number of round holes in
+them, all close together, for in these holes the Pholas (Fig. 22)
+dwells, having bored a burrow in the solid rock, though _how_ he does
+it we do not yet quite know.
+
+The Razor-shells and Cockles live in the sand, their presence being
+indicated by a small round hole; but they bury themselves so fast that
+you will find it difficult to get at them. Some good specimens, too,
+of the deeper water forms are sure to be found near the spots where
+fishermen drag their boats ashore, as they are often thrown away in
+clearing out the nets; moreover, if you can make friends with any of
+the said fishermen, they will be able to find and bring you many nice
+specimens from time to time.
+
+The reason that so much has been said about collecting living
+specimens, is not only because in them the shell is more likely to be
+perfect, but also because in its living state the shell is coated with
+a layer of animal matter, sometimes thin and transparent, at others
+thick and opaque, called the _periostracum_ (or _epidermis_), which
+serves to protect the shell from the weather, but which perishes with
+the animal, so that dead shells which have lain for some time
+tenantless on the ground, or at the bottom of the water, exposed to
+the destructive agencies that are constantly at work in nature, have
+almost invariably lost both their natural polish and their varied
+hues, and are besides only too often broken as well. Since, however,
+even a damaged specimen is better than none at all, such should always
+be kept until a more perfect example can be obtained.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREPARE THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+The question with which we have next to deal is, after collecting a
+number of living mollusks, how, in the quickest and most painless
+manner possible, to kill the animals in order to obtain possession of
+their shells. There is but one way we know of in which this may be
+accomplished, and that is by placing the creatures in an earthen jar
+and pouring _boiling_ water on them. With land, or fresh-water snails,
+the addition of a large spoonful of table-salt is advisable, as it
+acts upon them chemically, and not only puts them sooner out of pain,
+but also renders their subsequent extraction far easier. Death by this
+process is instantaneous, and consequently painless; but to leave
+snails in cold salt water is to inflict on them the tortures of a
+lingering death; while for the brutality of gardeners and other
+thoughtless persons who seek to destroy the poor snail they find
+eating their plants by crushing it under foot on the gravel path, no
+words of condemnation are too strong, since it must always be borne in
+mind that snails have not, like us, _one_ nervous centre, but three,
+and are far more tenacious of life; hence, unless all the nerves are
+destroyed at once, a great deal of suffering is entailed on the poor
+creature; and if merely crushed under foot, the mangled portions _will
+live for hours_. Hot water has also the advantage of tending to remove
+the dirt which is almost sure to have gathered on the shells, and so
+helping to prepare them better for the cabinet. As soon as the water
+is cool enough, fish out the shells one by one and proceed to extract
+the dead animals. This, if the mollusk is _univalve_ (_i.e._, whose
+shell is composed of a single piece), such as an ordinary garden
+snail, can easily be done by picking them out with a pin; you will
+find, probably, that some of the smaller ones have shrunk back so far
+into their shells as to be beyond the reach of a straight pin, so it
+will be necessary to bend the pin with a pair of pliers, or, if none
+are at hand, a key will answer the purpose if the pin be put into one
+of the notches and bent over the edge until sufficiently curved to
+reach up the shell. You will find it convenient to keep a set of pins
+bent to different curves, to which you may fit handles by cutting off
+the heads and sticking them into match stems. It is a good plan to
+soak some of the smaller snails in clean cold water before killing
+them, as they swell out with the water, and do not, when dead, retreat
+so far into their shells. If you have a microscope, and wish to keep
+the animals till you have time to get the tongues out, drop the bodies
+into small bottles of methylated spirit and water, when they will keep
+till required, otherwise they should of course be thrown away at once.
+The now empty shells should be washed in clean warm water, and, if
+very dirty, gently scrubbed with a soft nail or tooth brush, and then
+carefully dried.
+
+In such shells as the Periwinkle, Whelk, etc., whose inhabitants close
+the entrance of their dwelling with a trap-door, or _operculum_ as it
+is called, you should be careful to preserve each with its proper
+shell.
+
+If you are cleaning _bivalves_, or shells composed of two pieces, like
+the common mussel, you will have to remove the animal with a penknife,
+and while leaving the inside quite clean, be very careful not to break
+the ligament which serves as a hinge; then wash as before, and tie
+them together to prevent their gaping open when dry.
+
+Sometimes the fresh-water or marine shells are so coated over with a
+vegetable growth that no scrubbing with water alone will remove it,
+and in these cases a weak solution of caustic soda may be used, but
+very carefully, since, if too strong a solution be employed, the
+surface of the shell will be removed with the dirt, and the specimen
+spoilt. In some shells the periostracum is very thick and coarse, and
+must be removed before the shell itself can be seen; but it is always
+well to keep at least one specimen in its rough state as an example.
+In other shells the periostracum is covered over with very fine,
+delicate hairs (_Helix sericea_ and _Helix hispida_, Fig. 3), and
+great care must then be taken not to brush these off.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 3. (_a_) _Helix sericea_ and
+     (_b_) _Helix hispida_.]
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO MOUNT THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+When the specimens are thoroughly cleaned, the next process is to sort
+out the different kinds, placing each description in a different tray,
+and then to get them ready for mounting, for no collection will look
+well unless each kind is so arranged that it may be seen to the best
+advantage, and is also carefully named. Where you have a good number,
+pick out first the largest specimens of their kind, then the smallest,
+then a series, as you have room for them, of the most perfect; and
+finally those which show any peculiarity of structure or marking. Try,
+too, to get young forms as well as adult, for the young are often very
+different in appearance from the full-grown shell. Mark on them,
+especially on such as you have found yourself, the locality they came
+from, as it is very important to the shell collector to know this,
+since specimens common enough in one district are often rare in
+another. Either write the name of the place in ink on a corner of the
+shell itself, or gum a small label just inside it, or simply number
+it, and write the name of the place with a corresponding number
+against it in a book kept for the purpose. Next select a tray large
+enough to hold all you have of this kind; place a piece of cotton wool
+at the bottom, and lay your shells upon it. For small shells, however,
+this method is not suitable, as the cotton wool acts on them like a
+spring mattress, and they are liable on the least shock to be jerked
+out of their trays and lost. This difficulty may be met by cutting a
+piece of cardboard so that it just fits into your tray, and then
+gumming the shells on to it in rows; but remember that, in this plan
+of mounting, it is impossible to take the shells up and examine them
+on all sides as you do the loose ones, and so you must mount a good
+many, and place them in many different positions, so that they may be
+seen from as many points of view as possible. The gum used should
+always have nearly one-sixth of its bulk of pure glycerine added to
+it; this prevents it from becoming brittle when dry, otherwise your
+specimens would be liable after a time to break away from the card and
+get lost. If the shells will not stay in the position you require,
+wedge them up with little pieces of cork until the gum is dry.
+
+When the shells are mounted, you must try, if you have not already
+done so, to get the proper names for them; it is as important to be
+able to call shells by their right names as it is to know people by
+theirs. The commoner sorts you will be able to name from the figures
+of them given in text-books, such as those quoted in the list at the
+end of this little work; but some you will find it very difficult to
+name, and it will then be necessary to ask friends who have
+collections to help you, or to take them to some museum and compare
+them with the named specimens there exhibited. When the right name is
+discovered, your label must then be written in a very small, neat
+hand, and gummed to the edge of the tray or on the card if your
+specimens are mounted. At the top you put the Latin name, ruling a
+line underneath it, and then, if you like, add the English name; next,
+put the name of the place and the date at which it was found, thus:--
+
+  =====================================
+      Helix aspersa (Common snail),
+      -----------------------------
+      Lane near Hampstead Heath,
+      July 10th, 1882.
+  =====================================
+
+A double red ink line ruled at the top and bottom will add a finished
+appearance to it.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO CLASSIFY THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+All the foregoing processes, except the naming of your specimens, are
+more or less mechanical, and are only the means to the end--a properly
+arranged collection. For, however well a collection may be mounted, it
+is practically useless if the different shells composing it be not
+properly classified. By classification is meant the bringing together
+those kinds that most resemble each other, first of all into large
+groups having special characteristics in common, and then by
+subdividing these into other smaller groups, and so on. Thus the
+animal kingdom is divided, first of all, into _Sub-kingdoms_, then
+each _Sub-kingdom_ into so many _Classes_ containing those which have
+further characteristics in common, the _Classes_ into _Orders_, the
+_Orders_ into _Families_, the _Families_ into _Genera_, and these
+again into species or kinds.
+
+The Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, of whose protecting shells your
+collection consists, form a sub-kingdom, and are subdivided into four
+classes:--
+
+  1. Cephalopoda.
+  2. Gasteropoda.
+  3. Pteropoda.
+  4. Lamellibranchiata (or Conchifera).
+
+And these again into Families, Genera, and Species.
+
+The space at our disposal being limited, it is impossible to do more
+than furnish some general outlines of the different forms. For further
+details it will be necessary to refer to one of the larger works, a
+list of which will be found on the last page.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 4. _Argonauta Argo._]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 5. "Bone" of _Sepia officinalis_.]
+
+
+CLASS I.--The CEPHALOPODA (Head-footed) contains those mollusca that,
+like the common Octopus, have a number of feet (or arms) set round
+the mouth, and is divided into those having two gills. (Order I.
+Dibranchiata); and those with four (Order II. Tetrabranchiata). Order
+I. is again divided into: (_a._) Those with _eight_ feet like the
+Argonaut (or Paper-nautilus, Fig. 4), which fable has so long endowed
+with the power of sailing on the surface of the ocean, (it is even
+represented in one book as propelling itself through the air!) and the
+common Octopus. (_b._) Those with _ten_ feet, such as the Loligo (or
+Squid, Fig. 6), whose delicate internal shell so much resembles a pen
+in shape; the Cuttle-fish (Sepia, Figs. 5 & 7), whose so-called
+"bone" (once largely used as an ink eraser) is frequently found on our
+southern coasts; and the pretty little _Spirula_ (Fig. 8).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 6. _Loligo vulgaris_, and "Pen."]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 7. _Sepia officinalis._]
+
+The only representative of the four-gilled order now living is the
+well-known Pearly Nautilus; but in former times the Tetrabranchiata
+were extremely numerous, especially the _Ammonites_.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 8. _Spirula_.]
+
+
+CLASS II.--GASTEROPODA (Belly-footed) comprises those mollusca which,
+like the common snail, creep on the under-surface of the body, and
+with one exception (_Chiton_, Fig. 20) their shells are univalve
+(_i.e._, composed of one piece). But before we go further, it may be
+well to point out the names given to different parts of a univalve
+shell. The aperture whence the animal issues is called the _mouth_,
+and its outer edge the _lip_; each turn of the shell is a _whorl_; the
+last and biggest, the _body-whorl_, the whorls, from the point at the
+top, or _apex_, down to the mouth form the _spire_; and the line where
+the whorls join each other is called the _suture_. The axis of the
+shell around which the whorls are coiled is sometimes open or hollow,
+and the shell is then said to be _umbilicated_ (as in Fig. 3_b_); when
+closely coiled, a pillar of shell, or _columella_, is left (as in Fig.
+9). Sometimes the corner of the mouth farthest from the spire and
+next the columella, is produced into a channel, the _anterior canal_
+(as in Fig. 9); whilst where the mouth meets the base of the spire
+there may be a kind of notch which is termed the _posterior canal_.
+Most Gasteropods are _dextral_, that is to say, the mouth is to the
+right of the axis as you look at it; a few, however, are _sinistral_,
+or wound to the left (like _Physa_); whilst reversed varieties of both
+kinds are met with.
+
+Gasteropods of the first order have comb-like gills placed in advance
+of the heart, and are hence termed PROSOBRANCHIATA. They are divided
+into two groups: (_a_) _Siphonostomata_ (Tube-mouthed), in which the
+animal has a long proboscis, and a tube, or siphon, from the
+breathing-chamber that passes along the anterior canal of the shell,
+which in this group is well developed. They have a horny operculum, or
+lid, with which to close the aperture. (_b_) _Holostomata_ (or
+Whole-mouthed). In these the siphon is not so produced, and does not
+want to be protected; accordingly the mouth of the shell is _entire_,
+_i.e._ has no canal. The operculum is horny or shelly. The former
+(group _a_) includes several families:
+
+1. _Strombidĉ_, comprising shells, like the huge _Strombus_, or
+"Fountain-shell," which is so often used to adorn the mantelpiece or
+rockery, and from which cameos are cut.
+
+2. The _Muricidĉ_, of which the _Murex_ (an extraordinary form of this
+is the "Venus' comb," _Murex tenuispina_, Fig. 9), the Mitre-shells,
+and the Red-Whelks (_Fusus_) are examples.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 9. _Murex tenuispina._]
+
+3. The _Buccinidĉ_, taking its name from its type, the Common Whelk
+(_Buccinum undatum_), and including such other forms as the Dog-Whelk
+(_Nassa_), the _Purpura_, the strange _Magilus_, and the lovely
+Harp-Shells and Olives (Fig. 10).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 10. _Oliva tessellata._]
+
+4. The _Cassididĉ_, or "Helmet-Shells." _Cassis rufa_, from West
+Africa, is noted as the best species of shell for cameo engraving;
+with it are classed the "Tun" (_Dolium_) and the great "Triton"
+(_Triton tritonis_), such as the sea-gods of mythology are represented
+blowing into by way of trumpet, and which are used by the Polynesian
+Islanders to this day instead of horns.
+
+5. The _Conidĉ_, whose type, the "Cone-shell" (Fig. 11), is at once
+distinctive and handsome, but which in the living state is covered by
+a dull yellowish-brown periostracum that has to be carefully removed
+before the full beauties of the shell are displayed.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 11. Conus vermiculatus.]
+
+6. The _Volutidĉ_, embracing the Volutes and "Boat-shells" (_Cymba_).
+
+7. The _Cyprĉidĉ_, or Cowries (Fig. 12), which owe their high polish
+to the size of the shell-secreting organ (mantle), whose edges meet
+over the back of the shell, concealing it within its folds. With these
+is classed the "China-shell" (_Ovulum_).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 12. Cyprĉa oniscus.]
+
+The second group, or _Holostomata_, is divided into nineteen families,
+beginning with--
+
+1. The _Naticidĉ_, whose type, the genus _Natica_, is well known to
+all shell-collectors through the common _Natica monilifera_ of our
+coasts.
+
+2. The _Cancellariadĉ_, in which the shells are cancellated or
+cross-barred by a double series of lines running, one set with the
+whorls, and the other across them.
+
+3. The _Pyramidellidĉ_, which are high-spired, elongated, and slender
+shells, with the exception of the genus _Stylina_, which lives
+attached to the spines of sea-urchins or buried in living star-fishes
+and corals. 4. The _Solaridĉ_ or "Staircase-shells," whose umbilicus
+is so wide that, as you look down it, the projecting edges of the
+whorls appear like a winding staircase. It is a very short-spired
+shell.
+
+5. The _Scalaridĉ_, "Wentle-traps" or "Ladder-shells," which may be
+readily recognised from their white and lustrous appearance and the
+strong rib-like markings of the periodic mouths that encircle the
+whorls.
+
+6. The _Cerithiadĉ_, or "Horn-shells," which are very high-spired, and
+whose columella and anterior canal are produced in the form of an
+impudent little tail, the effect of which, however, in the genus
+_Aporrhais_, or "Spout-shells," is taken away by the expanded and
+thickened lip.
+
+7. In the next family, the _Turritellidĉ_, or "Tower-shells," the type
+Turritella is spiral; but in the allied form _Vermetus_, though the
+spire begins in the natural manner, it goes off into a twisted tube
+resembling somewhat an ill-made corkscrew. The mouth in this family is
+often nearly round.
+
+8. The _Melaniadĉ_, and 9. The _Paludinidĉ_, are fresh-water shells.
+The former are turreted, and the latter conical or globular. Both are
+furnished with opercula, but the mouth in the first is more or less
+oval and frequently notched in front, while in the latter it is
+rounded and entire.
+
+10. The _Litorinidĉ_, or Periwinkles, need no word from us.
+
+11. The _Calyptrĉidĉ_ comprise the "Bonnet-limpet," or _Pileopsis_,
+and "Cup-and-saucer-limpets" (_Calyptrĉa_). They may be described
+briefly as limpets with traces of a spire left. The genus _Phorus_,
+however, is spiral, and resembles a _Trochus_. They have been called
+"Carriers" from their strange habit of building any stray fragments of
+shell or stone into their house, thus rendering themselves almost
+indistinguishable from the ground on which they crawl.
+
+12. The _Turbinidĉ_, or "Top-shells," are next in order, and of these
+the great _Turbo marmoreus_ is a well-known example, being prepared as
+an ornament for the whatnot or mantelpiece by removing the external
+layer of the shell in order to display the brilliant pearly nacre
+below. These mollusca close their mouths with a horny operculum,
+coated on its exterior by a thick layer of porcelain-like shelly
+matter. With them are classed the familiar _Trochus_ and other closely
+allied genera.
+
+13. The _Haliotidĉ_ offer in the representative genus _Haliotis_, or
+the "Ear-shell," another familiar mantelpiece ornament.
+
+14. The _Ianthinidĉ_, or "Violet-snails," that float about in
+mid-Atlantic upon the gulf-weed, and at certain seasons secrete a
+curious float or raft, to which their eggs are attached, are next in
+order, and are followed by--
+
+15. The _Fissurellidĉ_, or "Key-hole" and "Notched limpets," whose
+name sufficiently describes them. To these succeed--
+
+16. The _Neritidĉ_, an unmistakable group of globular shells, having
+next to no spire and a very glossy exterior, generally ornamented with
+a great variety of spots and bands.
+
+17. The _Patellidĉ_, or true Limpets, are well known to every sea-side
+visitor: large species, as much as two inches across, are to be found
+on the coast of Devon, but these are pigmies compared with a South
+American variety which attains a foot in diameter.
+
+18. The _Dentaliadĉ_, represented by the genus _Dentalium_, or
+"Tooth-shell," are simply slightly curved tubes, open at both ends and
+tapering from the mouth downwards, and cannot be mistaken.
+
+19. Lastly, we have the _Chitonidĉ_, whose single genus _Chiton_
+possesses shells differing from all other mollusca in being composed
+of eight plates overlapping each other, and in appearance reminding
+one of the wood-louse. This animal is not only like the limpet in form
+but also in habits, being found adhering to the rocks and stones at
+low-water.
+
+
+Order II.--PULMONIFERA. Contains the air-breathing _Gasteropods_, and
+to it consequently belong all the terrestrial mollusca, though some
+few aquatic genera are also included. The members of this order have
+an air-chamber instead of gills, and are divided into two groups,
+(_a_) those without an operculum, and (_b_) those having an operculum.
+Foremost in the first group stands the great family--
+
+1. _Helicidĉ_, named after its chief representative, the genus
+_Helix_. It also includes the "Glass-shell" (_Vitrina_), the
+"Amber-shell" (_Succinea_), and such genera as _Bulimus_, _Achatina_,
+_Pupa_, _Clausilia_ (Fig. 13), etc., which differ from the typical
+_Helix_ in appearance, possessing as they do comparatively high
+spires.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 13. _Clausilia biplicata._]
+
+2. The _Limacidĉ_, or "slugs," follow next; of these only one, the
+genus _Testacella_, has an external shell stuck on the end of its
+tail; the rest have either a more or less imperfect shell concealed
+underneath the mantle, or else none at all.
+
+3. The _Oncidiadĉ_ are slug-like, and devoid of shell.
+
+4. The _Limnĉidĉ_ embrace the "Pond-snails," chief of whom is the
+well-known, high-spired _Limnĉa stagnalis_. Other shells of this
+family associated with _Limnĉa_ are, however, very different in shape;
+for instance, _Physa_ has its whorls turning to the left instead of to
+the right; _Ancylus_ (Fig. 24), or the freshwater limpet, is of course
+limpet-like; while _Planorbis_, or the "Coil-shell," is wound like a
+watch-spring.
+
+5. The _Auriculidĉ_ includes both spiral shells, such as _Auricula_
+and _Charychium_, and a limpet-like one _Siphonaria_.
+
+At the head of group _b_ stands 1, _Cyclostomidĉ_. _Cyclostoma
+elegans_ is a common shell on our chalk-downs, and well illustrates
+its family, in which the mouth is nearly circular. Foreign examples of
+this genus are much esteemed by collectors. The other two families
+are, (2) _Helicinidĉ_ and (3) _Aciculidĉ_.
+
+
+Order III.--OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. These animals carry their gills exposed
+on the back and sides, towards the rear of the body. Only a few have
+any shell. 1. The _Tornatellidĉ_, which have a stout little spiral
+shell. 2. The _Bullidĉ_, in which the spire is concealed (Fig. 26). 3.
+The _Aplysiadĉ_, where the shell is flat and oblong or triangular in
+shape. The remaining families are slug-like and shell-less.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 14. _Bulla ampulla._]
+
+
+Order IV.--NUCLEOBRANCHIATA. Derives its name from the fact that the
+animals constituting it have their respiratory and digestive organs in
+a sort of nucleus on the posterior part of the back, and covered by a
+minute shell. As they are pelagic, the shells are not readily to be
+obtained. They are divided into two families, _Firolidĉ_ and
+_Atlantidĉ_.
+
+
+CLASS III.--PTEROPODA. Like the last, these pretty little mollusca are
+ocean-swimmers. The members of one division of them, to which the
+_Cleodora_ belongs, is furnished with iridescent external shells.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 15. _Petunculus guerangeri._]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 16. _Venus plicata._]
+
+
+CLASS IV.--The LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Plate-gilled), or CONCHIFERA
+(Shell-bearing), includes the mollusca commonly known as "bivalves,"
+the animal being snugly hidden between two more or less closely
+fitting shelly valves. The oysters, cockles, etc., are examples of
+this class. The two valves are fastened together near their points, or
+beaks (technically called _umbones_), by a tough elastic ligament,
+sometimes supplemented by an internal cartilage. If this be severed
+and the valves parted, it will be found that in most cases they are
+further articulated by projecting ridges or points called the _teeth_,
+which, when the valves are together, interlock and form a hinge; the
+margin of the shell on which the teeth and ligament are situated is
+termed the _hinge-line_. A bivalve is said to be _equivalve_ when the
+two shells composing it are of the same size, _inequivalve_ when they
+are not. If the umbones are in the middle, the shell is _equilateral_
+(Fig. 15); but _inequilateral_ when they are nearer one side than the
+other (Fig. 16). If the shell be an oyster or a scallop, you will find
+on the inside a single circular scar-like mark near the centre; this
+is the point to which the muscles that close the valves and hold them
+so tightly together are attached. In the majority of bivalves,
+however, there are two such muscular impressions, or scars, one on
+either side of each valve of the shell. The former group on this
+account are often called _Monomyaria_ (having one shell-muscle), and
+the latter _Dimyaria_ (having two shell-muscles). In the last named
+the two muscular impressions are united by a fine groove (or
+_pallial-line_), which in some runs parallel to the margin of the
+shell (Fig. 15), whilst in others it makes a bend in (_pallial-sinus_)
+on one side of the valve towards the centre (Fig. 16). In Monomyaria
+it will be found running parallel to the margin of the shell. It marks
+the line of attachment of the mantle or shell-secreting organ of the
+animal to the shell which grows by the addition of fresh matter along
+its edges, so that the concentric curved markings so often seen on the
+exterior correspond in their origin with the periodic mouths of the
+Gasteropods. The bivalves are all aquatic, and many bury themselves in
+the sand or mud by means of a fleshy, muscular foot. These are
+furnished with two siphons, or fleshy tubes, sometimes united,
+sometimes separate, through which they respire, drawing the water in
+through one and expelling it by the other. Those kinds whose habit it
+is to bury themselves below the surface of the mud or sand are
+furnished with long retractile siphons, and to admit of their
+withdrawal into the shell, the mantle is at this point attached
+farther back, giving rise to the _pallial-sinus_ above described; this
+sinus is deeper as the siphons are proportionately longer, and in
+many cases, too, the valves do not meet at this point when the shell
+is closed.
+
+Attention to these particulars is necessary when arranging your
+bivalves, as on them their classification depends, the class being
+divided into--
+
+_a._ ASIPHONIDA (Siphonless).
+
+_b._ SIPHONIDA _Integro-pallialia_ (with Siphons).--Pallial-line entire.
+
+_c._ SIPHONIDA _Sinu-pallialia_ (with Siphons).--Sinus in pallial-line.
+
+
+DIVISION _a_.--ASIPHONIDA--is next subdivided into--
+
+1. The _Ostreidĉ_, or oysters, which are deservedly a distinct family
+in themselves.
+
+2. The _Anomiadĉ_, comprising the multiform and curiously constructed
+_Anomia_, with the "Window-shells" (_Placuna_).
+
+3. The _Pectinidĉ_, taking its name from the genus _Pecten_, or
+"Scallop-shells," of which one kind (_P. maximus_) is frequently to be
+seen at the fishmongers' shops. The "Thorney oysters" (_Spondylus_)
+take rank here, and are highly esteemed by collectors, one specimen
+indeed having been valued at £25!
+
+4. The _Aviculidĉ_, or "Wing-shells," among which are numbered the
+"Pearl-oyster" of commerce (_Meleagrina margaritifera_). The strange
+T-shaped "Hammer oyster" belongs to this family, as does also the
+_Pinna_. The Pinnas, like the mussels and some other bivalves, moor
+themselves to rocks by means of a number of threads spun by the foot
+of the mollusc, and termed the _byssus_, which in this genus is finer,
+more silky, than in any other, and has been woven into articles of
+dress.
+
+5. The _Mytilidĉ_, or mussels, including the _Lithodomus_, or
+"Date-shell," which bores into corals and even hard limestone rocks.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17. Hinge-teeth of _Arca barbata_.]
+
+6. The _Arcadĉ_, or "Noah's-ark-shells," characterized by their long
+straight hinge-line set with numerous very fine teeth (Fig. 17). The
+"Nut-shell" (_Nucula_) belongs to this family.
+
+7. The _Trigoniadĉ_, whose single living genus, the handsome _Trigonia_
+(Fig. 18), is confined to the Australian coast-line, whereas in times
+now long past they had a world-wide distribution.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 18. _Trigonia margaritacea._]
+
+8. The _Unionidĉ_, comprising the fresh-water mussels.
+
+
+DIVISION _b_.--SIPHONIDA _Integropallialia_.
+
+1. The _Chamidĉ_, represented by the reef-dwelling _Chama_.
+
+2. The _Tridacnidĉ_, whose sole genus _Tridacna_ contains the largest
+specimen of the whole class of bivalves, the shells sometimes
+measuring two feet and more across.
+
+3. The _Cardiadĉ_, or cockles.
+
+4. The _Lucinidĉ_, in which the valves are nearly circular, and as a
+rule not very attractive in appearance, though the "Basket-shell"
+(_Corbis_) has an elegantly sculptured exterior.
+
+5. The _Cycladidĉ_, whose typical genus _Cyclas_, with its round form
+and thin horny shell, is to be found in most of our ponds and streams.
+
+6. The _Astartidĉ_, a family of shells having very strongly developed
+teeth, and the surface of whose valves is often concentrically ribbed.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 19. Hinge of _Cardita sinuata_.]
+
+7. The _Cyprinidĉ_, which have very solid oval or elongated shells and
+conspicuous teeth (Fig. 19). The "Heart-cockle" (_Isocardia_) belongs to
+this family.
+
+
+DIVISION _c_.--SIPHONIDA _Sinu-pallialia_.
+
+1. The _Veneridĉ_. The hard, solid shells of this family are for
+elegance of form and beauty of colour amongst the most attractive a
+collector can posses. Their shells are more or less oval and have
+three teeth in each valve (Fig. 20).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 20. Hinge of _Cytherea crycina_.]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 21. Hinge of _Lutraria elliptica_]
+
+2. The _Mactridĉ_ are somewhat triangular in shape, and may be at once
+recognised by the pit for the hinge-ligament, which also assumes that
+form, as seen in the accompanying figure of _Lutraria elliptica_
+(Fig. 21).
+
+3. The _Tellinidĉ_ comprise some of the most delicately tinted, both
+externally and internally, of all shells. In some, coloured bands
+radiate from the umbones, and well bear out the fanciful name of
+"Sunset shells" bestowed upon them. Their valves are generally much
+compressed.
+
+4. The _Solenidĉ_, or "Razor-shells," rank next, and are readily
+recognised by the extreme length of the valves in proportion to their
+width, and also by their gaping at both ends.
+
+5. The _Myacidĉ_ or "Gapers," have the siphonal ends wide apart (in
+the genus _Mya_ both ends gape), and are further characterized by the
+triangular process for the cartilage, which projects into the interior
+of the shell. One valve (the left) is generally smaller than the
+other.
+
+6. The _Anatinidĉ_ have thin, often inequivalve pearly shells. The
+genus _Pandora_ is the form most frequently met with in collections.
+
+7. The _Gastrochĉnidĉ_ embraces two genera (_Gastrochĉna_ and
+_Saxicava_) of boring mollusca, which perforate shells and rocks, and
+also, the remarkable tube-like "Watering-pot-shell" (_Aspergillum_)
+which is hardly recognisable as a bivalve at all.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 22. _Pholas dactylus._]
+
+8. The _Pholadidĉ_ concludes the list of bivalves, and comprises the
+common rock-boring Pholas (Fig. 22) of our coasts and the wood-boring
+shipworm "Teredo" (Fig. 23).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Although the _Brachiopoda_, or "Lamp-shells," are not true mollusca,
+they are not very far removed from them, and are so often to be found
+in cabinets that it will not do to pass them over, especially since in
+past times they were very abundant, an enormous number occurring in
+the fossil state. Only eight genera are now living. Shells belonging
+to this class are readily recognised by the fact of one valve being
+larger than the other, and possessing a distinct peak, the apex of
+which is perforated. The _Terebratulidĉ_ are the most extensive family
+of this class.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 23. _Teredo navalis._]
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO ARRANGE THE SHELLS IN THE CABINET.
+
+
+When you have arranged your specimens in the order above indicated,
+proceed to place them in your boxes, arranging and labelling them after
+the manner shown in the accompanying diagram.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |  Class.  |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+ Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  |  Order.  |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |  Family  |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Name.   |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+ Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  | Generic  |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Name.   |          |          +----------+          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+  Family  +----------+
+  |          |          |          |  Name.   |          |
+  | Species. | Species. | Species. +----------+ Species. |
+  |          |          |          | Generic  |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+  Name.   +----------+
+  |          |          |          +----------+          |
+  |          | Generic  |          |          |          |
+  | Species. |  Name.   | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |          |          |          | Generic  |
+  | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |  Name.   |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |          | Generic  |          |          |
+  | Species. | Species. |  Name.   | Species. | Species. |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+On the lid, or on a slip of paper or card placed at the head of your
+columns of trays, write the class and order, with its proper number
+(I., II., etc., as the case may be); then at the top of your left-hand
+column place the family and its number, and under it the name of the
+first genus. The species (one in each tray) come next, then the name
+of the next genus following it, succeeded by its species, and so on.
+
+The object of the young collector should be to obtain examples of as
+many _genera_ as possible, since a collection in which a great number
+of genera are represented is far more useful and instructive than one
+composed of a great many species referable to but few genera. He will
+also find it very convenient to separate the British Shells from his
+general collection, sub-dividing them for convenience into "Land and
+Fresh-water," and "Marine." Of these he should endeavour to get every
+species, and even variety, making the thing as complete as possible.
+Or a separate collection may be made of all those kinds which he can
+find within a certain distance of his own home. A collection of this
+sort possesses, in addition to its scientific worth, an interest of
+its own, owing to the local associations that invariably connect
+themselves with it.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA, SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE
+NUMBER OF SPECIES BELONGING TO EACH GENUS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.
+
+
+
+CLASS I.--CEPHALOPODA.
+
+
+  ORDER I.--Dibranchiata.
+
+  Section A.--_Octopoda._
+
+  Family.  Genus.      No. of Species.  Distribution.
+
+    1.     Argonauta        4           Tropical seas.
+    2.     Octopus         46           Rocky coasts in temperate and
+                                         tropical regions.
+  Section B.--_Decapoda_.
+
+    3.     Loligo          19           Cosmopolitan.
+    4.     Sepia           30           On all coasts.
+    5.     Spirula          3           All the warmer seas.
+
+
+  ORDER II.--_Tetrabranchiata_.
+
+    6.     Nautilus         3 or 4      Chinese Seas, Indian Ocean,
+                                         Persian Gulf.
+
+
+
+CLASS II.--GASTEROPODA.
+
+
+  ORDER I.--Prosobranchiata.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Siphonostomata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+    1.     Strombus       60      W. Indies, Mediterranean, Red Sea,
+                                   Indian Ocean, Pacific--low water
+                                   to 10 fathoms.
+           Pteroceras     12      India, China.
+    2.     Murex         180      On all coasts.
+           Columbella    200      Sub-tropical regions, in shallow
+                                   water on stones.
+           Mitra         350      Tropical regions, from low water
+                                   to 80 fathoms.
+           Fusus         100      On all coasts.
+    3.     Buccinum       20      Northern seas, from low water to
+                                   140 fathoms.
+           Eburna          9      Red Sea, India, Australia, China,
+                                   Cape of Good Hope.
+           Nassa         210      World-wide--low water to 50 fathoms.
+           Purpura       140      World-wide--low water to 25 fathoms.
+           Harpa           9      Tropical--deep water, sand, muddy
+                                   bottoms.
+           Oliva         117      Sub-tropical--low water to 25 fathoms.
+    4.     Cassis         34      Tropical regions, in shallow water.
+           Dolium         15      Mediterranean, India, China, W.
+                                   Indies, Brazil, New Guinea, Pacific.
+           Triton        100      Temperate and sub-tropical regions,
+                                   from low water to 50 fathoms.
+           Ranella        50      Tropical regions, on rocks and
+                                   coral-reefs.
+           Pyrula         40      Sub-tropical regions, in 17 to 35
+                                   fathoms.
+    5.     Conus         300      Equatorial seas--shallow water to 50
+                                   fathoms.
+           Pleurotoma    500      Almost world-wide--low water to 100
+                                   fathoms.
+    6.     Voluta        100      On tropical coasts, from the shore to
+                                   100 fathoms.
+           Cymba          10      West Coast of Africa, Lisbon, Straits
+                                   of Gibraltar.
+           Marginella     90      Mostly tropical.
+    7.     Cyprĉa        150      Warmer seas of the globe, on rocks
+                                   and coral-reefs.
+           Ovulum         36      Britain, Mediterranean, W. Indies,
+                                   China, W. America.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Holostomata._
+
+    8.     Natica         90      Arctic to tropical regions, on sandy
+                                   and gravelly bottoms, from low water
+                                   to 90 feet.
+           Sigaretus      26      E. and W. Indies, China, Peru.
+    9.     Cancellaria    70      W. Indies, China, S. America, E.
+                                   Archipelago--low water to 40 fathoms.
+   10.     Pyramidella    11      W. Indies, Mauritius, Australia, in
+                                   sandy bays and on shallow mud-banks.
+           Odostomia      35      Britain, Mediterranean, and
+                                   Madeira--low water to 50 fathoms.
+           Chemnitzia     70      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+           Eulima         26      Cuba, Norway, Britain, India,
+                                   Mediterranean, Australia--5
+                                   to 90 fathoms.
+   11.     Solarium       25      Sub-tropical and tropical--widely
+                                   distributed.
+   12.     Scalaria      100      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+   13.     Cerithium     100      World-wide.
+           Potamides      41      Africa and India, in mud of large
+                                   rivers.
+           Aporrhais       3      Labrador, Norway, Britain,
+                                   Mediterranean--20 to 100 fathoms.
+   14.     Turritella     50      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+           Vermetus       31      Portugal, Mediterranean, Africa,
+                                   India.
+   15.     Melania       160      S. Europe, India, Philippines and
+                                   Pacific Islands--in rivers.
+           Melanopsis     20      Spain, Australia, Asia Minor, New
+                                   Zealand--in rivers.
+   16.     Paludina       60      Northern Hemispheres, Africa, India,
+                                   China, etc.--in lakes and rivers.
+           Ampullaria     50      S. America, W. Indies, Africa,
+                                   India--in lakes and rivers.
+   17.     Litorina       40      On all shores.
+           Rissoa         70      World-wide--in shallow water on
+                                   sea-weed to 100 fathoms.
+   18.     Calyptrea      50      World-wide--adherent to rocks, etc.
+           Crepidula      40      West Indies, Mediterranean, Cape of
+                                    Good Hope, Australia.
+           Pileopsis       7      Britain, Norway, Mediterranean, E.
+                                   and W. Indies, Australia.
+           Hipponyx       70      W. Indies, Galapagos, Philippines,
+                                   Australia.
+           Phorus          9      W. Indies, India, Javan and Chinese
+                                   Seas--in deep water.
+   19.     Turbo          60      On the shores of Tropical seas.
+           Phasinella     30      Australia, Pacific, W. Indies,
+                                    Mediterranean.
+           Imperator      20      S. Africa, India, etc.
+           Trochus       150      World-wide--from low water to 100
+                                   fathoms.
+           Rotella        18      India, Philippines, China, New
+                                   Zealand.
+           Stomatella     20      Cape, India, Australia, etc.
+   20.     Haliotis       75      Britain, Canaries, India, Australia,
+                                    California--on rocks at low water.
+           Stomatia       12      Java, Philippines, Pacific, etc.--
+                                   under stones at low water.
+   21.     Ianthina        6      Gregarious in the open seas of the
+                                   Atlantic and Pacific.
+   22.     Fissurella    120      World-wide--on rocks from low water
+                                   to 5 fathoms.
+           Emarginula     26      Britain, Norway, Philippines,
+                                   Australia--from low water to
+                                   90 fathoms.
+   23.     Nerita        116      On the shores of all warm seas.
+           Neritina      110      In fresh waters of all warm countries,
+                                   and in Britain.
+           Navicella      24      India, Mauritius, Moluccas, Australia,
+                                   Pacific--in fresh water, attached
+                                   to stones.
+   24.     Patella       100      On all coasts--adhering to stones and
+                                   rocks.
+   25.     Dentalium      30      World-wide--buried in mud.
+   26.     Chiton        200      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+
+
+  ORDER II.--Pulmonifera.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Inoperculata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+   27.     Helix       1,600 }
+           Succinea       68 }    World-wide--on land in moist places.
+           Bulimus       650 }
+           Achatina      120      World-wide--burrowing at roots and
+                                   bulbs.
+           Pupa          236      World-wide--amongst wet moss.
+           Clausilia     400      Europe and Asia--in moist spots.
+   28.     Limax          22      Europe and Canaries--on land in damp
+                                   localities.
+           Testacella      3      S. Europe, Canaries, and Britain--
+                                   burrowing in gardens.
+   29.     Oncidium       16      Britain, Red Sea, Mediterranean--on
+                                   rocks on the seashore.
+   30.     Limnĉa         50      Europe, Madeira, India, China, N.
+                                   America--in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.
+           Physa          20      America, Europe, S. Africa, India,
+                                   Philippines--in ponds, rivers,
+                                   lakes, etc.
+           Ancylus        14      Europe, N. and S. America--in ponds,
+                                   rivers, lakes, etc.
+           Planorbis     145      Europe, N. America, India, China--in
+                                   ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.
+   31.     Auricula       50      Tropical--in salt marshes.
+           Siphonaria     30      World-wide--between high and low water.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Operculata._
+
+   32.     Cyclostoma     80      S. Europe, Africa        }
+           Cyclophorus   100      India, Philippines       }--on land.
+           Pupina         80      Philippines, New Guinea  }
+   33.     Helicina      150      W. Indies, Philippines, Central
+                                   America, Islands in Pacific--on land.
+   34.     Acicula         5      Britain, Europe, Vanicoro--on leaves
+                                   and at roots of grass.
+           Geomelania     21      Jamaica--on land.
+
+
+  ORDER III.--Opisthobranchiata.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Tectibranchiata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+   35.     Tornatella     16      Red Sea, Philippines, Japan--in deep
+                                   water.
+   36.     Bulla          50      Widely distributed--low water to 30
+                                   fathoms.
+   37.     Aplysia        40      Britain, Norway, W. Indies--low water
+                                   to 15 fathoms on sea-weed.
+   38.     Pleurobranchus 20      Britain, Norway, Mediterranean.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Nudibranchiata._
+
+   39-44.                         All shell-less.
+
+
+  ORDER IV.--Nucleobranchiata.
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+   45.     Firola          8      Atlantic, Mediterranean.
+           Carinaria       5      Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
+   46.     Atlanta        15      Warmer parts of the Atlantic.
+
+
+
+CLASS III.--PTEROPODA.
+
+
+  Division _a_.--_Thecosomata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+    1.     Hyalea         19 }
+           Cleodora       12 }    Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean.
+    2.     Limacina        2      Arctic and Antarctic Seas.
+
+
+  Division _b_.--_Gymnosomata._
+
+    3.     Clio, etc.             Shell-less.
+
+
+
+CLASS IV.--LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
+
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Asiphonida._
+
+    1.    Ostrea         100      World-wide--in estuaries, attached.
+    2.    Anomia          20      India, Australia, China, Ceylon--
+                                   attached to shells from low water
+                                   to 100 fathoms.
+          Placuna          4      Scinde, North Australia, China--in
+                                   brackish water.
+    3.    Pecten         176      World-wide--from 3 to 40 fathoms.
+          Lima            20      Norway, Britain, India, Australia--
+                                   from 1 to 150 fathoms.
+          Spondylus       70      Tropical seas--attached to coral-reefs.
+    4.    Avicula         25      Britain, Mediterranean, India--
+                                   25 fathoms.
+          Perna           18      In tropical seas--attached.
+          Pinna           30      United States, Britain, Mediterranean,
+                                   Australia, Pacific--low water to
+                                   60 fathoms.
+    5.    Mytilus         70      World-wide--between high and low water
+                                   mark.
+          Modiola         70      British and tropical seas--low water
+                                   to 100 fathoms.
+    6.    Arca           400      In warm seas--from low water to 200
+                                   fathoms.
+          Pectunculus     58      West Indies, Britain, New Zealand--
+                                   from 8 to 60 fathoms.
+          Nucula          70      Norway, Japan--from 5 to 100 fathoms.
+    7.    Trigonia         3      Off the coast of Australia.
+    8.    Unio           420      World-wide--in fresh waters.
+          Anodon         100      North America, Europe, Siberia--in
+                                   fresh waters.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Siphonida._
+
+    9.    Chama           50      In tropical seas on coral reefs.
+   10.    Tridacna         7      Indian and Pacific Oceans, Chinese Seas.
+   11.    Cardium        200      World-wide--from the shore line to
+                                   140 fathoms.
+   12.    Lucina          70      Tropical and temperate seas--sandy and
+                                   muddy bottoms--from low water to
+                                   200 fathoms.
+          Kellia          20      Norway, New Zealand, California--low
+                                   water to 200 fathoms.
+   13.    Cyclas          60      Temperate regions--in all fresh waters.
+          Cyrena         130      From the Nile and other rivers to
+                                   China--and in mangrove swamps.
+   14.    Astarte         20      Mostly Arctic--from 30 to 112 fathoms.
+          Crassatella     34      Australia, Philippines, Africa, etc.
+   15.    Cyprina          1      From Britain to the most northerly
+                                   point yet reached--from 5 to
+                                   80 fathoms.
+          Circe           40      Britain, Australia, India, Red Sea--
+                                   8 to 50 fathoms.
+          Isocardia        5      Mediterranean, China, Japan--burrowing
+                                   in sand.
+          Cardita         54      Tropical seas--from shallow water to
+                                   150 fathoms.
+    16.   Venus          176    } World-wide--buried in sand, from low
+          Cytherea       113    }  water to 100 fathoms.
+          Artemis        100      Northern to tropical seas--from low
+                                   water to 100 fathoms.
+          Tapes           80      Widely distributed--burrowing in sand,
+                                   from low water to 100 fathoms.
+          Venerupis       20      Britain, Canaries, India, Peru--in
+                                   crevices of rocks.
+    17.   Mactra         125      World-wide--burrowing in sand.
+          Lutraria        18      Widely distributed--burrowing in sand.
+    18.   Tellina        300      In all seas--from the shore line to
+                                   15 fathoms.
+          Psammobia       50      Britain, Pacific and Indian Oceans--
+                                   from the littoral zone to 100 fathoms.
+          Sanguinolaria   20      W. Indies, Australia, Peru.
+          Semele          60      Brazil, India, China, etc.
+          Donax           68      Norway, Baltic, Britain--in sand near
+                                   low water mark.
+    19.   Solen           33      World-wide--burrowing in sand.
+          Solecurtus      25      Britain, Africa, Madeira,
+                                   Mediterranean--burrowing in sand.
+    20.   Mya             10      North Seas, W. Africa, Philippines,
+                                   etc.--river mouths from low water to
+                                   25 fathoms.
+          Corbula         60      United States, Britain, Norway,
+                                   Mediterranean, W. Africa, China--
+                                   from 15 to 80 fathoms.
+    21.   Anatina         50      India, W. Africa, Philippines,
+                                   New Zealand.
+          Thracia         17      Greenland to Canaries and China--from
+                                   4 to 120 fathoms.
+          Pandora         18      Spitzbergen, Panama, India--from 4 to
+                                   110 fathoms, burrowing in sand and mud.
+    22.   Gastrochĉna     10      W. Indies, Britain, Red Sea, Pacific
+                                   Islands--from shore line to 30 fathoms.
+          Saxicava                Arctic Seas, Britain, Mediterranean,
+                                   Canaries and the Cape--in crevices
+                                   and boring into limestone and rocks.
+          Aspergillum     21      Red Sea, Java, New Zealand--in sand.
+    23.   Pholas          32      Almost universal--from low water to
+                                   25 fathoms.
+          Xylophaga        2      Norway, Britain, S. America--boring
+                                   into floating wood.
+          Teredo          14      In tropical seas--from low water to
+                                   100 fathoms.
+
+
+
+
+SOME WORKS OF REFERENCE.
+
+
+MOLLUSCA IN GENERAL.
+
+"A Manual of Mollusca." By Dr. S. P. Woodward.
+
+"Tabular View of the Orders and Families of the Mollusca." Published by
+the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
+
+"Cassell's Natural History," latest edition, article on the Mollusca. By
+Dr. Henry Woodward.
+
+
+BRITISH MOLLUSCA.
+
+"A History of British Mollusca and their Shells." By Professor E. Forbes
+and S. Hanley.
+
+"British Conchology." By J. G. Jeffreys.
+
+"Common Shells of the Sea-shore." By Rev. J. G. Wood.
+
+
+BRITISH LAND AND FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCA.
+
+"Land and Fresh-water Mollusca indigenous to the British Isles." By
+Lovell Reeve.
+
+"A Plain and Easy Account of the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Great
+Britain." By Ralph Tate.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+FOSSILS.
+
+BY
+
+B. B. WOODWARD.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSILS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+Geology is of all "hobbies" the one best calculated not only to develop
+the physical powers, but also, if pursued with any degree of
+earnestness, to train and extend the mental faculties. To study geology
+properly, the rocks themselves must be visited and carefully observed,
+their appearance noted, and the fossils, if any, which they contain,
+collected. This necessitates many a pleasant walk into the open country
+to quarries and cuttings, or rambles along the sea-shore to cliffs which
+may be worth investigating, whilst botany, entomology, or any other
+congenial pursuit, may be followed on the way; for natural science in
+its different branches has so many points of connection that it is
+impossible to study one of them without increasing one's interest in,
+and knowledge of, all the others. Again, in arranging, classifying, and
+studying at home the specimens collected on these expeditions, many an
+hour may be usefully spent; habits of exactitude and neatness are
+acquired; whilst in endeavouring to draw correct conclusions as to the
+way in which particular rocks were formed, and by what agencies brought
+to their present position, the reasoning faculties are exercised and
+developed.
+
+The existence of fossil shells and bones in various strata of the
+earth's crust attracted attention at a very early date of the world's
+history; the Egyptian priests were aware of the existence of marine
+shells in the hills bounding the Nile valley, and from this fact
+Herodotus drew the conclusion that the sea formerly covered the spot.
+The bones of the larger mammalia (rhinoceros, elephant, etc.), were,
+however, thought by the ancients to be human, and hence arose the idea
+of a race of giants having existed at some previous period of the
+earth's history. It was not, however, until near the end of the last
+century that geology began to be recognised as a science, and the true
+bearing of fossils in relation to the rocks in which they were found was
+conclusively proved. William Smith in England, and Werner in Germany,
+while working independently of each other, both came to the same
+conclusion, viz. that the numerous strata invariably rested on each
+other in a certain order, and that this order was never inverted,[1]
+whilst William Smith in addition proved that each group of rocks, and
+even each stratum, had its own peculiar set of fossils, by which it
+might be recognised wherever it occurred. From that time forth the study
+of the various fossils began to be considered as a separate science
+apart from that of the beds containing them; this is now known as
+Palĉontology, the study of the composition of the rocks themselves being
+termed Petrology.
+
+   [1] Except in such cases where the rocks themselves have been
+       displaced by movements of the earth's crust.
+
+At this moment, however, we are less concerned with the study of rocks
+and fossils than with the best and simplest way of collecting,
+preparing, and arranging specimens as a means to this study.
+
+
+
+
+THE CABINET.
+
+
+With regard to the cabinet for such specimens as you are able to
+collect, the same advice holds good as that given in a previous Manual
+(The Young Collector's Shell Book), namely, the simpler the cabinet the
+better, though of course card-board boxes would not as a rule be strong
+enough to stand the weight of the specimens, and hence it is advisable
+to have wooden ones. The boxes in which Oakey's Wellington Knife-powder
+is sent out (they measure about 15 in. × 10 in. × 3 in.) are on the
+whole the most convenient size, and are easily obtainable at any oil and
+colourman's. These, when painted over with Berlin Black, after first
+removing the external labels, look very neat. The inside may be papered
+according to taste, when the trays may be arranged in order ready for
+the reception of your specimens.[2]
+
+   [2] For description of trays, see "The Young Collector's Shell-Book."
+
+
+
+
+IMPLEMENTS REQUIRED WHEN COLLECTING.
+
+
+A certain amount of apparatus is needful in collecting geological
+specimens. It is necessary to break open the hard rocks in order to get
+at the fossils within, and for this purpose a strong hammer is required.
+One end of the hammer-head should be square, tapering, slightly, to a
+flat striking face; for when thus shaped the edges and corners are less
+likely to break off; the other side should be produced into a rather
+long, flat, and slightly curved pick, terminating in a chisel-edge at
+right-angles to the handle; the total length of the head should not
+exceed 9½ in., the striking face being 3 in. from the centre of the eye
+in which the handle (18 in. long) is inserted; the latter should be made
+of the toughest ash, American hickory, or "green-heart," and fixed in
+with an iron wedge ("roughed" to prevent its coming out again), taking
+care that ĵ in. of the handle protrudes on the other side. It is the
+usual practice, but a mistaken one, to cut it off level with the hammer
+head, which is likely, under these circumstances, to come off after it
+has been in use for a time, whereas, by leaving a small portion of the
+wedged-out end projecting, this mischance is avoided, and your weapon
+will not fail even when used to drag its owner up a stiff ascent. It is
+better to shape and fix the handle yourself, as by this means you can
+not only cut it to fit your hand, but may rely upon its being properly
+fastened in. By filing grooves around it an inch apart, it will serve to
+take rough measurements with, while a firm grasp may be insured by
+bees-waxing instead of polishing it. Another and much smaller hammer
+will also be necessary, chiefly for home use, to trim the specimens
+before putting them away in the cabinet; the head of this hammer must
+not be more than 2½ inches long, the handle springing from the centre;
+one end has a flat striking face, square in section, the other, instead
+of being formed like a pick, is wedge-shaped, the sharp edge being at
+right-angles to the handle. Next to a hammer, a cold chisel is
+indispensable to the collector, since without its aid many a choice
+specimen embedded in the middle of a mass of rock too large to break
+with the hammer would have to be left behind. There is one thing,
+however, to beware of in using this tool--it has sometimes to be hit
+with great force, and should you chance to miss it and strike your hand
+instead, the result may be more serious than even a severe bruise. To
+prevent this, procure from the shoemaker or saddler a piece of thick
+leather, about 4 inches in diameter, having a hole cut in the centre
+through which to pass the shank of the chisel, and, thus protected, you
+may wield the hammer with impunity.
+
+For digging fossils out of clay, an old, stout knife, such as the
+worn-down stump of a carver, is handy, and in sandy beds an ordinary
+garden trowel is very useful, whilst in a chalk-pit a small saw is
+sometimes of great aid in extricating a desirable specimen. The same may
+be said of an ordinary carpenter's wood-chisel. For picking up small and
+delicate specimens, a pair of forceps should be carried, whilst without
+a pocket lens no true naturalist ever stirs abroad. An ordinary stout
+canvas satchel, such as is commonly used by schoolboys, is the best
+thing for carrying home your specimens; this may be made much stronger
+by the addition of two short strips of leather stitched on the back and
+running, one from each ring, to which the strap passing over the
+shoulder is fastened, down to the bottom of the bag; by leaving a small
+portion unstitched near the bottom of each of these, wide enough for the
+shoulder-strap to pass through, the satchel may at a moment's notice be
+slung knapsackwise on the shoulders--a method of carrying it which is,
+as all who have tried it know, by far the most convenient when it is
+heavily laden or not in immediate requisition. A stout leather belt may
+be worn in which to carry all your hammers, supporting it on the side
+where the heavy hammer hangs by a band passing over the opposite
+shoulder. Before starting on an excursion, make a practice of seeing
+that you have everything with you, or when the critical moment comes,
+and some choice and fragile specimen is ready to be borne off, you may
+find that you are without the means necessary for taking it home. For
+ordinary hard specimens, newspaper well crumpled around them is without
+its equal, but some of the more delicate must be first wrapped in tissue
+paper or even cotton-wool, whilst the most fragile fossils should be
+packed in tins with bran or sawdust, the particles of which fill in all
+the corners and press equally everywhere, a useful faculty which cotton
+wool does not possess. When neither of these are to be obtained, dry
+sand will answer quite as well, though it is heavier to carry.
+
+Although not absolutely necessary in the field, it is often useful to
+have a small bottle of acid in your pocket (nitric acid diluted to
+1-12th with distilled water is the best) with which to test for
+limestones; a drop of acid placed on a rock will, if there be any
+carbonate of lime in it, immediately begin to fizz. Finally, every young
+collector should carry a note-book, and carefully record in it what he
+sees in each pit he visits, while, if it can be procured or borrowed, a
+geological map of the district you are exploring is a great help, for
+with its aid and that of a good compass you become practically
+independent of much extraneous assistance.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO USE YOUR IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+We will suppose by way of illustration that near us flows a river, on
+the rising ground above which is a pit that we propose to visit for the
+purpose of putting our apparatus into practical operation. When we have
+reached the floor of the pit, and stand looking up at the section before
+us, we are at first rather puzzled as to what the beds, which we see
+before us, are; for as the pit has not been worked for some time, its
+sides are partially overgrown with grass, and in places bits and pieces
+of the upper beds have fallen down and form a heap beneath which the
+lower ones lie buried. We must therefore make our way to those spots
+where the beds are left clear, and find out, if possible, what they are.
+By climbing up one of the heaps of fallen earth (_talus_) we reach the
+top, where, first of all, under the roots of the grass and shrubs, we
+find the mould in which these grow, and which is formed of the broken up
+(_disintegrated_) rocks forming the still higher ground above, and which
+the rains, frosts and snows, aided afterwards by the earthworms, have
+converted into mould. This, geologically speaking, is called _surface
+soil_, and is here about two feet deep. Just below it we find a layer of
+coarse gravel; the pebbles of which this is composed are of all sorts,
+sizes, and shapes, and are stained a deep brown by oxide of iron. Most
+of them are flints, and by diligent search you may find casts and
+impressions in these of sponges, shells, spines of sea urchins, etc.
+Flints, whether from gravel or their parent rock the chalk, are easiest
+broken by a light smart tap of the hammer, though when it is desired to
+shape them for the cabinet a soft iron hammer should be used, and the
+piece to be shaped placed on a soft pad on the knee, for when struck
+with a steel hammer flints splinter in all directions, and often through
+the very portion you most desire to preserve. In one spot we find a mass
+of sand included in the gravel; this mass is thickest in the middle, and
+tapers away towards each end, its total length being about fifty feet.
+Could we see the whole mass, we should probably find it to be a patch
+lying on the gravel and thinning out all around its edges; in other
+words it would be shaped like a lens--"_lenticular_" as geologists term
+it. When we examine this mass more closely, we find that the layers of
+sand do not run parallel with the bed, but are inclined in different
+directions, sometimes lying one way, sometimes another. This _false
+bedding_ is due to the sand having been thrown down in waters agitated
+by strong currents that swept over the spot, now in one direction and
+now in another, scattering at one moment half the sand they had just
+piled up one way only to redeposit it the next minute in another. In the
+gravel also may be observed a similar though less marked arrangement,
+owing to the larger size of its constituents, which of course required a
+still stronger current action to wash them down.
+
+Amongst the sand we now see some shells, and set to work to dig them out
+very carefully, for they are exceedingly brittle. The best specimens are
+to be obtained by throwing down masses of the sandy material and
+searching in it; but only the stronger and finer examples will bear such
+usage. We next notice that these shells are precisely similar to those
+still found with living occupants in the river below, only they are no
+longer of a brownish colour, but owing to the loss of the animal matter
+of the shell have an earthy, dirty-white appearance. To carry these home
+they should be packed in bran in one of your tins with a note as follows
+made on a piece of paper and placed just inside--"Sand in gravel:
+topmost bed ---- pit, August 2nd, 188-." Then if you are not able to
+work them out at once on reaching home, you will not forget whence they
+came. From the appearance of these sands and gravels, and the presence
+in them of shells exactly like those in the river below, it may
+reasonably be inferred that they once formed a portion of the bed of
+that river long ago, before it had scooped out its valley to the present
+depth. There is, however, something else in this sand-bed--a piece of
+bone protruding; clear away the sand above it, and dig back until the
+whole is visible. It is broken through in one or two places, but
+otherwise is in fair condition; remove the pieces carefully one by one,
+and wrap them in separate pieces of paper, and then proceed to search
+for others. These bones, which are plentiful in some of our river valley
+gravel-beds, are the remains of animals that once roamed in the forests
+which at that time covered the country; they were probably either
+drowned in crossing the water, or got stuck in the mud on the banks on
+coming down to drink. A fine collection was made at Ilford by the late
+Sir Antonio Brady, and is now in the British Museum (Natural History) at
+South Kensington. Besides the bones of animals, you may expect to find
+examples of all, or nearly all, the different rocks in which the river
+has cut its valley, and samples of these may be picked out and taken
+home. Each specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece of paper to
+prevent its rubbing against others, care being taken to note the
+locality either by writing it on the paper or by affixing to the
+specimen a number corresponding to one in your note book against the
+description you have written of the bed. The gravel, with its
+accompanying bed of sand, may be traced down, by scraping away the
+surface, for about ten feet, when you will discover that it rests
+unevenly upon the beds below, which, instead of being horizontal, slope
+(_dip_) in a N.N.E. direction, making an angle of about 45° with the
+floor of the pit; the gravel therefore rests successively upon the
+upturned ends of the lower beds, and, geologically speaking, is
+"unconformable" to them. Now as these underlying rocks were of course
+originally deposited in an horizontal position, they must have been
+pushed up and the upper parts worn away (_denuded_) before the gravel
+was deposited on them, for the accomplishment of which process an amount
+of time must have elapsed that it would be impossible to reckon by
+years.
+
+When we come to examine these lower beds, we find first a stratum of
+stiff dark-brown clay containing fossils disposed in layers: those near
+the outer surface have been rendered so brittle by the weather, that it
+is necessary to make use of the pick end of the hammer and dig a little
+way into the face of the section before we come upon some which will
+bear removal by cutting them out with a knife. Pack them in a tin with
+bran, or, where much clay still adheres to them, wrap them in paper.
+
+The true top of this bed is not visible, being concealed beneath a heap
+of earth in the corner of the pit, but we can see and measure about six
+feet of it.
+
+The next bed in order is a light brownish band of sandy clay that
+splits along its layers into thin pieces or "_laminĉ_," whence we may
+describe it as a sandy, _laminated_ clay. On the freshly split surface
+of one piece we see scattered a number of small darker brown
+fragments; an examination with a pocket lens clearly shows that these
+are little bits of leaves and stems, with here and there a more
+perfect specimen. These beds must have been deposited in the still
+waters just off the main stream of a large river which brought the
+plants floating down to this spot, where they became water-logged and
+sunk; so, too, if you examine the shells in the bed immediately above,
+you will see that they are very like though not the same as those
+which at the present day love to dwell in the mud off the estuaries of
+big rivers in warmer parts of the globe; hence we discover that at
+some far distant period a big river, but one which had no connection
+with that running close by, once flowed over this very spot. On
+tracing the leaf-bed down, we come all at once, at about three feet
+from its upper surface, upon a narrow band one or two inches thick of
+a substance composed of numerous bits of sticks and stalks closely
+matted together and partially mineralized. Vegetable matter in this
+form is known as lignite, and is one of the first stages towards the
+formation of coal out of plant remains. Below this lignite band we
+find our leaf-bed getting sandier and sandier, and losing all trace of
+the plants by degrees till it becomes almost pure sand. Here and
+there, however, it contains some curiously shaped masses, which, when
+broken through with the hammer, seem composed of nothing but the same
+grains of sand cemented together into a hard mass. In one there is,
+however, a curiously shaped hollow, which, upon examining it closely,
+you will see is a perfect cast of a small shell that has itself
+disappeared. A drop of acid on it fizzes away and sinks in between the
+grains of sand which in this spot become loose. A mass of sand or
+particles of clay thus cemented together, be it by iron, lime, or any
+other substance, is termed a "_nodule_" or "_concretion_," and in this
+particular instance has been formed as follows:--The rain-water
+falling on the sand where it comes to the surface sinks in and filters
+through the bed. Now there is always a certain amount of carbonic acid
+in rain-water, and this acid acted on the carbonate of lime of which
+the shell was composed, dissolving and dispersing it amongst the
+neighbouring grains of sand where it was re-deposited, cementing them
+together as we have seen. The bottom of this bed of sand we find to be
+just fifteen feet from the lignite band when measured at right-angles
+to the bed, and it is succeeded by a hard greyish rock, which requires
+a smart blow of the hammer to break it, but the surface of which,
+where it has been exposed to the weather, is much crumbled
+("_weathered_"), and breaks readily into small pieces. It is easily
+scratched with the point of a knife, and therefore is not flint;
+moreover, it fizzes strongly when touched with acid--hence there is a
+great deal of carbonate of lime in it, and we know that it is
+limestone.
+
+Limestones are very largely, sometimes almost entirely, made up of the
+calcareous portions of marine creatures, such as the hard parts of
+corals, the tests of sea-urchins, the shells of mollusca, etc.,
+welded, so to speak, into one mass by the heat, pressure, and chemical
+changes which the bed has undergone since its deposition at the bottom
+of the sea. There would be every reason, therefore, one might suppose,
+to expect a number of fossils in this bed; but, alas! disappointment
+awaits the young explorer, for with the exception of chalk and a few
+other limestones, these rocks are generally of such uniform texture
+that on being struck with the hammer they split through fossils and
+all, the fractured surface only too frequently showing nought save a
+few obscure markings. But what we fail to accomplish in our
+impatience, nature effects by slow degrees, and if you will turn over
+the weathered pieces and blocks lying about, you will soon find plenty
+of fossils sticking out all over them; by a judicious use of hammer
+and chisel any of these may be detached and added to your stock, each
+being separately packed in paper and the locality written on the
+outside. Some seventy or eighty feet is all that is visible of this
+limestone; the rest is unexcavated.
+
+Before leaving the pit, it will be as well to select such rock
+specimens as you wish to place in your cabinet, trimming them to the
+required size on the spot, for should you, as is not unlikely, spoil
+two or three, you can readily pick a fresh one. Having secured our
+specimens, we will take a look at our note-book, to see if we have
+noted all the details we require. If so, our entries should run
+something as follows:--First, we have made a rough sketch of the
+position of the beds, carefully numbering each one; then follow our
+notes on the individual beds, preceded by numbers corresponding with
+those in the sketch, thus:--
+
+  1. Surface Soil                                                  2 ft.
+  2. River Gravel, including a lenticular mass of               }
+  3. Sand, with land and fresh-water shells and bones of        } 10 ft.
+     animals                                                    }
+  4. Stiff dark-brown clay, with estuarine shells            6 ft. seen.
+  5. Light-brown sandy clay, with leaves and stems of plants       3 ft.
+  6. Band of Lignite                                               2 in.
+  7. Same as 5, passing into--                                  }
+  8. Pure Sand, with layers of concretions containing casts     }
+     of shells                                                  } 15 ft.
+  9. Dark-Grey Limestone, with numerous fossils             80 ft. seen.
+
+  Beds 4 to 9 dip at an angle of 45° to the N.N.E.
+
+Our imaginary pit is of course only a sort of geological Juan Fernandez,
+but it will serve in some degree to illustrate the method of dealing
+with various rocks and fossils when met with in the field, and how they
+may best be collected and carried home. A few additional suggestions
+where to look for fossils may, however, be given here. To begin with, I
+never neglect to search the fallen masses, especially their weathered
+surfaces, or to look carefully over the heaps of quarried materials,
+whatever they may happen to be, piled on the floor of the pit. In
+working at the beds themselves, remember that fossils frequently occur
+in layers which of course represent the old sea-bottom of the period; to
+find these, it is necessary to follow the beds in a direction at right
+angles to their stratification, till you arrive at the sought-for
+layers, or _zones_.
+
+Do not be surprised, when collecting from a formation you have never
+before studied, if the fossils are not at first apparent, though many
+are known to be present. The eye requires a few days in which to become
+accustomed to its fresh surroundings, and when the same spot has been
+carefully hunted over every day for a week, it is astonishing what a
+quantity of fossils are discernible where not one in the first instance
+was recognised.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREPARE THE SPECIMENS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+The first thing to be done on unpacking our specimens is to pick out
+those which require the least attention, and get them out of the way.
+These will be your rock specimens, which, if they have been trimmed
+properly in the pit, will not need much further manipulation; a word or
+two, however, as to the best method of proceeding when it is desirable
+to reduce a specimen, will not be out of place. If you wish to divide it
+in two, or detach any considerable portion, the specimen may, while held
+in the hand, be struck a smart blow with the hammer; as, however, it not
+frequently happens that even with the greatest care the specimen under
+this treatment breaks in an opposite direction to that required, it is
+advisable to adopt a somewhat surer method, namely, to procure a block
+of tough wood, and in the centre bore a hole just large enough to
+receive the shank of the cold chisel, and thus hold it in an upright
+position with the cutting edge uppermost; placing the specimen on this,
+and then hitting it immediately above with the hammer, it may be
+fractured through in any required direction. To trim off a small
+projection, hold the specimen in your hand with the corner towards you
+and directed slightly downwards, then with the edge of the striking face
+of the hammer hit it a smart blow at the line along which you wish it to
+break off; the object of inclining the specimen is to make sure that the
+blow shall fall in a direction inclined away from the portion you wish
+to preserve, a _modus operandi_ which it is necessary to bear well in
+mind if you would not spoil many a choice specimen. Anything beyond very
+general directions, however, it is impossible to give in such matters as
+this: experience, and a few hints from those who have themselves had
+practice in collecting and arranging specimens, are worth more than any
+written description, however lengthy and elaborate.
+
+Having reduced your specimen to the required size and shape, the next
+thing to be done is to write a neat little label for it--the smaller the
+better--stating, first the nature of the specimen, secondly the
+geological formation to which it belongs, thirdly the locality from
+which it was procured, and fourthly the date when acquired, thus--
+
+  Limestone.
+  Lower Carboniferous.
+  Quarry, 1 mile N.W. of ----
+             21. 8. 8-.
+
+ruling a neat line at the top and bottom (red ink lines give a more
+finished appearance than black). When the label is dry, damp it to
+render it more pliant, and gum it on to the flattest available surface
+of the specimen, pressing it well into any small inequalities that it
+may hold the firmer. A small quantity of pure glycerine (about an eighth
+part) should be added to the gum before use, in order to prevent its
+drying hard and brittle. The specimen is now ready to place in its tray
+and be put away in the cabinet.
+
+In the next place, pick out the fossils which you obtained from the
+limestone. With the cold chisel set in its block of wood, and the
+trimming hammer, remove as much of the surrounding rock (_matrix_) as
+you can without damaging the fossil, and with a smaller chisel any
+pieces that may be sticking to and obscuring it. Fossils in soft
+limestone, such as chalk, are best cleaned with an old penknife, and
+needles fixed into wooden handles, and finished off by the application
+of water with a nail-brush. Should you have the misfortune to break any
+specimen in the process of trimming, it should at once be mended. The
+most effectual cement for this purpose is made by simply dissolving
+isinglass in acetic acid, or, where the specimen contains much iron
+pyrites, and there would be a danger in starting decomposition, shellac
+dissolved in spirits of wine. When, however, neither of these are handy,
+chalk scraped with a penknife into a powder, and mixed with gum to the
+consistency of a thick paste, answers admirably. Failing this, however,
+gum alone will frequently suffice.
+
+The next thing is to place the like kinds together in their several
+trays, writing a label, as before, for each tray, but leaving a blank
+space at the top for the insertion of the name when ascertained. The
+commoner sorts may be named from the figures of them given in the
+text-books (see list at the back of the title page); but failing this,
+it will be the best plan to seek the help of any friends who have
+collections, or to take the fossils to some museum, and compare them
+with the named specimens there exhibited. The label may be laid at the
+bottom of the tray with the fossils loose on the top of it, each fossil
+being marked with a number corresponding to one on the label. Another
+plan is to fasten the label by one of its edges to the side of the tray;
+or, if the fossils are small and mounted on a piece of card fitting into
+the tray, it may be gummed with them to the card.
+
+Now let us take the shells we obtained from the dark-blue clay, with
+those and the bones from the old river bed up above. Gently turn them
+out of the tins, in which they were packed in the quarry, on to a paper
+or the lid of a card-board box, and with a pair of forceps pick them
+carefully out of the bran, and place them in large shallow trays, taking
+care not to mix those from the different beds. As we found when
+collecting them, these shells are extremely brittle from loss of animal
+matter, and our first object is therefore to harden them by some
+process, so that they will bear handling. To accomplish this you must
+get a saucepan, one of those wire contrivances for holding eggs when
+boiling, or a big wire spoon, such as formerly was used for cooking
+purposes, a packet of gelatine, and some flat pieces of tin, which last
+are easily procured by hammering out an old mustard or other tin, having
+previously melted in a gas flame the solder wherewith it is joined. Half
+fill the saucepan with clean water, and put in as much gelatine as when
+cold will make a stiff jelly; melt this over the fire, placing the
+fossils meanwhile in a warm (not hot) corner of the fire-place; then
+when the gelatine is quite dissolved, pile as many of them, whole or in
+pieces, into the egg-boiler, or spoon, as it will contain, hold them for
+a second in the steam, and then lower them gradually into the hot
+gelatine until it completely covers them. Little bubbles of air will
+rise and float on the surface. As soon as these cease to appear, raise
+the fossils above the surface and allow them to drip; then pick them up
+one by one with the forceps, and spread them out on pieces of tin before
+the fire, but not too close to it. As soon as their exterior surfaces
+become dry, and before the gelatine gets hard, they should be taken up
+(they may be handled fearlessly now), and the superfluous gelatine
+sticking to the surface gently removed with a camel's-hair brush dipped
+in clean warm water; otherwise, when dry, they present an unnatural
+varnished appearance, and have a tendency, on small provocation, to
+become unpleasantly sticky.
+
+Small bones may be treated in like manner, but for large ones, weak glue
+is to be preferred to gelatine, which is only suitable for the finer and
+more delicate objects. Where it is desired to harden only a few things,
+it is better to mix the gelatine in a gallipot, which can be heated when
+required by standing it in a saucepan of water on the fire. In any case
+the gelatine need never be wasted, as it will keep almost any length of
+time, and can therefore be put by for future use. In default of the
+egg-boiler or wire-net spoon, an equally useful plan is to make a
+strainer from a piece of perforated zinc by turning up the edges all
+around, and attaching copper wire to it by which to lower the fossils
+into the gelatine, and raise them again.
+
+When the fossils are quite dry they can be sorted, and those which have
+come to pieces may be mended with diamond cement (_i.e._ isinglass
+dissolved in acetic acid), and then properly labelled and placed in
+trays, or mounted as previously described.
+
+To the plant remains and Lignite there is little that can be done beyond
+trimming them to suit the trays. Should there be much iron pyrites in
+the Lignite, it is sure, sooner or later, to decompose, when all that
+can be done is to throw it away. In the case, however, of valuable
+fruits and seeds, such as those from the London Clay of Sheppey, it is
+worth while to preserve them, if possible, in almost the only way known,
+viz. by keeping them in glycerine in wide-mouthed stoppered bottles, or
+by saturating them with paraffin.
+
+Having prepared the specimens for the cabinet, the next thing is to
+arrange them in proper order. There are several ways of doing this, but
+for those who have not had much experience the following plan will be
+found the best:--Group the specimens according to the formations to
+which they belong, and arrange these groups in proper sequence (_vide_
+Table, p. 16); then take each group, and arrange the specimens it
+comprises in columns. Beginning at the top of the left-hand corner,
+place first the specimens of the rock itself, and under it any examples
+of minerals, concretions, etc., found in that rock; next the fossil
+plants, if any; and finally, such animal remains as you have arranged
+according to their zoological sequence, beginning with the lower forms
+(_vide_ Table, p. 32). Unless cramped for room, each formation should
+begin a new box, its name being written on a slip of paper and placed at
+the head of the columns of trays. A label setting forth its contents
+should be fixed outside each of the boxes, which can then be put away on
+your cupboard shelves.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL
+ORDER.
+
+
+                                                _Land Plants._-----------+
+                                                _Invertebrata._--------+ |
+                                                _Fishes._------------+ | |
+                                                _Amphibia._--------+ | | |
+                                                _Reptiles._------+ | | | |
+                                                _Birds._-------+ | | | | |
+                                                _Mammalia._--+ | | | | | |
+                                                _Man._-----+ | | | | | | |
+                                                           | | | | | | | |
+                                                           | | | | | | | |
+                                     {Alluvial Deposits,   | | | | | | | |
+  _Quaternary,                       {  River Valley       | | | | | | | |
+       or                            {  Gravels and        | | | | | | | |
+  Pleistocene._                      {  Cave Deposits.     | | | | | | | |
+                                     {Drift and Glacial    | | | | | | | |
+                                     {  Deposits.          V | | | | | | |
+                                                             | | | | | | |
+   _Cainozoic,                       {Pliocene.              | | | | | | |
+       or                            {Miocene.               | | | | | | |
+   Tertiary._                        {Eocene.                | | | | | | |
+                                                             | | | | | | |
+       {                             {Chalk.                 | | | | | | |
+   M   { _Cretaceous._               {Upper Greensand.       | | | | | | |
+   E   {                             {Gault.                 | | | | | | |
+   S   {                                                     | | | | | | |
+   O   { _Neocomian._                {Lower Greensand.       | V | | | | |
+   Z   {                             {Wealden.               | : | | | | |
+   O   {                                                     | : | | | | |
+   I   {                    {        {Purbeck.               | : | | | | |
+   C,  {                    {_Upper._{Portland.              | : | | | | |
+       {                    {        {Kimmeridge Clay.       | : | | | | |
+   or  {                    {                                | : | | | | |
+       {                    { _Mid._ {Coral Rag.             | : | | | | |
+   S   {            { _Oo-  {        {Oxford Clay.           | : | | | | |
+   E   {            {lites._{                                | : | | | | |
+   C   {            {       {        {Cornbrash and          | : | | | | |
+   O   {            {       {        {  Forest Marble.       | : | | | | |
+   N   { _Jurassic._{       {_Lower._{Great Oolite.          | : | | | | |
+   D   {            {       {        {Fullers' Earth.        | : | | | | |
+   A   {            {       {        {Inferior Oolite.       | : | | | | |
+   R   {            {                                        | : | | | | |
+   Y   {            {                 Lias.                  | : | | | | |
+                                                             | : | | | | |
+       {                             {Trias, or New          | : | | | | |
+   P   { _Poikilitic._               {  Red Sandstone.       V ? V | | | |
+   A   {                             {Permian.                     | | | |
+   L   {                                                           | | | |
+   Ĉ   {                             {Coal Measures.               V | | |
+   O   {                             {Millstone Grit                 | | |
+   Z   { _Carboniferous._            {  and Yoredale                 | | |
+   O   {                             {  Rocks.                       | | |
+   I   {                             {Carboniferous                  | | |
+   C,  {                             {  Limestone, etc.              | | |
+       {                                                             | | |
+   or  {                              Devonian and Old               | | |
+       {                                Red Sandstone.               | | |
+   P   {                                                             | | |
+   R   {                             {Ludlow Beds.                   | | |
+   I   {                             {Wenlock Beds.                  | | V
+   M   { _Silurian._                 {Woolhope Beds.                 | |
+   A   {                             {Tarannon Shale.                | |
+   R   {                             {Llandovery or May              | |
+   Y.  {                             {  Hill Group.                  V |
+       {                                                               |
+       {                             {Bala and                         |
+       {                             {  Caradoc Beds.                  |
+       {                             {Llandeilo Flags.                 |
+       {                             {Arenig Group.                    |
+       { _Cambrian._                 {Tremadoc Slates.                 |
+       {                             {Lingula Flags.                   |
+       {                             {Menevian Beds.                   |
+       {                             {Longmynd and                     |
+       {                             {  Harlech Group.                 V
+       {                                                               :
+       {                              Pre-Cambrian and                 :
+       {                                Laurentian.                    ?
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON THE DIFFERENT FORMATIONS MENTIONED IN THE TABLE.
+
+
+RECENT.--The alluvial deposits of most river valleys and some estuaries
+still in course of formation, containing fossil shells and mammals, all
+of living species.
+
+
+QUATERNARY, POST-PLIOCENE, or PLEISTOCENE.--1. Including the raised
+beaches around the coast, the older gravels of river valleys and the
+cave deposits, in all of which the shells are identical with those
+living in the rivers and seas of to-day, whilst the animals are many of
+them extinct, only a few being now found living on the spot.
+
+2. The glacial drifts that cover all England north of the Thames, and
+which consist of sands, gravels, and clays, full of big angular stones
+frequently flattened on one side, scratched and sometimes polished from
+having been fixed in moving ice and forced over other rocks. A very
+interesting collection of these "boulders," as they are called, can be
+easily made, for they belong to almost every formation in England, and
+have some of them been brought from great distances, whilst the number
+and variety obtainable from a single pit is astonishing.
+
+
+CAINOZOIC, or TERTIARY.--Beds of this age, in England at all events, are
+for the most part made up of comparatively soft rocks, gravels, sands,
+and clays, and are found in the eastern and south-eastern counties. They
+are divided into--
+
+
+1. Pliocene, mainly consisting of a series of iron-stained sands, with
+abundant shell remains, and locally known as "crags." The shells are
+very partial in their distribution, the beds in places being almost
+entirely made up of them, whilst in others scarcely one is to be found.
+The great majority are of the same species as many still living. The
+Pliocene is subdivided into three groups:--
+
+_a._ The _Norwich Crag Series_, sometimes called the "Mammaliferous
+Crag," as at its base the bones of mastodon, elephant, hippopotamus,
+rhinoceros, and some deer have been found. The shells in it are such as
+still abound on the beaches of the eastern coast to-day--whelks, scallop
+shells, cockles, periwinkles, etc.
+
+_b._ The _Red_ or _Suffolk Crag_, its two names indicating its
+characteristic colour (a dark red-brown) and chief locality. From
+the base are obtained the celebrated phosphatic nodules miscalled
+"Coprolites," whence is manufactured an artificial manure, and with them
+are found the rolled and phosphatized bones and teeth of whales, sharks,
+etc. Amongst the shells the Reversed Whelks (_Fusus contrarius_),
+_Fecten opercularis_, _Pectunculus glycimeris_, several kinds of
+_Mactra_ and _Cardium_, etc., are the commonest. Walton-on-the-Naze,
+Felixstowe, and Woodbridge are the best known localities.
+
+_c._ The _White_ or _Coralline Crag_ is generally of a pale buff colour,
+and is in places almost entirely composed of the remains of Polyzoa.
+These (formerly called Corallines, whence the name Coralline Crag) are
+beautiful objects for a low-power microscope, or pocket lens, and are
+easily mounted in deep cells on slides. The bits of shell and sand that
+stick to them should be carefully removed with the point of a needle. A
+very large number of shells occur in this crag: of bivalves, the
+_Pecten_ is very abundant, and its valves are frequently thickly grown
+over with Polyzoa; _Cyprina Islandica_, _Cardita Senilis_ are also
+plentiful; and of univalves, the genus _Natica_ is common. The Coralline
+Crag is best seen in the neighbourhood of Aldborough, Orford,
+Woodbridge, and other places in Suffolk.
+
+
+2. Miocene, possibly represented in the British Isles by a small patch
+of clays and lignites at Bovey Tracey.
+
+
+3. Eocene, divided into--
+
+_a._ _Upper Eocene_, consisting of a series of very fossiliferous sands,
+clays, and limestones, exposed in the cliffs at the eastern and western
+ends of the Isle of Wight and on the neighbouring coast of Hampshire.
+They are partly of freshwater origin, when they contain the remains of
+freshwater shells such as _Limnoea Paludina_, _Planorbis_, etc.;
+partly of marine origin, when shells belonging to such genera as
+_Ostrea_, _Venus_, etc., take their place; partly of estuarine, when the
+brackish water mollusca are found with bones and scutes of crocodiles
+and tortoises.
+
+_b._ _Middle Eocene_, or the _Bagshot Beds_, composed of sands and
+clays. The beautiful coloured sands of Alum Bay, the sands of the Surrey
+and Hampstead Heaths, are familiar examples of the beds of this age.
+Very few fossils indeed have been found in them. The clay-beds on the
+contrary as seen at Barton and Hordwell on the Hampshire coast and again
+in the Isle of Wight, abound with shells belonging to genera such as
+_Conus_, _Voluta_ and _Venus_, that inhabit warm seas. With them are the
+Nummulites, looking externally very like buttons, but on the inside
+divided into innumerable chambers in which the complex animal that
+formed the nummulite dwelt.
+
+_c._ _Lower Eocene_, the well-known London clay, may almost be said to
+compose this division, for the underlying sands, gravels, and clays are
+in mass comparatively insignificant. The London clay contains plenty of
+fossils, only as they are disposed in layers (_zones_) at a considerable
+distance apart, they are not often hit upon. Layers of Septaria or
+cement-stones are of frequent occurrence. Sheppy is the great locality
+for London clay fossils, as the sea annually washes down large masses of
+the cliffs and breaks them up on the beach. A great many fossil fruits
+and seeds, remains of crabs, shells of Nautili, Volutes, and other
+mollusca, besides turtles, a species of snake, a bird with teeth, and a
+tapir-like animal, have at different times and in various places been
+found in this deposit, which sometimes attains a thickness of over 400
+ft. The "Bognor Rock" is a local variety of the basement bed of this
+formation.
+
+  [Illustration: _Aturia Zic-zac_ (from the London clay).]
+
+
+The MESOZOIC or SECONDARY rocks embrace a series of limestone, clays,
+sands, and sandstones that on the whole are well consolidated. The main
+mass of them lies to the west of a line drawn across the map of England
+from the mouth of the Tyne, in Northumberland, southwards to Nottingham,
+and thence to the mouth of the Teign in Devonshire. In the south-eastern
+counties they underlie the tertiary rocks of the London and Hampshire
+basins, as they are called, at no great depth from the surface. Outlying
+patches of secondary rocks occur in Scotland, where they are found near
+Brora on the east coast, and in the islands of Skye and Mull on the
+west. In Ireland they are scantily represented round about the
+neighbourhood of Antrim. The secondary rocks are divided into--
+
+
+1. Cretaceous.
+
+_a._ The _Chalk_ is too well known to need description, though
+technically it may be described as a soft white limestone chiefly built
+up of the microscopic shells of _Foraminifera_, and characterized in its
+upper part by nodules and bands of flint. These flints frequently
+inclose casts of fossils (sponges, sea-urchins, etc.), and sometimes
+shells themselves. Fossils, too, are fairly abundant, scattered
+throughout the mass. Amongst the commoner may be noticed the
+sea-urchins, such as the "sugar loaf" (_Ananchytes_) and the
+heart-shaped _Micraster_, the Brachiopods or Lamp-shells (_Terebratula_,
+_Rhynchonella_), a "Thorny Oyster" (_Spondylus spinosus_), besides
+Ammonites, Belemnites (part of the internal shell of a kind of
+cuttle-fish), and the teeth of several species of sharks. Altogether the
+chalk is about 1,000 feet thick.
+
+  [Illustration: _Ammonites various_ (from the chalk).]
+
+_b._ _Upper Greensand_ is a series of greenish-grey sands and
+sandstones. The green colour, on close inspection, is seen to be due to
+the presence of innumerable small green grains of a mineral called
+glauconite. These are frequently casts of the chambers of the very same
+foraminifera that the chalk is so largely composed of.
+
+  [Illustration: _Rhynchonella depressa_ (a Brachiopod, from the Upper
+  Greensand).]
+
+Nodules and layers of "chert" (an impure kind of flint) occur in it,
+whilst in places it forms a hard rock called "firestone." The commonest
+fossils are Brachiopods, very similar to those in the chalk, a
+scallop-shell with four strongly marked ribs on it (_Pecten
+quodricostatus_), an oyster with a curved beak (_Exogyra columba_), and
+a pear-shaped sponge (_Siphonia pyriformis_). The Upper Greensand is
+better seen at places in the southern part of the Isle of Wight, in
+cliffs on the Dorsetshire coast, in Wiltshire, at Sidmouth, and in some
+parts of Surrey.
+
+  [Illustration: _Ammonites auritus_ (from the Gault).]
+
+_c._ _Gault_, a stiff blue clay abounding in fossils: Ammonites often
+retaining their pearly shell; Belemnites, a bivalve with very deep
+furrows on it (_Inoccramus sulcatus_), and its first cousin (_I.
+concentricus_, p. 21), in which the ridge-like markings correspond with
+the lines of growth, besides many others, may be obtained in abundance
+from it. Layers of phosphatic nodules occur at irregular intervals. The
+gault is best studied at East Wear Bay, near Folkstone; it may also be
+seen in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and Cambridgeshire; lately it has been
+found as far west as Exeter.
+
+
+2. Neocomian.
+
+_a._ The so-called _Lower Green Sand_, named in contradistinction to the
+_Upper Green Sand_, includes a series of iron stained sands, sandstones
+and clays of great thickness. The clayey beds are seen at Atherfield in
+the Isle of Wight, and at Nutfield in Surrey, while the sandy beds are
+met with at Speeton, at Folkestone, and near Reigate. Besides
+brachiopods and oysters, these beds have furnished a species of _Perna_
+(_P. Mulleti_), an elongated mussel (_Gervillia anceps_), a pretty
+_Trigonia_ (_T. cordata_), some _Ammonites_ and Nautili, with the teeth
+and bones of big reptiles. The celebrated "Kentish Rag" and the sponge
+gravels of Farringdon are of this age.
+
+_b._ _Wealden._ The main mass of these rocks occupies the area inclosed
+between the North and South Downs, and forms the Valley of the Weald,
+whence they take their name. They consist of a series of sands,
+sandstones, clays, and shelly limestones that were deposited in the
+delta and off the mouth of a big river. The shells in them belong to
+freshwater genera, _Cyrena_, _Unio_, _Paludina_, etc. Bones of a huge
+lizard that hopped along on his hind legs (_Iguanodon_), and those of
+crocodiles, etc., are from time to time brought to light. The Wealden
+rocks occur also on both eastern and western sides of the Isle of Wight,
+and in Dorsetshire.
+
+  [Illustration: _Inoceramus concentricus_ (from the Gault).]
+
+
+3. Oolites (or Roe-stones) are so named because the characteristic
+limestones of this formation resemble very much the roe of a fish. The
+small round grains, of which the typical examples are built up, when cut
+or broken through will be seen to be formed of numerous layers of
+carbonate of lime, disposed like the coats of an onion, around some
+central nucleus, generally a grain of sand, a fragment of coral, or the
+shell of one of the Foraminifera. They are divided into Upper, Middle,
+and Lower Oolites, and these again are subdivided as follows--
+
+Upper Oolite.
+
+_a._ _Purbeck Beds_, a series of fresh-water, with a few estuarine, or
+marine beds, which in point of fact connect the deposits we are next
+coming to with the Wealden just passed. They contain numerous
+fresh-water shells--_Paludina_, _Physa_, _Limnĉa_, etc., with the
+microscopic valves of the little fresh-water crustacean _Cypris_, whose
+descendants are abundant in the rivers and lakes of to-day. An oyster
+occurs in the "Cinder Bed" and Plant remains in the "Dirt Beds." But the
+Purbecks are best known for the numerous remains of small mammals
+(_Plagiaulax_) allied to the kangaroo rat, at present living in
+Australia.
+
+_b._ The _Portland Stone and Sand_, which come next in order, are
+largely quarried in the island whence they take their name. The
+quarrymen point out fossils in the stone, which they call
+"Horses'-heads" and "Portland screws." The former is the cast of a
+_Trigonia_ shell; the latter, that of a tall spired univalve
+(_Cerithium_).
+
+In Wiltshire, a coral (_Isastrea oblonga_) is found in the sandy beds,
+the original calcareous matter of which has been replaced by silex.
+
+_c._ _Kimmeridge Clay._ This, by the pressure of the rocks subsequently
+deposited on it, has in greater part been hardened, and possesses a
+tendency to split in thin layers, and hence is termed by geologists a
+shale. It is seen at various points between Kimmeridge on the
+Dorsetshire coast and the Vale of Pickering in Yorkshire, and forms
+broad valleys. The principal fossils in it are Ammonites, a
+triangular-shaped oyster (_Ostrea deltoidea_), and one resembling a
+comma (_Exogyra virgula_).
+
+Middle Oolites.
+
+_a._ The _Coral Rag_, or _Coralline Oolite_, comprises a most variable
+set of beds, but principally a series of limestone, with fossil corals
+still in the position in which they grew, and resembling in form the
+reef-building corals of the Pacific. They rest on
+
+_b._ _Oxford Clay_, a dark blue or slate-coloured clay without any
+corals, but containing a great many _Ammonites_ and _Belemnites_. The
+_Kelloway Rock_, a sandy limestone at the base of the Oxford Clay, is
+well developed in Yorkshire, and furnishes amongst other fossils a large
+belemnite and an oyster (_Gryphĉa dilatata_).
+
+Lower Oolites.
+
+_a._ _Cornbrash_, a very shelly deposit of pale-coloured earthy, and
+rubbly or sometimes compact limestone with plenty of fossils. The
+commonest are Brachiopods, Limas, oysters (_Ostrea Marshii_),
+Pholadomyas and Ammonites. It is best seen in Dorsetshire,
+Somersetshire, and near Scarborough in Yorkshire.
+
+_b._ _Forest Marble_ and _Bradford Clay_. The former is an exceedingly
+shelly limestone, often splitting into thin slabs. On the surfaces of
+some of the beds may be seen the ripple marks the sea made countless
+years ago, and the tracks of worms and crabs that dwelt in the mud or
+crawled on its surface at a time when it was soft mud. The Bradford clay
+is a very local deposit, taking its name from Bradford in Wiltshire,
+where it is most developed, and its characteristic fossil is the
+pear-shaped Encrinite or "stone-lily" (_Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_).
+
+_c._ The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, comprising a series of shelly
+limestones and fine Oolites, or freestones. The latter are largely
+quarried in the neighbourhood of Bath, and used for mantelpieces and the
+stone facings of windows. The great Oolite is rich in univalve mollusca,
+amongst which may be noted a limpet (_Patella rugosa_) and the handsome,
+tall-spired _Nerinĉa Voltzii_, numerous bivalves belonging to the genera
+_Pholadomya Trigonia_, _Ostrea_ (_O. gregaria_), and _Pecten_, besides
+Brachiopods (_Terebratula digona_, which looks very like a sack of
+flour, and _T. perovalis_, etc.).
+
+At the base of the Great Oolite are the "Stonesfield slates,"
+so-called--a series of thin shelly Oolites, etc., that split readily
+into very thin slabs. They are principally of interest to geologists on
+account of the discovery in them of the remains of small insect-feeding
+and possibly pouched mammals. With these are associated the bones of
+that big reptile the _Megalosaurus_; the flying lizards called
+Pterodactyles; fish teeth and spines; lamp shells; oysters, a _Trigonia_
+(_T. impressa_); and the impressions of insects, including a butterfly,
+and of plants.
+
+_d._ _Fullers' Earth_, a clayey deposit occurring in the southwestern
+parts of England, but not in the north. It abounds with a small oyster
+(_O. acuminata_) and Brachiopods (e.g. _Terebratula ornithocephala_),
+etc.
+
+_e._ _Inferior Oolite_ (including the Midford Sands). As these beds are
+followed across the country from the south-west of England to Yorkshire,
+they are found to change greatly in character. Limestone and marine beds
+in the south are replaced by sandy and estuarine beds in the north.
+Amongst other fossils from beds of this age may be found several
+Echinoderms, a crinkly lamp shell (_Terebratula frimbriata_), and a
+spiny one (_Rhynchonella spinosa_), bivalves belonging to the Genera
+_Ostrea_, _Trigonia_, _Pholadomya_, etc., and some very handsome
+Ammonites (e.g. _A. Humphresianus_).
+
+  [Illustration: _Ichthyosaurus_, or Fish-lizard (from the Lias).]
+
+  [Illustration: _Plesiosaurus_ (from the Lias).]
+
+
+4. Lias.
+
+This for the most part consists of very regular alternations of
+argillaceous (clayey) limestone and clay, or shale. It is of great
+thickness, and hence for convenience has been divided into (a) _Upper
+Lias_, (b) _Middle Lias_ or _Marl-stone_, and (c) _Lower Lias_. A large
+number of fossils are to be found in it. Lyme Regis and Whitby are
+perhaps the best known localities; the former, on account of the great
+number of specimens obtained of the huge fish-lizard (_Ichthyosaurus_,
+p. 24), and long-necked _Plesiosaurus_ (p. 25), besides numberless fish;
+whilst the latter is renowned for its jet (or fossilized wood) and its
+"snake-stones" (_Ammonites_), concerning which curious old stories are
+told. _Ammonites_ are plentiful in the Lias, which has been subdivided
+into zones, or layers, named after the ammonite occurring in greatest
+numbers in that particular zone. There is one thin limestone band in the
+Marlstone composed entirely of the shells of _Ammonites planicostatus_.
+A curious kind of oyster (_Gryphĉa incurva_), locally known as the
+devil's toenail, a huge _Lima_ (_L. gigantea_), a magnificent Encrinite
+(_Extracrinus Briareus_), and numerous other fossils, are also to be
+obtained by patient search.
+
+  [Illustration: _Belemnitas elongatus_(from the Lias).]
+
+
+5. Rhĉtic, Penarth Beds, or White Lias.
+
+These beds are not of any considerable thickness, but are very
+persistent, and of great interest, inasmuch as they yield the remains of
+the oldest known mammal (_Microlestes_), a small insect-feeder. They are
+composed of limestones, shales and marls (_i.e._ limey clays), and are
+best studied in Somersetshire and Dorsetshire. The "landscape marble"
+belongs to this formation, which also contains a bone bed, or thin layer
+made up of the bones and teeth, etc., of fish. Shells are not numerous,
+though the casts of one species (_Avicula contorta_) is plentiful.
+
+
+6. Trias, or New Red Sandstone, a thick series of sandstones and marls,
+the great mass of which forms the subsoil of the western midland
+counties, Birmingham being nearly in the centre, thence they extend in
+three directions, one branch passing towards the north-west, through
+Cheshire, to the sea at Liverpool, reappearing on the coast line of
+Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, where it also forms the Valley
+of the Eden. Another branch extends through Derby and York to South
+Shields, whilst the third may be traced southwards in isolated patches
+down into Devonshire.
+
+There are scarcely any fossils in it, but in Worcestershire and
+Warwickshire the bivalve shell of a small crustacean (_Estheria minuta_)
+occurs in the upper beds; whilst now and again the teeth and bones of
+some strange amphibians (_Labyrinthodon_), or the impressions of their
+feet (_Cheirotherium_) where they crawled on the then soft mud of the
+foreshore, are found. The Trias is divided into Upper Trias or Keuper,
+and Lower Trias or Bunter. The middle beds (Muschelkalk), which are
+found in Germany, where they contain plenty of fossils, are wanting in
+this country. In the lower beds of the Keuper, layers of rock salt,
+sometimes of great thickness, occur, whilst casts (called pseudomorphs)
+of detached salt-crystals are found abundantly in the sandy marls.
+Northwich, Nantwich, Droitwich, and several other towns in Cheshire and
+Worcestershire, are famed for their salt works, the salt being either
+mined or pumped up as brine from these beds.
+
+  [Illustration: _Ceratites nodosus_ (from the Muschelkalk).]
+
+
+PALĈOZOIC or PRIMARY.--Beds of this age generally possess a more
+crystalline and slaty structure than any of those already mentioned, are
+usually more highly inclined and disturbed, and form for the most part
+more elevated ground. They are the principal store-houses of our mineral
+wealth, containing as they do coal, iron, and other metals. The
+Palĉozoic rocks are found in England to the north and west of the
+secondary series, beneath which they disappear when traced to the
+south-east. Wales, and the greater part of Scotland and Ireland, consist
+of beds of this age.
+
+
+1. Permian. Under this term are included beds of red sandstones and
+marls, closely resembling those of Trias, and like them containing but
+few fossils, as well as a very fossiliferous limestone, known as the
+Magnesian Limestone, from the abundance of magnesia it contains. A
+pretty polyzoan (_Fenestella retiformis_), a spiny brachiopod
+(_Productus horridus_), various genera of fish, chiefly found in a marl
+state underlying the limestone, some Labyrinthodonts and plant remains,
+are the principal forms met with in this formation.
+
+
+2. Carboniferous. This, from a commercial point of view, is the most
+important of all the formations, comprising as it does the coal-bearing
+strata. It is subdivided into--
+
+_a._ _Coalmeasures_, a series of sandstones and shales with which are
+interstratified the seams of coal, varying in thickness from six inches
+to as much in one instance as thirty feet.
+
+Coal is the carbonized remains of innumerable plants, chiefly ferns and
+gigantic clubmosses, that grew in swamps bordering on the sea-coast of
+the period. Each coal seam is underlain by a bed of clay called
+"under-clay," containing the roots of the plants that grew on it. Some
+of the best impressions of ferns, etc., are to be obtained in the shaley
+beds forming the roof of the coal seam; many good specimens, however,
+are to be got by searching the refuse heap at the pit's mouth. Besides
+plants, the remains of fish are abundant in some of the beds of shale.
+And in Nova Scotia the bones of air-breathing reptiles and land snails
+have been discovered. Cockroaches and other insects were also denizens
+of the carboniferous forests.
+
+The following are the principal coalfields:--
+
+  1. Northumberland and Durham coalfield.
+  2. South Lancashire coalfield.
+  3. Derbyshire coalfield.
+  4. Leicestershire and Staffordshire coalfields.
+  5. South Wales coalfield.
+  6. Bristol and Somerset coalfields.
+
+_b._ _Millstone grit_ or _Farewell-rock_. The former term explains
+itself, the latter designation has been applied to it in the southern
+districts, because when it is reached, then good-bye to all workable
+coal-seams.
+
+It consists of coarse sandstones, shales, and conglomerates with a few
+small seams of coal. Fossils are not very common in it.
+
+_c._ Yoredale Rocks, a series of flagstones, gritstones, limestones and
+shales, with seams of coal, occurring in the northern counties. It is
+underlain by--
+
+_d._ _Carboniferous_ or _Mountain Limestone_, which in places is upwards
+of 1,000 feet thick, and full of fossils. The stems of encrinites, or
+"stone-lilies," corals, brachiopods (_e.g._ _Productus_, _Orthis_,
+etc.), and Mollusca, including some Cephalopods, like _Goniatites_ and
+the straight Nautilus (_Orthoceras_), with fish teeth, etc., go to
+compose this tough, bluish-grey limestone which is largely quarried for
+marble mantlepieces, etc.
+
+_e._ The _Tuedian group_ in the north, and _Lower Limestone Shale_ in
+the south, follow next, and consist of shales, sandstones, limestones,
+and conglomerates, varying greatly in different districts, and
+containing few fossils.
+
+
+3. Devonian or Old Red Sandstone. To this age are assigned a perplexing
+series of strata, the principal members of which consist of (_a_) a
+thick limestone, well seen in the cliffs and marble quarries of south
+Devon, and full of fossil-corals (_e.g._ _Favosites polymorpha_ [or
+_cervicornis_]) Brachiopods, and Mollusca, etc.
+
+_b._ A series of sandstones, slates, and limestones in North Devon
+containing Trilobites (_Phacops_, _Bronteus_, etc.), Brachiopods, and
+other fossils.
+
+_c._ The _Old Red Sandstone_ of Wales, the North of England, and
+Scotland, consisting of red and grey sandstone and marly beds, with
+remains of fish.
+
+These fish, unlike most now living, were more or less covered with hard
+external plates, and possessed merely a cartilaginous skeleton. In one
+set of individuals, indeed (_Pterichthys_), the armour plates formed
+quite a little box. These creatures propelled themselves by means of two
+arm-like flippers, rather than fins. They were but a few inches long,
+and appear pigmies in contrast to the strange half-lobster-like
+crustacean, _Pterygotus_, that lived with them, and attained sometimes
+as much as five feet in length.
+
+
+4. Silurian. Named by Sir Roderick Murchison after a tribe of Ancient
+Britons that dwelt in that part of Wales, where these rocks were first
+observed. Some of Murchison's Lower Silurian beds were included by
+Professor Sedgwick in his Cambrian, of which we shall have to speak
+next; and as these two geologists never could agree on a divisional line
+between their respective formations, and since succeeding observers have
+followed sometimes one and sometimes the other method of classification,
+considerable confusion has resulted. Here, however, for several reasons,
+we propose to follow Sedgwick's arrangement; and hence, under the term
+Silurian, retain only Murchison's Upper beds. They consist of a series
+of sandstones, gritstones, conglomerates, shales, limestones, etc.
+
+Amongst the more important fossils, which are very abundant in the
+limestones, are various corals (_e.g._ the Chain-coral _Halysites_),
+Star-fish, Crinoids, Trilobites (_Phacops_, etc.), Polyzoa, Brachiopods
+and Mollusca, especially Cephalopoda (_Orthoceras_, _Nautilus_, etc.).
+
+These rocks occur principally in the border land between England and
+Wales, and the adjacent counties; but are also represented in
+Westmoreland, Scotland, and Ireland. Their principal subdivisions are
+given in the Table on p. 16.
+
+  [Illustration: Trilobite (_Asaphus candatus_), (from the Silurian).]
+
+  [Illustration: _Orthoceras subannulatum_ (from the Silurian).]
+
+
+5. Cambrian. Under this term, derived from the old name for Wales, are
+included many sandstones, grits, slates and flags, with here and there a
+limestone band. They form the greater part of the western counties of
+Wales, where they rise to a considerable height above the sea level. The
+highest hills of Westmoreland and more than half of Scotland are
+composed of beds of this age.
+
+The fossils, save in the limestone bands, are not easy to find, but in
+places they are fairly abundant. Brachiopods are far more numerous than
+the Mollusca properly so-called. Of these, the genus _Orthis_ was most
+abundant at about the close of this period. Certain beds of this age
+have received the name of Lingula Flags, owing this prevalence in them
+of the curious Brachiopod _Lingula_ so like the species now living in
+some of the warm seas of the tropics. The Trilobites included several
+forms, and one species (_Paradoxides Davidis_) attained the length of
+nearly two feet. A few star-fish, some Hydrozoans (_Graptolites_), and
+the tubes and casts of Annelides and tracks of Trilobites, complete the
+list of more remarkable fossils. The subdivisions of the Cambrian rocks
+will be found in the table on p. 16.
+
+
+6. Pre-Cambrian.--Near St. David's Head and some other places in Wales,
+in Anglesea, Shropshire, etc., some yet older rocks have been found.
+They are probably for the most part of volcanic origin, but they have
+been so much changed since they were first deposited, and as hitherto no
+fossils have been found in them, little is known concerning them.
+
+Parts of the western coast of Northern Scotland and the Hebrides are
+composed of a crystalline rock called Gneiss, and supposed to be the
+oldest member of the British strata. No fossils have been found in it.
+
+  [Illustration: Skull of _Deinotherium giganteum_, a huge extinct
+  animal, related to the elephants (from the Miocene of Germany).]
+
+
+VOLCANIC ROCKS. Although there are fortunately no volcanoes to disturb
+the peace of our country at the present day, there is abundant evidence
+of their existence in the past. Not only are some of the beds,
+especially those of Paleozoic age, composed of the dust and ashes thrown
+out of volcanoes, with here and there a lava flow now hardened into
+solid rock, but the stumps of the volcanoes themselves are left to tell
+the tale. The cones indeed are gone, carried off piecemeal by the rain
+and frosts, and other destructive agencies, in the course of countless
+ages: not so the once fluid rock within; _that_ cooled down into
+Granite, and though originally below the surface, it now, owing to the
+removal of the overlying softer strata, forms raised ground overlooking
+the surrounding country. The granite masses of Cornwall, of Dartmoor, in
+the south-west of Mt. Sorrel; the variety called Syenite at Malvern and
+Charnwood Forest; the Basalts of the Cheviot Hills and of Antrim; the
+volcanic rocks of Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and of the islands of Skye
+and Mull, etc., are examples of this class of rock. They are of
+different ages, and belong to different periods of the earth's history,
+from early Palĉozoic down to Miocene times.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, TO SHOW THE
+ORDER IN WHICH THE FOSSILS SHOULD BE ARRANGED.
+
+
+INVERTEBRATA.
+
+ _Foraminifera_, minute chambered shells like the Nummulite.
+
+ _Spongida_, Sponges.
+
+ _Hydrozoa_, Graptolites, etc.
+
+ _Actinozoa_, Corals.
+
+ _Echinodermata_, Sea-urchins, Stone-lilies, Starfish, etc.
+
+ _Annelida_, Worm tracks.
+
+ _Crustacea_, Trilobites, Crabs, etc.
+
+ _Arachnida_, Scorpions and Spiders.
+
+ _Myriapoda_, Centipedes.
+
+ _Insecta_, Beetles, Butterflies, etc.
+
+ _Polyzoa_ (_Bryozoa_) or Moss Animals.
+
+ _Brachiopods_, Lampshells.
+
+              { _Lamellibranchiata_, Bivalves.
+ _Mollusca_   { _Gasteropoda_, Univalves.
+              { _Cephalopoda_, Cuttlefish, Ammonites.
+
+
+VERTEBRATA.
+
+ _Pisces_, Fish.
+
+ _Amphibia_, Labyrinthodonts, Frogs, and Newts.
+
+ _Reptilia_, Reptiles.
+
+ _Aves_, Birds.
+
+ _Mammalia_, Mammals.
+
+
+
+
+WORKS OF REFERENCE.
+
+
+FOR NAMING COMMON FOSSILS.
+
+  =Tabular View of Characteristic British Fossils Stratigraphically
+  Arranged.=
+    By J. W. LOWRY. _Soc. Prom. Christ. Knowledge._ 1853.
+
+  =Figures of the Characteristic British Tertiary Fossils (Chiefly
+  Mollusca)
+    Stratigraphically Arranged.= By J. W. LOWRY and others. _London_
+    (_Stanford_). 1866.
+
+
+PALĈONTOLOGY.
+
+  =The Ancient Life History of the Earth.=
+    By H. A. NICHOLSON. 8vo. _Edinburgh and London._ 1877.
+
+  =A Manual of Palĉontology.=
+    By H. A. NICHOLSON. 2nd edition. 2 vols. 8vo. _Edinburgh and
+    London._ 1879.
+
+
+PETROLOGY.
+
+  =The Study of Rocks.=
+    By F. RUTLEY. (Text Books of Science.) 8vo. _London._ 1879.
+
+
+FIELD GEOLOGY.
+
+  =A Text-Book of Field Geology.=
+    By W. H. PENNING. With a Section on Palĉontology, by A. J.
+    JUKES-BROWN. 2nd edition. 8vo. _London._ 1879.
+
+
+GEOLOGY IN GENERAL.
+
+  =The Student's Elements of Geology.=
+    By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Bart. 4th edition. 8vo. _London._ 1884.
+
+  =The Principles of Geology.=
+    By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Bart. 12th edition. 2 vols. 8vo. _London._
+    1875.
+
+  =Phillip's Manual of Geology.=
+    2nd edition. By SEELEY AND ETHERIDGE. 2 vols., 8vo. _London._ 1885.
+
+  =Tabular View of Geological Systems, with their Lithological
+  Composition and Palĉontological Remains.=
+    By D. E. CLEMENT. _London (Sonnenschein)._ 1882.
+
+
+BRITISH GEOLOGY.
+
+  =The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain.=
+    By SIR ANDREW C. RAMSEY. 5th edition. 8vo. _London._ 1878.
+
+  =The Geology of England and Wales.=
+    By HORACE B. WOODWARD. 8vo. _London._ 1876.
+
+ =Geology of the Counties of England and Wales.=
+    By W. J. HARRISON. 8vo. _London._ 1882.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POPULAR ILLUSTRATED SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.
+UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. ALL FULLY ILLUSTRATED.
+
+
+  =BRITISH BUTTERFLIES, MOTHS, AND BEETLES.=
+    By W. F. KIRBY (Brit. Mus.). Crown 8vo, cloth, 1_s._
+
+  =MOSSES, LICHENS, AND FUNGI.=
+    By PETER GRAY and E. M. HOLMES. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1_s._
+
+  =ENGLISH COINS AND TOKENS.=
+    By LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.; with a chapter on =Greek and Roman
+    Coins=, by BARCLAY V. HEAD, M.R.A.S. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1_s._
+
+  =FLOWERS AND FLOWER LORE.=
+    By Rev. HILDERIC FRIEND, F.L.S.  Illustrated.  Third Edition,
+    demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+  =THE DYNAMO: How Made and How Used.=
+    By S. R. BOTTONE. Numerous Cuts. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+  =A SEASON AMONG THE WILD FLOWERS.=
+    By Rev. H. WOOD.  Illustrated.  Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+  =HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS.=
+    By E. NEWMAN, F.L.S.  Fifth Edition, Illustrated. 12mo, cloth, 2_s._
+
+  =THE INSECT HUNTER'S COMPANION.=
+    By Rev. J. GREENE. Third Edition. Cuts. 12mo, boards, 1_s._
+
+  =TABULAR VIEW OF GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS.=
+    By Dr. E. CLEMENT. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 1_s._
+
+
+SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+As there appear to be section and subsections in the second and third
+units (Shells and Fossils) of this book, Tables of Contents were
+created for the electronic edition. A number of the images were moved
+where they split paragraphs. There is a reference to a Figure 24 for
+Ancylus; but no Fig. 24 was included. The reference to Fig. 26 for
+Bullidĉ was assumed to be a reference to Fig. 14. Bulla ampulla.
+
+With the exception of the following items, all page number references
+in the original text were retained. There are references to two tables
+on Page 77. The first was listed a "vide Table, p. 16" and the second
+as "vide Table, p. 32" which appear to refer to the tables on page 78
+and 94 respectively. The page references were corrected.
+
+Species name are assumed to be correct for the time of publication
+(ca. 1886). For example, Charychium is today listed as Carychium.
+
+
+Text Emphasis
+
+ _Text_ - Italics
+
+ =Text+ - Bold
+
+
+Typographic Corrections
+
+ Page   Correction
+ ----  ------------------------
+  14    fond => foot
+  27    it => if
+  27    pencil => brush
+  55    beak => peak
+  56    tis => its
+  60    Keilia => Kellia
+  73    inever => "I never"
+  91    crustucean => crustacean
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils, by 
+Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS ***
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+<html>
+  <head>
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html;charset=iso-8859-1">
+    <meta http-equiv="Content-Style-Type" content="text/css">
+    <title>
+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and fossils, by Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward.
+    </title>
+    <style type="text/css">
+
+  body             {margin-left: 10%; margin-right: 10%;}
+  p                {text-indent:1.5em; text-align:justify;}
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils, by 
+Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils
+
+Author: Peter Gray
+        B. B. Woodward
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2011 [EBook #37119]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="CvrPage" id="CvrPage">[CvrPg]</a></span></p>
+<a name="coverpage" id="coverpage"></a>
+<div class="center">
+<img src="images/coverpage.png" width="319" height="507" alt="coverpage" title="coverpage" />
+</div><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg&nbsp;1]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<div class="caption1"><span class="smcap">SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS and FOSSILS.</span></div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption3">BY</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption2">PETER GRAY, A.B.S. <span class="smcap">Edin.</span>;<br />
+<br />
+AND<br />
+<br />
+B. B. WOODWARD,</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption3"><i>Of the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington.</i></div><br />
+<br />
+<div class="figcenter"><br />
+<img src="images/pg_01.png" width="194" height="254" alt="Printer's Logo" title="Printer's Logo" /><br />
+</div>
+<br />
+<br />
+LONDON:<br />
+SWAN SONNENSCHEIN, <span class="smcap">Le</span> BAS &amp; LOWREY,<br />
+PATERNOSTER SQUARE.<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg&nbsp;2]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="center">
+<span class="smcap">Butler &amp; Tanner,<br />
+The Selwood Printing Works<br />
+Frome, and London.</span><br />
+<br />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg&nbsp;3]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption1">SEA-WEEDS.</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption2"><span class="smcap">By PETER GRAY.</span></div>
+
+
+<p>Alg&aelig;, popularly known as sea-weeds, although many species
+are inhabitants of fresh water, or grow on moist ground, may
+be briefly described as cellular, flowerless plants, having no
+proper roots, but imbibing nutriment by their whole surface
+from the medium in which they grow. As far as has been
+ascertained, the total number of species is about 9000 or 10,000.
+Many of them are microscopic, as the Desmids and Diatoms,
+others, as Lessonia, and some of the larger Laminari&aelig; (oarweeds),
+are arborescent, covering the bed of the sea around the coast
+with a submarine forest; while in the Pacific, off the northwestern
+shores of America, Nereocystis, a genus allied to Laminaria,
+has a stem over 300 feet in length, which, although not
+thicker than whipcord, is stout enough to moor a bladder, barrel-shaped,
+six or seven feet long, and crowned with a tuft of fifty
+leaves or more, each from thirty to forty feet in length. This
+vegetable buoy is a favourite resting place of the sea otter; and
+where the plant exists in any quantity, the surface of the sea is
+rendered impassable to boats. The stem of Macrocystis, which
+"girds the globe in the southern temperate zone," is stated to
+extend sometimes to the enormous length of 1500 feet. It is
+no thicker than the finger anywhere, and the upper branches
+are as slender as pack-thread; but at the base of each leaf there
+is placed a buoy, in the shape of a vesicle filled with air.</p>
+
+<p>Although the worthlessness of Alg&aelig; has been proverbial, as
+in the "alga inutile" of Horace and Virgil's "projecta vilior
+alga," they are not without importance in botanical economics.
+A dozen or more species found in the British seas are made
+use of, raw or prepared in several ways, as food for man.
+Of these edible Alg&aelig;, Dr. Harvey considers the two species
+of Porphyra, or laver, the most valuable. Berkeley says, "The
+best way of preparing this vegetable or condiment, which
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg&nbsp;4]</a></span>
+is extremely wholesome, is to heat it thoroughly with a little
+strong gravy or broth, adding, before it is served on toast, a
+small quantity of butter and lemon juice." A species of Nostoc
+is largely consumed in China as an ingredient in soup. A
+similar use is made of Enteromorpha intestinalis in Japan.
+Many species of fish and other animals, turtle included, live upon
+sea-weed. Fucus vesiculosus is a grateful food for cattle. In
+Norway, cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are largely fed upon it,
+and on our own coasts cattle eagerly browse on that and kindred
+species at low water. In some northern countries, Fucus serratus
+sprinkled with meal is used as winter fodder.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_1"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_04.png" width="437" height="435" alt="Fig. 1. Group of Sea-weeds (chiefly Laminari&aelig;)." title="Fig. 1. Group of Sea-weeds (chiefly Laminari&aelig;)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 1. Group of Sea-weeds (chiefly Laminari&aelig;).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>All the marine Alg&aelig; contain iodine; and even before the value
+of that substance in glandular complaints had been ascertained,
+stems of a sea-weed were chewed as a remedy by the inhabitants
+of certain districts of South America where goître is prevalent.
+Chondrus crispus and (Gigartina) mamillosa constitute the Irish
+moss of commerce, which dissolves into a nutritious and delicate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg&nbsp;5]</a></span>
+jelly, and the restorative value of which in consumption doubtless
+depends in some degree on the presence of iodine. The freshwater
+Alg&aelig; not only furnish abundant and nourishing food to the fish
+and other animals living in ponds and streams, but by their
+action in the decomposition of carburetted hydrogen and other
+noxious gases purify the element in which they live, thus becoming
+important sanitary agents. The value of aquatic plants
+in the aquarium is well known. A Chinese species of Gigartina
+is much employed as a glue and varnish; and also much used in
+China in the manufacture of lanterns and transparencies, and in
+that country and Japan for glazing windows. Handles for
+table knives and forks, tools, and other implements have been
+made from the thick stems of oarweeds, and fishing lines from
+Chorda filum. Tripoli powder, extensively used for polishing,
+consists mainly of the silicious shells of Diatoms. On various
+parts of our coast, the coarser species of sea-weed, now used as
+a valuable manure, were formerly extensively burnt for kelp,
+an impure carbonate of soda. This industry, when carried on
+upon a large scale, became a fruitful source of income to some
+of the poorest districts in the kingdom, bringing, in the last
+decade of last century, nearly £30,000 per annum into Orkney
+alone. Since the production of soda from rock salt has become
+general, kelp is now only burnt for the extraction of iodine, this
+being the easiest way of obtaining that substance.</p>
+
+<p>Although the vegetable structure and mode of reproduction
+are essentially the same in all Alg&aelig;, as regards the former they
+vary from the simple cell, through cells arranged in threads,
+to a stem and leaves simulating the vegetation of higher
+tribes. And although the simpler kinds are obviously formed
+of threads, most of the more compound may also be resolved
+into the same structure by maceration in hot water or diluted
+muriatic acid. In substance some are mere masses of slime or
+jelly, others are silky to the feel, horny, cartilaginous or leather-like,
+and even apparently woody. A few species secrete carbonate
+of lime from the water, laying it up in their tissues;
+others cover themselves completely with that mineral, while
+some coat themselves with silex or flint. Many Alg&aelig; are
+beautifully coloured, even when growing at depths to which
+very little light penetrates. As in their vegetative organs, so in
+their reproductive, Alg&aelig; exhibit many modifications of structure
+without much real difference. In the green sea-weeds
+reproduction is effected by simple cell division in the unicellular
+species, and by spores resulting from the union of the
+contents of two cells in the others. The red sea-weeds have a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg&nbsp;6]</a></span>
+double system of reproduction, a distinctly sexual one, by spores
+and antheridia, and another by tetraspores, which by some are
+considered to be of the nature of gemm&aelig;, or buds. The spores
+are generally situated in distinct hollow conceptacles (favell&aelig;,
+ceramidium, coccidium). The tetraspore is also sometimes contained
+in a conceptacle. It consists of a more or less globular,
+transparent cell, which when mature contains within it four
+(rarely three) sporules. Reproduction in the olive sea-weeds is
+also double, by zoospores, generally considered gemm&aelig;, and by
+spores and antherozoids, which is a sexual process.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_2"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_06.png" width="194" height="204" alt="Fig. 2. A, Species of Gleocapsa, one of the Palmelle&aelig;, in various stages. A becomes B, C, D, and E by repeated division. Magnified 300 diameters." title="Fig. 1. Group of Sea-weeds (chiefly Laminari&aelig;).Fig. 2. A, Species of Gleocapsa, one of the Palmelle&aelig;, in various stages. A becomes B, C, D, and E by repeated division. Magnified 300 diameters." /><br /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2. A, Species of Gleocapsa, one of the Palmelle&aelig;, in various stages. A becomes B, C, D, and E by repeated division. Magnified 300 diameters.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Following the classification adopted by Professor Harvey,
+which is that generally employed in English systematic manuals,
+we divide the order into three sub-orders, named from the prevailing
+colour of their spores. 1. Chlorosperme&aelig;, with green
+spores; 2. Rhodosperme&aelig;, with red spores; and 3. Melanosperme&aelig;,
+with olive-coloured spores. The entire plant in the
+first group is usually grass-green, but occasionally olive, purple,
+blue, and sometimes almost black; in the second it is some shade
+or other of red, very seldom green; and in the third, while
+generally olive green, it is occasionally brown olive or yellow.</p>
+
+<p>The Chlorosperme&aelig; are extremely varied in form, often
+threadlike, and are propagated either by the simple division of
+the contents of their cells (endochrome), by the transformation
+of particular joints, or by the change of the contents of the cells
+into zoospores, which are cells moving freely in water by means
+of hairlike appendages. In their lower forms they are among
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg&nbsp;7]</a></span>
+the most rudimentary of all plants, and thus of special interest
+physiologically, as representing the component parts of which
+higher plants are formed. They are subdivided into twelve
+groups, as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The first group, Palmelle&aelig;, are unicellular plants, the cells of
+which are either free or surrounded by a gelatinous mass, and
+they are propagated by the division of the endochrome. One
+of the most remarkable of the species of this family is Protococcus
+cruentus, which is found at the foot of walls having a northern
+aspect, looking as if blood had been poured out on the ground
+or on stones. Protococcus nivalis, again, is the cause of the red
+snow, of which early arctic navigators used to give such marvellous
+accounts. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_2">Fig. 2.</a>)</span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_3"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_07.png" width="335" height="162" alt="Fig. 3. A, Fragment of a Filament of Zygnema, one of the Conjugate&aelig;; B, Closterium; C, Euastrium; two desmids." title="Fig. 3. A, Fragment of a Filament of Zygnema, one of the Conjugate&aelig;; B, Closterium; C, Euastrium; two desmids." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3. A, Fragment of a Filament of Zygnema, one of the Conjugate&aelig;;<br />B, Closterium; C, Euastrium; two desmids.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Desmideace&aelig;, together with the plants of the next succeeding
+group, are favourite subjects of investigation or observation by
+the possessors of microscopes, an attention they merit from the
+beauty and variety of their forms. They are minute plants
+of a green colour, consisting of cells generally independent
+of each other, but sometimes forming brittle threads or minute
+fronds, and are reproduced by spores generated by the conjugation
+of two distinct individuals. The process of conjugation in
+Desmids and Diatoms consists in the union of the endochrome
+of two individuals, each of which in these families is composed
+of a single cell. This ultimately forms a rounded body or resting
+spore, which afterwards germinates, the resulting plant not
+however acquiring the normal form until the third generation.
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_3">Fig. 3.</a>)</span></p>
+
+<p>The Diatomace&aelig;, closely allied to the preceding group in
+structure and reproduction, are however distinguished from them
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg&nbsp;8]</a></span>
+by their flinty shells, which are often beautifully sculptured.
+Their endochrome is a golden brown, instead of green as in the
+Desmideace&aelig;. The latter, also, are confined to fresh water, while
+the Diatomace&aelig; are found, though not exclusively, in the sea,
+where their shells sometimes, microscopically minute as they are
+individually, form banks extending several hundred miles. It is
+stated that in the collection made by Sir Joseph Hooker in the
+Himalayas the species closely resemble our own.</p>
+
+<p>In the next group, Confervace&aelig;, we are introduced to forms
+more like the general notion of what a plant should be. The
+individuals of which it consists are composed of threads, jointed,
+either simple or branched, mostly of a grass-green colour, and
+propagating either by minute zoospores or by metamorphosed
+joints. They are found both in fresh and salt water, and in
+damp situations. The number of species is very great.
+A considerable number consist of unbranched threads; the
+branched forms grow sometimes so densely as to assume the
+form of solid balls. After floods, when the water stands for
+several days, they sometimes increase to such an extent, as to
+form on its subsidence a uniform paper-like stratum, which while
+decomposing is extremely disagreeable. The name Conferva
+has been almost discontinued as a generic title, the majority of
+British species being now ranged under Clado- and Ch&aelig;to-phora.
+The latter are branched, and require great care and attention in
+order to distinguish them, on account of their general resemblance
+to each other. Good characters are however to be found
+in their mode of branching and the form and comparative size
+of the terminal joints.</p>
+
+<p>The Batrachosperme&aelig; constitute a small but very beautiful
+group, consisting of gelatinous threads variously woven into a
+branched cylindrical frond. The branches are sometimes arranged,
+as in the British species, so that the plants appear like
+necklaces. In colour they pass from green, through intermediate
+shades of olive and purple, to black. In common with some of
+the higher Alg&aelig;, the threads of the superficial branches send
+joints down the stem, changing it from simple to compound.
+The native species are all fluviatile.</p>
+
+<p>The Hydrodicte&aelig; are among the most remarkable of Alg&aelig;.
+Hydrodictyon utriculatum, the solitary British species, is found
+in the large pond at Hampton Court, and in similar situations
+in various parts of the country, but not very generally. It resembles
+a green purse or net, from four to six inches in length,
+with delicate and regular meshes, the reticulations being about
+four lines long. Its method of reproduction is no less remarkable
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg&nbsp;9]</a></span>
+than its form. Each of the cells forms within itself an enormous
+mass of small elliptic grains. These become attached by the
+extremities so as to form a network inside the cell, and, its walls
+being dissolved, a new plant is set free to grow to the size of the
+parent Hydrodictyon.</p>
+
+<p>The Nostochine&aelig; grow in fresh water, or attached to moist
+soil. They consist of slender, beaded threads surrounded by a
+firm jelly, and often spreading into large, wavy fronds. The
+larger beads on the inclosed threads are reproductive spores.
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_4">Fig. 4, A.</a>)</span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_4"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_09.png" width="279" height="102" alt="Fig. 4. A, Fragment of a Filament of Nostoc. B, End of a Filament of Oscillatoria." title="Fig. 4. A, Fragment of a Filament of Nostoc. B, End of a Filament of Oscillatoria." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4. A, Fragment of a Filament of Nostoc. B, End of a Filament of Oscillatoria.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Oscillatore&aelig; are another remarkable group, on account
+of the peculiar animal-like motions they exhibit. They occur
+both in salt and fresh water, and on almost every kind of site
+in which there is sufficient moisture. The threads of which they
+are composed are jointed, and generally unbranched; they are
+of various tints of blue, red, and green, and, where their fructification
+has been ascertained, are propagated by cell division.
+The most curious point about them is, however, the movements
+of their fronds. According to Dr. Harvey, these are of three
+kinds&mdash;a pendulum-like movement from side to side, performed
+by one end, whilst the other remains fixed, so as to form
+a pivot; a movement of flexure of the filament itself, the oscillating
+extremity bending over from one side to the other, like
+the head of a worm or caterpillar seeking something on its line
+of march; and lastly, a simple onward movement of progression,
+the whole phenomenon being, Dr. Harvey thinks, resolvable
+into a spiral onward movement of the filament. Whatever
+is the cause of this motion, it is not, as used to be supposed,
+of an animal nature; for the individuals of this group are undoubted
+plants. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_4">Fig. 4, B.</a>)</span> Several species of Rivularia,
+belonging to the Oscillatore&aelig;, are found both in the sea and
+in fresh water. They are gelatinous, and have something of the
+appearance of Nostoc, in aspect as well as in minute structure.</p>
+
+<p>The Conjugat&aelig; are freshwater articulated Alg&aelig;, which reproduce
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg&nbsp;10]</a></span>
+themselves by the union of two endochromes. They are
+very interesting objects under the microscope, owing to the
+spiral or zigzag arrangement of the endochrome of many of
+them, and the delicacy of all.</p>
+
+<p>The Bulboch&aelig;te&aelig; constitute a small group, some half-a-dozen
+species being British. They are freshwater plants, composed
+of articulate branched filaments, with fertile bulbshaped
+branchlets. The endochrome is believed to be fertilized by
+bodies developed in antheridia, the contents of each fertilized
+cell dividing into four ovate zoospores.</p>
+
+<p>The last two groups of green sea-weeds consist chiefly of
+marine plants. Of these the first, Siphone&aelig;, is so called because
+the plant, however complicated, is composed invariably of a single
+cell. It propagates by minute zoospores, by large quiescent
+spores, or by large active spores clothed with cilia. It includes
+the remarkable genus Codium, three species of which inhabit
+the British seas. In Codium Bursa the filamentous frond is
+spherical and hollow, presenting more the appearance of a
+round sponge or puff-ball than a sea-weed, and is somewhat
+rare. Another species greatly resembles a branched sponge,
+and the third forms a velvety crust on the surface of rocks.
+Another genus, Vaucheria, is of a beautiful green colour, forming
+a velvety surface on moist soil, on mud-covered rocks overflowed
+by the tide, or parasitic on other sea-weeds. The most
+attractive plants of this family are however those of the genus
+Bryopsis, two of which are found on the British shores. The
+most common one is B. plumosa, the fronds of which grow
+usually in the shady and sheltered sides of rock pools.</p>
+
+<p>The fronds of the last of the green-weed groups, the Ulvace&aelig;,
+are membranous, and either flat or tubular. Two of them, Ulva
+latissima, the green, and Porphyra laciniata, the purple laver, are
+among the most common sea-weeds, growing well up from low-water
+mark. The propagation in all of them is by zoospores.
+An allied genus, Enteromorpha, is protean in its forms, which
+have been classed under many species. They may, however, be
+reduced to half a dozen. Some of them are very slender, so as
+almost to be mistaken for confervoid plants.</p>
+
+<p>With the Rhodosperme&aelig; we enter a sub-order of Alg&aelig;, exclusively
+marine, the plants in which have always held out great
+attractions to the collector. In structure they are expanded or
+filamentous, nearly always rose-coloured or purple in colour. Of
+the fourteen groups into which they are divided by Harvey, the
+first is Ceramiace&aelig;, articulate Alg&aelig;, constituting a large proportion
+of the marine plants of our shores. Of the genus Ceramium,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg&nbsp;11]</a></span>
+C. rubrum is the most frequent, and it is found in every latitude,
+almost from pole to pole. It is very variable in aspect, but can
+always be recognized by its fruit. C. diaphanum is a very handsome
+species, growing often in rock pools along with the other.
+There are about fifteen native species altogether, some of them
+rare, and all very beautiful, both as displayed on paper and seen
+under the microscope. Crouania attenuata is a beautiful plant,
+parasitic upon a Cladostephus or Corallina officinalis. It is however
+extremely rare, being only found in England about Land's
+End. A more common and conspicuous, but equally handsome
+plant is Ptilota plumosa <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>)</span>, which is mostly confined to our
+northern coasts; although P. sericea, a smaller species, or variety,
+is common in the south, and easily distinguished from its congener,
+which it otherwise greatly resembles, by its jointed branchlets
+and pinnules. Callithamnion, Halurus and Griffithsia, articulate
+like Ceramium, furnish also several handsome species. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_8">Fig. 5.</a>)</span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_5"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_11.png" width="432" height="489" alt="Fig. 5. Species of Callithamnion." title="Fig. 5. Species of Callithamnion." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5. Species of Callithamnion.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_6"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_12.png" width="454" height="467" alt="Fig. 6. Chondrus crispus." title="Fig. 6. Chondrus crispus." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6. Chondrus crispus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The group Spyridiace&aelig; contains only one English plant, Spyridia
+filamentosa, which is curiously and irregularly branched, the
+branches being articulate and of a pinky red. One of its kinds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg&nbsp;12]</a></span>
+of fruit, consisting of crimson spores, is contained in a transparent
+network basket, formed by the favell&aelig;, or short branches,
+whence its name.</p>
+
+<p>The Cryptonemiace&aelig; are very numerous in genera and species.
+They all have inarticulate branches, some are thread-like. Grateloupia
+filicina is a neat little plant, met with rarely on the
+south and west coasts. Gigartina mamillosa, a common plant
+everywhere, is the plant sold, along with Chondrus crispus, as
+Irish or Carrageen moss. A handsome little plant, Stenogramme
+interrupta, is very rare, but it has been gathered both on the
+Irish and English coasts. The Phyllophor&aelig;, one species of
+which is frequent on all our shores, may be recognised by the
+way in which the points and surfaces of their fronds throw
+out proliferous leaves. Gymnogongrus has two British species,
+one much resembling Chondrus crispus, already named, of
+which it was formerly considered a congener. Their fructification
+is however very different. Ahnfeltia plicata is a curious
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg&nbsp;13]</a></span>
+wiry, entangled plant, almost black in colour, and like horsehair
+when dry, and can scarcely be mistaken. Cystoclonium
+purpurascens is very commonly cast up by the tide on most
+of our coasts. It varies in colour, but is easily distinguished
+by the spore-bearing tubercles imbedded in its slender branches.
+Callophyllis laciniata is a handsome species, of a rich crimson
+colour, and sometimes a foot square. It can scarcely have
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg&nbsp;14]</a></span>
+escaped the notice of the sea-side visitor, for it is widely distributed
+and often thrown out in great abundance; one writer
+describes the shore near Tynemouth as having been red for
+upwards of a mile with this superb sea-weed. Kalymenia
+reniformis is another of the broad, flat Alg&aelig;, but it is scarcer,
+and of a colour not so conspicuous. Among the most frequent
+of our sea-weeds, both as growing in the rock pools and cast
+ashore, is Chondrus crispus, already twice referred to in connexion
+with its officinal uses. It is very variable in form, one
+author figuring as many as thirty-six different varieties. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_6">Fig. 6.</a>)</span>
+Chylocladia clavellosa, which is sometimes cast ashore a <ins title='Correction - was "fond"'>foot</ins>
+and a half long, is closely set with branches, and these again
+clothed with branchlets in one or two series. The whole plant
+is fleshy, of a rose-red or brilliant pink colour, turning to golden
+yellow in decay. There is another small species, confined to
+the extreme north of Britain. Halymenia ligulata is another
+flat red weed, but sometimes very narrow in its ramifications.
+Furcellaria fastigiata has a round, branched, taper stem, swollen
+at the summit, which contains the fruit, consisting of masses of
+tetraspores in a pod-like receptacle. Schizymenia edulis, better
+known perhaps by its old name Iridea, is a flat, inversely egg-shaped
+leaf with scarcely any stem. It is one of the edible
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg&nbsp;15]</a></span>
+Alg&aelig;, and pretty frequent in shady rock pools. Gloiosiphonia
+capillaris is a remarkably beautiful plant, and not common,
+being confined to certain parts of the southern coasts. The
+stem is very soft and gelatinous; the spores are produced in red
+globular masses imbedded in the marginal filaments, which have
+a fine appearance under the microscope when fresh.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_7"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_13.png" width="384" height="563" alt="Fig. 7. Rhodomenia palmata." title="Fig. 7. Rhodomenia palmata." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7. Rhodomenia palmata.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_8"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_14.png" width="385" height="374" alt="Fig. 8. Wormskioldia sanguinea." title="Fig. 8. Wormskioldia sanguinea." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8. Wormskioldia sanguinea.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Rhodomeniace&aelig; are purplish or blood-red sea-weeds,
+inarticulate, membranaceous, and cellular. Among the dark-coloured
+is Rhodomenia palmata, better known as dulse, a
+common and edible species. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_7">Fig. 7.</a>)</span> Wormskioldia sanguinea
+is not only the most beautiful sea-weed, but the finest of all
+leaves or fronds. It is usually about six inches long, but sometimes
+nearly double that length and six inches broad, with a
+distinct midrib and branching veins, and a delicate wavy lamina,
+pink or deep red. The fruit is produced in winter from small
+leaflets growing upon the bare midrib. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_8">Fig. 8.</a></span>) The commonest
+of all red sea-weeds on our coast, one of the most elegant,
+and much sought after by sea-weed picture makers, Plocamium
+coccineum, belongs to this group. Calliblepharis ciliata and
+jubata are coarser plants, the latter being the more frequent.
+They were formerly included in the genus Rhodymenia, from
+which they were removed when their fruit was better understood.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_9"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_15.png" width="411" height="332" alt="Fig. 9. Ptilota plumosa." title="Fig. 9. Ptilota plumosa." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9. Ptilota plumosa.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Wrangelia and Naccaria are the only British genera in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg&nbsp;16]</a></span>
+Wrangeliace&aelig;. There is only one native species in each, both
+being rare, the latter especially.</p>
+
+<p>The Helminthocladi&aelig; are also a limited group, of a gelatinous
+structure; so much so that on being gathered they feel like a
+bunch of slimy worms, whence the name of the family. Helminthora
+purpurea and divaricata with Nemaleon multifidum
+and Scinaia furcellata represent them in Britain. They are
+nearly all very rare, pretty plants, and very effective as microscopic
+objects.</p>
+
+<p>The Squamari&aelig;, formerly included in the Corallinace&aelig;, are a
+small group of inconspicuous plants resembling lichens, of a
+leathery texture, and growing on rocks and shells attached by
+their lower surface.</p>
+
+<p>A single genus only, Polyides, represents the Spongiocarpe&aelig;.
+Polyides rotundus resembles Furcellaria fastigiata very closely,
+but differs widely in the fruit, which consists of spongy warts
+surrounding the frond, composed of spores and articulated
+threads.</p>
+
+<p>Of the next group represented in Britain, Gelidiace&aelig;, we
+have only one plant, Gelidium corneum, very common on our
+shores, and perhaps the most variable of all vegetable species.</p>
+
+<p>The Sph&aelig;rococcid&aelig; include both membranaceous and cartilaginous
+species. Of the latter is Sph&aelig;rococcus coronopifolius,
+which cannot easily be mistaken, owing to the numerous berry-like
+fruits that tip its branchlets. It is rather rare on the
+northern, but often thrown ashore in large quantities on the
+southern coasts. The genus Delesseria has four British species,
+the largest being the well-known D. sinuosa, the fronds of
+which resemble an oak leaf in outline. The handsomest are
+D. ruscifolia and D. hypoglossum, which are more delicate and
+of a finer colour than sinuosa. There are three British species
+of Gracillaria, in two of which the branches are cylindrical, and
+in the other flat. G. compressa makes an excellent preserve
+and pickle, but unfortunately it is the rarest of the three.
+Nitophyllum is one of the greatest ornaments of this tribe.
+There are six British species, which are amongst the most delicate
+and beautiful of our native Alg&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>The Corallinace&aelig; are remarkable for the property they
+possess of absorbing carbonate of lime into their tissues, so that
+they appear as a succession of chalky articulations or incrustations.
+The most common is Corallina officinalis. There are
+two British species of Corallina, and two also of the nearly
+allied genus, Jania. Of the foliaceous group there are likewise
+two British genera, Melobesia and Hildenbrantia.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg&nbsp;17]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The next group, the Laurenciace&aelig;, are cartilaginous and cylindrical
+or compressed, the frond in the greater portion of them
+being inarticulate and solid. They contain several species valued
+by collectors, although some of them are amongst our commonest
+plants. Their colour is, when perfect, a dull purple or
+brownish red, but they change under the influence of light and
+air, while fresh water is rapidly destructive to their tints. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_10">Fig. 10.</a>)</span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_10"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_17.png" width="256" height="432" alt="Fig. 10. Laurencia pinnatifida." title="Fig. 10. Laurencia pinnatifida." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10. Laurencia pinnatifida.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Chylocladi&aelig; are curiously jointed plants, removed by
+Agardh to a new genus, Lomentaria, and a new order Chondri&aelig;.
+Bonnemaisonia asparagoides is the most rare and beautiful of
+the tribe.</p>
+
+<p>The last tribe of red weeds, Rhodomelace&aelig;, varies greatly in
+the structure of the frond, but the fruit is more uniform. Polysiphonia
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg&nbsp;18]</a></span>
+and Dasya contain the finest of the filiform division;
+the leafy one, Odonthalia, a northern form, is a very beautiful
+sea-weed both as respects form and colour. Well-grown specimens
+are not unlike a hawthorn twig, and of a blood red colour.</p>
+
+<p>The plants of the sub-order Melanosperme&aelig;, are, like the red
+sea-weeds, exclusively marine. They are usually large and
+coarse, and confined mostly to comparatively shallow water. In
+the Laminariace&aelig; we find the gigantic oarweeds already briefly
+referred to. Lessonia, which encircles in submarine forests the
+antarctic coasts, is an erect, tree-like plant, with a trunk from
+five to ten feet high, forked branches, and drooping leaves, one
+to three feet in length, and has been compared to a weeping
+willow. Sir Joseph Hooker says, that from a boat there may
+on a calm day be witnessed in the antarctic regions, over these
+submarine groves, "as busy a scene as is presented by the coral
+reefs of the tropics. The leaves of the Lessoni&aelig; are crowded
+with Sertulari&aelig; and Mollusca, or encircled with Flustra; on the
+trunks parasitic Alg&aelig; abound, together with chitons, limpets,
+and other shells; at the base and among the tangled roots
+swarm thousands of Crustace&aelig; and Radiata, while fish of
+several species dart among the leaves and branches." Of these
+and other gigantic melanosperms, flung ashore by the waves, a
+belt of decaying vegetable matter is formed, miles in extent,
+some yards broad, and three feet in depth; and Sir J. Hooker
+adds that the trunks of Lessonia so much resemble driftwood
+that no persuasion could prevent an ignorant shipmaster from
+employing his crew, during two bitterly cold days, in collecting
+this incombustible material for fuel. Macrocystis and Nereocystis
+are also giant members of this sub-order. Some of the
+Laminari&aelig; which form a belt around our own coasts not seldom
+attain a length of from eight to twelve feet. The common
+bladder-wrack (Fucus vesiculosus) sometimes grows in Jutland
+to a height of ten feet, and in clusters several feet in diameter.
+The colour of most of the plants in this sub-order is
+some shade of olive, but several of them turn to green in
+drying.</p>
+
+<p>The first group, Ectocarpe&aelig;, is composed of thread-like
+jointed plants, the fructification of which consists of external
+spores, sometimes formed by the swelling of a branchlet. The
+typical genus, Ectocarpus, abounds in species, a dozen or so of
+which, very nearly allied plants, being found around our own
+shores. One or two of them are very handsome. There
+are also some very beautiful plants in the genus Sphacelaria,
+belonging to this group, several of them resembling miniature
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg&nbsp;19]</a></span>
+ferns. All the Sphacelari&aelig; are easily recognized by the
+withered appearance of the tips of the fruiting branches. Myriotrichia
+is a genus of small parasitical plants, the two British
+species of which grow chiefly on the sea thongs (Chorda).</p>
+
+<p>The Chordari&aelig; are sometimes gelatinous in structure, in other
+cases cartilaginous. The fruit is contained in the substance of
+the frond. The genus Chordaria consists of plants which
+have the appearance of dark coloured twine. There are two
+British species, one being rather common. Chorda filum, sea-rope,
+another string-like sea-weed, grows in tufts from a few
+inches to many feet in length, and tapering at the roots to about
+the thickness of a pig's bristle. In quiet land-locked bays with
+a sandy or muddy bottom, it sometimes extends to forty feet in
+length, forming extensive meadows, obstructing the passage of
+boats, and endangering the lives of swimmers entangled in its
+slimy cords, whence probably its other name of "dead men's
+lines."</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_11"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_19.png" width="302" height="313" alt="Fig. 11. Padina pavonia." title="Fig. 11. Padina pavonia." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11. Padina pavonia.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The Mesogloie&aelig; in a fresh state resemble bundles of green,
+slimy worms. There are three British species, two of which
+are not uncommon. Although so unattractive in external aspect,
+they, like many others of the same description, prove very
+interesting under the microscope. One of the cartilaginous
+species, Leathsia tuberiformis, has the appearance, when growing,
+of a mass of distorted tubers.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg&nbsp;20]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>The species of Elachista, composed of minute parasites, are,
+as well as unattractive like the Mesogloie&aelig;, inconspicuous, but
+are beautiful objects when placed under the microscope. Myrionem&aelig;
+are also parasitic, and even smaller than the plants of
+the preceding genus.</p>
+
+<p>In the Dictyote&aelig; the frond is mostly flat, with a reticulated
+surface, which is sprinkled when in fruit with groups of naked
+spores or spore cysts. This tribe includes not a few of the most
+elegant among the Alg&aelig;. In structure they are coriaceous, and
+include plants both with broad and narrow, branched and unbranched
+fronds. In Haliseris there is a distinct midrib. The
+largest of the British Dictyote&aelig; is Cutleria multifida, sometimes
+found a foot and a half long; and the best known is doubtless
+Padina pavonia, much sought after by seaside visitors where it
+grows. Its segments are fan-shaped, variegated with lighter
+curved lines, and fringed with golden tinted filaments. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_11">Fig. 11.</a>)</span>
+Owing to its power of decomposing light, its fronds, when growing
+under water, suggest the train of the peacock, whence its specific
+name. Taonia atomaria somewhat resembles Cutleria, but exhibits
+also the wavy lines of Padina. The plant of this group most
+often cast ashore is Dictyota dichotoma. It makes a handsome
+specimen when well dried, and is interesting on account of the
+manner in which it varies in the breadth of its divisions. The
+variety intricata is curiously curled and entangled. Dictyosiphon
+f&#339;niculaceus, the solitary British example of its genus, is a bushy
+filiform plant, remarkable for the beautiful net-like markings of
+its surface. The Punctari&aelig; have flattened fronds, marked with
+dots, which sufficiently distinguish them from all the others. A
+small form is often found parasitic on Chorda filum, spreading
+out horizontally like the hairs of a bottle brush. Asperococcus
+derives its name from its roughened surface, occasioned by
+the thickly scattered spots of fructification.</p>
+
+<p>The Laminariace&aelig; are inarticulate, mostly flat, often strap-shaped.
+Their spores occur in superficial patches, or covering
+the whole frond. The plants of this order, as we have already
+seen, include the giants of submarine vegetation. In point of
+mass they constitute the larger part of our native Alg&aelig;, although
+they number only a few species. They are popularly known as
+tangle or oarweeds, and the stems of Laminaria saccharina and
+the midrib of Alaria esculenta are used as food.</p>
+
+<p>The Sporochnace&aelig; are a small but beautiful tribe, inarticulate,
+and producing their spores in jointed filaments or knob-like
+masses, and remarkable for their property of turning from olive
+brown to a verdigris green when exposed to the atmosphere.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg&nbsp;21]</a></span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_12"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_21.png" width="359" height="514" alt="Fig. 12. Fucus serratus, showing a transverse section of the Conceptacle, and Antheridium with Antherozoids escaping." title="Fig. 12. Fucus serratus, showing a transverse section of the Conceptacle, and Antheridium with Antherozoids escaping." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12. Fucus serratus, showing a transverse section of the Conceptacle, and Antheridium with Antherozoids escaping.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>They are deep sea plants, or at least grow about low water
+mark. The largest of the group is Desmarestia ligulata,
+which, with the other British species, D. aculeata, is often cast
+ashore. The latter species, at an early period of its existence, is
+clothed with tufts of slender hairs, springing from the margin of
+the frond. Desmarestia viridis is the most delicate and also the
+rarest of the three. Nothing like fruit has been discovered on
+any of them. Arthocladia villosa and Sporochnus pedunculatus
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg&nbsp;22]</a></span>
+are branched sea-weeds, covered also with tufts of closely set
+hairs. Carpomitra Cabrer&aelig;, a rare species, bears, in common
+with the two preceding species, its spores in a special receptacle.
+In the first the receptacle is pod-like; in the second knotted;
+and in the last mitriform.</p>
+
+<p>The concluding group of Alg&aelig; is the Fucace&aelig;, including the
+universally known sea wrack (Fucus). The frond in all of them
+is jointless. They are reproduced by means of antheridia and
+oogonia developed in conceptacles, clustered together at the
+apex of the branches. Both from their bulk and their decided
+sexual distinctions, they deserve to rank at the head of the
+order. Of all sea-weeds they are also perhaps of the
+greatest use to man. One of the most interesting among
+them is the Gulfweed (Sargassum bacciferum), occupying a
+tract of the Atlantic extending over many degrees of latitude.
+Pieces of it, and of its congener, S. vulgare, are occasionally
+drifted to our shores, and they consequently find a place in works
+on British Alg&aelig;, although they have no claim to be considered
+native plants. On rocky coasts the various species of Fucus
+occupy the greater part of the space between tide-marks, the
+most plentiful being Fucus vesiculosus. F. serratus <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>)</span>
+is the handsomest of the genus, the other species being F.
+nodosus, said to be the most useful for making kelp, and
+F. canaliculatus. Halidrys siliquosa is remarkable for its spore
+receptacles, which have quite the appearance of the seed vessel
+of a flowering plant. The species of Cystoseira, chiefly confined
+to the southern coasts, are also very interesting. Their
+submerged fronds are beautifully iridescent, and the stems, of the
+largest species at least, are generally covered with a great variety
+of parasites, animal and vegetable, the former consisting of
+Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, and other curious forms. Himanthalia
+lorea is another remarkable plant. It has conspicuous forked
+fruit-bearing receptacles; but the real plants are the small
+cones at the base of these, and from which they are shed when
+ripe.</p>
+
+<p>As to conditions of site and geographical distribution, Alg&aelig; do
+not differ from land plants. Latitude, depth of water, and
+currents influence them in the same way as latitude, elevation,
+and station operate on the latter; and the analogy is maintained
+in the almost cosmopolitan range of some, and the restricted
+habitat of others. Not many extra-European species of Desmids
+are known, but those of Diatoms are far more widely diffused, and
+extend beyond the limits of all other vegetation, existing wherever
+there is water sufficient to allow of their production; and they
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg&nbsp;23]</a></span>
+are found not only in water, but also on the moist surface of the
+ground and on other plants, in hot springs and amid polar ice.
+They are said to occur in such countless myriads in the South
+Polar Sea as to stain the berg and pack ice wherever these are
+washed by the surge. A deposit of mud, chiefly consisting of
+the shells of Diatoms, 400 miles long, 120 miles broad, and of
+unknown thickness, was found at a depth of between 200 and 400
+feet on the flanks of Victoria Land in 70° south latitude. Such
+is their abundance in some rivers and estuaries that Professor
+Ehrenberg goes the length of affirming that they have exercised
+an important influence in blocking up harbours and diminishing
+the depth of channels. The trade and other winds distribute large
+quantities over the earth, which may account for the universality
+of their specific distribution; for Sir Joseph Hooker found the
+Himalayan species to closely resemble our own. Common British
+species also occur in Ceylon, Italy, Virginia, and Peru. The
+typical species of the Confervace&aelig; are also distributed over the
+whole surface of the globe. They inhabit both fresh and salt
+water, and are found alike in the polar seas and in the boiling
+springs of Iceland, in mineral waters and in chemical solutions.
+Some of the tropical ones are exceedingly large and dense.
+Batrachospermum vagum, in the next tribe, a native of England,
+is also found in New Zealand. An edible species of Nostochine&aelig;,
+produced on the boggy slopes bordering the Arctic Ocean, is
+blown about by the winds sometimes ten miles from land, where
+it is found lying in small depressions in the snow upon the ice.
+The common Nostoc of moist ground in England occurs also in
+Kerguelen's Land, high in the southern hemisphere. Floating
+masses of Monormia are often the cause of the green hue assumed
+by the water of ponds and lakes. Certain species of Oscillatoria
+of a deep red colour live in hot springs in India, and the Red
+Sea is supposed to have derived its name from a species of this
+tribe, which covers it with a scum for many miles, according to
+the direction of the wind. The lake of Glaslough in County
+Monaghan, Ireland, owes its colour and its name to Oscillatoria
+&aelig;rugescens, and large masses of water in Scotland and
+Switzerland are tinted green or purple by a similar agency.
+A few species of Siphone&aelig; have a very wide range, two British
+species of Codium occurring in New Zealand. The Ulvace&aelig;
+abound principally in the colder latitudes. Enteromorpha intestinalis,
+a common British species, is as frequent in Japan, where
+it is used, when dried, in soup. The Rhodosperms are found in
+every sea, although the geographical boundaries of genera are
+often well-marked. Gloiosiphonia, one of our rarest and most
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg&nbsp;24]</a></span>
+beautiful Alg&aelig;, is widely diffused. Of Melanosperms the
+Laminari&aelig; affect the higher northern latitudes, Sargassa abound
+in the warmer seas, while Durvill&aelig;a, Lessonia, and Macrocystis
+characterize the marine flora of the Southern Ocean. The
+Fucace&aelig; are most abundant towards the poles, where they
+attain their greatest size. The marine meadows of Sargassum,
+conceived by some naturalists to mark the site of the lost
+Atlantis, and which give its name to the Sargasso Sea, extending
+between 20° and 25° north latitude, in 40° west longitude,
+occupy now the same position as when the early navigators,
+with considerable trepidation, forced through their masses on
+the way to the New World. Sargassum is drifted into this tract
+of ocean by currents, the plants being all detached; and they do
+not produce fruit in that state, being propagated by buds, which
+originate new branches and leaves. <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_1_Fig_12">Fig. 13.</a>)</span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_1_Fig_13"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_24.png" width="577" height="408" alt="Fig. 13. The Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciforum)." title="Fig. 13. The Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciforum)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13. The Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciforum).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Owing to their soft, cellular structure, Alg&aelig; are not likely to
+be preserved in a fossil state; but what have been considered
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg&nbsp;25]</a></span>
+such have been found as low down as the Silurian formation,
+although their identity has been disputed, and several of them,
+it is more than probable, belong to other orders, and some even
+to the animal kingdom. Freshwater forms, all of existing genera
+and species, are believed to have been detected in the carboniferous
+rocks of Britain and France; others also of the green-coloured
+division are said to occur from the Silurian to the
+Eocene, and the Floride&aelig; to be represented from the Lias to the
+Miocene. The indestructible nature of the shells of the Diatomace&aelig;
+has enabled them to survive where the less protected
+species may have perished. Tripoli stone, a Tertiary rock, is
+entirely composed of the remains of microscopic plants of this
+tribe. It is from their silicious shells that mineral acquires its use
+in the arts, as powder for polishing stones and metals. Ehrenberg
+estimates that in every cubic inch of the tripoli of Bilin, in
+Bohemia, there are 41,000,000 of Gaillonella distans. Districts
+recovered from the sea frequently contain myriads of Diatoms,
+forming strata of considerable thickness; and similar deposits
+occur in the ancient sites of lakes in this and other countries.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Before setting out in search of Alg&aelig; the collector ought to
+provide himself with a pair of stout boots to guard his feet from
+the sharp-pointed rocks, as well as a staff or pole to balance
+himself in rock-climbing, which ought to have a hook for drawing
+floating weed ashore. A stout table-knife tied to the other
+end will be found very useful. A basket&mdash;a fishing-basket does
+very well&mdash;or a waterproof bag, for stowing away his plants, is
+also necessary. It is advisable to carry a few bottles for the
+very small and delicate plants, and care should be taken to keep
+apart, and in sea-water, any specimens of the Sporochnace&aelig;; for
+they are not only apt to decay themselves but to become a cause
+of corruption in the other weeds with which they come in contact.
+These bottles should always be carried in the bag or pocket,
+never in the hand.</p>
+
+<p>Sea-weeds, as every visitor to the coast knows, are torn up
+in great numbers by the waves, especially during storms, and
+afterwards left on the shore by the retiring tide. Many shallow-growing
+species are also to be found attached to the rocks,
+and in the rock pools, between high and low water mark.
+There are three points on the beach where the greatest accumulations
+of floating Alg&aelig; are found: high water mark, mid-tide
+level, and low water mark. Low water occurs about five or
+five and a half hours after high water. The best time for the
+collector to commence is half an hour or so before dead low
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg&nbsp;26]</a></span>
+water. He can then work to the lowest point safely, and, retiring
+before the approaching tide, examine the higher part of
+the beach up to high water mark. If the coarse weeds in the
+rock pools and chinks are turned back, many rare and delicate
+Alg&aelig; will be found growing under them, especially at the lowest
+level. The most effective method of collecting the plants of
+deeper water is by dredging, or going round with a boat at the
+extreme ebb, and taking them from the rocks and from the
+Laminaria stems, on which a great number have their station.
+Stems of Laminaria thrown out by the waves should also be
+carefully examined. In all cases the weed should be well rinsed
+in a clear rock pool before being put away in the bag or other
+receptacle.</p>
+
+<p>The next thing to be considered is the laying out and preserving
+of the specimens selected for the herbarium. Wherever
+possible these should be laid out on paper, and put under pressure
+as soon as gathered, or on the same day at all events.
+When this is impracticable, they may be spread between the
+folds of soft and thick towels and rolled up. Thus treated the
+most delicate plants will keep fresh until next day. Another
+way is to pack the plants in layers of salt, like herrings; but
+the most usual method of roughly preserving sea-weeds collected
+during an unprepared visit to the shore is by moderately drying
+them in an airy room out of the direct rays of the sun. They
+are then to be placed lightly in bags, and afterwards relaxed by
+immersion and prepared in the usual way. The finer plants,
+however, suffer more or less by this delay. If carried directly
+home from the sea the plants should be emptied into a vessel of
+sea-water. A flat dish, about fourteen inches square and three
+deep, is then to be filled with clean water. For most plants
+this may be fresh, for some it is essential that it should be salt.
+Some of the Polysiphonias and others begin to decompose at
+once if placed in fresh water. The Griffithsias burst and let
+out their colouring matter, and a good many change their colour.
+The appliances required are some fine white paper&mdash;good printing
+demy, thirty-six pounds or so in weight per ream, does very
+well,&mdash;an ample supply of smooth blotting paper, the coarse
+paper used by grocers and called "sugar royal," or, best of
+all, Bentall's botanical drying paper, pieces of well-washed
+book muslin, a camel's hair brush, a bodkin for assisting
+to spread out the plants, a pair of scissors, and a pair of
+forceps. The mounting paper may be cut in three sizes:
+5 in. by 4 in., 7&frac12; in. by 5&frac14; in., and 10 in. by 7&frac12; in. Then
+having selected a specimen, place it in the flat dish referred
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg&nbsp;27]</a></span>
+to above, and prune it <ins title='Correction - was "it"'>if</ins> necessary. Next take a piece of
+the mounting paper of suitable size, and slip it into the water
+underneath the plant, keeping hold of it with the thumb of
+the left hand. Having arranged the plant in a natural manner
+on the paper, brush it gently with the camel's hair <ins title='Correction - was "pencile"'>brush</ins>, to
+remove any dirt or fragments, draw out paper and plant gently
+and carefully in an oblique direction, and set them on end for a
+short time to drain. Having in this way transferred as many
+specimens as will cover a sheet of drying paper, lay them upon
+it neatly side by side, and cover them with a piece of old muslin.
+Four sheets of drying paper are then to be placed upon this,
+then another layer of plants and muslin and four more sheets of
+drying paper, until a heap, it may be six or eight inches thick,
+is built up. Place this between two flat boards, weighted with
+stones, bricks, or other weights; but the pressure should be
+moderate at first, otherwise the texture of the muslin may be
+stamped on both paper and plant. The papers must be changed
+in about three hours' time, and afterwards every twelve hours.
+In three or four days, according to the state of the weather, the
+muslin may be removed, the plants again transferred to dry
+paper, and subjected to rather severe pressure for several
+days.</p>
+
+<p>The very gelatinous plants require particular treatment. One
+way is to put them in drying paper and under a board but to
+apply no other pressure, change the drying paper at least twice
+during the first half hour, and after the second change of dryers
+apply very gentle pressure, increasing it until the specimens
+are fully dry. A safer and less troublesome way, for the efficacy
+of which we can vouch, is to lay down the plants and dry
+them without any pressure, afterwards damping the back of the
+mounting papers and placing them in the drying press. Some
+Alg&aelig; will scarcely adhere to paper. These should be pressed
+until tolerably dry, then be immersed in skim-milk for a quarter
+of an hour, and pressed and dried as before. A slight application
+of isinglass, dissolved in alcohol, to the under side of the
+specimen is sometimes necessary. Before mounting, or at all
+events before transference to the herbarium, care should be
+taken to write in pencil on the back of the paper the name of
+the plant, if known, the place where gathered, and the date.
+The coarse olive weeds, such as the bladder-wrack, Halidrys,
+and the like, may in the case of a short visit to the coast be
+allowed to dry in an airy place, and taken home in the rough.
+Before pressing, in any case, they should be steeped in boiling
+water for about half an hour to extract the salt, then washed in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg&nbsp;28]</a></span>
+clean fresh water, dried between coarse towels, and pressed and
+dried in the same way as flowering plants. A collection of
+Alg&aelig; may be fastened on sheets of paper of the usual herbarium
+size and kept in a cabinet or portfolios, or attached to the
+leaves of an album. For scientific purposes, however, the latter
+is the least convenient way.</p>
+
+<p>There are few objects more beautiful than many of the
+sea-weeds when well preserved; but the filiform species,
+especially those of the first sub-order, do not retain their
+distinguishing characters when pressed as has been described.
+Portions of these, however, as well as sections of stems and
+fruit, may be usefully dried on small squares of thin mica,
+for subsequent microscopic examination, or they may be
+mounted on the ordinary microscope slides. This is the
+only course possible with Desmids and Diatoms. The former
+are to be sought in shallow pools, especially in open boggy
+moors. The larger species commonly lie in a thin gelatinous
+stratum at the bottom of the pools, and by gently passing the
+fingers under them they will be caused to rise towards the surface,
+when they can be lifted with a scoop. Other species form
+a greenish or dirty cloud on the stems and leaves of other
+aquatic plants, and by stripping the plant between the fingers
+these also may be similarly detached and secured. If they are
+much diffused through the water, they may be separated by
+straining through linen; and this is a very common way of procuring
+them. Living Diatoms are found on aquatic plants, on
+rocks and stones, under water or on mud, presenting themselves
+as coloured fringes, cushion-like tufts, or filmy strata. In colour
+the masses vary from a yellowish brown to almost black. They
+are difficult, both when living and dead, to separate from foreign
+matter; but repeated washings are effectual in both cases, and,
+for the living ones, their tendency to move towards the light may
+also be taken advantage of. When only the shells are wanted
+for mounting, the cell contents are removed by means of hydrochloric
+and nitric acid. The most satisfactory medium for preserving
+fresh Desmids and Diatoms is distilled water, and if the
+water is saturated with camphor, or has dissolved in it a grain
+of alum and a grain of bay salt to an ounce of water, confervoid
+growths will be prevented. For larger preparations of Alg&aelig;,
+Thwaites' fluid is strongly recommended. This is made by
+adding to one part of rectified spirit as many drops of creasote
+as will saturate it, and then gradually mixing with it in a pestle
+and mortar some prepared chalk, with sixteen parts of water;
+an equal quantity of water saturated with camphor is then to be
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg&nbsp;29]</a></span>
+added, and the mixture, after standing for a few days, to be
+carefully filtered.</p>
+
+<p>For authorities on the morphology and classification of the
+Alg&aelig;, students may be referred to Sachs' "Text Book" and
+Le Maout's "System of Botany," of which there are good translations,
+and the "Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany," by the
+Rev. M. J. Berkeley; for descriptions and the identification
+of species, to the text and figures of Harvey's "Phycologia
+Britannica," and "Nature-Printed Sea-weeds." Both of these
+are however costly. Among the cheaper works are "British
+Sea-weeds," by S. O. Gray (Lovell, Reeve &amp; Co.), "Harvey's
+Manual" and an abridgment by Mrs. A. Gatty, with reduced
+but well executed copies of the figures, of the Phycologia. This
+synopsis can often be picked up cheap at second-hand bookstalls;
+and there is a very excellent low-priced work suitable for
+amateurs, Grattann's "British Marine Alg&aelig;," containing recognizable
+figures of nearly all our native species. Landsborough's
+"Popular History of British Sea-weeds," and Mrs.
+Lane Clarke's "Common Sea-weeds," are also cheap and useful
+manuals on the subject.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_29.png" width="218" height="166" alt="floral design" title="floral design" />
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg&nbsp;30]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg&nbsp;31]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption1">SHELLS.</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption3">BY</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption2">B. B. WOODWARD.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg&nbsp;32]</a></span></p>
+
+<table width="80%" summary="table of contents">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Section</span></td><td class="text_rt"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTORY"><b>INTRODUCTORY.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#MAKE_A_CABINET"><b>HOW TO MAKE A CABINET.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#COLLECT_SHELLS"><b>HOW TO COLLECT SHELLS.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#PREPARE_THE_SHELLS"><b>HOW TO PREPARE THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#MOUNT_THE_SHELLS"><b>HOW TO MOUNT THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#CLASSIFY_THE_SHELLS"><b>HOW TO CLASSIFY THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#ARRANGE_THE_SHELLS"><b>HOW TO ARRANGE THE SHELLS IN THE CABINET.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#TABLE_OF_SOME_OF_THE_MORE_IMPORTANT_GENERA"><b>TABLE OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA.</b></a></td><td class="text_rt">56</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg&nbsp;33]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg&nbsp;34]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/pg_34_lg.png"><img src="images/pg_34.png" width="610" height="472" border=0 alt="POND SNAILS." title="POND SNAILS." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">POND SNAILS.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg&nbsp;35]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_35.png" width="426" height="76" border="0" alt="Decorative Bar" title="Decorative Bar" />
+</div>
+
+<div class="caption1">SHELLS.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="INTRODUCTORY" id="INTRODUCTORY"></a>
+<div class="caption2">INTRODUCTORY.</div>
+
+
+<p>In the very earliest times, long before there was any attempt
+at the scientific classification and arrangement of shells, they
+appear to have been objects of admiration, and to have been
+valued on account of their beauty, for we find that the pre-historic
+men, who, in company with the mammoth, or hairy
+elephant, and other animals now extinct, inhabited Southern
+France in days long gone by, used to bore holes in them, and,
+like the savage of to-day, wear them as ornaments. The Greek
+physician and philosopher, Aristotle, is said to have been the
+first to study the formation of shells, and to raise the knowledge
+thus acquired into the position of a science; by him shells were
+divided into three orders&mdash;an arrangement preserved, with some
+small changes, by Linn&aelig;us. It is possible that the world-wide
+renown of the Swedish naturalist during the last century, and
+the ardour with which he pursued his investigations, may have
+given an impetus to the study of natural objects, for we find that
+at that period large sums were often given by collectors for
+choice specimens of shells. Nor is this to be wondered at, for
+few things look nicer, or better repay trouble expended on them,
+than does a well-arranged and carefully mounted and named
+collection of shells. Certainly nothing looks worse than a
+number of shells of all descriptions, of every kind, shape, and
+colour, thrown promiscuously into a box, like the unfortunate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg&nbsp;36]</a></span>
+animals in a toy Noah's ark, to the great detriment of their value
+and beauty; for, as the inevitable result of shaking against each
+other, the natural polish is taken off some, the delicate points
+and ornaments are broken off others, the whole collection becoming
+in time unsightly and disappointing, and all for want of
+a little care at the outset.</p>
+
+<p>In this, as in every other undertaking, "how to set about it"
+is the chief difficulty with beginners; and here, perhaps, a few
+hints gathered from experience may not be without value. One
+thing a young collector should always bear in mind, however,
+is, that no instructions can be of any avail to him uhis
+part, he is prepared to bring patience, neatness, and attention to
+detail, to bear upon his work.</p>
+
+<p>Since it is important to know the best way of storing specimens
+already acquired, we will, in the first place, devote a few words
+to this point, and then proceed to describe the best means of
+collecting specimens, and of naming, mounting, and arranging
+the same.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="MAKE_A_CABINET" id="MAKE_A_CABINET"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO MAKE A CABINET.</div>
+
+
+<p>It is a common mistake, both with old and young, to imagine
+that a handsome cabinet is, in the first instance, a necessity; but
+no greater blunder can be made: the cabinet should be considered
+merely an accessory, the collection itself being just as
+valuable, and generally more useful, when kept in a series of plain
+wooden or cardboard boxes. We intend, therefore, to describe
+the simplest possible means of keeping a collection of shells,
+leaving elaborate and costly methods to those who value the
+case more than its contents.</p>
+
+<p>The first thing required is some method of keeping the different
+species of shells apart, so that they may not get mixed, or
+be difficult to find when wanted. The simplest plan of doing
+this is to collect all the empty chip match-boxes you can find,
+throw away the cases in which they slide, and keep the trays,
+trying to get as many of a size as possible. (The ordinary
+Bryant &amp; May's, or Bell &amp; Black's, are the most useful, and
+with them the trays of the small Swedish match-boxes, two of
+which, placed side by side, occupy nearly exactly the same space
+as one and a half of the larger size, and so fit in with them
+nicely.) In these trays your shells should be placed, one kind
+in each tray; but although very convenient for most specimens,
+they will of course be too small for very many, and so the larger
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg&nbsp;37]</a></span>
+trays must be made. This may easily be done as follows: cut
+a rectangular piece of cardboard two inches longer one way than
+the length of the match-tray, and two inches more the other way
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_1"></a>
+<span class="figleft" style="width:150px">
+<img src="images/pg_37.png" width="144" height="174" alt="Fig. 1. How to cut a cardboard tray." title="Fig. 1. How to cut a cardboard tray." /><br />
+<span class="caption">&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;Fig. 1. How to cut<br /> &nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;a cardboard tray.</span>
+</span>
+than twice the width of the match-tray;
+then with a pencil rule lines one inch from
+the edges and parallel with them <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_1">Fig. 1</a>);</span>
+next cut out the little squares <span class="nowrap">(<i>a a</i>,</span> <span class="nowrap"><i>a a</i>)</span>
+these lines form in the corners of the piece
+of cardboard, and then with a penknife
+cut <i>half</i> through the card, exactly on the
+remaining pencil-lines, and bend up the
+pieces, which will then form sides for your
+tray; and by binding it round with a piece
+of blue paper, you will have one that will
+look neat, uniform with the others, and
+yet be just twice their size. If required,
+you can make in the same way any size, only take care that they
+are all multiples of one standard size, as loss of space will
+thereby be avoided when you come to the next process in your
+cabinet. This is, to get a large box or tray in which to hold
+your smaller ones.</p>
+
+
+<p>The simplest plan is to get some half-dozen cardboard boxes
+(such as may be obtained for the asking or for a very trifling cost
+at any draper's), having a depth of from one to two inches (according
+to the size of your shells); in these your trays may be
+arranged in columns, and the boxes can be kept one above the
+other in a cupboard or in a larger box. More boxes and trays
+can, from time to time, be added as occasion requires, and thus
+the whole collection may be kept in good working order at a
+trifling cost. A more durable form of cheap cabinet may be
+made by collecting the wooden boxes so common in grocers'
+shops, cleaning them with sand-paper, staining and varnishing
+them outside, and lining them inside with paper; or, if handy
+at carpentering, you may make all your boxes, or even a real
+cabinet, for yourself.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="COLLECT_SHELLS" id="COLLECT_SHELLS"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO COLLECT SHELLS.</div>
+
+<p>Provision being thus made for the comfortable accommodation
+of your treasures, the next consideration is, how to set about collecting
+them. Mollusca are to be found all over the globe, from
+the frozen north to the sun-baked tropics, on the land or in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg&nbsp;38]</a></span>
+lakes, rivers, or seas&mdash;wherever, in fact, they can find the food
+and other conditions suitable for their growth and development;
+but the collector who is not also a great traveller, must of course
+rely for his foreign specimens upon the generosity of friends, or
+else procure them from dealers. In most districts of our own
+country, there are, however, to be found large numbers of shells
+whose variety and beauty will astonish and reward the efforts of
+any patient seeker. Begin with your own garden,&mdash;search in the
+out-of-the-way, and especially damp, corners; turn over the
+flower-pots and stones which have lain longest in one place,
+search amongst the roots of the grass growing under walls, and
+in the moss round the roots of the trees, and you will be surprised
+at the number of different shells you may find in a very
+short space of time. When the resources of the garden have
+been exhausted, go into the nearest lanes and again search the
+grass and at the roots of plants, especially the nettles which grow
+beside ditches and in damp places; hunt amongst the dead leaves
+in plantations, and literally leave no stone unturned. All the
+apparatus it is necessary to take on these excursions consists of
+a few small match or pill-boxes in which to carry home the
+specimens; a pair of forceps to pick up the smaller ones, or to
+get them out of cracks; a hooked stick to beat down and pull
+away the nettles; and, above all, sharp eyes trained to powers of
+observation. The best time to go out, is just after a warm
+shower, when all the grass and leaves are still wet, for the land-snails
+are very fond of moisture, and the shower entices them out
+of their lurking-places. Where the ground is made of chalk or
+limestone, they will be found most abundant; for as the snail's
+shell is composed of layers of animal tissue, strengthened by
+depositions of calcareous earthy-matter which the creature gets
+from the plants on which it feeds, and these in their turn obtain
+from the soil&mdash;it naturally follows that the snail prefers to dwell
+where that article is most abundant, as an hour's hunt on any
+chalk-down will soon show.</p>
+
+<p>When garden and lanes are both exhausted, you may then turn
+to the ponds and streams in the neighbourhood, where you will
+find several new kinds. Some will be crawling up the rushes
+near the margin of the water, others will be found in the water
+near the bank, while others may be obtained by pulling on shore
+pieces of wood and branches that may be floating in the water;
+but the best are sure to be beyond the reach of arm or stick, and
+it will be necessary to employ a net, which may be easily made
+by bending a piece of wire into a circle of about four inches in
+diameter, and sewing to it a small gauze bag; it may be mounted
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg&nbsp;39]</a></span>
+either on a long bamboo, or, better still, on one of those ingenious
+Japanese walking-stick fishing-rods. For heavier work, however,
+such as getting fresh-water mussels and other mollusca from
+the bottom, you will require a net something like the accompanying
+figure <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_2">Fig. 2</a>)</span>, about one foot in diameter. This,
+when attached to a long rope, may be thrown out some distance
+and dragged through the water-weeds to the shore, or if made
+with a square instead of a circular mouth, it may be so weighted
+that it will sink to the bottom, and be used as a dredge for catching
+the mussels which live half-buried in the mud. To carry the
+water-snails home, you will find it necessary to have tin boxes
+(empty mustard-tins are the best), as match-boxes come to pieces
+when wetted.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_2"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_39.png" width="523" height="140" alt="Fig. 2. Net for taking water-snails." title="Fig. 2. Net for taking water-snails." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 2. Net for taking water-snails.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The finest collections of shells, however, are to be made at the
+sea-side, for the marine mollusca are both more varied in kind and
+more abundant than the land and fresh-water ones, and quite an
+extensive collection may be made in the course of an afternoon's
+ramble along the shore; it is necessary, however, to carefully
+reject such specimens as are worn by having been rolled by the
+waves upon the beach, as they are not of any great value in a
+collection; it is better, in fact, if possible, to go down to the
+rocks at low water and collect the living specimens. Search well
+about and under the sea-weeds, and in the rock-pools, and, when
+boating, throw your dredge-net out and tow it behind, hauling it
+in occasionally to see what you have caught, and to empty the
+stones and rubbish out.</p>
+
+<p>At low tide also, look out for rocks with a number of round
+holes in them, all close together, for in these holes the Pholas
+(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>) dwells, having bored a burrow in the solid rock,
+though <i>how</i> he does it we do not yet quite know.</p>
+
+<p>The Razor-shells and Cockles live in the sand, their presence
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg&nbsp;40]</a></span>
+being indicated by a small round hole; but they bury themselves
+so fast that you will find it difficult to get at them. Some good
+specimens, too, of the deeper water forms are sure to be found
+near the spots where fishermen drag their boats ashore, as they
+are often thrown away in clearing out the nets; moreover, if
+you can make friends with any of the said fishermen, they will
+be able to find and bring you many nice specimens from time to
+time.</p>
+
+<p>The reason that so much has been said about collecting living
+specimens, is not only because in them the shell is more likely
+to be perfect, but also because in its living state the shell is
+coated with a layer of animal matter, sometimes thin and transparent,
+at others thick and opaque, called the <i>periostracum</i> (or
+<i>epidermis</i>), which serves to protect the shell from the weather,
+but which perishes with the animal, so that dead shells which
+have lain for some time tenantless on the ground, or at the bottom
+of the water, exposed to the destructive agencies that are constantly
+at work in nature, have almost invariably lost both their
+natural polish and their varied hues, and are besides only too
+often broken as well. Since, however, even a damaged specimen
+is better than none at all, such should always be kept until a
+more perfect example can be obtained.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="PREPARE_THE_SHELLS" id="PREPARE_THE_SHELLS"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO PREPARE THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.</div>
+
+
+<p>The question with which we have next to deal is, after collecting
+a number of living mollusks, how, in the quickest and most painless
+manner possible, to kill the animals in order to obtain possession
+of their shells. There is but one way we know of in which
+this may be accomplished, and that is by placing the creatures in
+an earthen jar and pouring <i>boiling</i> water on them. With land,
+or fresh-water snails, the addition of a large spoonful of table-salt
+is advisable, as it acts upon them chemically, and not only puts
+them sooner out of pain, but also renders their subsequent extraction
+far easier. Death by this process is instantaneous, and consequently
+painless; but to leave snails in cold salt water is to inflict
+on them the tortures of a lingering death; while for the brutality
+of gardeners and other thoughtless persons who seek to destroy
+the poor snail they find eating their plants by crushing it under
+foot on the gravel path, no words of condemnation are too strong,
+since it must always be borne in mind that snails have not, like
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg&nbsp;41]</a></span>
+us, <i>one</i> nervous centre, but three, and are far more tenacious of
+life; hence, unless all the nerves are destroyed at once, a great
+deal of suffering is entailed on the poor creature; and if merely
+crushed under foot, the mangled portions <i>will live for hours</i>.
+Hot water has also the advantage of tending to remove the dirt
+which is almost sure to have gathered on the shells, and so
+helping to prepare them better for the cabinet. As soon as the
+water is cool enough, fish out the shells one by one and proceed
+to extract the dead animals. This, if the mollusk is <i>univalve</i>
+(<i>i.e.</i>, whose shell is composed of a single piece), such as an
+ordinary garden snail, can easily be done by picking them out
+with a pin; you will find, probably, that some of the smaller
+ones have shrunk back so far into their shells as to be beyond the
+reach of a straight pin, so it will be necessary to bend the pin
+with a pair of pliers, or, if none are at hand, a key will answer
+the purpose if the pin be put into one of the notches and bent
+over the edge until sufficiently curved to reach up the shell. You
+will find it convenient to keep a set of pins bent to different
+curves, to which you may fit handles by cutting off the heads and
+sticking them into match stems. It is a good plan to soak some
+of the smaller snails in clean cold water before killing them, as
+they swell out with the water, and do not, when dead, retreat so far
+into their shells. If you have a microscope, and wish to keep the
+animals till you have time to get the tongues out, drop the bodies
+into small bottles of methylated spirit and water, when they will
+keep till required, otherwise they should of course be thrown
+away at once. The now empty shells should be washed in clean
+warm water, and, if very dirty, gently scrubbed with a soft nail or
+tooth brush, and then carefully dried.</p>
+
+<p>In such shells as the Periwinkle, Whelk, etc., whose inhabitants
+close the entrance of their dwelling with a trap-door, or
+<i>operculum</i> as it is called, you should be careful to preserve each
+with its proper shell.</p>
+
+<p>If you are cleaning <i>bivalves</i>, or shells composed of two pieces,
+like the common mussel, you will have to remove the animal with
+a penknife, and while leaving the inside quite clean, be very
+careful not to break the ligament which serves as a hinge; then
+wash as before, and tie them together to prevent their gaping
+open when dry.</p>
+
+<p>Sometimes the fresh-water or marine shells are so coated over
+with a vegetable growth that no scrubbing with water alone will
+remove it, and in these cases a weak solution of caustic soda may
+be used, but very carefully, since, if too strong a solution be employed,
+the surface of the shell will be removed with the dirt, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg&nbsp;42]</a></span>
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_3"></a>
+<span class="figleft" style="width:173px">
+<img src="images/pg_42.png" width="173" height="155" alt="Fig. 3. (a) Helix sericea and (b) Helix hispida." title="Fig. 3. (a) Helix sericea and (b) Helix hispida." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 3. (a) Helix sericea and (b) Helix hispida.</span>
+</span>
+the specimen spoilt. In some shells the
+periostracum is very thick and coarse, and
+must be removed before the shell itself can
+be seen; but it is always well to keep at
+least one specimen in its rough state as an
+example. In other shells the periostracum
+is covered over with very fine, delicate
+hairs (<i>Helix sericea</i> and <i>Helix hispida</i>,
+<span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_3">Fig. 3</a>)</span>, and great care must then be taken
+not to brush these off.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="MOUNT_THE_SHELLS" id="MOUNT_THE_SHELLS"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO MOUNT THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.</div>
+
+<p>When the specimens are thoroughly cleaned, the next process
+is to sort out the different kinds, placing each description in a
+different tray, and then to get them ready for mounting, for no collection
+will look well unless each kind is so arranged that it may be
+seen to the best advantage, and is also carefully named. Where you
+have a good number, pick out first the largest specimens of their
+kind, then the smallest, then a series, as you have room for them,
+of the most perfect; and finally those which show any peculiarity
+of structure or marking. Try, too, to get young forms as well as
+adult, for the young are often very different in appearance from
+the full-grown shell. Mark on them, especially on such as you
+have found yourself, the locality they came from, as it is very
+important to the shell collector to know this, since specimens
+common enough in one district are often rare in another. Either
+write the name of the place in ink on a corner of the shell itself,
+or gum a small label just inside it, or simply number it, and write
+the name of the place with a corresponding number against it in
+a book kept for the purpose. Next select a tray large enough to
+hold all you have of this kind; place a piece of cotton wool at the
+bottom, and lay your shells upon it. For small shells, however,
+this method is not suitable, as the cotton wool acts on them like
+a spring mattress, and they are liable on the least shock to be
+jerked out of their trays and lost. This difficulty may be met by
+cutting a piece of cardboard so that it just fits into your tray, and
+then gumming the shells on to it in rows; but remember that, in
+this plan of mounting, it is impossible to take the shells up and
+examine them on all sides as you do the loose ones, and so you
+must mount a good many, and place them in many different
+positions, so that they may be seen from as many points of view
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg&nbsp;43]</a></span>
+as possible. The gum used should always have nearly one-sixth
+of its bulk of pure glycerine added to it; this prevents it from
+becoming brittle when dry, otherwise your specimens would be
+liable after a time to break away from the card and get lost. If
+the shells will not stay in the position you require, wedge them
+up with little pieces of cork until the gum is dry.</p>
+
+<p>When the shells are mounted, you must try, if you have not
+already done so, to get the proper names for them; it is as
+important to be able to call shells by their right names as it
+is to know people by theirs. The commoner sorts you will be
+able to name from the figures of them given in text-books,
+such as those quoted in the list at the end of this little work; but
+some you will find it very difficult to name, and it will then be
+necessary to ask friends who have collections to help you, or to
+take them to some museum and compare them with the named
+specimens there exhibited. When the right name is discovered,
+your label must then be written in a very small, neat hand, and
+gummed to the edge of the tray or on the card if your specimens
+are mounted. At the top you put the Latin name, ruling a line
+underneath it, and then, if you like, add the English name; next,
+put the name of the place and the date at which it was found,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="sample label">
+<tr><td class="center bt2 bb" style="">&nbsp;&nbsp;Helix aspersa (Common snail),&nbsp;&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">Lane near Hampstead Heath,</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center bb2">July 10th, 1882.</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<p>A double red ink line ruled at the top and bottom will add a
+finished appearance to it.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="CLASSIFY_THE_SHELLS" id="CLASSIFY_THE_SHELLS"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO CLASSIFY THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.</div>
+
+
+<p>All the foregoing processes, except the naming of your specimens,
+are more or less mechanical, and are only the means to the
+end&mdash;a properly arranged collection. For, however well a collection
+may be mounted, it is practically useless if the different shells
+composing it be not properly classified. By classification is
+meant the bringing together those kinds that most resemble each
+other, first of all into large groups having special characteristics
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg&nbsp;44]</a></span>
+in common, and then by subdividing these into other smaller
+groups, and so on. Thus the animal kingdom is divided, first of all,
+into <i>Sub-kingdoms</i>, then each <i>Sub-kingdom</i> into so many <i>Classes</i>
+containing those which have further characteristics in common,
+the <i>Classes</i> into <i>Orders</i>, the <i>Orders</i> into <i>Families</i>, the <i>Families</i>
+into <i>Genera</i>, and these again into species or kinds.</p>
+
+<p>The Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, of whose protecting shells
+your collection consists, form a sub-kingdom, and are subdivided
+into four classes:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li> Cephalopoda.</li>
+<li> Gasteropoda.</li>
+<li> Pteropoda.</li>
+<li> Lamellibranchiata (or Conchifera).</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p>And these again into Families, Genera, and Species.</p>
+
+<p>The space at our disposal being limited, it is impossible to do
+more than furnish some general outlines of the different forms.
+For further details it will be necessary to refer to one of the
+larger works, a list of which will be found on the last page.</p>
+
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_4"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 196px;">
+<img src="images/pg_44a.png" width="196" height="263" alt="Fig. 4. Argonauta Argo." title="Fig. 4. Argonauta Argo." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 4. Argonauta Argo.</span>
+</div>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_5"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 90px;">
+<img src="images/pg_44b.png" width="90" height="261" alt="Fig. 5. &quot;Bone&quot; of Sepia officinalis." title="Fig. 5. &quot;Bone&quot; of Sepia officinalis." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 5. &quot;Bone&quot; of Sepia officinalis.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>CLASS I.&mdash;The CEPHALOPODA (Head-footed) contains those mollusca that,
+like the common Octopus, have a number of feet (or arms) set round the mouth, and
+is divided into those having two gills. (Order I. Dibranchiata); and those with
+four (Order II. Tetrabranchiata). Order I. is again divided into: (<i>a.</i>) Those with <i>eight</i>
+feet like the Argonaut (or Paper-nautilus, <span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_4">Fig. 4</a>),</span> which fable has so long endowed with the
+power of sailing on the surface of the ocean, (it is
+even represented in one book as propelling itself through the
+air!) and the common Octopus. (<i>b.</i>) Those with <i>ten</i> feet, such as
+the Loligo (or Squid, <span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_6">Fig. 6</a>),</span> whose delicate internal shell so
+much resembles a pen in shape; the Cuttle-fish (Sepia, <span class="nowrap">Figs. <a href="#Sect_2_Fig_5">5</a> &amp; <a href="#Sect_2_Fig_2">7</a>),</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg&nbsp;45]</a></span>
+whose so-called "bone" (once largely used as an ink eraser) is
+frequently found on our southern coasts; and the pretty little
+<i>Spirula</i> <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_8">Fig. 8</a>)</span>.</p>
+
+<p>The only representative of the four-gilled order now living
+is the well-known Pearly Nautilus; but in former times the
+Tetrabranchiata were extremely numerous, especially the <i>Ammonites</i>.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_6"></a>
+<div class="center">
+<table width="100%" summary="squids">
+<tr><td align="center">
+<img src="images/pg_45a.png" width="247" height="318" alt="Fig. 6. Loligo vulgaris, and &quot;Pen.&quot;" title="Fig. 6. Loligo vulgaris, and &quot;Pen.&quot;" /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 6. Loligo vulgaris, and &quot;Pen.&quot;</span>
+</td><td align="center">
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_7"></a>
+<img src="images/pg_45b.png" width="195" height="302" alt="Fig. 7. Sepia officinalis." title="Fig. 7. Sepia officinalis." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 7. Sepia officinalis.</span>
+</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_8"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 103px;">
+<img src="images/pg_45c.png" width="103" height="132" alt="Fig. 8. Spirula." title="Fig. 8. Spirula." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 8. Spirula.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>CLASS II.&mdash;GASTEROPODA (Belly-footed) comprises those
+mollusca which, like the common snail, creep
+on the under-surface of the body, and with one
+exception (<i>Chiton</i>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>)</span> their shells are univalve
+(<i>i.e.</i>, composed of one piece). But before
+we go further, it may be well to point out the
+names given to different parts of a univalve shell.
+The aperture whence the animal issues is called
+the <i>mouth</i>, and its outer edge the <i>lip</i>; each turn
+of the shell is a <i>whorl</i>; the last and biggest, the
+<i>body-whorl</i>, the whorls, from the point at the
+top, or <i>apex</i>, down to the mouth form the <i>spire</i>; and the line
+where the whorls join each other is called the <i>suture</i>. The axis
+of the shell around which the whorls are coiled is sometimes
+open or hollow, and the shell is then said to be <i>umbilicated</i> (as
+in Fig. 3<i>b</i>); when closely coiled, a pillar of shell, or <i>columella</i>, is
+left (as in <span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>).</span> Sometimes the corner of the mouth farthest
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg&nbsp;46]</a></span>
+from the spire and next the columella, is produced into a channel,
+the <i>anterior canal</i> (as in <span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>);</span> whilst where the mouth
+meets the base of the spire there may be a kind of notch which
+is termed the <i>posterior canal</i>. Most Gasteropods are <i>dextral</i>,
+that is to say, the mouth is to the right of the axis as you look at
+it; a few, however, are <i>sinistral</i>, or wound to the left (like <i>Physa</i>);
+whilst reversed varieties of both kinds are met with.</p>
+
+<p>Gasteropods of the first order have comb-like gills placed in
+advance of the heart, and are hence termed <span class="smcap">Prosobranchiata</span>.
+They are divided into two groups: (<i>a</i>) <i>Siphonostomata</i> (Tube-mouthed),
+in which the animal has a long proboscis, and a tube,
+or siphon, from the breathing-chamber that passes along the
+anterior canal of the shell, which in this group is well developed.
+They have a horny operculum, or lid, with which to close the
+aperture. (<i>b</i>) <i>Holostomata</i> (or Whole-mouthed). In these the
+siphon is not so produced, and does not want to be protected;
+accordingly the mouth of the shell is <i>entire</i>, <i>i.e.</i> has no canal.
+The operculum is horny or shelly.
+The former (group <i>a</i>) includes
+several families:</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Strombid&aelig;</i>, comprising shells, like the huge <i>Strombus</i>, or
+"Fountain-shell," which is so often used to adorn the mantelpiece
+or rockery, and from which cameos are cut.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Muricid&aelig;</i>, of which the <i>Murex</i> (an extraordinary form of
+this is the "Venus' comb," <i>Murex tenuispina</i>, <span class="nowrap"><a href="#Sect_2_Fig_9">Fig. 9</a>),</span> the Mitre-shells,
+and the Red-Whelks (<i>Fusus</i>) are examples.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Buccinid&aelig;</i>, taking its name from its type, the Common
+Whelk (<i>Buccinum undatum</i>), and including such other forms
+as the Dog-Whelk (<i>Nassa</i>), the <i>Purpura</i>, the strange <i>Magilus</i>,
+and the lovely Harp-Shells and Olives <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_10">Fig. 10</a>).</span></p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_9"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 227px;">
+<img src="images/pg_46.png" width="227" height="419" alt="Fig. 9. Murex tenuispina." title="Fig. 9. Murex tenuispina." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 9. Murex tenuispina.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Cassidid&aelig;</i>, or "Helmet-Shells." <i>Cassis rufa</i>, from West
+Africa, is noted as the best species of shell for cameo engraving;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg&nbsp;47]</a></span>
+with it are classed the "Tun" (<i>Dolium</i>) and the great
+"Triton" (<i>Triton tritonis</i>), such as the sea-gods
+of mythology are represented blowing into by way
+of trumpet, and which are used by the Polynesian
+Islanders to this day instead of horns.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_10"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 62px;">
+<img src="images/pg_47a.png" width="62" height="120" alt="Fig. 10. Oliva tessellata." title="Fig. 10. Oliva tessellata." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 10. Oliva tessellata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Conid&aelig;</i>, whose type, the "Cone-shell" <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_11">Fig.
+11</a>),</span> is at once distinctive and handsome, but which in
+the living state is covered by a dull yellowish-brown
+periostracum that has to be carefully removed before
+the full beauties of the shell are displayed.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Volutid&aelig;</i>, embracing the Volutes and
+"Boat-shells" (<i>Cymba</i>).</p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>Cypr&aelig;id&aelig;</i>, or Cowries (<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_12">Fig. 12</a>), which owe
+their high polish to the size of the shell-secreting
+organ (mantle), whose edges meet over the back of
+the shell, concealing it within its folds. With
+these is classed the "China-shell" (<i>Ovulum</i>).</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_11"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 106px;">
+<img src="images/pg_47b.png" width="106" height="160" alt="Fig. 11. Conus vermiculatus." title="Fig. 11. Conus vermiculatus." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 11. Conus vermiculatus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The second group, or <i>Holostomata</i>, is divided into nineteen families, beginning with&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Naticid&aelig;</i>, whose type, the genus <i>Natica</i>,
+is well known to all shell-collectors through the common <i>Natica monilifera</i> of our coasts.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Cancellariad&aelig;</i>, in which the shells are cancellated or cross-barred by a double
+series of lines running, one set with the whorls, and the other across them.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Pyramidellid&aelig;</i>, which are high-spired, elongated, and slender shells, with the
+exception of the genus <i>Stylina</i>, which lives attached to the spines of
+sea-urchins or buried in living star-fishes and corals.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_12"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 139px;">
+<img src="images/pg_47c.png" width="139" height="165" alt="Fig. 12. Cypraea oniscus." title="Fig. 12. Cypr&aelig;a oniscus." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 12. Cypr&aelig;a oniscus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Solarid&aelig;</i> or "Staircase-shells," whose umbilicus is so wide that, as you look down it, the projecting
+edges of the whorls appear like a winding staircase. It is a very short-spired shell.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Scalarid&aelig;</i>, "Wentle-traps" or "Ladder-shells," which may be readily recognised from their white and lustrous
+appearance and the strong rib-like markings of the periodic mouths that encircle the whorls.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Cerithiad&aelig;</i>, or "Horn-shells," which are very high-spired,
+and whose columella and anterior canal are produced in the form of an impudent little tail, the effect of which, however,
+in the genus <i>Aporrhais</i>, or "Spout-shells," is taken away by the expanded and thickened lip.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg&nbsp;48]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. In the next family, the <i>Turritellid&aelig;</i>, or "Tower-shells," the
+type Turritella is spiral; but in the allied form <i>Vermetus</i>, though
+the spire begins in the natural manner, it goes off into a twisted
+tube resembling somewhat an ill-made corkscrew. The mouth
+in this family is often nearly round.</p>
+
+<p>8. The <i>Melaniad&aelig;</i>, and 9. The <i>Paludinid&aelig;</i>, are fresh-water
+shells. The former are turreted, and the latter conical or
+globular. Both are furnished with opercula, but the mouth in
+the first is more or less oval and frequently notched in front,
+while in the latter it is rounded and entire.</p>
+
+<p>10. The <i>Litorinid&aelig;</i>, or Periwinkles, need no word from us.</p>
+
+<p>11. The <i>Calyptr&aelig;id&aelig;</i> comprise the "Bonnet-limpet," or
+<i>Pileopsis</i>, and "Cup-and-saucer-limpets" (<i>Calyptr&aelig;a</i>). They
+may be described briefly as limpets with traces of a spire left.
+The genus <i>Phorus</i>, however, is spiral, and resembles a <i>Trochus</i>.
+They have been called "Carriers" from their strange habit of
+building any stray fragments of shell or stone into their house,
+thus rendering themselves almost indistinguishable from the
+ground on which they crawl.</p>
+
+<p>12. The <i>Turbinid&aelig;</i>, or "Top-shells," are next in order, and
+of these the great <i>Turbo marmoreus</i> is a well-known example,
+being prepared as an ornament for the whatnot or mantelpiece
+by removing the external layer of the shell in order to display
+the brilliant pearly nacre below. These mollusca close their
+mouths with a horny operculum, coated on its exterior by a thick
+layer of porcelain-like shelly matter. With them are classed
+the familiar <i>Trochus</i> and other closely allied genera.</p>
+
+<p>13. The <i>Haliotid&aelig;</i> offer in the representative genus <i>Haliotis</i>,
+or the "Ear-shell," another familiar mantelpiece ornament.</p>
+
+<p>14. The <i>Ianthinid&aelig;</i>, or "Violet-snails," that float about in
+mid-Atlantic upon the gulf-weed, and at certain seasons secrete
+a curious float or raft, to which their eggs are attached, are next
+in order, and are followed by&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>15. The <i>Fissurellid&aelig;</i>, or "Key-hole" and "Notched limpets,"
+whose name sufficiently describes them. To these succeed&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>16. The <i>Neritid&aelig;</i>, an unmistakable group of globular shells,
+having next to no spire and a very glossy exterior, generally
+ornamented with a great variety of spots and bands.</p>
+
+<p>17. The <i>Patellid&aelig;</i>, or true Limpets, are well known to every
+sea-side visitor: large species, as much as two inches across, are
+to be found on the coast of Devon, but these are pigmies compared
+with a South American variety which attains a foot in
+diameter.</p>
+
+<p>18. The <i>Dentaliad&aelig;</i>, represented by the genus <i>Dentalium</i>, or
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg&nbsp;49]</a></span>
+"Tooth-shell," are simply slightly curved tubes, open at both
+ends and tapering from the mouth downwards, and cannot be
+mistaken.</p>
+
+<p>19. Lastly, we have the <i>Chitonid&aelig;</i>, whose single genus <i>Chiton</i>
+possesses shells differing from all other mollusca in being composed
+of eight plates overlapping each other, and in appearance
+reminding one of the wood-louse. This animal is not only like
+the limpet in form but also in habits, being found adhering to
+the rocks and stones at low-water.</p>
+
+<p>Order II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pulmonifera.</span> Contains the air-breathing
+<i>Gasteropods</i>, and to it consequently belong all the terrestrial
+mollusca, though some few aquatic genera are also included.
+The members of this order have an air-chamber instead of gills,
+and are divided into two groups, (<i>a</i>) those without an operculum,
+and (<i>b</i>) those having an operculum. Foremost in the first group
+stands the great family&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Helicid&aelig;</i>, named after its chief representative, the
+genus <i>Helix</i>. It also includes the "Glass-shell" (<i>Vitrina</i>),
+the "Amber-shell" (<i>Succinea</i>), and such genera as <i>Bulimus</i>,
+<i>Achatina</i>, <i>Pupa</i>, <i>Clausilia</i>
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_13">Fig. 13</a>),</span> etc.,
+which differ from the typical <i>Helix</i> in appearance,
+possessing as they do comparatively high spires.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_13"></a>
+<div class="figright">
+<img src="images/pg_49.png" width="258" height="222" alt="Fig. 13. Clausilia biplicata." title="Fig. 13. Clausilia biplicata." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 13. Clausilia biplicata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Limacid&aelig;</i>, or "slugs," follow next; of these only
+one, the genus <i>Testacella</i>, has an external shell stuck on the end
+of its tail; the rest have either a more or less imperfect shell concealed
+underneath the mantle, or else none at all.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Oncidiad&aelig;</i> are slug-like, and devoid of shell.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Limn&aelig;id&aelig;</i> embrace the "Pond-snails," chief of whom
+is the well-known, high-spired <i>Limn&aelig;a stagnalis</i>. Other shells
+of this family associated with <i>Limn&aelig;a</i> are, however, very
+different in shape; for instance, <i>Physa</i> has its whorls turning to
+the left instead of to the right; <i>Ancylus</i> <a name="Ancylus"></a><span class="nowrap">(<a href="#missing_24"><ins title="Correction - Figure missing">Fig. 24</ins></a>),</span> or the freshwater
+limpet, is of course limpet-like; while <i>Planorbis</i>, or the
+"Coil-shell," is wound like a watch-spring.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Auriculid&aelig;</i> includes both spiral shells, such as <i>Auricula</i>
+and <i>Charychium</i>, and a limpet-like one <i>Siphonaria</i>.</p>
+
+<p>At the head of group <i>b</i> stands 1, <i>Cyclostomid&aelig;</i>.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg&nbsp;50]</a></span>
+<i>Cyclostoma elegans</i> is a common shell on our chalk-downs, and well illustrates
+its family, in which the mouth is nearly circular. Foreign
+examples of this genus are much esteemed by collectors. The
+other two families are, (2) <i>Helicinid&aelig;</i> and (3) <i>Aciculid&aelig;</i>.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_14"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 127px;">
+<img src="images/pg_50.png" width="127" height="190" alt="Fig. 14. Bulla ampulla." title="Fig. 14. Bulla ampulla." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 14. Bulla ampulla.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Order III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Opisthobranchiata.</span> These
+animals carry their gills exposed on the back and sides, towards the
+rear of the body. Only a few have any shell. 1. The <i>Tornatellid&aelig;</i>,
+which have a stout little spiral shell. 2. The <i>Bullid&aelig;</i>, in which
+the spire is concealed <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_14"><ins title='Correction was Fig. 26"'>Fig. 14</ins></a>).</span>
+3. The <i>Aplysiad&aelig;</i>, where the shell is flat and oblong or triangular
+in shape. The remaining families are slug-like and shell-less.</p>
+
+<p>Order IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Nucleobranchiata.</span> Derives
+its name from the fact that the animals constituting it have their respiratory
+and digestive organs in a sort of nucleus on the posterior part of the back,
+and covered by a minute shell. As they are pelagic, the shells are not readily
+to be obtained. They are divided into two families, <i>Firolid&aelig;</i> and
+<i>Atlantid&aelig;</i>.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>CLASS III.&mdash;PTEROPODA. Like the last, these pretty
+little mollusca are ocean-swimmers. The members of one
+division of them, to which the <i>Cleodora</i> belongs, is furnished
+with iridescent external shells.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>CLASS IV.&mdash;The LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Plate-gilled),
+or <span class="smcap">Conchifera</span> (Shell-bearing), includes the mollusca
+commonly known as "bivalves," the animal being snugly hidden
+between two more or less closely fitting shelly valves. The oysters,
+cockles, etc., are examples of this class. The two valves are
+fastened together near their points, or beaks (technically called
+<i>umbones</i>), by a tough elastic ligament, sometimes supplemented
+by an internal cartilage. If this be severed and the valves parted,
+it will be found that in most cases they are further articulated by
+projecting ridges or points called the <i>teeth</i>, which, when the
+valves are together, interlock and form a hinge; the margin of
+the shell on which the teeth and ligament are situated is termed
+the <i>hinge-line</i>. A bivalve is said to be <i>equivalve</i> when the two
+shells composing it are of the same size, <i>inequivalve</i> when they
+are not. If the umbones are in the middle, the shell is <i>equilateral</i>
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>);</span> but <i>inequilateral</i> when they are nearer one side
+than the other <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>).</span> If the shell be an oyster or a scallop,
+you will find on the inside a single circular scar-like mark near the
+
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg&nbsp;51]</a></span>
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_15"></a>
+<span class="figleft" style="width:200px">
+<img src="images/pg_51a.png" width="185" height="192" alt="Fig. 15. Petunculus guerangeri." title="Fig. 15. Petunculus guerangeri." /><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 15. Petunculus guerangeri.</span>
+</span>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_16"></a>
+<span class="figright" style="width:299px">
+<img src="images/pg_51b.png" width="299" height="257" alt="Fig. 16. Venus plicata." title="Fig. 16. Venus plicata." /><br /><span class="caption">Fig. 16. Venus plicata.</span>
+</span>
+
+centre; this is the point to which the muscles that close the valves
+and hold them so tightly together are attached. In the majority of
+bivalves, however, there are two such muscular impressions, or scars,
+one on either side of each valve of the shell. The former group
+on this account are often called <i>Monomyaria</i> (having one shell-muscle),
+and the latter <i>Dimyaria</i> (having two shell-muscles). In the
+last named the two muscular impressions are united by a fine groove
+(or <i>pallial-line</i>), which in some runs parallel to the margin of
+the shell <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_15">Fig. 15</a>),</span> whilst in others it makes a bend in (<i>pallial-sinus</i>)
+on one side of the valve towards the centre <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_16">Fig. 16</a>).</span>
+In Monomyaria it will be found running parallel to the margin
+of the shell. It marks the line of attachment of the mantle or
+shell-secreting organ of the animal to the shell which grows by
+the addition of fresh matter along its edges, so that the concentric
+curved markings so often seen on the exterior correspond
+in their origin with the periodic mouths of the Gasteropods. The
+bivalves are all aquatic, and many bury themselves in
+the sand or mud by means of a fleshy,
+muscular foot. These are furnished with two siphons, or fleshy
+tubes, sometimes united, sometimes separate, through which
+they respire, drawing the water in through one and expelling it
+by the other. Those kinds whose habit it is to bury themselves
+below the surface of the mud or sand are furnished with long
+retractile siphons, and to admit of their withdrawal into the
+shell, the mantle is at this point attached farther back, giving
+rise to the <i>pallial-sinus</i> above described; this sinus is deeper as
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg&nbsp;52]</a></span>
+the siphons are proportionately longer, and in many cases, too,
+the valves do not meet at this point when the shell is closed.</p>
+
+<p>Attention to these particulars is necessary when arranging
+your bivalves, as on them their classification depends, the class
+being divided into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <span class="smcap">Asiphonida</span> (Siphonless).</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <span class="smcap">Siphonida</span> <i>Integro-pallialia</i> (with Siphons).&mdash;Pallial-line
+entire.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <span class="smcap">Siphonida</span> <i>Sinu-pallialia</i> (with Siphons).&mdash;Sinus in pallial-line.</p>
+
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_18"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 185px;">
+<img src="images/pg_53a.png" width="185" height="192" alt="Fig. 18. Trigonia margaritacea." title="Fig. 18. Trigonia margaritacea." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 18. Trigonia margaritacea.</span>
+</div>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_17"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 321px;">
+<img src="images/pg_52.png" width="321" height="60" alt="Fig. 17. Hinge-teeth of Arca barbata." title="Fig. 17. Hinge-teeth of Arca barbata." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 17. Hinge-teeth of Arca barbata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Division</span> <i>a</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Asiphonida</span>&mdash;is next subdivided into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Ostreid&aelig;</i>, or oysters, which are deservedly a distinct
+family in themselves.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Anomiad&aelig;</i>, comprising the multiform and curiously
+constructed <i>Anomia</i>, with the "Window-shells" (<i>Placuna</i>).</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Pectinid&aelig;</i>, taking its name from the genus <i>Pecten</i>, or
+"Scallop-shells," of which one kind (<i>P. maximus</i>) is frequently
+to be seen at the fishmongers' shops. The "Thorney oysters"
+(<i>Spondylus</i>) take rank here, and are highly esteemed by collectors,
+one specimen indeed having been valued at £25!</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Aviculid&aelig;</i>, or "Wing-shells," among which are numbered
+the "Pearl-oyster" of commerce (<i>Meleagrina margaritifera</i>).
+The strange T-shaped "Hammer oyster" belongs
+to this family, as does also the <i>Pinna</i>. The Pinnas, like the
+mussels and some other bivalves, moor themselves
+to rocks by means of a number of threads spun by the foot of the
+mollusc, and termed the <i>byssus</i>, which in this genus is finer,
+more silky, than in any other, and has been woven into articles
+of dress.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Mytilid&aelig;</i>, or mussels, including the <i>Lithodomus</i>, or
+"Date-shell," which bores into corals and even hard limestone
+rocks.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Arcad&aelig;</i>, or "Noah's-ark-shells," characterized by
+their long straight hinge-line set with numerous very fine teeth
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_17">Fig. 17</a>).</span> The "Nut-shell" (<i>Nucula</i>) belongs to this family.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg&nbsp;53]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>Trigoniad&aelig;</i>, whose single living genus, the handsome <i>Trigonia</i>
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_18">Fig. 18</a>),</span> is confined to the Australian coast-line, whereas in times now long
+past they had a world-wide distribution.</p>
+
+<p>8. The <i>Unionid&aelig;</i>, comprising the fresh-water mussels.</p>
+
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_19"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 168px;">
+<img src="images/pg_53b.png" width="168" height="200" alt="Fig. 19. Hinge of Cardita sinuata." title="Fig. 19. Hinge of Cardita sinuata." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 19. Hinge of Cardita sinuata.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Division</span> <i>b</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Siphonida</span> <i>Integropallialia</i>.</p>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Chamid&aelig;</i>, represented by the reef-dwelling <i>Chama</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Tridacnid&aelig;</i>, whose sole genus <i>Tridacna</i> contains the
+largest specimen of the whole class of bivalves, the shells sometimes
+measuring two feet and more across.</p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Cardiad&aelig;</i>, or cockles.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Lucinid&aelig;</i>, in which the valves are nearly circular, and as a
+rule not very attractive in appearance, though the "Basket-shell"
+(<i>Corbis</i>) has an elegantly sculptured exterior.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Cycladid&aelig;</i>, whose typical genus <i>Cyclas</i>, with its round form
+and thin horny shell, is to be found in most of our ponds and streams.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Astartid&aelig;</i>, a family of shells having very strongly developed
+teeth, and the surface of whose valves is often concentrically ribbed.</p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>Cyprinid&aelig;</i>, which have very solid oval or elongated
+shells and conspicuous teeth <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_19">Fig. 19</a>).</span>
+The "Heart-cockle" (<i>Isocardia</i>) belongs to this family.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_22"></a>
+<div class="figright" style="width: 85px;">
+<img src="images/pg_54b.png" width="85" height="449" alt="Fig. 22. Pholas dactylus." title="Fig. 22. Pholas dactylus." />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 22. Pholas dactylus.</span>
+</div>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_20"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 309px;">
+<img src="images/pg_53c.png" width="309" height="123" alt="Fig. 20. Hinge of Cytherea crycina." title="Fig. 20. Hinge of Cytherea crycina." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 20. Hinge of Cytherea crycina.</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Division</span> <i>c</i>.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Siphonida</span> <i>Sinu-pallialia</i>.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_21"></a>
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 219px;">
+<img src="images/pg_54a.png" width="219" height="59" alt="Fig. 21. Hinge of Lutraria elliptica" title="Fig. 21. Hinge of Lutraria elliptica" /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 21. Hinge of Lutraria elliptica</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. The <i>Venerid&aelig;</i>. The hard, solid shells of this family are for
+elegance of form and beauty of colour amongst the most attractive a collector
+can posses. Their shells are more or less oval and have three teeth in each valve <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_20">Fig. 20</a>).</span></p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg&nbsp;54]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>2. The <i>Mactrid&aelig;</i> are somewhat triangular in shape, and
+may be at once recognised by the pit for the hinge-ligament, which
+also assumes that form, as seen in the accompanying figure of <i>Lutraria
+elliptica</i> <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_21">Fig. 21</a>).</span></p>
+
+<p>3. The <i>Tellinid&aelig;</i> comprise some of the most delicately tinted,
+both externally and internally, of all shells. In some, coloured
+bands radiate from the umbones, and well bear out the fanciful
+name of "Sunset shells" bestowed upon them. Their valves
+are generally much compressed.</p>
+
+<p>4. The <i>Solenid&aelig;</i>, or "Razor-shells," rank next, and are readily recognised by the extreme length of
+the valves in proportion to their width, and also by their gaping at both ends.</p>
+
+<p>5. The <i>Myacid&aelig;</i> or "Gapers," have the siphonal ends wide apart (in the genus <i>Mya</i> both ends
+gape), and are further characterized by the triangular process for the cartilage, which projects into the
+interior of the shell. One valve (the left) is generally smaller than the other.</p>
+
+<p>6. The <i>Anatinid&aelig;</i> have thin, often inequivalve pearly shells. The genus <i>Pandora</i> is the form most
+frequently met with in collections.</p>
+
+<p>7. The <i>Gastroch&aelig;nid&aelig;</i> embraces two genera (<i>Gastroch&aelig;na</i> and <i>Saxicava</i>) of boring mollusca,
+which perforate shells and rocks, and also, the remarkable tube-like "Watering-pot-shell" (<i>Aspergillum</i>)
+which is hardly recognisable as a bivalve at all.</p>
+
+<p>8. The <i>Pholadid&aelig;</i> concludes the list of bivalves, and comprises the common rock-boring Pholas
+<span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_22">Fig. 22</a>)</span> of our coasts
+and the wood-boring shipworm "Teredo" <span class="nowrap">(<a href="#Sect_2_Fig_23">Fig. 23</a>).</span></p>
+
+<hr style="width: 45%;" />
+
+<p>Although the <i>Brachiopoda</i>, or "Lamp-shells," are not true mollusca,
+they are not very far removed from them, and are so often to be found in
+cabinets that it will not do to pass them over, especially since in
+past times they were very abundant, an enormous number occurring in the fossil
+state. Only eight genera are now living. Shells belonging to this class are
+readily recognised by the fact of one valve being larger than the other, and
+possessing a distinct
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg&nbsp;55]</a></span>
+<ins title='Correction - was "beak"'>peak</ins>, the apex of which is perforated. The <i>Terebratulid&aelig;</i> are the most
+extensive family of this class.</p>
+
+<a name="Sect_2_Fig_23"></a>
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_55a.png" width="418" height="79" alt="Fig. 23. Teredo navalis." title="Fig. 23. Teredo navalis." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Fig. 23. Teredo navalis.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+<a name="ARRANGE_THE_SHELLS" id="ARRANGE_THE_SHELLS"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO ARRANGE THE SHELLS IN THE
+CABINET.</div>
+
+
+<p>When you have arranged your specimens in the order above
+indicated, proceed to place them in your boxes, arranging and
+labelling them after the manner shown in the accompanying
+diagram.</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+<pre>
++----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+|  Class.  |          |          |          |          |
++----------+ Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+|  Order.  |          |          |          |          |
++----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+|  Family  |          |          |          |          |
+|  Name.   |          |          |          |          |
++----------+ Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+| Generic  |          |          |          |          |
+|  Name.   |          |          +----------+          |
++----------+----------+----------+  Family  +----------+
+|          |          |          |  Name.   |          |
+| Species. | Species. | Species. +----------+ Species. |
+|          |          |          | Generic  |          |
++----------+----------+----------+  Name.   +----------+
+|          |          |          +----------+          |
+|          | Generic  |          |          |          |
+| Species. |  Name.   | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+|          |          |          |          |          |
++----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+|          |          |          |          | Generic  |
+| Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |  Name.   |
+|          |          |          |          |          |
++----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+|          |          | Generic  |          |          |
+| Species. | Species. |  Name.   | Species. | Species. |
+|          |          |          |          |          |
++----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+|          |          |          |          |          |
+| Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+|          |          |          |          |          |
++----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+</pre>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg&nbsp;56]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>On the lid, or on a slip of paper or card placed at the head of
+your columns of trays, write the class and order, with its proper
+number (I., II., etc., as the case may be); then at the top of
+your left-hand column place the family and its number, and
+under it the name of the first genus. The species (one in each
+tray) come next, then the name of the next genus following it,
+succeeded by its species, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the young collector should be to obtain examples
+of as many <i>genera</i> as possible, since a collection in which a great
+number of genera are represented is far more useful and instructive
+than one composed of a great many species referable to but
+few genera. He will also find it very convenient to separate
+the British Shells from his general collection, sub-dividing them
+for convenience into "Land and Fresh-water," and "Marine."
+Of these he should endeavour to get every species, and even
+variety, making the thing as complete as possible. Or a separate
+collection may be made of all those kinds which he can find
+within a certain distance of his own home. A collection of this
+sort possesses, in addition to its scientific worth, an interest of
+<ins title='Correction - was "tis"'>its</ins> own, owing to the local associations that invariably connect
+themselves with it.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="TABLE_OF_SOME_OF_THE_MORE_IMPORTANT_GENERA"></a>
+<div class="caption2">TABLE OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA, SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE NUMBER OF SPECIES
+BELONGING TO EACH GENUS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption2">CLASS I.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Cephalopoda.</span></div>
+<br /><br />
+<div class="caption3"><span class="smcap">Order I.</span>&mdash;Dibranchiata.</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption3">Section A.&mdash;<i>Octopoda.</i></div>
+<br />
+<table width="100%" summary="species listing">
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1.</td><td>Argonauta</td><td class="center">4</td><td>Tropical seas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">2.</td><td>Octopus</td><td class="center">46</td><td>Rocky coasts in temperate and tropical regions.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Section B.&mdash;<i>Decapoda</i>.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">3.</td><td>Loligo</td><td class="center">19</td><td>Cosmopolitan.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">4.</td><td>Sepia</td><td class="center">30</td><td>On all coasts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">5.</td><td>Spirula</td><td class="center">3</td><td>All the warmer seas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3"><span class="smcap">Order II.</span>&mdash;Tetrabranchiata</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">6.</td><td>Nautilus</td><td class="center">3 or 4</td><td>Chinese Seas, Indian Ocean, Persian Gulf.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4><div class="caption2">CLASS II.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Gasteropoda.</span></div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg&nbsp;57]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption2"><span class="smcap">Order I.</span>&mdash;Prosobranchiata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>a</i>.&mdash;<i>Siphonostomata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1.</td><td>Strombus</td><td class="center">60</td><td>W. Indies, Mediterranean, Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Pacific&mdash;low water to 10 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td></td><td>Pteroceras</td><td class="center">12</td><td>India, China.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">2.</td><td>Murex</td><td class="center">180</td><td>On all coasts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Columbella</td><td class="center">200</td><td>Sub-tropical regions, in shallow water on stones.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Mitra</td><td class="center">350</td><td>Tropical regions, from low water to 80 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Fusus</td><td class="center">100</td><td>On all coasts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">3.</td><td>Buccinum</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Northern seas, from low water to 140 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eburna</td><td class="center">9</td><td>Red Sea, India, Australia, China, Cape of Good Hope.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Nassa</td><td class="center">210</td><td>World-wide&mdash;low water to 50 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Purpura</td><td class="center">140</td><td>World-wide&mdash;low water to 25 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Harpa</td><td class="center">9</td><td>Tropical&mdash;deep water, sand, muddy bottoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Oliva</td><td class="center">117</td><td>Sub-tropical&mdash;low water to 25 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">4.</td><td>Cassis</td><td class="center">34</td><td>Tropical regions, in shallow water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Dolium</td><td class="center">15</td><td>Mediterranean, India, China, W. Indies, Brazil, New Guinea, Pacific.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Triton</td><td class="center">100</td><td>Temperate and sub-tropical regions, from low water to 50 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ranella</td><td class="center">50</td><td>Tropical regions, on rocks and coral-reefs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pyrula</td><td class="center">40</td><td>Sub-tropical regions, in 17 to 35 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">5.</td><td>Conus</td><td class="center">300</td><td>Equatorial seas&mdash;shallow water to 50 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pleurotoma</td><td class="center">500</td><td>Almost world-wide&mdash;low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">6.</td><td>Voluta</td><td class="center">100</td><td>On tropical coasts, from the shore to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cymba</td><td class="center">10</td><td>West Coast of Africa, Lisbon, Straits of Gibraltar.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Marginella</td><td class="center">90</td><td>Mostly tropical.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">7.</td><td>Cypr&aelig;a</td><td class="center">150</td><td>Warmer seas of the globe, on rocks and coral-reefs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ovulum</td><td class="center">36</td><td>Britain, Mediterranean, W. Indies, China, W. America.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>b</i>.&mdash;<i>Holostomata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">8.</td><td>Natica</td><td class="center">90</td><td>Arctic to tropical regions, on sandy and gravelly bottoms, from low water to 90 feet.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Sigaretus</td><td class="center">26</td><td>E. and W. Indies, China, Peru.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">9.</td><td>Cancellaria</td><td class="center">70</td><td>W. Indies, China, S. America, E. Archipelago&mdash;low water to 40 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">10.</td><td>Pyramidella</td><td class="center">11</td><td>W. Indies, Mauritius, Australia, in sandy bays and on shallow mud-banks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Odostomia</td><td class="center">35</td><td>Britain, Mediterranean, and Madeira&mdash;low water to 50 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Chemnitzia</td><td class="center">70</td><td>World-wide&mdash;low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Eulima</td><td class="center">26</td><td>Cuba, Norway, Britain, India, Mediterranean, Australia&mdash;5 to 90 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">11.</td><td>Solarium</td><td class="center">25</td><td>Sub-tropical and tropical&mdash;widely distributed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">12.</td><td>Scalaria</td><td class="center">100</td><td>World-wide&mdash;low water to 100 fathoms.<br />
+<tr><td class="center">13.</td><td>Cerithium</td><td class="center">100</td><td>World-wide.<br />
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Potamides</td><td class="center">41</td><td>Africa and India, in mud of large rivers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Aporrhais</td><td class="center">3</td><td>Labrador, Norway, Britain, Mediterranean&mdash;20 to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">14.</td><td>Turritella</td><td class="center">50</td><td>World-wide&mdash;low water to 100 fathoms.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg&nbsp;58]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Vermetus</td><td class="center">31</td><td>Portugal, Mediterranean, Africa, India.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">15.</td><td>Melania</td><td class="center">160</td><td>S. Europe, India, Philippines and Pacific Islands&mdash;in rivers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Melanopsis</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Spain, Australia, Asia Minor, New Zealand&mdash;in rivers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">16.</td><td>Paludina</td><td class="center">60</td><td>Northern Hemispheres, Africa, India, China, etc.&mdash;in lakes and rivers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ampullaria</td><td class="center">50</td><td>S. America, W. Indies, Africa, India&mdash;in lakes and rivers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">17.</td><td>Litorina</td><td class="center">40</td><td>On all shores.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Rissoa</td><td class="center">70</td><td>World-wide&mdash;in shallow water on sea-weed to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">18.</td><td>Calyptrea</td><td class="center">50</td><td>World-wide&mdash;adherent to rocks, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Crepidula</td><td class="center">40</td><td>West Indies, Mediterranean, Cape of Good Hope, Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pileopsis</td><td class="center">7</td><td>Britain, Norway, Mediterranean, E. and W. Indies, Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Hipponyx</td><td class="center">70</td><td>W. Indies, Galapagos, Philippines, Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Phorus</td><td class="center">9</td><td>W. Indies, India, Javan and Chinese Seas&mdash;in deep water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">19.</td><td>Turbo</td><td class="center">60</td><td>On the shores of Tropical seas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Phasinella</td><td class="center">30</td><td>Australia, Pacific, W. Indies, Mediterranean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Imperator</td><td class="center">20</td><td>S. Africa, India, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Trochus</td><td class="center">150</td><td>World-wide&mdash;from low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Rotella</td><td class="center">18</td><td>India, Philippines, China, New Zealand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Stomatella</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Cape, India, Australia, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">20.</td><td>Haliotis</td><td class="center">75</td><td>Britain, Canaries, India, Australia, California&mdash;on rocks at low water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Stomatia</td><td class="center">12</td><td>Java, Philippines, Pacific, etc.&mdash; under stones at low water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">21.</td><td>Ianthina</td><td class="center">6</td><td>Gregarious in the open seas of the Atlantic and Pacific.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">22.</td><td>Fissurella</td><td class="center">120</td><td>World-wide&mdash;on rocks from low water to 5 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Emarginula</td><td class="center">26</td><td>Britain, Norway, Philippines, Australia&mdash;from low water to 90 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">23.</td><td>Nerita</td><td class="center">116</td><td>On the shores of all warm seas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Neritina</td><td class="center">110</td><td>In fresh waters of all warm countries, and in Britain.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Navicella</td><td class="center">24</td><td>India, Mauritius, Moluccas, Australia, Pacific&mdash;in fresh water, attached to stones.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">24.</td><td>Patella</td><td class="center">100</td><td>On all coasts&mdash;adhering to stones and rocks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">25.</td><td>Dentalium</td><td class="center">30</td><td>World-wide&mdash;buried in mud.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">26.</td><td>Chiton</td><td class="center">200</td><td>World-wide&mdash;low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption2"><span class="smcap">Order II.</span>&mdash;Pulmonifera.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>a</i>.&mdash;<i>Inoperculata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">27.</td><td>Helix</td><td rowspan=3 class="center"><table summary="braced numbers"><tr><td class="text_rt">1,600&nbsp;<br />68&nbsp;<br />650&nbsp;</td><td><span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span><br />&#9500;<br /><span class="vtop2">&#9496;</span></td></tr></table></td><td rowspan=3>World-wide&mdash;on land in moist places.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Succinea</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Bulimus</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Achatina</td><td class="center">120</td><td>World-wide&mdash;burrowing at roots and bulbs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pupa&nbsp; </td><td class="center">236</td><td>World-wide&mdash;amongst wet moss.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Clausilia</td><td class="center">400</td><td>Europe and Asia&mdash;in moist spots.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">28.</td><td>Limax</td><td class="center">22</td><td>Europe and Canaries&mdash;on land in damp localities.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg&nbsp;59]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Testacella</td><td class="center">3</td><td>S. Europe, Canaries, and Britain&mdash; burrowing in gardens.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">29.</td><td>Oncidium</td><td class="center">16</td><td>Britain, Red Sea, Mediterranean&mdash;on rocks on the seashore.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">30.</td><td>Limn&aelig;a</td><td class="center">50</td><td>Europe, Madeira, India, China, N. America&mdash;in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Physa</td><td class="center">20</td><td>America, Europe, S. Africa, India, Philippines&mdash;in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Ancylus</td><td class="center">14</td><td>Europe, N. and S. America&mdash;in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Planorbis</td><td class="center">145</td><td>Europe, N. America, India, China&mdash;in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">31.</td><td>Auricula</td><td class="center">50</td><td>Tropical&mdash;in salt marshes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Siphonaria</td><td class="center">30</td><td>World-wide&mdash;between high and low water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>b</i>.&mdash;<i>Operculata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">32.</td><td>Cyclostoma</td><td class="center">80</td><td rowspan=3 class="text_lf"><table class="nc" summary="brace"><tr><td class="text_lf">S. Europe, Africa<br />India, Philippines<br />Philippines, New Guinea</td><td><span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span><br />&#9500;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&mdash;on land.<br /><span class="vtop2">&#9496;</span></td></tr></table></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cyclophorus</td><td class="center">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pupina</td><td class="center">80</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">33.</td><td>Helicina</td><td class="center">150</td><td>W. Indies, Philippines, Central America, Islands in Pacific&mdash;on land.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">34.</td><td>Acicula</td><td class="center">5</td><td>Britain, Europe, Vanicoro&mdash;on leaves and at roots of grass.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Geomelania</td><td class="center">21</td><td>Jamaica&mdash;on land.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption2"><span class="smcap">Order III.</span>&mdash;Opisthobranchiata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>a</i>.&mdash;<i>Tectibranchiata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">35.</td><td>Tornatella</td><td class="center">16</td><td>Red Sea, Philippines, Japan&mdash;in deep water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">36.</td><td>Bulla</td><td class="center">50</td><td>Widely distributed&mdash;low water to 30 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">37.</td><td>Aplysia</td><td class="center">40</td><td>Britain, Norway, W. Indies&mdash;low water to 15 fathoms on sea-weed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">38.</td><td>Pleurobranchus</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Britain, Norway, Mediterranean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>b</i>.&mdash;<i>Nudibranchiata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">39-44.</td><td class="text_lf"></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td width="60%">All shell-less.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption2"><span class="smcap">Order IV.</span>&mdash;Nucleobranchiata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">45.</td><td>Firola</td><td class="center">8</td><td>Atlantic, Mediterranean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Carinaria</td><td class="center">5</td><td>Atlantic and Indian Oceans.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">46.</td><td>Atlanta</td><td class="center">15</td><td>Warmer parts of the Atlantic.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4><div class="caption2">CLASS III.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Pteropoda.</span></div><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg&nbsp;60]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption2"><span class="smcap">Order I.</span>&mdash;Prosobranchiata.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>a</i>.&mdash;<i>Thecosomata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1.</td><td>Hyalea</td><td class="center">19 <span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cleodora</td><td class="center">12 <span class="vbottom">&#9496;</span></td><td>Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">2.</td><td>Limacina</td><td class="center">2</td><td>Arctic and Antarctic Seas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>b</i>.&mdash;<i>Gymnosomata.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">3.</td><td>Clio, etc.</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Shell-less.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption2">CLASS IV.&mdash;<span class="smcap">Lamellibranchiata.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>a</i>.&mdash;<i>Asiphonida.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><th class="center">Family.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp; Genus.</th><th class="center">No. of<br />Species.</th><th align="left"> &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp;  &nbsp; Distribution.</th></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">1.</td><td>Ostrea</td><td class="center">100</td><td>World-wide&mdash;in estuaries, attached.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">2.</td><td>Anomia</td><td class="center">20</td><td>India, Australia, China, Ceylon&mdash; attached to shells from low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Placuna</td><td class="center">4</td><td>Scinde, North Australia, China&mdash;in brackish water.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">3.</td><td>Pecten</td><td class="center">176</td><td>World-wide&mdash;from 3 to 40 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Lima</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Norway, Britain, India, Australia&mdash;from 1 to 150 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Spondylus</td><td class="center">70</td><td>Tropical seas&mdash;attached to coral-reefs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">4.</td><td>Avicula</td><td class="center">25</td><td>Britain, Mediterranean, India&mdash;25 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Perna</td><td class="center">18</td><td>In tropical seas&mdash;attached.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pinna</td><td class="center">30</td><td>United States, Britain, Mediterranean, Australia, Pacific&mdash;low water to 60 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">5.</td><td>Mytilus</td><td class="center">70</td><td>World-wide&mdash;between high and low water mark.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Modiola</td><td class="center">70</td><td>British and tropical seas&mdash;low water to >100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">6.</td><td>Arca</td><td class="center">400</td><td>In warm seas&mdash;from low water to 200 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pectunculus</td><td class="center">58</td><td>West Indies, Britain, New Zealand&mdash;from 8 to 60 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Nucula</td><td class="center">70</td><td>Norway, Japan&mdash;from 5 to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">7.</td><td>Trigonia</td><td class="center">3</td><td>Off the coast of Australia.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">8.</td><td>Unio</td><td class="center">420</td><td>World-wide&mdash;in fresh waters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Anodon</td><td class="center">100</td><td>North America, Europe, Siberia&mdash;in fresh waters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4 class="caption3">Division <i>b</i>.&mdash;<i>Siphonida.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan=4>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">9.</td><td>Chama</td><td class="center">50</td><td>In tropical seas on coral reefs.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">10.</td><td>Tridacna</td><td class="center">7</td><td>Indian and Pacific Oceans, Chinese Seas.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">11.</td><td>Cardium</td><td class="center">200</td><td>World-wide&mdash;from the shore line to 140 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">12.</td><td>Lucina</td><td class="center">70</td><td>Tropical and temperate seas&mdash;sandy and muddy bottoms&mdash;from low water to 200 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td><ins title='Correction was "Keilia"'>Kellia</ins></td><td class="center">20</td><td>Norway, New Zealand, California&mdash;low water<br />to 200 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">13.</td><td>Cyclas</td><td class="center">60</td><td>Temperate regions&mdash;in all fresh waters.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cyrena</td><td class="center">130</td><td>From the Nile and other rivers to China&mdash;and in mangrove swamps.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">14.</td><td>Astarte</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Mostly Arctic&mdash;from 30 to 112 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Crassatella</td><td class="center">34</td><td>Australia, Philippines, Africa, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">15.</td><td>Cyprina</td><td class="center">1</td><td>From Britain to the most northerly point yet reached&mdash;from 5 to 80 fathoms.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg&nbsp;61]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Circe</td><td class="center">40</td><td>Britain, Australia, India, Red Sea&mdash;8 to 50 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Isocardia</td><td class="center">5</td><td>Mediterranean, China, Japan&mdash;burrowing in sand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cardita</td><td class="center">54</td><td>Tropical seas&mdash;from shallow water to 150 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">16.</td><td>Venus</td><td class="center">176&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span>&nbsp;</td><td rowspan=2>World-wide&mdash;buried in sand, from low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Cytherea</td><td class="center">113&nbsp;&nbsp;<span class="vtop2">&#9496;</span>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Artemis</td><td class="center">100</td><td>Northern to tropical seas&mdash;from low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Tapes</td><td class="center">80</td><td>Widely distributed&mdash;burrowing in sand, from low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Venerupis</td><td class="center">20</td><td>Britain, Canaries, India, Peru&mdash;in crevices of rocks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">17.</td><td>Mactra</td><td class="center">125</td><td>World-wide&mdash;burrowing in sand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Lutraria</td><td class="center">18</td><td>Widely distributed&mdash;burrowing in sand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">18.</td><td>Tellina</td><td class="center">300</td><td>In all seas&mdash;from the shore line to 15 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Psammobia</td><td class="center">50</td><td>Britain, Pacific and Indian Oceans&mdash;from the littoral zone to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Sanguinolaria</td><td class="center">20</td><td>W. Indies, Australia, Peru.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Semele</td><td class="center">60</td><td>Brazil, India, China, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Donax</td><td class="center">68</td><td>Norway, Baltic, Britain&mdash;in sand near low water mark.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">19.</td><td>Solen</td><td class="center">33</td><td>World-wide&mdash;burrowing in sand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Solecurtus</td><td class="center">25</td><td>Britain, Africa, Madeira, Mediterranean&mdash;burrowing in sand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">20.</td><td>Mya</td><td class="center">10</td><td>North Seas, W. Africa, Philippines, etc.&mdash;river mouths from low water to 25 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Corbula</td><td class="center">60</td><td>United States, Britain, Norway, Mediterranean, W. Africa, China&mdash;from 15 to 80 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">21.</td><td>Anatina</td><td class="center">50</td><td>India, W. Africa, Philippines, New Zealand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Thracia</td><td class="center">17</td><td>Greenland to Canaries and China&mdash;from 4 to 120 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Pandora</td><td class="center">18</td><td>Spitzbergen, Panama, India&mdash;from 4 to 110 fathoms, burrowing in sand and mud.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">22.</td><td>Gastroch&aelig;na</td><td class="center">10</td><td>W. Indies, Britain, Red Sea, Pacific Islands&mdash;from shore line to 30 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Saxicava</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Arctic Seas, Britain, Mediterranean, Canaries and the Cape&mdash;in crevices and boring into limestone and rocks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Aspergillum</td><td class="center">21</td><td>Red Sea, Java, New Zealand&mdash;in sand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="center">23.</td><td>Pholas&nbsp; </td><td class="center">32</td><td>Almost universal&mdash;from low water to 25 fathoms.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Xylophaga</td><td class="center">2</td><td>Norway, Britain, S. America&mdash;boring into floating wood.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Teredo</td><td class="center">14</td><td>In tropical seas&mdash;from low water to 100 fathoms.</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg&nbsp;62]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption2">SOME WORKS OF REFERENCE.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3"><span class="smcap">Mollusca in General.</span></div>
+
+<p>"A Manual of Mollusca." By Dr. S. P. Woodward.</p>
+
+<p>"Tabular View of the Orders and Families of the Mollusca."
+Published by the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.</p>
+
+<p>"Cassell's Natural History," latest edition, article on the
+Mollusca. By Dr. Henry Woodward.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3"><span class="smcap">British Mollusca.</span></div>
+
+<p>"A History of British Mollusca and their Shells." By
+Professor E. Forbes and S. Hanley.</p>
+
+<p>"British Conchology." By J. G. Jeffreys.</p>
+
+<p>"Common Shells of the Sea-shore." By Rev. J. G. Wood.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3"><span class="smcap">British Land and Fresh-water Mollusca.</span></div>
+
+<p>"Land and Fresh-water Mollusca indigenous to the British
+Isles." By Lovell Reeve.</p>
+
+<p>"A Plain and Easy Account of the Land and Fresh-water
+Mollusca of Great Britain." By Ralph Tate.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg&nbsp;63]</a></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_89.png" width="352" height="418" alt="Ceratites nodosus (from the Muschelkalk)." title="Ceratites nodosus (from the Muschelkalk)." />
+</div>
+
+<br />
+<div class="caption1">FOSSILS.</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption3">BY</div>
+<br />
+<div class="caption2">B. B. WOODWARD.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg&nbsp;64]</a></span></p>
+<div class="caption2">Contents</div>
+
+<table width="100%" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Section</span></td><td class="text_rt"><span class="smcap">Page</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#INTRODUCTORY2">INTRODUCTORY.</a></td><td class="text_rt">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#THE_CABINET">THE CABINET.</a></td><td class="text_rt">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#IMPLEMENTS_REQUIRED">IMPLEMENTS REQUIRED WHEN COLLECTING.</a></td><td class="text_rt">66</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#USE_YOUR_IMPLEMENTS">HOW TO USE YOUR IMPLEMENTS.</a></td><td class="text_rt">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#PREPARE_THE_SPECIMENS">HOW TO PREPARE THE SPECIMENS FOR THE CABINET.</a></td><td class="text_rt">74</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#FOSSILIFEROUS_STRATA">TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA.</a></td><td class="text_rt">78</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#NOTES_ON_THE_DIFFERENT_FORMATIONS">NOTES ON THE DIFFERENT FORMATIONS MENTIONED IN THE TABLE.</a></td><td class="text_rt">79</td></tr>
+<tr><td><a href="#PRINCIPAL_DIVISIONS_ANIMAL_KINGDOM">TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.</a></td><td class="text_rt">94</td></tr>
+</table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg&nbsp;65]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption1">FOSSILS.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="INTRODUCTORY2"></a>
+<div class="caption2">INTRODUCTORY.</div>
+
+<p>Geology is of all "hobbies" the one best calculated not only
+to develop the physical powers, but also, if pursued with any
+degree of earnestness, to train and extend the mental faculties.
+To study geology properly, the rocks themselves must be visited
+and carefully observed, their appearance noted, and the fossils,
+if any, which they contain, collected. This necessitates many
+a pleasant walk into the open country to quarries and cuttings,
+or rambles along the sea-shore to cliffs which may be
+worth investigating, whilst botany, entomology, or any other
+congenial pursuit, may be followed on the way; for natural
+science in its different branches has so many points of connection
+that it is impossible to study one of them without increasing
+one's interest in, and knowledge of, all the others. Again,
+in arranging, classifying, and studying at home the specimens
+collected on these expeditions, many an hour may be usefully
+spent; habits of exactitude and neatness are acquired; whilst
+in endeavouring to draw correct conclusions as to the way in
+which particular rocks were formed, and by what agencies
+brought to their present position, the reasoning faculties are
+exercised and developed.</p>
+
+<p>The existence of fossil shells and bones in various strata of the
+earth's crust attracted attention at a very early date of the
+world's history; the Egyptian priests were aware of the existence
+of marine shells in the hills bounding the Nile valley,
+and from this fact Herodotus drew the conclusion that the sea
+formerly covered the spot. The bones of the larger mammalia
+(rhinoceros, elephant, etc.), were, however, thought by the
+ancients to be human, and hence arose the idea of a race of
+giants having existed at some previous period of the earth's
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg&nbsp;66]</a></span>
+history. It was not, however, until near the end of the last
+century that geology began to be recognised as a science, and
+the true bearing of fossils in relation to the rocks in which they
+were found was conclusively proved. William Smith in England,
+and Werner in Germany, while working independently of
+each other, both came to the same conclusion, viz. that the numerous
+strata invariably rested on each other in a certain order,
+and that this order was never inverted,<a name="FNanchor_1_1" id="FNanchor_1_1"></a><a href="#Footnote_1_1" class="fnanchor">[1]</a> whilst William Smith in
+addition proved that each group of rocks, and even each stratum,
+had its own peculiar set of fossils, by which it might be recognised
+wherever it occurred. From that time forth the study of the
+various fossils began to be considered as a separate science
+apart from that of the beds containing them; this is now known
+as Pal&aelig;ontology, the study of the composition of the rocks themselves
+being termed Petrology.</p>
+
+<p>At this moment, however, we are less concerned with the
+study of rocks and fossils than with the best and simplest way
+of collecting, preparing, and arranging specimens as a means to
+this study.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="THE_CABINET"></a>
+<div class="caption2">THE CABINET.</div>
+
+<p>With regard to the cabinet for such specimens as you are
+able to collect, the same advice holds good as that given
+in a previous Manual (The Young Collector's Shell Book),
+namely, the simpler the cabinet the better, though of course
+card-board boxes would not as a rule be strong enough to stand
+the weight of the specimens, and hence it is advisable to have
+wooden ones. The boxes in which Oakey's Wellington Knife-powder
+is sent out (they measure about 15 in. × 10 in. × 3
+in.) are on the whole the most convenient size, and are easily
+obtainable at any oil and colourman's. These, when painted
+over with Berlin Black, after first removing the external labels,
+look very neat. The inside may be papered according to taste,
+when the trays may be arranged in order ready for the reception
+of your specimens.<a name="FNanchor_2_2" id="FNanchor_2_2"></a><a href="#Footnote_2_2" class="fnanchor">[2]</a></p>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_1_1" id="Footnote_1_1"></a><a href="#FNanchor_1_1"><span class="label">[1]</span></a> Except in such cases where the rocks themselves have been displaced
+by movements of the earth's crust.</p></div>
+
+<div class="footnote"><p><a name="Footnote_2_2" id="Footnote_2_2"></a><a href="#FNanchor_2_2"><span class="label">[2]</span></a> For description of trays, see "The Young Collector's Shell-Book."</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="IMPLEMENTS_REQUIRED"></a>
+<div class="caption2">IMPLEMENTS REQUIRED WHEN COLLECTING.</div>
+
+<p>A certain amount of apparatus is needful in collecting geological
+specimens. It is necessary to break open the hard
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg&nbsp;67]</a></span>
+rocks in order to get at the fossils within, and for this purpose
+a strong hammer is required. One end of the hammer-head
+should be square, tapering, slightly, to a flat striking face;
+for when thus shaped the edges and corners are less likely to
+break off; the other side should be produced into a rather long,
+flat, and slightly curved pick, terminating in a chisel-edge at
+right-angles to the handle; the total length of the head should
+not exceed 9&frac12; in., the striking face being 3 in. from the centre
+of the eye in which the handle (18 in. long) is inserted; the
+latter should be made of the toughest ash, American hickory,
+or "green-heart," and fixed in with an iron wedge ("roughed"
+to prevent its coming out again), taking care that &frac14; in. of the
+handle protrudes on the other side. It is the usual practice,
+but a mistaken one, to cut it off level with the hammer head,
+which is likely, under these circumstances, to come off after it
+has been in use for a time, whereas, by leaving a small portion
+of the wedged-out end projecting, this mischance is avoided, and
+your weapon will not fail even when used to drag its owner up
+a stiff ascent. It is better to shape and fix the handle yourself,
+as by this means you can not only cut it to fit your hand, but may
+rely upon its being properly fastened in. By filing grooves
+around it an inch apart, it will serve to take rough measurements
+with, while a firm grasp may be insured by bees-waxing
+instead of polishing it. Another and much smaller hammer
+will also be necessary, chiefly for home use, to trim the specimens
+before putting them away in the cabinet; the head of this
+hammer must not be more than 2&frac12; inches long, the handle
+springing from the centre; one end has a flat striking face,
+square in section, the other, instead of being formed like a pick,
+is wedge-shaped, the sharp edge being at right-angles to the
+handle. Next to a hammer, a cold chisel is indispensable to
+the collector, since without its aid many a choice specimen
+embedded in the middle of a mass of rock too large to break
+with the hammer would have to be left behind. There is one
+thing, however, to beware of in using this tool&mdash;it has sometimes
+to be hit with great force, and should you chance to miss it and
+strike your hand instead, the result may be more serious than
+even a severe bruise. To prevent this, procure from the shoe-maker
+or saddler a piece of thick leather, about 4 inches in
+diameter, having a hole cut in the centre through which to pass
+the shank of the chisel, and, thus protected, you may wield the
+hammer with impunity.</p>
+
+<p>For digging fossils out of clay, an old, stout knife, such as
+the worn-down stump of a carver, is handy, and in sandy beds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg&nbsp;68]</a></span>
+an ordinary garden trowel is very useful, whilst in a chalk-pit a
+small saw is sometimes of great aid in extricating a desirable
+specimen. The same may be said of an ordinary carpenter's
+wood-chisel. For picking up small and delicate specimens, a
+pair of forceps should be carried, whilst without a pocket lens
+no true naturalist ever stirs abroad. An ordinary stout
+canvas satchel, such as is commonly used by schoolboys, is the
+best thing for carrying home your specimens; this may be
+made much stronger by the addition of two short strips of
+leather stitched on the back and running, one from each ring,
+to which the strap passing over the shoulder is fastened, down
+to the bottom of the bag; by leaving a small portion unstitched
+near the bottom of each of these, wide enough for the shoulder-strap
+to pass through, the satchel may at a moment's notice be
+slung knapsackwise on the shoulders&mdash;a method of carrying it
+which is, as all who have tried it know, by far the most convenient
+when it is heavily laden or not in immediate requisition.
+A stout leather belt may be worn in which to carry all your
+hammers, supporting it on the side where the heavy hammer
+hangs by a band passing over the opposite shoulder. Before
+starting on an excursion, make a practice of seeing that you
+have everything with you, or when the critical moment comes,
+and some choice and fragile specimen is ready to be borne
+off, you may find that you are without the means necessary
+for taking it home. For ordinary hard specimens, newspaper
+well crumpled around them is without its equal, but some of
+the more delicate must be first wrapped in tissue paper or even
+cotton-wool, whilst the most fragile fossils should be packed
+in tins with bran or sawdust, the particles of which fill in all the
+corners and press equally everywhere, a useful faculty which
+cotton wool does not possess. When neither of these are to be
+obtained, dry sand will answer quite as well, though it is heavier
+to carry.</p>
+
+<p>Although not absolutely necessary in the field, it is often useful
+to have a small bottle of acid in your pocket (nitric acid diluted
+to 1-12th with distilled water is the best) with which to test for
+limestones; a drop of acid placed on a rock will, if there be
+any carbonate of lime in it, immediately begin to fizz. Finally,
+every young collector should carry a note-book, and carefully
+record in it what he sees in each pit he visits, while, if it can
+be procured or borrowed, a geological map of the district you
+are exploring is a great help, for with its aid and that of a good
+compass you become practically independent of much extraneous
+assistance.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="USE_YOUR_IMPLEMENTS"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg&nbsp;69]</a></span></p>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO USE YOUR IMPLEMENTS.</div>
+
+<p>We will suppose by way of illustration that near us flows a
+river, on the rising ground above which is a pit that we propose
+to visit for the purpose of putting our apparatus into practical
+operation. When we have reached the floor of the pit, and
+stand looking up at the section before us, we are at first
+rather puzzled as to what the beds, which we see before us,
+are; for as the pit has not been worked for some time, its
+sides are partially overgrown with grass, and in places bits
+and pieces of the upper beds have fallen down and form a
+heap beneath which the lower ones lie buried. We must therefore
+make our way to those spots where the beds are left clear,
+and find out, if possible, what they are. By climbing up one of
+the heaps of fallen earth (<i>talus</i>) we reach the top, where, first of
+all, under the roots of the grass and shrubs, we find the mould in
+which these grow, and which is formed of the broken up (<i>disintegrated</i>)
+rocks forming the still higher ground above, and which
+the rains, frosts and snows, aided afterwards by the earthworms,
+have converted into mould. This, geologically speaking, is
+called <i>surface soil</i>, and is here about two feet deep. Just below
+it we find a layer of coarse gravel; the pebbles of which this is
+composed are of all sorts, sizes, and shapes, and are stained a
+deep brown by oxide of iron. Most of them are flints, and by
+diligent search you may find casts and impressions in these of
+sponges, shells, spines of sea urchins, etc. Flints, whether from
+gravel or their parent rock the chalk, are easiest broken by a
+light smart tap of the hammer, though when it is desired to
+shape them for the cabinet a soft iron hammer should be used,
+and the piece to be shaped placed on a soft pad on the knee,
+for when struck with a steel hammer flints splinter in all
+directions, and often through the very portion you most desire
+to preserve. In one spot we find a mass of sand included in
+the gravel; this mass is thickest in the middle, and tapers
+away towards each end, its total length being about fifty feet.
+Could we see the whole mass, we should probably find it to
+be a patch lying on the gravel and thinning out all around its
+edges; in other words it would be shaped like a lens&mdash;"<i>lenticular</i>"
+as geologists term it. When we examine this mass more
+closely, we find that the layers of sand do not run parallel with
+the bed, but are inclined in different directions, sometimes lying
+one way, sometimes another. This <i>false bedding</i> is due to the
+sand having been thrown down in waters agitated by strong
+currents that swept over the spot, now in one direction and now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg&nbsp;70]</a></span>
+in another, scattering at one moment half the sand they had just
+piled up one way only to redeposit it the next minute in another.
+In the gravel also may be observed a similar though less marked
+arrangement, owing to the larger size of its constituents, which
+of course required a still stronger current action to wash them
+down.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the sand we now see some shells, and set to work to
+dig them out very carefully, for they are exceedingly brittle.
+The best specimens are to be obtained by throwing down masses of
+the sandy material and searching in it; but only the stronger and
+finer examples will bear such usage. We next notice that these
+shells are precisely similar to those still found with living occupants
+in the river below, only they are no longer of a brownish
+colour, but owing to the loss of the animal matter of the shell
+have an earthy, dirty-white appearance. To carry these home
+they should be packed in bran in one of your tins with a note as
+follows made on a piece of paper and placed just inside&mdash;"Sand
+in gravel: topmost bed &mdash;&mdash; pit, August 2nd, 188-."  Then if
+you are not able to work them out at once on reaching home,
+you will not forget whence they came. From the appearance
+of these sands and gravels, and the presence in them of shells
+exactly like those in the river below, it may reasonably be inferred
+that they once formed a portion of the bed of that river
+long ago, before it had scooped out its valley to the present
+depth. There is, however, something else in this sand-bed&mdash;a
+piece of bone protruding; clear away the sand above it, and dig
+back until the whole is visible. It is broken through in one or
+two places, but otherwise is in fair condition; remove the pieces
+carefully one by one, and wrap them in separate pieces of paper,
+and then proceed to search for others. These bones, which are
+plentiful in some of our river valley gravel-beds, are the remains
+of animals that once roamed in the forests which at that time
+covered the country; they were probably either drowned in
+crossing the water, or got stuck in the mud on the banks on
+coming down to drink. A fine collection was made at Ilford
+by the late Sir Antonio Brady, and is now in the British
+Museum (Natural History) at South Kensington. Besides the
+bones of animals, you may expect to find examples of all, or
+nearly all, the different rocks in which the river has cut its
+valley, and samples of these may be picked out and taken
+home. Each specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece of
+paper to prevent its rubbing against others, care being taken to
+note the locality either by writing it on the paper or by affixing to
+the specimen a number corresponding to one in your note book
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg&nbsp;71]</a></span>
+against the description you have written of the bed. The gravel,
+with its accompanying bed of sand, may be traced down, by
+scraping away the surface, for about ten feet, when you will discover
+that it rests unevenly upon the beds below, which, instead
+of being horizontal, slope (<i>dip</i>) in a N.N.E. direction, making
+an angle of about 45° with the floor of the pit; the gravel therefore
+rests successively upon the upturned ends of the lower beds,
+and, geologically speaking, is "unconformable" to them. Now as
+these underlying rocks were of course originally deposited in an
+horizontal position, they must have been pushed up and the upper
+parts worn away (<i>denuded</i>) before the gravel was deposited on
+them, for the accomplishment of which process an amount of
+time must have elapsed that it would be impossible to reckon by
+years.</p>
+
+<p>When we come to examine these lower beds, we find first a
+stratum of stiff dark-brown clay containing fossils disposed in
+layers: those near the outer surface have been rendered so
+brittle by the weather, that it is necessary to make use of the pick
+end of the hammer and dig a little way into the face of the
+section before we come upon some which will bear removal by
+cutting them out with a knife. Pack them in a tin with bran,
+or, where much clay still adheres to them, wrap them in paper.</p>
+
+<p>The true top of this bed is not visible, being concealed
+beneath a heap of earth in the corner of the pit, but we can see
+and measure about six feet of it.</p>
+
+<p>The next bed in order is a light brownish band of sandy clay
+that splits along its layers into thin pieces or "<i>lamin&aelig;</i>," whence
+we may describe it as a sandy, <i>laminated</i> clay. On the freshly
+split surface of one piece we see scattered a number of small
+darker brown fragments; an examination with a pocket lens
+clearly shows that these are little bits of leaves and stems, with
+here and there a more perfect specimen. These beds must
+have been deposited in the still waters just off the main stream of
+a large river which brought the plants floating down to this spot,
+where they became water-logged and sunk; so, too, if you examine
+the shells in the bed immediately above, you will see that they are
+very like though not the same as those which at the present day
+love to dwell in the mud off the estuaries of big rivers in warmer
+parts of the globe; hence we discover that at some far distant
+period a big river, but one which had no connection with that
+running close by, once flowed over this very spot. On tracing
+the leaf-bed down, we come all at once, at about three feet from
+its upper surface, upon a narrow band one or two inches thick of
+a substance composed of numerous bits of sticks and stalks
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg&nbsp;72]</a></span>
+closely matted together and partially mineralized. Vegetable
+matter in this form is known as lignite, and is one of the first
+stages towards the formation of coal out of plant remains. Below
+this lignite band we find our leaf-bed getting sandier and
+sandier, and losing all trace of the plants by degrees till it becomes
+almost pure sand. Here and there, however, it contains some
+curiously shaped masses, which, when broken through with the
+hammer, seem composed of nothing but the same grains of sand
+cemented together into a hard mass. In one there is, however, a
+curiously shaped hollow, which, upon examining it closely, you
+will see is a perfect cast of a small shell that has itself disappeared.
+A drop of acid on it fizzes away and sinks in between the grains
+of sand which in this spot become loose. A mass of sand or
+particles of clay thus cemented together, be it by iron, lime, or
+any other substance, is termed a "<i>nodule</i>" or "<i>concretion</i>,"
+and in this particular instance has been formed as follows:&mdash;The
+rain-water falling on the sand where it comes to the surface sinks
+in and filters through the bed. Now there is always a certain
+amount of carbonic acid in rain-water, and this acid acted on
+the carbonate of lime of which the shell was composed, dissolving
+and dispersing it amongst the neighbouring grains of
+sand where it was re-deposited, cementing them together as we
+have seen. The bottom of this bed of sand we find to be just
+fifteen feet from the lignite band when measured at right-angles
+to the bed, and it is succeeded by a hard greyish rock, which
+requires a smart blow of the hammer to break it, but the surface
+of which, where it has been exposed to the weather, is much
+crumbled ("<i>weathered</i>"), and breaks readily into small pieces.
+It is easily scratched with the point of a knife, and therefore is
+not flint; moreover, it fizzes strongly when touched with acid&mdash;hence
+there is a great deal of carbonate of lime in it, and we
+know that it is limestone.</p>
+
+<p>Limestones are very largely, sometimes almost entirely, made
+up of the calcareous portions of marine creatures, such as the hard
+parts of corals, the tests of sea-urchins, the shells of mollusca,
+etc., welded, so to speak, into one mass by the heat, pressure, and
+chemical changes which the bed has undergone since its deposition
+at the bottom of the sea. There would be every reason,
+therefore, one might suppose, to expect a number of fossils in
+this bed; but, alas! disappointment awaits the young explorer, for
+with the exception of chalk and a few other limestones, these
+rocks are generally of such uniform texture that on being struck
+with the hammer they split through fossils and all, the fractured
+surface only too frequently showing nought save a few obscure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg&nbsp;73]</a></span>
+markings. But what we fail to accomplish in our impatience,
+nature effects by slow degrees, and if you will turn over the
+weathered pieces and blocks lying about, you will soon find
+plenty of fossils sticking out all over them; by a judicious use of
+hammer and chisel any of these may be detached and added to
+your stock, each being separately packed in paper and the
+locality written on the outside. Some seventy or eighty feet is
+all that is visible of this limestone; the rest is unexcavated.</p>
+
+<p>Before leaving the pit, it will be as well to select such rock
+specimens as you wish to place in your cabinet, trimming them
+to the required size on the spot, for should you, as is not unlikely,
+spoil two or three, you can readily pick a fresh one. Having
+secured our specimens, we will take a look at our note-book, to
+see if we have noted all the details we require. If so, our
+entries should run something as follows:&mdash;First, we have made
+a rough sketch of the position of the beds, carefully numbering
+each one; then follow our notes on the individual beds, preceded
+by numbers corresponding with those in the sketch,
+thus:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table summary="bedding field notes">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;1.</td><td>Surface Soil</td><td class="text_rt">2 ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;2.</td><td>River Gravel, including a lenticular mass of</td><td class="text_rt" rowspan=2><table summary="brace"><tr><td><span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span><br /><span class="vtop2">&#9496;</span></td><td class="text_rt" rowspan=2>&nbsp;10 ft.</td></tr></table></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;3.</td><td>Sand, with land and fresh-water shells and bones of animals</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;4.</td><td>Stiff dark-brown clay, with estuarine shells</td><td class="text_rt">6 ft. seen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;5.</td><td>Light-brown sandy clay, with leaves and stems of plants</td><td class="text_rt">3 ft.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;6.</td><td>Band of Lignite</td><td class="text_rt">2 in.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;7.</td><td>Same as 5, passing into&mdash;</td><td class="text_rt" rowspan=2><table summary="brace"><tr><td><span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span><br /><span class="vtop2">&#9496;</span> </td><td class="text_rt">&nbsp;15 ft.</td></tr></table></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;8.</td><td>Pure Sand, with layers of concretions containing casts of shells</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;&nbsp;9.</td><td>Dark-Grey Limestone, with numerous fossils</td><td class="text_rt">80 ft. seen.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td class="center">Beds 4 to 9 dip at an angle of 45° to the N.N.E.</td><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>Our imaginary pit is of course only a sort of geological Juan
+Fernandez, but it will serve in some degree to illustrate the method
+of dealing with various rocks and fossils when met with in the
+field, and how they may best be collected and carried home.
+A few additional suggestions where to look for fossils may,
+however, be given here. To begin with, <ins title='Correction was "inever"'>I never</ins> neglect to search
+the fallen masses, especially their weathered surfaces, or to look
+carefully over the heaps of quarried materials, whatever they
+may happen to be, piled on the floor of the pit. In working at
+the beds themselves, remember that fossils frequently occur in
+layers which of course represent the old sea-bottom of the
+period; to find these, it is necessary to follow the beds in a
+direction at right angles to their stratification, till you arrive at
+the sought-for layers, or <i>zones</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Do not be surprised, when collecting from a formation you
+have never before studied, if the fossils are not at first apparent,
+though many are known to be present. The eye requires a few
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg&nbsp;74]</a></span>
+days in which to become accustomed to its fresh surroundings,
+and when the same spot has been carefully hunted over every
+day for a week, it is astonishing what a quantity of fossils are
+discernible where not one in the first instance was recognised.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="PREPARE_THE_SPECIMENS"></a>
+<div class="caption2">HOW TO PREPARE THE SPECIMENS FOR THE CABINET.</div>
+
+<p>The first thing to be done on unpacking our specimens is to
+pick out those which require the least attention, and get them
+out of the way. These will be your rock specimens, which, if
+they have been trimmed properly in the pit, will not need much
+further manipulation; a word or two, however, as to the best
+method of proceeding when it is desirable to reduce a specimen,
+will not be out of place. If you wish to divide it in two, or
+detach any considerable portion, the specimen may, while held
+in the hand, be struck a smart blow with the hammer; as, however,
+it not frequently happens that even with the greatest care
+the specimen under this treatment breaks in an opposite direction
+to that required, it is advisable to adopt a somewhat surer
+method, namely, to procure a block of tough wood, and in the
+centre bore a hole just large enough to receive the shank of the
+cold chisel, and thus hold it in an upright position with the
+cutting edge uppermost; placing the specimen on this, and then
+hitting it immediately above with the hammer, it may be fractured
+through in any required direction. To trim off a small
+projection, hold the specimen in your hand with the corner
+towards you and directed slightly downwards, then with the
+edge of the striking face of the hammer hit it a smart blow at
+the line along which you wish it to break off; the object of
+inclining the specimen is to make sure that the blow shall fall
+in a direction inclined away from the portion you wish to preserve,
+a <i>modus operandi</i> which it is necessary to bear well in
+mind if you would not spoil many a choice specimen. Anything
+beyond very general directions, however, it is impossible to give
+in such matters as this: experience, and a few hints from those
+who have themselves had practice in collecting and arranging
+specimens, are worth more than any written description, however
+lengthy and elaborate.</p>
+
+<p>Having reduced your specimen to the required size and shape,
+the next thing to be done is to write a neat little label for it&mdash;the
+smaller the better&mdash;stating, first the nature of the specimen,
+secondly the geological formation to which it belongs, thirdly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg&nbsp;75]</a></span>
+the locality from which it was procured, and fourthly the date
+when acquired, thus&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="center">
+Limestone.<br />
+Lower Carboniferous.<br />
+Quarry, 1 mile N.W. of &mdash;&mdash;<br />
+21. 8. 8-.<br />
+</div>
+<br />
+
+<div class="justify">ruling a neat line at the top and bottom (red ink lines give a
+more finished appearance than black). When the label is dry,
+damp it to render it more pliant, and gum it on to the flattest
+available surface of the specimen, pressing it well into any small
+inequalities that it may hold the firmer. A small quantity of
+pure glycerine (about an eighth part) should be added to the gum
+before use, in order to prevent its drying hard and brittle. The
+specimen is now ready to place in its tray and be put away in
+the cabinet.</div>
+
+<p>In the next place, pick out the fossils which you obtained from
+the limestone. With the cold chisel set in its block of wood,
+and the trimming hammer, remove as much of the surrounding
+rock (<i>matrix</i>) as you can without damaging the fossil, and with
+a smaller chisel any pieces that may be sticking to and obscuring
+it. Fossils in soft limestone, such as chalk, are best cleaned
+with an old penknife, and needles fixed into wooden handles,
+and finished off by the application of water with a nail-brush.
+Should you have the misfortune to break any specimen in the
+process of trimming, it should at once be mended. The most
+effectual cement for this purpose is made by simply dissolving
+isinglass in acetic acid, or, where the specimen contains much
+iron pyrites, and there would be a danger in starting decomposition,
+shellac dissolved in spirits of wine. When, however,
+neither of these are handy, chalk scraped with a penknife into
+a powder, and mixed with gum to the consistency of a thick
+paste, answers admirably. Failing this, however, gum alone will
+frequently suffice.</p>
+
+<p>The next thing is to place the like kinds together in their
+several trays, writing a label, as before, for each tray, but leaving
+a blank space at the top for the insertion of the name when
+ascertained. The commoner sorts may be named from the
+figures of them given in the text-books (see list at the back of the
+title page); but failing this, it will be the best plan to seek the
+help of any friends who have collections, or to take the fossils to
+some museum, and compare them with the named specimens
+there exhibited. The label may be laid at the bottom of the
+tray with the fossils loose on the top of it, each fossil being
+marked with a number corresponding to one on the label.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg&nbsp;76]</a></span>
+Another plan is to fasten the label by one of its edges to the side
+of the tray; or, if the fossils are small and mounted on a piece
+of card fitting into the tray, it may be gummed with them to the
+card.</p>
+
+<p>Now let us take the shells we obtained from the dark-blue
+clay, with those and the bones from the old river bed up above.
+Gently turn them out of the tins, in which they were packed in
+the quarry, on to a paper or the lid of a card-board box, and
+with a pair of forceps pick them carefully out of the bran, and
+place them in large shallow trays, taking care not to mix those
+from the different beds. As we found when collecting them, these
+shells are extremely brittle from loss of animal matter, and our
+first object is therefore to harden them by some process, so that
+they will bear handling. To accomplish this you must get a
+saucepan, one of those wire contrivances for holding eggs when
+boiling, or a big wire spoon, such as formerly was used for
+cooking purposes, a packet of gelatine, and some flat pieces of
+tin, which last are easily procured by hammering out an old
+mustard or other tin, having previously melted in a gas flame
+the solder wherewith it is joined. Half fill the saucepan with
+clean water, and put in as much gelatine as when cold will make
+a stiff jelly; melt this over the fire, placing the fossils meanwhile
+in a warm (not hot) corner of the fire-place; then when the
+gelatine is quite dissolved, pile as many of them, whole or in
+pieces, into the egg-boiler, or spoon, as it will contain, hold them
+for a second in the steam, and then lower them gradually into the
+hot gelatine until it completely covers them. Little bubbles of
+air will rise and float on the surface. As soon as these cease to
+appear, raise the fossils above the surface and allow them to drip;
+then pick them up one by one with the forceps, and spread them
+out on pieces of tin before the fire, but not too close to it. As
+soon as their exterior surfaces become dry, and before the gelatine
+gets hard, they should be taken up (they may be handled fearlessly
+now), and the superfluous gelatine sticking to the surface gently
+removed with a camel's-hair brush dipped in clean warm water;
+otherwise, when dry, they present an unnatural varnished appearance,
+and have a tendency, on small provocation, to become unpleasantly
+sticky.</p>
+
+<p>Small bones may be treated in like manner, but for large
+ones, weak glue is to be preferred to gelatine, which is only
+suitable for the finer and more delicate objects. Where it is
+desired to harden only a few things, it is better to mix the gelatine
+in a gallipot, which can be heated when required by standing it
+in a saucepan of water on the fire. In any case the gelatine
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg&nbsp;77]</a></span>
+need never be wasted, as it will keep almost any length of time,
+and can therefore be put by for future use. In default of the
+egg-boiler or wire-net spoon, an equally useful plan is to make a
+strainer from a piece of perforated zinc by turning up the edges
+all around, and attaching copper wire to it by which to lower the
+fossils into the gelatine, and raise them again.</p>
+
+<p>When the fossils are quite dry they can be sorted, and those
+which have come to pieces may be mended with diamond cement
+(<i>i.e.</i> isinglass dissolved in acetic acid), and then properly labelled
+and placed in trays, or mounted as previously described.</p>
+
+<p>To the plant remains and Lignite there is little that can be
+done beyond trimming them to suit the trays. Should there be
+much iron pyrites in the Lignite, it is sure, sooner or later, to
+decompose, when all that can be done is to throw it away. In the
+case, however, of valuable fruits and seeds, such as those from the
+London Clay of Sheppey, it is worth while to preserve them, if
+possible, in almost the only way known, viz. by keeping them in
+glycerine in wide-mouthed stoppered bottles, or by saturating
+them with paraffin.</p>
+
+<a name="tables"></a><p>Having prepared the specimens for the cabinet, the next thing
+is to arrange them in proper order. There are several ways of
+doing this, but for those who have not had much experience the
+following plan will be found the best:&mdash;Group the specimens
+according to the formations to which they belong, and arrange
+these groups in proper sequence (<i>vide</i> <a href="#Page_78">Table, <ins title='Corrected - was "p. 16"'>p. 78</ins></a>); then take each
+group, and arrange the specimens it comprises in columns.
+Beginning at the top of the left-hand corner, place first the
+specimens of the rock itself, and under it any examples of
+minerals, concretions, etc., found in that rock; next the fossil
+plants, if any; and finally, such animal remains as you have
+arranged according to their zoological sequence, beginning with
+the lower forms (<i>vide</i> <a href="#PRINCIPAL_DIVISIONS_ANIMAL_KINGDOM">Table, <ins title='Correction - was "p. 32"'>p. 94</ins></a>). Unless cramped for room,
+each formation should begin a new box, its name being written on
+a slip of paper and placed at the head of the columns of trays. A
+label setting forth its contents should be fixed outside each of
+the boxes, which can then be put away on your cupboard shelves.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="FOSSILIFEROUS_STRATA"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg&nbsp;78]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption2">TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA<br />
+ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.</div>
+<br />
+<div class="center">
+<a href="images/pg_78_lg.png"><img src="images/pg_78.png" width="382" height="558" border="0"alt="Table Of The Principal Fossiliferous Strata Arranged In Chronological Order." title="Table Of The Principal Fossiliferous Strata Arranged In Chronological Order." /></a><br />
+Click on image to view larger sized.<br /><a href="#strata">Click here</a> to see a transcription of the above table.
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="NOTES_ON_THE_DIFFERENT_FORMATIONS"></a>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg&nbsp;79]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption2">NOTES ON THE DIFFERENT FORMATIONS MENTIONED IN THE TABLE.</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Recent.</span>&mdash;The alluvial deposits of most river valleys and
+some estuaries still in course of formation, containing fossil shells
+and mammals, all of living species.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Quaternary</span>, <span class="smcap">Post-Pliocene</span>, or <span class="smcap">Pleistocene</span>.&mdash;1. Including
+the raised beaches around the coast, the older gravels of
+river valleys and the cave deposits, in all of which the shells are
+identical with those living in the rivers and seas of to-day, whilst
+the animals are many of them extinct, only a few being now
+found living on the spot.</p>
+
+<p>2. The glacial drifts that cover all England north of the
+Thames, and which consist of sands, gravels, and clays, full of big
+angular stones frequently flattened on one side, scratched and
+sometimes polished from having been fixed in moving ice and
+forced over other rocks. A very interesting collection of these
+"boulders," as they are called, can be easily made, for they belong
+to almost every formation in England, and have some of them been
+brought from great distances, whilst the number and variety obtainable
+from a single pit is astonishing.</p>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Cainozoic</span>, or <span class="smcap">Tertiary</span>.&mdash;Beds of this age, in England at
+all events, are for the most part made up of comparatively soft
+rocks, gravels, sands, and clays, and are found in the eastern and
+south-eastern counties. They are divided into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. Pliocene, mainly consisting of a series of iron-stained sands,
+with abundant shell remains, and locally known as "crags."
+The shells are very partial in their distribution, the beds in places
+being almost entirely made up of them, whilst in others scarcely
+one is to be found. The great majority are of the same species
+as many still living. The Pliocene is subdivided into three
+groups:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Norwich Crag Series</i>, sometimes called the "Mammaliferous
+Crag," as at its base the bones of mastodon, elephant,
+hippopotamus, rhinoceros, and some deer have been found.
+The shells in it are such as still abound on the beaches of the
+eastern coast to-day&mdash;whelks, scallop shells, cockles, periwinkles,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Red</i> or <i>Suffolk Crag</i>, its two names indicating its
+characteristic colour (a dark red-brown) and chief locality.
+From the base are obtained the celebrated phosphatic nodules
+miscalled "Coprolites," whence is manufactured an artificial
+manure, and with them are found the rolled and phosphatized
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg&nbsp;80]</a></span>
+bones and teeth of whales, sharks, etc. Amongst the shells the
+Reversed Whelks (<i>Fusus contrarius</i>), <i>Fecten opercularis</i>, <i>Pectunculus
+glycimeris</i>, several kinds of <i>Mactra</i> and <i>Cardium</i>, etc., are
+the commonest. Walton-on-the-Naze, Felixstowe, and Woodbridge
+are the best known localities.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>White</i> or <i>Coralline Crag</i> is generally of a pale buff
+colour, and is in places almost entirely composed of the remains
+of Polyzoa. These (formerly called Corallines, whence the
+name Coralline Crag) are beautiful objects for a low-power
+microscope, or pocket lens, and are easily mounted in deep cells
+on slides. The bits of shell and sand that stick to them should
+be carefully removed with the point of a needle. A very large
+number of shells occur in this crag: of bivalves, the <i>Pecten</i> is
+very abundant, and its valves are frequently thickly grown
+over with Polyzoa; <i>Cyprina Islandica</i>, <i>Cardita Senilis</i> are also
+plentiful; and of univalves, the genus <i>Natica</i> is common. The
+Coralline Crag is best seen in the neighbourhood of Aldborough,
+Orford, Woodbridge, and other places in Suffolk.</p>
+
+<p>2. Miocene, possibly represented in the British Isles by a small
+patch of clays and lignites at Bovey Tracey.</p>
+
+<p>3. Eocene, divided into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>Upper Eocene</i>, consisting of a series of very fossiliferous
+sands, clays, and limestones, exposed in the cliffs at the eastern
+and western ends of the Isle of Wight and on the neighbouring
+coast of Hampshire. They are partly of freshwater origin, when
+they contain the remains of freshwater shells such as <i>Limn&#339;a
+Paludina</i>, <i>Planorbis</i>, etc.; partly of marine origin, when shells
+belonging to such genera as <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Venus</i>, etc., take their
+place; partly of estuarine, when the brackish water mollusca
+are found with bones and scutes of crocodiles and tortoises.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Middle Eocene</i>, or the <i>Bagshot Beds</i>, composed of sands
+and clays. The beautiful coloured sands of Alum Bay, the sands
+of the Surrey and Hampstead Heaths, are familiar examples
+of the beds of this age. Very few fossils indeed have been
+found in them. The clay-beds on the contrary as seen at Barton
+and Hordwell on the Hampshire coast and again in the Isle of
+Wight, abound with shells belonging to genera such as <i>Conus</i>,
+<i>Voluta</i> and <i>Venus</i>, that inhabit warm seas. With them are the
+Nummulites, looking externally very like buttons, but on the
+inside divided into innumerable chambers in which the complex
+animal that formed the nummulite dwelt.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <i>Lower Eocene</i>, the well-known London clay, may almost be
+said to compose this division, for the underlying sands, gravels,
+and clays are in mass comparatively insignificant. The London
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg&nbsp;81]</a></span>
+clay contains plenty of fossils, only as they are disposed in layers
+(<i>zones</i>) at a considerable distance apart, they are not often hit
+upon. Layers of Septaria or cement-stones are of frequent
+occurrence. Sheppy is the great locality for London clay fossils,
+as the sea annually washes down large masses of the cliffs and
+breaks them up on the beach. A great many
+fossil fruits and seeds, remains of crabs, shells
+of Nautili, Volutes, and other mollusca, besides
+turtles, a species of snake, a bird with teeth,
+and a tapir-like animal, have at different times
+and in various places been found in this deposit,
+which sometimes attains a thickness of
+over 400 ft. The "Bognor Rock" is a local
+variety of the basement bed of this formation.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 172px;">
+<img src="images/pg_81a.png" width="172" height="290" alt="Aturia Zic-zac (from the London clay)." title="Aturia Zic-zac (from the London clay)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Aturia Zic-zac (from the London clay).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>The <span class="smcap">Mesozoic</span> or <span class="smcap">Secondary</span> rocks embrace
+a series of limestone, clays, sands, and
+sandstones that on the whole are well consolidated.
+The main mass of them lies to the
+west of a line drawn across the map of England
+from the mouth of the Tyne, in Northumberland,
+southwards to Nottingham, and thence to the mouth
+of the Teign in Devonshire. In the south-eastern counties
+they underlie the tertiary rocks of the London and Hampshire
+basins, as they are called, at no great depth from the
+surface. Outlying patches of secondary rocks occur in Scotland,
+where they are found near Brora on the east coast, and in the
+islands of Skye and Mull on the west. In Ireland they are scantily
+represented round about the neighbourhood
+of Antrim. The secondary
+rocks are divided into&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 227px;">
+<img src="images/pg_81b.png" width="227" height="287" alt="Ammonites various (from the chalk)." title="Ammonites various (from the chalk)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Ammonites various (from the chalk).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>1. Cretaceous.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Chalk</i> is too well known
+to need description, though technically
+it may be described as a soft
+white limestone chiefly built up of
+the microscopic shells of <i>Foraminifera</i>,
+and characterized in its upper
+part by nodules and bands of flint.
+These flints frequently inclose casts
+of fossils (sponges, sea-urchins, etc.),
+and sometimes shells themselves.
+Fossils, too, are fairly abundant, scattered
+throughout the mass. Amongst
+the commoner may be noticed the sea-urchins,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg&nbsp;82]</a></span>
+such as the "sugar loaf" (<i>Ananchytes</i>) and the heart-shaped
+<i>Micraster</i>, the Brachiopods or Lamp-shells (<i>Terebratula</i>,
+<i>Rhynchonella</i>), a "Thorny Oyster" (<i>Spondylus spinosus</i>), besides
+Ammonites, Belemnites (part of the internal shell of a
+kind of cuttle-fish), and the teeth of several species of sharks.
+Altogether the chalk is about 1,000 feet thick.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Upper Greensand</i> is a series of greenish-grey sands and
+sandstones. The green colour, on close inspection, is seen to be
+due to the presence of innumerable small green grains of a
+mineral called glauconite. These are frequently casts of the
+chambers of the very same foraminifera
+that the chalk is so largely
+composed of.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 192px;">
+<img src="images/pg_82a.png" width="192" height="183" alt="Rhynchonella depressa (a Brachiopod, from the Upper Greensand)." title="Rhynchonella depressa (a Brachiopod, from the Upper Greensand)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Rhynchonella depressa (a Brachiopod, from the Upper Greensand).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>Nodules and layers of "chert" (an impure kind of flint) occur
+in it, whilst in places it forms a hard rock called "firestone."
+The commonest fossils are Brachiopods, very similar to those in the
+chalk, a scallop-shell with four strongly marked ribs on it (<i>Pecten
+quodricostatus</i>), an oyster with a curved beak (<i>Exogyra columba</i>), and
+a pear-shaped sponge (<i>Siphonia pyriformis</i>). The Upper Greensand
+is better seen at places in the southern part of the Isle of Wight,
+in cliffs on the Dorsetshire coast, in Wiltshire, at Sidmouth, and in some
+parts of Surrey.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 195px;">
+<img src="images/pg_82b.png" width="195" height="240" alt="Ammonites auritus (from the Gault)." title="Ammonites auritus (from the Gault)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Ammonites auritus (from the Gault).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <i>Gault</i>, a stiff blue clay abounding
+in fossils: Ammonites often retaining their pearly shell; Belemnites,
+a bivalve with very deep furrows on it (<i>Inoccramus sulcatus</i>),
+and its first cousin (<i>I. concentricus</i>, p. 21), in which the ridge-like markings
+correspond with the lines of growth, besides many others, may
+be obtained in abundance from it. Layers of phosphatic nodules occur
+at irregular intervals. The gault is best studied at East Wear Bay, near
+Folkstone; it may also be seen in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg&nbsp;83]</a></span>
+Cambridgeshire; lately it has been found as far west as Exeter.</p>
+
+<p>2. Neocomian.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The so-called <i>Lower Green Sand</i>, named in contradistinction
+to the <i>Upper Green Sand</i>, includes a
+series of iron stained sands, sandstones and clays of great thickness. The
+clayey beds are seen at Atherfield in the Isle of Wight, and at Nutfield in
+Surrey, while the sandy beds are met with at Speeton, at Folkestone, and
+near Reigate. Besides brachiopods and oysters, these beds have furnished
+a species of <i>Perna</i> (<i>P. Mulleti</i>), an elongated mussel
+(<i>Gervillia anceps</i>), a pretty <i>Trigonia</i> (<i>T. cordata</i>),
+some <i>Ammonites</i> and Nautili, with the teeth and bones of big reptiles.
+The celebrated "Kentish Rag" and the sponge gravels of Farringdon are of
+this age.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Wealden.</i> The main mass of these rocks occupies the area
+inclosed between the North and South Downs, and forms the Valley of the Weald,
+whence they take their name. They consist of a series of sands,
+sandstones, clays, and shelly limestones that were deposited in
+the delta and off the mouth of a big river. The shells in them
+belong to freshwater genera, <i>Cyrena</i>, <i>Unio</i>, <i>Paludina</i>, etc. Bones
+of a huge lizard that hopped along on his hind legs (<i>Iguanodon</i>),
+and those of crocodiles, etc., are from time to time brought to
+light. The Wealden rocks occur also on both eastern and
+western sides of the Isle of Wight, and in Dorsetshire.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 241px;">
+<img src="images/pg_83.png" width="241" height="397" alt="Inoceramus concentricus (from the Gault)." title="Inoceramus concentricus (from the Gault)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Inoceramus concentricus (from the Gault).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. Oolites (or Roe-stones) are so named because the characteristic
+limestones of this formation resemble very much the roe of
+a fish. The small round grains, of which the typical examples are
+built up, when cut or broken through will be seen to be formed of
+numerous layers of carbonate of lime, disposed like the coats of
+an onion, around some central nucleus, generally a grain of sand,
+a fragment of coral, or the shell of one of the Foraminifera.
+They are divided into Upper, Middle, and Lower Oolites, and
+these again are subdivided as follows&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Upper Oolite.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>Purbeck Beds</i>, a series of fresh-water, with a few estuarine,
+or marine beds, which in point of fact connect the deposits we
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg&nbsp;84]</a></span>
+are next coming to with the Wealden just passed. They contain
+numerous fresh-water shells&mdash;<i>Paludina</i>, <i>Physa</i>, <i>Limn&aelig;a</i>, etc.,
+with the microscopic valves of the little fresh-water crustacean
+<i>Cypris</i>, whose descendants are abundant in the rivers and lakes of
+to-day. An oyster occurs in the "Cinder Bed" and Plant remains
+in the "Dirt Beds." But the Purbecks are best known for the
+numerous remains of small mammals (<i>Plagiaulax</i>) allied to the
+kangaroo rat, at present living in Australia.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> The <i>Portland Stone and Sand</i>, which come next in order,
+are largely quarried in the island whence they take their name.
+The quarrymen point out fossils in the stone, which they call
+"Horses'-heads" and "Portland screws." The former is the
+cast of a <i>Trigonia</i> shell; the latter, that of a tall spired univalve
+(<i>Cerithium</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In Wiltshire, a coral (<i>Isastrea oblonga</i>) is found in the sandy
+beds, the original calcareous matter of which has been replaced
+by silex.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> <i>Kimmeridge Clay.</i> This, by the pressure of the rocks subsequently
+deposited on it, has in greater part been hardened, and
+possesses a tendency to split in thin layers, and hence is termed
+by geologists a shale. It is seen at various points between Kimmeridge
+on the Dorsetshire coast and the Vale of Pickering in
+Yorkshire, and forms broad valleys. The principal fossils in it
+are Ammonites, a triangular-shaped oyster (<i>Ostrea deltoidea</i>), and
+one resembling a comma (<i>Exogyra virgula</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Middle Oolites.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> The <i>Coral Rag</i>, or <i>Coralline Oolite</i>, comprises a most variable
+set of beds, but principally a series of limestone, with fossil
+corals still in the position in which they grew, and resembling
+in form the reef-building corals of the Pacific. They rest on</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Oxford Clay</i>, a dark blue or slate-coloured clay without any
+corals, but containing a great many <i>Ammonites</i> and <i>Belemnites</i>.
+The <i>Kelloway Rock</i>, a sandy limestone at the base of the Oxford
+Clay, is well developed in Yorkshire, and furnishes amongst
+other fossils a large belemnite and an oyster (<i>Gryph&aelig;a dilatata</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Lower Oolites.</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>Cornbrash</i>, a very shelly deposit of pale-coloured earthy, and
+rubbly or sometimes compact limestone with plenty of fossils.
+The commonest are Brachiopods, Limas, oysters (<i>Ostrea Marshii</i>),
+Pholadomyas and Ammonites. It is best seen in Dorsetshire,
+Somersetshire, and near Scarborough in Yorkshire.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Forest Marble</i> and <i>Bradford Clay</i>. The former is an exceedingly
+shelly limestone, often splitting into thin slabs. On the
+surfaces of some of the beds may be seen the ripple marks the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg&nbsp;85]</a></span>
+sea made countless years ago, and the tracks of worms and crabs
+that dwelt in the mud or crawled on its surface at a time when
+it was soft mud. The Bradford clay is a very local deposit, taking
+its name from Bradford in Wiltshire, where it is most developed,
+and its characteristic fossil is the pear-shaped Encrinite or "stone-lily"
+(<i>Apiocrinus Parkinsoni</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Great</i> or <i>Bath Oolite</i>, comprising a series of shelly
+limestones and fine Oolites, or freestones. The latter are largely
+quarried in the neighbourhood of Bath, and used for mantelpieces
+and the stone facings of windows. The great Oolite is rich in
+univalve mollusca, amongst which may be noted a limpet (<i>Patella
+rugosa</i>) and the handsome, tall-spired <i>Nerin&aelig;a Voltzii</i>, numerous
+bivalves belonging to the genera <i>Pholadomya Trigonia</i>, <i>Ostrea</i> (<i>O.
+gregaria</i>), and <i>Pecten</i>, besides Brachiopods (<i>Terebratula digona</i>,
+which looks very like a sack of flour, and <i>T. perovalis</i>, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>At the base of the Great Oolite are the "Stonesfield slates,"
+so-called&mdash;a series of thin shelly Oolites, etc., that split readily into
+very thin slabs. They are principally of interest to geologists
+on account of the discovery in them of the remains of small
+insect-feeding and possibly pouched mammals. With these are
+associated the bones of that big reptile the <i>Megalosaurus</i>; the
+flying lizards called Pterodactyles; fish teeth and spines; lamp
+shells; oysters, a <i>Trigonia</i> (<i>T. impressa</i>); and the impressions
+of insects, including a butterfly, and of plants.</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> <i>Fullers' Earth</i>, a clayey deposit occurring in the southwestern
+parts of England, but not in the north. It abounds with
+a small oyster (<i>O. acuminata</i>) and Brachiopods (e.g. <i>Terebratula
+ornithocephala</i>), etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> <i>Inferior Oolite</i> (including the Midford Sands). As these beds
+are followed across the country from the south-west of England
+to Yorkshire, they are found to change greatly in character.
+Limestone and marine beds in the south are replaced by sandy and
+estuarine beds in the north. Amongst other fossils from beds of
+this age may be found several Echinoderms, a crinkly lamp shell
+(<i>Terebratula frimbriata</i>), and a spiny one (<i>Rhynchonella spinosa</i>),
+bivalves belonging to the Genera <i>Ostrea</i>, <i>Trigonia</i>, <i>Pholadomya</i>,
+etc., and some very handsome Ammonites (e.g. <i>A. Humphresianus</i>).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg&nbsp;86]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/pg_86_lg.png"><img src="images/pg_86.png" border=0 width="621" height="315" alt="Ichthyosaurus, or Fish-lizard (from the Lias)." title="Ichthyosaurus, or Fish-lizard (from the Lias)." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">Ichthyosaurus, or Fish-lizard (from the Lias).</span><br /><span class="smaller">Click on the above image to view larger sized.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg&nbsp;87]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<a href="images/pg_87_lg.png"><img src="images/pg_87.png" border=0 width="413" height="638" alt="Plesiosaurus (from the Lias)." title="Plesiosaurus (from the Lias)." /></a><br />
+<span class="caption">Plesiosaurus (from the Lias).</span><br /><span class="smaller">Click on the above image to view larger sized.</span>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p>4. Lias.</p>
+
+<p>This for the most part consists of very regular alternations
+of argillaceous (clayey) limestone and clay, or shale. It is of
+great thickness, and hence for convenience has been divided
+into (a) <i>Upper Lias</i>, (b) <i>Middle Lias</i> or <i>Marl-stone</i>, and (c)
+<i>Lower Lias</i>. A large number of fossils are to be found in it.
+Lyme Regis and Whitby are perhaps the best known localities;
+the former, on account of the great number of specimens obtained
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg&nbsp;88]</a></span>
+of the huge fish-lizard (<i>Ichthyosaurus</i>, p. 24), and long-necked
+<i>Plesiosaurus</i> (p. 25), besides numberless fish; whilst the latter
+is renowned for its jet (or fossilized wood) and
+its "snake-stones" (<i>Ammonites</i>), concerning
+which curious old stories are told. <i>Ammonites</i>
+are plentiful in the Lias, which has been subdivided
+into zones, or layers, named after the
+ammonite occurring in greatest numbers in that
+particular zone. There is one thin limestone
+band in the Marlstone composed entirely of the
+shells of <i>Ammonites planicostatus</i>. A curious
+kind of oyster (<i>Gryph&aelig;a incurva</i>), locally known
+as the devil's toenail, a huge <i>Lima</i> (<i>L. gigantea</i>),
+a magnificent Encrinite (<i>Extracrinus Briareus</i>),
+and numerous other fossils, are also to be obtained
+by patient search.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 106px;">
+<img src="images/pg_88.png" width="106" height="581" alt="Belemnitas elongatus (from the Lias)." title="Belemnitas elongatus (from the Lias)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Belemnitas elongatus (from the Lias).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. Rh&aelig;tic, Penarth Beds, or White Lias.</p>
+
+<p>These beds are not of any considerable thickness,
+but are very persistent, and of great interest,
+inasmuch as they yield the remains of
+the oldest known mammal (<i>Microlestes</i>), a small
+insect-feeder. They are composed of limestones,
+shales and marls (<i>i.e.</i> limey clays), and are best
+studied in Somersetshire and Dorsetshire. The
+"landscape marble" belongs to this formation,
+which also contains a bone bed, or thin layer
+made up of the bones and teeth, etc., of fish.
+Shells are not numerous, though the casts of
+one species (<i>Avicula contorta</i>) is plentiful.</p>
+
+<p>6. Trias, or New Red Sandstone, a thick
+series of sandstones and marls, the great mass
+of which forms the subsoil of the western midland
+counties, Birmingham being nearly in the
+centre, thence they extend in three directions,
+one branch passing towards the north-west,
+through Cheshire, to the sea at Liverpool, reappearing
+on the coast line of Lancashire, Westmoreland,
+and Cumberland, where it also forms
+the Valley of the Eden. Another branch extends
+through Derby and York to South Shields,
+whilst the third may be traced southwards in
+isolated patches down into Devonshire.</p>
+
+<p>There are scarcely any fossils in it, but in Worcestershire and
+Warwickshire the bivalve shell of a small crustacean
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg&nbsp;89]</a></span>
+(<i>Estheria minuta</i>) occurs in the upper beds; whilst now and again the
+teeth and bones of some strange amphibians (<i>Labyrinthodon</i>), or
+the impressions of their feet (<i>Cheirotherium</i>) where they
+crawled on the then soft mud of the foreshore, are found. The
+Trias is divided into Upper Trias or Keuper, and Lower Trias or
+Bunter. The middle beds (Muschelkalk), which are found
+in Germany, where they contain plenty of fossils, are wanting in
+this country. In the lower beds of the Keuper, layers of rock
+salt, sometimes of great thickness, occur, whilst casts (called
+pseudomorphs) of detached salt-crystals are found abundantly in
+the sandy marls. Northwich, Nantwich, Droitwich, and several
+other towns in Cheshire and Worcestershire, are famed for their salt works,
+the salt being either mined or pumped up as brine from these beds.</p>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 352px;">
+<img src="images/pg_89.png" width="352" height="418" alt="Ceratites nodosus (from the Muschelkalk)." title="Ceratites nodosus (from the Muschelkalk)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Ceratites nodosus (from the Muschelkalk).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Pal&aelig;ozoic or Primary.</span>&mdash;Beds of this age generally possess
+a more crystalline and slaty structure than any of those already
+mentioned, are usually more highly inclined and disturbed, and
+form for the most part more elevated ground. They are the
+principal store-houses of our mineral wealth, containing as they
+do coal, iron, and other metals. The Pal&aelig;ozoic rocks are
+found in England to the north and west of the secondary series,
+beneath which they disappear when traced to the south-east.
+Wales, and the greater part of Scotland and Ireland, consist of
+beds of this age.</p>
+
+<p>1. Permian. Under this term are included beds of red sandstones
+and marls, closely resembling those of Trias, and like
+them containing but few fossils, as well as a very fossiliferous
+limestone, known as the Magnesian Limestone, from the
+abundance of magnesia it contains. A pretty polyzoan
+(<i>Fenestella retiformis</i>), a spiny brachiopod (<i>Productus horridus</i>),
+various genera of fish, chiefly found in a marl state underlying the
+limestone, some Labyrinthodonts and plant remains, are the principal
+forms met with in this formation.</p>
+
+<p>2. Carboniferous. This, from a commercial point of view, is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg&nbsp;90]</a></span>
+the most important of all the formations, comprising as it does
+the coal-bearing strata. It is subdivided into&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>a.</i> <i>Coalmeasures</i>, a series of sandstones and shales with which
+are interstratified the seams of coal, varying in thickness from six
+inches to as much in one instance as thirty feet.</p>
+
+<p>Coal is the carbonized remains of innumerable plants, chiefly
+ferns and gigantic clubmosses, that grew in swamps bordering on
+the sea-coast of the period. Each coal seam is underlain by a
+bed of clay called "under-clay," containing the roots of the
+plants that grew on it. Some of the best impressions of
+ferns, etc., are to be obtained in the shaley beds forming the
+roof of the coal seam; many good specimens, however, are to be
+got by searching the refuse heap at the pit's mouth. Besides
+plants, the remains of fish are abundant in some of the beds of
+shale. And in Nova Scotia the bones of air-breathing reptiles
+and land snails have been discovered. Cockroaches and other
+insects were also denizens of the carboniferous forests.</p>
+
+<p>The following are the principal coalfields:&mdash;</p>
+
+<ol>
+<li>Northumberland and Durham coalfield.</li>
+<li>South Lancashire coalfield.</li>
+<li>Derbyshire coalfield.</li>
+<li>Leicestershire and Staffordshire coalfields.</li>
+<li>South Wales coalfield.</li>
+<li>Bristol and Somerset coalfields.</li>
+</ol>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> <i>Millstone grit</i> or <i>Farewell-rock</i>. The former term explains
+itself, the latter designation has been applied to it in the southern
+districts, because when it is reached, then good-bye to all workable
+coal-seams.</p>
+
+<p>It consists of coarse sandstones, shales, and conglomerates with
+a few small seams of coal. Fossils are not very common in
+it.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> Yoredale Rocks, a series of flagstones, gritstones, limestones
+and shales, with seams of coal, occurring in the northern counties.
+It is underlain by&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><i>d.</i> <i>Carboniferous</i> or <i>Mountain Limestone</i>, which in places is
+upwards of 1,000 feet thick, and full of fossils. The stems of
+encrinites, or "stone-lilies," corals, brachiopods (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Productus</i>,
+<i>Orthis</i>, etc.), and Mollusca, including some Cephalopods, like
+<i>Goniatites</i> and the straight Nautilus (<i>Orthoceras</i>), with fish
+teeth, etc., go to compose this tough, bluish-grey limestone which
+is largely quarried for marble mantlepieces, etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>e.</i> The <i>Tuedian group</i> in the north, and <i>Lower Limestone
+Shale</i> in the south, follow next, and consist of shales, sandstones,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg&nbsp;91]</a></span>
+limestones, and conglomerates, varying greatly in different
+districts, and containing few fossils.</p>
+
+<p>3. Devonian or Old Red Sandstone. To this age are assigned
+a perplexing series of strata, the principal members of which
+consist of (<i>a</i>) a thick limestone, well seen in the cliffs and
+marble quarries of south Devon, and full of fossil-corals (<i>e.g.</i>
+<i>Favosites polymorpha</i> [or <i>cervicornis</i>]) Brachiopods, and Mollusca,
+etc.</p>
+
+<p><i>b.</i> A series of sandstones, slates, and limestones in North Devon
+containing Trilobites (<i>Phacops</i>, <i>Bronteus</i>, etc.), Brachiopods, and
+other fossils.</p>
+
+<p><i>c.</i> The <i>Old Red Sandstone</i> of Wales, the North of England, and
+Scotland, consisting of red and grey sandstone and marly beds,
+with remains of fish.</p>
+
+<p>These fish, unlike most now living, were more or less covered
+with hard external plates, and possessed merely a cartilaginous
+skeleton. In one set of individuals, indeed (<i>Pterichthys</i>), the
+armour plates formed quite a little box. These creatures propelled
+themselves by means of two arm-like flippers, rather than
+fins. They were but a few inches long, and appear pigmies in
+contrast to the strange half-lobster-like <ins title='Correction - was "crustucean"'>crustacean</ins> <i>Pterygotus</i>,
+that lived with them, and attained sometimes as much as five
+feet in length.</p>
+
+<p>4. Silurian. Named by Sir Roderick Murchison after a tribe of
+Ancient Britons that dwelt in that part of Wales, where these rocks
+were first observed. Some of Murchison's Lower Silurian beds
+were included by Professor Sedgwick in his Cambrian, of which
+we shall have to speak next; and as these two geologists never
+could agree on a divisional line between their respective formations,
+and since succeeding observers have followed sometimes
+one and sometimes the other method of classification, considerable
+confusion has resulted. Here, however, for several reasons,
+we propose to follow Sedgwick's arrangement; and hence, under
+the term Silurian, retain only Murchison's Upper beds. They
+consist of a series of sandstones, gritstones, conglomerates, shales,
+limestones, etc.</p>
+
+<p>Amongst the more important fossils, which are very abundant
+in the limestones, are various corals (<i>e.g.</i> the Chain-coral
+<i>Halysites</i>), Star-fish, Crinoids, Trilobites (<i>Phacops</i>, etc.), Polyzoa,
+Brachiopods and Mollusca, especially Cephalopoda (<i>Orthoceras</i>,
+<i>Nautilus</i>, etc.).</p>
+
+<p>These rocks occur principally in the border land between
+England and Wales, and the adjacent counties; but are also
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg&nbsp;92]</a></span>
+represented in Westmoreland, Scotland, and Ireland. Their
+principal subdivisions are given in the Table on p. 16.</p>
+
+<div class="figleft" style="width: 279px;">
+<img src="images/pg_92a.png" width="279" height="433" alt="Trilobite (Asaphus candatus),
+(from the Silurian)." title="Trilobite (Asaphus candatus), (from the Silurian)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Trilobite (Asaphus candatus), (from the Silurian).</span>
+</div>
+
+<div class="figright" style="width: 141px;">
+<img src="images/pg_92b.png" width="141" height="417" alt="Orthoceras subannulatum
+(from the Silurian)." title="Orthoceras subannulatum (from the Silurian)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Orthoceras subannulatum (from the Silurian).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p>5. Cambrian. Under this term, derived from the old name
+for Wales, are included many sandstones, grits, slates and flags,
+with here and there a limestone band. They form the greater
+part of the western counties of Wales, where they rise to a considerable
+height above the sea level. The highest hills of
+Westmoreland and more than half of Scotland are composed of
+beds of this age.</p>
+
+<p>The fossils, save in the limestone bands, are not easy to find,
+but in places they are fairly abundant. Brachiopods are far
+more numerous than the Mollusca properly so-called. Of these,
+the genus <i>Orthis</i> was most abundant at about the close of this
+period. Certain beds of this age have received the name of
+Lingula Flags, owing this prevalence in them of the curious
+Brachiopod <i>Lingula</i> so like the species now living in some of the
+warm seas of the tropics. The Trilobites included several forms,
+and one species (<i>Paradoxides Davidis</i>) attained the length of
+nearly two feet. A few star-fish, some Hydrozoans (<i>Graptolites</i>),
+and the tubes and casts of Annelides and tracks of Trilobites,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg&nbsp;93]</a></span>
+complete the list of more remarkable fossils. The subdivisions
+of the Cambrian rocks will be found in the table on p. 16.</p>
+
+<p>6. Pre-Cambrian.&mdash;Near St. David's Head and some other
+places in Wales, in Anglesea, Shropshire, etc., some yet older
+rocks have been found. They are probably for the most part of
+volcanic origin, but they have been so much changed since they
+were first deposited, and as hitherto no fossils have been found
+in them, little is known concerning them.</p>
+
+<p>Parts of the western coast of Northern Scotland and the Hebrides
+are composed of a crystalline rock called Gneiss, and supposed
+to be the oldest member of the British strata. No fossils
+have been found in it.</p>
+
+<div class="figcenter">
+<img src="images/pg_93.png" width="491" height="559" alt="Skull of Deinotherium giganteum, a huge extinct animal, related to the elephants (from the Miocene of Germany)." title="Skull of Deinotherium giganteum, a huge extinct animal, related to the elephants (from the Miocene of Germany)." /><br />
+<span class="caption">Skull of Deinotherium giganteum, a huge extinct animal, related to the elephants (from the Miocene of Germany).</span>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="smcap">Volcanic Rocks.</span> Although there are fortunately no volcanoes
+to disturb the peace of our country at the present day,
+there is abundant evidence of their existence in the past. Not
+only are some of the beds, especially those of Paleozoic age,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg&nbsp;94]</a></span>
+composed of the dust and ashes thrown out of volcanoes, with
+here and there a lava flow now hardened into solid rock, but
+the stumps of the volcanoes themselves are left to tell the tale.
+The cones indeed are gone, carried off piecemeal by the rain and
+frosts, and other destructive agencies, in the course of countless
+ages: not so the once fluid rock within; <i>that</i> cooled down into
+Granite, and though originally below the surface, it now, owing
+to the removal of the overlying softer strata, forms raised ground
+overlooking the surrounding country. The granite masses of
+Cornwall, of Dartmoor, in the south-west of Mt. Sorrel; the
+variety called Syenite at Malvern and Charnwood Forest; the
+Basalts of the Cheviot Hills and of Antrim; the volcanic rocks
+of Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and of the islands of Skye and
+Mull, etc., are examples of this class of rock. They are of different
+ages, and belong to different periods of the earth's history,
+from early Pal&aelig;ozoic down to Miocene times.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="PRINCIPAL_DIVISIONS_ANIMAL_KINGDOM"></a>
+<div class="caption2">TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM,<br />
+TO SHOW THE ORDER IN WHICH THE FOSSILS SHOULD BE ARRANGED.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<table summary="braced species">
+<tr><th colspan='3' class='caption2'><span class="smcap">Invertebrata.</span></th></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='3'><i>Foraminifera</i>, minute chambered shells like the Nummulite.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Spongida</i>, Sponges.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Hydrozoa</i>, Graptolites, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Actinozoa</i>, Corals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan='3'><i>Echinodermata</i>, Sea-urchins, Stone-lilies, Starfish, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Annelida</i>, Worm tracks.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Crustacea</i>, Trilobites, Crabs, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Arachnida</i>, Scorpions and Spiders.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Myriapoda</i>, Centipedes.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Insecta</i>, Beetles, Butterflies, etc.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Polyzoa</i> (<i>Bryozoa</i>) or Moss Animals.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Brachiopods</i>, Lampshells.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Mollusca</i></td><td><span class="vbottom">&#9488;</span>&nbsp;<br />&#9500;&nbsp;<br /><span class="vtop2">&#9496;</span>&nbsp;</td>
+<td><i>Lamellibranchiata</i>, Bivalves.<br /><i>Gasteropoda</i>, Univalves.<br /><i>Cephalopoda</i>, Cuttlefish, Ammonites.</td></tr>
+<tr><th colspan='3'>&nbsp;</th></tr>
+<tr><th colspan='3' class='caption2'><span class="smcap">Vertebrata.</span></th></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Pisces</i>, Fish.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Amphibia</i>, Labyrinthodonts, Frogs, and Newts.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Reptilia</i>, Reptiles.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Aves</i>, Birds.</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Mammalia</i>, Mammals.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg&nbsp;95]</a></span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="caption2">WORKS OF REFERENCE.</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="caption3">FOR NAMING COMMON FOSSILS.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>Tabular View of Characteristic British Fossils Stratigraphically
+Arranged.</b> By <span class="smcap">J. W. Lowry</span>. <i>Soc. Prom.
+Christ. Knowledge.</i> 1853.</p>
+
+<p><b>Figures of the Characteristic British Tertiary Fossils
+(Chiefly Mollusca) Stratigraphically Arranged.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">J. W. Lowry</span> and others. <i>London (Stanford).</i> 1866.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">PAL&AElig;ONTOLOGY.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>The Ancient Life History of the Earth.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. A.
+Nicholson</span>. 8vo. <i>Edinburgh and London.</i> 1877.</p>
+
+<p><b>A Manual of Pal&aelig;ontology.</b> By <span class="smcap">H. A. Nicholson</span>.
+2nd edition. 2 vols. 8vo. <i>Edinburgh and London.</i> 1879.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">PETROLOGY.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>The Study of Rocks.</b> By <span class="smcap">F. Rutley</span>. (Text Books of
+Science.) 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1879.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">FIELD GEOLOGY.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>A Text-Book of Field Geology.</b> By <span class="smcap">W. H. Penning</span>.
+With a Section on Pal&aelig;ontology, by <span class="smcap">A. J. Jukes-Brown</span>.
+2nd edition. 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1879.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">GEOLOGY IN GENERAL.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>The Student's Elements of Geology.</b> By <span class="smcap">Sir Charles
+Lyell</span>, Bart. 4th edition. 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1884.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Principles of Geology.</b> By <span class="smcap">Sir Charles Lyell</span>,
+Bart. 12th edition. 2 vols. 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1875.</p>
+
+<p><b>Phillip's Manual of Geology.</b> 2nd edition. By <span class="smcap">Seeley
+and Etheridge</span>. 2 vols., 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1885.</p>
+
+<p><b>Tabular View of Geological Systems, with their Lithological
+Composition and Pal&aelig;ontological Remains.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">D. E. Clement.</span> <i>London (Sonnenschein).</i> 1882.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption3">BRITISH GEOLOGY.</div>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><b>The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain.</b>
+By <span class="smcap">Sir Andrew C. Ramsey</span>. 5th edition. 8vo. <i>London.</i>
+1878.</p>
+
+<p><b>The Geology of England and Wales.</b> By <span class="smcap">Horace B.
+Woodward</span>. 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1876.</p>
+
+<p><b>Geology of the Counties of England and Wales.</b> By
+<span class="smcap">W. J. Harrison</span>. 8vo. <i>London.</i> 1882.</p></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<hr />
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg&nbsp;96]</a></span></p>
+
+<div class="caption3 gesperrt">POPULAR</div>
+
+<div class="center old_eng" >Illustrated Scientific Books,</div>
+
+<div class="center">PUBLISHED BY</div>
+
+<div class="center cent_goth">SWAN SONNENSCHEIN &amp; CO.</div>
+
+<div class="center">UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME.</div>
+
+<div class="center smcap"><b>ALL FULLY ILLUSTRATED.</b></div>
+
+<hr class="hr30" />
+
+<b>BRITISH BUTTERFLIES, MOTHS, AND BEETLES.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By <span class="smcap">W. F. Kirby</span> (Brit. Mus.). Crown 8vo, cloth, 1<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>MOSSES, LICHENS, AND FUNGI.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By <span class="smcap">Peter Gray</span> and <span class="smcap">E. M. Holmes</span>. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>ENGLISH COINS AND TOKENS.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By <span class="smcap">Llewellynn Jewitt</span>, F.S.A.; with a chapter on <b>Greek
+and Roman Coins</b>, by <span class="smcap">Barclay V. Head</span>, M.R.A.S.
+Crown 8vo, cloth, 1<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>FLOWERS AND FLOWER LORE.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Rev. <span class="smcap">Hilderic Friend</span>, F.L.S.  Illustrated.  Third
+Edition, demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 7<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>THE DYNAMO: How Made and How Used.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By <span class="smcap">S. R. Bottone</span>. Numerous Cuts. Crown 8vo, cloth,
+2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>A SEASON AMONG THE WILD FLOWERS.</b><br/>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Rev. <span class="smcap">H. Wood</span>.  Illustrated.  Crown 8vo, cloth gilt,
+2<i>s.</i> 6<i>d.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By <span class="smcap">E. Newman</span>, F.L.S.  Fifth Edition, Illustrated.  12mo,
+cloth, 2<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>THE INSECT HUNTER'S COMPANION.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Rev. <span class="smcap">J. Greene</span>. Third Edition. Cuts. 12mo, boards, 1<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<b>TABULAR VIEW OF GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS.</b><br />
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>By Dr. <span class="smcap">E. Clement</span>. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 1<i>s.</i></p></div>
+
+<hr class="hr30" />
+
+<div class="caption3">SWAN SONNENSCHEIN &amp; CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE.</div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+
+
+<div class="trans_notes">
+<div class="caption2">Transcriber's Notes</div>
+<br />
+<p>As there appear to be section and subsections in the second and third units (Shells and Fossils) of this book, Tables of Contents were created for the electronic edition. A number of the images were moved where they split paragraphs. There is a reference to a <a name="missing_24"></a><a href="#Ancylus">Figure 24</a> for <i>Ancylus</i>; but no Fig. 24 was included. The reference to Fig. 26 for <i>Bullid&aelig;</i> was assumed to be a reference to Fig. 14. Bulla ampulla.</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the following items, all page number references in the original text were retained. There are references to <a href="#tables">two tables on Page 77</a>. The first was listed a "<i>vide</i> Table, p. 16" and the second as "<i>vide</i> Table, p. 32" which appear to refer to the tables on page 78 and 94 respectively. The page references were corrected.</p>
+
+<p>Species name are assumed to be correct for the time of publication (ca. 1886).
+For example, <i>Charychium</i> is today listed as <i>Carychium</i>.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="caption2">Typographical Corrections</div>
+<br />
+<div class="center">
+<table summary="typo list">
+<tr><td>Page</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Correction</td></tr>
+<tr><td>14</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>fond => foot</td></tr>
+<tr><td>27</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>it => if</td></tr>
+<tr><td>27</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>pencil => brush</td></tr>
+<tr><td>55</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>beak => peak</td></tr>
+<tr><td>56</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>tis => its</td></tr>
+<tr><td>60</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Keilia => Kellia</td></tr>
+<tr><td>73</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>inever => "I never"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>91</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td>crustucean => crustacean</td></tr>
+</table>
+</div>
+</div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<a name="strata"></a>Transcription of the image on <a href="#Page_78">Page 78</a>:
+<br />
+<div class="caption2">
+TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER.
+</div>
+
+<pre>
+                                                 _Land Plants._-----------+
+                                                 _Invertebrata._--------+ |
+                                                 _Fishes._------------+ | |
+                                                 _Amphibia._--------+ | | |
+                                                 _Reptiles._------+ | | | |
+                                                 _Birds._-------+ | | | | |
+                                                 _Mammalia._--+ | | | | | |
+                                                 _Man._-----+ | | | | | | |
+                                                            | | | | | | | |
+                                                            | | | | | | | |
+                                      {Alluvial Deposits,   | | | | | | | |
+   _Quaternary,                       {  River Valley       | | | | | | | |
+        or                            {  Gravels and        | | | | | | | |
+   Pleistocene._                      {  Cave Deposits.     | | | | | | | |
+                                      {Drift and Glacial    | | | | | | | |
+                                      {  Deposits.          V | | | | | | |
+                                                              | | | | | | |
+    _Cainozoic,                       {Pliocene.              | | | | | | |
+        or                            {Miocene.               | | | | | | |
+    Tertiary._                        {Eocene.                | | | | | | |
+                                                              | | | | | | |
+        {                             {Chalk.                 | | | | | | |
+        { _Cretaceous._               {Upper Greensand.       | | | | | | |
+        {                             {Gault.                 | | | | | | |
+        {                                                     | | | | | | |
+        { _Neocomian._                {Lower Greensand.       | V | | | | |
+        {                             {Wealden.               | : | | | | |
+        {                                                     | : | | | | |
+ MESO-  {                    {        {Purbeck.               | : | | | | |
+  ZOIC, {                    {_Upper._{Portland.              | : | | | | |
+   or   {                    {        {Kimmeridge Clay.       | : | | | | |
+ SECOND-{                    {                                | : | | | | |
+  ARY.  {                    { _Mid._ {Coral Rag.             | : | | | | |
+        {            { _Oo-  {        {Oxford Clay.           | : | | | | |
+        {            {lites._{                                | : | | | | |
+        {            {       {        {Cornbrash and          | : | | | | |
+        {            {       {        {  Forest Marble.       | : | | | | |
+        { _Jurassic._{       {_Lower._{Great Oolite.          | : | | | | |
+        {            {       {        {Fullers' Earth.        | : | | | | |
+        {            {       {        {Inferior Oolite.       | : | | | | |
+        {            {                                        | : | | | | |
+        {            {                 Lias.                  | : | | | | |
+                                                              | : | | | | |
+        {                             {Trias, or New          | : | | | | |
+        { _Poikilitic._               {  Red Sandstone.       V ? V | | | |
+        {                             {Permian.                     | | | |
+        {                                                           | | | |
+        {                             {Coal Measures.               V | | |
+        {                             {Millstone Grit                 | | |
+        { _Carboniferous._            {  and Yoredale                 | | |
+        {                             {  Rocks.                       | | |
+        {                             {Carboniferous                  | | |
+        {                             {  Limestone, etc.              | | |
+        {                                                             | | |
+        {                              Devonian and Old               | | |
+        {                                Red Sandstone.               | | |
+ PAL&AElig;O- {                                                             | | |
+  ZOIC, {                             {Ludlow Beds.                   | | |
+    or  {                             {Wenlock Beds.                  | | V
+  PRI-  { _Silurian._                 {Woolhope Beds.                 | |
+  MARY. {                             {Tarannon Shale.                | |
+        {                             {Llandovery or May              | |
+        {                             {  Hill Group.                  V |
+        {                                                               |
+        {                             {Bala and                         |
+        {                             {  Caradoc Beds.                  |
+        {                             {Llandeilo Flags.                 |
+        {                             {Arenig Group.                    |
+        { _Cambrian._                 {Tremadoc Slates.                 |
+        {                             {Lingula Flags.                   |
+        {                             {Menevian Beds.                   |
+        {                             {Longmynd and                     |
+        {                             {  Harlech Group.                 V
+        {                                                               :
+        {                              Pre-Cambrian and                 :
+        {                                Laurentian.                    ?
+</pre>
+
+<a href="#Page_78">Click here</a> to return to Page 78.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils, by 
+Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward
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+</body>
+</html>
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils, by
+Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils
+
+Author: Peter Gray
+        B. B. Woodward
+
+Release Date: August 18, 2011 [EBook #37119]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Chris Curnow, Tom Cosmas and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net (This
+file was produced from images generously made available
+by The Internet Archive)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+  SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS.
+
+  BY
+
+  PETER GRAY, A.B.S. EDIN.;
+
+  AND
+
+  B. B. WOODWARD,
+
+  _Of the British Museum (Natural History), South Kensington._
+
+  [Illustration]
+
+  LONDON:
+  SWAN SONNENSCHEIN, LE BAS & LOWREY,
+  PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
+
+
+  BUTLER & TANNER,
+  THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS
+  FROME, AND LONDON.
+
+
+
+
+
+SEA-WEEDS.
+
+BY PETER GRAY.
+
+
+Algae, popularly known as sea-weeds, although many species are
+inhabitants of fresh water, or grow on moist ground, may be briefly
+described as cellular, flowerless plants, having no proper roots, but
+imbibing nutriment by their whole surface from the medium in which
+they grow. As far as has been ascertained, the total number of species
+is about 9000 or 10,000. Many of them are microscopic, as the Desmids
+and Diatoms, others, as Lessonia, and some of the larger Laminariae
+(oarweeds), are arborescent, covering the bed of the sea around the
+coast with a submarine forest; while in the Pacific, off the
+northwestern shores of America, Nereocystis, a genus allied to
+Laminaria, has a stem over 300 feet in length, which, although not
+thicker than whipcord, is stout enough to moor a bladder,
+barrel-shaped, six or seven feet long, and crowned with a tuft of
+fifty leaves or more, each from thirty to forty feet in length. This
+vegetable buoy is a favourite resting place of the sea otter; and
+where the plant exists in any quantity, the surface of the sea is
+rendered impassable to boats. The stem of Macrocystis, which "girds
+the globe in the southern temperate zone," is stated to extend
+sometimes to the enormous length of 1500 feet. It is no thicker than
+the finger anywhere, and the upper branches are as slender as
+pack-thread; but at the base of each leaf there is placed a buoy, in
+the shape of a vesicle filled with air.
+
+Although the worthlessness of Algae has been proverbial, as in the
+"alga inutile" of Horace and Virgil's "projecta vilior alga," they are
+not without importance in botanical economics. A dozen or more species
+found in the British seas are made use of, raw or prepared in several
+ways, as food for man. Of these edible Algae, Dr. Harvey considers the
+two species of Porphyra, or laver, the most valuable. Berkeley says,
+"The best way of preparing this vegetable or condiment, which is
+extremely wholesome, is to heat it thoroughly with a little strong
+gravy or broth, adding, before it is served on toast, a small quantity
+of butter and lemon juice." A species of Nostoc is largely consumed in
+China as an ingredient in soup. A similar use is made of Enteromorpha
+intestinalis in Japan. Many species of fish and other animals, turtle
+included, live upon sea-weed. Fucus vesiculosus is a grateful food for
+cattle. In Norway, cattle, horses, sheep, and pigs are largely fed
+upon it, and on our own coasts cattle eagerly browse on that and
+kindred species at low water. In some northern countries, Fucus
+serratus sprinkled with meal is used as winter fodder.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 1. Group of Sea-weeds (chiefly Laminariae)]
+
+All the marine Algae contain iodine; and even before the value of that
+substance in glandular complaints had been ascertained, stems of a
+sea-weed were chewed as a remedy by the inhabitants of certain
+districts of South America where goitre is prevalent. Chondrus crispus
+and (Gigartina) mamillosa constitute the Irish moss of commerce, which
+dissolves into a nutritious and delicate jelly, and the restorative
+value of which in consumption doubtless depends in some degree on the
+presence of iodine. The freshwater Algae not only furnish abundant and
+nourishing food to the fish and other animals living in ponds and
+streams, but by their action in the decomposition of carburetted
+hydrogen and other noxious gases purify the element in which they
+live, thus becoming important sanitary agents. The value of aquatic
+plants in the aquarium is well known. A Chinese species of Gigartina
+is much employed as a glue and varnish; and also much used in China in
+the manufacture of lanterns and transparencies, and in that country
+and Japan for glazing windows. Handles for table knives and forks,
+tools, and other implements have been made from the thick stems of
+oarweeds, and fishing lines from Chorda filum. Tripoli powder,
+extensively used for polishing, consists mainly of the silicious
+shells of Diatoms. On various parts of our coast, the coarser species
+of sea-weed, now used as a valuable manure, were formerly extensively
+burnt for kelp, an impure carbonate of soda. This industry, when
+carried on upon a large scale, became a fruitful source of income to
+some of the poorest districts in the kingdom, bringing, in the last
+decade of last century, nearly L30,000 per annum into Orkney alone.
+Since the production of soda from rock salt has become general, kelp
+is now only burnt for the extraction of iodine, this being the easiest
+way of obtaining that substance.
+
+Although the vegetable structure and mode of reproduction are
+essentially the same in all Algae, as regards the former they vary from
+the simple cell, through cells arranged in threads, to a stem and
+leaves simulating the vegetation of higher tribes. And although the
+simpler kinds are obviously formed of threads, most of the more
+compound may also be resolved into the same structure by maceration in
+hot water or diluted muriatic acid. In substance some are mere masses
+of slime or jelly, others are silky to the feel, horny, cartilaginous
+or leather-like, and even apparently woody. A few species secrete
+carbonate of lime from the water, laying it up in their tissues;
+others cover themselves completely with that mineral, while some coat
+themselves with silex or flint. Many Algae are beautifully coloured,
+even when growing at depths to which very little light penetrates. As
+in their vegetative organs, so in their reproductive, Algae exhibit
+many modifications of structure without much real difference. In the
+green sea-weeds reproduction is effected by simple cell division in
+the unicellular species, and by spores resulting from the union of the
+contents of two cells in the others. The red sea-weeds have a double
+system of reproduction, a distinctly sexual one, by spores and
+antheridia, and another by tetraspores, which by some are considered
+to be of the nature of gemmae, or buds. The spores are generally
+situated in distinct hollow conceptacles (favellae, ceramidium,
+coccidium). The tetraspore is also sometimes contained in a
+conceptacle. It consists of a more or less globular, transparent cell,
+which when mature contains within it four (rarely three) sporules.
+Reproduction in the olive sea-weeds is also double, by zoospores,
+generally considered gemmae, and by spores and antherozoids, which is a
+sexual process.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 2. A, Species of Gleocapsa, one of the
+   Palmelleae, in various stages. A becomes B, C, D, and E by
+   repeated division. Magnified 300 diameters.]
+
+Following the classification adopted by Professor Harvey, which is
+that generally employed in English systematic manuals, we divide the
+order into three sub-orders, named from the prevailing colour of their
+spores. 1. Chlorospermeae, with green spores; 2. Rhodospermeae, with red
+spores; and 3. Melanospermeae, with olive-coloured spores. The entire
+plant in the first group is usually grass-green, but occasionally
+olive, purple, blue, and sometimes almost black; in the second it is
+some shade or other of red, very seldom green; and in the third, while
+generally olive green, it is occasionally brown olive or yellow.
+
+The Chlorospermeae are extremely varied in form, often threadlike, and
+are propagated either by the simple division of the contents of their
+cells (endochrome), by the transformation of particular joints, or by
+the change of the contents of the cells into zoospores, which are
+cells moving freely in water by means of hairlike appendages. In their
+lower forms they are among the most rudimentary of all plants, and
+thus of special interest physiologically, as representing the
+component parts of which higher plants are formed. They are subdivided
+into twelve groups, as follows:
+
+The first group, Palmelleae, are unicellular plants, the cells of which
+are either free or surrounded by a gelatinous mass, and they are
+propagated by the division of the endochrome. One of the most
+remarkable of the species of this family is Protococcus cruentus,
+which is found at the foot of walls having a northern aspect, looking
+as if blood had been poured out on the ground or on stones.
+Protococcus nivalis, again, is the cause of the red snow, of which
+early arctic navigators used to give such marvellous accounts.
+(Fig. 2.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 3. A, Fragment of a Filament of Zygnema,
+   one of the Conjugateae; B, Closterium; C, Euastrium; two
+   desmids.]
+
+The Desmideaceae, together with the plants of the next succeeding
+group, are favourite subjects of investigation or observation by the
+possessors of microscopes, an attention they merit from the beauty and
+variety of their forms. They are minute plants of a green colour,
+consisting of cells generally independent of each other, but sometimes
+forming brittle threads or minute fronds, and are reproduced by spores
+generated by the conjugation of two distinct individuals. The process
+of conjugation in Desmids and Diatoms consists in the union of the
+endochrome of two individuals, each of which in these families is
+composed of a single cell. This ultimately forms a rounded body or
+resting spore, which afterwards germinates, the resulting plant not
+however acquiring the normal form until the third generation. (Fig.
+3.)
+
+The Diatomaceae, closely allied to the preceding group in structure and
+reproduction, are however distinguished from them by their flinty
+shells, which are often beautifully sculptured. Their endochrome is a
+golden brown, instead of green as in the Desmideaceae. The latter,
+also, are confined to fresh water, while the Diatomaceae are found,
+though not exclusively, in the sea, where their shells sometimes,
+microscopically minute as they are individually, form banks extending
+several hundred miles. It is stated that in the collection made by Sir
+Joseph Hooker in the Himalayas the species closely resemble our own.
+
+In the next group, Confervaceae, we are introduced to forms more like
+the general notion of what a plant should be. The individuals of which
+it consists are composed of threads, jointed, either simple or
+branched, mostly of a grass-green colour, and propagating either by
+minute zoospores or by metamorphosed joints. They are found both in
+fresh and salt water, and in damp situations. The number of species is
+very great. A considerable number consist of unbranched threads; the
+branched forms grow sometimes so densely as to assume the form of
+solid balls. After floods, when the water stands for several days,
+they sometimes increase to such an extent, as to form on its
+subsidence a uniform paper-like stratum, which while decomposing is
+extremely disagreeable. The name Conferva has been almost discontinued
+as a generic title, the majority of British species being now ranged
+under Clado- and Chaeto-phora. The latter are branched, and require
+great care and attention in order to distinguish them, on account of
+their general resemblance to each other. Good characters are however
+to be found in their mode of branching and the form and comparative
+size of the terminal joints.
+
+The Batrachospermeae constitute a small but very beautiful group,
+consisting of gelatinous threads variously woven into a branched
+cylindrical frond. The branches are sometimes arranged, as in the
+British species, so that the plants appear like necklaces. In colour
+they pass from green, through intermediate shades of olive and purple,
+to black. In common with some of the higher Algae, the threads of the
+superficial branches send joints down the stem, changing it from
+simple to compound. The native species are all fluviatile.
+
+The Hydrodicteae are among the most remarkable of Algae. Hydrodictyon
+utriculatum, the solitary British species, is found in the large pond
+at Hampton Court, and in similar situations in various parts of the
+country, but not very generally. It resembles a green purse or net,
+from four to six inches in length, with delicate and regular meshes,
+the reticulations being about four lines long. Its method of
+reproduction is no less than its form. Each of the cells
+forms within itself an enormous mass of small elliptic grains. These
+become attached by the extremities so as to form a network inside the
+cell, and, its walls being dissolved, a new plant is set free to grow
+to the size of the parent Hydrodictyon.
+
+The Nostochineae grow in fresh water, or attached to moist soil. They
+consist of slender, beaded threads surrounded by a firm jelly, and
+often spreading into large, wavy fronds. The larger beads on the
+inclosed threads are reproductive spores. (Fig. 4, A.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 4. A, Fragment of a Filament of Nostoc. B,
+   End of a Filament of Oscillatoria.]
+
+The Oscillatoreae are another remarkable group, on account of the
+peculiar animal-like motions they exhibit. They occur both in salt and
+fresh water, and on almost every kind of site in which there is
+sufficient moisture. The threads of which they are composed are
+jointed, and generally unbranched; they are of various tints of blue,
+red, and green, and, where their fructification has been ascertained,
+are propagated by cell division. The most curious point about them is,
+however, the movements of their fronds. According to Dr. Harvey, these
+are of three kinds--a pendulum-like movement from side to side,
+performed by one end, whilst the other remains fixed, so as to form a
+pivot; a movement of flexure of the filament itself, the oscillating
+extremity bending over from one side to the other, like the head of a
+worm or caterpillar seeking something on its line of march; and
+lastly, a simple onward movement of progression, the whole phenomenon
+being, Dr. Harvey thinks, resolvable into a spiral onward movement of
+the filament. Whatever is the cause of this motion, it is not, as used
+to be supposed, of an animal nature; for the individuals of this group
+are undoubted plants. (Fig. 4, B.) Several species of Rivularia,
+belonging to the Oscillatoreae, are found both in the sea and in fresh
+water. They are gelatinous, and have something of the appearance of
+Nostoc, in aspect as well as in minute structure.
+
+The Conjugatae are freshwater articulated Algae, which reproduce
+themselves by the union of two endochromes. They are very interesting
+objects under the microscope, owing to the spiral or zigzag
+arrangement of the endochrome of many of them, and the delicacy of
+all.
+
+The Bulbochaeteae constitute a small group, some half-a-dozen species
+being British. They are freshwater plants, composed of articulate
+branched filaments, with fertile bulbshaped branchlets. The endochrome
+is believed to be fertilized by bodies developed in antheridia, the
+contents of each fertilized cell dividing into four ovate zoospores.
+
+The last two groups of green sea-weeds consist chiefly of marine
+plants. Of these the first, Siphoneae, is so called because the plant,
+however complicated, is composed invariably of a single cell. It
+propagates by minute zoospores, by large quiescent spores, or by large
+active spores clothed with cilia. It includes the remarkable genus
+Codium, three species of which inhabit the British seas. In Codium
+Bursa the filamentous frond is spherical and hollow, presenting more
+the appearance of a round sponge or puff-ball than a sea-weed, and is
+somewhat rare. Another species greatly resembles a branched sponge,
+and the third forms a velvety crust on the surface of rocks. Another
+genus, Vaucheria, is of a beautiful green colour, forming a velvety
+surface on moist soil, on mud-covered rocks overflowed by the tide, or
+parasitic on other sea-weeds. The most attractive plants of this
+family are however those of the genus Bryopsis, two of which are found
+on the British shores. The most common one is B. plumosa, the fronds
+of which grow usually in the shady and sheltered sides of rock pools.
+
+The fronds of the last of the green-weed groups, the Ulvaceae, are
+membranous, and either flat or tubular. Two of them, Ulva latissima,
+the green, and Porphyra laciniata, the purple laver, are among the
+most common sea-weeds, growing well up from low-water mark. The
+propagation in all of them is by zoospores. An allied genus,
+Enteromorpha, is protean in its forms, which have been classed under
+many species. They may, however, be reduced to half a dozen. Some of
+them are very slender, so as almost to be mistaken for confervoid
+plants.
+
+With the Rhodospermeae we enter a sub-order of Algae, exclusively
+marine, the plants in which have always held out great attractions to
+the collector. In structure they are expanded or filamentous, nearly
+always rose-coloured or purple in colour. Of the fourteen groups into
+which they are divided by Harvey, the first is Ceramiaceae, articulate
+Algae, constituting a large proportion of the marine plants of our
+shores. Of the genus Ceramium, C. rubrum is the most frequent, and it
+is found in every latitude, almost from pole to pole. It is very
+variable in aspect, but can always be recognized by its fruit. C.
+diaphanum is a very handsome species, growing often in rock pools
+along with the other. There are about fifteen native species
+altogether, some of them rare, and all very beautiful, both as
+displayed on paper and seen under the microscope. Crouania attenuata
+is a beautiful plant, parasitic upon a Cladostephus or Corallina
+officinalis. It is however extremely rare, being only found in England
+about Land's End. A more common and conspicuous, but equally handsome
+plant is Ptilota plumosa (Fig. 9), which is mostly confined to our
+northern coasts; although P. sericea, a smaller species, or variety,
+is common in the south, and easily distinguished from its congener,
+which it otherwise greatly resembles, by its jointed branchlets and
+pinnules. Callithamnion, Halurus and Griffithsia, articulate like
+Ceramium, furnish also several handsome species. (Fig. 5.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 5. Species of Callithamnion.]
+
+The group Spyridiaceae contains only one English plant, Spyridia
+filamentosa, which is curiously and irregularly branched, the branches
+being articulate and of a pinky red. One of its kinds of fruit,
+consisting of crimson spores, is contained in a transparent network
+basket, formed by the favellae, or short branches, whence its name.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 6. Chondrus crispus.]
+
+The Cryptonemiaceae are very numerous in genera and species. They all
+have inarticulate branches, some are thread-like. Grateloupia filicina
+is a neat little plant, met with rarely on the south and west coasts.
+Gigartina mamillosa, a common plant everywhere, is the plant sold,
+along with Chondrus crispus, as Irish or Carrageen moss. A handsome
+little plant, Stenogramme interrupta, is very rare, but it has been
+gathered both on the Irish and English coasts. The Phyllophorae, one
+species of which is frequent on all our shores, may be recognised by
+the way in which the points and surfaces of their fronds throw out
+proliferous leaves. Gymnogongrus has two British species, one much
+resembling Chondrus crispus, already named, of which it was formerly
+considered a congener. Their fructification is however very different.
+Ahnfeltia plicata is a curiouswiry, entangled plant, almost black in
+colour, and like horse-hair when dry, and can scarcely be mistaken.
+Cystoclonium purpurascens is very commonly cast up by the tide on most
+of our coasts. It varies in colour, but is easily distinguished by the
+spore-bearing tubercles imbedded in its slender branches. Callophyllis
+laciniata is a handsome species, of a rich crimson colour, and
+sometimes a foot square. It can scarcely have escaped the notice of
+the sea-side visitor, for it is widely distributed and often thrown
+out in great abundance; one writer describes the shore near Tynemouth
+as having been red for upwards of a mile with this superb sea-weed.
+Kalymenia reniformis is another of the broad, flat Algae, but it is
+scarcer, and of a colour not so conspicuous. Among the most frequent
+of our sea-weeds, both as growing in the rock pools and cast ashore,
+is Chondrus crispus, already twice referred to in connexion with its
+officinal uses. It is very variable in form, one author figuring as
+many as thirty-six different varieties. (Fig. 6.) Chylocladia
+clavellosa, which is sometimes cast ashore a foot and a half long, is
+closely set with branches, and these again clothed with branchlets in
+one or two series. The whole plant is fleshy, of a rose-red or
+brilliant pink colour, turning to golden yellow in decay. There is
+another small species, confined to the extreme north of Britain.
+Halymenia ligulata is another flat red weed, but sometimes very narrow
+in its ramifications. Furcellaria fastigiata has a round, branched,
+taper stem, swollen at the summit, which contains the fruit,
+consisting of masses of tetraspores in a pod-like receptacle.
+Schizymenia edulis, better known perhaps by its old name Iridea, is a
+flat, inversely egg-shaped leaf with scarcely any stem. It is one of
+the edible Algae, and pretty frequent in shady rock pools.
+Gloiosiphonia capillaris is a remarkably beautiful plant, and not
+common, being confined to certain parts of the southern coasts. The
+stem is very soft and gelatinous; the spores are produced in red
+globular masses imbedded in the marginal filaments, which have a fine
+appearance under the microscope when fresh.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 7. Rhodomenia palmata.]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 8. Wormskioldia sanguinea.]
+
+The Rhodomeniaceae are purplish or blood-red sea-weeds, inarticulate,
+membranaceous, and cellular. Among the dark-coloured is Rhodomenia
+palmata, better known as dulse, a common and edible species. (Fig. 7.)
+Wormskioldia sanguinea is not only the most beautiful sea-weed, but
+the finest of all leaves or fronds. It is usually about six inches
+long, but sometimes nearly double that length and six inches broad,
+with a distinct midrib and branching veins, and a delicate wavy
+lamina, pink or deep red. The fruit is produced in winter from small
+leaflets growing upon the bare midrib. (Fig. 8.) The commonest of all
+red sea-weeds on our coast, one of the most elegant, and much sought
+after by sea-weed picture makers, Plocamium coccineum, belongs to this
+group. Calliblepharis ciliata and jubata are coarser plants, the
+latter being the more frequent. They were formerly included in the
+genus Rhodymenia, from which they were removed when their fruit was
+better understood.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 9. Ptilota plumosa.]
+
+Wrangelia and Naccaria are the only British genera in Wrangeliaceae.
+There is only one native species in each, both being rare, the latter
+especially.
+
+The Helminthocladiae are also a limited group, of a gelatinous
+structure; so much so that on being gathered they feel like a bunch of
+slimy worms, whence the name of the family. Helminthora purpurea and
+divaricata with Nemaleon multifidum and Scinaia furcellata represent
+them in Britain. They are nearly all very rare, pretty plants, and
+very effective as microscopic objects.
+
+The Squamariae, formerly included in the Corallinaceae, are a small
+group of inconspicuous plants resembling lichens, of a leathery
+texture, and growing on rocks and shells attached by their lower
+surface.
+
+A single genus only, Polyides, represents the Spongiocarpeae. Polyides
+rotundus resembles Furcellaria fastigiata very closely, but differs
+widely in the fruit, which consists of spongy warts surrounding the
+frond, composed of spores and articulated threads.
+
+Of the next group represented in Britain, Gelidiaceae, we have only one
+plant, Gelidium corneum, very common on our shores, and perhaps the
+most variable of all vegetable species.
+
+The Sphaerococcidae include both membranaceous and cartilaginous
+species. Of the latter is Sphaerococcus coronopifolius, which cannot
+easily be mistaken, owing to the numerous berry-like fruits that tip
+its branchlets. It is rather rare on the northern, but often thrown
+ashore in large quantities on the southern coasts. The genus
+Delesseria has four British species, the largest being the well-known
+D. sinuosa, the fronds of which resemble an oak leaf in outline. The
+handsomest are D. ruscifolia and D. hypoglossum, which are more
+delicate and of a finer colour than sinuosa. There are three British
+species of Gracillaria, in two of which the branches are cylindrical,
+and in the other flat. G. compressa makes an excellent preserve and
+pickle, but unfortunately it is the rarest of the three. Nitophyllum
+is one of the greatest ornaments of this tribe. There are six British
+species, which are amongst the most delicate and beautiful of our
+native Algae.
+
+The Corallinaceae are remarkable for the property they possess of
+absorbing carbonate of lime into their tissues, so that they appear as
+a succession of chalky articulations or incrustations. The most common
+is Corallina officinalis. There are two British species of Corallina,
+and two also of the nearly allied genus, Jania. Of the foliaceous
+group there are likewise two British genera, Melobesia and
+Hildenbrantia.
+
+The next group, the Laurenciaceae, are cartilaginous and cylindrical or
+compressed, the frond in the greater portion of them being
+inarticulate and solid. They contain several species valued by
+collectors, although some of them are amongst our commonest plants.
+Their colour is, when perfect, a dull purple or brownish red, but they
+change under the influence of light and air, while fresh water is
+rapidly destructive to their tints. (Fig. 10.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 10. Laurencia pinnatifida.]
+
+The Chylocladiae are curiously jointed plants, removed by Agardh to a
+new genus, Lomentaria, and a new order Chondriae. Bonnemaisonia
+asparagoides is the most rare and beautiful of the tribe.
+
+The last tribe of red weeds, Rhodomelaceae, varies greatly in the
+structure of the frond, but the fruit is more uniform. Polysiphonia
+and Dasya contain the finest of the filiform division; the leafy one,
+Odonthalia, a northern form, is a very beautiful sea-weed both as
+respects form and colour. Well-grown specimens are not unlike a
+hawthorn twig, and of a blood red colour.
+
+The plants of the sub-order Melanospermeae, are, like the red
+sea-weeds, exclusively marine. They are usually large and coarse, and
+confined mostly to comparatively shallow water. In the Laminariaceae we
+find the gigantic oarweeds already briefly referred to. Lessonia,
+which encircles in submarine forests the antarctic coasts, is an
+erect, tree-like plant, with a trunk from five to ten feet high,
+forked branches, and drooping leaves, one to three feet in length, and
+has been compared to a weeping willow. Sir Joseph Hooker says, that
+from a boat there may on a calm day be witnessed in the antarctic
+regions, over these submarine groves, "as busy a scene as is presented
+by the coral reefs of the tropics. The leaves of the Lessoniae are
+crowded with Sertulariae and Mollusca, or encircled with Flustra; on
+the trunks parasitic Algae abound, together with chitons, limpets, and
+other shells; at the base and among the tangled roots swarm thousands
+of Crustaceae and Radiata, while fish of several species dart among the
+leaves and branches." Of these and other gigantic melanosperms, flung
+ashore by the waves, a belt of decaying vegetable matter is formed,
+miles in extent, some yards broad, and three feet in depth; and Sir J.
+Hooker adds that the trunks of Lessonia so much resemble driftwood
+that no persuasion could prevent an ignorant shipmaster from employing
+his crew, during two bitterly cold days, in collecting this
+incombustible material for fuel. Macrocystis and Nereocystis are also
+giant members of this sub-order. Some of the Laminariae which form a
+belt around our own coasts not seldom attain a length of from eight to
+twelve feet. The common bladder-wrack (Fucus vesiculosus) sometimes
+grows in Jutland to a height of ten feet, and in clusters several feet
+in diameter. The colour of most of the plants in this sub-order is
+some shade of olive, but several of them turn to green in drying.
+
+The first group, Ectocarpeae, is composed of thread-like jointed
+plants, the fructification of which consists of external spores,
+sometimes formed by the swelling of a branchlet. The typical genus,
+Ectocarpus, abounds in species, a dozen or so of which, very nearly
+allied plants, being found around our own shores. One or two of them
+are very handsome. There are also some very beautiful plants in the
+genus Sphacelaria, belonging to this group, several of them resembling
+miniature ferns. All the Sphacelariae are easily recognized by the
+withered appearance of the tips of the fruiting branches. Myriotrichia
+is a genus of small parasitical plants, the two British species of
+which grow chiefly on the sea thongs (Chorda).
+
+The Chordariae are sometimes gelatinous in structure, in other cases
+cartilaginous. The fruit is contained in the substance of the frond.
+The genus Chordaria consists of plants which have the appearance of
+dark coloured twine. There are two British species, one being rather
+common. Chorda filum, sea-rope, another string-like sea-weed, grows in
+tufts from a few inches to many feet in length, and tapering at the
+roots to about the thickness of a pig's bristle. In quiet land-locked
+bays with a sandy or muddy bottom, it sometimes extends to forty feet
+in length, forming extensive meadows, obstructing the passage of
+boats, and endangering the lives of swimmers entangled in its slimy
+cords, whence probably its other name of "dead men's lines."
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 11. Padina pavonia.]
+
+The Mesogloieae in a fresh state resemble bundles of green, slimy
+worms. There are three British species, two of which are not uncommon.
+Although so unattractive in external aspect, they, like many others of
+the same description, prove very interesting under the microscope. One
+of the cartilaginous species, Leathsia tuberiformis, has the
+appearance, when growing, of a mass of distorted tubers.
+
+The species of Elachista, composed of minute parasites, are, as well
+as unattractive like the Mesogloieae, inconspicuous, but are beautiful
+objects when placed under the microscope. Myrionemae are also
+parasitic, and even smaller than the plants of the preceding genus.
+
+In the Dictyoteae the frond is mostly flat, with a reticulated surface,
+which is sprinkled when in fruit with groups of naked spores or spore
+cysts. This tribe includes not a few of the most elegant among the
+Algae. In structure they are coriaceous, and include plants both with
+broad and narrow, branched and unbranched fronds. In Haliseris there
+is a distinct midrib. The largest of the British Dictyoteae is Cutleria
+multifida, sometimes found a foot and a half long; and the best known
+is doubtless Padina pavonia, much sought after by seaside visitors
+where it grows. Its segments are fan-shaped, variegated with lighter
+curved lines, and fringed with golden tinted filaments. (Fig. 11.)
+Owing to its power of decomposing light, its fronds, when growing
+under water, suggest the train of the peacock, whence its specific
+name. Taonia atomaria somewhat resembles Cutleria, but exhibits also
+the wavy lines of Padina. The plant of this group most often cast
+ashore is Dictyota dichotoma. It makes a handsome specimen when well
+dried, and is interesting on account of the manner in which it varies
+in the breadth of its divisions. The variety intricata is curiously
+curled and entangled. Dictyosiphon foeniculaceus, the solitary
+British example of its genus, is a bushy filiform plant, remarkable
+for the beautiful net-like markings of its surface. The Punctariae have
+flattened fronds, marked with dots, which sufficiently distinguish
+them from all the others. A small form is often found parasitic on
+Chorda filum, spreading out horizontally like the hairs of a bottle
+brush. Asperococcus derives its name from its roughened surface,
+occasioned by the thickly scattered spots of fructification.
+
+The Laminariaceae are inarticulate, mostly flat, often strap-shaped.
+Their spores occur in superficial patches, or covering the whole
+frond. The plants of this order, as we have already seen, include the
+giants of submarine vegetation. In point of mass they constitute the
+larger part of our native Algae, although they number only a few
+species. They are popularly known as tangle or oarweeds, and the stems
+of Laminaria saccharina and the midrib of Alaria esculenta are used as
+food.
+
+The Sporochnaceae are a small but beautiful tribe, inarticulate, and
+producing their spores in jointed filaments or knob-like masses, and
+remarkable for their property of turning from olive brown to a
+verdigris green when exposed to the atmosphere.
+
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 12. Fucus serratus, showing a transverse
+   section of the Conceptacle, and Antheridium with Antherozoids
+   escaping.]
+
+
+They are deep sea plants, or at least grow about low water mark. The
+largest of the group is Desmarestia ligulata, which, with the other
+British species, D. aculeata, is often cast ashore. The latter
+species, at an early period of its existence, is clothed with tufts of
+slender hairs, springing from the margin of the frond. Desmarestia
+viridis is the most delicate and also the rarest of the three. Nothing
+like fruit has been discovered on any of them. Arthocladia villosa and
+Sporochnus pedunculatus are branched sea-weeds, covered also with
+tufts of closely set hairs. Carpomitra Cabrerae, a rare species, bears,
+in common with the two preceding species, its spores in a special
+receptacle. In the first the receptacle is pod-like; in the second
+knotted; and in the last mitriform.
+
+The concluding group of Algae is the Fucaceae, including the universally
+known sea wrack (Fucus). The frond in all of them is jointless. They
+are reproduced by means of antheridia and oogonia developed in
+conceptacles, clustered together at the apex of the branches. Both
+from their bulk and their decided sexual distinctions, they deserve to
+rank at the head of the order. Of all sea-weeds they are also perhaps
+of the greatest use to man. One of the most interesting among them is
+the Gulfweed (Sargassum bacciferum), occupying a tract of the Atlantic
+extending over many degrees of latitude. Pieces of it, and of its
+congener, S. vulgare, are occasionally drifted to our shores, and they
+consequently find a place in works on British Algae, although they have
+no claim to be considered native plants. On rocky coasts the various
+species of Fucus occupy the greater part of the space between
+tide-marks, the most plentiful being Fucus vesiculosus. F. serratus
+(Fig. 12) is the handsomest of the genus, the other species being F.
+nodosus, said to be the most useful for making kelp, and F.
+canaliculatus. Halidrys siliquosa is remarkable for its spore
+receptacles, which have quite the appearance of the seed vessel of a
+flowering plant. The species of Cystoseira, chiefly confined to the
+southern coasts, are also very interesting. Their submerged fronds are
+beautifully iridescent, and the stems, of the largest species at
+least, are generally covered with a great variety of parasites, animal
+and vegetable, the former consisting of Hydrozoa and Polyzoa, and
+other curious forms. Himanthalia lorea is another remarkable plant. It
+has conspicuous forked fruit-bearing receptacles; but the real plants
+are the small cones at the base of these, and from which they are shed
+when ripe.
+
+As to conditions of site and geographical distribution, Algae do not
+differ from land plants. Latitude, depth of water, and currents
+influence them in the same way as latitude, elevation, and station
+operate on the latter; and the analogy is maintained in the almost
+cosmopolitan range of some, and the restricted habitat of others. Not
+many extra-European species of Desmids are known, but those of Diatoms
+are far more widely diffused, and extend beyond the limits of all
+other vegetation, existing wherever there is water sufficient to allow
+of their production; and they are found not only in water, but also
+on the moist surface of the ground and on other plants, in hot springs
+and amid polar ice. They are said to occur in such countless myriads
+in the South Polar Sea as to stain the berg and pack ice wherever
+these are washed by the surge. A deposit of mud, chiefly consisting of
+the shells of Diatoms, 400 miles long, 120 miles broad, and of unknown
+thickness, was found at a depth of between 200 and 400 feet on the
+flanks of Victoria Land in 70 deg. south latitude. Such is their abundance
+in some rivers and estuaries that Professor Ehrenberg goes the length
+of affirming that they have exercised an important influence in
+blocking up harbours and diminishing the depth of channels. The trade
+and other winds distribute large quantities over the earth, which may
+account for the universality of their specific distribution; for Sir
+Joseph Hooker found the Himalayan species to closely resemble our own.
+Common British species also occur in Ceylon, Italy, Virginia, and
+Peru. The typical species of the Confervaceae are also distributed over
+the whole surface of the globe. They inhabit both fresh and salt
+water, and are found alike in the polar seas and in the boiling
+springs of Iceland, in mineral waters and in chemical solutions. Some
+of the tropical ones are exceedingly large and dense. Batrachospermum
+vagum, in the next tribe, a native of England, is also found in New
+Zealand. An edible species of Nostochineae, produced on the boggy
+slopes bordering the Arctic Ocean, is blown about by the winds
+sometimes ten miles from land, where it is found lying in small
+depressions in the snow upon the ice. The common Nostoc of moist
+ground in England occurs also in Kerguelen's Land, high in the
+southern hemisphere. Floating masses of Monormia are often the cause
+of the green hue assumed by the water of ponds and lakes. Certain
+species of Oscillatoria of a deep red colour live in hot springs in
+India, and the Red Sea is supposed to have derived its name from a
+species of this tribe, which covers it with a scum for many miles,
+according to the direction of the wind. The lake of Glaslough in
+County Monaghan, Ireland, owes its colour and its name to Oscillatoria
+aerugescens, and large masses of water in Scotland and Switzerland are
+tinted green or purple by a similar agency. A few species of Siphoneae
+have a very wide range, two British species of Codium occurring in New
+Zealand. The Ulvaceae abound principally in the colder latitudes.
+Enteromorpha intestinalis, a common British species, is as frequent in
+Japan, where it is used, when dried, in soup. The Rhodosperms are
+found in every sea, although the geographical boundaries of genera are
+often well-marked. Gloiosiphonia, one of our rarest and most
+beautiful Algae, is widely diffused. Of Melanosperms the Laminariae
+affect the higher northern latitudes, Sargassa abound in the warmer
+seas, while Durvillaea, Lessonia, and Macrocystis characterize the
+marine flora of the Southern Ocean. The Fucaceae are most abundant
+towards the poles, where they attain their greatest size. The marine
+meadows of Sargassum, conceived by some naturalists to mark the site
+of the lost Atlantis, and which give its name to the Sargasso Sea,
+extending between 20 deg. and 25 deg. north latitude, in 40 deg. west longitude,
+occupy now the same position as when the early navigators, with
+considerable trepidation, forced through their masses on the way to
+the New World. Sargassum is drifted into this tract of ocean by
+currents, the plants being all detached; and they do not produce fruit
+in that state, being propagated by buds, which originate new branches
+and leaves. (Fig. 13.)
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 13. The Gulf-weed (Sargassum bacciforum).]
+
+Owing to their soft, cellular structure, Algae are not likely to be
+preserved in a fossil state; but what have been considered such have
+been found as low down as the Silurian formation, although their
+identity has been disputed, and several of them, it is more than
+probable, belong to other orders, and some even to the animal kingdom.
+Freshwater forms, all of existing genera and species, are believed to
+have been detected in the carboniferous rocks of Britain and France;
+others also of the green-coloured division are said to occur from the
+Silurian to the Eocene, and the Florideae to be represented from the
+Lias to the Miocene. The indestructible nature of the shells of the
+Diatomaceae has enabled them to survive where the less protected
+species may have perished. Tripoli stone, a Tertiary rock, is entirely
+composed of the remains of microscopic plants of this tribe. It is
+from their silicious shells that mineral acquires its use in the arts,
+as powder for polishing stones and metals. Ehrenberg estimates that in
+every cubic inch of the tripoli of Bilin, in Bohemia, there are
+41,000,000 of Gaillonella distans. Districts recovered from the sea
+frequently contain myriads of Diatoms, forming strata of considerable
+thickness; and similar deposits occur in the ancient sites of lakes in
+this and other countries.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Before setting out in search of Algae the collector ought to provide
+himself with a pair of stout boots to guard his feet from the
+sharp-pointed rocks, as well as a staff or pole to balance himself in
+rock-climbing, which ought to have a hook for drawing floating weed
+ashore. A stout table-knife tied to the other end will be found very
+useful. A basket--a fishing-basket does very well--or a waterproof
+bag, for stowing away his plants, is also necessary. It is advisable
+to carry a few bottles for the very small and delicate plants, and
+care should be taken to keep apart, and in sea-water, any specimens of
+the Sporochnaceae; for they are not only apt to decay themselves but to
+become a cause of corruption in the other weeds with which they come
+in contact. These bottles should always be carried in the bag or
+pocket, never in the hand.
+
+Sea-weeds, as every visitor to the coast knows, are torn up in great
+numbers by the waves, especially during storms, and afterwards left on
+the shore by the retiring tide. Many shallow-growing species are also
+to be found attached to the rocks, and in the rock pools, between high
+and low water mark. There are three points on the beach where the
+greatest accumulations of floating Algae are found: high water mark,
+mid-tide level, and low water mark. Low water occurs about five or
+five and a half hours after high water. The best time for the
+collector to commence is half an hour or so before dead low water. He
+can then work to the lowest point safely, and, retiring before the
+approaching tide, examine the higher part of the beach up to high
+water mark. If the coarse weeds in the rock pools and chinks are
+turned back, many rare and delicate Algae will be found growing under
+them, especially at the lowest level. The most effective method of
+collecting the plants of deeper water is by dredging, or going round
+with a boat at the extreme ebb, and taking them from the rocks and
+from the Laminaria stems, on which a great number have their station.
+Stems of Laminaria thrown out by the waves should also be carefully
+examined. In all cases the weed should be well rinsed in a clear rock
+pool before being put away in the bag or other receptacle.
+
+The next thing to be considered is the laying out and preserving of
+the specimens selected for the herbarium. Wherever possible these
+should be laid out on paper, and put under pressure as soon as
+gathered, or on the same day at all events. When this is
+impracticable, they may be spread between the folds of soft and thick
+towels and rolled up. Thus treated the most delicate plants will keep
+fresh until next day. Another way is to pack the plants in layers of
+salt, like herrings; but the most usual method of roughly preserving
+sea-weeds collected during an unprepared visit to the shore is by
+moderately drying them in an airy room out of the direct rays of the
+sun. They are then to be placed lightly in bags, and afterwards
+relaxed by immersion and prepared in the usual way. The finer plants,
+however, suffer more or less by this delay. If carried directly home
+from the sea the plants should be emptied into a vessel of sea-water.
+A flat dish, about fourteen inches square and three deep, is then to
+be filled with clean water. For most plants this may be fresh, for
+some it is essential that it should be salt. Some of the Polysiphonias
+and others begin to decompose at once if placed in fresh water. The
+Griffithsias burst and let out their colouring matter, and a good many
+change their colour. The appliances required are some fine white
+paper--good printing demy, thirty-six pounds or so in weight per ream,
+does very well,--an ample supply of smooth blotting paper, the coarse
+paper used by grocers and called "sugar royal," or, best of all,
+Bentall's botanical drying paper, pieces of well-washed book muslin, a
+camel's hair brush, a bodkin for assisting to spread out the plants, a
+pair of scissors, and a pair of forceps. The mounting paper may be cut
+in three sizes: 5 in. by 4 in., 71/2 in. by 51/4 in., and 10 in. by
+71/2 in. Then having selected a specimen, place it in the flat dish
+referred to above, and prune it if necessary. Next take a piece of
+the mounting paper of suitable size, and slip it into the water
+underneath the plant, keeping hold of it with the thumb of the left
+hand. Having arranged the plant in a natural manner on the paper,
+brush it gently with the camel's hair brush to remove any dirt or
+fragments, draw out paper and plant gently and carefully in an oblique
+direction, and set them on end for a short time to drain. Having in
+this way transferred as many specimens as will cover a sheet of drying
+paper, lay them upon it neatly side by side, and cover them with a
+piece of old muslin. Four sheets of drying paper are then to be placed
+upon this, then another layer of plants and muslin and four more
+sheets of drying paper, until a heap, it may be six or eight inches
+thick, is built up. Place this between two flat boards, weighted with
+stones, bricks, or other weights; but the pressure should be moderate
+at first, otherwise the texture of the muslin may be stamped on both
+paper and plant. The papers must be changed in about three hours'
+time, and afterwards every twelve hours. In three or four days,
+according to the state of the weather, the muslin may be removed, the
+plants again transferred to dry paper, and subjected to rather severe
+pressure for several days.
+
+The very gelatinous plants require particular treatment. One way is to
+put them in drying paper and under a board but to apply no other
+pressure, change the drying paper at least twice during the first half
+hour, and after the second change of dryers apply very gentle
+pressure, increasing it until the specimens are fully dry. A safer and
+less troublesome way, for the efficacy of which we can vouch, is to
+lay down the plants and dry them without any pressure, afterwards
+damping the back of the mounting papers and placing them in the drying
+press. Some Algae will scarcely adhere to paper. These should be
+pressed until tolerably dry, then be immersed in skim-milk for a
+quarter of an hour, and pressed and dried as before. A slight
+application of isinglass, dissolved in alcohol, to the under side of
+the specimen is sometimes necessary. Before mounting, or at all events
+before transference to the herbarium, care should be taken to write in
+pencil on the back of the paper the name of the plant, if known, the
+place where gathered, and the date. The coarse olive weeds, such as
+the bladder-wrack, Halidrys, and the like, may in the case of a short
+visit to the coast be allowed to dry in an airy place, and taken home
+in the rough. Before pressing, in any case, they should be steeped in
+boiling water for about half an hour to extract the salt, then washed
+in clean fresh water, dried between coarse towels, and pressed and
+dried in the same way as flowering plants. A collection of Algae may be
+fastened on sheets of paper of the usual herbarium size and kept in a
+cabinet or portfolios, or attached to the leaves of an album. For
+scientific purposes, however, the latter is the least convenient way.
+
+There are few objects more beautiful than many of the sea-weeds when
+well preserved; but the filiform species, especially those of the
+first sub-order, do not retain their distinguishing characters when
+pressed as has been described. Portions of these, however, as well as
+sections of stems and fruit, may be usefully dried on small squares of
+thin mica, for subsequent microscopic examination, or they may be
+mounted on the ordinary microscope slides. This is the only course
+possible with Desmids and Diatoms. The former are to be sought in
+shallow pools, especially in open boggy moors. The larger species
+commonly lie in a thin gelatinous stratum at the bottom of the pools,
+and by gently passing the fingers under them they will be caused to
+rise towards the surface, when they can be lifted with a scoop. Other
+species form a greenish or dirty cloud on the stems and leaves of
+other aquatic plants, and by stripping the plant between the fingers
+these also may be similarly detached and secured. If they are much
+diffused through the water, they may be separated by straining through
+linen; and this is a very common way of procuring them. Living Diatoms
+are found on aquatic plants, on rocks and stones, under water or on
+mud, presenting themselves as coloured fringes, cushion-like tufts, or
+filmy strata. In colour the masses vary from a yellowish brown to
+almost black. They are difficult, both when living and dead, to
+separate from foreign matter; but repeated washings are effectual in
+both cases, and, for the living ones, their tendency to move towards
+the light may also be taken advantage of. When only the shells are
+wanted for mounting, the cell contents are removed by means of
+hydrochloric and nitric acid. The most satisfactory medium for
+preserving fresh Desmids and Diatoms is distilled water, and if the
+water is saturated with camphor, or has dissolved in it a grain of
+alum and a grain of bay salt to an ounce of water, confervoid growths
+will be prevented. For larger preparations of Algae, Thwaites' fluid is
+strongly recommended. This is made by adding to one part of rectified
+spirit as many drops of creasote as will saturate it, and then
+gradually mixing with it in a pestle and mortar some prepared chalk,
+with sixteen parts of water; an equal quantity of water saturated with
+camphor is then to be added, and the mixture, after standing for a
+few days, to be carefully filtered.
+
+For authorities on the morphology and classification of the Algae,
+students may be referred to Sachs' "Text Book" and Le Maout's "System
+of Botany," of which there are good translations, and the
+"Introduction to Cryptogamic Botany," by the Rev. M. J. Berkeley; for
+descriptions and the identification of species, to the text and
+figures of Harvey's "Phycologia Britannica," and "Nature-Printed
+Sea-weeds." Both of these are however costly. Among the cheaper works
+are "British Sea-weeds," by S. O. Gray (Lovell, Reeve & Co.),
+"Harvey's Manual" and an abridgment by Mrs. A. Gatty, with reduced but
+well executed copies of the figures, of the Phycologia. This synopsis
+can often be picked up cheap at second-hand book-stalls; and there is
+a very excellent low-priced work suitable for amateurs, Grattann's
+"British Marine Algae," containing recognizable figures of nearly all
+our native species. Landsborough's "Popular History of British
+Sea-weeds," and Mrs. Lane Clarke's "Common Sea-weeds," are also cheap
+and useful manuals on the subject.
+
+   [Illustration: Floral design]
+
+
+
+
+SHELLS.
+
+BY
+
+B. B. WOODWARD.
+
+
+[Illustration: POND SNAILS.]
+
+
+
+
+SHELLS.
+
+
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+In the very earliest times, long before there was any attempt at the
+scientific classification and arrangement of shells, they appear to
+have been objects of admiration, and to have been valued on account of
+their beauty, for we find that the pre-historic men, who, in company
+with the mammoth, or hairy elephant, and other animals now extinct,
+inhabited Southern France in days long gone by, used to bore holes in
+them, and, like the savage of to-day, wear them as ornaments. The
+Greek physician and philosopher, Aristotle, is said to have been the
+first to study the formation of shells, and to raise the knowledge
+thus acquired into the position of a science; by him shells were
+divided into three orders--an arrangement preserved, with some small
+changes, by Linnaeus. It is possible that the world-wide renown of the
+Swedish naturalist during the last century, and the ardour with which
+he pursued his investigations, may have given an impetus to the study
+of natural objects, for we find that at that period large sums were
+often given by collectors for choice specimens of shells. Nor is this
+to be wondered at, for few things look nicer, or better repay trouble
+expended on them, than does a well-arranged and carefully mounted and
+named collection of shells. Certainly nothing looks worse than a
+number of shells of all descriptions, of every kind, shape, and
+colour, thrown promiscuously into a box, like the unfortunate animals
+in a toy Noah's ark, to the great detriment of their value and beauty;
+for, as the inevitable result of shaking against each other, the
+natural polish is taken off some, the delicate points and ornaments
+are broken off others, the whole collection becoming in time unsightly
+and disappointing, and all for want of a little care at the outset.
+
+In this, as in every other undertaking, "how to set about it" is the
+chief difficulty with beginners; and here, perhaps, a few hints
+gathered from experience may not be without value. One thing a young
+collector should always bear in mind, however, is, that no
+instructions can be of any avail to him unless, for his part, he is
+prepared to bring patience, neatness, and attention to detail, to bear
+upon his work.
+
+Since it is important to know the best way of storing specimens
+already acquired, we will, in the first place, devote a few words to
+this point, and then proceed to describe the best means of collecting
+specimens, and of naming, mounting, and arranging the same.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO MAKE A CABINET.
+
+
+It is a common mistake, both with old and young, to imagine that a
+handsome cabinet is, in the first instance, a necessity; but no
+greater blunder can be made: the cabinet should be considered merely
+an accessory, the collection itself being just as valuable, and
+generally more useful, when kept in a series of plain wooden or
+cardboard boxes. We intend, therefore, to describe the simplest
+possible means of keeping a collection of shells, leaving elaborate
+and costly methods to those who value the case more than its contents.
+
+The first thing required is some method of keeping the different
+species of shells apart, so that they may not get mixed, or be
+difficult to find when wanted. The simplest plan of doing this is to
+collect all the empty chip match-boxes you can find, throw away the
+cases in which they slide, and keep the trays, trying to get as many
+of a size as possible. (The ordinary Bryant & May's, or Bell &
+Black's, are the most useful, and with them the trays of the small
+Swedish match-boxes, two of which, placed side by side, occupy nearly
+exactly the same space as one and a half of the larger size, and so
+fit in with them nicely.) In these trays your shells should be placed,
+one kind in each tray; but although very convenient for most
+specimens, they will of course be too small for very many, and so the
+larger trays must be made. This may easily be done as follows: cut a
+rectangular piece of cardboard two inches longer one way than the
+length of the match-tray, and two inches more the other way than twice
+the width of the match-tray; then with a pencil rule lines one inch
+from the edges and parallel with them (Fig. 1); next cut out the
+little squares (_a_ _a_, _a_ _a_) these lines form in the corners of
+the piece of cardboard, and then with a penknife cut _half_ through the
+card, exactly on the remaining pencil-lines, and bend up the pieces,
+which will then form sides for your tray; and by binding it round with
+a piece of blue paper, you will have one that will look neat, uniform
+with the others, and yet be just twice their size. If required, you
+can make in the same way any size, only take care that they are all
+multiples of one standard size, as loss of space will thereby be
+avoided when you come to the next process in your cabinet. This is, to
+get a large box or tray in which to hold your smaller ones.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 1. How to cut a cardboard tray.]
+
+      +---+-----------+---+
+      |_a_|           |_a_|
+      +---+-----------+---+
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      |   |           |   |
+      +---+-----------+---+
+      |_a_|           |_a_|
+      +---+-----------+---+
+
+The simplest plan is to get some half-dozen cardboard boxes (such as
+may be obtained for the asking or for a very trifling cost at any
+draper's), having a depth of from one to two inches (according to the
+size of your shells); in these your trays may be arranged in columns,
+and the boxes can be kept one above the other in a cupboard or in a
+larger box. More boxes and trays can, from time to time, be added as
+occasion requires, and thus the whole collection may be kept in good
+working order at a trifling cost. A more durable form of cheap cabinet
+may be made by collecting the wooden boxes so common in grocers'
+shops, cleaning them with sand-paper, staining and varnishing them
+outside, and lining them inside with paper; or, if handy at
+carpentering, you may make all your boxes, or even a real cabinet, for
+yourself.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO COLLECT SHELLS.
+
+
+Provision being thus made for the comfortable accommodation of your
+treasures, the next consideration is, how to set about collecting
+them. Mollusca are to be found all over the globe, from the frozen
+north to the sun-baked tropics, on the land or in lakes, rivers, or
+seas--wherever, in fact, they can find the food and other conditions
+suitable for their growth and development; but the collector who is
+not also a great traveller, must of course rely for his foreign
+specimens upon the generosity of friends, or else procure them from
+dealers. In most districts of our own country, there are, however, to
+be found large numbers of shells whose variety and beauty will
+astonish and reward the efforts of any patient seeker. Begin with your
+own garden,--search in the out-of-the-way, and especially damp,
+corners; turn over the flower-pots and stones which have lain longest
+in one place, search amongst the roots of the grass growing under
+walls, and in the moss round the roots of the trees, and you will be
+surprised at the number of different shells you may find in a very
+short space of time. When the resources of the garden have been
+exhausted, go into the nearest lanes and again search the grass and at
+the roots of plants, especially the nettles which grow beside ditches
+and in damp places; hunt amongst the dead leaves in plantations, and
+literally leave no stone unturned. All the apparatus it is necessary
+to take on these excursions consists of a few small match or
+pill-boxes in which to carry home the specimens; a pair of forceps to
+pick up the smaller ones, or to get them out of cracks; a hooked stick
+to beat down and pull away the nettles; and, above all, sharp eyes
+trained to powers of observation. The best time to go out, is just
+after a warm shower, when all the grass and leaves are still wet, for
+the land-snails are very fond of moisture, and the shower entices them
+out of their lurking-places. Where the ground is made of chalk or
+limestone, they will be found most abundant; for as the snail's shell
+is composed of layers of animal tissue, strengthened by depositions of
+calcareous earthy-matter which the creature gets from the plants on
+which it feeds, and these in their turn obtain from the soil--it
+naturally follows that the snail prefers to dwell where that article
+is most abundant, as an hour's hunt on any chalk-down will soon show.
+
+When garden and lanes are both exhausted, you may then turn to the
+ponds and streams in the neighbourhood, where you will find several
+new kinds. Some will be crawling up the rushes near the margin of the
+water, others will be found in the water near the bank, while others
+may be obtained by pulling on shore pieces of wood and branches that
+may be floating in the water; but the best are sure to be beyond the
+reach of arm or stick, and it will be necessary to employ a net, which
+may be easily made by bending a piece of wire into a circle of about
+four inches in diameter, and sewing to it a small gauze bag; it may be
+mounted either on a long bamboo, or, better still, on one of those
+ingenious Japanese walking-stick fishing-rods. For heavier work,
+however, such as getting fresh-water mussels and other mollusca from
+the bottom, you will require a net something like the accompanying
+figure (Fig. 2), about one foot in diameter. This, when attached to a
+long rope, may be thrown out some distance and dragged through the
+water-weeds to the shore, or if made with a square instead of a
+circular mouth, it may be so weighted that it will sink to the bottom,
+and be used as a dredge for catching the mussels which live
+half-buried in the mud. To carry the water-snails home, you will find
+it necessary to have tin boxes (empty mustard-tins are the best), as
+match-boxes come to pieces when wetted.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 2. Net for taking water-snails.]
+
+The finest collections of shells, however, are to be made at the
+sea-side, for the marine mollusca are both more varied in kind and
+more abundant than the land and fresh-water ones, and quite an
+extensive collection may be made in the course of an afternoon's
+ramble along the shore; it is necessary, however, to carefully reject
+such specimens as are worn by having been rolled by the waves upon the
+beach, as they are not of any great value in a collection; it is
+better, in fact, if possible, to go down to the rocks at low water and
+collect the living specimens. Search well about and under the
+sea-weeds, and in the rock-pools, and, when boating, throw your
+dredge-net out and tow it behind, hauling it in occasionally to see
+what you have caught, and to empty the stones and rubbish out.
+
+At low tide also, look out for rocks with a number of round holes in
+them, all close together, for in these holes the Pholas (Fig. 22)
+dwells, having bored a burrow in the solid rock, though _how_ he does
+it we do not yet quite know.
+
+The Razor-shells and Cockles live in the sand, their presence being
+indicated by a small round hole; but they bury themselves so fast that
+you will find it difficult to get at them. Some good specimens, too,
+of the deeper water forms are sure to be found near the spots where
+fishermen drag their boats ashore, as they are often thrown away in
+clearing out the nets; moreover, if you can make friends with any of
+the said fishermen, they will be able to find and bring you many nice
+specimens from time to time.
+
+The reason that so much has been said about collecting living
+specimens, is not only because in them the shell is more likely to be
+perfect, but also because in its living state the shell is coated with
+a layer of animal matter, sometimes thin and transparent, at others
+thick and opaque, called the _periostracum_ (or _epidermis_), which
+serves to protect the shell from the weather, but which perishes with
+the animal, so that dead shells which have lain for some time
+tenantless on the ground, or at the bottom of the water, exposed to
+the destructive agencies that are constantly at work in nature, have
+almost invariably lost both their natural polish and their varied
+hues, and are besides only too often broken as well. Since, however,
+even a damaged specimen is better than none at all, such should always
+be kept until a more perfect example can be obtained.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREPARE THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+The question with which we have next to deal is, after collecting a
+number of living mollusks, how, in the quickest and most painless
+manner possible, to kill the animals in order to obtain possession of
+their shells. There is but one way we know of in which this may be
+accomplished, and that is by placing the creatures in an earthen jar
+and pouring _boiling_ water on them. With land, or fresh-water snails,
+the addition of a large spoonful of table-salt is advisable, as it
+acts upon them chemically, and not only puts them sooner out of pain,
+but also renders their subsequent extraction far easier. Death by this
+process is instantaneous, and consequently painless; but to leave
+snails in cold salt water is to inflict on them the tortures of a
+lingering death; while for the brutality of gardeners and other
+thoughtless persons who seek to destroy the poor snail they find
+eating their plants by crushing it under foot on the gravel path, no
+words of condemnation are too strong, since it must always be borne in
+mind that snails have not, like us, _one_ nervous centre, but three,
+and are far more tenacious of life; hence, unless all the nerves are
+destroyed at once, a great deal of suffering is entailed on the poor
+creature; and if merely crushed under foot, the mangled portions _will
+live for hours_. Hot water has also the advantage of tending to remove
+the dirt which is almost sure to have gathered on the shells, and so
+helping to prepare them better for the cabinet. As soon as the water
+is cool enough, fish out the shells one by one and proceed to extract
+the dead animals. This, if the mollusk is _univalve_ (_i.e._, whose
+shell is composed of a single piece), such as an ordinary garden
+snail, can easily be done by picking them out with a pin; you will
+find, probably, that some of the smaller ones have shrunk back so far
+into their shells as to be beyond the reach of a straight pin, so it
+will be necessary to bend the pin with a pair of pliers, or, if none
+are at hand, a key will answer the purpose if the pin be put into one
+of the notches and bent over the edge until sufficiently curved to
+reach up the shell. You will find it convenient to keep a set of pins
+bent to different curves, to which you may fit handles by cutting off
+the heads and sticking them into match stems. It is a good plan to
+soak some of the smaller snails in clean cold water before killing
+them, as they swell out with the water, and do not, when dead, retreat
+so far into their shells. If you have a microscope, and wish to keep
+the animals till you have time to get the tongues out, drop the bodies
+into small bottles of methylated spirit and water, when they will keep
+till required, otherwise they should of course be thrown away at once.
+The now empty shells should be washed in clean warm water, and, if
+very dirty, gently scrubbed with a soft nail or tooth brush, and then
+carefully dried.
+
+In such shells as the Periwinkle, Whelk, etc., whose inhabitants close
+the entrance of their dwelling with a trap-door, or _operculum_ as it
+is called, you should be careful to preserve each with its proper
+shell.
+
+If you are cleaning _bivalves_, or shells composed of two pieces, like
+the common mussel, you will have to remove the animal with a penknife,
+and while leaving the inside quite clean, be very careful not to break
+the ligament which serves as a hinge; then wash as before, and tie
+them together to prevent their gaping open when dry.
+
+Sometimes the fresh-water or marine shells are so coated over with a
+vegetable growth that no scrubbing with water alone will remove it,
+and in these cases a weak solution of caustic soda may be used, but
+very carefully, since, if too strong a solution be employed, the
+surface of the shell will be removed with the dirt, and the specimen
+spoilt. In some shells the periostracum is very thick and coarse, and
+must be removed before the shell itself can be seen; but it is always
+well to keep at least one specimen in its rough state as an example.
+In other shells the periostracum is covered over with very fine,
+delicate hairs (_Helix sericea_ and _Helix hispida_, Fig. 3), and
+great care must then be taken not to brush these off.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 3. (_a_) _Helix sericea_ and
+     (_b_) _Helix hispida_.]
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO MOUNT THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+When the specimens are thoroughly cleaned, the next process is to sort
+out the different kinds, placing each description in a different tray,
+and then to get them ready for mounting, for no collection will look
+well unless each kind is so arranged that it may be seen to the best
+advantage, and is also carefully named. Where you have a good number,
+pick out first the largest specimens of their kind, then the smallest,
+then a series, as you have room for them, of the most perfect; and
+finally those which show any peculiarity of structure or marking. Try,
+too, to get young forms as well as adult, for the young are often very
+different in appearance from the full-grown shell. Mark on them,
+especially on such as you have found yourself, the locality they came
+from, as it is very important to the shell collector to know this,
+since specimens common enough in one district are often rare in
+another. Either write the name of the place in ink on a corner of the
+shell itself, or gum a small label just inside it, or simply number
+it, and write the name of the place with a corresponding number
+against it in a book kept for the purpose. Next select a tray large
+enough to hold all you have of this kind; place a piece of cotton wool
+at the bottom, and lay your shells upon it. For small shells, however,
+this method is not suitable, as the cotton wool acts on them like a
+spring mattress, and they are liable on the least shock to be jerked
+out of their trays and lost. This difficulty may be met by cutting a
+piece of cardboard so that it just fits into your tray, and then
+gumming the shells on to it in rows; but remember that, in this plan
+of mounting, it is impossible to take the shells up and examine them
+on all sides as you do the loose ones, and so you must mount a good
+many, and place them in many different positions, so that they may be
+seen from as many points of view as possible. The gum used should
+always have nearly one-sixth of its bulk of pure glycerine added to
+it; this prevents it from becoming brittle when dry, otherwise your
+specimens would be liable after a time to break away from the card and
+get lost. If the shells will not stay in the position you require,
+wedge them up with little pieces of cork until the gum is dry.
+
+When the shells are mounted, you must try, if you have not already
+done so, to get the proper names for them; it is as important to be
+able to call shells by their right names as it is to know people by
+theirs. The commoner sorts you will be able to name from the figures
+of them given in text-books, such as those quoted in the list at the
+end of this little work; but some you will find it very difficult to
+name, and it will then be necessary to ask friends who have
+collections to help you, or to take them to some museum and compare
+them with the named specimens there exhibited. When the right name is
+discovered, your label must then be written in a very small, neat
+hand, and gummed to the edge of the tray or on the card if your
+specimens are mounted. At the top you put the Latin name, ruling a
+line underneath it, and then, if you like, add the English name; next,
+put the name of the place and the date at which it was found, thus:--
+
+  =====================================
+      Helix aspersa (Common snail),
+      -----------------------------
+      Lane near Hampstead Heath,
+      July 10th, 1882.
+  =====================================
+
+A double red ink line ruled at the top and bottom will add a finished
+appearance to it.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO CLASSIFY THE SHELLS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+All the foregoing processes, except the naming of your specimens, are
+more or less mechanical, and are only the means to the end--a properly
+arranged collection. For, however well a collection may be mounted, it
+is practically useless if the different shells composing it be not
+properly classified. By classification is meant the bringing together
+those kinds that most resemble each other, first of all into large
+groups having special characteristics in common, and then by
+subdividing these into other smaller groups, and so on. Thus the
+animal kingdom is divided, first of all, into _Sub-kingdoms_, then
+each _Sub-kingdom_ into so many _Classes_ containing those which have
+further characteristics in common, the _Classes_ into _Orders_, the
+_Orders_ into _Families_, the _Families_ into _Genera_, and these
+again into species or kinds.
+
+The Mollusca, or soft-bodied animals, of whose protecting shells your
+collection consists, form a sub-kingdom, and are subdivided into four
+classes:--
+
+  1. Cephalopoda.
+  2. Gasteropoda.
+  3. Pteropoda.
+  4. Lamellibranchiata (or Conchifera).
+
+And these again into Families, Genera, and Species.
+
+The space at our disposal being limited, it is impossible to do more
+than furnish some general outlines of the different forms. For further
+details it will be necessary to refer to one of the larger works, a
+list of which will be found on the last page.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 4. _Argonauta Argo._]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 5. "Bone" of _Sepia officinalis_.]
+
+
+CLASS I.--The CEPHALOPODA (Head-footed) contains those mollusca that,
+like the common Octopus, have a number of feet (or arms) set round
+the mouth, and is divided into those having two gills. (Order I.
+Dibranchiata); and those with four (Order II. Tetrabranchiata). Order
+I. is again divided into: (_a._) Those with _eight_ feet like the
+Argonaut (or Paper-nautilus, Fig. 4), which fable has so long endowed
+with the power of sailing on the surface of the ocean, (it is even
+represented in one book as propelling itself through the air!) and the
+common Octopus. (_b._) Those with _ten_ feet, such as the Loligo (or
+Squid, Fig. 6), whose delicate internal shell so much resembles a pen
+in shape; the Cuttle-fish (Sepia, Figs. 5 & 7), whose so-called
+"bone" (once largely used as an ink eraser) is frequently found on our
+southern coasts; and the pretty little _Spirula_ (Fig. 8).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 6. _Loligo vulgaris_, and "Pen."]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 7. _Sepia officinalis._]
+
+The only representative of the four-gilled order now living is the
+well-known Pearly Nautilus; but in former times the Tetrabranchiata
+were extremely numerous, especially the _Ammonites_.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 8. _Spirula_.]
+
+
+CLASS II.--GASTEROPODA (Belly-footed) comprises those mollusca which,
+like the common snail, creep on the under-surface of the body, and
+with one exception (_Chiton_, Fig. 20) their shells are univalve
+(_i.e._, composed of one piece). But before we go further, it may be
+well to point out the names given to different parts of a univalve
+shell. The aperture whence the animal issues is called the _mouth_,
+and its outer edge the _lip_; each turn of the shell is a _whorl_; the
+last and biggest, the _body-whorl_, the whorls, from the point at the
+top, or _apex_, down to the mouth form the _spire_; and the line where
+the whorls join each other is called the _suture_. The axis of the
+shell around which the whorls are coiled is sometimes open or hollow,
+and the shell is then said to be _umbilicated_ (as in Fig. 3_b_); when
+closely coiled, a pillar of shell, or _columella_, is left (as in Fig.
+9). Sometimes the corner of the mouth farthest from the spire and
+next the columella, is produced into a channel, the _anterior canal_
+(as in Fig. 9); whilst where the mouth meets the base of the spire
+there may be a kind of notch which is termed the _posterior canal_.
+Most Gasteropods are _dextral_, that is to say, the mouth is to the
+right of the axis as you look at it; a few, however, are _sinistral_,
+or wound to the left (like _Physa_); whilst reversed varieties of both
+kinds are met with.
+
+Gasteropods of the first order have comb-like gills placed in advance
+of the heart, and are hence termed PROSOBRANCHIATA. They are divided
+into two groups: (_a_) _Siphonostomata_ (Tube-mouthed), in which the
+animal has a long proboscis, and a tube, or siphon, from the
+breathing-chamber that passes along the anterior canal of the shell,
+which in this group is well developed. They have a horny operculum, or
+lid, with which to close the aperture. (_b_) _Holostomata_ (or
+Whole-mouthed). In these the siphon is not so produced, and does not
+want to be protected; accordingly the mouth of the shell is _entire_,
+_i.e._ has no canal. The operculum is horny or shelly. The former
+(group _a_) includes several families:
+
+1. _Strombidae_, comprising shells, like the huge _Strombus_, or
+"Fountain-shell," which is so often used to adorn the mantelpiece or
+rockery, and from which cameos are cut.
+
+2. The _Muricidae_, of which the _Murex_ (an extraordinary form of this
+is the "Venus' comb," _Murex tenuispina_, Fig. 9), the Mitre-shells,
+and the Red-Whelks (_Fusus_) are examples.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 9. _Murex tenuispina._]
+
+3. The _Buccinidae_, taking its name from its type, the Common Whelk
+(_Buccinum undatum_), and including such other forms as the Dog-Whelk
+(_Nassa_), the _Purpura_, the strange _Magilus_, and the lovely
+Harp-Shells and Olives (Fig. 10).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 10. _Oliva tessellata._]
+
+4. The _Cassididae_, or "Helmet-Shells." _Cassis rufa_, from West
+Africa, is noted as the best species of shell for cameo engraving;
+with it are classed the "Tun" (_Dolium_) and the great "Triton"
+(_Triton tritonis_), such as the sea-gods of mythology are represented
+blowing into by way of trumpet, and which are used by the Polynesian
+Islanders to this day instead of horns.
+
+5. The _Conidae_, whose type, the "Cone-shell" (Fig. 11), is at once
+distinctive and handsome, but which in the living state is covered by
+a dull yellowish-brown periostracum that has to be carefully removed
+before the full beauties of the shell are displayed.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 11. Conus vermiculatus.]
+
+6. The _Volutidae_, embracing the Volutes and "Boat-shells" (_Cymba_).
+
+7. The _Cypraeidae_, or Cowries (Fig. 12), which owe their high polish
+to the size of the shell-secreting organ (mantle), whose edges meet
+over the back of the shell, concealing it within its folds. With these
+is classed the "China-shell" (_Ovulum_).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 12. Cypraea oniscus.]
+
+The second group, or _Holostomata_, is divided into nineteen families,
+beginning with--
+
+1. The _Naticidae_, whose type, the genus _Natica_, is well known to
+all shell-collectors through the common _Natica monilifera_ of our
+coasts.
+
+2. The _Cancellariadae_, in which the shells are cancellated or
+cross-barred by a double series of lines running, one set with the
+whorls, and the other across them.
+
+3. The _Pyramidellidae_, which are high-spired, elongated, and slender
+shells, with the exception of the genus _Stylina_, which lives
+attached to the spines of sea-urchins or buried in living star-fishes
+and corals. 4. The _Solaridae_ or "Staircase-shells," whose umbilicus
+is so wide that, as you look down it, the projecting edges of the
+whorls appear like a winding staircase. It is a very short-spired
+shell.
+
+5. The _Scalaridae_, "Wentle-traps" or "Ladder-shells," which may be
+readily recognised from their white and lustrous appearance and the
+strong rib-like markings of the periodic mouths that encircle the
+whorls.
+
+6. The _Cerithiadae_, or "Horn-shells," which are very high-spired, and
+whose columella and anterior canal are produced in the form of an
+impudent little tail, the effect of which, however, in the genus
+_Aporrhais_, or "Spout-shells," is taken away by the expanded and
+thickened lip.
+
+7. In the next family, the _Turritellidae_, or "Tower-shells," the type
+Turritella is spiral; but in the allied form _Vermetus_, though the
+spire begins in the natural manner, it goes off into a twisted tube
+resembling somewhat an ill-made corkscrew. The mouth in this family is
+often nearly round.
+
+8. The _Melaniadae_, and 9. The _Paludinidae_, are fresh-water shells.
+The former are turreted, and the latter conical or globular. Both are
+furnished with opercula, but the mouth in the first is more or less
+oval and frequently notched in front, while in the latter it is
+rounded and entire.
+
+10. The _Litorinidae_, or Periwinkles, need no word from us.
+
+11. The _Calyptraeidae_ comprise the "Bonnet-limpet," or _Pileopsis_,
+and "Cup-and-saucer-limpets" (_Calyptraea_). They may be described
+briefly as limpets with traces of a spire left. The genus _Phorus_,
+however, is spiral, and resembles a _Trochus_. They have been called
+"Carriers" from their strange habit of building any stray fragments of
+shell or stone into their house, thus rendering themselves almost
+indistinguishable from the ground on which they crawl.
+
+12. The _Turbinidae_, or "Top-shells," are next in order, and of these
+the great _Turbo marmoreus_ is a well-known example, being prepared as
+an ornament for the whatnot or mantelpiece by removing the external
+layer of the shell in order to display the brilliant pearly nacre
+below. These mollusca close their mouths with a horny operculum,
+coated on its exterior by a thick layer of porcelain-like shelly
+matter. With them are classed the familiar _Trochus_ and other closely
+allied genera.
+
+13. The _Haliotidae_ offer in the representative genus _Haliotis_, or
+the "Ear-shell," another familiar mantelpiece ornament.
+
+14. The _Ianthinidae_, or "Violet-snails," that float about in
+mid-Atlantic upon the gulf-weed, and at certain seasons secrete a
+curious float or raft, to which their eggs are attached, are next in
+order, and are followed by--
+
+15. The _Fissurellidae_, or "Key-hole" and "Notched limpets," whose
+name sufficiently describes them. To these succeed--
+
+16. The _Neritidae_, an unmistakable group of globular shells, having
+next to no spire and a very glossy exterior, generally ornamented with
+a great variety of spots and bands.
+
+17. The _Patellidae_, or true Limpets, are well known to every sea-side
+visitor: large species, as much as two inches across, are to be found
+on the coast of Devon, but these are pigmies compared with a South
+American variety which attains a foot in diameter.
+
+18. The _Dentaliadae_, represented by the genus _Dentalium_, or
+"Tooth-shell," are simply slightly curved tubes, open at both ends and
+tapering from the mouth downwards, and cannot be mistaken.
+
+19. Lastly, we have the _Chitonidae_, whose single genus _Chiton_
+possesses shells differing from all other mollusca in being composed
+of eight plates overlapping each other, and in appearance reminding
+one of the wood-louse. This animal is not only like the limpet in form
+but also in habits, being found adhering to the rocks and stones at
+low-water.
+
+
+Order II.--PULMONIFERA. Contains the air-breathing _Gasteropods_, and
+to it consequently belong all the terrestrial mollusca, though some
+few aquatic genera are also included. The members of this order have
+an air-chamber instead of gills, and are divided into two groups,
+(_a_) those without an operculum, and (_b_) those having an operculum.
+Foremost in the first group stands the great family--
+
+1. _Helicidae_, named after its chief representative, the genus
+_Helix_. It also includes the "Glass-shell" (_Vitrina_), the
+"Amber-shell" (_Succinea_), and such genera as _Bulimus_, _Achatina_,
+_Pupa_, _Clausilia_ (Fig. 13), etc., which differ from the typical
+_Helix_ in appearance, possessing as they do comparatively high
+spires.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 13. _Clausilia biplicata._]
+
+2. The _Limacidae_, or "slugs," follow next; of these only one, the
+genus _Testacella_, has an external shell stuck on the end of its
+tail; the rest have either a more or less imperfect shell concealed
+underneath the mantle, or else none at all.
+
+3. The _Oncidiadae_ are slug-like, and devoid of shell.
+
+4. The _Limnaeidae_ embrace the "Pond-snails," chief of whom is the
+well-known, high-spired _Limnaea stagnalis_. Other shells of this
+family associated with _Limnaea_ are, however, very different in shape;
+for instance, _Physa_ has its whorls turning to the left instead of to
+the right; _Ancylus_ (Fig. 24), or the freshwater limpet, is of course
+limpet-like; while _Planorbis_, or the "Coil-shell," is wound like a
+watch-spring.
+
+5. The _Auriculidae_ includes both spiral shells, such as _Auricula_
+and _Charychium_, and a limpet-like one _Siphonaria_.
+
+At the head of group _b_ stands 1, _Cyclostomidae_. _Cyclostoma
+elegans_ is a common shell on our chalk-downs, and well illustrates
+its family, in which the mouth is nearly circular. Foreign examples of
+this genus are much esteemed by collectors. The other two families
+are, (2) _Helicinidae_ and (3) _Aciculidae_.
+
+
+Order III.--OPISTHOBRANCHIATA. These animals carry their gills exposed
+on the back and sides, towards the rear of the body. Only a few have
+any shell. 1. The _Tornatellidae_, which have a stout little spiral
+shell. 2. The _Bullidae_, in which the spire is concealed (Fig. 26). 3.
+The _Aplysiadae_, where the shell is flat and oblong or triangular in
+shape. The remaining families are slug-like and shell-less.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 14. _Bulla ampulla._]
+
+
+Order IV.--NUCLEOBRANCHIATA. Derives its name from the fact that the
+animals constituting it have their respiratory and digestive organs in
+a sort of nucleus on the posterior part of the back, and covered by a
+minute shell. As they are pelagic, the shells are not readily to be
+obtained. They are divided into two families, _Firolidae_ and
+_Atlantidae_.
+
+
+CLASS III.--PTEROPODA. Like the last, these pretty little mollusca are
+ocean-swimmers. The members of one division of them, to which the
+_Cleodora_ belongs, is furnished with iridescent external shells.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 15. _Petunculus guerangeri._]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 16. _Venus plicata._]
+
+
+CLASS IV.--The LAMELLIBRANCHIATA (Plate-gilled), or CONCHIFERA
+(Shell-bearing), includes the mollusca commonly known as "bivalves,"
+the animal being snugly hidden between two more or less closely
+fitting shelly valves. The oysters, cockles, etc., are examples of
+this class. The two valves are fastened together near their points, or
+beaks (technically called _umbones_), by a tough elastic ligament,
+sometimes supplemented by an internal cartilage. If this be severed
+and the valves parted, it will be found that in most cases they are
+further articulated by projecting ridges or points called the _teeth_,
+which, when the valves are together, interlock and form a hinge; the
+margin of the shell on which the teeth and ligament are situated is
+termed the _hinge-line_. A bivalve is said to be _equivalve_ when the
+two shells composing it are of the same size, _inequivalve_ when they
+are not. If the umbones are in the middle, the shell is _equilateral_
+(Fig. 15); but _inequilateral_ when they are nearer one side than the
+other (Fig. 16). If the shell be an oyster or a scallop, you will find
+on the inside a single circular scar-like mark near the centre; this
+is the point to which the muscles that close the valves and hold them
+so tightly together are attached. In the majority of bivalves,
+however, there are two such muscular impressions, or scars, one on
+either side of each valve of the shell. The former group on this
+account are often called _Monomyaria_ (having one shell-muscle), and
+the latter _Dimyaria_ (having two shell-muscles). In the last named
+the two muscular impressions are united by a fine groove (or
+_pallial-line_), which in some runs parallel to the margin of the
+shell (Fig. 15), whilst in others it makes a bend in (_pallial-sinus_)
+on one side of the valve towards the centre (Fig. 16). In Monomyaria
+it will be found running parallel to the margin of the shell. It marks
+the line of attachment of the mantle or shell-secreting organ of the
+animal to the shell which grows by the addition of fresh matter along
+its edges, so that the concentric curved markings so often seen on the
+exterior correspond in their origin with the periodic mouths of the
+Gasteropods. The bivalves are all aquatic, and many bury themselves in
+the sand or mud by means of a fleshy, muscular foot. These are
+furnished with two siphons, or fleshy tubes, sometimes united,
+sometimes separate, through which they respire, drawing the water in
+through one and expelling it by the other. Those kinds whose habit it
+is to bury themselves below the surface of the mud or sand are
+furnished with long retractile siphons, and to admit of their
+withdrawal into the shell, the mantle is at this point attached
+farther back, giving rise to the _pallial-sinus_ above described; this
+sinus is deeper as the siphons are proportionately longer, and in
+many cases, too, the valves do not meet at this point when the shell
+is closed.
+
+Attention to these particulars is necessary when arranging your
+bivalves, as on them their classification depends, the class being
+divided into--
+
+_a._ ASIPHONIDA (Siphonless).
+
+_b._ SIPHONIDA _Integro-pallialia_ (with Siphons).--Pallial-line entire.
+
+_c._ SIPHONIDA _Sinu-pallialia_ (with Siphons).--Sinus in pallial-line.
+
+
+DIVISION _a_.--ASIPHONIDA--is next subdivided into--
+
+1. The _Ostreidae_, or oysters, which are deservedly a distinct family
+in themselves.
+
+2. The _Anomiadae_, comprising the multiform and curiously constructed
+_Anomia_, with the "Window-shells" (_Placuna_).
+
+3. The _Pectinidae_, taking its name from the genus _Pecten_, or
+"Scallop-shells," of which one kind (_P. maximus_) is frequently to be
+seen at the fishmongers' shops. The "Thorney oysters" (_Spondylus_)
+take rank here, and are highly esteemed by collectors, one specimen
+indeed having been valued at L25!
+
+4. The _Aviculidae_, or "Wing-shells," among which are numbered the
+"Pearl-oyster" of commerce (_Meleagrina margaritifera_). The strange
+T-shaped "Hammer oyster" belongs to this family, as does also the
+_Pinna_. The Pinnas, like the mussels and some other bivalves, moor
+themselves to rocks by means of a number of threads spun by the foot
+of the mollusc, and termed the _byssus_, which in this genus is finer,
+more silky, than in any other, and has been woven into articles of
+dress.
+
+5. The _Mytilidae_, or mussels, including the _Lithodomus_, or
+"Date-shell," which bores into corals and even hard limestone rocks.
+
+  [Illustration: Fig. 17. Hinge-teeth of _Arca barbata_.]
+
+6. The _Arcadae_, or "Noah's-ark-shells," characterized by their long
+straight hinge-line set with numerous very fine teeth (Fig. 17). The
+"Nut-shell" (_Nucula_) belongs to this family.
+
+7. The _Trigoniadae_, whose single living genus, the handsome _Trigonia_
+(Fig. 18), is confined to the Australian coast-line, whereas in times
+now long past they had a world-wide distribution.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 18. _Trigonia margaritacea._]
+
+8. The _Unionidae_, comprising the fresh-water mussels.
+
+
+DIVISION _b_.--SIPHONIDA _Integropallialia_.
+
+1. The _Chamidae_, represented by the reef-dwelling _Chama_.
+
+2. The _Tridacnidae_, whose sole genus _Tridacna_ contains the largest
+specimen of the whole class of bivalves, the shells sometimes
+measuring two feet and more across.
+
+3. The _Cardiadae_, or cockles.
+
+4. The _Lucinidae_, in which the valves are nearly circular, and as a
+rule not very attractive in appearance, though the "Basket-shell"
+(_Corbis_) has an elegantly sculptured exterior.
+
+5. The _Cycladidae_, whose typical genus _Cyclas_, with its round form
+and thin horny shell, is to be found in most of our ponds and streams.
+
+6. The _Astartidae_, a family of shells having very strongly developed
+teeth, and the surface of whose valves is often concentrically ribbed.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 19. Hinge of _Cardita sinuata_.]
+
+7. The _Cyprinidae_, which have very solid oval or elongated shells and
+conspicuous teeth (Fig. 19). The "Heart-cockle" (_Isocardia_) belongs to
+this family.
+
+
+DIVISION _c_.--SIPHONIDA _Sinu-pallialia_.
+
+1. The _Veneridae_. The hard, solid shells of this family are for
+elegance of form and beauty of colour amongst the most attractive a
+collector can posses. Their shells are more or less oval and have
+three teeth in each valve (Fig. 20).
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 20. Hinge of _Cytherea crycina_.]
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 21. Hinge of _Lutraria elliptica_]
+
+2. The _Mactridae_ are somewhat triangular in shape, and may be at once
+recognised by the pit for the hinge-ligament, which also assumes that
+form, as seen in the accompanying figure of _Lutraria elliptica_
+(Fig. 21).
+
+3. The _Tellinidae_ comprise some of the most delicately tinted, both
+externally and internally, of all shells. In some, coloured bands
+radiate from the umbones, and well bear out the fanciful name of
+"Sunset shells" bestowed upon them. Their valves are generally much
+compressed.
+
+4. The _Solenidae_, or "Razor-shells," rank next, and are readily
+recognised by the extreme length of the valves in proportion to their
+width, and also by their gaping at both ends.
+
+5. The _Myacidae_ or "Gapers," have the siphonal ends wide apart (in
+the genus _Mya_ both ends gape), and are further characterized by the
+triangular process for the cartilage, which projects into the interior
+of the shell. One valve (the left) is generally smaller than the
+other.
+
+6. The _Anatinidae_ have thin, often inequivalve pearly shells. The
+genus _Pandora_ is the form most frequently met with in collections.
+
+7. The _Gastrochaenidae_ embraces two genera (_Gastrochaena_ and
+_Saxicava_) of boring mollusca, which perforate shells and rocks, and
+also, the remarkable tube-like "Watering-pot-shell" (_Aspergillum_)
+which is hardly recognisable as a bivalve at all.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 22. _Pholas dactylus._]
+
+8. The _Pholadidae_ concludes the list of bivalves, and comprises the
+common rock-boring Pholas (Fig. 22) of our coasts and the wood-boring
+shipworm "Teredo" (Fig. 23).
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Although the _Brachiopoda_, or "Lamp-shells," are not true mollusca,
+they are not very far removed from them, and are so often to be found
+in cabinets that it will not do to pass them over, especially since in
+past times they were very abundant, an enormous number occurring in
+the fossil state. Only eight genera are now living. Shells belonging
+to this class are readily recognised by the fact of one valve being
+larger than the other, and possessing a distinct peak, the apex of
+which is perforated. The _Terebratulidae_ are the most extensive family
+of this class.
+
+   [Illustration: Fig. 23. _Teredo navalis._]
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO ARRANGE THE SHELLS IN THE CABINET.
+
+
+When you have arranged your specimens in the order above indicated,
+proceed to place them in your boxes, arranging and labelling them after
+the manner shown in the accompanying diagram.
+
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |  Class.  |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+ Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  |  Order.  |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |  Family  |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Name.   |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+ Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  | Generic  |          |          |          |          |
+  |  Name.   |          |          +----------+          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+  Family  +----------+
+  |          |          |          |  Name.   |          |
+  | Species. | Species. | Species. +----------+ Species. |
+  |          |          |          | Generic  |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+  Name.   +----------+
+  |          |          |          +----------+          |
+  |          | Generic  |          |          |          |
+  | Species. |  Name.   | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |          |          |          | Generic  |
+  | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |  Name.   |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |          | Generic  |          |          |
+  | Species. | Species. |  Name.   | Species. | Species. |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. | Species. |
+  |          |          |          |          |          |
+  +----------+----------+----------+----------+----------+
+
+On the lid, or on a slip of paper or card placed at the head of your
+columns of trays, write the class and order, with its proper number
+(I., II., etc., as the case may be); then at the top of your left-hand
+column place the family and its number, and under it the name of the
+first genus. The species (one in each tray) come next, then the name
+of the next genus following it, succeeded by its species, and so on.
+
+The object of the young collector should be to obtain examples of as
+many _genera_ as possible, since a collection in which a great number
+of genera are represented is far more useful and instructive than one
+composed of a great many species referable to but few genera. He will
+also find it very convenient to separate the British Shells from his
+general collection, sub-dividing them for convenience into "Land and
+Fresh-water," and "Marine." Of these he should endeavour to get every
+species, and even variety, making the thing as complete as possible.
+Or a separate collection may be made of all those kinds which he can
+find within a certain distance of his own home. A collection of this
+sort possesses, in addition to its scientific worth, an interest of
+its own, owing to the local associations that invariably connect
+themselves with it.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF SOME OF THE MORE IMPORTANT GENERA, SHOWING THE APPROXIMATE
+NUMBER OF SPECIES BELONGING TO EACH GENUS AND THEIR DISTRIBUTION.
+
+
+
+CLASS I.--CEPHALOPODA.
+
+
+  ORDER I.--Dibranchiata.
+
+  Section A.--_Octopoda._
+
+  Family.  Genus.      No. of Species.  Distribution.
+
+    1.     Argonauta        4           Tropical seas.
+    2.     Octopus         46           Rocky coasts in temperate and
+                                         tropical regions.
+  Section B.--_Decapoda_.
+
+    3.     Loligo          19           Cosmopolitan.
+    4.     Sepia           30           On all coasts.
+    5.     Spirula          3           All the warmer seas.
+
+
+  ORDER II.--_Tetrabranchiata_.
+
+    6.     Nautilus         3 or 4      Chinese Seas, Indian Ocean,
+                                         Persian Gulf.
+
+
+
+CLASS II.--GASTEROPODA.
+
+
+  ORDER I.--Prosobranchiata.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Siphonostomata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+    1.     Strombus       60      W. Indies, Mediterranean, Red Sea,
+                                   Indian Ocean, Pacific--low water
+                                   to 10 fathoms.
+           Pteroceras     12      India, China.
+    2.     Murex         180      On all coasts.
+           Columbella    200      Sub-tropical regions, in shallow
+                                   water on stones.
+           Mitra         350      Tropical regions, from low water
+                                   to 80 fathoms.
+           Fusus         100      On all coasts.
+    3.     Buccinum       20      Northern seas, from low water to
+                                   140 fathoms.
+           Eburna          9      Red Sea, India, Australia, China,
+                                   Cape of Good Hope.
+           Nassa         210      World-wide--low water to 50 fathoms.
+           Purpura       140      World-wide--low water to 25 fathoms.
+           Harpa           9      Tropical--deep water, sand, muddy
+                                   bottoms.
+           Oliva         117      Sub-tropical--low water to 25 fathoms.
+    4.     Cassis         34      Tropical regions, in shallow water.
+           Dolium         15      Mediterranean, India, China, W.
+                                   Indies, Brazil, New Guinea, Pacific.
+           Triton        100      Temperate and sub-tropical regions,
+                                   from low water to 50 fathoms.
+           Ranella        50      Tropical regions, on rocks and
+                                   coral-reefs.
+           Pyrula         40      Sub-tropical regions, in 17 to 35
+                                   fathoms.
+    5.     Conus         300      Equatorial seas--shallow water to 50
+                                   fathoms.
+           Pleurotoma    500      Almost world-wide--low water to 100
+                                   fathoms.
+    6.     Voluta        100      On tropical coasts, from the shore to
+                                   100 fathoms.
+           Cymba          10      West Coast of Africa, Lisbon, Straits
+                                   of Gibraltar.
+           Marginella     90      Mostly tropical.
+    7.     Cypraea        150      Warmer seas of the globe, on rocks
+                                   and coral-reefs.
+           Ovulum         36      Britain, Mediterranean, W. Indies,
+                                   China, W. America.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Holostomata._
+
+    8.     Natica         90      Arctic to tropical regions, on sandy
+                                   and gravelly bottoms, from low water
+                                   to 90 feet.
+           Sigaretus      26      E. and W. Indies, China, Peru.
+    9.     Cancellaria    70      W. Indies, China, S. America, E.
+                                   Archipelago--low water to 40 fathoms.
+   10.     Pyramidella    11      W. Indies, Mauritius, Australia, in
+                                   sandy bays and on shallow mud-banks.
+           Odostomia      35      Britain, Mediterranean, and
+                                   Madeira--low water to 50 fathoms.
+           Chemnitzia     70      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+           Eulima         26      Cuba, Norway, Britain, India,
+                                   Mediterranean, Australia--5
+                                   to 90 fathoms.
+   11.     Solarium       25      Sub-tropical and tropical--widely
+                                   distributed.
+   12.     Scalaria      100      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+   13.     Cerithium     100      World-wide.
+           Potamides      41      Africa and India, in mud of large
+                                   rivers.
+           Aporrhais       3      Labrador, Norway, Britain,
+                                   Mediterranean--20 to 100 fathoms.
+   14.     Turritella     50      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+           Vermetus       31      Portugal, Mediterranean, Africa,
+                                   India.
+   15.     Melania       160      S. Europe, India, Philippines and
+                                   Pacific Islands--in rivers.
+           Melanopsis     20      Spain, Australia, Asia Minor, New
+                                   Zealand--in rivers.
+   16.     Paludina       60      Northern Hemispheres, Africa, India,
+                                   China, etc.--in lakes and rivers.
+           Ampullaria     50      S. America, W. Indies, Africa,
+                                   India--in lakes and rivers.
+   17.     Litorina       40      On all shores.
+           Rissoa         70      World-wide--in shallow water on
+                                   sea-weed to 100 fathoms.
+   18.     Calyptrea      50      World-wide--adherent to rocks, etc.
+           Crepidula      40      West Indies, Mediterranean, Cape of
+                                    Good Hope, Australia.
+           Pileopsis       7      Britain, Norway, Mediterranean, E.
+                                   and W. Indies, Australia.
+           Hipponyx       70      W. Indies, Galapagos, Philippines,
+                                   Australia.
+           Phorus          9      W. Indies, India, Javan and Chinese
+                                   Seas--in deep water.
+   19.     Turbo          60      On the shores of Tropical seas.
+           Phasinella     30      Australia, Pacific, W. Indies,
+                                    Mediterranean.
+           Imperator      20      S. Africa, India, etc.
+           Trochus       150      World-wide--from low water to 100
+                                   fathoms.
+           Rotella        18      India, Philippines, China, New
+                                   Zealand.
+           Stomatella     20      Cape, India, Australia, etc.
+   20.     Haliotis       75      Britain, Canaries, India, Australia,
+                                    California--on rocks at low water.
+           Stomatia       12      Java, Philippines, Pacific, etc.--
+                                   under stones at low water.
+   21.     Ianthina        6      Gregarious in the open seas of the
+                                   Atlantic and Pacific.
+   22.     Fissurella    120      World-wide--on rocks from low water
+                                   to 5 fathoms.
+           Emarginula     26      Britain, Norway, Philippines,
+                                   Australia--from low water to
+                                   90 fathoms.
+   23.     Nerita        116      On the shores of all warm seas.
+           Neritina      110      In fresh waters of all warm countries,
+                                   and in Britain.
+           Navicella      24      India, Mauritius, Moluccas, Australia,
+                                   Pacific--in fresh water, attached
+                                   to stones.
+   24.     Patella       100      On all coasts--adhering to stones and
+                                   rocks.
+   25.     Dentalium      30      World-wide--buried in mud.
+   26.     Chiton        200      World-wide--low water to 100 fathoms.
+
+
+  ORDER II.--Pulmonifera.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Inoperculata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+   27.     Helix       1,600 }
+           Succinea       68 }    World-wide--on land in moist places.
+           Bulimus       650 }
+           Achatina      120      World-wide--burrowing at roots and
+                                   bulbs.
+           Pupa          236      World-wide--amongst wet moss.
+           Clausilia     400      Europe and Asia--in moist spots.
+   28.     Limax          22      Europe and Canaries--on land in damp
+                                   localities.
+           Testacella      3      S. Europe, Canaries, and Britain--
+                                   burrowing in gardens.
+   29.     Oncidium       16      Britain, Red Sea, Mediterranean--on
+                                   rocks on the seashore.
+   30.     Limnaea         50      Europe, Madeira, India, China, N.
+                                   America--in ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.
+           Physa          20      America, Europe, S. Africa, India,
+                                   Philippines--in ponds, rivers,
+                                   lakes, etc.
+           Ancylus        14      Europe, N. and S. America--in ponds,
+                                   rivers, lakes, etc.
+           Planorbis     145      Europe, N. America, India, China--in
+                                   ponds, rivers, lakes, etc.
+   31.     Auricula       50      Tropical--in salt marshes.
+           Siphonaria     30      World-wide--between high and low water.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Operculata._
+
+   32.     Cyclostoma     80      S. Europe, Africa        }
+           Cyclophorus   100      India, Philippines       }--on land.
+           Pupina         80      Philippines, New Guinea  }
+   33.     Helicina      150      W. Indies, Philippines, Central
+                                   America, Islands in Pacific--on land.
+   34.     Acicula         5      Britain, Europe, Vanicoro--on leaves
+                                   and at roots of grass.
+           Geomelania     21      Jamaica--on land.
+
+
+  ORDER III.--Opisthobranchiata.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Tectibranchiata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+   35.     Tornatella     16      Red Sea, Philippines, Japan--in deep
+                                   water.
+   36.     Bulla          50      Widely distributed--low water to 30
+                                   fathoms.
+   37.     Aplysia        40      Britain, Norway, W. Indies--low water
+                                   to 15 fathoms on sea-weed.
+   38.     Pleurobranchus 20      Britain, Norway, Mediterranean.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Nudibranchiata._
+
+   39-44.                         All shell-less.
+
+
+  ORDER IV.--Nucleobranchiata.
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+   45.     Firola          8      Atlantic, Mediterranean.
+           Carinaria       5      Atlantic and Indian Oceans.
+   46.     Atlanta        15      Warmer parts of the Atlantic.
+
+
+
+CLASS III.--PTEROPODA.
+
+
+  Division _a_.--_Thecosomata._
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+    1.     Hyalea         19 }
+           Cleodora       12 }    Atlantic, Mediterranean, Indian Ocean.
+    2.     Limacina        2      Arctic and Antarctic Seas.
+
+
+  Division _b_.--_Gymnosomata._
+
+    3.     Clio, etc.             Shell-less.
+
+
+
+CLASS IV.--LAMELLIBRANCHIATA.
+
+
+                       No. of
+  Family.  Genus.      Species.   Distribution.
+
+  Division _a_.--_Asiphonida._
+
+    1.    Ostrea         100      World-wide--in estuaries, attached.
+    2.    Anomia          20      India, Australia, China, Ceylon--
+                                   attached to shells from low water
+                                   to 100 fathoms.
+          Placuna          4      Scinde, North Australia, China--in
+                                   brackish water.
+    3.    Pecten         176      World-wide--from 3 to 40 fathoms.
+          Lima            20      Norway, Britain, India, Australia--
+                                   from 1 to 150 fathoms.
+          Spondylus       70      Tropical seas--attached to coral-reefs.
+    4.    Avicula         25      Britain, Mediterranean, India--
+                                   25 fathoms.
+          Perna           18      In tropical seas--attached.
+          Pinna           30      United States, Britain, Mediterranean,
+                                   Australia, Pacific--low water to
+                                   60 fathoms.
+    5.    Mytilus         70      World-wide--between high and low water
+                                   mark.
+          Modiola         70      British and tropical seas--low water
+                                   to 100 fathoms.
+    6.    Arca           400      In warm seas--from low water to 200
+                                   fathoms.
+          Pectunculus     58      West Indies, Britain, New Zealand--
+                                   from 8 to 60 fathoms.
+          Nucula          70      Norway, Japan--from 5 to 100 fathoms.
+    7.    Trigonia         3      Off the coast of Australia.
+    8.    Unio           420      World-wide--in fresh waters.
+          Anodon         100      North America, Europe, Siberia--in
+                                   fresh waters.
+
+  Division _b_.--_Siphonida._
+
+    9.    Chama           50      In tropical seas on coral reefs.
+   10.    Tridacna         7      Indian and Pacific Oceans, Chinese Seas.
+   11.    Cardium        200      World-wide--from the shore line to
+                                   140 fathoms.
+   12.    Lucina          70      Tropical and temperate seas--sandy and
+                                   muddy bottoms--from low water to
+                                   200 fathoms.
+          Kellia          20      Norway, New Zealand, California--low
+                                   water to 200 fathoms.
+   13.    Cyclas          60      Temperate regions--in all fresh waters.
+          Cyrena         130      From the Nile and other rivers to
+                                   China--and in mangrove swamps.
+   14.    Astarte         20      Mostly Arctic--from 30 to 112 fathoms.
+          Crassatella     34      Australia, Philippines, Africa, etc.
+   15.    Cyprina          1      From Britain to the most northerly
+                                   point yet reached--from 5 to
+                                   80 fathoms.
+          Circe           40      Britain, Australia, India, Red Sea--
+                                   8 to 50 fathoms.
+          Isocardia        5      Mediterranean, China, Japan--burrowing
+                                   in sand.
+          Cardita         54      Tropical seas--from shallow water to
+                                   150 fathoms.
+    16.   Venus          176    } World-wide--buried in sand, from low
+          Cytherea       113    }  water to 100 fathoms.
+          Artemis        100      Northern to tropical seas--from low
+                                   water to 100 fathoms.
+          Tapes           80      Widely distributed--burrowing in sand,
+                                   from low water to 100 fathoms.
+          Venerupis       20      Britain, Canaries, India, Peru--in
+                                   crevices of rocks.
+    17.   Mactra         125      World-wide--burrowing in sand.
+          Lutraria        18      Widely distributed--burrowing in sand.
+    18.   Tellina        300      In all seas--from the shore line to
+                                   15 fathoms.
+          Psammobia       50      Britain, Pacific and Indian Oceans--
+                                   from the littoral zone to 100 fathoms.
+          Sanguinolaria   20      W. Indies, Australia, Peru.
+          Semele          60      Brazil, India, China, etc.
+          Donax           68      Norway, Baltic, Britain--in sand near
+                                   low water mark.
+    19.   Solen           33      World-wide--burrowing in sand.
+          Solecurtus      25      Britain, Africa, Madeira,
+                                   Mediterranean--burrowing in sand.
+    20.   Mya             10      North Seas, W. Africa, Philippines,
+                                   etc.--river mouths from low water to
+                                   25 fathoms.
+          Corbula         60      United States, Britain, Norway,
+                                   Mediterranean, W. Africa, China--
+                                   from 15 to 80 fathoms.
+    21.   Anatina         50      India, W. Africa, Philippines,
+                                   New Zealand.
+          Thracia         17      Greenland to Canaries and China--from
+                                   4 to 120 fathoms.
+          Pandora         18      Spitzbergen, Panama, India--from 4 to
+                                   110 fathoms, burrowing in sand and mud.
+    22.   Gastrochaena     10      W. Indies, Britain, Red Sea, Pacific
+                                   Islands--from shore line to 30 fathoms.
+          Saxicava                Arctic Seas, Britain, Mediterranean,
+                                   Canaries and the Cape--in crevices
+                                   and boring into limestone and rocks.
+          Aspergillum     21      Red Sea, Java, New Zealand--in sand.
+    23.   Pholas          32      Almost universal--from low water to
+                                   25 fathoms.
+          Xylophaga        2      Norway, Britain, S. America--boring
+                                   into floating wood.
+          Teredo          14      In tropical seas--from low water to
+                                   100 fathoms.
+
+
+
+
+SOME WORKS OF REFERENCE.
+
+
+MOLLUSCA IN GENERAL.
+
+"A Manual of Mollusca." By Dr. S. P. Woodward.
+
+"Tabular View of the Orders and Families of the Mollusca." Published by
+the Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge.
+
+"Cassell's Natural History," latest edition, article on the Mollusca. By
+Dr. Henry Woodward.
+
+
+BRITISH MOLLUSCA.
+
+"A History of British Mollusca and their Shells." By Professor E. Forbes
+and S. Hanley.
+
+"British Conchology." By J. G. Jeffreys.
+
+"Common Shells of the Sea-shore." By Rev. J. G. Wood.
+
+
+BRITISH LAND AND FRESH-WATER MOLLUSCA.
+
+"Land and Fresh-water Mollusca indigenous to the British Isles." By
+Lovell Reeve.
+
+"A Plain and Easy Account of the Land and Fresh-water Mollusca of Great
+Britain." By Ralph Tate.
+
+
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+FOSSILS.
+
+BY
+
+B. B. WOODWARD.
+
+
+
+
+FOSSILS.
+
+
+INTRODUCTORY.
+
+
+Geology is of all "hobbies" the one best calculated not only to develop
+the physical powers, but also, if pursued with any degree of
+earnestness, to train and extend the mental faculties. To study geology
+properly, the rocks themselves must be visited and carefully observed,
+their appearance noted, and the fossils, if any, which they contain,
+collected. This necessitates many a pleasant walk into the open country
+to quarries and cuttings, or rambles along the sea-shore to cliffs which
+may be worth investigating, whilst botany, entomology, or any other
+congenial pursuit, may be followed on the way; for natural science in
+its different branches has so many points of connection that it is
+impossible to study one of them without increasing one's interest in,
+and knowledge of, all the others. Again, in arranging, classifying, and
+studying at home the specimens collected on these expeditions, many an
+hour may be usefully spent; habits of exactitude and neatness are
+acquired; whilst in endeavouring to draw correct conclusions as to the
+way in which particular rocks were formed, and by what agencies brought
+to their present position, the reasoning faculties are exercised and
+developed.
+
+The existence of fossil shells and bones in various strata of the
+earth's crust attracted attention at a very early date of the world's
+history; the Egyptian priests were aware of the existence of marine
+shells in the hills bounding the Nile valley, and from this fact
+Herodotus drew the conclusion that the sea formerly covered the spot.
+The bones of the larger mammalia (rhinoceros, elephant, etc.), were,
+however, thought by the ancients to be human, and hence arose the idea
+of a race of giants having existed at some previous period of the
+earth's history. It was not, however, until near the end of the last
+century that geology began to be recognised as a science, and the true
+bearing of fossils in relation to the rocks in which they were found was
+conclusively proved. William Smith in England, and Werner in Germany,
+while working independently of each other, both came to the same
+conclusion, viz. that the numerous strata invariably rested on each
+other in a certain order, and that this order was never inverted,[1]
+whilst William Smith in addition proved that each group of rocks, and
+even each stratum, had its own peculiar set of fossils, by which it
+might be recognised wherever it occurred. From that time forth the study
+of the various fossils began to be considered as a separate science
+apart from that of the beds containing them; this is now known as
+Palaeontology, the study of the composition of the rocks themselves being
+termed Petrology.
+
+   [1] Except in such cases where the rocks themselves have been
+       displaced by movements of the earth's crust.
+
+At this moment, however, we are less concerned with the study of rocks
+and fossils than with the best and simplest way of collecting,
+preparing, and arranging specimens as a means to this study.
+
+
+
+
+THE CABINET.
+
+
+With regard to the cabinet for such specimens as you are able to
+collect, the same advice holds good as that given in a previous Manual
+(The Young Collector's Shell Book), namely, the simpler the cabinet the
+better, though of course card-board boxes would not as a rule be strong
+enough to stand the weight of the specimens, and hence it is advisable
+to have wooden ones. The boxes in which Oakey's Wellington Knife-powder
+is sent out (they measure about 15 in. x 10 in. x 3 in.) are on the
+whole the most convenient size, and are easily obtainable at any oil and
+colourman's. These, when painted over with Berlin Black, after first
+removing the external labels, look very neat. The inside may be papered
+according to taste, when the trays may be arranged in order ready for
+the reception of your specimens.[2]
+
+   [2] For description of trays, see "The Young Collector's Shell-Book."
+
+
+
+
+IMPLEMENTS REQUIRED WHEN COLLECTING.
+
+
+A certain amount of apparatus is needful in collecting geological
+specimens. It is necessary to break open the hard rocks in order to get
+at the fossils within, and for this purpose a strong hammer is required.
+One end of the hammer-head should be square, tapering, slightly, to a
+flat striking face; for when thus shaped the edges and corners are less
+likely to break off; the other side should be produced into a rather
+long, flat, and slightly curved pick, terminating in a chisel-edge at
+right-angles to the handle; the total length of the head should not
+exceed 91/2 in., the striking face being 3 in. from the centre of the eye
+in which the handle (18 in. long) is inserted; the latter should be made
+of the toughest ash, American hickory, or "green-heart," and fixed in
+with an iron wedge ("roughed" to prevent its coming out again), taking
+care that 1/4 in. of the handle protrudes on the other side. It is the
+usual practice, but a mistaken one, to cut it off level with the hammer
+head, which is likely, under these circumstances, to come off after it
+has been in use for a time, whereas, by leaving a small portion of the
+wedged-out end projecting, this mischance is avoided, and your weapon
+will not fail even when used to drag its owner up a stiff ascent. It is
+better to shape and fix the handle yourself, as by this means you can
+not only cut it to fit your hand, but may rely upon its being properly
+fastened in. By filing grooves around it an inch apart, it will serve to
+take rough measurements with, while a firm grasp may be insured by
+bees-waxing instead of polishing it. Another and much smaller hammer
+will also be necessary, chiefly for home use, to trim the specimens
+before putting them away in the cabinet; the head of this hammer must
+not be more than 21/2 inches long, the handle springing from the centre;
+one end has a flat striking face, square in section, the other, instead
+of being formed like a pick, is wedge-shaped, the sharp edge being at
+right-angles to the handle. Next to a hammer, a cold chisel is
+indispensable to the collector, since without its aid many a choice
+specimen embedded in the middle of a mass of rock too large to break
+with the hammer would have to be left behind. There is one thing,
+however, to beware of in using this tool--it has sometimes to be hit
+with great force, and should you chance to miss it and strike your hand
+instead, the result may be more serious than even a severe bruise. To
+prevent this, procure from the shoemaker or saddler a piece of thick
+leather, about 4 inches in diameter, having a hole cut in the centre
+through which to pass the shank of the chisel, and, thus protected, you
+may wield the hammer with impunity.
+
+For digging fossils out of clay, an old, stout knife, such as the
+worn-down stump of a carver, is handy, and in sandy beds an ordinary
+garden trowel is very useful, whilst in a chalk-pit a small saw is
+sometimes of great aid in extricating a desirable specimen. The same may
+be said of an ordinary carpenter's wood-chisel. For picking up small and
+delicate specimens, a pair of forceps should be carried, whilst without
+a pocket lens no true naturalist ever stirs abroad. An ordinary stout
+canvas satchel, such as is commonly used by schoolboys, is the best
+thing for carrying home your specimens; this may be made much stronger
+by the addition of two short strips of leather stitched on the back and
+running, one from each ring, to which the strap passing over the
+shoulder is fastened, down to the bottom of the bag; by leaving a small
+portion unstitched near the bottom of each of these, wide enough for the
+shoulder-strap to pass through, the satchel may at a moment's notice be
+slung knapsackwise on the shoulders--a method of carrying it which is,
+as all who have tried it know, by far the most convenient when it is
+heavily laden or not in immediate requisition. A stout leather belt may
+be worn in which to carry all your hammers, supporting it on the side
+where the heavy hammer hangs by a band passing over the opposite
+shoulder. Before starting on an excursion, make a practice of seeing
+that you have everything with you, or when the critical moment comes,
+and some choice and fragile specimen is ready to be borne off, you may
+find that you are without the means necessary for taking it home. For
+ordinary hard specimens, newspaper well crumpled around them is without
+its equal, but some of the more delicate must be first wrapped in tissue
+paper or even cotton-wool, whilst the most fragile fossils should be
+packed in tins with bran or sawdust, the particles of which fill in all
+the corners and press equally everywhere, a useful faculty which cotton
+wool does not possess. When neither of these are to be obtained, dry
+sand will answer quite as well, though it is heavier to carry.
+
+Although not absolutely necessary in the field, it is often useful to
+have a small bottle of acid in your pocket (nitric acid diluted to
+1-12th with distilled water is the best) with which to test for
+limestones; a drop of acid placed on a rock will, if there be any
+carbonate of lime in it, immediately begin to fizz. Finally, every young
+collector should carry a note-book, and carefully record in it what he
+sees in each pit he visits, while, if it can be procured or borrowed, a
+geological map of the district you are exploring is a great help, for
+with its aid and that of a good compass you become practically
+independent of much extraneous assistance.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO USE YOUR IMPLEMENTS.
+
+
+We will suppose by way of illustration that near us flows a river, on
+the rising ground above which is a pit that we propose to visit for the
+purpose of putting our apparatus into practical operation. When we have
+reached the floor of the pit, and stand looking up at the section before
+us, we are at first rather puzzled as to what the beds, which we see
+before us, are; for as the pit has not been worked for some time, its
+sides are partially overgrown with grass, and in places bits and pieces
+of the upper beds have fallen down and form a heap beneath which the
+lower ones lie buried. We must therefore make our way to those spots
+where the beds are left clear, and find out, if possible, what they are.
+By climbing up one of the heaps of fallen earth (_talus_) we reach the
+top, where, first of all, under the roots of the grass and shrubs, we
+find the mould in which these grow, and which is formed of the broken up
+(_disintegrated_) rocks forming the still higher ground above, and which
+the rains, frosts and snows, aided afterwards by the earthworms, have
+converted into mould. This, geologically speaking, is called _surface
+soil_, and is here about two feet deep. Just below it we find a layer of
+coarse gravel; the pebbles of which this is composed are of all sorts,
+sizes, and shapes, and are stained a deep brown by oxide of iron. Most
+of them are flints, and by diligent search you may find casts and
+impressions in these of sponges, shells, spines of sea urchins, etc.
+Flints, whether from gravel or their parent rock the chalk, are easiest
+broken by a light smart tap of the hammer, though when it is desired to
+shape them for the cabinet a soft iron hammer should be used, and the
+piece to be shaped placed on a soft pad on the knee, for when struck
+with a steel hammer flints splinter in all directions, and often through
+the very portion you most desire to preserve. In one spot we find a mass
+of sand included in the gravel; this mass is thickest in the middle, and
+tapers away towards each end, its total length being about fifty feet.
+Could we see the whole mass, we should probably find it to be a patch
+lying on the gravel and thinning out all around its edges; in other
+words it would be shaped like a lens--"_lenticular_" as geologists term
+it. When we examine this mass more closely, we find that the layers of
+sand do not run parallel with the bed, but are inclined in different
+directions, sometimes lying one way, sometimes another. This _false
+bedding_ is due to the sand having been thrown down in waters agitated
+by strong currents that swept over the spot, now in one direction and
+now in another, scattering at one moment half the sand they had just
+piled up one way only to redeposit it the next minute in another. In the
+gravel also may be observed a similar though less marked arrangement,
+owing to the larger size of its constituents, which of course required a
+still stronger current action to wash them down.
+
+Amongst the sand we now see some shells, and set to work to dig them out
+very carefully, for they are exceedingly brittle. The best specimens are
+to be obtained by throwing down masses of the sandy material and
+searching in it; but only the stronger and finer examples will bear such
+usage. We next notice that these shells are precisely similar to those
+still found with living occupants in the river below, only they are no
+longer of a brownish colour, but owing to the loss of the animal matter
+of the shell have an earthy, dirty-white appearance. To carry these home
+they should be packed in bran in one of your tins with a note as follows
+made on a piece of paper and placed just inside--"Sand in gravel:
+topmost bed ---- pit, August 2nd, 188-." Then if you are not able to
+work them out at once on reaching home, you will not forget whence they
+came. From the appearance of these sands and gravels, and the presence
+in them of shells exactly like those in the river below, it may
+reasonably be inferred that they once formed a portion of the bed of
+that river long ago, before it had scooped out its valley to the present
+depth. There is, however, something else in this sand-bed--a piece of
+bone protruding; clear away the sand above it, and dig back until the
+whole is visible. It is broken through in one or two places, but
+otherwise is in fair condition; remove the pieces carefully one by one,
+and wrap them in separate pieces of paper, and then proceed to search
+for others. These bones, which are plentiful in some of our river valley
+gravel-beds, are the remains of animals that once roamed in the forests
+which at that time covered the country; they were probably either
+drowned in crossing the water, or got stuck in the mud on the banks on
+coming down to drink. A fine collection was made at Ilford by the late
+Sir Antonio Brady, and is now in the British Museum (Natural History) at
+South Kensington. Besides the bones of animals, you may expect to find
+examples of all, or nearly all, the different rocks in which the river
+has cut its valley, and samples of these may be picked out and taken
+home. Each specimen should be wrapped in a separate piece of paper to
+prevent its rubbing against others, care being taken to note the
+locality either by writing it on the paper or by affixing to the
+specimen a number corresponding to one in your note book against the
+description you have written of the bed. The gravel, with its
+accompanying bed of sand, may be traced down, by scraping away the
+surface, for about ten feet, when you will discover that it rests
+unevenly upon the beds below, which, instead of being horizontal, slope
+(_dip_) in a N.N.E. direction, making an angle of about 45 deg. with the
+floor of the pit; the gravel therefore rests successively upon the
+upturned ends of the lower beds, and, geologically speaking, is
+"unconformable" to them. Now as these underlying rocks were of course
+originally deposited in an horizontal position, they must have been
+pushed up and the upper parts worn away (_denuded_) before the gravel
+was deposited on them, for the accomplishment of which process an amount
+of time must have elapsed that it would be impossible to reckon by
+years.
+
+When we come to examine these lower beds, we find first a stratum of
+stiff dark-brown clay containing fossils disposed in layers: those near
+the outer surface have been rendered so brittle by the weather, that it
+is necessary to make use of the pick end of the hammer and dig a little
+way into the face of the section before we come upon some which will
+bear removal by cutting them out with a knife. Pack them in a tin with
+bran, or, where much clay still adheres to them, wrap them in paper.
+
+The true top of this bed is not visible, being concealed beneath a heap
+of earth in the corner of the pit, but we can see and measure about six
+feet of it.
+
+The next bed in order is a light brownish band of sandy clay that
+splits along its layers into thin pieces or "_laminae_," whence we may
+describe it as a sandy, _laminated_ clay. On the freshly split surface
+of one piece we see scattered a number of small darker brown
+fragments; an examination with a pocket lens clearly shows that these
+are little bits of leaves and stems, with here and there a more
+perfect specimen. These beds must have been deposited in the still
+waters just off the main stream of a large river which brought the
+plants floating down to this spot, where they became water-logged and
+sunk; so, too, if you examine the shells in the bed immediately above,
+you will see that they are very like though not the same as those
+which at the present day love to dwell in the mud off the estuaries of
+big rivers in warmer parts of the globe; hence we discover that at
+some far distant period a big river, but one which had no connection
+with that running close by, once flowed over this very spot. On
+tracing the leaf-bed down, we come all at once, at about three feet
+from its upper surface, upon a narrow band one or two inches thick of
+a substance composed of numerous bits of sticks and stalks closely
+matted together and partially mineralized. Vegetable matter in this
+form is known as lignite, and is one of the first stages towards the
+formation of coal out of plant remains. Below this lignite band we
+find our leaf-bed getting sandier and sandier, and losing all trace of
+the plants by degrees till it becomes almost pure sand. Here and
+there, however, it contains some curiously shaped masses, which, when
+broken through with the hammer, seem composed of nothing but the same
+grains of sand cemented together into a hard mass. In one there is,
+however, a curiously shaped hollow, which, upon examining it closely,
+you will see is a perfect cast of a small shell that has itself
+disappeared. A drop of acid on it fizzes away and sinks in between the
+grains of sand which in this spot become loose. A mass of sand or
+particles of clay thus cemented together, be it by iron, lime, or any
+other substance, is termed a "_nodule_" or "_concretion_," and in this
+particular instance has been formed as follows:--The rain-water
+falling on the sand where it comes to the surface sinks in and filters
+through the bed. Now there is always a certain amount of carbonic acid
+in rain-water, and this acid acted on the carbonate of lime of which
+the shell was composed, dissolving and dispersing it amongst the
+neighbouring grains of sand where it was re-deposited, cementing them
+together as we have seen. The bottom of this bed of sand we find to be
+just fifteen feet from the lignite band when measured at right-angles
+to the bed, and it is succeeded by a hard greyish rock, which requires
+a smart blow of the hammer to break it, but the surface of which,
+where it has been exposed to the weather, is much crumbled
+("_weathered_"), and breaks readily into small pieces. It is easily
+scratched with the point of a knife, and therefore is not flint;
+moreover, it fizzes strongly when touched with acid--hence there is a
+great deal of carbonate of lime in it, and we know that it is
+limestone.
+
+Limestones are very largely, sometimes almost entirely, made up of the
+calcareous portions of marine creatures, such as the hard parts of
+corals, the tests of sea-urchins, the shells of mollusca, etc.,
+welded, so to speak, into one mass by the heat, pressure, and chemical
+changes which the bed has undergone since its deposition at the bottom
+of the sea. There would be every reason, therefore, one might suppose,
+to expect a number of fossils in this bed; but, alas! disappointment
+awaits the young explorer, for with the exception of chalk and a few
+other limestones, these rocks are generally of such uniform texture
+that on being struck with the hammer they split through fossils and
+all, the fractured surface only too frequently showing nought save a
+few obscure markings. But what we fail to accomplish in our
+impatience, nature effects by slow degrees, and if you will turn over
+the weathered pieces and blocks lying about, you will soon find plenty
+of fossils sticking out all over them; by a judicious use of hammer
+and chisel any of these may be detached and added to your stock, each
+being separately packed in paper and the locality written on the
+outside. Some seventy or eighty feet is all that is visible of this
+limestone; the rest is unexcavated.
+
+Before leaving the pit, it will be as well to select such rock
+specimens as you wish to place in your cabinet, trimming them to the
+required size on the spot, for should you, as is not unlikely, spoil
+two or three, you can readily pick a fresh one. Having secured our
+specimens, we will take a look at our note-book, to see if we have
+noted all the details we require. If so, our entries should run
+something as follows:--First, we have made a rough sketch of the
+position of the beds, carefully numbering each one; then follow our
+notes on the individual beds, preceded by numbers corresponding with
+those in the sketch, thus:--
+
+  1. Surface Soil                                                  2 ft.
+  2. River Gravel, including a lenticular mass of               }
+  3. Sand, with land and fresh-water shells and bones of        } 10 ft.
+     animals                                                    }
+  4. Stiff dark-brown clay, with estuarine shells            6 ft. seen.
+  5. Light-brown sandy clay, with leaves and stems of plants       3 ft.
+  6. Band of Lignite                                               2 in.
+  7. Same as 5, passing into--                                  }
+  8. Pure Sand, with layers of concretions containing casts     }
+     of shells                                                  } 15 ft.
+  9. Dark-Grey Limestone, with numerous fossils             80 ft. seen.
+
+  Beds 4 to 9 dip at an angle of 45 deg. to the N.N.E.
+
+Our imaginary pit is of course only a sort of geological Juan Fernandez,
+but it will serve in some degree to illustrate the method of dealing
+with various rocks and fossils when met with in the field, and how they
+may best be collected and carried home. A few additional suggestions
+where to look for fossils may, however, be given here. To begin with, I
+never neglect to search the fallen masses, especially their weathered
+surfaces, or to look carefully over the heaps of quarried materials,
+whatever they may happen to be, piled on the floor of the pit. In
+working at the beds themselves, remember that fossils frequently occur
+in layers which of course represent the old sea-bottom of the period; to
+find these, it is necessary to follow the beds in a direction at right
+angles to their stratification, till you arrive at the sought-for
+layers, or _zones_.
+
+Do not be surprised, when collecting from a formation you have never
+before studied, if the fossils are not at first apparent, though many
+are known to be present. The eye requires a few days in which to become
+accustomed to its fresh surroundings, and when the same spot has been
+carefully hunted over every day for a week, it is astonishing what a
+quantity of fossils are discernible where not one in the first instance
+was recognised.
+
+
+
+
+HOW TO PREPARE THE SPECIMENS FOR THE CABINET.
+
+
+The first thing to be done on unpacking our specimens is to pick out
+those which require the least attention, and get them out of the way.
+These will be your rock specimens, which, if they have been trimmed
+properly in the pit, will not need much further manipulation; a word or
+two, however, as to the best method of proceeding when it is desirable
+to reduce a specimen, will not be out of place. If you wish to divide it
+in two, or detach any considerable portion, the specimen may, while held
+in the hand, be struck a smart blow with the hammer; as, however, it not
+frequently happens that even with the greatest care the specimen under
+this treatment breaks in an opposite direction to that required, it is
+advisable to adopt a somewhat surer method, namely, to procure a block
+of tough wood, and in the centre bore a hole just large enough to
+receive the shank of the cold chisel, and thus hold it in an upright
+position with the cutting edge uppermost; placing the specimen on this,
+and then hitting it immediately above with the hammer, it may be
+fractured through in any required direction. To trim off a small
+projection, hold the specimen in your hand with the corner towards you
+and directed slightly downwards, then with the edge of the striking face
+of the hammer hit it a smart blow at the line along which you wish it to
+break off; the object of inclining the specimen is to make sure that the
+blow shall fall in a direction inclined away from the portion you wish
+to preserve, a _modus operandi_ which it is necessary to bear well in
+mind if you would not spoil many a choice specimen. Anything beyond very
+general directions, however, it is impossible to give in such matters as
+this: experience, and a few hints from those who have themselves had
+practice in collecting and arranging specimens, are worth more than any
+written description, however lengthy and elaborate.
+
+Having reduced your specimen to the required size and shape, the next
+thing to be done is to write a neat little label for it--the smaller the
+better--stating, first the nature of the specimen, secondly the
+geological formation to which it belongs, thirdly the locality from
+which it was procured, and fourthly the date when acquired, thus--
+
+  Limestone.
+  Lower Carboniferous.
+  Quarry, 1 mile N.W. of ----
+             21. 8. 8-.
+
+ruling a neat line at the top and bottom (red ink lines give a more
+finished appearance than black). When the label is dry, damp it to
+render it more pliant, and gum it on to the flattest available surface
+of the specimen, pressing it well into any small inequalities that it
+may hold the firmer. A small quantity of pure glycerine (about an eighth
+part) should be added to the gum before use, in order to prevent its
+drying hard and brittle. The specimen is now ready to place in its tray
+and be put away in the cabinet.
+
+In the next place, pick out the fossils which you obtained from the
+limestone. With the cold chisel set in its block of wood, and the
+trimming hammer, remove as much of the surrounding rock (_matrix_) as
+you can without damaging the fossil, and with a smaller chisel any
+pieces that may be sticking to and obscuring it. Fossils in soft
+limestone, such as chalk, are best cleaned with an old penknife, and
+needles fixed into wooden handles, and finished off by the application
+of water with a nail-brush. Should you have the misfortune to break any
+specimen in the process of trimming, it should at once be mended. The
+most effectual cement for this purpose is made by simply dissolving
+isinglass in acetic acid, or, where the specimen contains much iron
+pyrites, and there would be a danger in starting decomposition, shellac
+dissolved in spirits of wine. When, however, neither of these are handy,
+chalk scraped with a penknife into a powder, and mixed with gum to the
+consistency of a thick paste, answers admirably. Failing this, however,
+gum alone will frequently suffice.
+
+The next thing is to place the like kinds together in their several
+trays, writing a label, as before, for each tray, but leaving a blank
+space at the top for the insertion of the name when ascertained. The
+commoner sorts may be named from the figures of them given in the
+text-books (see list at the back of the title page); but failing this,
+it will be the best plan to seek the help of any friends who have
+collections, or to take the fossils to some museum, and compare them
+with the named specimens there exhibited. The label may be laid at the
+bottom of the tray with the fossils loose on the top of it, each fossil
+being marked with a number corresponding to one on the label. Another
+plan is to fasten the label by one of its edges to the side of the tray;
+or, if the fossils are small and mounted on a piece of card fitting into
+the tray, it may be gummed with them to the card.
+
+Now let us take the shells we obtained from the dark-blue clay, with
+those and the bones from the old river bed up above. Gently turn them
+out of the tins, in which they were packed in the quarry, on to a paper
+or the lid of a card-board box, and with a pair of forceps pick them
+carefully out of the bran, and place them in large shallow trays, taking
+care not to mix those from the different beds. As we found when
+collecting them, these shells are extremely brittle from loss of animal
+matter, and our first object is therefore to harden them by some
+process, so that they will bear handling. To accomplish this you must
+get a saucepan, one of those wire contrivances for holding eggs when
+boiling, or a big wire spoon, such as formerly was used for cooking
+purposes, a packet of gelatine, and some flat pieces of tin, which last
+are easily procured by hammering out an old mustard or other tin, having
+previously melted in a gas flame the solder wherewith it is joined. Half
+fill the saucepan with clean water, and put in as much gelatine as when
+cold will make a stiff jelly; melt this over the fire, placing the
+fossils meanwhile in a warm (not hot) corner of the fire-place; then
+when the gelatine is quite dissolved, pile as many of them, whole or in
+pieces, into the egg-boiler, or spoon, as it will contain, hold them for
+a second in the steam, and then lower them gradually into the hot
+gelatine until it completely covers them. Little bubbles of air will
+rise and float on the surface. As soon as these cease to appear, raise
+the fossils above the surface and allow them to drip; then pick them up
+one by one with the forceps, and spread them out on pieces of tin before
+the fire, but not too close to it. As soon as their exterior surfaces
+become dry, and before the gelatine gets hard, they should be taken up
+(they may be handled fearlessly now), and the superfluous gelatine
+sticking to the surface gently removed with a camel's-hair brush dipped
+in clean warm water; otherwise, when dry, they present an unnatural
+varnished appearance, and have a tendency, on small provocation, to
+become unpleasantly sticky.
+
+Small bones may be treated in like manner, but for large ones, weak glue
+is to be preferred to gelatine, which is only suitable for the finer and
+more delicate objects. Where it is desired to harden only a few things,
+it is better to mix the gelatine in a gallipot, which can be heated when
+required by standing it in a saucepan of water on the fire. In any case
+the gelatine need never be wasted, as it will keep almost any length of
+time, and can therefore be put by for future use. In default of the
+egg-boiler or wire-net spoon, an equally useful plan is to make a
+strainer from a piece of perforated zinc by turning up the edges all
+around, and attaching copper wire to it by which to lower the fossils
+into the gelatine, and raise them again.
+
+When the fossils are quite dry they can be sorted, and those which have
+come to pieces may be mended with diamond cement (_i.e._ isinglass
+dissolved in acetic acid), and then properly labelled and placed in
+trays, or mounted as previously described.
+
+To the plant remains and Lignite there is little that can be done beyond
+trimming them to suit the trays. Should there be much iron pyrites in
+the Lignite, it is sure, sooner or later, to decompose, when all that
+can be done is to throw it away. In the case, however, of valuable
+fruits and seeds, such as those from the London Clay of Sheppey, it is
+worth while to preserve them, if possible, in almost the only way known,
+viz. by keeping them in glycerine in wide-mouthed stoppered bottles, or
+by saturating them with paraffin.
+
+Having prepared the specimens for the cabinet, the next thing is to
+arrange them in proper order. There are several ways of doing this, but
+for those who have not had much experience the following plan will be
+found the best:--Group the specimens according to the formations to
+which they belong, and arrange these groups in proper sequence (_vide_
+Table, p. 16); then take each group, and arrange the specimens it
+comprises in columns. Beginning at the top of the left-hand corner,
+place first the specimens of the rock itself, and under it any examples
+of minerals, concretions, etc., found in that rock; next the fossil
+plants, if any; and finally, such animal remains as you have arranged
+according to their zoological sequence, beginning with the lower forms
+(_vide_ Table, p. 32). Unless cramped for room, each formation should
+begin a new box, its name being written on a slip of paper and placed at
+the head of the columns of trays. A label setting forth its contents
+should be fixed outside each of the boxes, which can then be put away on
+your cupboard shelves.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL FOSSILIFEROUS STRATA ARRANGED IN CHRONOLOGICAL
+ORDER.
+
+
+                                                _Land Plants._-----------+
+                                                _Invertebrata._--------+ |
+                                                _Fishes._------------+ | |
+                                                _Amphibia._--------+ | | |
+                                                _Reptiles._------+ | | | |
+                                                _Birds._-------+ | | | | |
+                                                _Mammalia._--+ | | | | | |
+                                                _Man._-----+ | | | | | | |
+                                                           | | | | | | | |
+                                                           | | | | | | | |
+                                     {Alluvial Deposits,   | | | | | | | |
+  _Quaternary,                       {  River Valley       | | | | | | | |
+       or                            {  Gravels and        | | | | | | | |
+  Pleistocene._                      {  Cave Deposits.     | | | | | | | |
+                                     {Drift and Glacial    | | | | | | | |
+                                     {  Deposits.          V | | | | | | |
+                                                             | | | | | | |
+   _Cainozoic,                       {Pliocene.              | | | | | | |
+       or                            {Miocene.               | | | | | | |
+   Tertiary._                        {Eocene.                | | | | | | |
+                                                             | | | | | | |
+       {                             {Chalk.                 | | | | | | |
+   M   { _Cretaceous._               {Upper Greensand.       | | | | | | |
+   E   {                             {Gault.                 | | | | | | |
+   S   {                                                     | | | | | | |
+   O   { _Neocomian._                {Lower Greensand.       | V | | | | |
+   Z   {                             {Wealden.               | : | | | | |
+   O   {                                                     | : | | | | |
+   I   {                    {        {Purbeck.               | : | | | | |
+   C,  {                    {_Upper._{Portland.              | : | | | | |
+       {                    {        {Kimmeridge Clay.       | : | | | | |
+   or  {                    {                                | : | | | | |
+       {                    { _Mid._ {Coral Rag.             | : | | | | |
+   S   {            { _Oo-  {        {Oxford Clay.           | : | | | | |
+   E   {            {lites._{                                | : | | | | |
+   C   {            {       {        {Cornbrash and          | : | | | | |
+   O   {            {       {        {  Forest Marble.       | : | | | | |
+   N   { _Jurassic._{       {_Lower._{Great Oolite.          | : | | | | |
+   D   {            {       {        {Fullers' Earth.        | : | | | | |
+   A   {            {       {        {Inferior Oolite.       | : | | | | |
+   R   {            {                                        | : | | | | |
+   Y   {            {                 Lias.                  | : | | | | |
+                                                             | : | | | | |
+       {                             {Trias, or New          | : | | | | |
+   P   { _Poikilitic._               {  Red Sandstone.       V ? V | | | |
+   A   {                             {Permian.                     | | | |
+   L   {                                                           | | | |
+   AE   {                             {Coal Measures.               V | | |
+   O   {                             {Millstone Grit                 | | |
+   Z   { _Carboniferous._            {  and Yoredale                 | | |
+   O   {                             {  Rocks.                       | | |
+   I   {                             {Carboniferous                  | | |
+   C,  {                             {  Limestone, etc.              | | |
+       {                                                             | | |
+   or  {                              Devonian and Old               | | |
+       {                                Red Sandstone.               | | |
+   P   {                                                             | | |
+   R   {                             {Ludlow Beds.                   | | |
+   I   {                             {Wenlock Beds.                  | | V
+   M   { _Silurian._                 {Woolhope Beds.                 | |
+   A   {                             {Tarannon Shale.                | |
+   R   {                             {Llandovery or May              | |
+   Y.  {                             {  Hill Group.                  V |
+       {                                                               |
+       {                             {Bala and                         |
+       {                             {  Caradoc Beds.                  |
+       {                             {Llandeilo Flags.                 |
+       {                             {Arenig Group.                    |
+       { _Cambrian._                 {Tremadoc Slates.                 |
+       {                             {Lingula Flags.                   |
+       {                             {Menevian Beds.                   |
+       {                             {Longmynd and                     |
+       {                             {  Harlech Group.                 V
+       {                                                               :
+       {                              Pre-Cambrian and                 :
+       {                                Laurentian.                    ?
+
+
+
+
+NOTES ON THE DIFFERENT FORMATIONS MENTIONED IN THE TABLE.
+
+
+RECENT.--The alluvial deposits of most river valleys and some estuaries
+still in course of formation, containing fossil shells and mammals, all
+of living species.
+
+
+QUATERNARY, POST-PLIOCENE, or PLEISTOCENE.--1. Including the raised
+beaches around the coast, the older gravels of river valleys and the
+cave deposits, in all of which the shells are identical with those
+living in the rivers and seas of to-day, whilst the animals are many of
+them extinct, only a few being now found living on the spot.
+
+2. The glacial drifts that cover all England north of the Thames, and
+which consist of sands, gravels, and clays, full of big angular stones
+frequently flattened on one side, scratched and sometimes polished from
+having been fixed in moving ice and forced over other rocks. A very
+interesting collection of these "boulders," as they are called, can be
+easily made, for they belong to almost every formation in England, and
+have some of them been brought from great distances, whilst the number
+and variety obtainable from a single pit is astonishing.
+
+
+CAINOZOIC, or TERTIARY.--Beds of this age, in England at all events, are
+for the most part made up of comparatively soft rocks, gravels, sands,
+and clays, and are found in the eastern and south-eastern counties. They
+are divided into--
+
+
+1. Pliocene, mainly consisting of a series of iron-stained sands, with
+abundant shell remains, and locally known as "crags." The shells are
+very partial in their distribution, the beds in places being almost
+entirely made up of them, whilst in others scarcely one is to be found.
+The great majority are of the same species as many still living. The
+Pliocene is subdivided into three groups:--
+
+_a._ The _Norwich Crag Series_, sometimes called the "Mammaliferous
+Crag," as at its base the bones of mastodon, elephant, hippopotamus,
+rhinoceros, and some deer have been found. The shells in it are such as
+still abound on the beaches of the eastern coast to-day--whelks, scallop
+shells, cockles, periwinkles, etc.
+
+_b._ The _Red_ or _Suffolk Crag_, its two names indicating its
+characteristic colour (a dark red-brown) and chief locality. From
+the base are obtained the celebrated phosphatic nodules miscalled
+"Coprolites," whence is manufactured an artificial manure, and with them
+are found the rolled and phosphatized bones and teeth of whales, sharks,
+etc. Amongst the shells the Reversed Whelks (_Fusus contrarius_),
+_Fecten opercularis_, _Pectunculus glycimeris_, several kinds of
+_Mactra_ and _Cardium_, etc., are the commonest. Walton-on-the-Naze,
+Felixstowe, and Woodbridge are the best known localities.
+
+_c._ The _White_ or _Coralline Crag_ is generally of a pale buff colour,
+and is in places almost entirely composed of the remains of Polyzoa.
+These (formerly called Corallines, whence the name Coralline Crag) are
+beautiful objects for a low-power microscope, or pocket lens, and are
+easily mounted in deep cells on slides. The bits of shell and sand that
+stick to them should be carefully removed with the point of a needle. A
+very large number of shells occur in this crag: of bivalves, the
+_Pecten_ is very abundant, and its valves are frequently thickly grown
+over with Polyzoa; _Cyprina Islandica_, _Cardita Senilis_ are also
+plentiful; and of univalves, the genus _Natica_ is common. The Coralline
+Crag is best seen in the neighbourhood of Aldborough, Orford,
+Woodbridge, and other places in Suffolk.
+
+
+2. Miocene, possibly represented in the British Isles by a small patch
+of clays and lignites at Bovey Tracey.
+
+
+3. Eocene, divided into--
+
+_a._ _Upper Eocene_, consisting of a series of very fossiliferous sands,
+clays, and limestones, exposed in the cliffs at the eastern and western
+ends of the Isle of Wight and on the neighbouring coast of Hampshire.
+They are partly of freshwater origin, when they contain the remains of
+freshwater shells such as _Limnoea Paludina_, _Planorbis_, etc.;
+partly of marine origin, when shells belonging to such genera as
+_Ostrea_, _Venus_, etc., take their place; partly of estuarine, when the
+brackish water mollusca are found with bones and scutes of crocodiles
+and tortoises.
+
+_b._ _Middle Eocene_, or the _Bagshot Beds_, composed of sands and
+clays. The beautiful coloured sands of Alum Bay, the sands of the Surrey
+and Hampstead Heaths, are familiar examples of the beds of this age.
+Very few fossils indeed have been found in them. The clay-beds on the
+contrary as seen at Barton and Hordwell on the Hampshire coast and again
+in the Isle of Wight, abound with shells belonging to genera such as
+_Conus_, _Voluta_ and _Venus_, that inhabit warm seas. With them are the
+Nummulites, looking externally very like buttons, but on the inside
+divided into innumerable chambers in which the complex animal that
+formed the nummulite dwelt.
+
+_c._ _Lower Eocene_, the well-known London clay, may almost be said to
+compose this division, for the underlying sands, gravels, and clays are
+in mass comparatively insignificant. The London clay contains plenty of
+fossils, only as they are disposed in layers (_zones_) at a considerable
+distance apart, they are not often hit upon. Layers of Septaria or
+cement-stones are of frequent occurrence. Sheppy is the great locality
+for London clay fossils, as the sea annually washes down large masses of
+the cliffs and breaks them up on the beach. A great many fossil fruits
+and seeds, remains of crabs, shells of Nautili, Volutes, and other
+mollusca, besides turtles, a species of snake, a bird with teeth, and a
+tapir-like animal, have at different times and in various places been
+found in this deposit, which sometimes attains a thickness of over 400
+ft. The "Bognor Rock" is a local variety of the basement bed of this
+formation.
+
+  [Illustration: _Aturia Zic-zac_ (from the London clay).]
+
+
+The MESOZOIC or SECONDARY rocks embrace a series of limestone, clays,
+sands, and sandstones that on the whole are well consolidated. The main
+mass of them lies to the west of a line drawn across the map of England
+from the mouth of the Tyne, in Northumberland, southwards to Nottingham,
+and thence to the mouth of the Teign in Devonshire. In the south-eastern
+counties they underlie the tertiary rocks of the London and Hampshire
+basins, as they are called, at no great depth from the surface. Outlying
+patches of secondary rocks occur in Scotland, where they are found near
+Brora on the east coast, and in the islands of Skye and Mull on the
+west. In Ireland they are scantily represented round about the
+neighbourhood of Antrim. The secondary rocks are divided into--
+
+
+1. Cretaceous.
+
+_a._ The _Chalk_ is too well known to need description, though
+technically it may be described as a soft white limestone chiefly built
+up of the microscopic shells of _Foraminifera_, and characterized in its
+upper part by nodules and bands of flint. These flints frequently
+inclose casts of fossils (sponges, sea-urchins, etc.), and sometimes
+shells themselves. Fossils, too, are fairly abundant, scattered
+throughout the mass. Amongst the commoner may be noticed the
+sea-urchins, such as the "sugar loaf" (_Ananchytes_) and the
+heart-shaped _Micraster_, the Brachiopods or Lamp-shells (_Terebratula_,
+_Rhynchonella_), a "Thorny Oyster" (_Spondylus spinosus_), besides
+Ammonites, Belemnites (part of the internal shell of a kind of
+cuttle-fish), and the teeth of several species of sharks. Altogether the
+chalk is about 1,000 feet thick.
+
+  [Illustration: _Ammonites various_ (from the chalk).]
+
+_b._ _Upper Greensand_ is a series of greenish-grey sands and
+sandstones. The green colour, on close inspection, is seen to be due to
+the presence of innumerable small green grains of a mineral called
+glauconite. These are frequently casts of the chambers of the very same
+foraminifera that the chalk is so largely composed of.
+
+  [Illustration: _Rhynchonella depressa_ (a Brachiopod, from the Upper
+  Greensand).]
+
+Nodules and layers of "chert" (an impure kind of flint) occur in it,
+whilst in places it forms a hard rock called "firestone." The commonest
+fossils are Brachiopods, very similar to those in the chalk, a
+scallop-shell with four strongly marked ribs on it (_Pecten
+quodricostatus_), an oyster with a curved beak (_Exogyra columba_), and
+a pear-shaped sponge (_Siphonia pyriformis_). The Upper Greensand is
+better seen at places in the southern part of the Isle of Wight, in
+cliffs on the Dorsetshire coast, in Wiltshire, at Sidmouth, and in some
+parts of Surrey.
+
+  [Illustration: _Ammonites auritus_ (from the Gault).]
+
+_c._ _Gault_, a stiff blue clay abounding in fossils: Ammonites often
+retaining their pearly shell; Belemnites, a bivalve with very deep
+furrows on it (_Inoccramus sulcatus_), and its first cousin (_I.
+concentricus_, p. 21), in which the ridge-like markings correspond with
+the lines of growth, besides many others, may be obtained in abundance
+from it. Layers of phosphatic nodules occur at irregular intervals. The
+gault is best studied at East Wear Bay, near Folkstone; it may also be
+seen in Dorsetshire, Wiltshire, and Cambridgeshire; lately it has been
+found as far west as Exeter.
+
+
+2. Neocomian.
+
+_a._ The so-called _Lower Green Sand_, named in contradistinction to the
+_Upper Green Sand_, includes a series of iron stained sands, sandstones
+and clays of great thickness. The clayey beds are seen at Atherfield in
+the Isle of Wight, and at Nutfield in Surrey, while the sandy beds are
+met with at Speeton, at Folkestone, and near Reigate. Besides
+brachiopods and oysters, these beds have furnished a species of _Perna_
+(_P. Mulleti_), an elongated mussel (_Gervillia anceps_), a pretty
+_Trigonia_ (_T. cordata_), some _Ammonites_ and Nautili, with the teeth
+and bones of big reptiles. The celebrated "Kentish Rag" and the sponge
+gravels of Farringdon are of this age.
+
+_b._ _Wealden._ The main mass of these rocks occupies the area inclosed
+between the North and South Downs, and forms the Valley of the Weald,
+whence they take their name. They consist of a series of sands,
+sandstones, clays, and shelly limestones that were deposited in the
+delta and off the mouth of a big river. The shells in them belong to
+freshwater genera, _Cyrena_, _Unio_, _Paludina_, etc. Bones of a huge
+lizard that hopped along on his hind legs (_Iguanodon_), and those of
+crocodiles, etc., are from time to time brought to light. The Wealden
+rocks occur also on both eastern and western sides of the Isle of Wight,
+and in Dorsetshire.
+
+  [Illustration: _Inoceramus concentricus_ (from the Gault).]
+
+
+3. Oolites (or Roe-stones) are so named because the characteristic
+limestones of this formation resemble very much the roe of a fish. The
+small round grains, of which the typical examples are built up, when cut
+or broken through will be seen to be formed of numerous layers of
+carbonate of lime, disposed like the coats of an onion, around some
+central nucleus, generally a grain of sand, a fragment of coral, or the
+shell of one of the Foraminifera. They are divided into Upper, Middle,
+and Lower Oolites, and these again are subdivided as follows--
+
+Upper Oolite.
+
+_a._ _Purbeck Beds_, a series of fresh-water, with a few estuarine, or
+marine beds, which in point of fact connect the deposits we are next
+coming to with the Wealden just passed. They contain numerous
+fresh-water shells--_Paludina_, _Physa_, _Limnaea_, etc., with the
+microscopic valves of the little fresh-water crustacean _Cypris_, whose
+descendants are abundant in the rivers and lakes of to-day. An oyster
+occurs in the "Cinder Bed" and Plant remains in the "Dirt Beds." But the
+Purbecks are best known for the numerous remains of small mammals
+(_Plagiaulax_) allied to the kangaroo rat, at present living in
+Australia.
+
+_b._ The _Portland Stone and Sand_, which come next in order, are
+largely quarried in the island whence they take their name. The
+quarrymen point out fossils in the stone, which they call
+"Horses'-heads" and "Portland screws." The former is the cast of a
+_Trigonia_ shell; the latter, that of a tall spired univalve
+(_Cerithium_).
+
+In Wiltshire, a coral (_Isastrea oblonga_) is found in the sandy beds,
+the original calcareous matter of which has been replaced by silex.
+
+_c._ _Kimmeridge Clay._ This, by the pressure of the rocks subsequently
+deposited on it, has in greater part been hardened, and possesses a
+tendency to split in thin layers, and hence is termed by geologists a
+shale. It is seen at various points between Kimmeridge on the
+Dorsetshire coast and the Vale of Pickering in Yorkshire, and forms
+broad valleys. The principal fossils in it are Ammonites, a
+triangular-shaped oyster (_Ostrea deltoidea_), and one resembling a
+comma (_Exogyra virgula_).
+
+Middle Oolites.
+
+_a._ The _Coral Rag_, or _Coralline Oolite_, comprises a most variable
+set of beds, but principally a series of limestone, with fossil corals
+still in the position in which they grew, and resembling in form the
+reef-building corals of the Pacific. They rest on
+
+_b._ _Oxford Clay_, a dark blue or slate-coloured clay without any
+corals, but containing a great many _Ammonites_ and _Belemnites_. The
+_Kelloway Rock_, a sandy limestone at the base of the Oxford Clay, is
+well developed in Yorkshire, and furnishes amongst other fossils a large
+belemnite and an oyster (_Gryphaea dilatata_).
+
+Lower Oolites.
+
+_a._ _Cornbrash_, a very shelly deposit of pale-coloured earthy, and
+rubbly or sometimes compact limestone with plenty of fossils. The
+commonest are Brachiopods, Limas, oysters (_Ostrea Marshii_),
+Pholadomyas and Ammonites. It is best seen in Dorsetshire,
+Somersetshire, and near Scarborough in Yorkshire.
+
+_b._ _Forest Marble_ and _Bradford Clay_. The former is an exceedingly
+shelly limestone, often splitting into thin slabs. On the surfaces of
+some of the beds may be seen the ripple marks the sea made countless
+years ago, and the tracks of worms and crabs that dwelt in the mud or
+crawled on its surface at a time when it was soft mud. The Bradford clay
+is a very local deposit, taking its name from Bradford in Wiltshire,
+where it is most developed, and its characteristic fossil is the
+pear-shaped Encrinite or "stone-lily" (_Apiocrinus Parkinsoni_).
+
+_c._ The _Great_ or _Bath Oolite_, comprising a series of shelly
+limestones and fine Oolites, or freestones. The latter are largely
+quarried in the neighbourhood of Bath, and used for mantelpieces and the
+stone facings of windows. The great Oolite is rich in univalve mollusca,
+amongst which may be noted a limpet (_Patella rugosa_) and the handsome,
+tall-spired _Nerinaea Voltzii_, numerous bivalves belonging to the genera
+_Pholadomya Trigonia_, _Ostrea_ (_O. gregaria_), and _Pecten_, besides
+Brachiopods (_Terebratula digona_, which looks very like a sack of
+flour, and _T. perovalis_, etc.).
+
+At the base of the Great Oolite are the "Stonesfield slates,"
+so-called--a series of thin shelly Oolites, etc., that split readily
+into very thin slabs. They are principally of interest to geologists on
+account of the discovery in them of the remains of small insect-feeding
+and possibly pouched mammals. With these are associated the bones of
+that big reptile the _Megalosaurus_; the flying lizards called
+Pterodactyles; fish teeth and spines; lamp shells; oysters, a _Trigonia_
+(_T. impressa_); and the impressions of insects, including a butterfly,
+and of plants.
+
+_d._ _Fullers' Earth_, a clayey deposit occurring in the southwestern
+parts of England, but not in the north. It abounds with a small oyster
+(_O. acuminata_) and Brachiopods (e.g. _Terebratula ornithocephala_),
+etc.
+
+_e._ _Inferior Oolite_ (including the Midford Sands). As these beds are
+followed across the country from the south-west of England to Yorkshire,
+they are found to change greatly in character. Limestone and marine beds
+in the south are replaced by sandy and estuarine beds in the north.
+Amongst other fossils from beds of this age may be found several
+Echinoderms, a crinkly lamp shell (_Terebratula frimbriata_), and a
+spiny one (_Rhynchonella spinosa_), bivalves belonging to the Genera
+_Ostrea_, _Trigonia_, _Pholadomya_, etc., and some very handsome
+Ammonites (e.g. _A. Humphresianus_).
+
+  [Illustration: _Ichthyosaurus_, or Fish-lizard (from the Lias).]
+
+  [Illustration: _Plesiosaurus_ (from the Lias).]
+
+
+4. Lias.
+
+This for the most part consists of very regular alternations of
+argillaceous (clayey) limestone and clay, or shale. It is of great
+thickness, and hence for convenience has been divided into (a) _Upper
+Lias_, (b) _Middle Lias_ or _Marl-stone_, and (c) _Lower Lias_. A large
+number of fossils are to be found in it. Lyme Regis and Whitby are
+perhaps the best known localities; the former, on account of the great
+number of specimens obtained of the huge fish-lizard (_Ichthyosaurus_,
+p. 24), and long-necked _Plesiosaurus_ (p. 25), besides numberless fish;
+whilst the latter is renowned for its jet (or fossilized wood) and its
+"snake-stones" (_Ammonites_), concerning which curious old stories are
+told. _Ammonites_ are plentiful in the Lias, which has been subdivided
+into zones, or layers, named after the ammonite occurring in greatest
+numbers in that particular zone. There is one thin limestone band in the
+Marlstone composed entirely of the shells of _Ammonites planicostatus_.
+A curious kind of oyster (_Gryphaea incurva_), locally known as the
+devil's toenail, a huge _Lima_ (_L. gigantea_), a magnificent Encrinite
+(_Extracrinus Briareus_), and numerous other fossils, are also to be
+obtained by patient search.
+
+  [Illustration: _Belemnitas elongatus_(from the Lias).]
+
+
+5. Rhaetic, Penarth Beds, or White Lias.
+
+These beds are not of any considerable thickness, but are very
+persistent, and of great interest, inasmuch as they yield the remains of
+the oldest known mammal (_Microlestes_), a small insect-feeder. They are
+composed of limestones, shales and marls (_i.e._ limey clays), and are
+best studied in Somersetshire and Dorsetshire. The "landscape marble"
+belongs to this formation, which also contains a bone bed, or thin layer
+made up of the bones and teeth, etc., of fish. Shells are not numerous,
+though the casts of one species (_Avicula contorta_) is plentiful.
+
+
+6. Trias, or New Red Sandstone, a thick series of sandstones and marls,
+the great mass of which forms the subsoil of the western midland
+counties, Birmingham being nearly in the centre, thence they extend in
+three directions, one branch passing towards the north-west, through
+Cheshire, to the sea at Liverpool, reappearing on the coast line of
+Lancashire, Westmoreland, and Cumberland, where it also forms the Valley
+of the Eden. Another branch extends through Derby and York to South
+Shields, whilst the third may be traced southwards in isolated patches
+down into Devonshire.
+
+There are scarcely any fossils in it, but in Worcestershire and
+Warwickshire the bivalve shell of a small crustacean (_Estheria minuta_)
+occurs in the upper beds; whilst now and again the teeth and bones of
+some strange amphibians (_Labyrinthodon_), or the impressions of their
+feet (_Cheirotherium_) where they crawled on the then soft mud of the
+foreshore, are found. The Trias is divided into Upper Trias or Keuper,
+and Lower Trias or Bunter. The middle beds (Muschelkalk), which are
+found in Germany, where they contain plenty of fossils, are wanting in
+this country. In the lower beds of the Keuper, layers of rock salt,
+sometimes of great thickness, occur, whilst casts (called pseudomorphs)
+of detached salt-crystals are found abundantly in the sandy marls.
+Northwich, Nantwich, Droitwich, and several other towns in Cheshire and
+Worcestershire, are famed for their salt works, the salt being either
+mined or pumped up as brine from these beds.
+
+  [Illustration: _Ceratites nodosus_ (from the Muschelkalk).]
+
+
+PALAEOZOIC or PRIMARY.--Beds of this age generally possess a more
+crystalline and slaty structure than any of those already mentioned, are
+usually more highly inclined and disturbed, and form for the most part
+more elevated ground. They are the principal store-houses of our mineral
+wealth, containing as they do coal, iron, and other metals. The
+Palaeozoic rocks are found in England to the north and west of the
+secondary series, beneath which they disappear when traced to the
+south-east. Wales, and the greater part of Scotland and Ireland, consist
+of beds of this age.
+
+
+1. Permian. Under this term are included beds of red sandstones and
+marls, closely resembling those of Trias, and like them containing but
+few fossils, as well as a very fossiliferous limestone, known as the
+Magnesian Limestone, from the abundance of magnesia it contains. A
+pretty polyzoan (_Fenestella retiformis_), a spiny brachiopod
+(_Productus horridus_), various genera of fish, chiefly found in a marl
+state underlying the limestone, some Labyrinthodonts and plant remains,
+are the principal forms met with in this formation.
+
+
+2. Carboniferous. This, from a commercial point of view, is the most
+important of all the formations, comprising as it does the coal-bearing
+strata. It is subdivided into--
+
+_a._ _Coalmeasures_, a series of sandstones and shales with which are
+interstratified the seams of coal, varying in thickness from six inches
+to as much in one instance as thirty feet.
+
+Coal is the carbonized remains of innumerable plants, chiefly ferns and
+gigantic clubmosses, that grew in swamps bordering on the sea-coast of
+the period. Each coal seam is underlain by a bed of clay called
+"under-clay," containing the roots of the plants that grew on it. Some
+of the best impressions of ferns, etc., are to be obtained in the shaley
+beds forming the roof of the coal seam; many good specimens, however,
+are to be got by searching the refuse heap at the pit's mouth. Besides
+plants, the remains of fish are abundant in some of the beds of shale.
+And in Nova Scotia the bones of air-breathing reptiles and land snails
+have been discovered. Cockroaches and other insects were also denizens
+of the carboniferous forests.
+
+The following are the principal coalfields:--
+
+  1. Northumberland and Durham coalfield.
+  2. South Lancashire coalfield.
+  3. Derbyshire coalfield.
+  4. Leicestershire and Staffordshire coalfields.
+  5. South Wales coalfield.
+  6. Bristol and Somerset coalfields.
+
+_b._ _Millstone grit_ or _Farewell-rock_. The former term explains
+itself, the latter designation has been applied to it in the southern
+districts, because when it is reached, then good-bye to all workable
+coal-seams.
+
+It consists of coarse sandstones, shales, and conglomerates with a few
+small seams of coal. Fossils are not very common in it.
+
+_c._ Yoredale Rocks, a series of flagstones, gritstones, limestones and
+shales, with seams of coal, occurring in the northern counties. It is
+underlain by--
+
+_d._ _Carboniferous_ or _Mountain Limestone_, which in places is upwards
+of 1,000 feet thick, and full of fossils. The stems of encrinites, or
+"stone-lilies," corals, brachiopods (_e.g._ _Productus_, _Orthis_,
+etc.), and Mollusca, including some Cephalopods, like _Goniatites_ and
+the straight Nautilus (_Orthoceras_), with fish teeth, etc., go to
+compose this tough, bluish-grey limestone which is largely quarried for
+marble mantlepieces, etc.
+
+_e._ The _Tuedian group_ in the north, and _Lower Limestone Shale_ in
+the south, follow next, and consist of shales, sandstones, limestones,
+and conglomerates, varying greatly in different districts, and
+containing few fossils.
+
+
+3. Devonian or Old Red Sandstone. To this age are assigned a perplexing
+series of strata, the principal members of which consist of (_a_) a
+thick limestone, well seen in the cliffs and marble quarries of south
+Devon, and full of fossil-corals (_e.g._ _Favosites polymorpha_ [or
+_cervicornis_]) Brachiopods, and Mollusca, etc.
+
+_b._ A series of sandstones, slates, and limestones in North Devon
+containing Trilobites (_Phacops_, _Bronteus_, etc.), Brachiopods, and
+other fossils.
+
+_c._ The _Old Red Sandstone_ of Wales, the North of England, and
+Scotland, consisting of red and grey sandstone and marly beds, with
+remains of fish.
+
+These fish, unlike most now living, were more or less covered with hard
+external plates, and possessed merely a cartilaginous skeleton. In one
+set of individuals, indeed (_Pterichthys_), the armour plates formed
+quite a little box. These creatures propelled themselves by means of two
+arm-like flippers, rather than fins. They were but a few inches long,
+and appear pigmies in contrast to the strange half-lobster-like
+crustacean, _Pterygotus_, that lived with them, and attained sometimes
+as much as five feet in length.
+
+
+4. Silurian. Named by Sir Roderick Murchison after a tribe of Ancient
+Britons that dwelt in that part of Wales, where these rocks were first
+observed. Some of Murchison's Lower Silurian beds were included by
+Professor Sedgwick in his Cambrian, of which we shall have to speak
+next; and as these two geologists never could agree on a divisional line
+between their respective formations, and since succeeding observers have
+followed sometimes one and sometimes the other method of classification,
+considerable confusion has resulted. Here, however, for several reasons,
+we propose to follow Sedgwick's arrangement; and hence, under the term
+Silurian, retain only Murchison's Upper beds. They consist of a series
+of sandstones, gritstones, conglomerates, shales, limestones, etc.
+
+Amongst the more important fossils, which are very abundant in the
+limestones, are various corals (_e.g._ the Chain-coral _Halysites_),
+Star-fish, Crinoids, Trilobites (_Phacops_, etc.), Polyzoa, Brachiopods
+and Mollusca, especially Cephalopoda (_Orthoceras_, _Nautilus_, etc.).
+
+These rocks occur principally in the border land between England and
+Wales, and the adjacent counties; but are also represented in
+Westmoreland, Scotland, and Ireland. Their principal subdivisions are
+given in the Table on p. 16.
+
+  [Illustration: Trilobite (_Asaphus candatus_), (from the Silurian).]
+
+  [Illustration: _Orthoceras subannulatum_ (from the Silurian).]
+
+
+5. Cambrian. Under this term, derived from the old name for Wales, are
+included many sandstones, grits, slates and flags, with here and there a
+limestone band. They form the greater part of the western counties of
+Wales, where they rise to a considerable height above the sea level. The
+highest hills of Westmoreland and more than half of Scotland are
+composed of beds of this age.
+
+The fossils, save in the limestone bands, are not easy to find, but in
+places they are fairly abundant. Brachiopods are far more numerous than
+the Mollusca properly so-called. Of these, the genus _Orthis_ was most
+abundant at about the close of this period. Certain beds of this age
+have received the name of Lingula Flags, owing this prevalence in them
+of the curious Brachiopod _Lingula_ so like the species now living in
+some of the warm seas of the tropics. The Trilobites included several
+forms, and one species (_Paradoxides Davidis_) attained the length of
+nearly two feet. A few star-fish, some Hydrozoans (_Graptolites_), and
+the tubes and casts of Annelides and tracks of Trilobites, complete the
+list of more remarkable fossils. The subdivisions of the Cambrian rocks
+will be found in the table on p. 16.
+
+
+6. Pre-Cambrian.--Near St. David's Head and some other places in Wales,
+in Anglesea, Shropshire, etc., some yet older rocks have been found.
+They are probably for the most part of volcanic origin, but they have
+been so much changed since they were first deposited, and as hitherto no
+fossils have been found in them, little is known concerning them.
+
+Parts of the western coast of Northern Scotland and the Hebrides are
+composed of a crystalline rock called Gneiss, and supposed to be the
+oldest member of the British strata. No fossils have been found in it.
+
+  [Illustration: Skull of _Deinotherium giganteum_, a huge extinct
+  animal, related to the elephants (from the Miocene of Germany).]
+
+
+VOLCANIC ROCKS. Although there are fortunately no volcanoes to disturb
+the peace of our country at the present day, there is abundant evidence
+of their existence in the past. Not only are some of the beds,
+especially those of Paleozoic age, composed of the dust and ashes thrown
+out of volcanoes, with here and there a lava flow now hardened into
+solid rock, but the stumps of the volcanoes themselves are left to tell
+the tale. The cones indeed are gone, carried off piecemeal by the rain
+and frosts, and other destructive agencies, in the course of countless
+ages: not so the once fluid rock within; _that_ cooled down into
+Granite, and though originally below the surface, it now, owing to the
+removal of the overlying softer strata, forms raised ground overlooking
+the surrounding country. The granite masses of Cornwall, of Dartmoor, in
+the south-west of Mt. Sorrel; the variety called Syenite at Malvern and
+Charnwood Forest; the Basalts of the Cheviot Hills and of Antrim; the
+volcanic rocks of Arthur's Seat, Edinburgh, and of the islands of Skye
+and Mull, etc., are examples of this class of rock. They are of
+different ages, and belong to different periods of the earth's history,
+from early Palaeozoic down to Miocene times.
+
+
+
+
+TABLE OF THE PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM, TO SHOW THE
+ORDER IN WHICH THE FOSSILS SHOULD BE ARRANGED.
+
+
+INVERTEBRATA.
+
+ _Foraminifera_, minute chambered shells like the Nummulite.
+
+ _Spongida_, Sponges.
+
+ _Hydrozoa_, Graptolites, etc.
+
+ _Actinozoa_, Corals.
+
+ _Echinodermata_, Sea-urchins, Stone-lilies, Starfish, etc.
+
+ _Annelida_, Worm tracks.
+
+ _Crustacea_, Trilobites, Crabs, etc.
+
+ _Arachnida_, Scorpions and Spiders.
+
+ _Myriapoda_, Centipedes.
+
+ _Insecta_, Beetles, Butterflies, etc.
+
+ _Polyzoa_ (_Bryozoa_) or Moss Animals.
+
+ _Brachiopods_, Lampshells.
+
+              { _Lamellibranchiata_, Bivalves.
+ _Mollusca_   { _Gasteropoda_, Univalves.
+              { _Cephalopoda_, Cuttlefish, Ammonites.
+
+
+VERTEBRATA.
+
+ _Pisces_, Fish.
+
+ _Amphibia_, Labyrinthodonts, Frogs, and Newts.
+
+ _Reptilia_, Reptiles.
+
+ _Aves_, Birds.
+
+ _Mammalia_, Mammals.
+
+
+
+
+WORKS OF REFERENCE.
+
+
+FOR NAMING COMMON FOSSILS.
+
+  =Tabular View of Characteristic British Fossils Stratigraphically
+  Arranged.=
+    By J. W. LOWRY. _Soc. Prom. Christ. Knowledge._ 1853.
+
+  =Figures of the Characteristic British Tertiary Fossils (Chiefly
+  Mollusca)
+    Stratigraphically Arranged.= By J. W. LOWRY and others. _London_
+    (_Stanford_). 1866.
+
+
+PALAEONTOLOGY.
+
+  =The Ancient Life History of the Earth.=
+    By H. A. NICHOLSON. 8vo. _Edinburgh and London._ 1877.
+
+  =A Manual of Palaeontology.=
+    By H. A. NICHOLSON. 2nd edition. 2 vols. 8vo. _Edinburgh and
+    London._ 1879.
+
+
+PETROLOGY.
+
+  =The Study of Rocks.=
+    By F. RUTLEY. (Text Books of Science.) 8vo. _London._ 1879.
+
+
+FIELD GEOLOGY.
+
+  =A Text-Book of Field Geology.=
+    By W. H. PENNING. With a Section on Palaeontology, by A. J.
+    JUKES-BROWN. 2nd edition. 8vo. _London._ 1879.
+
+
+GEOLOGY IN GENERAL.
+
+  =The Student's Elements of Geology.=
+    By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Bart. 4th edition. 8vo. _London._ 1884.
+
+  =The Principles of Geology.=
+    By SIR CHARLES LYELL, Bart. 12th edition. 2 vols. 8vo. _London._
+    1875.
+
+  =Phillip's Manual of Geology.=
+    2nd edition. By SEELEY AND ETHERIDGE. 2 vols., 8vo. _London._ 1885.
+
+  =Tabular View of Geological Systems, with their Lithological
+  Composition and Palaeontological Remains.=
+    By D. E. CLEMENT. _London (Sonnenschein)._ 1882.
+
+
+BRITISH GEOLOGY.
+
+  =The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain.=
+    By SIR ANDREW C. RAMSEY. 5th edition. 8vo. _London._ 1878.
+
+  =The Geology of England and Wales.=
+    By HORACE B. WOODWARD. 8vo. _London._ 1876.
+
+ =Geology of the Counties of England and Wales.=
+    By W. J. HARRISON. 8vo. _London._ 1882.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+POPULAR ILLUSTRATED SCIENTIFIC BOOKS, PUBLISHED BY SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO.
+UNIFORM WITH THIS VOLUME. ALL FULLY ILLUSTRATED.
+
+
+  =BRITISH BUTTERFLIES, MOTHS, AND BEETLES.=
+    By W. F. KIRBY (Brit. Mus.). Crown 8vo, cloth, 1_s._
+
+  =MOSSES, LICHENS, AND FUNGI.=
+    By PETER GRAY and E. M. HOLMES. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1_s._
+
+  =ENGLISH COINS AND TOKENS.=
+    By LLEWELLYNN JEWITT, F.S.A.; with a chapter on =Greek and Roman
+    Coins=, by BARCLAY V. HEAD, M.R.A.S. Crown 8vo, cloth, 1_s._
+
+  =FLOWERS AND FLOWER LORE.=
+    By Rev. HILDERIC FRIEND, F.L.S.  Illustrated.  Third Edition,
+    demy 8vo, cloth gilt, 7_s._ 6_d._
+
+  =THE DYNAMO: How Made and How Used.=
+    By S. R. BOTTONE. Numerous Cuts. Crown 8vo, cloth, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+  =A SEASON AMONG THE WILD FLOWERS.=
+    By Rev. H. WOOD.  Illustrated.  Crown 8vo, cloth gilt, 2_s._ 6_d._
+
+  =HISTORY OF BRITISH FERNS.=
+    By E. NEWMAN, F.L.S.  Fifth Edition, Illustrated. 12mo, cloth, 2_s._
+
+  =THE INSECT HUNTER'S COMPANION.=
+    By Rev. J. GREENE. Third Edition. Cuts. 12mo, boards, 1_s._
+
+  =TABULAR VIEW OF GEOLOGICAL SYSTEMS.=
+    By Dr. E. CLEMENT. Crown 8vo, limp cloth, 1_s._
+
+
+SWAN SONNENSCHEIN & CO., PATERNOSTER SQUARE.
+
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+
+
+
+TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:
+
+
+As there appear to be section and subsections in the second and third
+units (Shells and Fossils) of this book, Tables of Contents were
+created for the electronic edition. A number of the images were moved
+where they split paragraphs. There is a reference to a Figure 24 for
+Ancylus; but no Fig. 24 was included. The reference to Fig. 26 for
+Bullidae was assumed to be a reference to Fig. 14. Bulla ampulla.
+
+With the exception of the following items, all page number references
+in the original text were retained. There are references to two tables
+on Page 77. The first was listed a "vide Table, p. 16" and the second
+as "vide Table, p. 32" which appear to refer to the tables on page 78
+and 94 respectively. The page references were corrected.
+
+Species name are assumed to be correct for the time of publication
+(ca. 1886). For example, Charychium is today listed as Carychium.
+
+
+Text Emphasis
+
+ _Text_ - Italics
+
+ =Text+ - Bold
+
+
+Typographic Corrections
+
+ Page   Correction
+ ----  ------------------------
+  14    fond => foot
+  27    it => if
+  27    pencil => brush
+  55    beak => peak
+  56    tis => its
+  60    Keilia => Kellia
+  73    inever => "I never"
+  91    crustucean => crustacean
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Sea-Weeds, Shells and Fossils, by
+Peter Gray and B. B. Woodward
+
+*** END OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK SEA-WEEDS, SHELLS AND FOSSILS ***
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