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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Finger Prints
+
+Author: Francis Galton
+
+Release Date: August 5, 2011 [EBook #36979]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FINGER PRINTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FINGER PRINTS
+
+
+
+
+  FINGER PRINTS
+
+
+  [Illustration: FINGER PRINTS OF THE AUTHOR]
+
+
+  BY
+  FRANCIS GALTON, F.R.S., ETC.
+
+
+  London
+  MACMILLAN AND CO.
+  AND NEW YORK
+  1892
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                         1
+
+    Distinction between creases and ridges                             1
+
+    Origin of the inquiry                                              2
+
+    Summaries of the subsequent chapters                            3-21
+
+      Viz. of   ii.,  3;   iii.,  4;     iv.,  5;
+                 v.,  5;    vi.,  8;    vii., 10;
+              viii., 12;    ix., 13;      x., 14;
+                xi., 16;   xii., 17;   xiii., 19;
+
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+  PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS                                       22
+
+    Superstition of personal contact                                  22
+
+    Rude hand-prints                                                  23
+
+    Seals to documents                                                23
+
+    Chinese finger marks                                              24
+
+    The _tipsahi_ of Bengal                                           24
+
+    Nail-marks on Assyrian bricks                                     25
+
+    Nail-mark on Chinese coins                                        25
+
+    Ridges and cheiromancy--China, Japan, and by negroes              26
+
+    Modern usage--Bewick, Fauld, Tabor, and G. Thompson               26
+
+    Their official use by Sir W. J. Herschel                          27
+
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+  METHODS OF PRINTING                                                 30
+
+    Impression on polished glass or razor                             30
+
+    The two contrasted methods of printing                            31
+
+    General remarks on printing from reliefs--ink; low relief
+    of ridges; layer of ink; drying due to oxidisation             32-34
+
+    Apparatus at my own laboratory--slab; roller; benzole
+    (or equivalent); funnel; ink; cards                            35-38
+
+    Method of its manipulation                                     38-40
+
+    Pocket apparatus                                                  40
+
+    Rollers and their manufacture                                     40
+
+    Other parts of the apparatus                                      41
+
+    Folders--long serviceable if air be excluded                      42
+
+    Lithography                                                       43
+
+    Water colours and dyes                                            44
+
+    Sir W. Herschel's official instructions                           45
+
+    Printing as from engraved plates--Prof. Ray Lankester;
+    Dr. L. Robinson                                                   45
+
+    Methods of Dr. Forgeot                                            46
+
+    Smoke prints--mica; adhesive paper, by licking with tongue     47-48
+
+    Plumbago; whitening                                               49
+
+    Casts--sealing-wax; dentist's wax; gutta-percha; undried
+    varnish; collodion                                             49-51
+
+    Photographs                                                       51
+
+    Prints on glass and mica for lantern                              51
+
+    Enlargements--photographic, by camera lucida, pantagraph       52-53
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+  THE RIDGES AND THEIR USES                                           54
+
+    General character of the ridges                                   54
+
+    Systems on the palm--principal ones; small interpolated
+    systems                                                        54-55
+
+    Cheiromantic creases--their directions; do not strictly
+    correspond with those of ridges                                56-57
+
+    Ridges on the soles of the feet                                   57
+
+    Pores                                                             57
+
+    Development:--embryology; subsequent growth; disintegration
+    by age, by injuries                                            58-59
+
+    Evolution                                                         60
+
+    Apparent use as regards pressure--theoretic; experiment
+    with compass points                                            60-61
+
+    Apparent use as regards rubbing--thrill thereby occasioned     62-63
+
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+  PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES                                  64
+
+    My earlier failures in classifying prints; their causes        64-66
+
+    The triangular plots                                              67
+
+    Outlines of patterns--eight sets of ten digits given as
+    examples                                                       69-70
+
+    Supplies of ridges to pattern                                     71
+
+    Letters that read alike when reversed                             71
+
+    Magnifying glasses, spectacles, etc.                              72
+
+    Rolled impressions, their importance                              73
+
+    Standard patterns, cores, and their nomenclature               74-77
+
+    Direction of twist, nomenclature                                  78
+
+    Arches, loops, whorls                                             78
+
+    Transitional cases                                                79
+
+    The nine genera                                                   80
+
+    Measurements--by ridge-intervals; by aid of bearings like
+    compass                                                        82-84
+
+    Purkenje--his _Commentatio_ and a translation of it in part    84-88
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+  PERSISTENCE                                                         89
+
+    Evidence available                                                89
+
+    About thirty-five points of reference in each print               90
+
+    Photo-enlargement; orientation; tracing axes of ridges         90-91
+
+    Ambiguities in minutiæ                                            91
+
+    V. H. Hd. as child and boy, a solitary change in one of
+    the minutiæ                                                       92
+
+    Eight couplets from other persons                                 93
+
+    One from Sir W. G.                                                95
+
+    Summary of 389 comparisons                                        96
+
+    Ball of a thumb                                                   96
+
+    Results as to persistence                                         97
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+  EVIDENTIAL VALUE                                                   100
+
+    Method of rough comparison                                       100
+
+    Chance against guessing a pattern                                101
+
+    Number of independent elements in a print--squares
+    respectively of one, six, and five ridge-intervals in
+    side                                                         101-103
+
+    Interpolation, three methods of                              103-105
+
+    Local accidents inside square                                    107
+
+    Uncertainties outside it                                         109
+
+    Compound results                                                 110
+
+    Effect of failure in one, two, or more prints                    111
+
+    Final conclusions--Jezebel                                   112-113
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+  PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS                                        114
+
+    Frequency per cent of arches, loops, and whorls
+    generally, and on the several digits                         114-115
+
+    Characteristic groups of digits                              116-118
+
+    Relationships between the digits                                 119
+
+    Centesimal scale of relationship                             124-126
+
+    Digits of same and of different names                            130
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+  METHODS OF INDEXING                                                131
+
+    Use of an index                                                  131
+
+    Method of few conspicuous differences in many fingers            131
+
+    Specimen index                                                   133
+
+    Order in which the digits are noted                              134
+
+    Examples of indexing                                             135
+
+    Effect of regarding slopes                                       135
+
+    Number of index-heads required for 100 sets in each of
+    twelve different methods                                     136-138
+
+    _i_ and _o_ in forefingers only                                  138
+
+    List of commonest index-headings                                 140
+
+    Number of headings to 100 sets, according to the digits
+    that are noted                                                   142
+
+    Transitional cases; sub-classifications                      143-144
+
+    Symbols for patterns                                             144
+
+    Storing cards                                                    145
+
+    Number of entries under each head when only the first
+    three fingers are noted                                          146
+
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+  PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION                                            147
+
+    Printers and photographers                                       147
+
+    Use of means of identification to honest persons; in
+    regard to criminals                                          148-149
+
+    Major Ferris, Mr. Tabor, N. Borneo                           149-153
+
+    Best digits for registration purposes                            153
+
+    Registration of criminals--M. Bertillon                          154
+
+    Details of _Bertillonage_; success attributed to it; a
+    theoretic error                                              155-158
+
+    Verification on a small scale                                158-162
+
+    Experiences in the United States                                 163
+
+    Body marks; teeth                                            165-166
+
+    Value of finger prints for search in a register                  166
+
+    Identification by comparison                                     167
+
+    Remarks by M. Herbette                                           168
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI
+
+  HEREDITY                                                           170
+
+    Different opinions                                               170
+
+    Larger meaning of heredity                                       170
+
+    Connection between filial and fraternal relationships            171
+
+    Fraternity, a faulty word but the best available                 171
+
+    A and B brothers                                                 172
+
+    Test case of calculated randoms                                  173
+
+    Fraternities by double A. L. W. events                           175
+
+    The C. standard patterns                                         177
+
+    Limitation of couplets in large fraternities                     178
+
+    Test of accurate classification                                  179
+
+    Fraternities by double C. events                                 181
+
+    Centesimal scale applied                                         184
+
+    Twins                                                            185
+
+    Children of like-patterned parents                               187
+
+    Simple filial relationship                                       190
+
+    Influences of father and mother                                  190
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII
+
+  RACES AND CLASSES                                                  192
+
+    Data for races                                                   192
+
+    Racial differences are statistical only                          193
+
+    Calculations by Mr. F. H. Collins                                193
+
+    Hebrew peculiarities                                             194
+
+    Negro peculiarities, questionable                                196
+
+    Data for different classes in temperament, faculty, etc.,
+    and results                                                      197
+
+    M. Féré                                                          197
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIII
+
+  GENERA                                                             198
+
+    Type, meaning of                                                 198
+
+    Law of frequency of error                                        198
+
+    Discussion of three elements in the loops on either thumb    200-207
+
+    Proportions of typical loops                                     209
+
+    The patterns are transmitted under conditions of panmixia,
+    yet do not blend                                                 209
+
+    Their genera are not due to selection; inference                 210
+
+    Sports; variations                                               211
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  Summary of evidence in favour of finger marks being persistent      96
+
+  Interpolation of ridges                                            104
+
+  I. Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the
+  different digits, as observed in the 5000 digits of 500
+  different persons                                                  115
+
+  II. Distribution of the A. L. W. patterns on the corresponding
+  digits of the two hands                                            116
+
+  III. Percentage frequency of Arches on the digits of the two
+  hands                                                              117
+
+  IV. Percentage frequency of Loops on the digits of the two hands   118
+
+  V. Percentage frequency of Whorls on the digits of the two hands   118
+
+  VI_a_. Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern
+  occurs in the same digits of the two hands                         120
+
+  VI_b_. Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern
+  occurs in various couplets of different digits                     120
+
+  VII. Couplets of fingers of different names in the same and in
+  the opposite hands                                                 121
+
+  VIII. Measures of relationship between the digits on a
+  centesimal scale                                                   129
+
+  IX. Index to 100 sets of finger prints                             133
+
+  X. Number of different index-heads in 100 sets, according to
+  the number of digits noted                                         136
+
+  XI. Number of entries under the same heads in 100 sets             139
+
+  XII. Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the
+  sets were registered in 500 sets                                   140
+
+  XIII. Percentage of entries falling under a single head in 100,
+  300, and 500 sets                                                  141
+
+  XIV. Number of different index-headings in 100 sets, according
+  to the number of fingers in each set, and to the method of
+  indexing                                                           142
+
+  XV. Number of entries in 500 sets, each of the fore, middle,
+  and ring-fingers only                                              146
+
+  XVI. Number of cases of various anthropometric data that
+  severally fell in the three classes of large, medium, and
+  small, when certain limiting values were adopted                   159
+
+  XVII. Distribution of 500 sets of measures, each set consisting
+  of five elements, into classes                                     160
+
+  XVIII. Number of the above sets that fell under the same
+  headings                                                           161
+
+  XIX. Further analysis of the two headings that contained the
+  most numerous entries                                              162
+
+  XX. Observed random couplets                                       174
+
+  XXI. Calculated random couplets                                    174
+
+  XXII. Observed fraternal couplets                                  175
+
+  XXIII. Fraternal couplets--random, observed, and utmost
+  feasible                                                           176
+
+  XXIV. Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets        181
+
+  XXV. Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets--
+  random and observed                                                182
+
+  XXVI. Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets--
+  resemblance measured on centesimal scale                           182
+
+  XXVII. Twins                                                       186
+
+  XXVIII. Children of like-patterned parents                         188
+
+  XXIX. Paternal and maternal influence                              190
+
+  XXX. Different races, percentage frequency of arches in
+  fore-finger                                                        194
+
+  XXXI. Distribution of number of ridges in AH, and of other
+  measures in loops                                                  203
+
+  XXXII. Ordinates to their schemes of distribution                  204
+
+  XXXIII. Comparison of the above with calculated values             205
+
+  XXXIV. Proportions of a typical loop on the right and left
+  thumbs respectively                                                209
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  I.--Fig. 1. Chinese coin with the symbol of the nail-mark of
+  the Empress Wen-teh                                                 25
+
+  Fig. 2. Order on a camp sutler by Mr. Gilbert Thompson, who
+  used his finger print for the same purpose as the scroll-work
+  in cheques, viz. to ensure the detection of erasures                27
+
+  II.--Fig. 3. Form of card used at my anthropometric laboratory
+  for finger prints. It shows the places where they are severally
+  impressed, whether dabbed or rolled (p. 40), and the hole by
+  which they are secured in their box                                145
+
+  Fig. 4. Small printing roller, used in the pocket apparatus,
+  actual size. It may be covered either with india-rubber tubing
+  or with roller composition                                          40
+
+  III.--Fig. 5. Diagram of the chief peculiarities of ridges,
+  called here _minutiæ_ (the scale is about eight times the
+  natural size)                                                       54
+
+  Fig. 6. The systems of ridges and the creases in the palm,
+  indicated respectively by continuous and by dotted lines. Nos.
+  2, 3, 4, and 5 show variations in the boundaries of the systems
+  of ridges, and places where smaller systems are sometimes
+  interpolated                                                        54
+
+  IV.--Fig. 7. The effects of scars and cuts on the ridges: _a_
+  is the result of a deep ulcer; _b_ the finger of a tailor
+  (temporarily) scarred by the needle; _c_ the result of a deep
+  cut                                                                 59
+
+  Fig. 8. Formation of the interspace: filled in (3) by a loop;
+  in (4) by a scroll. The triangular plot or plots are indicated.
+  In (1) there is no interspace, but a succession of arches are
+  formed, gradually flattening into straight lines                    67
+
+  V.--Fig. 9. Specimens of rolled thumb prints, of the natural
+  size, in which the patterns have been outlined, p. 69, and on
+  which lines have been drawn for orientation and charting            68
+
+  VI.--Fig. 10. Specimens of the outlines of the patterns on the
+  ten digits of eight different persons, not selected but taken
+  as they came. Its object is to give a general idea of the degree
+  of their variety. The supply of ridges from the _inner_ (or
+  thumb side) are coloured blue, those from the _outer_ are red
+  (the scale is of the natural size)                                  70
+
+  VII.--Fig. 11. Standard patterns of Arches, together with some
+  transitional forms, all with their names below                      75
+
+  Fig. 12. As above, with respect to Loops                            75
+
+  VIII.--Fig. 13. As above, with respect to Whorls                    75
+
+  Fig. 14. Cores to Loops, which may consist either of single
+  lines, here called _rods_, or of a recurved line or _staple_,
+  while the ridges that immediately envelops them is called an
+  _envelope_                                                          76
+
+  Fig. 15. Cores to Whorls                                            77
+
+  IX.--Fig. 15. Transitional patterns, enlarged three times,
+  between Arches and either Loops or Whorls                           79
+
+  X.--Fig. 16. Transitional patterns, as above, but between Loops
+  and Whorls                                                          79
+
+  XI.--Fig. 17. Diagram showing the nine genera formed by the
+  corresponding combinations of the two letters by which they are
+  expressed, each being _i_, _j_, or _o_ as the case may be. The
+  first two diagrams are Arches, and not strictly patterns at all,
+  but may with some justice be symbolised by _jj_                     80
+
+  Fig. 18. Ambiguities in minutiæ, showing that certain details in
+  them are not to be trusted, while others are                        92
+
+  XII.--Fig. 19. The illustrations to Purkenje's _Commentatio_.
+  They are photo-lithographed from the original, which is not
+  clearly printed                                                     86
+
+  XIII.--Fig. 20. Enlarged impressions of the same two fingers
+  of V. H. Hd., first when a child of 2-1/2, and subsequently when
+  a boy of 15 years of age. The lower pair are interesting from
+  containing the unique case of failure of exact coincidence yet
+  observed. It is marked A. The numerals indicate the
+  correspondences                                                     92
+
+  XIV.--Fig. 21. Contains portions on an enlarged scale of eight
+  couplets of finger prints, the first print in each couplet
+  having been taken many years before the second, as shown by the
+  attached dates. The points of correspondence in each couplet are
+  indicated by similar numerals                                       93
+
+  XV.--Fig. 22. The fore-finger of Sir W. J. Herschel as printed
+  on two occasions, many years apart (enlarged scale). The numerals
+  are here inserted on a plan that has the merit of clearness, but
+  some of the lineations are thereby sacrificed                       95
+
+  Fig. 23. Shows the periods of life over which the evidence of
+  identity extends in Figs 20-22. [By an oversight, not perceived
+  until too late for remedy, the bottom line begins at æt. 62
+  instead of 67]                                                      97
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with two
+totally distinct classes of marks. The most conspicuous are the creases or
+folds of the skin which interest the followers of palmistry, but which are
+no more significant to others than the creases in old clothes; they show
+the lines of most frequent flexure, and nothing more. The least
+conspicuous marks, but the most numerous by far, are the so-called
+papillary ridges; they form the subject of the present book. If they had
+been only twice as large as they are, they would have attracted general
+attention and been commented on from the earliest times. Had Dean Swift
+known and thought of them, when writing about the Brobdingnags, whom he
+constructs on a scale twelve times as great as our own, he would certainly
+have made Gulliver express horror at the ribbed fingers of the giants who
+handled him. The ridges on their palms would have been as broad as the
+thongs of our coach-whips.
+
+Let no one despise the ridges on account of their smallness, for they are
+in some respects the most important of all anthropological data. We shall
+see that they form patterns, considerable in size and of a curious variety
+of shape, whose boundaries can be firmly outlined, and which are little
+worlds in themselves. They have the unique merit of retaining all their
+peculiarities unchanged throughout life, and afford in consequence an
+incomparably surer criterion of identity than any other bodily feature.
+They may be made to throw welcome light on some of the most interesting
+biological questions of the day, such as heredity, symmetry, correlation,
+and the nature of genera and species. A representation of their lineations
+is easily secured in a self-recorded form, by inking the fingers in the
+way that will be explained, and pressing them on paper. There is no
+prejudice to be overcome in procuring these most trustworthy sign-manuals,
+no vanity to be pacified, no untruths to be guarded against.
+
+My attention was first drawn to the ridges in 1888 when preparing a
+lecture on Personal Identification for the Royal Institution, which had
+for its principal object an account of the anthropometric method of
+Bertillon, then newly introduced into the prison administration of France.
+Wishing to treat the subject generally, and having a vague knowledge of
+the value sometimes assigned to finger marks, I made inquiries, and was
+surprised to find, both how much had been done, and how much there
+remained to do, before establishing their theoretical value and practical
+utility.
+
+Enough was then seen to show that the subject was of real importance, and
+I resolved to investigate it; all the more so, as the modern processes of
+photographic printing would enable the evidence of such results as might
+be arrived at, to be presented to the reader on an enlarged and easily
+legible form, and in a trustworthy shape. Those that are put forward in
+the following pages, admit of considerable extension and improvement, and
+it is only the fact that an account of them seems useful, which causes me
+to delay no further before submitting what has thus far been attained, to
+the criticism of others.
+
+I have already published the following memoirs upon this subject:
+
+    1. "Personal Identification." _Journal Royal Inst._ 25th May 1888, and
+    _Nature_, 28th June 1888.
+
+    2. "Patterns in Thumb and Finger Marks." _Phil. Trans. Royal Society_,
+    vol. clxxxii. (1891) b. pp. 1-23. [This almost wholly referred to
+    thumb marks.]
+
+    3. "Method of Indexing Finger Marks." _Proc. Royal Society_, vol.
+    xlix. (1891).
+
+    4. "Identification by Finger Tips." _Nineteenth Century_, August 1891.
+
+This first and introductory chapter contains a brief and orderly summary
+of the contents of those that follow.
+
+The second chapter treats of the previous employment of finger prints
+among various nations, which has been almost wholly confined to making
+daubs, without paying any regard to the delicate lineations with which
+this book is alone concerned. Their object was partly superstitious and
+partly ceremonial; superstitious, so far as a personal contact between
+the finger and the document was supposed to be of mysterious efficacy:
+ceremonial, as a formal act whose due performance in the presence of
+others could be attested. A few scattered instances are mentioned of
+persons who had made finger prints with enough care to show their
+lineations, and who had studied them; some few of these had used them as
+signatures. Attention is especially drawn to Sir William Herschel, who
+brought the method of finger prints into regular official employment when
+he was "Collector" or chief administrator of the Hooghly district in
+Bengal, and my large indebtedness to him is expressed in this chapter and
+in other places.
+
+In the third chapter various methods of making good prints from the
+fingers are described at length, and more especially that which I have now
+adopted on a somewhat large scale, at my anthropometric laboratory, which,
+through the kindness of the authorities of South Kensington, is at present
+lodged in the galleries of their Science Collections. There, the ten
+digits of both hands of all the persons who come to be measured, are
+impressed with clearness and rapidity, and a very large collection of
+prints is steadily accumulating, each set being, as we shall see, a
+sign-manual that differentiates the person who made it, throughout the
+whole of his life, from all the rest of mankind.
+
+Descriptions are also given of various methods of enlarging a finger print
+to a convenient size, when it is desired to examine it closely.
+Photography is the readiest of all; on the other hand the prism (as in a
+camera lucida) has merits of its own, and so has an enlarging pantagraph,
+when it is furnished with a small microscope and cross wires to serve as a
+pointer.
+
+In the fourth chapter the character and purpose of the ridges, whose
+lineations appear in the finger print, are discussed. They have been the
+topic of a considerable amount of careful physiological study in late
+years, by writers who have investigated their development in early periods
+of unborn life, as well as their evolutionary history. They are perfectly
+defined in the monkeys, but appear in a much less advanced stage in other
+mammalia. Their courses run somewhat independently of the lines of
+flexure. They are studded with pores, which are the open mouths of ducts
+proceeding from the somewhat deeply-seated glands which secrete
+perspiration, so one of their functions is to facilitate the riddance of
+that excretion. The ridges increase in height as the skin is thickened by
+hard usage, until callosities begin to be formed, which may altogether
+hide them. But the way in which they assist the touch and may tend to
+neutralise the dulling effect of a thick protective skin, is still
+somewhat obscure. They certainly seem to help in the discrimination of the
+character of surfaces that are variously rubbed between the fingers.
+
+These preliminary topics having been disposed of, we are free in the fifth
+chapter to enter upon the direct course of our inquiry, beginning with a
+discussion of the various patterns formed by the lineations. It will be
+shown how systems of parallel ridges sweep in bold curves across the
+palmar surface of the hand, and how, whenever the boundaries of two
+systems diverge, the interspace is filled up by a compact little system of
+its own, variously curved or whorled, having a fictitious resemblance to
+an eddy between two currents. An interspace of this kind is found in the
+bulb of each finger. The ridges run in parallel lines across the finger,
+up to its last joint, beyond which the insertion of the finger-nail causes
+a compression of the ridges on either side; their intermediate courses are
+in consequence so much broadened out that they commonly separate, and form
+two systems with an interspace between them. The independent patterns that
+appear in this interspace upon the bulbs of the fingers, are those with
+which this book is chiefly concerned.
+
+At first sight, the maze formed by the minute lineations is bewildering,
+but it is shown that every interspace can be surely outlined, and when
+this is done, the character of the pattern it encloses, starts
+conspicuously into view. Examples are given to show how the outlining is
+performed, and others in which the outlines alone are taken into
+consideration. The cores of the patterns are also characteristic, and are
+described separately. It is they alone that have attracted the notice of
+previous inquirers. The outlines fall for the most part into nine distinct
+genera, defined by the relative directions of the divergent ridges that
+enclose them. The upper pair (those that run towards the finger-tip) may
+unite, or one or other of them may surmount the other, thus making three
+possibilities. There are three similar possibilities in respect to the
+lower pair; so, as any one of the first group may be combined with any one
+of the second, there are 3 × 3, or nine possibilities in all. The practice
+of somewhat rolling the finger when printing from it, is necessary in
+order to impress enough of its surface to ensure that the points at which
+the boundaries of the pattern begin to diverge, shall be always included.
+
+Plates are given of the principal varieties of patterns, having regard
+only to their more fundamental differences, and names are attached for the
+convenience of description; specimens are also given of the outlines of
+the patterns in all the ten digits of eight different persons, taken at
+hazard, to afford a first idea of the character of the material to be
+dealt with. Another and less minute system of classification under three
+heads is then described, which is very useful for rough preliminary
+purposes, and of which frequent use is made further on. It is into Arches,
+Loops, and Whorls. In the Arches, there is no pattern strictly speaking,
+for there is no interspace; the need for it being avoided by a successive
+and regular broadening out of the ridges as they cross the bulb of the
+finger. In Loops, the interspace is filled with a system of ridges that
+bends back upon itself, and in which no one ridge turns through a complete
+circle. Whorls contain all cases in which at least one ridge turns through
+a complete circle, and they include certain double patterns which have a
+whorled appearance. The transitional cases are few; they are fully
+described, pictured, and classified. One great advantage of the rude A.
+L. W. system is that it can be applied, with little risk of error, to
+impressions that are smudged or imperfect; it is therefore very useful so
+far as it goes. Thus it can be easily applied to my own finger prints on
+the title-page, made as they are from digits that are creased and
+roughened by seventy years of life, and whose impressions have been
+closely clipped in order to fit them into a limited space.
+
+A third method of classification is determined by the origin of the ridges
+which supply the interspace, whether it be from the thumb side or the
+little-finger side; in other words, from the Inner or the Outer side.
+
+Lastly, a translation from the Latin is given of the famous Thesis or
+_Commentatio_ of Purkenje, delivered at the University of Breslau in 1823,
+together with his illustrations. It is a very rare pamphlet, and has the
+great merit of having first drawn attention to the patterns and attempted
+to classify them.
+
+In the sixth chapter we reach the question of Persistence: whether or no
+the patterns are so durable as to afford a sure basis for identification.
+The answer was different from what had been expected. So far as the
+proportions of the patterns go, they are _not_ absolutely fixed, even in
+the adult, inasmuch as they change with the shape of the finger. If the
+finger is plumped out or emaciated, or variously deformed by usage, gout,
+or age, the proportions of the pattern will vary also. Two prints of the
+same finger, one taken before and the other after an interval of many
+years, cannot be expected to be as closely alike as two prints similarly
+made from the same woodcut. They are far from satisfying the shrewd test
+of the stereoscope, which shows if there has been an alteration even of a
+letter in two otherwise duplicate pages of print. The measurements vary at
+different periods, even in the adult, just as much if not more than his
+height, span, and the lengths of his several limbs. On the other hand, the
+numerous bifurcations, origins, islands, and enclosures in the ridges that
+compose the pattern, are proved to be _almost beyond change_. A comparison
+is made between the pattern on a finger, and one on a piece of lace; the
+latter may be stretched or shrunk as a whole, but the threads of which it
+is made retain their respective peculiarities. The evidence on which these
+conclusions are founded is considerable, and almost wholly derived from
+the collections made by Sir W. Herschel, who most kindly placed them at my
+disposal. They refer to one or more fingers, and in a few instances to the
+whole hand, of fifteen different persons. The intervals before and after
+which the prints were taken, amount in some cases to thirty years. Some of
+them reach from babyhood to boyhood, some from childhood to youth, some
+from youth to advanced middle age, one from middle life to incipient old
+age. These four stages nearly include the whole of the ordinary life of
+man. I have compared altogether some 700 points of reference in these
+couplets of impressions, and only found a single instance of discordance,
+in which a ridge that was cleft in a child became united in later years.
+Photographic enlargements are given in illustration, which include between
+them a total of 157 pairs of points of reference, all bearing distinctive
+numerals to facilitate comparison and to prove their unchangeableness.
+Reference is made to another illustrated publication of mine, which raises
+the total number of points compared to 389, all of which were successful,
+with the single exception above mentioned. The fact of an almost complete
+persistence in the peculiarities of the ridges from birth to death, may
+now be considered as determined. They existed before birth, and they
+persist after death, until effaced by decomposition.
+
+In the seventh chapter an attempt is made to appraise the evidential value
+of finger prints by the common laws of Probability, paying great heed not
+to treat variations that are really correlated, as if they were
+independent. An artifice is used by which the number of portions is
+determined, into which a print may be divided, in each of which the purely
+local conditions introduce so much uncertainty, that a guess derived from
+a knowledge of the outside conditions is as likely as not to be wrong. A
+square of six ridge-intervals in the side was shown by three different
+sets of experiments to be larger than required; one of four
+ridge-intervals in the side was too small, but one of five ridge-intervals
+appeared to be closely correct. A six-ridge interval square was, however,
+at first adopted, in order to gain assurance that the error should be on
+the safe side. As an ordinary finger print contains about twenty-four of
+these squares, the uncertainty in respect to the entire contents of the
+pattern _due to this cause alone_, is expressed by a fraction of which the
+numerator is 1, and the denominator is 2 multiplied into itself
+twenty-four times, which amounts to a number so large that it requires
+eight figures to express it.
+
+A further attempt was made to roughly appraise the neglected uncertainties
+relating to the outside conditions, but large as they are, they seem much
+inferior in their joint effect to the magnitude of that just discussed.
+
+Next it was found possible, by the use of another artifice, to obtain some
+idea of the evidential value of identity when two prints agree in all but
+one, two, three, or any other number of particulars. This was done by
+using the five ridge-interval squares, of which thirty-five may be
+considered to go into a single finger print, being about the same as the
+number of the bifurcations, origins, and other points of comparison. The
+accidental similarity in their numbers enables us to treat them roughly as
+equivalent. On this basis the well-known method of binomial calculation is
+easily applied, with the general result that, notwithstanding a failure of
+evidence in a few points, as to the identity of two sets of prints, each,
+say, of three fingers, amply enough evidence would be supplied by the
+remainder to prevent any doubt that the two sets of prints were made by
+the same person. When a close correspondence exists in respect to all the
+ten digits, the thoroughness of the differentiation of each man from all
+the rest of the human species is multiplied to an extent far beyond the
+capacity of human imagination. There can be no doubt that the evidential
+value of identity afforded by prints of two or three of the fingers, is so
+great as to render it superfluous to seek confirmation from other sources.
+
+The eighth chapter deals with the frequency with which the several kinds
+of patterns appear on the different digits of the same person, severally
+and in connection. The subject is a curious one, and the inquiry
+establishes unexpected relationships and distinctions between different
+fingers and between the two hands, to whose origin there is at present no
+clue. The relationships are themselves connected in the following
+way;--calling any two digits on one of the hands by the letters A and B
+respectively, and the digit on the other hand, that corresponds to B, by
+the symbol B1, then the kinship between A and B1 is identical, in a
+statistical sense, with the kinship between A and B.
+
+The chief novelty in this chapter is an attempt to classify nearness of
+relationship upon a centesimal scale, in which the number of
+correspondences due to mere chance counts as 0°, and complete identity as
+100°. It seems reasonable to adopt the scale with only slight reservation,
+when the average numbers of the Arches, Loops, and Whorls are respectively
+the same in the two kinds of digit which are compared together; but when
+they differ greatly, there are no means free from objection, of
+determining the 100° division of the scale; so the results, if noted at
+all, are subject to grave doubt.
+
+Applying this scale, it appears that digits on opposite hands, which bear
+the same name, are more nearly related together than digits bearing
+different names, in about the proportion of three to two. It seems also,
+that of all the digits, none are so nearly related as the middle finger to
+the two adjacent ones.
+
+In the ninth chapter, various methods of indexing are discussed and
+proposed, by which a set of finger prints may be so described by a few
+letters, that it can be easily searched for and found in any large
+collection, just as the name of a person is found in a directory. The
+procedure adopted, is to apply the Arch-Loop-Whorl classification to all
+ten digits, describing each digit in the order in which it is taken, by
+the letter _a_, _l_, or _w_, as the case may be, and arranging the results
+in alphabetical sequence. The downward direction of the slopes of loops on
+the fore-fingers is also taken into account, whether it be towards the
+Inner or the Outer side, thus replacing L on the fore-finger by either _i_
+or _o_.
+
+Many alternative methods are examined, including both the recognition and
+the non-recognition of all sloped patterns. Also the gain in
+differentiation, when all the ten digits are catalogued, instead of only a
+few of them. There is so much correlation between the different fingers,
+and so much peculiarity in each, that theoretical notions of the value of
+different methods of classification are of little worth; it is only by
+actual trial that the best can be determined. Whatever plan of index be
+adopted, many patterns must fall under some few headings and few or no
+patterns under others, the former class resembling in that respect the
+Smiths, Browns, and other common names that occur in directories. The
+general value of the index much depends on the facility with which these
+frequent forms can be broken up by sub-classification, the rarer forms
+being easily dealt with. This branch of the subject has, however, been but
+lightly touched, under the belief that experience with larger collections
+than my own, was necessary before it could be treated thoroughly; means
+are, however, indicated for breaking up the large battalions, which have
+answered well thus far, and seem to admit of considerable extension. Thus,
+the number of ridges in a loop (which is by far the commonest pattern) on
+any particular finger, at the part of the impression where the ridges are
+cut by the axis of the loop, is a fairly definite and effective datum as
+well as a simple one; so also is the character of its inmost lineation, or
+core.
+
+In the tenth chapter we come to a practical result of the inquiry, namely,
+its possible use as a means of differentiating a man from his fellows. In
+civil as well as in criminal cases, the need of some such system is shown
+to be greatly felt in many of our dependencies; where the features of
+natives are distinguished with difficulty; where there is but little
+variety of surnames; where there are strong motives for prevarication,
+especially connected with land-tenure and pensions, and a proverbial
+prevalence of unveracity.
+
+It is also shown that the value to honest men of sure means of
+identifying themselves is not so small among civilised nations even in
+peace time, as to be disregarded, certainly not in times of war and of
+strict passports. But the value to honest men is always great of being
+able to identify offenders, whether they be merely deserters or formerly
+convicted criminals, and the method of finger prints is shown to be
+applicable to that purpose. For aid in searching the registers of a
+criminal intelligence bureau, its proper rank is probably a secondary one;
+the primary being some form of the already established Bertillon
+anthropometric method. Whatever power the latter gives of successfully
+searching registers, that power would be multiplied many hundredfold by
+the inclusion of finger prints, because their peculiarities are entirely
+unconnected with other personal characteristics, as we shall see further
+on. A brief account is given in this chapter of the Bertillon system, and
+an attempt is made on a small scale to verify its performance, by
+analysing five hundred sets of measures made at my own laboratory. These,
+combined with the quoted experiences in attempting to identify deserters
+in the United States, allow a high value to this method, though not so
+high as has been claimed for it, and show the importance of supplementary
+means. But whenever two suspected duplicates of measurements, bodily
+marks, photographs and finger prints have to be compared, the lineations
+of the finger prints would give an incomparably more trustworthy answer to
+the question, whether or no the suspicion of their referring to the same
+person was justified, than all the rest put together. Besides this, while
+measurements and photographs are serviceable only for adults, and even
+then under restrictions, the finger prints are available throughout life.
+It seems difficult to believe, now that their variety and persistence have
+been proved, the means of classifying them worked out, and the method of
+rapidly obtaining clear finger prints largely practised at my laboratory
+and elsewhere, that our criminal administration can long neglect the use
+of such a powerful auxiliary. It requires no higher skill and judgment to
+make, register, and hunt out finger prints, than is to be found in
+abundance among ordinary clerks. Of course some practice is required
+before facility can be gained in reading and recognising them, but not a
+few persons of whom I have knowledge, have interested themselves in doing
+so, and found no difficulty.
+
+The eleventh chapter treats of Heredity, and affirmatively answers the
+question whether patterns are transmissible by descent. The inquiry proved
+more troublesome than was expected, on account of the great variety in
+patterns and the consequent rarity with which the same pattern, other than
+the common Loop, can be expected to appear in relatives. The available
+data having been attacked both by the Arch-Loop-Whorl method, and by a
+much more elaborate system of classification--described and figured as the
+C system, the resemblances between children of either sex, of the same
+parents (or more briefly "fraternal" resemblances, as they are here
+called, for want of a better term), have been tabulated and discussed. A
+batch of twins have also been analysed. Then cases have been treated in
+which both parents had the same pattern on corresponding fingers; this
+pattern was compared with the pattern on the corresponding finger of the
+child. In these and other ways, results were obtained, all testifying to
+the conspicuous effect of heredity, and giving results that can be
+measured on the centesimal scale already described. But though the
+qualitative results are clear, the quantitative are as yet not well
+defined, and that part of the inquiry must lie over until a future time,
+when I shall have more data and when certain foreseen improvements in the
+method of work may perhaps be carried out. There is a decided appearance,
+first observed by Mr. F. Howard Collins, of whom I shall again have to
+speak, of the influence of the mother being stronger than that of the
+father, in transmitting these patterns.
+
+In the twelfth chapter we come to a branch of the subject of which I had
+great expectations, that have been falsified, namely, their use in
+indicating Race and Temperament. I thought that any hereditary
+peculiarities would almost of necessity vary in different races, and that
+so fundamental and enduring a feature as the finger markings must in some
+way be correlated with temperament.
+
+The races I have chiefly examined are English, most of whom were of the
+upper and middle classes; the others chiefly from London board schools;
+Welsh, from the purest Welsh-speaking districts of South Wales; Jews from
+the large London schools, and Negroes from the territories of the Royal
+Niger Company. I have also a collection of Basque prints taken at Cambo,
+some twenty miles inland from Biarritz, which, although small, is large
+enough to warrant a provisional conclusion. As a first and only an
+approximately correct description, the English, Welsh, Jews, Negroes, and
+Basques, may all be spoken of as identical in the character of their
+finger prints; the same familiar patterns appearing in all of them with
+much the same degrees of frequency, the differences between groups of
+different races being not larger than those that occasionally occur
+between groups of the same race. The Jews have, however, a decidedly
+larger proportion of Whorled patterns than other races, and I should have
+been tempted to make an assertion about a peculiarity in the Negroes, had
+not one of their groups differed greatly from the rest. The task of
+examination has been laborious thus far, but it would be much more so to
+arrive with correctness at a second and closer approximation to the truth.
+It is doubtful at present whether it is worth while to pursue the subject,
+except in the case of the Hill tribes of India and a few other peculiarly
+diverse races, for the chance of discovering some characteristic and
+perhaps a more monkey-like pattern.
+
+Considerable collections of prints of persons belonging to different
+classes have been analysed, such as students in science, and students in
+arts; farm labourers; men of much culture; and the lowest idiots in the
+London district (who are all sent to Darenth Asylum), but I do not, still
+as a first approximation, find any decided difference between their finger
+prints. The ridges of artists are certainly not more delicate and close
+than those of men of quite another stamp.
+
+In Chapter XIII. the question is discussed and answered affirmatively, of
+the right of the nine fundamentally differing patterns to be considered as
+different genera; also of their more characteristic varieties to rank as
+different genera, or species, as the case may be. The chief test applied,
+respected the frequency with which the various Loops that occurred on the
+thumbs, were found to differ, in successive degrees of difference, from
+the central form of all of them; it was found to accord with the
+requirements of the well-known law of Frequency of Error, proving the
+existence of a central type, from which the departures were, in common
+phraseology, accidental. Now all the evidence in the last chapter concurs
+in showing that no sensible amount of correlation exists between any of
+the patterns on the one hand, and any of the bodily faculties or
+characteristics on the other. It would be absurd therefore to assert that
+in the struggle for existence, a person with, say, a loop on his right
+middle finger has a better chance of survival, or a better chance of early
+marriage, than one with an arch. Consequently genera and species are here
+seen to be formed without the slightest aid from either Natural or Sexual
+Selection, and these finger patterns are apparently the only peculiarity
+in which Panmixia, or the effect of promiscuous marriages, admits of being
+studied on a large scale. The result of Panmixia in finger markings,
+corroborates the arguments I have used in _Natural Inheritance_ and
+elsewhere, to show that "organic stability" is the primary factor by which
+the distinctions between genera are maintained; consequently, the progress
+of evolution is not a smooth and uniform progression, but one that
+proceeds by jerks, through successive "sports" (as they are called), some
+of them implying considerable organic changes, and each in its turn being
+favoured by Natural Selection.
+
+The same word "variation" has been indiscriminately applied to two very
+different conceptions, which ought to be clearly distinguished; the one is
+that of the "sports" just alluded to, which are changes in the position of
+organic stability, and may, through the aid of Natural Selection, become
+fresh steps in the onward course of evolution; the other is that of the
+Variations proper, which are merely strained conditions of a stable form
+of organisation, and not in any way an overthrow of them. Sports do not
+blend freely together; variations proper do so. Natural Selection acts
+upon variations proper, just as it does upon sports, by preserving the
+best to become parents, and eliminating the worst, but its action upon
+mere variations can, as I conceive, be of no permanent value to evolution,
+because there is a constant tendency in the offspring to "regress" towards
+the parental type. The amount and results of this tendency have been
+fully established in _Natural Inheritance_. It is there shown, that after
+a certain departure from the central typical form has been reached in any
+race, a further departure becomes impossible without the aid of these
+sports. In the successive generations of such a population, the average
+tendency of filial regression towards the racial centre must at length
+counterbalance the effects of filial dispersion; consequently the best of
+the produce cannot advance beyond the level already attained by the
+parents, the rest falling short of it in various degrees.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In concluding these introductory remarks, I have to perform the grateful
+duty of acknowledging my indebtedness to Mr. F. Howard Collins, who
+materially helped me during the past year. He undertook the numerous and
+tedious tabulations upon which the chapters on Heredity, and on Races and
+Classes, are founded, and he thoroughly revised nearly the whole of my
+MS., to the great advantage of the reader of this book.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS
+
+
+The employment of impressions of the hand or fingers to serve as
+sign-manuals will probably be found in every nation of importance, but the
+significance attached to them differs. It ranges from a mere superstition
+that personal contact is important, up to the conviction of which this
+book will furnish assurance, that when they are properly made, they are
+incomparably the most sure and unchanging of all forms of signature. The
+existence of the superstitious basis is easily noted in children and the
+uneducated; it occupies a prominent place in the witchcrafts of
+barbarians. The modern witness who swears on the Bible, is made to hold it
+and afterwards to kiss it; he who signs a document, touches a seal or
+wafer, and declares that "this is my act and deed." Students of the
+primitive customs of mankind find abundant instances of the belief, that
+personal contact communicates some mysterious essence from the thing
+touched to the person who touches it, and _vice versa_; but it is
+unnecessary here to enter further into these elementary human reasonings,
+which are fully described and discussed by various well-known writers.
+
+The next grade of significance attached to an impression resembles that
+which commends itself to the mind of a hunter who is practised in
+tracking. He notices whether a footprint he happens to light upon, is
+larger or smaller, broader or narrower, or otherwise differs from the
+average, in any special peculiarity; he thence draws his inferences as to
+the individual who made it. So, when a chief presses his hand smeared with
+blood or grime, upon a clean surface, a mark is left in some degree
+characteristic of him. It may be that of a broad stumpy hand, or of a long
+thin one; it may be large or small; it may even show lines corresponding
+to the principal creases of the palm. Such hand prints have been made and
+repeated in many semi-civilised nations, and have even been impressed in
+vermilion on their State documents, as formerly by the sovereign of Japan.
+Though mere smudges, they serve in a slight degree to individualise the
+signer, while they are more or less clothed with the superstitious
+attributes of personal contact. So far as I can learn, no higher form of
+finger printing than this has ever existed, in regular and well-understood
+use, in any barbarous or semi-civilised nation. The ridges dealt with in
+this book could not be seen at all in such rude prints, much less could
+they be utilised as strictly distinctive features. It is possible that
+when impressions of the fingers have been made in wax, and used as seals
+to documents, they may sometimes have been subjected to minute scrutiny;
+but no account has yet reached me of trials in any of their courts of law,
+about disputed signatures, in which the identity of the party who was said
+to have signed with his finger print, had been established or disproved by
+comparing it with a print made by him then and there. The reader need be
+troubled with only a few examples, taken out of a considerable collection
+of extracts from books and letters, in which prints, or rather daubs of
+the above kind, are mentioned.
+
+A good instance of their small real value may be seen in the _Trans. China
+Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, Part 1, 1847, published at
+Hong-Kong, which contains a paper on "Land Tenure in China," by T. Meadows
+Taylor, with a deed concerning a sale of land, in facsimile, and its
+translation: this ends, "The mother and the son, the sellers, have in the
+presence of all the parties, received the price of the land in full,
+amounting to sixty-four taels and five mace, in perfect dollars weighed in
+scales. _Impression of the finger of the mother, of the maiden name of
+Chin._" The impression, as it appears in the woodcut, is roundish in
+outline, and was therefore made by the tip and not the bulb of the finger.
+Its surface is somewhat mottled, but there is no trace of any ridges.
+
+The native clerks of Bengal give the name of _tipsahi_ to the mark
+impressed by illiterate persons who, refusing to make either a X or their
+caste-mark, dip their finger into the ink-pot and touch the document. The
+tipsahi is not supposed to individualise the signer, it is merely a
+personal ceremony performed in the presence of witnesses.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1.
+
+FIG. 1. Chinese Coin, Tang Dynasty, about 618 A.D., with nail mark of the
+Empress Wen-teh, figured in relief.
+
+FIG. 2. Order on a Camp Sutler, by the officer of a surveying party in New
+Mexico. 1882.]
+
+
+Many impressions of fingers are found on ancient pottery, as on Roman
+tiles; indeed the Latin word _palmatus_ is said to mean an impression in
+soft clay, such as a mark upon a wall, stamped by a blow with the palm.
+Nail-marks are used ornamentally by potters of various nations. They exist
+on Assyrian bricks as signatures; for instance, in the Assyrian room of
+the British Museum, on the west side of the case C 43, one of these bricks
+contains a notice of sale and is prefaced by words that were translated
+for me thus: "Nail-mark of Nabu-sum-usur, the seller of the field, (used)
+like his seal." A somewhat amusing incident affected the design of the
+Chinese money during the great Tang dynasty, about 618 A.D. A new and
+important issue of coinage was to be introduced, and the Secretary of the
+Censors himself moulded the design in wax, and humbly submitted it to the
+Empress Wen-teh for approval. She, through maladroitness, dug the end of
+her enormously long finger-nail into its face, marking it deeply as with a
+carpenter's gouge. The poor Secretary of the Censors, Ngeu-yang-siun, who
+deserves honour from professional courtiers, suppressing such sentiments
+as he must have felt when his work was mauled, accepted the nail-mark of
+the Empress as an interesting supplement to the design; he changed it into
+a crescent in relief, and the new coins were stamped accordingly. (See
+_Coins and Medals_, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, 1885, p. 221.) A
+drawing of one of these is given in Plate 1, Fig. 1.
+
+The European practitioners of palmistry and cheiromancy do not seem to
+have paid particular attention to the ridges with which we are concerned.
+A correspondent of the American Journal _Science_, viii. 166, states,
+however, that the Chinese class the striæ at the ends of the fingers into
+"pots" when arranged in a coil, and into "hooks." They are also regarded
+by the cheiromantists in Japan. A curious account has reached me of
+negroes in the United States who, laying great stress on the possession of
+finger prints in wax or dough for witchcraft purposes, are also said to
+examine their striæ.
+
+Leaving Purkenje to be spoken of in a later chapter, because he deals
+chiefly with classification, the first well-known person who appears to
+have studied the lineations of the ridges as a means of identification,
+was Bewick, who made an impression of his own thumb on a block of wood and
+engraved it, as well as an impression of a finger. They were used as
+fanciful designs for his illustrated books. Occasional instances of
+careful study may also be noted, such as that of Mr. Fauld (_Nature_,
+xxii. p. 605, Oct. 28, 1880), who seems to have taken much pains, and that
+of Mr. Tabor, the eminent photographer of San Francisco, who, noticing the
+lineations of a print that he had accidentally made with his own inked
+finger upon a blotting-paper, experimented further, and finally proposed
+the method of finger prints for the registration of Chinese, whose
+identification has always been a difficulty, and was giving a great deal
+of trouble at that particular time; but his proposal dropped through.
+Again Mr. Gilbert Thompson, an American geologist, when on Government duty
+in 1882 in the wild parts of New Mexico, paid the members of his party by
+order of the camp sutler. To guard against forgery he signed his name
+across the impression made by his finger upon the order, after first
+pressing it on his office pad. He was good enough to send me the duplicate
+of one of these cheques made out in favour of a man who bore the ominous
+name of "Lying Bob" (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The impression took the place of
+the scroll work on an ordinary cheque; it was in violet aniline ink, and
+looked decidedly pretty. From time to time sporadic instances like these
+are met with, but none are comparable in importance to the regular and
+official employment made of finger prints by Sir William Herschel, during
+more than a quarter of a century in Bengal. I was exceedingly obliged to
+him for much valuable information when first commencing this study, and
+have been almost wholly indebted to his kindness for the materials used in
+this book for proving the persistence of the lineations throughout life.
+
+Sir William Herschel has presented me with one of the two original
+"Contracts" in Bengali, dated 1858, which suggested to his mind the idea
+of using this method of identification. It was so difficult to obtain
+credence to the signatures of the natives, that he thought he would use
+the signature of the hand itself, chiefly with the intention of
+frightening the man who made it from afterwards denying his formal act;
+however, the impression proved so good that Sir W. Herschel became
+convinced that the same method might be further utilised. He finally
+introduced the use of finger prints in several departments at Hooghly in
+1877, after seventeen years' experience of the value of the evidence they
+afforded. A too brief account of his work was given by him in _Nature_,
+xxiii. p. 23 (Nov. 25, 1880). He mentions there that he had been taking
+finger marks as sign-manuals for more than twenty years, and had
+introduced them for practical purposes in several ways in India with
+marked benefit. They rendered attempts to repudiate signatures quite
+hopeless. Finger prints were taken of Pensioners to prevent their
+personation by others after their death; they were used in the office for
+Registration of Deeds, and at a gaol where each prisoner had to sign with
+his finger. By comparing the prints of persons then living, with their
+prints taken twenty years previously, he considered he had proved that the
+lapse of at least that period made no change sufficient to affect the
+utility of the plan. He informs me that he submitted, in 1877, a report in
+semi-official form to the Inspector-General of Gaols, asking to be allowed
+to extend the process; but no result followed. In 1881, at the request of
+the Governor of the gaol at Greenwich (Sydney), he sent a description of
+the method, but no further steps appear to have been taken there.
+
+If the use of finger prints ever becomes of general importance, Sir
+William Herschel must be regarded as the first who devised a feasible
+method for regular use, and afterwards officially adopted it. His method
+of printing for those purposes will be found in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+METHODS OF PRINTING
+
+
+It will be the aim of this chapter to show how to make really good and
+permanent impressions of the fingers. It is very easy to do so when the
+principles of the art are understood and practised, but difficult
+otherwise.
+
+One example of the ease of making good, but not permanent impressions, is
+found, and should be tried, by pressing the bulb of a finger against
+well-polished glass, or against the highly-polished blade of a razor. The
+finger must be _very slightly_ oiled, as by passing it through the hair;
+if it be moist, dry it with a handkerchief before the oiling. Then press
+the bulb of the finger on the glass or razor, as the case may be, and a
+beautiful impression will be left. The hardness of the glass or steel
+prevents its surface from rising into the furrows under the pressure of
+the ridges, while the layer of oil which covers the bottom of the furrows
+is too thin to reach down to the glass or steel; consequently the ridges
+alone are printed. There is no capillary or other action to spread the
+oil, so the impression remains distinct. A merely moist and not oily
+finger leaves a similar mark, but it soon evaporates.
+
+This simple method is often convenient for quickly noting the character of
+a finger pattern. The impression may be made on a window-pane, a
+watch-glass, or even an eye-glass, if nothing better is at hand. The
+impression is not seen to its fullest advantage except by means of a
+single small source of bright light. The glass or steel has to be so
+inclined as just _not_ to reflect the light into the eye. That part of the
+light which falls on the oily impression is not so sharply reflected from
+it as from the surface of the glass or steel. Consequently some stray
+beams of the light which is scattered from the oil, reach the eye, while
+all of the light reflected from the highly-polished glass or steel passes
+in another direction and is unseen. The result is a brilliantly luminous
+impression on a dark background. The impression ceases to be visible when
+the glass or steel is not well polished, and itself scatters the light,
+like the oil.
+
+There are two diametrically opposed methods of printing, each being the
+complement of the other. The method used in ordinary printing, is to ink
+the projecting surfaces only, leaving the depressed parts clean. The other
+method, used in printing from engraved plates, is to ink the whole
+surface, and then to clean the ink from the projecting parts, leaving the
+depressions only filled with it. Either of these two courses can be
+adopted in taking finger prints, but not the two together, for when they
+are combined in equal degrees the result must be a plain black blot.
+
+The following explanations will be almost entirely confined to the first
+method, namely, that of ordinary printing, as the second method has so far
+not given equally good results.
+
+The ink used may be either printer's ink or water colour, but for
+producing the best work, rapidly and on a large scale, the method of
+printer's ink seems in every respect preferable. However, water colour
+suffices for some purposes, and as there is so much convenience in a pad,
+drenched with dye, such as is commonly used for hand stamps, and which is
+always ready for use, many may prefer it. The processes with printer's ink
+will be described first.
+
+The relief formed by the ridges is low. In the fingers of very young
+children, and of some ladies whose hands are rarely submitted to rough
+usage, the ridges are exceptionally faint; their crests hardly rise above
+the furrows, yet it is the crests only that are to be inked. Consequently
+the layer of ink on the slab or pad on which the finger is pressed for the
+purpose of blackening it, must be _very thin_. Its thickness must be less
+than half the elevation of the ridges, for when the finger is pressed
+down, the crests displace the ink immediately below them, and drives it
+upwards into the furrows which would otherwise be choked with it.
+
+It is no violent misuse of metaphor to compare the ridges to the crests of
+mountain ranges, and the depth of the blackening that they ought to
+receive, to that of the newly-fallen snow upon the mountaintops in the
+early autumn, when it powders them from above downwards to a
+sharply-defined level. The most desirable blackening of the fingers
+corresponds to a snowfall which covers all the higher passes, but descends
+no lower.
+
+With a finger so inked it is scarcely possible to fail in making a good
+imprint; the heaviest pressure cannot spoil it. The first desideratum is,
+then, to cover the slab by means of which the finger is to be blackened,
+with an extremely thin layer of ink.
+
+This cannot be accomplished with printer's ink unless the slab is very
+clean, the ink somewhat fluid, and the roller that is used to spread it,
+in good condition. When a plate of glass is used for the slab, it is easy,
+by holding the inked slab between the eye and the light, to judge of the
+correct amount of inking. It should appear by no means black, but of a
+somewhat light brown.
+
+The thickness of ink transferred by the finger to the paper is much less
+than that which lay upon the slab. The ink adheres to the slab as well as
+to the finger; when they are separated, only a portion of the ink is
+removed by the finger. Again, when the inked finger is pressed on the
+paper, only a portion of the ink that was on the finger is transferred to
+the paper. Owing to this double reduction, it seldom happens that a clear
+impression is at the same time black. An ideally perfect material for
+blackening would lie loosely on the slab like dust, it would cling very
+lightly to the finger, but adhere firmly to the paper.
+
+The last preliminary to be noticed is the slowness with which the
+printer's ink hardens on the slab, and the rapidity with which it dries on
+paper. While serviceable for hours in the former case, in the latter it
+will be dry in a very few seconds. The drying or hardening of this oily
+ink has nothing whatever to do with the loss of moisture in the ordinary
+sense of the word, that is to say, of the loss of the contained water: it
+is wholly due to oxidisation of the oil. An extremely thin oxidised film
+soon forms on the surface of the layer on the slab, and this shields the
+lower-lying portions of the layer from the air, and retards further
+oxidisation. But paper is very unlike a polished slab; it is a fine felt,
+full of minute interstices. When a printed period (.) is placed under the
+microscope it looks like a drop of tar in the middle of a clean
+bird's-nest. The ink is minutely divided among the interstices of the
+paper, and a large surface being thereby exposed to the air, it oxidises
+at once, while a print from the finger upon glass will not dry for two or
+three days. One effect of oxidisation is to give a granulated appearance
+to the ink on rollers which have been allowed to get dirty. This
+granulation leaves clots on the slab which are fatal to good work:
+whenever they are seen, the roller must be cleaned at once.
+
+The best ink for finger printing is not the best for ordinary printing. It
+is important to a commercial printer that his ink should dry rapidly on
+the paper, and he does not want a particularly thin layer of it;
+consequently, he prefers ink that contains various drying materials, such
+as litharge, which easily part with their oxygen. In finger prints this
+rapid drying is unnecessary, and the drying materials do harm by making
+the ink too stiff. The most serviceable ink for our purpose is made of any
+pure "drying" oil (or oil that oxidises rapidly), mixed with lampblack and
+very little else. I get mine in small collapsible tubes, each holding
+about a quarter of an ounce, from Messrs. Reeve & Sons, 113 Cheapside,
+London, W.C. Some thousands of fingers may be printed from the contents of
+one of these little tubes.
+
+Let us now pass on to descriptions of printing apparatus. First, of that
+in regular use at my anthropometric laboratory at South Kensington, which
+has acted perfectly for three years; then of a similar but small apparatus
+convenient to carry about or send abroad, and of temporary arrangements in
+case any part of it may fail. Then lithographic printing will be noticed.
+In all these cases some kind of printer's ink has to be used. Next, smoke
+prints will be described, which at times are very serviceable; after this
+the methods of water colours and aniline dyes; then casts of various
+kinds; last of all, enlargements.
+
+_Laboratory apparatus._--Mine consists of: 1, slab; 2, roller; 3, bottle
+of benzole (paraffin, turpentine, or solution of washing soda); 4, a
+funnel, with blotting-paper to act as a filter; 5, printer's ink; 6, rags
+and duster; 7, a small glass dish; 8, cards to print on.
+
+The _Slab_ is a sheet of polished copper, 10-1/2 inches by 7, and about
+1/16 inch thick, mounted on a solid board 3/4 inch thick, with projecting
+ears for ease of handling. The whole weighs 2-1/2 lbs. Each day it is
+cleaned with the benzole and left bright. [A slab of more than double the
+length and less than half the width might, as my assistant thinks, answer
+better.]
+
+The _Roller_ is an ordinary small-sized printer's roller, 6 inches long
+and 3 in diameter, obtained from Messrs. Harrild, 25 Farringdon Street,
+London. Mine remained in good condition for quite a year and a half. When
+it is worn the maker exchanges it for a new one at a trifling cost. A good
+roller is of the highest importance; it affords the only means of
+spreading ink evenly and thinly, and with quickness and precision, over a
+large surface. The ingenuity of printers during more than four centuries
+in all civilised nations, has been directed to invent the most suitable
+composition for rollers, with the result that particular mixtures of glue,
+treacle, etc., are now in general use, the proportions between the
+ingredients differing according to the temperature at which the roller is
+intended to be used. The roller, like the slab, is cleansed with benzole
+every day (a very rapid process) and then put out of the reach of dust.
+Its clean surface is smooth and shining.
+
+The _Benzole_ is kept in a pint bottle. Sometimes paraffin or turpentine
+has been used instead; washing soda does not smell, but it dissolves the
+ink more slowly. They are otherwise nearly equally effective in cleansing
+the rollers and fingers. When dirty, the benzole can be rudely filtered
+and used again.
+
+The _Funnel_ holds blotting-paper for filtering the benzole. Where much
+printing is going on, and consequent washing of hands, it is worth while
+to use a filter, as it saves a little daily expense, though benzole is
+very cheap, and a few drops of it will clean a large surface.
+
+The _Ink_ has already been spoken of. The more fluid it is the better, so
+long as it does not "run." A thick ink cannot be so thinned by adding
+turpentine, etc., as to make it equal to ink that was originally fluid.
+The variety of oils used in making ink, and of the added materials, is
+endless. For our purpose, any oil that dries and does not spread, such as
+boiled or burnt linseed oil, mixed with lampblack, is almost all that is
+wanted. The burnt oil is the thicker of the two, and dries the faster.
+Unfortunately the two terms, burnt and boiled linseed oil, have no
+definite meaning in the trade, boiling or burning not being the simple
+processes these words express, but including an admixture of drying
+materials, which differ with each manufacturer; moreover, there are two,
+if not three, fundamentally distinct qualities of linseed, in respect to
+the oil extracted from it. The ink used in the laboratory and described
+above, answers all requirements. Many other inks have suited less well;
+less even than that which can be made, in a very homely way, with a little
+soot off a plate that had been smoked over a candle, mixed with such
+boiled linseed oil as can be bought at unpretentious oil and colour shops,
+its only fault being a tendency to run.
+
+_Rags_, and a comparatively clean duster, are wanted for cleaning the slab
+and roller, without scratching them.
+
+The small _Glass Dish_ holds the benzole, into which the inked fingers are
+dipped before wiping them with the duster. Soap and water complete the
+preliminary cleansing.
+
+_Cards_, lying flat, and being more easily manipulated than paper, are now
+used at the laboratory for receiving the impressions. They are of rather
+large size, 11-1/2 × 5 inches, to enable the prints of the ten digits to
+be taken on the same card in two rather different ways (see Plate 2, Fig.
+3), and to afford space for writing notes. The cards must have a smooth
+and yet slightly absorbent surface. If too highly glazed they cease to
+absorb, and more ink will remain on the fingers and less be transferred
+from them to the paper. A little trial soon determines the best specimen
+from among a few likely alternatives. "Correspondence cards" are suitable
+for taking prints of not more than three fingers, and are occasionally
+employed in the laboratory. Paper books and pads were tried, but their
+surfaces are inferior to cards in flatness, and their use is now
+abandoned.
+
+The cards should be _very_ white, because, if a photographic enlargement
+should at any time be desired, a slight tint on the card will be an
+impediment to making a photograph that shall be as sharp in its lines as
+an engraving, it being recollected that the cleanest prints are brown, and
+therefore not many shades darker than the tints of ordinary cards.
+
+The method of printing at the laboratory is to squeeze a drop or so of ink
+on to the slab, and to work it thoroughly with the roller until a thin and
+even layer is spread, just as is done by printers, from one of whom a
+beginner might well purchase a lesson. The thickness of the layer of ink
+is tested from time to time by taking a print of a finger, and comparing
+its clearness and blackness with that of a standard print, hung up for the
+purpose close at hand. If too much ink has been put on the slab, some of
+it must be cleaned off, and the slab rolled afresh with what remains on it
+and on the roller. But this fault should seldom be committed; little ink
+should be put on at first, and more added little by little, until the
+required result is attained.
+
+The right hand of the subject, which should be quite passive, is taken by
+the operator, and the bulbs of his four fingers laid flat on the inked
+slab and pressed gently but firmly on it by the flattened hand of the
+operator. Then the inked fingers are laid flat upon the upper part of the
+right-hand side of the card (Plate 2, Fig. 3), and pressed down gently and
+firmly, just as before, by the flattened hand of the operator. This
+completes the process for one set of prints of the four fingers of the
+right hand. Then the bulb of the thumb is slightly _rolled_ on the inked
+slab, and again on the lower part of the card, which gives a more extended
+but not quite so sharp an impression. Each of the four fingers of the same
+hand, in succession, is similarly rolled and impressed. This completes the
+process for the second set of prints of the digits of the right hand. Then
+the left hand is treated in the same way.
+
+The result is indicated by the diagram, which shows on what parts of the
+card the impressions fall. Thus each of the four fingers is impressed
+twice, once above with a simple dab, and once below with a rolled
+impression, but each thumb is only impressed once; the thumbs being more
+troublesome to print from than fingers. Besides, the cards would have to
+be made even larger than they are, if two impressions of each thumb had to
+be included. It takes from two and a half to three minutes to obtain the
+eighteen impressions that are made on each card.
+
+The _pocket apparatus_ is similar to one originally made and used by Sir
+William J. Herschel (see Plate 3, Fig. 4, in which the roller and its
+bearings are drawn of the same size as those I use). A small cylinder of
+hard wood, or of brass tube, say 1-3/4 inch long, and 1/2 or 3/4 inch in
+diameter, has a pin firmly driven into each end to serve as an axle. A
+piece of tightly-fitting india-rubber tubing is drawn over the cylinder.
+The cylinder, thus coated with a soft smooth compressible material, turns
+on its axle in two brackets, each secured by screws, as shown in Plate 2,
+Fig. 4, to a board (say 6 × 2-1/2 × 1/4 inch) that serves as handle. This
+makes a very fair and durable roller; it can be used in the heat and damp
+of the tropics, and is none the worse for a wetting, but it is by no means
+so good for delicate work as a cylinder covered with roller composition.
+These are not at all difficult to make; I have cast them for myself. The
+mould is a piece of brass tube, polished inside. A thick disc, with a
+central hole for the lower pin of the cylinder, fits smoothly into the
+lower end of the mould, and a ring with a thin bar across it, fits over
+the other end, the upper pin of the cylinder entering a hole in the middle
+of the bar; thus the cylinder is firmly held in the right position. After
+slightly oiling the inside of the mould, warming it, inserting the disc
+and cylinder, and fitting on the ring, the melted composition is poured in
+on either side of the bar. As it contracts on cooling, rather more must be
+poured in than at first appears necessary. Finally the roller is pushed
+out of the mould by a wooden ramrod, applied to the bottom of the disc.
+The composition must be melted like glue, in a vessel surrounded by hot
+water, which should never be allowed to boil; otherwise it will be spoilt.
+Harrild's best composition is more than twice the cost of that ordinarily
+used, and is expensive for large rollers, but for these miniature ones the
+cost is unimportant. The mould with which my first roller was made, was an
+old pewter squirt with the nozzle cut off; its piston served the double
+purpose of disc and ramrod.
+
+The _Slab_ is a piece of thick plate glass, of the same length and width
+as the handle to the roller, so they pack up easily together; its edges
+are ground to save the fingers and roller alike from being cut. (Porcelain
+takes the ink better than glass, but is not to be commonly found in the
+shops, of a convenient shape and size; a glazed tile makes a capital
+slab.) A collapsible tube of printer's ink, a few rags, and a phial of
+washing soda, complete the equipment (benzole may spoil india-rubber).
+When using the apparatus, spread a newspaper on the table to prevent
+accident, have other pieces of newspaper ready to clean the roller, and to
+remove any surplus of ink from it by the simple process of rolling it on
+the paper. Take care that the washing soda is in such a position that it
+cannot be upset and ruin the polish of the table. With these precautions,
+the apparatus may be used with cleanliness even in a drawing-room. The
+roller is of course laid on its back when not in use.
+
+My assistant has taken good prints of the three first fingers of the right
+hands of more than 300 school children, say 1000 fingers, in a few hours
+during the same day, by this apparatus. Hawksley, 357 Oxford Street, W.,
+sells a neatly fitted-up box with all the necessary apparatus.
+
+_Rougher arrangements._--A small ball made by tying chamois leather round
+soft rags, may be used in the absence of a roller. The fingers are inked
+from the ball, over which the ink has been evenly distributed, by dabbing
+it many times against a slab or plate. This method gives good results, but
+is slow; it would be intolerably tedious to employ it on a large scale, on
+all ten digits of many persons.
+
+It is often desirable to obtain finger prints from persons at a distance,
+who could not be expected to trouble themselves to acquire the art of
+printing for the purpose of making a single finger print. On these
+occasions I send folding-cases to them, each consisting of two pieces of
+thin copper sheeting, fastened side by side to a slip of pasteboard, by
+bending the edges of the copper over it. The pasteboard is half cut
+through at the back, along the space between the copper sheets, so that
+it can be folded like a reply post-card, the copper sheets being thus
+brought face to face, but prevented from touching by the margin of an
+interposed card, out of which the middle has been cut away. The two pieces
+of copper being inked and folded up, may then be sent by post. On arrival
+the ink is fresh, and the folders can be used as ordinary inked slabs.
+(See also Smoke Printing, page 47.)
+
+The fluidity of even a very thin layer of ink seems to be retained for an
+indefinite time if the air is excluded to prevent oxidisation. I made
+experiments, and found that if pieces of glass (photographic quarter
+plates) be inked, and placed face to face, separated only by narrow paper
+margins, and then wrapped up without other precaution, they will remain
+good for a year and a half.
+
+A slight film of oxidisation on the surface of the ink is a merit, not a
+harm; it is cleaner to work with and gives a blacker print, because the
+ink clings less tenaciously to the finger, consequently more of it is
+transferred to the paper.
+
+If a blackened plate becomes dry, and is re-inked without first being
+cleaned, the new ink will rob the old of some of its oxygen and it will
+become dry in a day or even less.
+
+_Lithography._--Prints may be made on "transfer-paper," and thence
+transferred to stone. It is better not to impress the fingers directly
+upon the stone, as the print from the stone would be reversed as compared
+with the original impression, and mistakes are likely to arise in
+consequence. The print is re-reversed, or put right, by impressing the
+fingers on transfer-paper. It might sometimes be desirable to obtain
+rapidly a large number of impressions of the finger prints of a suspected
+person. In this case lithography would be easier, quicker, and cheaper
+than photography.
+
+_Water Colours and Dyes._--The pads most commonly used with office stamps
+are made of variously prepared gelatine, covered with fine silk to protect
+the surface, and saturated with an aniline dye. If the surface be touched,
+the finger is inked, and if the circumstances are all favourable, a good
+print may be made, but there is much liability to blot. The pad remains
+ready for use during many days without any attention, fresh ink being
+added at long intervals. The advantage of a dye over an ordinary water
+colour is, that it percolates the silk without any of its colour being
+kept back; while a solution of lampblack or Indian ink, consisting of
+particles of soot suspended in water, leaves all its black particles
+behind when it is carefully filtered; only clear water then passes
+through.
+
+A serviceable pad may be made out of a few thicknesses of cloth or felt
+with fine silk or cambric stretched over it. The ink should be of a slowly
+drying sort, made, possibly, of ordinary ink, with the admixture of brown
+sugar, honey, glycerine or the like, to bring it to a proper consistence.
+
+Mr. Gilbert Thompson's results by this process have already been
+mentioned. A similar process was employed for the Bengal finger prints by
+Sir W. Herschel, who sent me the following account: "As to the printing
+of the fingers themselves, no doubt practice makes perfect. But I took no
+pains with my native officials, some dozen or so of whom learnt to do it
+quite well enough for all practical purposes from Bengali written
+instructions, and using nothing but a kind of lampblack ink made by the
+native orderly for use with the office seal." A batch of these
+impressions, which he was so good as to send me, are all clear, and in
+most cases very good indeed. It would be easier to employ this method in a
+very damp climate than in England, where a very thin layer of lampblack is
+apt to dry too quickly on the fingers.
+
+_Printing as from Engraved Plates._--Professor Ray Lankester kindly sent
+me his method of taking prints with water colours. "You take a watery
+brushful or two of the paint and rub it over the hands, rubbing one hand
+against the other until they feel sticky. A _thin_ paper (tissue is best)
+placed on an oval cushion the shape of the hand, should be ready, and the
+hand pressed not too firmly on to it. I enclose a rough sample, done
+without a cushion. You require a cushion for the hollow of the hand, and
+the paint must be rubbed by the two hands until they feel sticky, not
+watery." This is the process of printing from engravings, the ink being
+removed from the ridges, and lying in the furrows. Blood can be used in
+the same way.
+
+The following is extracted from an article by Dr. Louis Robinson in the
+_Nineteenth Century_, May 1892, p. 303:--
+
+    "I found that direct prints of the infant's feet on paper would answer
+    much better [than photography]. After trying various methods I found
+    that the best results could be got by covering the foot by means of a
+    soft stencil brush with a composition of lampblack, soap, syrup, and
+    blue-black ink; wiping it gently from heel to toe with a
+    smoothly-folded silk handkerchief to remove the superfluous pigment,
+    and then applying a moderately flexible paper, supported on a soft
+    pad, direct to the foot."
+
+A curious method with paper and ordinary writing ink, lately contrived by
+Dr. Forgeot, is analogous to lithography. He has described in one of the
+many interesting pamphlets published by the "Laboratoire d'Anthropologie
+Criminelle" of Lyon (_Stenheil_, 2 Rue Casimir-Delavigne, Paris), his new
+process of rendering visible the previously invisible details of such
+faint finger prints as thieves may have left on anything they have
+handled, the object being to show how evidence may sometimes be obtained
+for their identification. It is well known that pressure of the hand on
+the polished surface of glass or metal leaves a latent image very
+difficult to destroy, and which may be rendered visible by suitable
+applications, but few probably have suspected that this may be the case,
+to a considerable degree, with ordinary paper. Dr. Forgeot has shown that
+if a slightly greasy hand, such for example as a hand that has just been
+passed through the hair, be pressed on clean paper, and if common ink be
+afterwards brushed lightly over the paper, it will refuse to lie thickly
+on the greasy parts, and that the result will be a very fair picture of
+the minute markings on the fingers. He has even used these productions as
+negatives, and printed good photographs from them. He has also sent me a
+photographic print made from a piece of glass which had been exposed to
+the vapour of hydrofluoric acid, after having been touched by a greasy
+hand. I have made many trials of his method with considerable success. It
+affords a way of obtaining serviceable impressions in the absence of
+better means. Dr. Forgeot's pamphlet describes other methods of a
+generally similar kind, which he has found to be less good than the above.
+
+_Smoke Printing._--When other apparatus is not at hand, a method of
+obtaining very clear impressions is to smoke a plate over a lighted
+candle, to press the finger on the blackened surface, and then on an
+adhesive one. The following details must, however, be borne in mind: the
+plate must not be smoked too much, for the same reason that a slab must
+not be inked too much; and the adhesive surface must be only slightly
+damped, not wetted, or the impression will be blurred. A crockery plate is
+better than glass or metal, as the soot does not adhere to it so tightly,
+and it is less liable to crack. Professor Bowditch finds mica (which is
+sold at photographic stores in small sheets) to be the best material.
+Certainly the smoke comes wholly off the mica on to the parts of the
+finger that touch it, and a beautiful negative is left behind, which can
+be utilised in the camera better than glass that has been similarly
+treated; but it does not serve so well for a plate that is intended to be
+kept ready for use in a pocket-book, its softness rendering it too liable
+to be scratched. I prefer to keep a slip of very thin copper sheeting in
+my pocket-book, with which, and with the gummed back of a postage stamp,
+or even the gummed fringe to a sheet of stamps, impressions can easily be
+taken. The thin copper quickly cools, and a wax match supplies enough
+smoke. The folders spoken of (p. 42) may be smoked instead of being inked,
+and are in some cases preferable to carry in the pocket or to send by
+post, being so easy to smoke afresh. Luggage labels that are thickly
+gummed at the back furnish a good adhesive surface. The fault of gummed
+paper lies in the difficulty of damping it without its curling up. The
+gummed paper sold by stationers is usually thinner than luggage labels,
+and still more difficult to keep flat. Paste rubbed in a very thin layer
+over a card makes a surface that holds soot firmly, and one that will not
+stick to other surfaces if accidentally moistened. Glue, isinglass, size,
+and mucilage, are all suitable. It was my fortune as a boy to receive
+rudimentary lessons in drawing from a humble and rather grotesque master.
+He confided to me the discovery, which he claimed as his own, that pencil
+drawings could be fixed by licking them; and as I write these words, the
+image of his broad swab-like tongue performing the operation, and of his
+proud eyes gleaming over the drawing he was operating on, come vividly to
+remembrance. This reminiscence led me to try whether licking a piece of
+paper would give it a sufficiently adhesive surface. It did so. Nay, it
+led me a step further, for I took two pieces of paper and licked both.
+The dry side of the one was held over the candle as an equivalent to a
+plate for collecting soot, being saved by the moisture at the back from
+igniting (it had to be licked two or three times during the process), and
+the impression was made on the other bit of paper. An ingenious person
+determined to succeed in obtaining the record of a finger impression, can
+hardly fail altogether under any ordinary circumstances.
+
+Physiologists who are familiar with the revolving cylinder covered with
+highly-glazed paper, which is smoked, and then used for the purpose of
+recording the delicate movements of a tracer, will have noticed the beauty
+of the impression sometimes left by a finger that had accidentally touched
+it. They are also well versed in the art of varnishing such impressions to
+preserve them in a durable form.
+
+A cake of blacklead (plumbago), such as is sold for blackening grates,
+when rubbed on paper leaves a powdery surface that readily blackens the
+fingers, and shows the ridges distinctly. A small part of the black comes
+off when the fingers are pressed on sticky paper, but I find it difficult
+to ensure good prints. The cakes are convenient to carry and cleanly to
+handle. Whitening, and still more, whitening mixed with size, may be used
+in the same way, but it gathers in the furrows, not on the ridges.
+
+_Casts_ give undoubtedly the most exact representation of the ridges, but
+they are difficult and unsatisfactory to examine, puzzling the eye by
+showing too conspicuously the variation of their heights, whereas we only
+want to know their courses. Again, as casts must be of a uniform colour,
+the finer lines are indistinctly seen except in a particular light.
+Lastly, they are both cumbrous to preserve and easily broken.
+
+A sealing-wax impression is the simplest and best kind of cast, and the
+finger need not be burnt in making it. The plan is to make a considerable
+pool of flaming sealing-wax, stirring it well with the still unmelted
+piece of the stick, while it is burning. Then blow out the flame and wait
+a little, until the upper layer has cooled. Sealing-wax that has been well
+aflame takes a long time to harden thoroughly after it has parted with
+nearly all its heat. By selecting the proper moment after blowing out the
+flame, the wax will be cool enough for the finger to press it without
+discomfort, and it will still be sufficiently soft to take a sharp
+impression. Dentist's wax, which is far less brittle, is easily worked,
+and takes impressions that are nearly as sharp as those of sealing-wax; it
+has to be well heated and kneaded, then plunged for a moment in cold water
+to chill the surface, and immediately impressed. Gutta-percha can also be
+used. The most delicate of all impressions is that left upon a thick clot
+of varnish, which has been exposed to the air long enough for a thin film
+to have formed over it. The impression is transient, but lingers
+sufficiently to be easily photographed. It happened, oddly enough, that a
+few days after I had noticed this effect, and had been experimenting upon
+it, I heard an interesting memoir "On the Minute Structure of Striped
+Muscle, with special allusion to a new method of investigation by means
+of 'Impressions' stamped in Collodion," submitted to the Royal Society by
+Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in which an analogous method was used to obtain
+impressions of delicate microscopic structures.
+
+_Photographs_ are valuable in themselves, and the negatives serve for
+subsequent _enlargements_. They are unquestionably accurate, and the
+labour of making them being mechanical, may be delegated. If the print be
+in printer's ink on white paper, the process is straightforward, first of
+obtaining a negative and afterwards photo-prints from it. The importance
+of the paper or card used to receive the finger print being quite white,
+has already been pointed out. An imprint on white crockery-ware is
+beautifully clear. Some of the photographs may be advantageously printed
+by the ferro-prussiate process. The paper used for it does not curl when
+dry, its texture is good for writing on, and the blue colour of the print
+makes handwriting clearly legible, whether it be in ink or in pencil.
+
+Prints on glass have great merits for use as lantern slides, but it must
+be recollected that they may take some days to dry, and that when dry the
+ink can be only too easily detached from them by water, which insinuates
+itself between the dry ink and the glass. Of course they could be
+varnished, if the trouble and cost were no objection, and so preserved.
+The negative print left on an inked slab, after the finger has touched it,
+is sometimes very clear, that on smoked glass better, and on smoked mica
+the clearest of all. These have merely to be placed in the enlarging
+camera, where the negative image thrown on argento-bromide paper will
+yield a positive print. (See p. 90.)
+
+I have made, by hand, many enlargements with a prism (camera lucida), but
+it is difficult to enlarge more than five times by means of it. So much
+shade is cast by the head that the prism can hardly be used at a less
+distance than 3 inches from the print, or one quarter the distance (12
+inches) at which a book is usually read, while the paper on which the
+drawing is made cannot well be more than 15 inches below the prism; so it
+makes an enlargement of (4 × 15)/12 or five-fold. This is a very
+convenient method of analysing a pattern, since the lines follow only the
+axes of the ridges, as in Plate 3, Fig. 5. The prism and attached
+apparatus may be kept permanently mounted, ready for use at any time,
+without the trouble of any adjustment.
+
+An enlarging pantagraph has also been of frequent use to me, in which the
+cross-wires of a low-power microscope took the place of the pointer. It
+has many merits, but its action was not equally free in all directions;
+the enlarged traces were consequently jagged, and required subsequent
+smoothing.
+
+All hand-made enlargements are tedious to produce, as the total length of
+lineations to be followed is considerable. In a single finger print made
+by dabbing down the finger, their actual length amounts to about 18
+inches; therefore in a five-fold enlargement of the entire print the
+pencil has to be carefully directed over five times that distance, or more
+than 7 feet.
+
+Large copies of tracings made on transparent paper, either by the Camera
+Lucida or by the Pantagraph, are easily printed by the ferro-prussiate
+photographic process mentioned above, in the same way that plans are
+copied by engineers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE RIDGES AND THEIR USES
+
+
+The palmar surface of the hands and the soles of the feet, both in men and
+monkeys, are covered with minute ridges that bear a superficial
+resemblance to those made on sand by wind or flowing water. They form
+systems which run in bold sweeps, though the courses of the individual
+ridges are less regular. Each ridge (Plate 3, Fig. 5) is characterised by
+numerous minute peculiarities, called _Minutiæ_ in this book, here
+dividing into two, and there uniting with another (_a_, _b_), or it may
+divide and almost immediately reunite, enclosing a small circular or
+elliptical space (_c_); at other times its beginning or end is markedly
+independent (_d_, _e_); lastly, the ridge may be so short as to form a
+small island (_f_).
+
+Whenever an interspace is left between the boundaries of different systems
+of ridges, it is filled by a small system of its own, which will have some
+characteristic shape, and be called a _pattern_ in this book.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3.
+
+FIG. 5. Characteristic peculiarities in Ridges (about 8 times the natural
+size).
+
+FIG. 6. Systems of Ridges, and the Creases in the Palm.]
+
+
+There are three particularly well-marked systems of ridges in the palm of
+the hand marked in Plate 3, Fig. 6, ~1~, as Th, AB, and BC. The system Th
+is that which runs over the ball of the thumb and adjacent parts of the
+palm. It is bounded by the line _a_ which starts from the middle of the
+palm close to the wrist, and sweeps thence round the ball of the thumb to
+the edge of the palm on the side of the thumb, which it reaches about half
+an inch, more or less, below the base of the fore-finger. The system AB is
+bounded towards the thumb by the above line _a_, and towards the little
+finger by the line _b_; the latter starts from about the middle of the
+little-finger side of the palm, and emerges on the opposite side just
+below the fore-finger. Consequently, every ridge that wholly crosses the
+palm is found in AB. The system BC is bounded thumbwards by the line _b_,
+until that line arrives at a point immediately below the axis of the
+fore-finger; there the boundary of BC leaves the line _b_, and skirts the
+base of the fore-finger until it reaches the interval which separates the
+fore and middle fingers. The upper boundary of BC is the line _c_, which
+leaves the little-finger side of the palm at a small distance below the
+base of the little finger, and terminates between the fore and middle
+fingers. Other systems are found between _c_ and the middle, ring, and
+little fingers; they are somewhat more variable than those just described,
+as will be seen by comparing the five different palms shown in Fig. 6.
+
+An interesting example of the interpolation of a small and independent
+system occurs frequently in the middle of one or other of the systems AB
+or BC, at the place where the space covered by the systems of ridges
+begins to broaden out very rapidly. There are two ways in which the
+necessary supply of ridges makes its appearance, the one is by a series of
+successive embranchments (Fig. 6, ~1~), the other is by the insertion of
+an independent system, as shown in ~4~, ~5~. Another example of an
+interpolated system, but of rarer occurrence, is found in the system Th,
+on the ball of the thumb, as seen in ~2~.
+
+Far more definite in position, and complex in lineation, are the small
+independent systems which appear on the bulbs of the thumb and fingers.
+They are more instructive to study, more easy to classify, and will alone
+be discussed in this book.
+
+In the diagram of the hand, Fig. 6, ~1~, the three chief cheiromantic
+creases are indicated by dots, but are not numbered. They are made (1) by
+the flexure of the thumb, (2) of the four fingers simultaneously, and (3)
+of the middle, ring, and little fingers simultaneously, while the
+fore-finger remains extended. There is no exact accordance between the
+courses of the creases and those of the adjacent ridges, less still do the
+former agree with the boundaries of the systems. The accordance is closest
+between the crease (1) and the ridges in Th; nevertheless that crease does
+not agree with the line _a_, but usually lies considerably within it. The
+crease (2) cuts the ridges on either side, at an angle of about 30
+degrees. The crease (3) is usually parallel to the ridges between which it
+runs, but is often far from accordant with the line _c_. The creases at
+the various joints of the thumb and fingers cut the ridges at small
+angles, say, very roughly, of 15 degrees.
+
+The supposition is therefore untenable that the courses of the ridges are
+wholly determined by the flexures. It appears, however, that the courses
+of the ridges and those of the lines of flexure may be in part, but in
+part only, due to the action of the same causes.
+
+The fact of the creases of the hand being strongly marked in the
+newly-born child, has been considered by some to testify to the archaic
+and therefore important character of their origin. The crumpled condition
+of the hand of the infant, during some months before its birth, seems to
+me, however, quite sufficient to account for the creases.
+
+I possess a few specimens of hand prints of persons taken when children,
+and again, after an interval of several years: they show a general
+accordance in respect to the creases, but not sufficiently close for
+identification.
+
+The ridges on the feet and toes are less complex than those on the hands
+and digits, and are less serviceable for present purposes, though equally
+interesting to physiologists. Having given but little attention to them
+myself, they will not be again referred to.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The ridges are studded with minute pores which are the open mouths of the
+ducts of the somewhat deeply-seated glands, whose office is to secrete
+perspiration: Plate 10, _n_, is a good example of them. The distance
+between adjacent pores on the same ridge is, roughly speaking, about half
+that which separates the ridges. The lines of a pattern are such as an
+artist would draw, if dots had been made on a sheet of paper in positions
+corresponding to the several pores, and he endeavoured to connect them by
+evenly flowing curves; it would be difficult to draw a pattern under these
+conditions, and within definite boundaries, that cannot be matched in a
+living hand.
+
+The embryological development of the ridges has been studied by many, but
+more especially by Dr. A. Kollmann,[1] whose careful investigations and
+bibliography should be consulted by physiologists interested in the
+subject. He conceives the ridges to be formed through lateral pressures
+between nascent structures.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4.
+
+FIG. 7. SCARS AND CUTS, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE RIDGES.
+
+FIG. 8. FORMATION OF INTERSPACE AND EXAMPLES OF THE ENCLOSED PATTERNS.]
+
+
+The ridges are said to be first discernible in the fourth month of
+foetal life, and fully formed by the sixth. In babies and children the
+delicacy of the ridges is proportionate to the smallness of their stature.
+They grow simultaneously with the general growth of the body, and continue
+to be sharply defined until old age has set in, when an incipient
+disintegration of the texture of the skin spoils, and may largely
+obliterate them, as in the finger prints on the title-page. They develop
+most in hands that do a moderate amount of work, and they are strongly
+developed in the foot, which has the hard work of supporting the weight
+of the body. They are, as already mentioned, but faintly developed in the
+hands of ladies, rendered delicate by the continual use of gloves and lack
+of manual labour, and in idiots of the lowest type who are incapable of
+labouring at all. When the skin becomes thin, the ridges simultaneously
+subside in height. They are obliterated by the callosities formed on the
+hands of labourers and artisans in many trades, by the constant pressure
+of their peculiar tools. The ridges on the side of the left fore-finger of
+tailors and seamstresses are often temporarily destroyed by the needle; an
+instance of this is given in Plate 4, Fig. 7, _b_. Injuries, when they are
+sufficiently severe to leave permanent scars, destroy the ridges to that
+extent. If a piece of flesh is sliced off, or if an ulcer has eaten so
+deeply as to obliterate the perspiratory glands, a white cicatrix, without
+pores or ridges, is the result (Fig. 7, _a_). Lesser injuries are not
+permanent. My assistant happened to burn his finger rather sharply; the
+daily prints he took of it, illustrated the progress of healing in an
+interesting manner; finally the ridges were wholly restored. A deep clean
+cut leaves a permanent thin mark across the ridges (Fig. 7, _c_),
+sometimes without any accompanying puckering; but there is often a
+displacement of the ridges on both sides of it, exactly like a "fault" in
+stratified rocks. A cut, or other injury that is not a clean incision,
+leaves a scar with puckerings on all sides, as in Fig. 7, _a_, making the
+ridges at that part undecipherable, even if it does not wholly obliterate
+them.
+
+The latest and best investigations on the evolution of the ridges have
+been made by Dr. H. Klaatsch.[2] He shows that the earliest appearance in
+the Mammalia of structures analogous to ridges is one in which small
+eminences occur on the ball of the foot, through which the sweat glands
+issue in no particular order. The arrangement of the papillæ into rows,
+and the accompanying orderly arrangement of the sweat glands, is a
+subsequent stage in evolution. The prehensile tail of the Howling Monkey
+serves as a fifth hand, and the naked concave part of the tail, with which
+it grasps and holds on to boughs, is furnished with ridges arranged
+transversely in beautiful order. The numerous drawings of the hands of
+monkeys by Allix[3] may be referred to with advantage.
+
+The uses of the ridges are primarily, as I suppose, to raise the mouths of
+the ducts, so that the excretions which they pour out may the more easily
+be got rid of; and secondarily, in some obscure way, to assist the sense
+of touch. They are said to be moulded upon the subcutaneous papillæ in
+such a manner that the ultimate organs of touch, namely, the Pacinian
+bodies, etc.--into the variety of which it is unnecessary here to
+enter--are more closely congregated under the bases of the ridges than
+under the furrows, and it is easy, on those grounds, to make reasonable
+guesses how the ridges may assist the sense of touch. They must
+concentrate pressures, that would otherwise be spread over the surface
+generally, upon the parts which are most richly supplied with the
+terminations of nerves. By their means it would become possible to
+neutralise the otherwise dulling effect of a thick protective epidermis.
+Their existence in transverse ridges on the inner surface of the
+prehensile tails of monkeys admits of easy justification from this point
+of view. The ridges so disposed cannot prevent the tail from curling, and
+they must add materially to its sensitiveness. They seem to produce the
+latter effect on the hands of man, for, as the epidermis thickens under
+use within moderate limits, so the prominence of the ridges increases.
+
+Supposing the ultimate organs of the sense of touch to be really
+congregated more thickly under the ridges than under the furrows--on which
+there has been some question--the power of tactile discrimination would
+depend very much on the closeness of the ridges. The well-known experiment
+with the two points of a pair of compasses, is exactly suited to test the
+truth of this. It consists in determining the smallest distance apart, of
+the two points, at which their simultaneous pressure conveys the sensation
+of a double prick. Those persons in whom the ridge-interval was short
+might be expected to perceive the double sensation, while others whose
+ridge-interval was wide would only perceive a single one, the distance
+apart of the compass points, and the parts touched by them, being the same
+in both cases. I was very glad to avail myself of the kind offer of Mr.
+E. B. Titchener to make an adequate course of experiments at Professor
+Wundt's psycho-physical laboratory at Leipzig, to decide this question. He
+had the advantage there of being able to operate on fellow-students who
+were themselves skilled in such lines of investigation, so while his own
+experience was a considerable safeguard against errors of method, that
+safety was reinforced by the fact that his experiments were conducted
+under the watchful eyes of competent and critical friends. The result of
+the enquiry was decisive. It was proved to demonstration that the fineness
+or coarseness of the ridges in different persons had no effect whatever on
+the delicacy of their tactile discrimination. Moreover, it made no
+difference in the results, whether one or both points of the compass
+rested on the ridges or in the furrows.
+
+The width of the ridge-interval is certainly no test of the relative power
+of discrimination of the different parts of the same hand, because, while
+the ridge-interval is nearly uniform over the whole of the palmar surface,
+the least distance between the compass points that gives the sensation of
+doubleness is more than four times greater when they are applied to some
+parts of the palm than when they are applied to the bulbs of the fingers.
+
+The ridges may subserve another purpose in the act of touch, namely, that
+of enabling the character of surfaces to be perceived by the act of
+rubbing them with the fingers. We all of us perform this, as it were,
+intuitively. It is interesting to ask a person who is ignorant of the
+real intention, to shut his eyes and to ascertain as well as he can by the
+sense of touch alone, the material of which any object is made that is
+afterwards put into his hands. He will be observed to explore it very
+carefully by rubbing its surface in many directions, and with many degrees
+of pressure. The ridges engage themselves with the roughness of the
+surface, and greatly help in calling forth the required sensation, which
+is that of a thrill; usually faint, but always to be perceived when the
+sensation is analysed, and which becomes very distinct when the
+indentations are at equal distances apart, as in a file or in velvet. A
+thrill is analogous to a musical note, and the characteristics to the
+sense of touch, of different surfaces when they are rubbed by the fingers,
+may be compared to different qualities of sound or noise. There are,
+however, no pure over-tones in the case of touch, as there are in nearly
+all sounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES
+
+
+The patterns on the thumb and fingers were first discussed at length by
+Purkenje in 1823, in a University Thesis or _Commentatio_. I have
+translated the part that chiefly concerns us, and appended it to this
+chapter together with his corresponding illustrations. Subsequent writers
+have adopted his standard types, diminishing or adding to their number as
+the case may be, and guided as he had been, by the superficial appearance
+of the lineations.
+
+In my earlier trials some three years ago, an attempt at classification
+was made upon that same principle, when the experience gained was
+instructive. It had seemed best to limit them to the prints of a single
+digit, and the thumb was selected. I collected enough specimens to fill
+fourteen sheets, containing in the aggregate 504 prints of right thumbs,
+arranged in six lines and six columns (6 × 6 × 14 = 504), and another set
+of fourteen sheets containing the corresponding left thumbs. Then, for the
+greater convenience of study these sheets were photographed, and
+enlargements upon paper to about two and a half times the natural size
+made from the negatives. The enlargements of the right thumb prints were
+reversed, in order to make them comparable on equal terms with those of
+the left. The sheets were then cut up into rectangles about the size of
+small playing-cards, each of which contained a single print, and the
+register number in my catalogue was entered on its back, together with the
+letters L. for left, or R.R. for reversed right, as the case might be.
+
+On trying to sort them according to Purkenje's standards, I failed
+completely, and many analogous plans were attempted without success. Next
+I endeavoured to sort the patterns into groups so that the central pattern
+of each group should differ by a unit of "equally discernible difference"
+from the central patterns of the adjacent groups, proposing to adopt those
+central patterns as standards of reference. After tedious re-sortings,
+some sixty standards were provisionally selected, and the whole laid by
+for a few days. On returning to the work with a fresh mind, it was painful
+to find how greatly my judgment had changed in the interim, and how faulty
+a classification that seemed tolerably good a week before, looked then.
+Moreover, I suffered the shame and humiliation of discovering that the
+identity of certain duplicates had been overlooked, and that one print had
+been mistaken for another. Repeated trials of the same kind made it
+certain that finality would never be reached by the path hitherto
+pursued.
+
+On considering the causes of these doubts and blunders, different
+influences were found to produce them, any one of which was sufficient by
+itself to give rise to serious uncertainty. A complex pattern is capable
+of suggesting various readings, as the figuring on a wall-paper may
+suggest a variety of forms and faces to those who have such fancies. The
+number of illusive renderings of prints taken from the same finger, is
+greatly increased by such trifles as the relative breadths of their
+respective lineations and the differences in their depths of tint. The
+ridges themselves are soft in substance, and of various heights, so that a
+small difference in the pressure applied, or in the quantity of ink used,
+may considerably affect the width of the lines and the darkness of
+portions of the print. Certain ridges may thereby catch the attention at
+one time, though not at others, and give a bias to some false conception
+of the pattern. Again, it seldom happens that different impressions of the
+same digit are printed from exactly the same part of it, consequently the
+portion of the pattern that supplies the dominant character will often be
+quite different in the two prints. Hence the eye is apt to be deceived
+when it is guided merely by the general appearance. A third cause of error
+is still more serious; it is that patterns, especially those of a spiral
+form, may be apparently similar, yet fundamentally unlike, the unaided eye
+being frequently unable to analyse them and to discern real differences.
+Besides all this, the judgment is distracted by the mere size of the
+pattern, which catches the attention at once, and by other secondary
+matters such as the number of turns in the whorled patterns, and the
+relative dimensions of their different parts. The first need to be
+satisfied, before it could become possible to base the classification upon
+a more sure foundation than that of general appearance, was to establish a
+well-defined point or points of reference in the patterns. This was done
+by utilising the centres of the one or two triangular plots (see Plate 4,
+Fig. 8, ~2~, ~3~, ~4~) which are found in the great majority of patterns,
+and whose existence was pointed out by Purkenje, but not their more remote
+cause, which is as follows:
+
+The ridges, as was shown in the diagram (Plate 3) of the palm of the hand,
+run athwart the fingers in rudely parallel lines up to the last joint, and
+if it were not for the finger-nail, would apparently continue parallel up
+to the extreme finger-tip. But the presence of the nail disturbs their
+parallelism and squeezes them downwards on both sides of the finger. (See
+Fig. 8, ~2~.) Consequently, the ridges that run close to the tip are
+greatly arched, those that successively follow are gradually less arched
+until, in some cases, all signs of the arch disappear at about the level
+of the first joint (Fig. 8, ~1~). Usually, however, this gradual
+transition from an arch to a straight line fails to be carried out,
+causing a break in the orderly sequence, and a consequent interspace (Fig.
+8, ~2~). The topmost boundary of the interspace is formed by the lowermost
+arch, and its lowermost boundary by the topmost straight ridge. But an
+equally large number of ducts exist within the interspace, as are to be
+found in adjacent areas of equal size, whose mouths require to be
+supported and connected. This is effected by the interpolation of an
+independent system of ridges arranged in loops (Fig. 8, ~3~; also Plate 5,
+Fig. 9, _a_, _f_), or in scrolls (Fig. 8, ~4~; also Fig. 9, _g_, _h_), and
+this interpolated system forms the "pattern." Now the existence of an
+interspace implies the divergence of two previously adjacent ridges (Fig.
+8, ~2~), in order to embrace it. Just in front of the place where the
+divergence begins, and before the sweep of the pattern is reached, there
+are usually one or more very short cross-ridges. Their effect is to
+complete the enclosure of the minute triangular plot in question. Where
+there is a plot on both sides of the finger, the line that connects them
+(Fig. 8, ~4~) serves as a base line whereby the pattern may be oriented,
+and the position of any point roughly charted. Where there is a plot on
+only one side of the finger (Fig. 8, ~3~), the pattern has almost
+necessarily an axis, which serves for orientation, and the pattern can
+still be charted, though on a different principle, by dropping a
+perpendicular from the plot on to the axis, in the way there shown.
+
+These plots form corner-stones to my system of outlining and subsequent
+classification; it is therefore extremely important that a sufficient area
+of the finger should be printed to include them. This can always be done
+by slightly _rolling_ the finger (p. 39), the result being, in the
+language of map-makers, a cylindrical projection of the finger (see Plate
+5, Fig. 9, _a-h_). Large as these impressions look, they are of the
+natural size, taken from ordinary thumbs.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5.
+
+FIG. 9. EXAMPLES OF OUTLINED PATTERNS (The Specimens are rolled
+impressions of natural size).]
+
+
+_The outlines._--The next step is to give a clear and definite shape to
+the pattern by drawing its outline (Fig. 9). Take a fine pen, pencil, or
+paint brush, and follow in succession each of the two diverging ridges
+that start from either plot. The course of each ridge must be followed
+with scrupulous conscientiousness, marking it with a clean line as far as
+it can be traced. If the ridge bifurcates, always follow the branch that
+trends towards the middle of the pattern. If it stops short, let the
+outline stop short also, and recommence on a fresh ridge, choosing that
+which to the best of the judgment prolongs the course of the one that
+stopped. These outlines have an extraordinary effect in making finger
+markings intelligible to an untrained eye. What seemed before to be a
+vague and bewildering maze of lineations over which the glance wandered
+distractedly, seeking in vain for a point on which to fix itself, now
+suddenly assumes the shape of a sharply-defined figure. Whatever
+difficulties may arise in classifying these figures, they are as nothing
+compared to those experienced in attempting to classify unoutlined
+patterns, the outlines giving a precision to their general features which
+was wanting before.
+
+After a pattern has been treated in this way, there is no further occasion
+to pore minutely into the finger print, in order to classify it correctly,
+for the bold firm curves of the outline are even more distinct than the
+largest capital letters in the title-page of a book.
+
+A fair idea of the way in which the patterns are distributed, is given by
+Plate 6. Eight persons were taken in the order in which they happened to
+present themselves, and Plate 6 shows the result. For greater clearness,
+colour has been employed to distinguish between the ridges that are
+supplied from the inner and outer sides of the hand respectively. The
+words right and left _must be avoided_ in speaking of patterns, for the
+two hands are symmetrically disposed, only in a reversed sense. The right
+hand does not look like a left hand, but like the reflection of a left
+hand in a looking-glass, and _vice versa_. The phrases we shall employ
+will be the _Inner_ and the _Outer_; or thumb-side and little-finger side
+(terms which were unfortunately misplaced in my memoir in the _Phil.
+Trans._ 1891).
+
+There need be no difficulty in remembering the meaning of these terms, if
+we bear in mind that the great toes are undoubtedly innermost; that if we
+walked on all fours as children do, and as our remote ancestors probably
+did, the thumbs also would be innermost, as is the case when the two hands
+are impressed side by side on paper. Inner and outer are better than
+thumb-side and little-finger side, because the latter cannot be applied to
+the thumbs and little fingers themselves. The anatomical words radial and
+ulnar referring to the two bones of the fore-arm, are not in popular use,
+and they might be similarly inappropriate, for it would sound oddly to
+speak of the radial side of the radius.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6.
+
+FIG. 10. OUTLINES OF THE PATTERNS OF THE DIGITS OF EIGHT PERSONS, TAKEN AT
+RANDOM.]
+
+
+The two plots just described will therefore be henceforth designated as
+the Inner and the Outer plots respectively, and symbolised by the letters
+I and O.
+
+The system of ridges in Fig. 10 that comes from the inner side "I" are
+coloured blue; those from the outer "O" are coloured red. The employment
+of colour instead of variously stippled surfaces is of conspicuous
+advantage to the great majority of persons, though unhappily nearly
+useless to about one man in every twenty-five, who is constitutionally
+colour-blind.
+
+It may be convenient when marking finger prints with letters for
+reference, to use those that look alike, both in a direct and in a
+reversed aspect, as they may require to be read either way. The print is a
+reversed picture of the pattern upon the digit that made it. The pattern
+on one hand is, as already said, a reversed picture of a similar pattern
+as it shows on the other. In the various processes by which prints are
+multiplied, the patterns may be reversed and re-reversed. Thus, if a
+finger is impressed on a lithographic stone, the impressions from that
+stone are reversals of the impression made by the same finger upon paper.
+If made on transfer paper and thence transferred to stone, there is a
+re-reversal. There are even more varied possibilities when photography is
+employed. It is worth recollecting that there are twelve capital letters
+in the English alphabet which, if printed in block type, are unaffected by
+being reversed. They are A.H.I.M.O.T.U.V.W.X.Y.Z. Some symbols do the
+same, such as, * + - = :. These and the letters H.O.I.X. have the
+further peculiarity of appearing unaltered when upside down.
+
+_Lenses._--As a rule, only a small magnifying power is needed for drawing
+outlines, sufficient to allow the eye to be brought within six inches of
+the paper, for it is only at that short distance that the _minutiæ_ of a
+full-sized finger print begin to be clearly discerned. Persons with normal
+sight, during their childhood and boy- or girlhood, are able to read as
+closely as this without using a lens, the range in adjustment of the focus
+of the eye being then large. But as age advances the range contracts, and
+an elderly person with otherwise normal eyesight requires glasses to read
+a book even at twelve inches from his eye. I now require much optical aid;
+when reading a book, spectacles of 12-inch focus are necessary; and when
+studying a finger print, 12-inch eye-glasses in addition, the double power
+enabling me to see clearly at a distance of only six inches. Perhaps the
+most convenient focus for a lens in ordinary use is 3 inches. It should be
+mounted at the end of a long arm that can easily be pushed in any
+direction, sideways, backwards, forwards, and up or down. It is
+undesirable to use a higher power than this unless it is necessary,
+because the field of view becomes narrowed to an inconvenient degree, and
+the nearer the head is to the paper, the darker is the shadow that it
+casts; there is also insufficient room for the use of a pencil.
+
+Every now and then a closer inspection is wanted; for which purpose a
+doublet of 1/2-inch focus, standing on three slim legs, answers well.
+
+For studying the markings on the fingers themselves, a small folding lens,
+sold at opticians' shops under the name of a "linen tester," is very
+convenient. It is so called because it was originally constructed for the
+purpose of counting the number of threads in a given space, in a sample of
+linen. It is equally well adapted for counting the number of ridges in a
+given space.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Whoever desires to occupy himself with finger prints, ought to give much
+time and practice to drawing outlines of different impressions of the same
+digits. His own ten fingers, and those of a few friends, will furnish the
+necessary variety of material on which to work. He should not rest
+satisfied until he has gained an assurance that all patterns possess
+definite figures, which may be latent but are potentially present, and
+that the ridges form something more than a nondescript congeries of
+ramifications and twists. He should continue to practise until he finds
+that the same ridges have been so nearly followed in duplicate
+impressions, that even in difficult cases his work will rarely vary more
+than a single ridge-interval.
+
+When the triangular plot happens not to be visible, owing to the print
+failing to include it, which is often the case when the finger is not
+rolled, as is well shown in the prints of my own ten digits on the
+title-page, the trend of the ridges so far as they are seen, usually
+enables a practised eye to roughly estimate its true position. By means of
+this guidance an approximate, but fairly correct, outline can be drawn.
+When the habit of judging patterns by their outlines has become familiar,
+the eye will trace them for itself without caring to draw them, and will
+prefer an unoutlined pattern to work upon, but even then it is essential
+now and then to follow the outline with a fine point, say that of a
+penknife or a dry pen.
+
+In selecting standard forms of patterns for the convenience of
+description, we must be content to disregard a great many of the more
+obvious characteristics. For instance, the size of generally similar
+patterns in Fig. 10 will be found to vary greatly, but the words large,
+medium, or small may be applied to any pattern, so there is no necessity
+to draw a standard outline for each size. Similarly as regards the inwards
+or outwards slope of patterns, it is needless to print here a separate
+standard outline for either slope, and equally unnecessary to print
+outlines in duplicate, with reversed titles, for the right and left hands
+respectively. The phrase "a simple spiral" conveys a well-defined general
+idea, but there are four concrete forms of it (see bottom row of Plate 11,
+Fig. 17, _oj_, _jo_, _ij_, _ji_) which admit of being verbally
+distinguished. Again the internal proportions of any pattern, say those of
+simple spirals, may vary greatly without affecting the fact of their being
+simple spirals. They may be wide or narrow at their mouths, they may be
+twisted up into a point (Plate 8, Fig. 14, ~52~), or they may run in broad
+curls of uniform width (Fig. 14, ~51~, ~54~). Perhaps the best general
+rule in selecting standard outlines, is to limit them to such as cannot be
+turned into any other by viewing them in an altered aspect, as upside down
+or from the back, or by magnifying or deforming them, whether it be
+through stretching, shrinking, or puckering any part of them. Subject to
+this general rule and to further and more particular descriptions, the
+sets (Plates 7 and 8, Figs. 11, 12, 13) will be found to give considerable
+help in naming the usual patterns.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7.
+
+FIG. 11. ARCHES.
+
+FIG. 12. LOOPS.]
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8.
+
+FIG. 13. WHORLS. CORES TO LOOPS.
+
+FIG. 14. Rods:--their envelopes are indicated by dots. Staples:--their
+envelopes are indicated by dots. Envelopes whether to Rods or
+Staples:--here staples only are dotted.
+
+FIG. 15. CORES TO WHORLS.]
+
+
+It will be observed that they are grouped under the three principal heads
+of Arches, Loops, and Whorls, and that under each of these heads some
+analogous patterns as ~4~, ~5~, ~7~, ~8~, etc., are introduced and
+underlined with the word "see" so and so, and thus noted as really
+belonging to one of the other heads. This is done to indicate the
+character of the transitional cases that unite respectively the Arches
+with the Loops, the Arches with the Whorls, and the Loops with the Whorls.
+More will follow in respect to these. The "tented arch" (~3~) is extremely
+rare on the thumb; I do not remember ever to have seen it there,
+consequently it did not appear in the plate of patterns in the _Phil.
+Trans._ which referred to thumbs. On the other hand, the "banded duplex
+spiral" (~30~) is common in the thumb, but rare elsewhere. There are some
+compound patterns, especially the "spiral in loop" (~21~) and the "circlet
+in loop" (~22~), which are as much loops as whorls; but are reckoned as
+whorls. The "twinned loop" (~16~) is of more frequent occurrence than
+would be supposed from the examination of _dabbed_ impressions, as the
+only part of the outer loop then in view resembles outside arches; it is
+due to a double separation of the ridges (Plate 4, Fig. 8), and a
+consequent double interspace. The "crested loop" (~13~) may sometimes be
+regarded as an incipient form of a "duplex spiral" (~29~).
+
+The reader may also refer to Plate 16, which contains what is there called
+the C set of standard patterns. They were arranged and used for a special
+purpose, as described in Chapter XI. They refer to impressions of the
+right hand.
+
+As a variety of Cores, differing in shape and size, may be found within
+each of the outlines, it is advisable to describe them separately. Plate
+8, Fig. 14 shows a series of the cores of loops, in which the innermost
+lineations may be either straight or curved back; in the one case they are
+here called rods (~31~ to ~35~); in the other (~36~ to ~42~), staples. The
+first of the ridges that envelops the core, whether the core be a rod,
+many rods, or a staple, is also shown and named (~43~ to ~48~). None of
+the descriptions are intended to apply to more than the _very end_ of the
+core, say, from the tip downwards to a distance equal to two average
+ridge-intervals in length. If more of the core be taken into account, the
+many varieties in their lower parts begin to make description confusing.
+In respect to the "parted" staples and envelopes, and those that are
+single-eyed, the description may further mention the side on which the
+parting or the eye occurs, whether it be the Inner or the Outer.
+
+At the bottom of Fig. 14, ~49-54~, is given a series of rings, spirals,
+and plaits, in which nearly all the clearly distinguishable varieties are
+included, no regard being paid to the direction of the twist or to the
+number of turns. ~49~ is a set of concentric circles, ~50~ of ellipses:
+they are rarely so in a strict sense throughout the pattern, usually
+breaking away into a more or less spiriform arrangement as in ~51~. A
+curious optical effect is connected with the circular forms, which becomes
+almost annoying when many specimens are examined in succession. They seem
+to be cones standing bodily out from the paper. This singular appearance
+becomes still more marked when they are viewed with only one eye; no
+stereoscopic guidance then correcting the illusion of their being contour
+lines.
+
+Another curious effect is seen in ~53~, which has the appearance of a
+plait or overlap; two systems of ridges that roll together, end bluntly,
+the end of the one system running right into a hollow curve of the other,
+and there stopping short; it seems, at the first glance, to run beneath
+it, as if it were a plait. This mode of ending forms a singular contrast
+to that shown in ~51~ and ~52~, where the ridges twist themselves into a
+point. ~54~ is a deep spiral, sometimes having a large core filled with
+upright and nearly parallel lines; occasionally they are bulbous, and
+resemble the commoner "monkey" type, see ~35~.
+
+When the direction of twist is described, the language must be
+unambiguous: the following are the rules I adopt. The course of the ridge
+is always followed _towards_ the _centre_ of the pattern, and not away
+from it. Again, the direction of its course when so followed is specified
+at the place where it attains its _highest_ point, or that nearest to the
+finger-tip; its course at that point must needs be horizontal, and
+therefore directed either towards the inner or the outer side.
+
+The amount of twist has a strong tendency to coincide with either one,
+two, three, four, or more half-turns, and not to stop short in
+intermediate positions. Here are indications of some unknown fundamental
+law, analogous apparently to that which causes Loops to be by far the
+commonest pattern.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The classification into Arches, Loops, and Whorls is based on the degree
+of curvature of the ridges, and enables almost any pattern to be sorted
+under one or other of those three heads. There are a few ambiguous
+patterns, and others which are nondescript, but the former are uncommon
+and the latter rare; as these exceptions give little real inconvenience,
+the classification works easily and well.
+
+Arches are formed when the ridges run from one side to the other of the
+bulb of the digit without making any backward turn or twist. Loops, when
+there is a single backward turn, but no twist. Whorls, when there is a
+turn through at least one complete circle; they are also considered to
+include all duplex spirals.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9.
+
+FIG. 15. TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS--ARCHES AND LOOPS (enlarged three times).]
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10.
+
+FIG. 16. TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS--LOOPS AND WHORLS (enlarged three times).]
+
+
+The chief theoretical objection to this threefold system of classification
+lies in the existence of certain compound patterns, by far the most common
+of which are Whorls enclosed within Loops (Plates 7, 8, Fig. 12, ~15~,
+~18~, ~19~, and Fig. 13, ~20-23~). They are as much Loops as Whorls, and
+properly ought to be relegated to a fourth class. I have not done so, but
+called them Whorls, for a practical reason which is cogent. In an
+imperfect impression, such as is made by merely dabbing the inked finger
+upon paper, the enveloping loop is often too incompletely printed to
+enable its existence to be surely ascertained, especially when the
+enclosed whorl is so large (Fig. 13, ~23~) that there are only one or two
+enveloping ridges to represent the loop. On the other hand, the whorled
+character of the core can hardly fail to be recognised. The practical
+difficulties lie almost wholly in rightly classifying a few transitional
+forms, diagrammatically and roughly expressed in Fig. 11, ~4~, ~5~, and
+Fig. 12, ~8~, ~18~, ~19~, with the words "see" so and so written below,
+and of which actual examples are given on an enlarged scale in Plates 9
+and 10, Figs. 15 and 16. Here Fig. 15, _a_ is an undoubted arch, and _c_
+an undoubted nascent loop; but _b_ is transitional between them, though
+nearer to a loop than an arch, _d_ may be thought transitional in the same
+way, but it has an incipient curl which becomes marked in _e_, while it
+has grown into a decided whorl in _f_; _d_ should also be compared with
+_j_, which is in some sense a stage towards _k_. _g_ is a nascent
+tented-arch, fully developed in _i_, where the pattern as a whole has a
+slight slope, but is otherwise fairly symmetrical. In _h_ there is some
+want of symmetry, and a tendency to the formation of a loop on the right
+side (refer back to Plate 7, Fig. 11, ~4~, and Fig. 12, ~12~); it is a
+transitional case between a tented arch and a loop, with most resemblance
+to the latter. Plate 10, Fig. 16 illustrates eyed patterns; here _l_ and
+_m_ are parts of decided loops; _p_, _q_, and _r_ are decided whorls, but
+_n_ is transitional, inclining towards a loop, and _o_ is transitional,
+inclining towards a whorl. _s_ is a nascent form of an invaded loop, and
+is nearly related to _l_; _t_ and _u_ are decidedly invaded loops.
+
+The Arch-Loop-Whorl, or, more briefly, the A. L. W. system of
+classification, while in some degree artificial, is very serviceable for
+preliminary statistics, such as are needed to obtain a broad view of the
+distribution of the various patterns. A minute subdivision under numerous
+heads would necessitate a proportional and somewhat overwhelming amount of
+statistical labour. Fifty-four different standard varieties are by no
+means an extravagant number, but to treat fifty-four as thoroughly as
+three would require eighteen times as much material and labour. Effort is
+economised by obtaining broad results from a discussion of the A. L. W.
+classes, afterwards verifying or extending them by special inquiries into
+a few of the further subdivisions.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11.
+
+FIG. 17. ORIGIN OF SUPPLY OF RIDGES TO PATTERNS OF PRINTS OF RIGHT HAND.
+
+FIG. 18. Ambiguities in prints of the Minutiæ.]
+
+
+The divergent ridges that bound any simple pattern admit of nine, and only
+nine, distinct variations in the first part of their course. The bounding
+ridge that has attained the summit of any such pattern must have arrived
+either from the Inner plot (I), the Outer plot (O), or from both.
+Similarly as regards the bounding ridge that lies at the lowest point of
+the pattern. Any one of the three former events may occur in connection
+with any of the three latter events, so they afford in all 3 × 3, or nine
+possible combinations. It is convenient to distinguish them by easily
+intelligible symbols. Thus, let _i_ signify a bounding line which starts
+from the point I, whether it proceeds to the summit or to the base of the
+pattern; let _o_ be a line that similarly proceeds from O, and let _u_ be
+a line that unites the two plots I and O, either by summit or by base.
+Again, let two symbols be used, of which the first shall always refer to
+the summit, and the second to the base of the pattern. Then the nine
+possible cases are--_uu_, _ui_, _uo_; _iu_, _ii_, _io_; _ou_, _oi_, _oo_.
+The case of the arches is peculiar, but they may be fairly classed under
+the symbol _uu_.
+
+This easy method of classification has much power. For example, the four
+possible kinds of simple spirals (see the 1st, 2nd, and the 5th and 6th
+diagrams in the lowest row of Plate 11, Fig. 17) are wholly determined by
+the letters _oj_, _jo_, _ij_, _ji_ respectively. The two forms of duplex
+spirals are similarly determined by _oi_ and _io_ (see 4th and 5th
+diagrams in the upper row of Fig. 17), the two slopes of loops by _oo_ and
+_ii_ (3rd and 4th in the lower row). It also shows very distinctly the
+sources whence the streams of ridges proceed that feed the pattern, which
+itself affords another basis for classification. The resource against
+uncertainty in respect to ambiguous or difficult patterns is to compile a
+dictionary of them, with the heads under which it is advisable that they
+should severally be classed. It would load these pages too heavily to give
+such a dictionary here. Moreover, it ought to be revised by many
+experienced eyes, and the time is hardly ripe for this; when it is, it
+would be no difficult task, out of the large number of prints of separate
+fingers which for instance I possess (some 15,000), to make an adequate
+selection, to enlarge them photographically, and finally to print the
+results in pairs, the one untouched, the other outlined and classified.
+
+It may be asked why ridges are followed and not furrows, the furrow being
+the real boundary between two systems. The reply is, that the ridges are
+the easiest to trace; and, as the error through following the ridges
+cannot exceed one-half of a ridge-interval, I have been content to
+disregard it. I began by tracing furrows, but preferred the ridges after
+trial.
+
+_Measurements._--It has been already shown that when both plots are
+present (Plate 4, Fig. 8, ~4~), they form the termini of a base line, from
+which any part of the pattern may be triangulated, as surveyors would say.
+Also, that when only one plot exists (~3~), and the pattern has an axis
+(which it necessarily has in all ordinary _ii_ and _oo_ cases), a
+perpendicular can be let fall upon that axis, whose intersection with it
+will serve as a second point of reference. But our methods must not be too
+refined. The centres of the plots are not determinable with real
+exactness, and repeated prints from so soft a substance as flesh are
+often somewhat dissimilar, the one being more or less broadened out than
+the other, owing to unequal pressure. It is therefore well to use such
+other more convenient points of reference as the particular pattern may
+present. In loops, the intersection of the axis with the summit of the
+innermost bend, whether it be a staple or the envelope to a rod (Fig. 14,
+second and third rows of diagrams), is a well-defined position. In
+spirals, the centre of the pattern is fairly well defined; also a
+perpendicular erected from the middle of the base to the outline above and
+below (Fig. 8, ~4~) is precise and convenient.
+
+In prints of adults, measurements may be made in absolute units of length,
+as in fractions of an inch, or else in millimetres. An average
+ridge-interval makes, however, a better unit, being independent of growth;
+it is strictly necessary to adopt it in prints made by children, if
+present measurements are hereafter to be compared with future ones. The
+simplest plan of determining and employing this unit is to count the
+number of ridges to the nearest half-ridge, within the space of one-tenth
+of an inch, measured along the axis of the finger at and about the point
+where it cuts the _summit_ of the outline; then, having already prepared
+scales suitable for the various likely numbers, to make the measurements
+with the appropriate scale. Thus, if five ridges were crossed by the axis
+at that part, in the space of one-tenth of an inch, each unit of the scale
+to be used would be one-fiftieth of an inch; if there were four ridges,
+each unit of the scale would be one-fortieth of an inch; if six ridges
+one-sixtieth, and so forth. There is no theoretical or practical
+difficulty, only rough indications being required.
+
+It is unnecessary to describe in detail how the bearings of any point may
+be expressed after the fashion of compass bearings, the direction I-O
+taking the place of East-West, the uppermost direction that of North, and
+the lowermost of South. Little more is practically wanted than to be able
+to describe roughly the position of some remarkable feature in the print,
+as of an island or an enclosure. A ridge that is characterised by these or
+any other marked peculiarity is easily identified by the above means, and
+it thereupon serves as an exact basis for the description of other
+features.
+
+
+_Purkenje's "Commentatio."_
+
+Reference has already been made to Purkenje, who has the honour of being
+the person who first described the inner scrolls (as distinguished from
+the outlines of the patterns) formed by the ridges. He did so in a
+University Thesis delivered at Breslau in 1823, entitled _Commentatio de
+examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei_ (a physiological
+examination of the visual organ and of the cutaneous system). The thesis
+is an ill-printed small 8vo pamphlet of fifty-eight pages, written in a
+form of Latin that is difficult to translate accurately into free English.
+It is, however, of great historical interest and reputation, having been
+referred to by nearly all subsequent writers, some of whom there is
+reason to suspect never saw it, but contented themselves with quoting a
+very small portion at second-hand. No copy of the pamphlet existed in any
+public medical library in England, nor in any private one so far as I
+could learn; neither could I get a sight of it at some important
+continental libraries. One copy was known of it in America. The very
+zealous Librarian of the Royal College of Surgeons was so good as to take
+much pains at my instance, to procure one: his zeal was happily and
+unexpectedly rewarded by success, and the copy is now securely lodged in
+the library of the College.
+
+_The Title_
+
+Commentatio de Examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei
+quam pro loco in gratioso medicorum ordine rite obtinendo die Dec. 22,
+1823. H.X.L.C. publice defendit Johannes Evangelista Purkenje, Med.
+doctor, Phys. et Path. Professor publicus ordinarius des. Assumto socio
+Guilielmo Kraus Medicinae studioso.
+
+_Translation_, p. 42.
+
+    "Our attention is next engaged by the wonderful arrangement and
+    curving of the minute furrows connected with the organ of touch[4] on
+    the inner surfaces of the hand and foot, especially on the last
+    phalanx of each finger. Some general account of them is always to be
+    found in every manual of physiology and anatomy, but in an organ of
+    such importance as the human hand, used as it is for very varied
+    movements, and especially serviceable to the sense of touch, no
+    research, however minute, can fail in yielding some gratifying
+    addition to our knowledge of that organ. After numberless
+    observations, I have thus far met with nine principal varieties of
+    curvature according to which the tactile furrows are disposed upon the
+    inner surface of the last phalanx of the fingers. I will describe them
+    concisely, and refer to the diagrams for further explanation (see
+    Plate 12, Fig. 19).
+
+    1. _Transverse flexures._--The minute furrows starting from the bend
+    of the joint, run from one side of the phalanx to the other; at first
+    transversely in nearly straight lines, then by degrees they become
+    more and more curved towards the middle, until at last they are bent
+    into arches that are almost concentric with the circumference of the
+    finger.
+
+    2. _Central Longitudinal Stria._--This configuration is nearly the
+    same as in 1, the only difference being that a perpendicular stria is
+    enclosed within the transverse furrows, as if it were a nucleus.
+
+    3. _Oblique Stria._--A solitary line runs from one or other of the two
+    sides of the finger, passing obliquely between the transverse curves
+    in 1, and ending near the middle.
+
+    4. _Oblique Sinus._--If this oblique line recurves towards the side
+    from which it started, and is accompanied by several others, all
+    recurved in the same way, the result is an oblique sinus, more or less
+    upright, or horizontal, as the case may be. A junction at its base, of
+    minute lines proceeding from either of its sides, forms a triangle.
+    This distribution of the furrows, in which an oblique sinus is found,
+    is by far the most common, and it may be considered as a special
+    characteristic of man; the furrows that are packed in longitudinal
+    rows are, on the other hand, peculiar to monkeys. The vertex of the
+    oblique sinus is generally inclined towards the radial side of the
+    hand, but it must be observed that the contrary is more frequently the
+    case in the fore-finger, the vertex there tending towards the ulnar
+    side. Scarcely any other configuration is to be found on the toes. The
+    ring finger, too, is often marked with one of the more intricate kinds
+    of pattern, while the remaining fingers have either the oblique sinus
+    or one of the other simpler forms.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12.
+
+FIG. 19. THE STANDARD PATTERNS OF PURKENJE.]
+
+
+    5. _Almond._--Here the oblique sinus, as already described, encloses
+    an almond-shaped figure, blunt above, pointed below, and formed of
+    concentric furrows.
+
+    6. _Spiral._--When the transverse flexures described in 1 do not pass
+    gradually from straight lines into curves, but assume that form
+    suddenly with a more rapid divergence, a semicircular space is
+    necessarily created, which stands upon the straight and horizontal
+    lines below, as it were upon a base. This space is filled by a spiral
+    either of a simple or composite form. The term 'simple' spiral is to
+    be understood in the usual geometric sense. I call the spiral
+    'composite' when it is made up of several lines proceeding from the
+    same centre, or of lines branching at intervals and twisted upon
+    themselves. At either side, where the spiral is contiguous to the
+    place at which the straight and curved lines begin to diverge, in
+    order to enclose it, two triangles are formed, just like the single
+    one that is formed at the side of the oblique sinus.
+
+    7. _Ellipse_, or _Elliptical Whorl_.--The semicircular space described
+    in 6 is here filled with concentric ellipses enclosing a short single
+    line in their middle.
+
+    8. _Circle_, or _Circular Whorl_.--Here a single point takes the place
+    of the short line mentioned in 7. It is surrounded by a number of
+    concentric circles reaching to the ridges that bound the semicircular
+    space.
+
+    9. _Double Whorl._--One portion of the transverse lines runs forward
+    with a bend and recurves upon itself with a half turn, and is embraced
+    by another portion which proceeds from the other side in the same way.
+    This produces a doubly twisted figure which is rarely met with except
+    on the thumb, fore, and ring fingers. The ends of the curved portions
+    may be variously inclined; they may be nearly perpendicular, of
+    various degrees of obliquity, or nearly horizontal.
+
+    In all of the forms 6, 7, 8, and 9, triangles may be seen at the
+    points where the divergence begins between the transverse and the
+    arched lines, and at both sides. On the remaining phalanges, the
+    transverse lines proceed diagonally, and are straight or only slightly
+    curved."
+
+(He then proceeds to speak of the palm of the hand in men and in
+monkeys.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PERSISTENCE
+
+
+The evidence that the minutiæ persist throughout life is derived from the
+scrutiny and comparison of various duplicate impressions, one of each pair
+having been made many years ago, the other recently. Those which I have
+studied more or less exhaustively are derived from the digits of fifteen
+different persons. In some cases repeated impressions of one finger only
+were available; in most cases of two fingers; in some of an entire hand.
+Altogether the whole or part of repeated impressions of between twenty and
+thirty different digits have been studied. I am indebted to Sir W. J.
+Herschel for almost all these valuable data, without which it would have
+been impossible to carry on the inquiry. The only other prints are those
+of Sir W. G----, who, from curiosity, took impressions of his own fingers
+in sealing-wax in 1874, and fortunately happened to preserve them. He was
+good enough to make others for me last year, from which photographic
+prints were made. The following table gives an analysis of the above data.
+It would be well worth while to hunt up and take the present finger
+prints of such of the Hindoos as may now be alive, whose impressions were
+taken in India by Sir W. J. Herschel, and are still preserved. Many years
+must elapse before my own large collection of finger prints will be
+available for the purpose of testing persistence during long periods.
+
+The pattern in every distinct finger print, even though it be only a
+dabbed impression, contains on a rough average thirty-five different
+points of reference, in addition to its general peculiarities of outline
+and core. They consist of forkings, beginnings or ends of ridges, islands,
+and enclosures. These minute details are by no means peculiar to the
+pattern itself, but are distributed with almost equal abundance throughout
+the whole palmar surface. In order to make an exhaustive comparison of two
+impressions they ought to be photographically enlarged to a size not
+smaller than those shown in Plate 15. Two negatives of impressions can
+thus be taken side by side on an ordinary quarter-plate, and any number of
+photographic prints made from them; but, for still more comfortable
+working, a further enlargement is desirable, say by the prism, p. 52. Some
+of the prints may be made on ferro-prussiate paper, as already mentioned
+pp. 51, 53; they are more convenient by far than prints made by the silver
+or by the platinum process.
+
+Having placed the enlarged prints side by side, two or three conspicuous
+and convenient points of reference, whether islands, enclosures, or
+particularly distinct bifurcations, should be identified and marked. By
+their help, the position of the prints should be readjusted, so that they
+shall be oriented exactly alike. From each point of reference, in
+succession, the spines of the ridges are then to be followed with a fine
+pencil, in the two prints alternately, neatly marking each new point of
+comparison with a numeral in coloured ink (Plate 13). When both of the
+prints are good and clear, this is rapidly done; wherever the impressions
+are faulty, there may be many ambiguities requiring patience to unravel.
+At first I was timid, and proceeded too hesitatingly when one of the
+impressions was indistinct, making short alternate traces. Afterwards on
+gaining confidence, I traced boldly, starting from any well-defined point
+of reference and not stopping until there were reasonable grounds for
+hesitation, and found it easy in this way to trace the unions between
+opposite and incompletely printed ends of ridges, and to disentangle many
+bad impressions.
+
+An exact correspondence between the _details_ of two minutiæ is of
+secondary importance. Thus, the commonest point of reference is a
+bifurcation; now the neck or point of divergence of a new ridge is apt to
+be a little low, and sometimes fails to take the ink; hence a new ridge
+may appear in one of the prints to have an independent origin, and in the
+other to be a branch. The _apparent_ origin is therefore of little
+importance, the main fact to be attended to is that a new ridge comes into
+existence at a particular point; _how_ it came into existence is a
+secondary matter. Similarly, an apparently broken ridge may in reality be
+due to an imperfectly printed enclosure; and an island in one print may
+appear as part of an enclosure in the other. Moreover, this variation in
+details may be the effect not only of imperfect inking or printing, but of
+disintegration due to old age, which renders the impressions of the ridges
+ragged and broken, as in my own finger prints on the title-page.
+
+Plate 11, Fig. 18 explains the nature of the apparent discrepancies better
+than a verbal description. In _a_ a new ridge appears to be suddenly
+intruded between two adjacent ones, which have separated to make room for
+it; but a second print, taken from the same finger, may have the
+appearance of either _b_ or _c_, showing that the new ridge is in reality
+a fork of one or other of them, the low connecting neck having failed to
+leave an impression. The second line of examples shows how an enclosure
+which is clearly defined in _d_ may give rise to the appearance of broken
+continuity shown in _e_, and how a distinct island _f_ in one of the
+prints may be the remnant of an enclosure which is shown in the other.
+These remarks are offered as a caution against attaching undue importance
+to disaccord in the details of the minutiæ that are found in the same
+place in different prints. Usually, however, the distinction between a
+fork and the beginning of a new ridge is clear enough; the islands and
+enclosures are also mostly well marked.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13.
+
+FIG. 20. V. H. H-D æt. 2-1/2 in 1877, and again as a boy in Nov. 1890.]
+
+
+Plate 13 gives impressions taken from the fingers of a child of 2-1/2
+years in 1877, and again in 1890, when a boy of 15. They are enlarged
+photographically to the same size, and are therefore on different scales.
+The impressions from the baby-hand are not sharp, but sufficiently
+distinct for comparison. Every bifurcation, and beginning or ending of a
+ridge, common to the two impressions, is marked with a numeral in blue
+ink. There is only one island in the present instance, and that is in the
+upper pair of prints; it is clearly seen in the right hand print, lying to
+the left of the inscribed number 13, but the badness of the left hand
+print makes it hardly decipherable, so it is not numbered. There are a
+total of twenty-six good points of comparison common to the upper pair of
+prints; there are forty-three points in the lower pair, forty-two of which
+appear in both, leaving a single point of disagreement; it is marked A on
+the fifth ridge counting from the top. Here a bifurcated ridge in the baby
+is filled up in the boy. This one exception, small though it be, is in my
+experience unique. The total result of the two pairs of prints is to
+afford sixty-eight successes and one failure. The student will find it
+well worth his while to study these and the following prints step by step,
+to satisfy himself of the extraordinarily exact coincidences between the
+two members of either of the pairs. Of course the patterns generally must
+be the same, if the ridges composing them are exactly alike, and the most
+cursory glance shows them to be so.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14.
+
+FIG. 21.]
+
+
+Plate 14, Fig. 21 contains rather less than a quarter of each of eight
+pairs that were published in the _Phil. Trans._ memoir above alluded to.
+They were there enlarged photographically to twice their natural size,
+which was hardly enough, as it did not allow sufficient space for
+inserting the necessary reference numbers. Consequently they have been
+again considerably enlarged, so much so that it is impossible to put more
+than a portion of each on the page. However, what is given suffices. The
+omitted portions may be studied in the memoir. The cases of ~1~ and ~2~
+are prints of different fingers of the same individual, first as a child 8
+years old, and then as a boy of 17. They have been enlarged on the same
+scale but not to the same size; so the print of the child includes a
+larger proportion of the original impression than that of the boy. It is
+therefore only a part of the child's print which is comparable with that
+of the boy. The remaining six cases refer to four different men, belonging
+to three quite different families, although their surnames happen to have
+the same initial, H. They were adults when the first print was made, and
+from 26 to 31 years older on the second occasion. There is an exact
+agreement throughout between the two members of each of the eight several
+couplets.
+
+In the pair 2. A. E. H. Hl., there is an interesting dot at the point ~4~
+(being an island it deserved to have had two numbers, one for the
+beginning and one for the end). Small as it is, it persists; its growth in
+size corresponding to the growth of the child in stature.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15.
+
+FIG. 22. RIGHT FOREFINGER OF SIR W. J. H. in 1860 and in 1888.]
+
+
+FIG. 23. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERIODS OF LIFE, to which the evidence of
+persistency refers.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |         | Age |        | Age  |          Ages, 0--80 years.           |
+  |Persons. |  at |Interval|  at  |                                       |
+  |         |first|   in   |second|                                       |
+  |         |print| years  |print |    10   20   30   40   50   60   70   |
+  |------------------------------------|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+  |  H. H--d|   2 |   13   |  15  |----+--  |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  A. H--l|   4 |   12   |  16  | ---+--- |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  J. H--l|   8 |   13   |  21  |  --+----+    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  E. H--l|  10 |   13   |  23  |    |----+--  |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |W.J. H--l|  26 |   30   |  56  |    |    |  --+----+----+--  |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |R.F. H--n|  26 |   31   |  57  |    |    |  --+----+----+--- |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |N.H. T--n|  27 |   28   |  55  |    |    |   -+----+----+--  |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |F.H. H--t|  27 |   26   |  53  |    |    |   -+----+----+-   |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  W. G--e|  62 |   17   |  79  |    |    |    |    |    |    |----+----|
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+For the sake of those who are deficient in the colour sense and therefore
+hardly able, if at all, to distinguish even the blue numerals in Figs. 20,
+21, I give an eleventh example, Plate 15, Fig. 22, printed all in black.
+The numerals are here very legible, but space for their insertion had to
+be obtained by sacrificing some of the lineations. It is the right
+fore-finger of Sir W. Herschel and has been already published twice; first
+in the account of my lecture at the Royal Institution, and secondly, in
+its present conspicuous form, in my paper in the _Nineteenth Century_. The
+number of years that elapsed between the two impressions is thirty-one,
+and the prints contain twenty-four points of comparison, all of which will
+be seen to agree. I also possess a later print than this, taken in 1890
+from the same finger, which tells the same tale.
+
+The final result of the prints in these pages is that they give
+photographic enlargements of the whole or portions of eleven couplets
+belonging to six different persons, who are members of five unrelated
+families, and which contain between them 158 points of comparison, of
+which only one failed. Adding the portions of the prints that are omitted
+here, but which will be found in the _Phil. Trans._, the material that I
+have thus far published contains 389 points of comparison, of which one
+failed. The details are given in the annexed table:--
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Order |  Initials. |Digit | Age  |Dates of| Years |   Total points    |
+  |  in   |            | of   |  at  |the two |elapsed|  of agreement in  |
+  | the   |            |right | date |prints. |between|-------------------|
+  | Figs. |            |hand. |  of  |--------|the two|Figs. 20|Figs. 20, |
+  |       |            |      |first |        |prints.|and 21. |22, and in|
+  |       |            |      |print.|1st  2nd|       |        |Ph. Trans.|
+  |-------|------------|------|------|--------|-------|--------|----------|
+  |FIG. 20|            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |   1.  |V. H. Hd.   |Fore  | 2-1/2| 1877-90|   13  |   26   |    26    |
+  |   2.  |V. H. Hd.   |Ring  | 2-1/2| 1877-90|   13  |   42   |    42    |
+  |       |            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |FIG. 21|            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |   1.  |A. E. H. Hl.|Fore  | 8    | 1881-90|    9  |   11   |    33    |
+  |   2.  |A. E. H. Hl.|Ring  | 8    | 1881-90|    9  |    5   |    36    |
+  |   3.  |N. H. Tn.   |Fore  |28    | 1862-90|   28  |    6   |    27    |
+  |   4.  |N. H. Tn.   |Middle|28    | 1862-90|   28  |   10   |    36    |
+  |   5.  |F. K. Ht.   |Fore  |28    | 1862-88|   26  |   12   |    55    |
+  |   6.  |R. F. Hn.   |Middle|31    | 1859-90|   31  |    6   |    27    |
+  |   7.  |W. J. Hl.   |Thumb |30    | 1860-90|   30  |    9   |    50    |
+  |   8.  |W. J. Hl.   |Ring  |31    | 1859-90|   31  |    6   |    32    |
+  |       |            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |FIG. 22|            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |   1.  |W. J. Hl.   |Fore  |31    | 1859-90|   31  |   24   |    24    |
+  |---------------------------------------------------|--------|----------|
+  |                      Total points of agreement    |  157   |   388    |
+  |                          Do.      of disagreement |    1   |     1    |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+It is difficult to give a just estimate of the number of points of
+comparison that I have studied in other couplets of prints, because they
+were not examined as exhaustively as in these. There were no less than one
+hundred and eleven of them in the ball of the thumb of the child V. H.
+Hd., besides twenty-five in the imperfect prints of his middle and little
+fingers; these alone raise the total of 389 to 525. I must on the whole
+have looked for more than 700 points of comparison, and have found
+agreement in every single case that was examined, except the one already
+mentioned in Fig. 20, of a ridge that was split in the child, but had
+closed up some few years later.
+
+The prints in the two plates cover the intervals from childhood to
+boyhood, from boyhood to early manhood, from manhood to about the age of
+60, and another set--that of Sir W. G.--covers the interval from 67 to 80.
+This is clearly expressed by the diagram (Plate 15, Fig. 23). As there is
+no sign, except in one case, of change during any one of these four
+intervals, which together almost wholly cover the ordinary life of man, we
+are justified in inferring that between birth and death there is
+absolutely no change in, say, 699 out of 700 of the numerous
+characteristics in the markings of the fingers of the same person, such as
+can be impressed by them whenever it is desirable to do so. Neither can
+there be any change after death, up to the time when the skin perishes
+through decomposition; for example, the marks on the fingers of many
+Egyptian mummies, and on the paws of stuffed monkeys, still remain
+legible. Very good evidence and careful inquiry is thus seen to justify
+the popular idea of the persistence of finger markings, that has hitherto
+been too rashly jumped at, and which wrongly ascribed the persistence to
+the general appearance of the pattern, rather than to the minutiæ it
+contains. There appear to be no external bodily characteristics, other
+than deep scars and tattoo marks, comparable in their persistence to these
+markings, whether they be on the finger, on other parts of the palmar
+surface of the hand, or on the sole of the foot. At the same time they are
+out of all proportion more numerous than any other measurable features;
+about thirty-five of them are situated on the bulb of each of the ten
+digits, in addition to more than 100 on the ball of the thumb, which has
+not one-fifth of the superficies of the rest of the palmar surface. The
+total number of points suitable for comparison on the two hands must
+therefore be not less than one thousand and nearer to two; an estimate
+which I verified by a rough count on my own hand; similarly in respect to
+the feet. The dimensions of the limbs and body alter in the course of
+growth and decay; the colour, quantity, and quality of the hair, the tint
+and quality of the skin, the number and set of the teeth, the expression
+of the features, the gestures, the handwriting, even the eye-colour,
+change after many years. There seems no persistence in the visible parts
+of the body, except in these minute and hitherto too much disregarded
+ridges.
+
+It must be emphasised that it is in the minutiæ, and _not_ in the measured
+dimensions of any portion of the pattern, that this remarkable persistence
+is observed, not even if the measurements be made in units of a
+ridge-interval. The pattern grows simultaneously with the finger, and its
+proportions vary with its fatness, leanness, usage, gouty deformation, or
+age. But, though the pattern as a whole may become considerably altered in
+length or breadth, the number of ridges, their embranchments, and other
+minutiæ remain unchanged. So it is with the pattern on a piece of lace.
+The piece as a whole may be stretched in this way, or shrunk in that, and
+its outline altogether altered; nevertheless every one of the component
+threads, and every knot in every thread, can easily be traced and
+identified in both. Therefore, in speaking of the persistence of the marks
+on the finger, the phrase must be taken to apply principally to the
+minutiæ, and to the general character of the pattern; not to the measure
+of its length, breadth, or other diameter; these being no more constant
+than the stature, or any other of the ordinary anthropometric data.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+EVIDENTIAL VALUE
+
+
+The object of this chapter is to give an approximate numerical idea of the
+value of finger prints as a means of Personal Identification. Though the
+estimates that will be made are professedly and obviously far below the
+truth, they are amply sufficient to prove that the evidence afforded by
+finger prints may be trusted in a most remarkable degree.
+
+Our problem is this: given two finger prints, which are alike in their
+minutiæ, what is the chance that they were made by different persons?
+
+The first attempt at comparing two finger prints would be directed to a
+rough general examination of their respective patterns. If they do not
+agree in being arches, loops, or whorls, there can be no doubt that the
+prints are those of different fingers, neither can there be doubt when
+they are distinct forms of the same general class. But to agree thus far
+goes only a short way towards establishing identity, for the number of
+patterns that are promptly distinguishable from one another is not large.
+My earlier inquiries showed this, when endeavouring to sort the prints of
+1000 thumbs into groups that differed each from the rest by an "equally
+discernible" interval. While the attempt, as already mentioned, was not
+successful in its main object, it showed that nearly all the collection
+could be sorted into 100 groups, in each of which the prints had a fairly
+near resemblance. Moreover, twelve or fifteen of the groups referred to
+different varieties of the loop; and as two-thirds of all the prints are
+loops, two-thirds of the 1000 specimens fell into twelve or fifteen
+groups. The chance that an unseen pattern is some particular variety of
+loop, is therefore compounded of 2 to 3 against its being a loop at all,
+and of 1 to 12 or 15, as the case may be, against its being the specified
+kind of loop. This makes an adverse chance of only 2 to 36, or to 45, say
+as 2 to 40, or as 1 to 20. This very rude calculation suffices to show
+that on the average, no great reliance can be placed on a general
+resemblance in the appearance of two finger prints, as a proof that they
+were made by the same finger, though the obvious disagreement of two
+prints is conclusive evidence that they were made by different fingers.
+
+When we proceed to a much more careful comparison, and collate
+successively the numerous minutiæ, their coincidence throughout would be
+an evidence of identity, whose value we will now try to appraise.
+
+Let us first consider the question, how far may the minutiæ, or groups of
+them, be treated as _independent_ variables?
+
+Suppose that a tiny square of paper of only one average ridge-interval in
+the side, be cut out and dropped at random on a finger print; it will
+mask from view a minute portion of one, or possibly of two ridges. There
+can be little doubt that what was hidden could be correctly interpolated
+by simply joining the ends of the ridge or ridges that were interrupted.
+It is true, the paper might possibly have fallen exactly upon, and hidden,
+a minute island or enclosure, and that our reconstruction would have
+failed in consequence, but such an accident is improbable in a high
+degree, and may be almost ignored.
+
+Repeating the process with a much larger square of paper, say of twelve
+ridge-intervals in the side, the improbability of correctly reconstructing
+the masked portion will have immensely increased. The number of ridges
+that enter the square on any one side will perhaps, as often as not,
+differ from the number which emerge from the opposite side; and when they
+are the same, it does not at all follow that they would be continuous each
+to each, for in so large a space forks and junctions are sure to occur
+between some, and it is impossible to know which, of the ridges.
+Consequently, there must exist a certain size of square with more than one
+and less than twelve ridge-intervals in the side, which will mask so much
+of the print, that it will be an even chance whether the hidden portion
+can, on the average, be rightly reconstructed or not. The size of that
+square must now be considered.
+
+If the reader will refer to Plate 14, in which there are eight much
+enlarged photographs of portions of different finger prints, he will
+observe that the length of each of the portions exceeds the breadth in
+the proportion of 3 to 2. Consequently, by drawing one line down the
+middle and two lines across, each portion may be divided into six squares.
+Moreover, it will be noticed that the side of each of these squares has a
+length of about six ridge-intervals. I cut out squares of paper of this
+size, and throwing one of them at random on any one of the eight portions,
+succeeded almost as frequently as not in drawing lines on its back which
+comparison afterwards showed to have followed the true course of the
+ridges. The provisional estimate that a length of six ridge-intervals
+approximated to but exceeded that of the side of the desired square,
+proved to be correct by the following more exact observations, and by
+three different methods.
+
+I. The first set of tests to verify this estimate were made upon
+photographic enlargements of various thumb prints, to double their natural
+size. A six-ridge-interval square of paper was damped and laid at random
+on the print, the core of the pattern, which was too complex in many cases
+to serve as an average test, being alone avoided. The prints being on
+ordinary albuminised paper, which is slightly adherent when moistened, the
+patch stuck temporarily wherever it was placed and pressed down. Next, a
+sheet of tracing-paper, which we will call No. 1, was laid over all, and
+the margin of the square patch was traced upon it, together with the
+course of the surrounding ridges up to that margin. Then I interpolated on
+the tracing-paper what seemed to be the most likely course of those ridges
+which were hidden by the square. No. 1 was then removed, and a second
+sheet, No. 2, was laid on, and the margin of the patch was outlined on it
+as before, together with the ridges leading up to it. Next, a corner only
+of No. 2 was raised, the square patch was whisked away from underneath,
+the corner was replaced, the sheet was flattened down, and the actual
+courses of the ridges within the already marked outline were traced in.
+Thus there were two tracings of the margin of the square, of which No. 1
+contained the ridges as I had interpolated them, No. 2 as they really
+were, and it was easy to compare the two. The results are given in the
+first column of the following table:--
+
+INTERPOLATION OF RIDGES IN A SIX-RIDGE-INTERVAL SQUARE.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------+
+  |Result.|   Double    |Six-fold scale| Twenty-fold |Total.|
+  |       |Enlargements.| with prism.  |  scale with |      |
+  |       |             |              |chequer-work.|      |
+  |-------|-------------|--------------|-------------|------|
+  |Right  |     12      |      8       |      7      |  27  |
+  |Wrong  |     20      |     12       |     16      |  48  |
+  |-------|-------------|--------------|-------------|------|
+  |Total  |     32      |     20       |     23      |  75  |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------+
+
+II. In the second method the tracing-papers were discarded, and the prism
+of a camera lucida used. It threw an image three times the size of the
+photo-enlargement, upon a card, and there it was traced. The same general
+principle was adopted as in the first method, but the results being on a
+larger scale, and drawn on stout paper, were more satisfactory and
+convenient. They are given in the second column of the table. In this and
+the foregoing methods two different portions of the same print were
+sometimes dealt with, for it was a little more convenient and seemed as
+good a way of obtaining average results as that of always using portions
+of different finger prints. The total number of fifty-two trials, by one
+or other of the two methods, were made from about forty different prints.
+(I am not sure of the exact number.)
+
+The results in each of the two methods were sometimes quite right,
+sometimes quite wrong, sometimes neither one nor the other. The latter
+depended on the individual judgment as to which class it belonged, and
+might be battled over with more or less show of reason by advocates on
+opposite sides. Equally dividing these intermediate cases between "right"
+and "wrong," the results were obtained as shown. In one, and only one, of
+the cases, the most reasonable interpretation had not been given, and the
+result had been wrong when it ought to have been right. The purely
+personal error was therefore disregarded, and the result entered as
+"right."
+
+III. A third attempt was made by a different method, upon the lineations
+of a finger print drawn on about a twenty-fold scale. It had first been
+enlarged four times by photography, and from this enlargement the axes of
+the ridges had been drawn with a five-fold enlarging pantagraph. The aim
+now was to reconstruct the entire finger print by two successive and
+independent acts of interpolation. A sheet of transparent tracing-paper
+was ruled into six-ridge-interval squares, and every one of its alternate
+squares was rendered opaque by pasting white paper upon it, giving it the
+appearance of a chess-board. When this chequer-work was laid on the print,
+exactly one half of the six-ridge squares were masked by the opaque
+squares, while the ridges running up to them could be seen. They were not
+quite so visible as if each opaque square had been wholly detached from
+its neighbours, instead of touching them at the extreme corners, still the
+loss of information thereby occasioned was small, and not worth laying
+stress upon. It is easily understood that when the chequer-work was moved
+parallel to itself, through the space of one square, whether upwards or
+downwards, or to the right or left, the parts that were previously masked
+became visible, and those that were visible became masked. The object was
+to interpolate the ridges in every opaque square under one of these
+conditions, then to do the same for the remaining squares under the other
+condition, and finally, by combining the results, to obtain a complete
+scheme of the ridges wholly by interpolation. This was easily done by
+using two sheets of tracing-paper, laid in succession over the
+chequer-work, whose position on the print had been changed meanwhile, and
+afterwards tracing the lineations that were drawn on one of the two sheets
+upon the vacant squares of the other. The results are given in the third
+column of the table.
+
+The three methods give roughly similar results, and we may therefore
+accept the ratios of their totals, which is 27 to 75, or say 1 to 3, as
+representing the chance that the reconstruction of any six-ridge-interval
+square would be correct under the given conditions. On reckoning the
+chance as 1 to 2, which will be done at first, it is obvious that the
+error, whatever it may be, is on the safe side. A closer equality in the
+chance that the ridges in a square might run in the observed way or in
+some other way, would result from taking a square of five ridge-intervals
+in the side. I believe this to be very closely the right size. A
+four-ridge-interval square is certainly too small.
+
+When the reconstructed squares were wrong, they had none the less a
+natural appearance. This was especially seen, and on a large scale, in the
+result of the method by chequer-work, in which the lineations of an entire
+print were constructed by guess. Being so familiar with the run of these
+ridges in finger prints, I can speak with confidence on this. My
+assumption is, that any one of these reconstructions represents lineations
+that might have occurred in Nature, in association with the conditions
+outside the square, just as well as the lineations of the actual finger
+print. The courses of the ridges in each square are subject to
+uncertainties, due to petty _local_ incidents, to which the conditions
+outside the square give no sure indication. They appear to be in great
+part determined by the particular disposition of each one or more of the
+half hundred or so sweat-glands which the square contains. The ridges
+rarely run in evenly flowing lines, but may be compared to footways across
+a broken country, which, while they follow a general direction, are
+continually deflected by such trifles as a tuft of grass, a stone, or a
+puddle. Even if the number of ridges emerging from a six-ridge-interval
+square equals the number of those which enter, it does not follow that
+they run across in parallel lines, for there is plenty of room for any one
+of the ridges to end, and another to bifurcate. It is impossible,
+therefore, to know beforehand in which, if in any of the ridges, these
+peculiarities will be found. When the number of entering and issuing
+ridges is unequal, the difficulty is increased. There may, moreover, be
+islands or enclosures in any particular part of the square. It therefore
+seems right to look upon the squares as independent variables, in the
+sense that when the surrounding conditions are alone taken into account,
+the ridges within their limits may either run in the observed way or in a
+different way, the chance of these two contrasted events being taken (for
+safety's sake) as approximately equal.
+
+In comparing finger prints which are alike in their general pattern, it
+may well happen that the proportions of the patterns differ; one may be
+that of a slender boy, the other that of a man whose fingers have been
+broadened or deformed by ill-usage. It is therefore requisite to imagine
+that only one of the prints is divided into exact squares, and to suppose
+that a reticulation has been drawn over the other, in which each mesh
+included the corresponding parts of the former print. Frequent trials have
+shown that there is no practical difficulty in actually doing this, and
+it is the only way of making a fair comparison between the two.
+
+These six-ridge-interval squares may thus be regarded as independent
+units, each of which is equally liable to fall into one or other of two
+alternative classes, when the surrounding conditions are alone known. The
+inevitable consequence from this datum is that the chance of an exact
+correspondence between two different finger prints, in each of the
+six-ridge-interval squares into which they may be divided, and which are
+about 24 in number, is at least as 1 to 2 multiplied into itself 24 times
+(usually written 2{24}), that is as 1 to about ten thousand millions. But
+we must not forget that the six-ridge square was taken in order to ensure
+under-estimation, a five-ridge square would have been preferable, so the
+adverse chances would in reality be enormously greater still.
+
+It is hateful to blunder in calculations of adverse chances, by
+overlooking correlations between variables, and to falsely assume them
+independent, with the result that inflated estimates are made which
+require to be proportionately reduced. Here, however, there seems to be
+little room for such an error.
+
+We must next combine the above enormously unfavourable chance, which we
+will call _a_, with the other chances of not guessing correctly beforehand
+the surrounding conditions under which _a_ was calculated. These latter
+are divisible into _b_ and _c_; the chance _b_ is that of not guessing
+correctly the general course of the ridges adjacent to each square, and
+_c_ that of not guessing rightly the number of ridges that enter and
+issue from the square. The chance _b_ has already been discussed, with the
+result that it might be taken as 1 to 20 for two-thirds of all the
+patterns. It would be higher for the remainder, and very high indeed for
+some few of them, but as it is advisable always to underestimate, it may
+be taken as 1 to 20; or, to obtain the convenience of dealing only with
+values of 2 multiplied into itself, the still lower ratio of 1 to 2{4},
+that is as 1 to 16. As to the remaining chance _c_ with which _a_ and _b_
+have to be compounded, namely, that of guessing aright the number of
+ridges that enter and leave each side of a particular square, I can offer
+no careful observations. The number of the ridges would for the most part
+vary between five and seven, and those in the different squares are
+certainly not quite independent of one another. We have already arrived at
+such large figures that it is surplusage to heap up more of them,
+therefore, let us say, as a mere nominal sum much below the real figure,
+that the chance against guessing each and every one of these data
+correctly is as 1 to 250, or say 1 to 2{8} (= 256).
+
+The result is, that the chance of lineations, constructed by the
+imagination according to strictly natural forms, which shall be found to
+resemble those of a single finger print in all their minutiæ, is less than
+1 to 2{24} × 2{4} × 2{8}, or 1 to 2{36}, or 1 to about sixty-four thousand
+millions. The inference is, that as the number of the human race is
+reckoned at about sixteen thousand millions, it is a smaller chance than 1
+to 4 that the print of a _single_ finger of any given person would be
+exactly like that of the same finger of any other member of the human
+race.
+
+When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to
+have the same minutiæ, the improbability of 1 to 2{36} becomes squared,
+and reaches a figure altogether beyond the range of the imagination; when
+three fingers, it is cubed, and so on.
+
+A single instance has shown that the minutiæ are _not_ invariably
+permanent throughout life, but that one or more of them may possibly
+change. They may also be destroyed by wounds, and more or less
+disintegrated by hard work, disease, or age. Ambiguities will thus arise
+in their interpretation, one person asserting a resemblance in respect to
+a particular feature, while another asserts dissimilarity. It is therefore
+of interest to know how far a conceded resemblance in the great majority
+of the minutiæ combined with some doubt as to the remainder, will tell in
+favour of identity. It will now be convenient to change our datum from a
+six-ridge to a five-ridge square of which about thirty-five are contained
+in a single print, 35 × 5{2} or 35 × 25 being much the same as 24 × 6{2}
+or 24 × 36. The reason for the change is that this number of thirty-five
+happens to be the same as that of the minutiæ. We shall therefore not be
+acting unfairly if, with reservation, and for the sake of obtaining some
+result, however rough, we consider the thirty-five minutiæ themselves as
+so many independent variables, and accept the chance now as 1 to 2{35}.
+
+This has to be multiplied, as before, into the factor of 2{4} × 2{8}
+(which may still be considered appropriate, though it is too small),
+making the total of adverse chances 1 to 2{47}. Upon such a basis, the
+calculation is simple. There would on the average be 47 instances, out of
+the total 2{47} combinations, of similarity in all but one particular; (47
+× 46)/(1 × 2) in all but two; (47 × 46 × 45)/(1 × 2 × 3) in all but three,
+and so on according to the well-known binomial expansion. Taking for
+convenience the powers of 2 to which these values approximate, or rather
+with the view of not overestimating, let us take the power of 2 that falls
+short of each of them; these may be reckoned as respectively equal to
+2{6}, 2{10}, 2{14}, 2{18}, etc. Hence the roughly approximate chances of
+resemblance in all particulars are as 2{47} to 1; in all particulars but
+one, as 2{47-6}, or 2{41} to 1; in all but two, as 2{37} to 1; in all but
+three, as 2{33} to 1; in all but four, as 2{29} to 1. Even 2{29} is so
+large as to require a row of nine figures to express it. Hence a few
+instances of dissimilarity in the two prints of a single finger, still
+leave untouched an enormously large residue of evidence in favour of
+identity, and when two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to
+that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc.,
+far above the level of that amount of probability which begins to rank as
+certainty.
+
+Whatever reductions a legitimate criticism may make in the numerical
+results arrived at in this chapter, bearing in mind the occasional
+ambiguities pictured in Fig. 18, the broad fact remains, that a complete
+or nearly complete accordance between two prints of a single finger, and
+vastly more so between the prints of two or more fingers, affords
+evidence requiring no corroboration, that the persons from whom they were
+made are the same. Let it also be remembered, that this evidence is
+applicable not only to adults, but can establish the identity of the same
+person at any stage of his life between babyhood and old age, and for some
+time after his death.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We read of the dead body of Jezebel being devoured by the dogs of Jezreel,
+so that no man might say, "This is Jezebel," and that the dogs left only
+her skull, the palms of her hands, and the soles of her feet; but the
+palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are the very remains by which
+a corpse might be most surely identified, if impressions of them, made
+during life, were available.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS
+
+
+The data used in this chapter are the prints of 5000 different digits,
+namely, the ten digits of 500 different persons; each digit can thus be
+treated, both separately and in combination, in 500 cases. Five hundred
+cannot be called a large number, but it suffices for approximate results;
+the percentages that it yields may, for instance, be expected to be
+trustworthy, more often than not, within two units.
+
+When preparing the tables for this chapter, I gave a more liberal
+interpretation to the word "Arch" than subsequently. At first, every
+pattern between a Forked-Arch and a Nascent-Loop (Plate 7) was rated as an
+Arch; afterwards they were rated as Loops.
+
+The relative frequency of the three several classes in the 5000 digits was
+as follows:--
+
+  Arches                     6·5 per cent.
+  Loops                     67·5    "
+  Whorls                    26·0    "
+                           ------
+               Total       100·0
+
+From this it appears, that on the average out of every 15 or 16 digits,
+one has an arch; out of every 3 digits, two have loops; out of every 4
+digits, one has a whorl.
+
+This coarse statistical treatment leaves an inadequate impression, each
+digit and each hand having its own peculiarity, as we shall see in the
+following table:--
+
+TABLE I.
+
+_Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the different
+digits, from observations of the 5000 digits of 500 persons._
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |           |      RIGHT HAND.        ||        LEFT HAND.        |
+  |  Digit.   |-----------------------------------------------------|
+  |           |Arch.|Loop.|Whorl.|Total.||Arch.|Loop.| Whorl.|Total.|
+  |-----------+-----------------------------------------------------|
+  |Thumb      |  3  | 53  |  44  | 100  ||  5  | 65  |  30   | 100  |
+  |Fore-finger| 17  | 53  |  30  | 100  || 17  | 55  |  28   | 100  |
+  |Middle do. |  7  | 78  |  15  | 100  ||  8  | 76  |  16   | 100  |
+  |Ring   do. |  2  | 53  |  45  | 100  ||  3  | 66  |  31   | 100  |
+  |Little do. |  1  | 86  |  13  | 100  ||  2  | 90  |   8   | 100  |
+  |-----------+-----+-----+------+------||-----+-----+-------+------|
+  |   Total   | 30  |323  | 147  | 500  || 35  |352  | 113   | 500  |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The percentage of arches on the various digits varies from 1 to 17; of
+loops, from 53 to 90; of whorls, from 13 to 45, consequently the
+statistics of the digits must be separated, and not massed
+indiscriminately.
+
+Are the A. L. W. patterns distributed in the same way upon the
+corresponding digits of the two hands? The answer from the last table is
+distinct and curious, and will be best appreciated on rearranging the
+entries as follows:--
+
+TABLE II.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |            |     ARCHES.    ||     LOOPS.     ||     WHORLS.    |
+  |   Digit.   |----------------||----------------||----------------|
+  |            | Right. | Left. || Right. | Left. || Right. | Left. |
+  |------------|--------|-------||--------|-------||----------------|
+  | Fore-finger|   17   |   17  ||   53   |   53  ||   30   |   28  |
+  | Middle do. |    7   |    8  ||   78   |   76  ||   15   |   16  |
+  | Little do. |    1   |    2  ||   86   |   90  ||   13   |    8  |
+  |            |        |       ||        |       ||        |       |
+  | Thumb      |    3   |    5  ||   53   |   65  ||   44   |   30  |
+  | Ring   do. |    2   |    3  ||   53   |   66  ||   45   |   31  |
+  |------------|--------|-------||--------|-------||----------------|
+  | Total 1000 |   30   |   35  ||  323   |  350  ||  147   |  113  |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The digits are seen to fall into two well-marked groups; the one including
+the fore, middle, and little fingers, the other including the thumb and
+ring-finger. As regards the first group, the frequency with which any
+pattern occurs in any named digit is statistically the same, whether that
+digit be on the right or on the left hand; as regards the second group,
+the frequency differs greatly in the two hands. But though in the first
+group the two fore-fingers, the two middle, and the two little fingers of
+the right hand are severally circumstanced alike in the frequency with
+which their various patterns occur, the difference between the frequency
+of the patterns on a fore, a middle, and a little finger, respectively, is
+very great.
+
+In the second group, though the thumbs on opposite hands do not resemble
+each other in the statistical frequency of the A. L. W. patterns, nor do
+the ring-fingers, there is a great resemblance between the respective
+frequencies in the thumbs and ring-fingers; for instance, the Whorls on
+either of these fingers on the left hand are only two-thirds as common as
+those on the right. The figures in each line and in each column are
+consistent throughout in expressing these curious differences, which must
+therefore be accepted as facts, and not as statistical accidents, whatever
+may be their explanation.
+
+One of the most noticeable peculiarities in Table I. is the much greater
+frequency of Arches on the fore-fingers than on any other of the four
+digits. It amounts to 17 per cent on the fore-fingers, while on the thumbs
+and on the remaining fingers the frequency diminishes (Table III.) in a
+ratio that roughly accords with the distance of each digit from the
+fore-finger.
+
+TABLE III.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+  |      _Percentage frequency of Arches._     |
+  |--------------------------------------------|
+  |Hand.|Thumb.| Fore- |Middle | Ring- |Little |
+  |     |      |finger.|finger.|finger.|finger.|
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Right|  3   |  17   |   7   |   2   |   1   |
+  |Left |  5   |  17   |   8   |   3   |   4   |
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Mean |  4   |  17   |  7·5  |  2·5  |  2·5  |
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+
+The frequency of Loops (Table IV.) has two maxima; the principal one is on
+the little finger, the secondary on the middle finger.
+
+TABLE IV.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+  |       _Percentage frequency of Loops._     |
+  |--------------------------------------------|
+  |Hand.|Thumb.|Fore-  |Middle |Ring-  |Little |
+  |     |      |finger.|finger.|finger.|finger.|
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Right|  53  |   53  |   78  |   66  |   86  |
+  |Left |  65  |   55  |   76  |   53  |   90  |
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Mean |  59  |   54  |   77  |  59·5 |   88  |
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+
+Whorls (Table V.) are most common on the thumb and the ring-finger, most
+rare on the middle and little fingers.
+
+TABLE V.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+  |     _Percentage frequency of Whorls._      |
+  |--------------------------------------------|
+  |Hand.|Thumb.|Fore-  |Middle |Ring-  |Little |
+  |     |      |finger.|finger.|finger.|finger.|
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Right|  44  |   30  |   15  |  45   |  13   |
+  |Left |  30  |   28  |   16  |  31   |   8   |
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Mean |  37  |   29  |  15·5 |  38   | 10·5  |
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+
+The fore-finger is peculiar in the frequency with which the direction of
+the slopes of its loops differs from that which is by far the most common
+in all other digits. A loop _must_ have a slope, being caused by the
+disposition of the ridges into the form of a pocket, opening downwards to
+one or other side of the finger. If it opens towards the inner or thumb
+side of the hand, it will be called an inner slope; if towards the outer
+or little-finger side, it will be called an outer slope. In all digits,
+except the fore-fingers, the inner slope is much the more rare of the two;
+but in the fore-fingers the inner slope appears two-thirds as frequently
+as the outer slope. Out of the percentage of 53 loops of the one or other
+kind on the right fore-finger, 21 of them have an inner and 32 an outer
+slope; out of the percentage of 55 loops on the left fore-finger, 21 have
+inner and 34 have outer slopes. These subdivisions 21-21 and 32-34
+corroborate the strong statistical similarity that was observed to exist
+between the frequency of the several patterns on the right and left
+fore-fingers; a condition which was also found to characterise the middle
+and little fingers.
+
+It is strange that Purkenje considers the "inner" slope on the fore-finger
+to be more frequent than the "outer" (p. 86, ~4~). My nomenclature differs
+from his, but there is no doubt as to the disagreement in meaning. The
+facts to be adduced hereafter make it most improbable that the persons
+observed were racially unlike in this particular.
+
+The tendencies of digits to resemble one another will now be considered in
+their various combinations. They will be taken two at a time, in order to
+learn the frequency with which both members of the various couplets are
+affected by the same A. L. W. class of pattern. Every combination will be
+discussed, except those into which the little finger enters. These are
+omitted, because the overwhelming frequency of loops in the little fingers
+would make the results of comparatively little interest, while their
+insertion would greatly increase the size of the table.
+
+TABLE VI_a_.
+
+_Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs in the_
+same digits _of the two hands_.
+
+(From observation of 5000 digits of 500 persons.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  | Couplets of Digits.  |Arches.|Loops.|Whorls.|Total.|
+  |----------------------|-------|------|-------|------|
+  |The two thumbs        |   2   |  48  |  24   |  74  |
+  |   "    fore-fingers  |   9   |  38  |  20   |  67  |
+  |   "    middle fingers|   3   |  65  |   9   |  77  |
+  |   "    ring-fingers  |   2   |  46  |  26   |  74  |
+  |----------------------------------------------------|
+  |        Mean of the Totals                      72  |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE VI_b_.
+
+_Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs in various
+couplets of_ different digits.
+
+(From 500 persons as above.)
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |  Couplets of |      OF SAME HANDS.       ||    OF OPPOSITE HANDS.     |
+  |   Digits.    |---------------------------||---------------------------|
+  |              |Arch.|Loops.|Whorls.|Total.||Arch.|Loops.|Whorls.|Total.|
+  |--------------|-----|------|-------|------||-----|------|-------|------|
+  |Thumb and     |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | fore-finger  |  2  |  35  |  16   |  53  ||  2  |  33  |  15   | 50   |
+  |Thumb and     |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | middle finger|  1  |  48  |   9   |  58  ||  1  |  47  |   8   | 56   |
+  |Thumb and     |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | ring-finger  |  1  |  40  |  20   |  61  ||  1  |  38  |  18   | 57   |
+  |Fore and      |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | middle finger|  5  |  48  |  12   |  65  ||  5  |  46  |  11   | 62   |
+  |Fore and      |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | ring-finger  |  2  |  35  |  17   |  54  ||  2  |  35  |  17   | 54   |
+  |Middle and    |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | ring-finger  |  2  |  50  |  13   |  65  ||  2  |  50  |  12   | 64   |
+  |-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |          Means of the Totals         59  ||                      57   |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+A striking feature in this last table is the close similarity between
+corresponding entries relating to the same and to the opposite hands.
+There are eighteen sets to be compared; namely, six couplets of different
+names, in each of which the frequency of three different classes of
+patterns is discussed. The eighteen pairs of corresponding couplets are
+closely alike in every instance. It is worth while to rearrange the
+figures as below, for the greater convenience of observing their
+resemblances.
+
+TABLE VII.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                |  Arches in   ||   Loops in   ||  Whorls in   |
+  |                |--------------||--------------||--------------|
+  |   Couplet.     |Same |Opposite||Same |Opposite||Same |Opposite|
+  |                |hand.| hand.  ||hand.| hand.  ||hand.| hand.  |
+  |----------------|-----|--------||-----|--------||-----|--------|
+  |Thumb and       |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  fore-finger   |  2  |   2    || 35  |   33   ||  16 |   15   |
+  |Thumb and       |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  middle finger |  1  |   1    || 48  |   47   ||   9 |    8   |
+  |Thumb and ring- |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  1  |   1    || 40  |   38   ||  20 |   18   |
+  |Fore and middle |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  5  |   5    || 48  |   46   ||  12 |   11   |
+  |Fore and ring-  |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  2  |   2    || 35  |   35   ||  17 |   17   |
+  |Middle and ring-|     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  2  |   2    || 50  |   50   ||  13 |   12   |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The agreement in the above entries is so curiously close as to have
+excited grave suspicion that it was due to some absurd blunder, by which
+the same figures were made inadvertently to do duty twice over, but
+subsequent checking disclosed no error. Though the unanimity of the
+results is wonderful, they are fairly arrived at, and leave no doubt that
+the relationship of any one particular digit, whether thumb, fore, middle,
+ring or little finger, to any other particular digit, is the same, whether
+the two digits are on the same or on opposite hands. It would be a most
+interesting subject of statistical inquiry to ascertain whether the
+distribution of malformations, or of the various forms of skin disease
+among the digits, corroborates this unexpected and remarkable result. I am
+sorry to have no means of undertaking it, being assured on good authority
+that no adequate collection of the necessary data has yet been published.
+
+It might be hastily inferred from the statistical identity of the
+connection between, say, the right thumb and each of the two fore-fingers,
+that the patterns on the two fore-fingers ought always to be alike,
+whether arch, loop, or whorl. If X, it may be said, is identical both with
+Y and with Z, then Y and Z must be identical with one another. But the
+statement of the problem is wrong; X is not identical with Y and Z, but
+only bears an identical amount of statistical resemblance to each of them;
+so this reasoning is inadmissible. The character of the pattern on any
+digit is determined by causes of whose precise nature we are ignorant; but
+we may rest assured that they are numerous and variable, and that their
+variations are in large part independent of one another. We can in
+imagination divide them into groups, calling those that are common to the
+thumb and the fore-finger of either hand, and to those couplets
+exclusively, the A causes; those that are common to the two thumbs and to
+these exclusively, the B causes; and similarly those common to the two
+fore-fingers exclusively, the C causes.
+
+Then the sum of the variable causes determining the class of pattern in
+the four several digits now in question are these:--
+
+  Right thumb        A + B + an unclassed residue called X(=1=)
+  Left thumb         A + B +        "        "      "    X(=2=)
+  Right fore-finger  A + C +        "        "      "    Z(=1=)
+  Left fore-finger   A + C +        "        "      "    Z(=2=)
+
+The nearness of relationship between the two thumbs is sufficiently
+indicated by a fraction that expresses the proportion between all the
+causes common to the two thumbs exclusively, and the totality of the
+causes by which the A. L. W. class of the patterns of the thumbs is
+determined, that is to say, by
+
+            A + B
+  -----------------------      (1).
+  A + B + X(=1=) + X(=2=)
+
+Similarly, the nearness of the relationship between the two fore-fingers
+by
+
+            A + C
+  -----------------------      (2).
+  A + C + Z(=1=) + Z(=2=)
+
+And that between a thumb and a fore-finger by
+
+                        A
+  ---------------------------------------------------      (3).
+  A + B + C + X(=1=) (or X(=2=)) + Z(=1=) (or Z(=2=))
+
+The fractions (1) and (2) being both greater than (3), it follows that the
+relationships between the two thumbs, or between the two fore-fingers, are
+closer than that between the thumb and either fore-finger; at the same
+time it is clear that neither of the two former relationships is so close
+as to reach identity. Similarly as regards the other couplets of digits.
+The tabular entries fully confirm this deduction, for, without going now
+into further details, it will be seen from the "Mean of the Totals" at the
+bottom line of Table VI_b_ that the average percentage of cases in which
+two different digits have the same class of patterns, whether they be on
+the same or on opposite hands, is 59 or 57 (say 58), while the average
+percentage of cases in which right and left digits bearing the same name
+have the same class of pattern (Table VI_a_) is 72. This is barely
+two-thirds of the 100 which would imply identity. At the same time, the 72
+considerably exceeds the 58.
+
+Let us now endeavour to measure the relationships between the various
+couplets of digits on a well-defined centesimal scale, first recalling the
+fundamental principles of the connection that subsists between
+relationships of all kinds, whether between digits, or between kinsmen, or
+between any of those numerous varieties of related events with which
+statisticians deal.
+
+Relationships are all due to the joint action of two groups of variable
+causes, the one common to both of the related objects, the other special
+to each, as in the case just discussed. Using an analogous nomenclature to
+that already employed, the peculiarity of one of the two objects is due to
+an aggregate of variable causes that we may call C+X, and that of the
+other to C+Z, in which C are the causes common to both, and X and Z the
+special ones. In exact proportion as X and Z diminish, and C becomes of
+overpowering effect, so does the closeness of the relationship increase.
+When X and Z both disappear, the result is identity of character. On the
+other hand, when C disappears, all relationship ceases, and the variations
+of the two objects are strictly independent. The simplest case is that in
+which X and Z are equal, and _in this_, it becomes easy to devise a scale
+in which 0° shall stand for no relationship, and 100° for identity, and
+upon which the intermediate degrees of relationship may be marked at their
+proper value. Upon this assumption, but with some misgiving, I will
+attempt to subject the digits to this form of measurement. It will save
+time first to work out an example, and then, after gaining in that way, a
+clearer understanding of what the process is, to discuss its defects. Let
+us select for our example the case that brings out these defects in the
+most conspicuous manner, as follows:--
+
+Table V. tells us that the percentage of whorls in the right ring-finger
+is 45, and in the left ring-finger 31. Table VI_a_ tells us that the
+percentage of the double event of a whorl occurring on both the
+ring-fingers of the same person is 26. It is required to express the
+relationship between the right and left ring-fingers on a centesimal
+scale, in which 0° shall stand for no relationship at all, and 100° for
+the closest possible relationship.
+
+If no relationship should exist, there would nevertheless be a certain
+percentage of instances, due to pure chance, of the double event of whorls
+occurring in both ring-fingers, and it is easy to calculate their
+frequency from the above data. The number of possible combinations of 100
+right ring-fingers with 100 left ones is 100 × 100, and of these 45 × 31
+would be double events as above (call these for brevity "double whorls").
+Consequently the chance of a double whorl in any single couplet is
+(45×31)/(100×100), and their average frequency in 100 couplets,--in other
+words, their average percentage is (45×31)/100 = 13·95, say 14. If, then,
+the observed percentage of double whorls should be only 14, it would be a
+proof that the A. L. W. classes of patterns on the right and left
+ring-fingers were quite independent; so their relationship, as expressed
+on the centesimal scale, would be 0°. There could never be less than 14
+double whorls under the given conditions, except through some statistical
+irregularity.
+
+Now consider the opposite extreme of the closest possible relationship,
+subject however, and this is the weak point, to the paramount condition
+that the average frequencies of the A. L. W. classes may be taken as
+_pre-established_. As there are 45 per cent of whorls on the right
+ring-finger, and only 31 on the left, the tendency to form double whorls,
+however stringent it may be, can only be satisfied in 31 cases. There
+remains a superfluity of 14 per cent cases in the right ring-finger which
+perforce must have for their partners either arches or loops. Hence the
+percentage of frequency that indicates the closest feasible relationship
+under the pre-established conditions, would be 31.
+
+The range of all possible relationships in respect to whorls, would
+consequently lie between a percentage frequency of the minimum 14 and the
+maximum 31, while the observed frequency is of the intermediate value of
+26. Subtracting the 14 from these three values, we have the series of 0,
+12, 17. These terms can be converted into their equivalents in a
+centesimal scale that reaches from 0° to 100° instead of from 0° to 17°,
+by the ordinary rule of three, 12:_x_::17:100; _x_=70 or 71, whence the
+value _x_ of the observed relationship on the centesimal scale would be
+70° or 71°, neglecting decimals.
+
+This method of obtaining the value of 100° is open to grave objection in
+the present example. We have no right to consider that the 45 per cent of
+whorls on the right ring-finger, and the 31 on the left, can be due to
+pre-established conditions, which would exercise a paramount effect even
+though the whorls were due entirely to causes common to both fingers.
+There is some self-contradiction in such a supposition. Neither are we at
+liberty to assume that the respective effects of the special causes X and
+Z are equal in average amount; if they were, the percentage of whorls on
+the right and on the left finger would invariably be equal.
+
+In this particular example the difficulty of determining correctly the
+scale value of 100° is exceptionally great; elsewhere, the percentages of
+frequency in the two members of each couplet are more alike. In the two
+fore-fingers, and again in the two middle fingers, they are closely alike.
+Therefore, in these latter cases, it is not unreasonable to pass over the
+objection that X and Z have not been proved to be equal, but we must
+accept the results in all other cases with great caution.
+
+When the digits are of different names,--as the thumb and the
+fore-finger,--whether the digits be on the same or on opposite hands,
+there are two cases to be worked out; namely, such as (1) right thumb and
+left fore-finger, and (2) left thumb and right fore-finger. Each accounts
+for 50 per cent of the observed cases; therefore the mean of the two
+percentages is the correct percentage. The relationships calculated in the
+following table do not include arches, except in two instances mentioned
+in a subsequent paragraph, as the arches are elsewhere too rare to furnish
+useful results.
+
+It did not seem necessary to repeat the calculation for couplets of digits
+of different names, situated on opposite hands, as those that were
+calculated on closely the same data for similar couplets situated on the
+same hands, suffice for both. It is evident from the irregularity in the
+run of the figures that the units in the several entries cannot be more
+than vaguely approximate. They have, however, been retained, as being
+possibly better than nothing at all.
+
+TABLE VIII.
+
+_Approximate Measures of Relationship between the various Digits, on a
+Centesimal Scale._
+
+(0° = no relationship; 100° = the utmost feasible likeness.)
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |            Couplets.            | Loops. | Whorls.| Means. |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  | _Digits of the same name._      |        |        |        |
+  |                                 |        |        |        |
+  | Right and left thumbs           |   57   |   64   |   61   |
+  |   "        "   fore-fingers     |   37   |   59   |   48   |
+  |   "        "   middle fingers   |   34   |   52   |   43   |
+  |   "        "   ring fingers     |   61   |   70   |   65   |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  |                  Means          |   47°  |   61°  |   54°  |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  | _Digits of different names on   |        |        |        |
+  | the same or on opposite hands._ |        |        |        |
+  |                                 |        |        |        |
+  | Thumb and fore-finger           |   19   |   29   |   24   |
+  |     "     middle finger         |   19   |   34   |   27   |
+  |     "     ring-finger           |   33   |   44   |   39   |
+  | Fore and middle finger          |   52   |   68   |   60   |
+  |     "    ring finger            |   13   |   34   |   23   |
+  | Middle and ring finger          |   31   |   74   |   52   |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  |                  Means          |   28°  |   47°  |   37°  |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The arches were sufficiently numerous in the fore-fingers (17 per cent) to
+fully justify the application of this method of calculation. The result
+was 43°, which agrees fairly with 48°, the mean of the loops and the
+whorls. In the middle finger the frequency of the arches was only half the
+above amount and barely suffices for calculation. It gave the result of
+38°, which also agrees fairly with 43°, the mean of the loops and the
+whorls for that finger.
+
+Some definite results may be gathered from this table notwithstanding the
+irregularity with which the figures run. Its upper and lower halves
+clearly belong to different statistical groups, the entries in the former
+being almost uniformly larger than those in the latter, in the proportion
+of 54° to 37°, say 3 to 2, which roughly represents in numerical terms the
+nearer relationship between digits of the same name, as compared to that
+between digits of different names. It seems also that of the 6 couplets of
+digits bearing different names, the relationship is closest between the
+middle finger and the two adjacent ones (60° and 52°, as against 24°, 27°,
+39° and 23°). It is further seen in every pair of entries that whorls are
+related together more closely than loops. I note this, but cannot explain
+it. So far as my statistical inquiries into heredity have hitherto gone,
+all peculiarities were found to follow the same law of transmission, none
+being more surely inherited than others. If there were a tendency in any
+one out of many alternative characters to be more heritable than the rest,
+that character would become universally prevalent, in the absence of
+restraining influences. But it does not follow that there are no peculiar
+restraining influences here, nor that what is true for heredity, should be
+true, in all its details, as regards the relationships between the
+different digits.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+METHODS OF INDEXING
+
+
+In this chapter the system of classification by Arches, Loops, and Whorls
+described in Chapter V. will be used for indexing two, three, six or ten
+digits, as the case may be.
+
+An index to each set of finger marks made by the same person, is needful
+in almost every kind of inquiry, whether it be for descriptive purposes,
+for investigations into race and heredity, or into questions of symmetry
+and correlation. It is essential to possess an index to the finger marks
+of known criminals before the method of finger prints can be utilised as
+an organised means of detection.
+
+The ideal index might be conceived to consist of a considerable number of
+compartments, or their equivalents, each bearing a different
+index-heading, into which the sets of finger prints of different persons
+may be severally sorted, so that all similar sets shall lie in the same
+compartment.
+
+The principle of the proposed method of index-headings is, that they
+should depend upon a few conspicuous differences of pattern in many
+fingers, and not upon many minute differences in a few fingers. It is
+carried into effect by distinguishing the A. L. W. class of pattern on
+each digit in succession, by a letter,--_a_ for Arch, _l_ for Loop, _w_
+for Whorl; or else, as an alternative method, to subdivide _l_ by using
+_i_ for a loop with an Inner slope, and _o_ for one with an Outer slope,
+as the case may be. In this way, the class of pattern in each set of ten
+digits is described by a sequence of ten letters, the various combinations
+of which are alphabetically arranged and form the different
+index-headings. Let us now discuss the best method of carrying out this
+principle, by collating the results of alternative methods of applying it.
+We have to consider the utility of the _i_ and _o_ as compared to the
+simple _l_, and the gain through taking all ten digits into account,
+instead of only some of them.
+
+It will be instructive to print here an actual index to the finger prints
+of 100 different persons, who were not in any way selected, but taken as
+they came, and to use it as the basis of a considerable portion of the
+following remarks, to be checked where necessary, by results derived from
+an index to 500 cases, in which these hundred are included.
+
+This index is compiled on the principle shortly to be explained, entitled
+the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method.
+
+TABLE IX.--INDEX TO 100 SETS OF FINGER PRINTS.
+
+  +------------------------------------+
+  |      |    A       B      C     D   |
+  |Order |  Right.  Left.   Rt.   Lt.  |
+  | of   |-----------------------------|
+  |Entry.|  F.M.R.  F.M.R.  T.L.  T.L. |
+  |------|-----------------------------|
+  |   1  | _a a a   a a a   a a   l a_ |
+  |   2  | _  "       "     a l   a l_ |
+  |   3  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |   4  | _  "       "     w l   l l_ |
+  |   5  | _a a l   a a l   a l   a l_ |
+  |   6  | _  "       "     l l   l l_ |
+  |   7  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |   8  | _  "     a a w   l l   l l_ |
+  |   9  | _  "     a l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  10  | _  "       "     l w   w l_ |
+  |  11  | _  "     o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  12  | _a a w   a a l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  13  | _  "     a l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  14  | _a l a   a a a   l a   l a_ |
+  |  15  | _  "       "     l a   l w_ |
+  |  16  | _  "     o l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  17  | _a l l   a a l   l l   a l_ |
+  |  18  | _  "       "     l l   l l_ |
+  |  19  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  20  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  21  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  22  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  23  | _  "     a l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  24  | _  "     i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  25  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  26  | _a l l   i l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  27  | _  "     o a l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  28  | _  "     o l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  29  | _  "     w w w   w l   l l_ |
+  |  30  | _a l w   i l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  31  | _  "     o a l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  32  | _  "     o l l   l w   l l_ |
+  |  33  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  34  | _  "     o l w   a l   a l_ |
+  |  35  | _i l l   a l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  36  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  37  | _  "     i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  38  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  39  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  40  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  41  | _i l l   i l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  42  | _  "     i w w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  43  | _i l w   i l l   l l   w l_ |
+  |  44  | _  "       "     w w   w l_ |
+  |  45  | _  "     i l w   w w   w l_ |
+  |  46  | _  "     i w l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  47  | _  "     w l w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  48  | _  "     w w l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  49  | _i w w   a l l   w l   w l_ |
+  |  50  | _  "     w w w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  51  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  52  | _o a w   o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  53  | _o l l   o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  54  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  55  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  56  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  57  | _  "     i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  58  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  59  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  60  | _  "     o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  61  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  62  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  63  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  64  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  65  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  66  | _  "     w a l   l l   w l_ |
+  |  67  | _  "     w w w   l l   w l_ |
+  |  68  | _o l w   a l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  69  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  70  | _  "     i l l   w l   w l_ |
+  |  71  | _  "     o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  72  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  73  | _  "     o l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  74  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  75  | _w l l   i l l   l l   w l_ |
+  |  76  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  77  | _w l l   w l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  78  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  79  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  80  | _  "     w l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  81  | _w l w   o l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  82  | _  "       "     l l   a l_ |
+  |  83  | _  "       "     w l   l l_ |
+  |  84  | _  "     w w w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  85  | _  "       "     w w   l l_ |
+  |  86  | _  "       "     w w   l w_ |
+  |  87  | _  "       "     w w   w w_ |
+  |  88  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  89  | _w w l   i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  90  | _  "     w l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  91  | _w w w   o l w   w l   l l_ |
+  |  92  | _  "     w l w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  93  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  94  | _  "     w w l   l l   l w_ |
+  |  95  | _  "     w w w   i l   l l_ |
+  |  96  | _  "       "     w l   l l_ |
+  |  97  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  98  | _  "       "     w w   w l_ |
+  |  99  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  | 100  | _  "       "     w w   w w_ |
+  +------------------------------------+
+
+The sequence in which the digits have been registered is not from the
+thumb outwards to the little finger, but, on account of various good
+reasons that will be appreciated as we proceed, in the following order.
+
+The ten digits are registered in four groups, which are distinguished in
+the Index by the letters A, B, C, D:--
+
+    A. _First._ The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the _right_ hand
+    taken in that order.
+
+    B. _Second._ The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the _left_ hand
+    taken in that order.
+
+    C. _Third._ The thumb and little finger of the _right_ hand.
+
+    D. _Fourth._ The thumb and little finger of the _left_ hand.
+
+Consequently an index-heading will be of the form--
+
+  First         Second      Third      Fourth
+  group.        group.      group.     group.
+
+  _a a l_      _a a w_      _l l_      _l l_
+
+These index-headings are catalogued in alphabetical order. The method used
+in the Index is that which takes note of no slopes, except those of loops
+in the fore-finger of either hand. Consequently the index-heading for my
+own digits, printed on the title-page, is _wlw oll wl wl_. Those of the
+eight sets in Plate VI. are as follows:--
+
+  _i l w    i l l    w w    w l_
+  _o l w    o l w    w l    l l_
+  _o l w    o l w    w l    l l_
+  _o l w    o l l    l l    l l_
+  _i l w    i l w    w l    w l_
+  _i l w    i w l    l l    l l_
+  _i l l    w w l    l l    l l_
+  _o l l    a a l    l l    a l_
+  _o a a    a a a    l a    l a_
+
+For convenience of description and reference, the successive entries in
+the specimen index have been numbered from 1 to 100, but that is no part
+of the system: those figures would be replaced in a real index by names
+and addresses.
+
+A preliminary way of obtaining an idea of the differentiating power of an
+index is to count the number of the different headings that are required
+to classify a specified number of cases. A table is appended which shows
+the numbers of the headings in the three alternative methods (1) of noting
+slopes of all kinds in all digits, (2) of noting slopes of Loops only and
+in the fore-fingers only, and (3) of disregarding the slopes altogether.
+Also in each of these three cases taking account of--
+
+    (_a_) All the ten digits;
+
+    (_b_) the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of both hands;
+
+    (_c_) those same three fingers, but of the right hand only;
+
+    (_d_) the fore and middle fingers of the right hand.
+
+TABLE X.
+
+_No. of different index-heads in 100 sets of Finger Prints._
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |           |                    |      Account taken of        |
+  |  No. of   |                    |------------------------------|
+  |  digits   |    Digits noted.   |   All   |_i_ and _o_|  No    |
+  | regarded. |                    | slopes. |  in fore- | slope. |
+  |           |                    |         |  fingers. |        |
+  |-----------|--------------------|---------|-----------|--------|
+  |     10    | All the 10 digits  |    82   |     76    |   71   |
+  |           |                    |         |           |        |
+  |           | Fore, middle,      |         |           |        |
+  |      6    | and ring-fingers   |    65   |     50    |   43   |
+  |           | of both hands      |         |           |        |
+  |           |                    |         |           |        |
+  |      3    | Of right hand only |    25   |     16    |   14   |
+  |           |                    |         |           |        |
+  |      2    | Fore and middle of |    12   |      8    |    7   |
+  |           | right hand only    |         |           |        |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The column headed "all slopes" refers to the method first used with
+success, and described in my Memoir, already alluded to (_Proc. Roy.
+Soc._, 1891), accompanied by a specimen index, from which the present one
+was derived. There the direction of the slope of every pattern that has
+one, is taken into account, and in order to give as much scope as
+possible to the method, the term Arch (I then called it a Primary) was
+construed somewhat over-liberally (see p. 114). It was made to include the
+forked-arch Fig. 12 (~2~), and even the nascent-loop (~9~), so long as not
+more than a single recurved ridge lay within the outline of the pattern;
+therefore many of the so-called arches had slopes. It is not necessary to
+trouble the reader with the numerical nomenclature that was then used, the
+method itself being now obsolete. Full particulars of it are, however,
+given in the Memoir.
+
+A somewhat large experience in sorting finger prints in various ways and
+repeatedly, made it only too evident that the mental strain and risk of
+error caused by taking all slopes into account was considerable. The
+judgment became fatigued and the eye puzzled by having to assign opposite
+meanings to the same actual direction of a slope in the right and left
+hands respectively. There was also a frequent doubt as to the existence of
+a slope in large whorls of the spiral- and circlet-in-loop patterns (Fig.
+13, ~21~, ~22~) when the impressions had not been rolled. A third
+objection is the rarity of the inner slopes in any other digit than the
+fore-finger. It acted like a soporific to the judgment not only of myself
+but of others, so that when an inner slope did occur it was apt to be
+overlooked. The first idea was to discard slopes altogether,
+notwithstanding the accompanying loss of index power, but this would be an
+unnecessarily trenchant measure. The slope of a loop, though it be on the
+fore-finger alone, decidedly merits recognition, for it differentiates
+such loops into two not very unequal classes. Again, there is little
+chance of mistake in noting it, the impression of the thumb on the one
+side and those of the remaining fingers on the other, affording easy
+guidance to the eye and judgment. These considerations determined the
+method I now use exclusively, by which Table IX. was compiled, and to
+which the second column of Table X., headed "_i_ and _o_ in fore-fingers,"
+refers.
+
+The heading of the third column, "no slope," explains itself, no account
+having been there taken of any slopes whatever, so _i_ and _o_ disappear,
+having become merged under _l_.
+
+The table gives a very favourable impression of the differentiating power
+of all these methods of indexing. By the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method,
+it requires as many as 76 different index-headings to include the finger
+prints of 100 different persons, 195 of 300 persons, and 285 of 500.
+
+The number of entries under each index-heading varies greatly; reference
+to the index of 100 sets showing no less than six entries (Nos. 60-65)
+under one of them, and four entries (Nos. 18-21 and 37-40) under each of
+two others. Thus, although a large portion of the 100 sets are solitary
+entries under their several headings, and can be found by a single
+reference, the remainder are grouped together like the commoner surnames
+in a directory. They are troublesome to distinguish, and cannot be
+subdivided at all except by supplementary characteristics, such as the
+number of ridges in some specified part of the pattern, or the character
+of the cores.
+
+In other respects the difference of merit between the three methods is
+somewhat greater, as is succinctly indicated by the next table.
+
+TABLE XI.--_In 100 Sets._
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    |No. of different index-headings.|
+  | Number of Entries  |--------------------------------|
+  |under the same head.|   All   |  _i_ and _o_ |  No   |
+  |                    | slopes. | fore-fingers | slope.|
+  |                    |         |     only.    |       |
+  |--------------------|---------|--------------|-------|
+  |          1         |    71   |       63     |   58  |
+  |          2         |    10   |        8     |    9  |
+  |          3         |     1   |        3     |    1  |
+  |          4         |   ...   |        2     |    2  |
+  |          5         |   ...   |      ...     |  ...  |
+  |          6         |     1   |      ...     |  ...  |
+  |         13         |   ...   |      ...     |    1  |
+  |--------------------|---------|--------------|-------|
+  |      Total         |    83   |       76     |   71  |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------+
+
+Hence it is evident that the second method of "_i-o_ fore-finger" is
+capable of dealing rapidly with 100 cases, but that the method of "no
+slope" will give trouble in twelve out of the hundred cases.
+
+TABLE XII.
+
+_Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the sets of Finger
+Prints were registered._
+
+(500 sets observed.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------
+  |          _i_ and _o_ in fore-fingers.            ||
+  |----------------------------------------------------
+  |    No.   |                             |Frequency||
+  |    for   |       Index-heading.        |   per   ||
+  |Reference.|                             |  cent.  ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     1    | _a l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   1·2   ||
+  |     2    | _a l l   i l l    "     " _ |   1·6   ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     3    | _i l l   i l l    "     " _ |   2·8   ||
+  |     4    | _o l l   i l l    "     " _ |   1·4   ||
+  |     5    | _o l l   o l l    "     " _ |   4·0   ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     6    | _i l l   o l l   w l   l l_ |   1·2   ||
+  |     7    | _o l l   o l l    "     " _ |   1·4   ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     8    | _o l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   2·2   ||
+  |     9    | _o l w   u l l    "     " _ |   2·0   ||
+  |    10    | _w l l   w l l    "     " _ |   1·2   ||
+  |    11    | _w w w   w w w   w w   w w_ |   1·4   ||
+  +----------------------------------------------------
+
+  --------------------------------------------------+
+                     No slope.                      |
+  --------------------------------------------------|
+     No.    |                             |Frequency|
+     for    |       Index-heading.        |   per   |
+  Reference.|                             |  cent.  |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+       I.   | _a l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   1·2   |
+      II.   | _a l l   l l l    "     " _ |   2·2   |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+            |                             |         |
+     III.   | _l l l   l l l    "     " _ |   9·2   |
+            |                             |         |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+      IV.   | _l l l   l l l   w l   l l_ |   3·2   |
+            |                             |         |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+       V.   | _l l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   3·0   |
+      VI.   | _l l w   l l l    "     " _ |   3·0   |
+     VII.   | _w l l   w l l    "     " _ |   1·2   |
+    VIII.   | _w w w   w w w   w w   w w_ |   1·4   |
+  --------------------------------------------------+
+
+    The headings in the right half of the table include more cases than
+    the left half, because a combination of two or more cases that
+    severally contain less than 1 per cent of the finger prints, and are
+    therefore ignored in the first half of the table, may exceed 1 per
+    cent and find a place in the second half.
+
+The entries in Table XII. are derived from a catalogue of 500 sets, and
+include all entries that appeared more than five times; in other words,
+whose frequency exceeded 1 per cent. These are the index-headings that
+give enough trouble to deserve notice in catalogues of, say, from 500 to
+1000 sets.
+
+In the left half of Table XII. all the index-headings are given, under
+each of which more than 1 per cent of the sets fell, when the method of
+"_i_ and _o_ in fore-fingers" was adopted; also the respective percentage
+of the cases that fell under them. In the right half of the table are the
+corresponding index-headings, together with the percentages of frequency,
+when the "no slope" method is employed. These are distinguished by Roman
+numerals. The great advantage of the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method lies
+in its power of breaking up certain large groups which are very
+troublesome to deal with by the "no slope" method. According to the latter
+as many as 9·2 per cent of all the entries fall under the index-heading
+marked III., but according to the "_i-o_ fore-finger" method these are
+distributed among the headings 3, 4, and 5. The "all slopes" method has
+the peculiar merit of breaking up the large group Nos. 11 and VIII. of
+"all whorls," but its importance is not great on that account, as whorls
+are distinguishable by their cores, which are less troublesome to observe
+than their slopes.
+
+The percentage of all the entries that fall under a single index-heading,
+according to the "_i-o_ fore-finger" method, diminishes with the number of
+entries at the following rate:--
+
+TABLE XIII.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                               | Total number of entries. |
+  |                               |--------------------------|
+  |                               |   100  |   300  |   500  |
+  |-------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  | Percentage of entries falling |        |        |        |
+  |   under a single head         |    63  |  49·0  |  39·8  |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+It may be that every one of the 4{2} × 3{8}, or one hundred and five
+thousand possible varieties of index-headings, according to the "_i-o_
+fore-finger" method, may occur in Nature, but there is much probability
+that some of them may be so rare that instances of no entry under certain
+heads would appear in the register, even of an enormous number of persons.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Hitherto we have supposed that prints of the ten fingers have in each case
+been indexed. The question now to be considered is the gain through
+dealing in each case with all ten digits, instead of following the easier
+practice of regarding only a few of them. The following table, drawn up
+from the hundred cases by the "all slopes" method, will show its amount.
+
+TABLE XIV.--_From 100 Sets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                       |         |  No. of different index-headings.  |
+  |        Digits.        | No. of  |------------------------------------|
+  |                       | digits. |  All    |  _i_ and _o_ | No slope. |
+  |                       |         | slopes. | fore-finger. |           |
+  |-----------------------|---------|---------|--------------|-----------|
+  | Fore and middle of    |         |         |              |           |
+  |   right hand          |    2    |    11   |       8      |     7     |
+  |                       |         |         |              |           |
+  | Fore, middle and ring |         |         |              |           |
+  |   of right hand       |    3    |    23   |      16      |    14     |
+  |                       |         |         |              |           |
+  | Fore, middle and ring |         |         |              |           |
+  |   of both hands       |    6    |    65   |      50      |    45     |
+  |                       |         |         |              |           |
+  | All ten digits        |   10    |    83   |      76      |    73     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The trouble of printing, reading off, and indexing the ten digits, is
+practically twice that of dealing with the six fingers; namely, three on
+each of the hands; the thumb being inconvenient to print from, and having
+to be printed separately, even for a dabbed impression, while the fingers
+of either hand can be dabbed down simultaneously.
+
+For a large collection the ten digit method is certainly the best, as it
+breaks up the big battalions; also in case of one or more fingers having
+been injured, it gives reserve material to work upon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now come to the great difficulty in all classifications; that of
+transitional cases. What is to be done with those prints which cannot be
+certainly classed as Arches, Loops, or Whorls, but which lie between some
+two of them? These occur about once in every forty digits, or once in
+every four pairs of hands. The roughest way is to put a mark by the side
+of the entry to indicate doubt, a better one is to make a mark that shall
+express the nature of the peculiarity; thus a particular eyed pattern
+(Plate 10, Fig. 16, _n_) may be transitional between a loop and a whorl;
+under whichever of the two it is entered, the mark might be an _e_ to show
+that anyhow it is an eye. Then, when it is required to discover whether an
+index contains a duplicate of a given specimen in which a transitional
+pattern occurs, the two headings between which the doubt lies have to be
+searched, and the marked entries will limit the search. Many alternative
+ways of marking may be successfully used, but I am not yet prepared to
+propose one as being distinctly the best. When there are two of these
+marks in the same set, it seldom happens that more than two references
+have to be made, as it is usual for the ambiguity to be of the same kind
+in both of the doubtful fingers. If the ambiguities were quite
+independent, then two marks would require four references, and three marks
+would require nine. There are a few nondescript prints that would fall
+under a separate heading, such as Z. Similarly, as regards lost or injured
+fingers.
+
+I have tried various methods of sub-classification, and find no difficulty
+in any of them, but general rules seem inadvisable; it being best to treat
+each large group on its own merits.
+
+One method that I have adopted and described in the _Proc. Royal Soc._, is
+to sketch in a cursive and symbolic form the patterns of the several
+fingers in the order in which they appear in the print, confining myself
+to a limited number of symbols, such as might be used for printer's types.
+They sufficed fairly for some thousands of the finger marks upon which
+they were tried, but doubtless they could be improved. A little violence
+has of course to be used now and then, in fitting some unusual patterns to
+some one or other of these few symbols. But we are familiar with such
+processes in ordinary spelling, making the same letter do duty for
+different sounds, as _a_ in the words _as_, _ale_, _ask_, and _all_. The
+plan of using symbols has many secondary merits. It facilitates a
+leisurely revision of first determinations, it affords a pictorial record
+of the final judgment that is directly comparable with the print itself,
+and it almost wholly checks blunders between inner and outer slopes. A
+beginner in finger reading will educate his judgment by habitually using
+them at first.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2.
+
+FIG. 3. Form of card used for impressions of the ten digits. 11-1/2 × 5
+inches.
+
+FIG. 4. Roller and its bearings, of a pocket printing apparatus.]
+
+
+The cores give great assistance in breaking up the very large groups of
+all-loops (see Table XII., Nos. 11 and VIII.); so does an entry of the
+approximate number of ridges in some selected fingers, that lie between
+the core and the upper outline of the loop.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The plan I am now using for keeping finger prints in regular order, is
+this:--In the principal collection, the prints of each person's ten digits
+are taken on the same large card; the four fingers of either hand being
+_dabbed_ down simultaneously above, and all the ten digits _rolled_
+separately below. (Plate 2, Fig. 3.) Each card has a hole three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, punched in the middle near to the bottom edge, and
+the cards are kept in trays, which they loosely fit, like the card
+catalogues used in many libraries. Each tray holds easily 500 cards, which
+are secured by a long stout wire passing like a skewer through the ends of
+the box and the holes in the cards. The hinder end of the box is sloped,
+so the cards can be tilted back and easily examined; they can be inserted
+or removed after withdrawing the wire.
+
+It will be recollected that the leading and therefore the most conspicuous
+headings in the index refer to the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the
+right hand, as entered in column A of the Specimen Register (Table IX.)
+The variety of these in the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method, of which we
+are now speaking, cannot exceed thirty-six, there being only four
+varieties (_a_, _i_, _o_, _w_) in the fore-finger, and three varieties
+(_a_, _l_, _w_) in each of the other two; so their maximum number is 4 × 3
+× 3 = 36. The actual number of such index-headings in 500 cases, and the
+number of entries that fell under each, was found to be as follows:--
+
+TABLE XV.
+
+_No. of entries in 500 cases, under each of the thirty-six possible
+index-letters for the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand by
+the "i-o fore-finger" method._
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | _a a a_ |  4 || _i a a_ |  1 || _o a a_ |  1 || _w a a_ | -- |
+  |     _l_ | 17 ||     _l_ |  3 ||     _l_ |  2 ||     _l_ | -- |
+  |     _w_ |  5 ||     _w_ | -- ||     _w_ |  1 ||     _w_ |  1 |
+  |         |    ||         |    ||         |    ||         |    |
+  | _a l a_ |  3 || _i l a_ | -- || _o l a_ |  2 || _w l a_ |  1 |
+  |     _l_ | 45 ||     _l_ | 54 ||     _l_ | 88 ||     _l_ | 40 |
+  |     _w_ | 11 ||     _w_ | 33 ||     _w_ | 59 ||     _w_ | 52 |
+  |         |    ||         |    ||         |    ||         |    |
+  | _a w a_ | -- || _i w a_ | -- || _o w a_ | -- || _w w a_ | -- |
+  |     _l_ | -- ||     _l_ |  3 ||     _l_ | -- ||     _l_ | 10 |
+  |     _w_ | -- ||     _w_ | 11 ||     _w_ |  6 ||     _w_ | 47 |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+    _a_ = Arch.
+
+    _i_ = Inward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.
+
+    _o_ = Outward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.
+
+    _l_ = Loop of either kind on the middle or ring finger.
+
+    _w_ = Whorl.
+
+These 500 cases supply no entries at all to eleven of the thirty-six
+index-headings, less than five entries (or under 1 per cent) to ten
+others, and the supply is distributed very unevenly among the remaining
+fifteen. This table makes it easy to calculate beforehand the spaces
+required for an index of any specified number of prints, whether they be
+on the pages of a Register, or in compartments, or in drawers of movable
+cards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
+
+
+We shall speak in this chapter of the aid that finger prints can give to
+personal identification, supposing throughout that facilities exist for
+taking them well and cheaply, and that more or less practice in reading
+them has been acquired by many persons. A few introductory words will show
+this supposition to be reasonable. At the present moment any printer, and
+there are many printers in every town, would, at a small charge, blacken a
+slab and take the prints effectively, after being warned to use very
+little ink, as described in Chapter III. The occupation of finger printing
+would, however, fall more naturally into the hands of photographers, who,
+in addition to being found everywhere, are peculiarly well suited to it,
+for, taken as a class, they are naturally gifted with manual dexterity and
+mechanical ingenuity. Having secured good impressions, they could multiply
+them when necessary, and enlarge when desired, while the ticketing and
+preservation of the negatives would fall into their usual business
+routine. As they already occupy themselves with one means of
+identification, a second means of obtaining the same result is allied to
+their present work.
+
+Were it the custom for persons about to travel to ask for prints of their
+fingers when they were photographed, a familiarity with the peculiarities
+of finger prints, and the methods of describing and classifying them,
+would become common. Wherever finger prints may be wanted for purposes of
+attestation and the like, the fact mentioned by Sir W. Herschel (p. 45) as
+to the readiness with which his native orderlies learnt to take them with
+the ink of his office stamp, must not be forgotten.
+
+The remarks about to be made refer to identification generally, and are
+not affected by the fact that the complete process may or may not include
+the preliminary search of a catalogue; the two stages of search and of
+comparison will be treated separately towards the close of the chapter.
+
+In civilised lands, honest citizens rarely need additional means of
+identification to their signatures, their photographs, and to personal
+introductions. The cases in which other evidence is wanted are chiefly
+connected with violent death through accident, murder, or suicide, which
+yield the constant and gruesome supply to the Morgue of Paris, and to
+corresponding institutions in other large towns, where the bodies of
+unknown persons are exposed for identification, often in vain. But when
+honest persons travel to distant countries where they have few or no
+friends, the need for a means of recognition is more frequently felt. The
+risk of death through accident or crime is increased, and the probability
+of subsequent identification diminished. There is a possibility not too
+remote to be disregarded, especially in times of war, of a harmless person
+being arrested by mistake for another man, and being in sore straits to
+give satisfactory proof of the error. A signature may be distrusted as a
+forgery. There is also some small chance, when he returns to his own
+country after a long absence, of finding difficulty in proving who he is.
+But in civilised lands and in peaceable times, the chief use of a sure
+means of identification is to benefit society by detecting rogues, rather
+than to establish the identity of men who are honest. Is this criminal an
+old offender? Is this new recruit a deserter? Is this professed pensioner
+personating a man who is dead? Is this upstart claimant to property the
+true heir, who was believed to have died in foreign lands?
+
+In India and in many of our Colonies the absence of satisfactory means for
+identifying persons of other races is seriously felt. The natives are
+mostly unable to sign; their features are not readily distinguished by
+Europeans; and in too many cases they are characterised by a strange
+amount of litigiousness, wiliness, and unveracity. The experience of Sir
+W. Herschel, and the way in which he met these unfavourable conditions by
+the method of finger prints, has been briefly described in p. 27. Lately
+Major Ferris, of the Indian Staff Corps, happening to visit my laboratory
+during my absence, and knowing but little of what Sir W. Herschel had
+done, was greatly impressed by the possibilities of finger prints. After
+acquainting himself with the process, we discussed the subject together,
+and he very kindly gave me his views for insertion here. They are as
+follow, with a few trifling changes of words:--
+
+    "During a period of twenty-three years, eighteen of which have been
+    passed in the Political Department of the Bombay Government, the great
+    need of an official system of identification has been constantly
+    forced on my mind.
+
+    "The uniformity in the colour of hair, eyes, and complexion of the
+    Indian races renders identification far from easy, and the difficulty
+    of recording the description of an individual, so that he may be
+    afterwards recognised, is very great. Again, their hand-writing,
+    whether it be in Persian or Devanagri letters, is devoid of character
+    and gives but little help towards identification.
+
+    "The tenacity with which a native of India cleaves to his ancestral
+    land, his innate desire to acquire more and more, and the obligation
+    that accrues to him at birth of safeguarding that which has already
+    been acquired, amounts to a religion, and passes the comprehension of
+    the ordinary Western mind. This passion, or religion, coupled with a
+    natural taste for litigation, brings annually into the Civil Courts an
+    enormous number of suits affecting land. In a native State at one time
+    under my political charge, the percentage of suits for the possession
+    of land in which the title was disputed amounted to no less than 92,
+    while in 83 per cent of these the writing by which the transfer of
+    title purported to have been made, was repudiated by the former
+    title-holder as fraudulent and not executed by him. When it is
+    remembered that an enormous majority of the landholders whose titles
+    come into court are absolutely illiterate, and that their execution of
+    the documents is attested by a mark made by a third party, frequently,
+    though not always apparently, interested in the transfer, it will be
+    seen that there is a wide door open to fraud, whether by false
+    repudiation or by criminal attempt at dispossession.
+
+    "It has frequently happened in my experience that a transfer of title
+    or possession was repudiated; the person purporting to have executed
+    the transfer asserting that he had no knowledge of it, and never
+    authorised any one to write, sign, or present it for registration.
+    This was met by a categorical statement on the part of the beneficiary
+    and of the attesting witnesses, concerning the time, date, and
+    circumstances of the execution and registration, that demolished the
+    simple denial of the man whom it was sought to dispossess. Without
+    going into the ethics of falsehood among Western and Eastern peoples,
+    it would be impossible to explain how what is repugnant to the one as
+    downright lying, is very frequently considered as no more than venial
+    prevarication by the other. This, however, is too large a subject for
+    present purposes, but the fact remains that perjury is perpetrated in
+    Indian Courts to an extent unknown in the United Kingdom.
+
+    "The interests of landholders are partially safeguarded by the Act
+    that requires all documents effecting the transfer of immovable
+    property to be registered, but it could be explained, though not in
+    the short space of this letter, how the provisions of the Act can be,
+    and frequently are, fulfilled in the absence of the principal person,
+    the executor.
+
+    "Enough has been said to show that if some simple but efficient means
+    could be contrived to identify the person who has executed a bond,
+    cases of fraud such as these would practically disappear from the
+    judicial registers. Were the legislature to amend the Registration Act
+    and require that the original document as well as the copy in the
+    Registration Book should bear the imprint of one or more fingers of
+    the parties to the deed, I have little hesitation in saying that not
+    only would fraud be detected, but that in a short time the facility of
+    that detection would act as a deterrent for the future. [This was
+    precisely the experience of Sir W. Herschel.--F.G.] In the majority of
+    cases, the mere question would be, Is the man A the same person as B,
+    or is he not? and of that question the finger marks would give
+    unerring proof. For example, to take the simplest case, A is sued for
+    possession of some land, the title of which he is stated to have
+    parted with to another for a consideration. The document and the
+    Registration Book both bear the imprint of the index finger of the
+    right hand of A. A repudiates, and a comparison shows that whereas
+    the finger pattern of A is a whorl, the imprint on the document is a
+    loop; consequently A did not execute it.
+
+    "In the identification of Government pensioners the finger print
+    method would be very valuable. At one period, I had the payment of
+    many hundreds of military pensioners. Personation was most difficult
+    to detect in persons coming from a distance, who had no local
+    acquaintances, and more especially where the claimants were women. The
+    marks of identification noted in the pension roll were usually
+    variations of:--"Hair black--Eyes brown--Complexion wheat
+    colour--Marks of tattooing on fore-arm"--terms which are equally
+    appropriate to a large number of the pensioners. The description was
+    supplemented in some instances, where the pensioner had some
+    distinguishing mark or scar, but such cases are considerably rarer
+    than might be supposed, and in women the marks are not infrequently in
+    such a position as to practically preclude comparison. Here also the
+    imprint of one or more finger prints on the pension certificate, would
+    be sufficient to settle any doubt as to identity.
+
+    "As a large number of persons pass through the Indian gaols not only
+    while undergoing terms of imprisonment, but in default of payment of a
+    fine, it could not but prove of value were the finger prints of one
+    and all secured. They might assist in identifying persons who have
+    formerly been convicted, of whom the local police have no knowledge,
+    and who bear a name that may be the common property of half a hundred
+    in any small town."
+
+Whatever difficulty may be felt in the identification of Hindoos, is
+experienced in at least an equal degree in that of the Chinese residents
+in our Colonies and Settlements, who to European eyes are still more alike
+than the Hindoos, and in whose names there is still less variety. I have
+already referred (p. 26) to Mr. Tabor, of San Francisco, and his proposal
+in respect to the registration of the Chinese. Remarks showing the need
+of some satisfactory method of identifying them, have reached me from
+various sources. The _British North Borneo Herald_, August 1, 1888, that
+lies before me as I write, alludes to the difficulty of identifying
+coolies, either by photographs or measurements, as likely to become
+important in the early future of that country.
+
+For purposes of registration, the method of printing to be employed, must
+be one that gives little trouble on the one hand, and yields the maximum
+of efficiency for that amount of trouble on the other. Sir W. Herschel
+impressed simultaneously the fore and middle fingers of the right hand. To
+impress simultaneously the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right
+hand ought, however, to be better, the trouble being no greater, while
+three prints are obviously more effective than two, especially for an
+off-hand comparison. Moreover, the patterns on the ring-finger are much
+more variable than those on the middle finger. Much as rolled impressions
+are to be preferred for minute and exhaustive comparisons, they would
+probably be inconvenient for purposes of registration or attestation. Each
+finger has to be rolled separately, and each separate rolling takes more
+time than a dab of all the fingers of one hand simultaneously. Now a
+dabbed impression of even two fingers is more useful for registration
+purposes than the rolled impression of one; much more is a dabbed
+impression of three, especially when the third is the variable
+ring-finger. Again, in a simultaneous impression, there is no doubt as to
+the sequence of the finger prints being correct, but there may be some
+occasional bungling when the fingers are printed separately.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For most criminal investigations, and for some other purposes also, the
+question is not the simple one just considered, namely, "Is A the same
+person, or a different person from B?" but the much more difficult problem
+of "Who is this unknown person X? Is his name contained in such and such a
+register?" We will now consider how this question may be answered.
+
+Registers of criminals are kept in all civilised countries, but in France
+they are indexed according to the method of M. Alphonse Bertillon, which
+admits of an effective search being made through a large collection. We
+shall see how much the differentiating power of the French or of any other
+system of indexing might be increased by including finger prints in the
+register.
+
+M. Bertillon has described his system in three pamphlets:--
+
+    (1) _Une application pratique de l'anthropometrie_, Extrait des
+    Annales de Démographie Interne. Paris 1881. (2) _Les signalements
+    anthropometriques_, Conference faite au Congrès Penitentiare
+    International de Rome, Nov. 22, 1885. (3) _Sur le fonctionnement du
+    service des signalements_. All the above are published by Masson, 120
+    Boulevard St. Germain, Paris. To these must be added a very
+    interesting but anonymous pamphlet, based on official documents, and
+    which I have reason to know is authorised by M. Bertillon, namely, (4)
+    _L'anthropometrie Judiciare en Paris, en 1889_: G. Stenheil, 2 Rue
+    Casimir-Delavigne, Paris.
+
+    Besides these a substantial volume is forthcoming, which may give a
+    satisfactory solution to some present uncertainties.
+
+The scale on which the service is carried on, is very large. It was begun
+in 1883, and by the end of 1887 no less than 60,000 sets of measures were
+in hand, but thus far only about one half of the persons arrested in Paris
+were measured, owing to the insufficiency of the staff. Arrangements were
+then made for its further extension. There are from 100 to 150 prisoners
+sentenced each day by the Courts of Law in Paris to more than a few days'
+imprisonment, and every one of these is sent to the Dépôt for twenty-four
+hours. While there, they are now submitted to _Bertillonage_, a newly
+coined word that has already come into use. This is done in the forenoon,
+by three operators and three clerks; six officials in all. About half of
+the prisoners are old offenders, of whom a considerable proportion give
+their names correctly, as is rapidly verified by an alphabetically
+arranged catalogue of cards, each of which contains front and profile
+photographs, and measurements. The remainder are examined strictly; their
+bodily marks are recorded according to a terse system of a few letters,
+and they are variously measured. Each person occupies seven or eight
+minutes. They are then photographed. From sixty to seventy-five prisoners
+go through this complete process every forenoon. In the afternoon the
+officials are engaged in making numerous copies of each set of records,
+one of which is sent to Lyon, and another to Marseille, where there are
+similar establishments. They also classify the copies of records that are
+received from those towns and elsewhere in France, of which from seventy
+to one hundred arrive daily. Lastly, they search the Registers for
+duplicate sets of measures of those, whether in Paris or in the provinces,
+who were suspected of having given false names. The entire staff consists
+of ten persons. It is difficult to rightly interpret the figures given in
+the pamphlet (4) at pp. 22-24, as they appear to disagree, but as I
+understand them, 562 prisoners who gave false names in the year 1890 were
+recognised by _Bertillonage_, and only four other persons were otherwise
+discovered to have been convicted previously, who had escaped recognition
+by its means.
+
+I had the pleasure of seeing the system in operation in Paris a few years
+ago, and was greatly impressed by the deftness of the measuring, and with
+the swiftness and success with which the assistants searched for the cards
+containing entries similar to the measures of the prisoner then under
+examination.
+
+It is stated in the _Signalements_ (p. 12) that the basis of the
+classification are the four measurements (1) Head-length, (2)
+Head-breadth, (3) Middle-finger-length, (4) Foot-length, their constancy
+during adult life nearly always [as stated] holding good. Each of these
+four elements severally is considered as belonging to one or other of
+three equally numerous classes--small, medium, and large; consequently
+there are 3{4} or 81 principal headings, under some one of which the card
+of each prisoner is in the first instance sorted. Each of these primary
+headings is successively subdivided, on the same general principle of a
+three-fold classification, according to other measures that are more or
+less subject to uncertainties, namely, the height, the span, the cubit,
+the length and breadth of the ear, and the height of the bust. The
+eye-colour alone is subjected to seven divisions. The general result is
+(pp. 19, 22) that a total of twelve measures are employed, of which eleven
+are classed on the three-fold principle, and one on the seven-fold, giving
+a final result of 3{11} × 7, or more than a million possible combinations.
+M. Bertillon considers it by no means necessary to stop here, but in his
+chapter (p. 22) on the "Infinite Extension of the Classification," claims
+that the method may be indefinitely extended.
+
+The success of the system is considered by many experts to be fully
+proved, notwithstanding many apparent objections, one of which is the
+difficulty due to transitional cases: a belief in its success has
+certainly obtained a firm hold upon the popular imagination in France. Its
+general acceptance elsewhere seems to have been delayed in part by a
+theoretical error in the published calculations of its efficiency: the
+measures of the limbs which are undoubtedly correlated being treated as
+independent, and in part by the absence of a sufficiently detailed account
+of the practical difficulties experienced in its employment. Thus in the
+_Application pratique_, p. 9: "We are embarrassed what to choose, the
+number of human measures which vary independently of each other being
+considerable." In the _Signalements_, p. 19: "It has been shown" (by
+assuming this independent variability) "that by seven measurements, 60,000
+photographs can be separated into batches of less than ten in each." (By
+the way, even on that assumption, the result is somewhat exaggerated, the
+figures having been arrived at by successively taking the higher of the
+two nearest round values.) In short, the general tone of these two memoirs
+is one of enthusiastic belief in the method, based almost wholly, so far
+as is there shown, on questionable _theoretic_ grounds of efficiency.
+
+To learn how far correlation interferes with the regularity of
+distribution, causing more entries to be made under some index-heads than
+others, as was the case with finger prints, I have classified on the
+Bertillon system, 500 sets of measures taken at my laboratory. It was not
+practicable to take more than three of the four primary measures, namely,
+the head-length, its breadth, and the middle-finger-length. The other
+measure, that of foot-length, is not made at my laboratory, as it would
+require the shoes to be taken off, which is inconvenient since persons of
+all ranks and both sexes are measured there; but this matters little for
+the purpose immediately in view. It should, however, be noted that the
+head-length and head-breadth have especial importance, being only slightly
+correlated, either together or with any other dimension of the body. Many
+a small man has a head that is large in one or both directions, while a
+small man rarely has a large foot, finger, or cubit, and conversely with
+respect to large men.
+
+The following set of five measures of each of the 500 persons were then
+tabulated: (1) head-length; (2) head-breadth; (3) span; (4) body-height,
+that is the height of the top of the head from the seat on which the
+person sits; (5) middle-finger-length. The measurements were to the
+nearest tenth of an inch, but in cases of doubt, half-tenths were recorded
+in (1), (2), and (5). With this moderate minuteness of measurement, it was
+impossible so to divide the measures as to give better results than the
+following, which show that the numbers in the three classes are not as
+equal as desirable. But they nevertheless enable us to arrive at an
+approximate idea of the irregular character of the distribution.
+
+TABLE XVI.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                |   Medium     |Nos. in the three classes respectively.|
+  |   Dimensions   | measures in  |---------------------------------------|
+  |    measured.   | inches and   |   -    |    0    |    +    |   Total. |
+  |                |   tenths.    | below. | medium. |  above. |          |
+  |----------------|--------------|--------|---------|---------|----------|
+  |1. Head-length  |  7·5 to  7·7 |  101   |   191   |   208   |    500   |
+  |2. Head-breadth |  6·0  "  6·1 |  173   |   201   |   126   |    500   |
+  |3. Span         | 68·0  " 70·5 |  137   |   165   |   198   |    500   |
+  |4. Body-height  | 35·0  " 36·0 |  139   |   168   |   193   |    500   |
+  |5. Middle-finger|  4·5  "  4·6 |  180   |   176   |   144   |    500   |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The distribution of the measures is shown in Table XVII.
+
+TABLE XVII.
+
+_Distribution of 500 sets of measures into classes. Each set consists of
+five elements; each element is classed as + or above medium class; M, or
+mediocre; -, or below medium class._
+
+(Total number of classes is 3{5} = 243.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | +---- 3 Span.  |                                               |
+  | |              |                                               |
+  | |  +--4 Body-  |       1 Head-length, 2 Head-breadth.          |
+  | |  |    height.|                                               |
+  | |  |           |                                               |
+  | |  |  5 Middle-|-----------------------------------------------|
+  | |  |  | finger.| 1 2  1 2  1 2 | 1 2  1 2  1 2 | 1 2  1 2  1 2 |
+  | |  |  |        |---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | |  |  |        | - -  - M  - + | M -  M M  M + | + -  + M  + + |
+  |----------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | -  -  -        | 14    7    4  |  14   11   5  |  3    3    2  |
+  |       M        |  -    2    -  |   2    4   1  |  -    2    4  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   1    -   -  |  -    -    -  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | -  M  -        |  5    2    2  |   7    4   2  |  1    4    3  |
+  |       M        |  -    2    -  |   3    1   3  |  2    3    -  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   -    -   -  |  -    -    2  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | -  +  -        |  2    -    -  |   1    1   1  |  -    -    1  |
+  |       M        |  -    2    -  |   -    -   -  |  -    1    1  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   1    -   -  |  -    1    -  |
+  |----------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | M  -  -        |  4    -    1  |   3    4   3  |  1    2    2  |
+  |       M        |  3    2    -  |   3    2   3  |  2    4    -  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   -    1   2  |  -    1    -  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | M  M  -        |  1    3    1  |   4    3   2  |  4    4    3  |
+  |       M        |  5    3    -  |   7    5   2  |  2    6    5  |
+  |       +        |  2    1    1  |   1    1   -  |  1    4    2  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | M  +  -        |  2    1    1  |   5    2   -  |  -    2    2  |
+  |       M        |  2    2    -  |   3    3   1  |  1    6    7  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    1  |   2    -   -  |  3    2    2  |
+  |----------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | +  -  -        |  -    -    1  |   -    1   -  |  -    -    -  |
+  |       M        |  1    -    -  |   1    2   -  |  1    3    -  |
+  |       +        |  1    2    -  |   1    1   -  |  -    -    2  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | +  M  -        |  1    -    1  |   3    2   -  |  -    -    2  |
+  |       M        |  2    -    1  |   1    4   -  |  3    2    4  |
+  |       +        |  2    1    -  |   2    4   1  |  4    6    3  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | +  +  -        |  1    2    -  |   1    -   1  |  1    2    2  |
+  |       M        |  -    1    -  |   5   10   3  |  3    8    9  |
+  |       +        |  2    2    2  |  11   10   3  |  9   24   19  |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The frequency with which 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., sets were found to fall under
+the same index-heading, is shown in Table XVIII.
+
+TABLE XVIII.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |  No. of sets  |                  |                 |
+  |  under same   | Frequency of its | No. of entries. |
+  | index-heading.|    occurrence.   |                 |
+  |---------------|------------------|-----------------|
+  |       0       |        83        |        0        |
+  |       1       |        47        |       47        |
+  |       2       |        47        |       94        |
+  |       3       |        25        |       75        |
+  |       4       |        16        |       64        |
+  |       5       |         7        |       35        |
+  |       6       |         3        |       18        |
+  |       7       |         4        |       28        |
+  |       8       |         1        |        8        |
+  |       9       |         2        |       18        |
+  |      10       |         2        |       20        |
+  |      11       |         2        |       22        |
+  |      14       |         2        |       28        |
+  |      19       |         1        |       19        |
+  |      24       |         1        |       24        |
+  |----------------------------------------------------|
+  |      Total entries                      500        |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+No example was found of 83, say of one-third, of the 243 possible
+combinations. In one case no less than 24 sets fell under the same head;
+in another case 19 did so, and there were two cases in which 14, 11, and
+10 severally did the same. Thus, out of 500 sets (see the five bottom
+lines in the last column of the above table) no less than 113 sets fell
+into four classes, each of which included from 10 to 24 entries.
+
+The 24 sets whose Index-number is + M, + + + admit of being easily
+subdivided and rapidly sorted by an expert, into smaller groups, paying
+regard to considerable differences only, in the head-length and
+head-breadth. After doing this, two comparatively large groups remain,
+with five cases in each, which require further analysis. They are as
+follow, the height and eye-colour being added in each case, and brackets
+being so placed as to indicate measures that do not differ to a sufficient
+amount to be surely distinguished. No two sets are alike throughout, some
+difference of considerable magnitude always occurring to distinguish them.
+Nos. 2 and 3 come closest together, and are distinguished by eye-colour
+alone.
+
+TABLE XIX.
+
+  Five cases of Head-length 8·0, and Head-breadth 6·1.
+
+           Span.     Body.    Finger.   Height.     Eye-colour.
+
+   1.     { 72·4      38·0      4·8     { 71·2     { br. grey
+   2.     { 72·6    { 37·0    { 4·7     { 71·4     { br. grey
+   3.     { 72·7    { 36·7    { 4·7     { 71·4       blue
+   4.       73·9      36·4      5·0       70·7       brown
+   5.       75·3      37·9      4·8       73·4       blue
+
+  Five cases of Head-length 7·8, and Head-breadth 6·0.
+
+   6.       70·8     37·8     { 4·7     { 70·0       brown
+   7.     { 71·9     36·2     { 4·7     { 69·3       blue
+   8.     { 72·4   { 37·2     { 4·7     { 68·4       brown
+   9.       74·8   { 37·8       5·0       73·1       blue
+  10.       79·9   { 37·3       5·3       75·6       blue grey
+
+This is satisfactory. It shows that each one of the 500 sets may be
+distinguished from all the others by means of only seven elements; for if
+it is possible so to subdivide twenty-four entries that come under one
+index-heading, we may assume that we could do so in the other cases where
+the entries were fewer. The other measures that I possess--strength of
+grasp and breathing capacity--are closely correlated with stature and
+bulk, while eyesight and reaction-time are uncorrelated, but the latter
+are hardly suited to test the further application of the Bertillon method.
+
+It would appear, from these and other data, that a purely anthropometric
+classification, irrespective of bodily marks and photographs, would enable
+an expert to deal with registers of considerable size.
+
+Bearing in mind that mediocrities differ less from one another than
+members of either of the extreme classes, and would therefore be more
+difficult to distinguish, it seems probable that with comparatively few
+exceptions, _at least_ two thousand adults of the same sex might be
+individualised, merely by means of twelve careful measures, on the
+Bertillon system, making reasonable allowances for that small change of
+proportions that occurs after the lapse of a few years, and for
+inaccuracies of measurement. This estimate may be far below the truth, but
+more cannot, I think, be safely inferred from the above very limited
+experiment.
+
+The system of registration adopted in the American army for tracing
+suspected deserters, was described in a memoir contributed to the
+"International Congress of Demography," held in London in 1891. The memoir
+has so far been only published in the _Abstracts of Papers_, p. 233 (Eyre
+and Spottiswoode). Its phraseology is unfortunately so curt as sometimes
+to be difficult to understand; it runs as follows:--
+
+    Personal identity as determined by scars and other body marks by
+    Colonel Charles R. Greenleaf and Major Charles Smart, Medical
+    Department, U.S. Army.
+
+    Desertions from United States army believed to greatly exceed
+    deserters, owing to repeaters.
+
+    Detection of repeaters possible if all body marks of all recruits
+    recorded, all deserters noted, and all recruits compared with previous
+    deserters.
+
+    In like manner men discharged for cause excluded from re-entry.
+
+    Bertillon's anthropometric method insufficient before courts-martial,
+    because possible inaccuracies in measurement, and because of allowable
+    errors.
+
+    But identity acknowledged following coincident indelible marks, when
+    height, age, and hair fairly correspond.
+
+    That is, Bertillon's collateral evidence is practically primary
+    evidence for such purposes.
+
+    There is used for each man an outline figure card giving anterior and
+    posterior surfaces, divided by dotted lines into regions.
+
+    These, showing each permanent mark, are filed alphabetically at the
+    Surgeon-General's office, War Department.
+
+    As a man goes out for cause, or deserts, his card is placed in a
+    separate file.
+
+    The cards of recruits are compared with the last-mentioned file.
+
+    To make this comparison, a register in two volumes is opened, one for
+    light-eyed and one for dark-eyed men. Each is subdivided into a fair
+    number of pages, according to height of entrants, and each page is
+    ruled in columns for body regions. Tattooed and non-tattooed men of
+    similar height and eyes are entered on opposite pages. Recruits
+    without tattoos are not compared with deserters with tattoos; but
+    recruits with tattoos are compared with both classes.
+
+    On the register S T B M, etc., are used as abbreviations for scar,
+    tattoo, birth-mark, mole, etc.
+
+    One inch each side of recorded height allowed for variation or
+    defective measurement.
+
+    When probability of identity appears, the original card is used for
+    comparison.
+
+    Owing to obstacles in inaugurating new system, its practical working
+    began with 1891, and, to include May 1891 [= 5 months, F.G.], out of
+    sixty-two cases of suspected fraud sixty-one proved real.
+
+There was some interesting discussion, both upon this memoir and on a
+verbal communication concerning the French method, that had been made by
+M. Jacques Bertillon the statistician, who is a brother of its originator.
+It appeared that there was room for doubt whether the anthropometric
+method had received a fair trial in America, the measurements being made
+by persons not specially trained, whereas in France the establishments,
+though small, are thoroughly efficient.
+
+There are almost always moles or birth-marks, serving for identification,
+on the body of every one, and a record of these is, as already noted, an
+important though subsidiary part of the Bertillon system. Body-marks are
+noted in the English registers of criminals, and it is curious how large a
+proportion of these men are tattooed and scarred. How far the body-marks
+admit of being usefully charted on the American plan, it is difficult to
+say, the success of the method being largely dependent on the care with
+which they are recorded. The number of persons hitherto dealt with on the
+American plan appears not to be very large. As observations of this class
+require the person to be undressed, they are unsuitable for popular
+purposes of identification, but the marks have the merit of serving to
+identify at all ages, which the measurements of the limbs have not.
+
+It seems strange that no register of this kind, so far as I know, takes
+account of the teeth. If a man, on being first registered, is deficient in
+certain teeth, they are sure to be absent when he is examined on a future
+occasion. He may, and probably will in the meantime, have lost others, but
+the fact of his being without specified teeth on the first occasion,
+excludes the possibility of his being afterwards mistaken for a man who
+still possesses them.
+
+We will now separately summarise the results arrived at, in respect to the
+two processes that may both be needed in order to effect an
+identification.
+
+First, as regards _search in an Index_.--Some sets of measures will give
+trouble, but the greater proportion can apparently be catalogued with so
+much certainty, that if a second set of measures of any individual be
+afterwards taken, no tedious search will be needed to hunt out the former
+set. Including the bodily marks and photographs, let us rate the Bertillon
+method as able to cope with a register of 20,000 adults of the same sex,
+with a small and definable, but as yet unknown, average dose of
+difficulty, which we will call _x_.
+
+A catalogue of 500 sets of finger prints easily fulfils the same
+conditions. I could lay a fair claim to much more, but am content with
+this. Now the finger patterns have been shown to be so independent of
+other conditions that they cannot be notably, if at all, correlated with
+the bodily measurements or with any other feature, not the slightest
+trace of any relation between them having yet been found, as will be shown
+at p. 186, and more fully in Chapter XII. For instance, it would be
+totally impossible to fail to distinguish between the finger prints of
+twins, who in other respects appeared exactly alike. Finger prints may
+therefore be treated without the fear of any sensible error, as varying
+quite independently of the measures and records in the Bertillon system.
+Their inclusion would consequently increase its power fully five-hundred
+fold. Suppose one moderate dose of difficulty, _x_, is enough for dealing
+with the measurements, etc., of 20,000 adult persons of the same sex by
+the Bertillon method, and a similar dose of difficulty with the finger
+prints of 500 persons, then two such doses could deal with a register of
+20,000 × 500, or 10,000,000.
+
+We now proceed to consider the second and final process, namely, that of
+identification by _Comparison_. When the data concerning a suspected
+person are discovered to bear a general likeness to one of those already
+on the register, and a minute comparison shows their finger prints to
+agree in all or nearly all particulars, the evidence thereby afforded that
+they were made by the same person, far transcends in trustworthiness any
+other evidence that can ordinarily be obtained, and vastly exceeds all
+that can be derived from any number of ordinary anthropometric data. _By
+itself it is amply sufficient to convict._ _Bertillonage_ can rarely
+supply more than grounds for very strong suspicion: the method of finger
+prints affords certainty. It is easy, however, to understand that so long
+as the peculiarities of finger prints are not generally understood, a
+juryman would be cautious in accepting their evidence, but it is to be
+hoped that attention will now gradually become drawn to their marvellous
+virtues, and that after their value shall have been established in a few
+conspicuous cases, it will come to be popularly recognised.
+
+Let us not forget two great and peculiar merits of finger prints; they are
+self-signatures, free from all possibility of faults in observation or of
+clerical error; and they apply throughout life.
+
+An abstract of the remarks made by M. Herbette, Director of the
+Penitentiary Department of the Ministère de l'Intérieur, France, at the
+International Penitentiary Congress at Rome, after the communication by M.
+Alphonse Bertillon had been read, may fitly follow.
+
+    "Proceeding to a more extended view of the subject and praising the
+    successful efforts of M. Bertillon, M. Herbette pointed out how a
+    verification of the physical personality, and of the identity of
+    people of adult age, would fulfil requirements of modern society in an
+    indisputable manner under very varied conditions.
+
+    "If it were a question, for instance, of giving to the inhabitants of
+    a country, to the soldiers of an army, or to travellers proceeding to
+    distant lands, notices or personal cards as recognisable signs,
+    enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were a question of
+    completing the obligatory records of civil life by perfectly sure
+    indications, such as would prevent all error, or substitution of
+    persons; if it were a question of recording the distinctive marks of
+    an individual in documents, titles or contracts, where his identity
+    requires to be established for his own interest, for that of third
+    parties, or for that of the State,--there the anthropometric system
+    of identification would find place.
+
+    "Should it be a question of a life certificate, of a life assurance,
+    or of a proof of death, or should it be required to certify the
+    identity of a person who was insane, severely wounded, or of a dead
+    body that had been partly destroyed, or so disfigured as to be hardly
+    recognisable from a sudden or violent death due to crime, accident,
+    shipwreck, or battle--how great would be the advantage of being able
+    to trace these characters, unchangeable as they are in each
+    individual, infinitely variable as between one individual and another,
+    indelible, at least in part, even in death.
+
+    "There is still more cause to be interested in this subject when it is
+    a question of identifying persons who are living at a great distance,
+    and after the lapse of a considerable time, when the physiognomy, the
+    features, and the physical habits may have changed from natural or
+    artificial causes, and to be able to identify them without taking a
+    journey and without cost, by the simple exchange of a few lines or
+    figures that may be sent from one country or continent to another, so
+    as to give information in America as to who any particular man is, who
+    has just arrived from France, and to certify whether a certain
+    traveller found in Rome is the same person who was measured in
+    Stockholm ten years before.
+
+    "In one word, to fix the human personality, to give to each human
+    being an identity, an individuality that can be depended upon with
+    certainty, lasting, unchangeable, always recognisable and easily
+    adduced, this appears to be in the largest sense the aim of the new
+    method.
+
+    "Consequently, it may be said that the extent of the problem, as well
+    as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of
+    penitentiary work and the interest, which is however by no means
+    inconsiderable, that penal action has excited amongst various nations.
+    These are the motives for giving to the labours of M. Bertillon and to
+    their practical utilisation the publicity they merit."
+
+These full and clear remarks seem even more applicable to the method of
+finger prints than to that of anthropometry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HEREDITY
+
+
+Some of those who have written on finger marks affirm that they are
+transmissible by descent, others assert the direct contrary, but no
+inquiry hitherto appears to justify a definite conclusion.
+
+Chapter VIII. shows a close correlation to exist between the patterns on
+the several fingers of the same person. Hence we are justified in assuming
+that the patterns are partly dependent on constitutional causes, in which
+case it would indeed be strange if the general law of heredity failed in
+this particular case.
+
+After examining many prints, the frequency with which some peculiar
+pattern was found to characterise members of the same family convinced me
+of the reality of an hereditary tendency. The question was how to submit
+the belief to numerical tests; particular kinships had to be selected, and
+methods of discussion devised.
+
+It must here be borne in mind that "Heredity" implies more than its
+original meaning of a relationship between parent and child. It includes
+that which connects children of the same parents, and which I have shown
+(_Natural Inheritance_) to be just twice as close in the case of stature
+as that which connects a child and either of its two parents. Moreover,
+the closeness of the fraternal and the filial relations are to a great
+extent interdependent, for in any population whose faculties remain
+_statistically_ the same during successive generations, it has been shown
+that a simple algebraical equation must exist, that connects together the
+three elements of Filial Relation, Fraternal Relation, and Regression, by
+which a knowledge of any two of them determines the value of the third. So
+far as Regression may be treated as being constant in value, the Filial
+and the Fraternal relations become reciprocally connected. It is not
+possible briefly to give an adequate explanation of all this now, or to
+show how strictly observations were found to confirm the theory; this has
+been fully done in _Natural Inheritance_, and the conclusions will here be
+assumed.
+
+The fraternal relation, besides disclosing more readily than other
+kinships the existence or non-existence of heredity, is at the same time
+more convenient, because it is easier to obtain examples of brothers and
+sisters alone, than with the addition of their father and mother. The
+resemblance between those who are twins is also an especially significant
+branch of the fraternal relationship. The word "fraternities" will be used
+to include the children of both sexes who are born of the same parents; it
+being impossible to name the familiar kinship in question either in
+English, French, Latin, or Greek, without circumlocution or using an
+incorrect word, thus affording a striking example of the way in which
+abstract thought outruns language, and its expression is hampered by the
+inadequacy of language. In this dilemma I prefer to fall upon the second
+horn, that of incorrectness of phraseology, subject to the foregoing
+explanation and definition.
+
+The first preliminary experiments were made with the help of the
+Arch-Loop-Whorl classification, on the same principle as that already
+described and utilised in Chapter VIII., with the following addition. Each
+of the two members of any couplet of fingers has a distinctive name--for
+instance, the couplet may consist of a finger and a thumb: or again, if it
+should consist of two fore-fingers, one will be a right fore-finger and
+the other a left one, but the two brothers in a couplet of brothers rank
+equally as such. The plan was therefore adopted of "ear-marking" the
+prints of the first of the two brothers that happened to come to hand,
+with an A, and that of the second brother with a B; and so reducing the
+questions to the shape:--How often does the pattern on the finger of a B
+brother agree with that on the corresponding finger of an A brother? How
+often would it occur between two persons who had no family likeness? How
+often would it correspond if the kinship between A and B were as close as
+it is possible to conceive? Or transposing the questions, and using the
+same words as in Chapter VIII., what is the relative frequency of (1)
+Random occurrences, (2) Observed occurrences, (3) Utmost possibilities?
+It was shown in that chapter how to find the value of (2) upon a
+centesimal scale in which "Randoms" ranked as 0° and "Utmost
+possibilities" as 100°.
+
+The method there used of calculating the frequency of the "Random" events
+will be accepted without hesitation by all who are acquainted with the
+theory and the practice of problems of probability. Still, it is as well
+to occasionally submit calculation to test. The following example was sent
+to me for that purpose by a friend who, not being mathematically minded,
+had demurred somewhat to the possibility of utilising the calculated
+"Randoms."
+
+The prints of 101 (by mistake for 100) couplets of prints of the right
+fore-fingers of school children were taken by him from a large collection,
+the two members, A and B, being picked out at random and formed into a
+couplet. It was found that among the A children there were 22 arches, 50
+loops, and 29 whorls, and among the B children 25, 34, and 42
+respectively, as is shown by the _italic_ numerals in the last column, and
+again in the bottom row of Table XX. The remainder of the table shows the
+number of times in which an arch, loop, or whorl of an A child was
+associated with an arch, loop, or whorl of a B child.
+
+TABLE XX.
+
+_Observed Random Couplets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |             |       A children.      |  Totals in  |
+  | B children. |------------------------| B children. |
+  |             | Arches.| Loops.|Whorls.|             |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  | Arches      |    5   |   12  |    8  |     _25_    |
+  | Loops       |    8   |   18  |    8  |     _34_    |
+  | Whorls      |    9   |   20  |   13  |     _42_    |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  |Totals in A} |        |       |       |             |
+  |  children } |  _22_  |  _50_ |  _29_ |     101     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXI.
+
+_Calculated Random Couplets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |             |       A children.      |  Totals in  |
+  | B children. |------------------------| B children. |
+  |             | Arches.| Loops.|Whorls.|             |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  | Arches      |  5·00  | 12·50 |  7·25 |     _25_    |
+  | Loops       |  6·80  | 17·00 |  9·86 |     _34_    |
+  | Whorls      |  8·40  | 21·00 | 12·18 |     _42_    |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  |Totals in A} |        |       |       |             |
+  |  children } |  _22_  |  _50_ |  _29_ |     101     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+The question, then, was how far calculations from the above data would
+correspond with the contents of Table XX. The answer is that it does so
+admirably. Multiply each of the italicised A totals into each of the
+italicised B totals, and after dividing each result by 101, enter it in
+the square at which the column that has the A total at its base, is
+intersected by the row that has the B total at its side. We thus obtain
+Table XXI.
+
+We will now discuss in order the following relationships: the Fraternal,
+first in the ordinary sense, and then in the special case of twins of the
+same set; Filial, in the special case in which both parents have the same
+particular pattern on the same finger; lastly, the relative influence of
+the father and mother in transmitting their patterns.
+
+_Fraternal relationship._--In 105 fraternities the _observed_ figures were
+as in Table XXII.:--
+
+TABLE XXII.
+
+_Observed Fraternal Couplets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |              |      A children.     |   Totals in  |
+  | B children.  |----------------------|  B children. |
+  |              |Arches.|Loops.|Whorls.|              |
+  |--------------|-------|------|-------|--------------|
+  |Arches        |   5   |  12  |   2   |      _19_    |
+  |              |-------+------|       |              |
+  |Loops         |   4   |  42  |  15   |      _61_    |
+  |              |-------|------|-------|              |
+  |Whorls        |   1   |  14  |  10   |      _25_    |
+  |--------------|-------+------+-------|--------------|
+  |Totals in A } |       |      |       |              |
+  |  children  } | _10_  | _68_ | _27_  |      105     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+The squares that run diagonally from the top at the left, to the bottom at
+the right, contain the double events, and it is with these that we are
+now concerned. Are the entries in those squares larger or not than the
+randoms, calculated as above, viz. the values of 10 × 19, 68 × 61, 27 ×
+25, all divided by 105? The calculated Randoms are shown in the first line
+of Table XXIII., the third line gives the greatest feasible number of
+correspondences which would occur if the kinship were as close as
+possible, subject to the reservation explained in p. 127. As there shown,
+the _lower_ of the A and B values is taken in each case, for Arches,
+Loops, and Whorls respectively.
+
+TABLE XXIII.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------+
+  |                 |    A and B both being      |
+  |                 |----------------------------|
+  |                 | Arches. | Loops. | Whorls. |
+  |-----------------|---------|--------|---------|
+  | Random          |   1·7   |  37·6  |   6·2   |
+  | Observed        |   5·0   |  42·0  |  10·0   |
+  | Utmost feasible |  10·0   |  61·0  |  25·0   |
+  +----------------------------------------------+
+
+In every instance, the Observed values are seen to exceed the Random.
+
+Many other cases of this description were calculated, all yielding the
+same general result, but these results are not as satisfactory as can be
+wished, owing to their dilution by inappropriate cases, the A. L. W.
+system being somewhat artificial.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16.
+
+FIG. 24. The "C" set of standard patterns, for prints of the Right Hand.]
+
+
+With the view of obtaining a more satisfactory result the patterns were
+subdivided under fifty-three heads, and an experiment was made with the
+fore, middle, and ring-fingers of 150 fraternal couplets (300
+individuals and 900 digits) by Mr. F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook
+the considerable labour of indexing and tabulating them.
+
+The provisional list of standard patterns published in the _Phil. Trans._
+was not appropriate for this purpose. It related chiefly to thumbs, and
+consequently omitted the tented arch; it also referred to the left hand,
+but in the following tabulations the right hand has been used; and its
+numbering is rather inconvenient. The present set of fifty-three patterns
+has faults, and cannot be considered in any way as final, but it was
+suitable for our purposes and may be convenient to others; as Mr. Collins
+worked wholly by it, it may be distinguished as the "C. set." The banded
+patterns, 24-31, are very rarely found on the fingers, but being common on
+the thumb, were retained, on the chance of our requiring the introduction
+of thumb patterns into the tabulations. The numerals refer to the patterns
+as seen in impressions of the _right hand_ only. [They would be equally
+true for the patterns as seen on the _fingers themselves_ of the left
+hand.] For impressions of the left hand the numerals up to 7 inclusive
+would be the same, but those of all the rest would be changed. These are
+arranged in couplets, the one member of the couplet being a reversed
+picture of the other, those in each couplet being distinguished by
+severally bearing an odd and an even number. Therefore, in impressions of
+the left hand, 8 would have to be changed into 9, and 9 into 8; 10 into
+11, and 11 into 10; and so on, up to the end, viz. 52 and 53. The numeral
+54 was used to express nondescript patterns.
+
+The finger prints had to be gone through repeatedly, some weeks elapsing
+between the inspections, and under conditions which excluded the
+possibility of unconscious bias; a subject of frequent communication
+between Mr. Collins and myself. Living at a distance apart, it was not
+easy at the time they were made, to bring our respective interpretations
+of transitional and of some of the other patterns, especially the invaded
+loops, into strict accordance, so I prefer to keep his work, in which I
+have perfect confidence, independent from my own. Whenever a fraternity
+consisted of more than two members, they were divided, according to a
+prearranged system, into as many couplets as there were individuals. Thus,
+while a fraternity of three individuals furnished all of its three
+possible varieties of couplets, (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), one of four
+individuals was not allowed to furnish more than four of its possible
+couplets, the two italicised ones being omitted, (1, 2), (1, 3), (_1, 4_),
+(_2, 3_), (2, 4), (3, 4), and so on. Without this precaution, a single
+very large family might exercise a disproportionate and even overwhelming
+statistical influence.
+
+It would be essential to exact working, that the mutual relations of the
+patterns should be taken into account; for example, suppose an arch to be
+found on the fore-finger of one brother and a nascent loop on that of the
+other; then, as these patterns are evidently related, their concurrence
+ought to be interpreted as showing some degree of resemblance. However,
+it was impossible to take cognizance of partial resemblances, the mutual
+relations of the patterns not having, as yet, been determined with
+adequate accuracy.
+
+The completed tabulations occupied three large sheets, one for each of the
+fingers, ruled crossways into fifty-three vertical columns for the A
+brothers, and fifty-three horizontal rows for the B brothers. Thus, if the
+register number of the pattern of A was 10, and that of B was 42, then a
+mark would be put in the square limited by the ninth and tenth horizontal
+lines, and by the forty-first and forty-second vertical ones. The marks
+were scattered sparsely over the sheet. Those in each square were then
+added up, and finally the numbers in each of the rows and in each of the
+columns were severally totalled.
+
+If the number of couplets had been much greater than they are, a test of
+the accuracy with which their patterns had been classed under the
+appropriate heads, would be found in the frequency with which the same
+patterns were registered in the corresponding finger of the A and B
+brothers. The A and B groups are strictly homogeneous, consequently the
+frequency of their patterns in corresponding fingers ought to be alike.
+The success with which this test has been fulfilled in the present case,
+is passably good, its exact degree being shown in the following
+paragraphs, where the numbers of entries under each head are arranged in
+as orderly a manner as the case admits, the smaller of the two numbers
+being the one that stands first, whether it was an A or a B. All instances
+in which there were at least five entries under either A or B, are
+included; the rest being disregarded. The result is as follows:--
+
+    I. Thirteen cases of more or less congruity between the number of A
+    and B entries under the same head:--5-7; 5-7; 5-8; 6-8; 7-10; 8-9;
+    8-12; 9-12; 10-10; 11-13; 12-16; 14-18; 72-73. (This last refers to
+    loops on the middle finger.)
+
+    II. Six cases of more or less incongruity:--1-7; 6-12; 14-20; 14-22;
+    22-35; 39-50.
+
+The three Tables, XXIV., XXV., XXVI., contain the results of the
+tabulations and the deductions from them.
+
+TABLE XXIV.
+
+_Comparison of three Fingers of the Right Hand in 150 Fraternal Couplets._
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |       |   Fore-fingers.    ||   Middle fingers.  ||    Ring-fingers.   |
+  |       |--------------------||--------------------||--------------------|
+  | Index |  Down |Along|Double||  Down |Along|Double||  Down |Along|Double|
+  | No. of|columns|lines|events||columns|lines|events||columns|lines|events|
+  |Pattern|-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------|
+  |       |       |     |   A  ||       |     |   A  ||       |     |   A  |
+  |       |   A   |  B  |  and ||   A   |  B  |  and ||   A   |  B  |  and |
+  |       |       |     |   B  ||       |     |   B  ||       |     |   B  |
+  |-------|-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------|
+  |    1  |  15   | 12  |   4  ||   8   |  5  |   2  ||   7   |  5  |   1  |
+  |    2  |   3   |  2  |      ||   3   |  2  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |    6  |   2   |  2  |   1  ||       |     |      ||   2   |  4  |      |
+  |    7  |       |  2  |      ||   2   |  1  |      ||   7   |  5  |   1  |
+  |    8  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  |    9  |   1   |  7  |      ||   4   |  1  |   1  ||   7   |  1  |      |
+  |   12  |   1   |     |      ||   2   |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   13  |       |     |      ||   2   |  1  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   14  |   4   |  3  |      ||   4   |  4  |   1  ||  20   | 14  |   1  |
+  |   15  |  16   | 12  |   3  ||   4   |  2  |      ||   3   |  4  |      |
+  |   16  |   2   |  3  |      ||   2   |  3  |      ||  10   |  7  |   2  |
+  |   17  |   4   |  3  |      ||   3   |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   18  |       |     |      ||   4   |  1  |      ||  18   | 14  |   6  |
+  |   19  |   3   |  3  |      ||   2   |  5  |      ||   1   |     |      |
+  |   20  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||   1   |  3  |   1  |
+  |   21  |       |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   22  |       |  4  |      ||   1   |  8  |      ||   1   |  2  |      |
+  |   23  |   1   |     |      ||   1   |     |      ||   6   |     |      |
+  |   27  |   1   |     |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   32  |   1   |     |      ||   1   |  3  |      ||   4   |  4  |      |
+  |   33  |   3   |  1  |   1  ||   1   |     |      ||   3   |  3  |   1  |
+  |   34  |   3   |  2  |      ||   4   |  1  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   35  |   2   |  3  |      ||       |  5  |      ||   9   | 12  |   2  |
+  |   38  |   2   |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   39  |   4   |     |      ||   3   |  1  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   40  |  13   | 11  |   1  ||  14   | 22  |   6  ||   9   |  8  |      |
+  |   41  |  12   |  8  |      ||   1   |  3  |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  |   42  |  22   | 35  |   5  ||  73   | 72  |  35  ||  39   | 50  |  16  |
+  |   43  |  10   | 10  |   3  ||   4   |  1  |      ||       |  3  |      |
+  |   44  |   2   |  1  |      ||       |  2  |      ||       |  2  |      |
+  |   45  |   1   |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   46  |   8   |  6  |   1  ||   3   |  1  |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  |   47  |   3   |  4  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   48  |   6   | 12  |   1  ||   4   |  6  |      ||   2   |  3  |      |
+  |   49  |   1   |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   52  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||   1   |     |      |
+  |   53  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXV.
+
+_Comparison between Random and Observed Events._
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |       Fore.       ||      Middle.      ||       Ring.       |
+  |-------------------||-------------------||-------------------|
+  | Random.| Observed.|| Random.| Observed.|| Random.| Observed.|
+  |--------|----------||--------|----------||--------|----------|
+  |  1·20  |     4    ||  0·26  |     2    ||  0·23  |     1    |
+  |  0·08  |   ...    ||  0·11  |     1    ||  0·05  |   ...    |
+  |  1·28  |     3    ||  0·05  |   ...    ||  0·23  |   ...    |
+  |  0·08  |   ...    ||  0·07  |   ...    ||  1·87  |     1    |
+  |  0·06  |   ...    ||  0·05  |   ...    ||  0·08  |   ...    |
+  |  0·95  |     1    ||  2·05  |     6    ||  0·46  |     2    |
+  |  0·64  |   ...    || 34·08  |    35    ||  1·68  |     6    |
+  |  5·18  |     5    ||  0·16  |   ...    ||  0·11  |   ...    |
+  |  0·67  |     3    ||        |          ||  0·06  |     1    |
+  |  0·32  |     1    ||        |          ||  0·72  |     2    |
+  |  0·08  |   ...    ||        |          ||  0·48  |   ...    |
+  |  0·48  |     1    ||        |          || 13·00  |    16    |
+  |--------|          ||        |          ||        |          |
+  |   All  |          ||        |          ||        |          |
+  | others.|          ||        |          ||        |          |
+  |  0·29  |     2    ||  0·28  |     1    ||  0·12  |     1    |
+  |--------|----------||--------|----------||--------|----------|
+  | 11·31  |    20    || 37·11  |    45    || 19·09  |    30    |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXVI.
+
+_Centesimal Scale (to nearest whole numbers)._
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |150 fraternal|Random.|Observed.|    Utmost    |Reduced  |  Reduced to  |
+  |  couplets.  |       |         |possibilities.|to lower |    upper     |
+  |             |       |         |              |limit=0. |  limit=100.  |
+  |-------------|-------|---------|--------------|---------|--------------|
+  |             |       |         |              |         |  Centesimal  |
+  |             |       |         |              |         |    scale.    |
+  |             |       |         |              |         |--------------|
+  |Fore-finger  | 11·31 |    20   |     115      |0  9 104 |0°  9°    100°|
+  |Middle       | 37·11 |    45   |     117      |0 10  80 |0° 10°    100°|
+  |Ring         | 19·09 |    31   |     118      |0 12  99 |0° 12°    100°|
+  |-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |                                               Mean     |0° 10°    100°|
+  |-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |50 additional|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |  couplets.  |       |         |              |         |              |
+  |-------------|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |Middle finger|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |only         |  8·2  |    11   |      22      |0  3  14 |0° 21°    100°|
+  |-------------|-------|---------|--------------|---------|--------------|
+  | Loops only, |       |         |              |         |              |
+  |and on middle|       |         |              |         |              |
+  | finger only.|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |-------------|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |150 couplets | 34·0  |    35   |      72      |0 1   72 |0° 1-1/4° 100°|
+  |50 couplets  |  6·4  |     7   |      14      |0 0·6  8 |0° 8°     100°|
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+Table XXIV. contains all the Observed events, and is to be read thus,
+beginning at the first entry. Pattern No. 1 occurs on the right
+fore-finger fifteen times among the A brothers, and twelve times among the
+B brothers; while in four of these cases both brothers have that same
+pattern.
+
+Table XXV. compares the Random events with the Observed ones. Every case
+in which the calculated expectation is equal to or exceeds 0·05, is
+inserted in detail; the remaining group of petty cases are summed together
+and their totals entered in the bottom line. For fear of misapprehension
+or forgetfulness, one other example of the way in which the Randoms are
+calculated will be given here, taking for the purpose the first entry in
+Table XXIV. Thus, the number of all the different combinations of the 150
+A with the 150 B individuals in the 150 couplets, is 150 × 150. Out of
+these, the number of double events in which pattern No. 1 would appear in
+the same combination, is 15 × 12 = 180. Therefore in 150 trials, the
+double event of pattern No. 1 would appear upon the average, on 180
+divided by 150, or on 1·20 occasions. As a matter of fact, it appeared
+four times. These figures will be found in the first line of Table XXV.;
+the rest of its contents have been calculated in the same way.
+
+Leaving aside the Randoms that exceed 0 but are less than 1, there are
+nineteen cases in which the Random may be compared with the Observed
+values; in all but two of these the Observed are the highest, and in these
+two the Random exceed the Observed by only trifling amounts, namely, 5·18
+Random against 5·00 Observed; 1·87 Random against 1·00 Observed. It is
+impossible, therefore, to doubt from the steady way in which the Observed
+values overtop the Randoms, that there is a greater average likeness in
+the finger marks of two brothers, than in those of two persons taken at
+hazard.
+
+Table XXVI. gives the results of applying the centesimal scale to the
+measurement of the average closeness of fraternal resemblance, in respect
+to finger prints, according to the method and under the reservations
+already explained in page 125. The average value thus assigned to it is a
+little more than 10°. The values obtained from the three fingers
+severally, from which that average was derived, are 9°, 10°, and 12°; they
+agree together better than might have been expected. The value obtained
+from a set of fifty additional couplets of the middle fingers only, of
+fraternals, is wider, being 21°. Its inclusion with the rest raises the
+average of all to between 10 and 11.
+
+In the pre-eminently frequent event of loops with an outward slope on the
+middle finger, it is remarkable that the Random cases are nearly equal to
+the Observed ones; they are 34·08 to 35·00. It was to obtain some
+assurance that this equality was not due to statistical accident, that the
+additional set of fifty couplets were tabulated. They tell, however, the
+same tale, viz. 6·4 Randoms to 7·0 Observed. The loops on the fore-fingers
+confirm this, showing 5·18 Randoms to 5·00 Observed; those on the
+ring-finger have the same peculiarity, though in a slighter degree, 13 to
+16: the average of other patterns shows a much greater difference than
+that. I am unable to account for this curious behaviour of the loops,
+which can hardly be due to statistical accident, in the face of so much
+concurrent evidence.
+
+_Twins._--The signs of heredity between brothers and sisters ought to be
+especially apparent between twins of the same sex, who are physiologically
+related in a peculiar degree and are sometimes extraordinarily alike. More
+rarely, they are remarkably dissimilar. The instances of only a moderate
+family resemblance between twins of the same sex are much less frequent
+than between ordinary brothers and sisters, or between twins of opposite
+sex. All this has been discussed in my _Human Faculty_. In order to test
+the truth of the expectation, I procured prints of the fore, middle, and
+ring-fingers of seventeen sets of twins, and compared them, with the
+results shown in Table XXVII.
+
+TABLE XXVII.
+
+17 SETS OF TWINS (A and B).
+
+_Comparison between the patterns on the Fore, Middle, and Ring-fingers
+respectively of the Right hand._
+
+Agreement (=), 19 cases; partial (··), 13 cases; disagreement (×), 19
+cases.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |      | A     B  |    A     B  | A     B  | A     B  | A     B  |
+  |----------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |Fore  | 42 =  42 |    21 =  21 | 40 =  40 |  6 =   6 |  1 =   1 |
+  |Middle| 42 =  42 |     8 =   8 | 32 ×  42 | 15 ·· 32 | 42 =  42 |
+  |Ring  | 42 =  42 |     8 =   8 | 42 =  42 | 33 =  33 | 40 ×  19 |
+  |      |          |             |          |          |          |
+  |Fore  | 42 =  42 |    43 ×  15 |  1 =   1 | 15 ×  34 |  2 ·· 42 |
+  |Middle| 42 =  42 |    42 ·· 40 |  1 ×  40 | 42 =  42 | 42 =  42 |
+  |Ring  | 42 ·· 46 |    35 =  35 | 40 ·· 42 | 14 ×  32 | 42 ×  14 |
+  |      |          |             |          |          |          |
+  |Fore  | 49 ·· 14 |    15 ×  49 | 15 ·· 16 |  1 ×  42 |  1 ×  15 |
+  |Middle| 42 =  42 |    23 ×  14 | 19 ×  42 | 42 ·· 48 | 32 ×  22 |
+  |Ring  |  9 ·· 32 |    14 ·· 16 |  6 ·· 18 | 42 ×   8 | 18 ×  23 |
+  |      |          |             |          |          |          |
+  |Fore  | 48 ×  33 |(loop) ×   9 |          |          |          |
+  |Middle| 42 ×  22 |    48 ×  22 |          |          |          |
+  |Ring  | 14 ··  6 |     9 ·· 35 |          |          |          |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The result is that out of the seventeen sets (=51 couplets), two sets
+agree in all their three couplets of fingers; four sets agree in two; five
+sets agree in one of the couplets. There are instances of partial
+agreement in five others, and a disagreement throughout in only one of the
+seventeen sets. In another collection of seventeen sets, made to compare
+with this, six agreed in two of their three couplets, and five agreed in
+one of them. There cannot then be the slightest doubt as to the strong
+tendency to resemblance in the finger patterns in twins.
+
+This remark must by no means be forced into the sense of meaning that the
+similarity is so great, that the finger print of one twin might
+occasionally be mistaken for that of the other. When patterns fall into
+the same class, their general forms may be conspicuously different (see p.
+74), while their smaller details, namely, the number of ridges and the
+minutiæ, are practically independent of the pattern.
+
+It may be mentioned that I have an inquiry in view, which has not yet been
+fairly begun, owing to the want of sufficient data, namely to determine
+the minutest biological unit that may be hereditarily transmissible. The
+minutiæ in the finger prints of twins seem suitable objects for this
+purpose.
+
+_Children of like-patterned Parents._--When two parents are alike, the
+average resemblance, in stature at all events, which their children bear
+to them, is as close as the fraternal resemblance between the children,
+and twice as close as that which the children bear to either parent
+separately, when the parents are unlike.
+
+The fifty-eight parentages affording fifty couplets of the fore, middle,
+and ring-fingers respectively give 58 × 3 = 174 parental couplets in all;
+of these, 27 or 14 per cent are alike in their pattern, as shown by Table
+XXVIII. The total number of children to these twenty-seven pairs is 109,
+of which 59 (or 54 per cent) have the same pattern as their parents. This
+fact requires analysis, as on account of the great frequency of loops, and
+especially of the pattern No. 42 on the middle finger, a large number of
+the cases of similarity of pattern between child and parents would be mere
+random coincidences.
+
+TABLE XXVIII.--_Children of like-patterned Parents._
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | The 27 | Patterns of--  F.  M. |    --of Sons.   | Alike. | Total |
+  | cases. |                       |                 |        | sons. |
+  |--------|-----------------------|-----------------|--------|-------|
+  |    1   | Fore            1   1 |  1              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    2   |                34  34 | 34              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    3   |                40  40 | 41              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |    4   |                42  42 | 48              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |    5   | Middle         40  40 | 40              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    6   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    7   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    8   |                42  42 | 42, 38, 42, 42  |    3   |   4   |
+  |    9   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   10   |                42  42 | 48, 48, 14      |    1   |   4   |
+  |   11   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   12   |                42  42 | 40              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   13   |                42  42 |  1              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   14   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   15   |                42  42 | 42, 46, 42      |    2   |   3   |
+  |   16   |                42  42 | 34, 42          |    1   |   2   |
+  |   17   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   18   |                42  42 | ...             |   ...  |  ...  |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |   19   | Ring           14  14 | 33, 42, 14      |    1   |   3   |
+  |   20   |                14  14 | 42, 16          |   ...  |   2   |
+  |   21   |                14  14 |  6              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   22   |                42  42 | 40              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   23   |                42  42 | 42, 42, 42      |    3   |   3   |
+  |   24   |                42  42 | ...             |   ...  |  ...  |
+  |   25   |                42  42 | 42, 42          |    2   |   2   |
+  |   26   |                42  42 | 49, 14          |   ...  |   2   |
+  |   27   |                46  46 | 48, 40, 16      |   ...  |   4   |
+  |        |                       |                 |--------|-------|
+  |        |                       |                 |   22   |  41   |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |      --of Daughters.       | Alike. |    Total   ||  Total  |Alike.|
+  |                            |        | daughters. ||children.|      |
+  |----------------------------|--------|------------||---------|------|
+  |  1,  1                     |   2    |     2      ||    3    |   3  |
+  | 42, 48                     |  ...   |     2      ||    3    |   1  |
+  |  2, 40                     |   1    |     2      ||    3    |   1  |
+  | 42                         |   1    |     1      ||    2    |   1  |
+  |                            |        |            ||         |      |
+  | 40                         |   1    |     1      ||    2    |   2  |
+  | ...                        |  ...   |    ...     ||    1    |   1  |
+  | 40                         |  ...   |     1      ||    2    |   1  |
+  | 40,  1                     |  ...   |     2      ||    6    |   3  |
+  | 40, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    3    |   2  |
+  | 42, 42, 48, 42, 42         |   4    |     5      ||    9    |   5  |
+  |  1, 40                     |  ...   |     2      ||    3    |   1  |
+  | 42, 42, 42, 42             |   4    |     4      ||    5    |   4  |
+  | ...                        |  ...   |    ...     ||    1    |  ... |
+  | 42, 42, 42                 |   3    |     3      ||    4    |   4  |
+  | 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42 |   3    |     3      ||    4    |   4  |
+  | 33, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    4    |   2  |
+  | 40, 42,  1                 |   1    |     3      ||    4    |   2  |
+  | 42, 42 (twins)             |   2    |     2      ||    2    |   2  |
+  |                            |        |            ||         |      |
+  | 32, 40                     |  ...   |     2      ||    5    |   1  |
+  | 16, 14, 42, 42             |   1    |     4      ||    6    |   1  |
+  |  9, 35, 48, 32, 14         |   1    |     5      ||    6    |   1  |
+  | 40                         |  ...   |     1      ||    2    |  ... |
+  | 40, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    5    |   4  |
+  | 40, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    2    |   1  |
+  | 42, 40, 42                 |   2    |     3      ||    5    |   4  |
+  | 42, 42, 42                 |   3    |     3      ||    5    |   3  |
+  | 16, 38                     |  ...   |     2      ||    6    |  ... |
+  |                            |--------|------------||---------|------|
+  |          Daughters         |  37    |    65      ||         |      |
+  |          Sons              |  22    |    44      ||         |      |
+  |                            |--------|------------||         |      |
+  |          Total Children    |  59    |   109      ||   109   |  59  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+There are nineteen cases of both parents having the commonest of the loop
+patterns, No. 42, on a corresponding finger. They have between them
+seventy-five children, of whom forty-eight have the pattern No. 42, on the
+same finger as their parents, and eighteen others have loops of other
+kinds on that same finger, making a total of sixty-six coincidences out of
+the possible 75, or 88 per cent, which is a great increase upon the normal
+proportion of loops of the No. 42 pattern in the fore, middle, and
+ring-fingers collectively. Again, there are three cases of both parents
+having a tendrilled-loop No. 15, which ranks as a whorl. Out of their
+total number of seventeen children, eleven have whorls and only six have
+loops.
+
+Lastly, there is a single case of both parents having an arch, and all
+their three children have arches; whereas in the total of 109 children in
+the table, there are only four other cases of an arch.
+
+This partial analysis accounts for the whole of the like-patterned
+parents, except four couples, which are one of No. 34, two of No. 40, and
+one of No. 46. These concur in telling the same general tale, recollecting
+that No. 46 might almost be reckoned as a transitional case between a loop
+and a whorl.
+
+The decided tendency to hereditary transmission cannot be gainsaid in the
+face of these results, but the number of cases is too few to justify
+quantitative conclusions. It is not for the present worth while to extend
+them, for the reason already mentioned, namely, an ignorance of the
+allowance that ought to be made for related patterns. On this account it
+does not seem useful to print the results of a large amount of tabulation
+bearing on the simple filial relationship between the child and either
+parent separately, except so far as appears in the following paragraph.
+
+_Relative Influence of the Father and the Mother._--Through one of those
+statistical accidents which are equivalent to long runs of luck at a
+gaming table, a concurrence in the figures brought out by Mr. Collins
+suggested to him the existence of a decided preponderance of maternal
+influence in the hereditary transmission of finger patterns. His further
+inquiries have, however, cast some doubt on earlier and provisional
+conclusions, and the following epitomises all of value that can as yet be
+said in favour of the superiority of the maternal influence.
+
+The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hands of the father,
+mother, and all their accessible children, in many families, were
+severally tabulated under the fifty-three heads already specified. The
+total number of children was 389, namely 136 sons and 219 daughters. The
+same pattern was found on the same finger, both of a child and of one or
+other of his parents, in the following number of cases:--
+
+TABLE XXIX.
+
+_Relative Influence of Father and Mother._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                     |Fore.|Middle.|Ring.|| Totals. | Corrected |     |
+  |                     |     |       |     ||         |   Totals. |     |
+  |---------------------|-----|-------|-----||---------|-----------|-----|
+  | Father and son      | 17  |  35   | 28  ||   80    |     80    |}149 |
+  |   "     "  daughter | 29  |  52   | 30  || (111)   |     69    |}    |
+  |                     |     |       |     ||         |           |     |
+  | Mother and son      | 18  |  50   | 26  ||   94    |     94    |}186 |
+  |   "     "  daughter | 38  |  75   | 35  || (148)   |     92    |}    |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The entries in the first three columns are not comparable on equal terms,
+on account of the large difference between the numbers of the sons and
+daughters. This difference is easily remedied by multiplying the number of
+daughters by 136/219, that is by 0·621, as has been done in the fifth
+column headed Corrected Totals. It would appear from these figures, that
+the maternal influence is more powerful than the paternal in the
+proportion of 186 to 149, or as 5 to 4; but, as some of the details from
+which the totals are built up, vary rather widely, it is better for the
+present to reserve an opinion as to their trustworthiness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+RACES AND CLASSES
+
+
+The races whose finger prints I have studied in considerable numbers are
+English, pure Welsh, Hebrew, and Negro; also some Basques from Cambo in
+the French Pyrenees, twenty miles south-east of Bayonne. For the Welsh
+prints I am primarily indebted to the very obliging help of Mr. R. W.
+Atkinson, of Cardiff, who interested the masters of schools in purely
+Welsh-speaking mountainous districts on my behalf; for the Hebrew prints
+to Mr. Isidore Spielman, who introduced me to the great Hebrew schools in
+London, whose head-masters gave cordial assistance; and for the Negro
+prints to Sir George Taubman Goldie, Dep. Governor of the Royal Niger Co.,
+who interested Dr Crosse on my behalf, from whom valuable sets of prints
+were received, together with particulars of the races of the men from whom
+they were made. As to the Basques, they were printed by myself.
+
+It requires considerable patience and caution to arrive at trustworthy
+conclusions, but it may emphatically be said that there is no _peculiar_
+pattern which characterises persons of any of the above races. There is
+no particular pattern that is special to any one of them, which when met
+with enables us to assert, or even to suspect, the nationality of the
+person on whom it appeared. The only differences so far observed, are
+statistical, and cannot be determined except through patience and caution,
+and by discussing large groups.
+
+I was misled at first by some accidental observations, and as it seemed
+reasonable to expect to find racial differences in finger marks, the
+inquiries were continued in varied ways until hard fact had made hope no
+longer justifiable.
+
+After preliminary study, I handed over the collection of racial finger
+prints to Mr F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook the labour of
+tabulating them in many ways, of which it will be only necessary to give
+an example. Thus, at one time attention was concentrated on a single
+finger and a single pattern, the most instructive instance being that of
+arches on the right fore-finger. They admit of being defined with
+sufficient clearness, having only one doubtful frontier of much
+importance, namely that at which they begin to break away into
+nascent-loops, etc. They also occur with considerable frequency on the
+fore-finger, so the results from a few hundred specimens ought to be
+fairly trustworthy. It mattered little in the inquiry, at what level the
+limit was drawn to separate arches from nascent-loops, so long as the same
+limit was observed in all races alike. Much pains were taken to secure
+uniformity of treatment, and Mr. Collins selected two limits, the one
+based on a strict and the other on a somewhat less strict interpretation
+of the term "arches," but the latter was not so liberal as that which I
+had used myself in the earlier inquiries (see p. 114). His results showed
+no great difference in the proportionate frequency of arches in the
+different races, whichever limit was observed; the following table refers
+to the more liberal limit:--
+
+TABLE XXX.
+
+_Frequency of Arches in the Right Fore-Finger._
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |  No. of  |             Race.                |  No. of | Per Cents. |
+  | Persons. |                                  | Arches. |            |
+  |----------|----------------------------------|---------|------------|
+  |    250   | English                          |    34   |   13·6     |
+  |    250   | Welsh                            |    26   |   10·8     |
+  |   1332   | Hebrew                           |   105   |    7·9     |
+  |    250   | Negro                            |    27   |   11·3     |
+  |          |                                  |         |            |
+  |          |       _Hebrews in detail_--      |         |            |
+  |    500   | Boys, Bell Lane School           |    35   |    7·0     |
+  |    400   | Girls, Bell Lane School          |    34   |    8·5     |
+  |    220   | Boys, Tavistock St. & Hanway St. |    18   |    8·2     |
+  |    212   | Girls, Hanway Street School      |    18   |    8·5     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The two contrasted values here are the English and the Hebrew. The 1332
+cases of the latter give a percentage result of 7·9, which differs as may
+be seen less than 1 per cent from that of any one of the four large groups
+upon which the average is based. The 250 cases of English are
+comparatively few, but the experience I have had of other English prints
+is so large as to enable me to say confidently that the percentage result
+of 13·6 is not too great. It follows, that the percentage of arches in the
+English and in the Hebrew differs in the ratio of 13·6 to 7·9, or nearly
+as 5 to 3. This is the largest statistical difference yet met with. The
+deficiency in arches among the Hebrews, and to some extent in loops also,
+is made up by a superiority in whorls, chiefly of the tendril or
+circlet-in-loop patterns.
+
+It would be very rash to suppose that this relative infrequency of arches
+among the Hebrews was of fundamental importance, considering that such
+totally distinct races as the Welsh and the Negro have them in an
+intermediate proportion. Still, why does it occur? The only answer I can
+suggest is that the patterns being in some degree hereditary, such
+accidental preponderances as may have existed among a not very numerous
+ancestry might be perpetuated. I have some reason to believe that local
+peculiarities of this sort exist in England, the children in schools of
+some localities seeming to be statistically more alike in their patterns
+than English children generally.
+
+Another of the many experiments was the tabulation separately by Mr.
+Collins of the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand of fifty
+persons of each of the five races above-mentioned: English, Welsh, Basque,
+Hebrew, and different groups of Negroes. The number of instances is of
+course too small for statistical deductions, but they served to make it
+clear that no very marked characteristic distinguished the races. The
+impressions from Negroes betray the general clumsiness of their fingers,
+but their patterns are not, so far as I can find, different from those of
+others, they are not simpler as judged either by their contours or by the
+number of origins, embranchments, islands, and enclosures contained in
+them. Still, whether it be from pure fancy on my part, or from the way in
+which they were printed, or from some real peculiarity, the general aspect
+of the Negro print strikes me as characteristic. The width of the ridges
+seems more uniform, their intervals more regular, and their courses more
+parallel than with us. In short, they give an idea of greater simplicity,
+due to causes that I have not yet succeeded in submitting to the test of
+measurement.
+
+The above are only a few examples of the laborious work so kindly
+undertaken for me by Mr. F. H. Collins, but it would serve no useful
+purpose to give more in this book, as no positive results have as yet been
+derived from it other than the little already mentioned.
+
+The most hopeful direction in which this inquiry admits of being pursued
+is among the Hill tribes of India, Australian blacks, and other diverse
+and so-called aboriginal races. The field of ethnology is large, and it
+would be unwise as yet to neglect the chance of somewhere finding
+characteristic patterns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Differences between finger prints of different classes might continue to
+exist although those of different races are inconspicuous, because every
+race contains men of various temperaments and faculties, and we cannot
+tell, except by observation, whether any of these are correlated with the
+finger marks. Several different classes have been examined both by Mr.
+Collins and myself. The ordinary laboratory work supplies finger prints of
+persons of much culture, and of many students both in the Art and in the
+Science schools. I took a large number of prints from the worst idiots in
+the London district, through the obliging assistance of Dr. Fletcher
+Beech, of the Darenth Asylum; my collections made at Board Schools are
+numerous, and I have one of field labourers in Dorsetshire and
+Somersetshire. But there is no notable difference in any of them. For
+example; the measurements of the ridge-interval gave the same results in
+the art-students and in the science-students, and I have prints of eminent
+thinkers and of eminent statesmen that can be matched by those of
+congenital idiots.[5] No indications of temperament, character, or ability
+are to be found in finger marks, so far as I have been able to discover.
+
+Of course these conclusions must not be applied to the general shape of
+the hand, which as yet I have not studied, but which seems to offer a very
+interesting field for exact inquiry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+GENERA
+
+
+The same familiar patterns recur in every large collection of finger
+prints, and the eye soon selects what appear to be typical forms; but are
+they truly "typical" or not? By a type I understand an ideal form around
+which the actual forms are grouped, very closely in its immediate
+neighbourhood, and becoming more rare with increasing rapidity at an
+increasing distance from it, just as is the case with shot marks to the
+right or left of a line drawn vertically through the bull's eye of a
+target. The analogy is exact; in both cases there is a well-defined point
+of departure; in both cases the departure of individual instances from
+that point is due to a multitude of independently variable causes. In
+short, both are realisations of the now well-known theoretical law of
+Frequency of Error. The problem then is this:--take some one of the
+well-marked patterns, such as it appears on a particular digit,--say a
+loop on the right thumb; find the average number of ridges that cross a
+specified portion of it; then this average value will determine an ideal
+centre from which individual departures may be measured; next, tabulate
+the frequency of the departures that attain to each of many successive
+specified distances from that ideal centre; then see whether their
+diminishing frequency as the distances increase, is or is not in
+accordance with the law of frequency of error. If it is, then the central
+form has the attributes of a true type, and such will be shown to be the
+case with the loops of either thumb. I shall only give the data and the
+results, not the precise way in which they are worked out, because an
+account of the method employed in similar cases will be found in _Natural
+Inheritance_, and again in the Memoir on Finger Prints in the _Phil.
+Trans._; it is too technical to be appropriate here, and would occupy too
+much space. The only point which need be briefly explained and of which
+non-mathematical readers might be ignorant, is how a single numerical
+table derived from abstract calculations can be made to apply to such
+minute objects as finger prints, as well as to the shot marks on a huge
+target; what is the common unit by which departures on such different
+scales are measured? The answer is that it is a self-contained unit
+appropriate to _each series severally_, and technically called the
+Probable Error, or more briefly, P.E., in the headings to the following
+tables. In order to determine it, the range of the central half of the
+series has to be measured, namely, of that part of the series which
+remains after its two extreme quarters have been cut off and removed. The
+series had no limitation before, its two ends tailing away indefinitely
+into nothingness, but, by the artifice of lopping off a definite fraction
+of the whole series from both ends of it, a sharply-defined length, call
+it PQ, is obtained. Such series as have usually to be dealt with are
+fairly symmetrical, so the position of the half-way point M, between P and
+Q, corresponds with rough accuracy to the average of the positions of all
+the members of the series, that is to the point whence departures have to
+be measured. MP, or MQ,--or still better, 1/2(MP + MQ) is the
+above-mentioned Probable Error. It is so called because the amount of
+Error, or Departure from M of any one observation, falls just as often
+within the distance PE as it falls without it. In the calculated tables of
+the Law of Frequency, PE (or a multiple of it) is taken as unity. In each
+observed series, the actual measures have to be converted into another
+scale, in which the PE of that series is taken as unity. Then observation
+and calculation may be compared on equal terms.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Observations were made on the loops of the right and left thumbs
+respectively. AHB is taken as the primary line of reference in the loop;
+it is the line that, coinciding with the axis of the _uppermost portion_,
+and that only, of the core, cuts the summit of the core at H, the upper
+outline at A, and the lower outline, if it cuts it at all, as it nearly
+always does, at B. K is the centre of the single triangular plot that
+appears in the loop, which may be either I or O. KNL is a perpendicular
+from K to the axis, cutting it at N, and the outline beyond at L. In some
+loops N will lie above H, as in Plate 4, Fig. 8; in some it may coincide
+with H. (See Plate 6 for numerous varieties of loop.) These points were
+pricked in each print with a fine needle; the print was then turned face
+downwards and careful measurements made between the prick holes at the
+back. Also the number of ridges in AH were counted, the ridge at A being
+reckoned as 0, the next ridge as 1, and so on up to H. Whenever the line
+AH passed across the neck of a bifurcation, there was necessarily a single
+ridge on one side of the point of intersection and two ridges on the
+other, so there would clearly be doubt whether to reckon the neck as one
+or as two ridges. A compromise was made by counting it as 1-1/2. After the
+number of ridges in AH had been counted in each case, any residual
+fractions of 1/2 were alternately treated as 0 and as 1. Finally, six
+series were obtained; three for the right thumb, and three for the left.
+They referred respectively (1) to the Number of Ridges in AH; (2) to
+KL/NB; (3) to AN/AH, all the three being independent of stature. The
+number of measures in each of the six series varied from 140 to 176; they
+are reduced to percentages in Table XXXI.
+
+We see at a glance that the different numbers of ridges in AH do not occur
+with equal frequency, that a single ridge in the thumb is a rarity, and so
+are cases above fifteen in number, but those of seven, eight, and nine
+are frequent. There is clearly a rude order in their distribution, the
+number of cases tailing away into nothingness, at the top and bottom of
+the column. A vast amount of statistical analogy assures us that the
+orderliness of the distribution would be increased if many more cases had
+been observed, and later on, this inference will be confirmed. There is a
+sharp inferior limit to the numbers of ridges, because they cannot be less
+than 0, but independently of this, we notice the infrequency of small
+numbers as well as of large ones. There is no strict limit to the latter,
+but the trend of the entries shows that forty, say, or more ridges in AH
+are practically impossible. Therefore, in no individual case can the
+number of ridges in AH depart very widely from seven, eight, or nine,
+though the range of possible departures is not sharply defined, except at
+the lower limit of 0. The range of variation is _not_ "rounded off," to
+use a common but very inaccurate expression often applied to the way in
+which genera are isolated. The range of possible departures is not defined
+by any rigid boundary, but the rarity of the stragglers rapidly increases
+with the distance at which they are found, until no more of them are met
+with.
+
+The values of KL/NB and of AN/AH run in a less orderly sequence, but
+concur distinctly in telling a similar tale. Considering the paucity of
+the observations, there is nothing in these results to contradict the
+expectation of increased regularity, should a large addition be made to
+their number.
+
+TABLE XXXI.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |      | No. of cases ||       | No. of cases ||       | No. of cases |
+  |      |   reduced    ||       |   reduced    ||       |   reduced    |
+  |No. of| to per cents.||   KL  | to per cents.||   AN  | to per cents.|
+  |ridges|--------------||   --  |--------------||   --  |--------------|
+  |in AH.| Right.| Left.||   NB  | Right.| Left.||   AH  | Right.| Left.|
+  |      |-------|------||       |-------|------||       |-------|------|
+  |      |  171  |  166 ||       |  149  |  140 ||       |  176  |  163 |
+  |      | cases.| cases||       | cases.| cases||       | cases | cases|
+  |------|-------|------||-------|-------|------||-------|-------|------|
+  |   1  |    1  |  ... ||0·3-0·4|    3  |    2 ||0·1-0·2|    2  |    1 |
+  |   2  |    2  |    1 ||0·5-0·6|    8  |   11 ||0·3-0·4|    7  |    3 |
+  |   3  |    2  |    3 ||0·7-0·8|    9  |   14 ||0·5-0·6|   11  |    3 |
+  |   4  |    2  |    5 ||0·9-1·0|   21  |   18 ||0·7-0·8|    9  |    9 |
+  |   5  |    3  |    5 ||1·1-1·2|   16  |   23 ||0·9-1·0|   22  |   15 |
+  |   6  |    4  |   18 ||1·3-1·4|   24  |    7 ||1·1-1·2|   15  |   13 |
+  |   7  |    8  |   14 ||1·5-1·6|    8  |   10 ||1·3-1·4|   12  |   12 |
+  |   8  |    8  |   16 ||1·7-1·8|    3  |    6 ||1·5-1·6|   11  |   14 |
+  |   9  |   11  |   10 ||1·9-2·0|    5  |    6 ||1·7-1·8|    8  |   10 |
+  |  10  |    9  |    8 ||2·1-2·2|    1  |    1 ||1·9-2·0|    1  |    5 |
+  |  11  |   14  |   10 || above |    2  |    2 ||2·1-2·2|  ...  |  ... |
+  |  12  |   11  |    8 ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2·3-2·4|    1  |    6 |
+  |  13  |   10  |    2 ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2·5-2·6|  ...  |    4 |
+  |  14  |    7  |  ... ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2·7-2·8|  ...  |    3 |
+  |  15  |    6  |  ... ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2·9-3·0|  ...  |    1 |
+  |above |    2  |  ... ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... || above |    1  |    1 |
+  |      |-------|------||       |-------|------||       |-------|------|
+  |      |  100  |  100 ||       |  100  |  100 ||       |  100  |  100 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXXII.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------+
+  |           |Ordinates to the six schemes of  |
+  |           |Distribution, being the ordinates|
+  |           |drawn from the base of each      |
+  |           |scheme at selected centesimal    |
+  |           |divisions of the base.           |
+  | Abscissae |---------------------------------|
+  | reckoned  |                                 |
+  | in        |     No. of ridges in AH.        |
+  | centesimal|                                 |
+  | parts of  |---------------------------------|
+  | the       |     Right.     |     Left.      |
+  | interval  |----------------|----------------|
+  | between   |  O  |Calculated|  O  |Calculated|
+  | the limits|  b  |from      |  b  |from      |
+  | of the    |  s  |M=10·4    |  s  |M=7·8     |
+  | scheme.   |  e  |p.e.=2·3  |  e  |p.e.=1·9  |
+  | 0° to     |  r  |          |  r  |          |
+  | 100°.     |  v  |          |  v  |          |
+  |           |  e  |          |  e  |          |
+  |           |  d  |          |  d  |          |
+  |-----------|-----|----------|-----|----------|
+  |   5       | 3·8 |    4·8   | 3·8 |   3·2    |
+  |     10    | 5·5 |    6·0   | 4·8 |   4·2    |
+  |     20    | 7·3 |    7·5   | 5·8 |   5·4    |
+  |  25       | 7·9 |    8·1   | 6·1 |   5·9    |
+  |     30    | 8·5 |    8·6   | 6·4 |   6·3    |
+  |     40    | 9·5 |    9·5   | 7·1 |   7·4    |
+  |     50    |10·5 |   10·4   | 7·8 |   7·8    |
+  |     60    |11·3 |   11·3   | 8·4 |   8·2    |
+  |     70    |12·1 |   12·2   | 9·3 |   9·3    |
+  |  75       |12·5 |   12·7   | 9·9 |   9·7    |
+  |     80    |13·0 |   13·3   |11·0 |  10·2    |
+  |     90    |14·3 |   14·8   |11·5 |  11·4    |
+  |  95       |15·0 |   16·0   |12·2 |  12·2    |
+  +---------------------------------------------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                   KL            ||                  AN              |
+  |         Values of --            ||        Values of --              |
+  |                   NB            ||                  AH              |
+  |---------------------------------||----------------------------------|
+  |     Right.     |     Left.      ||     Right.     |     Left.       |
+  |----------------|----------------||----------------|-----------------|
+  |  O  |Calculated|  O  |Calculated||  O  |Calculated|  O  |Calculated |
+  |  b  |from      |  b  |from      ||  b  |from      |  b  |from       |
+  |  s  |M=1·15    |  s  |M=1·10    ||  s  |M=1·08    |  s  |M=1·36     |
+  |  e  |p.e.=0·25 |  e  |p.e.=0·31 ||  e  |p.e.=0·30 |  e  |p.e.=0·36  |
+  |  r  |          |  r  |          ||  r  |          |  r  |           |
+  |  v  |          |  v  |          ||  v  |          |  v  |           |
+  |  e  |          |  e  |          ||  e  |          |  e  |           |
+  |  d  |          |  d  |          ||  d  |          |  d  |           |
+  |-----|----------|-----|----------||-----|----------|-----|-----------|
+  |0·54 |   0·54   |0·49 |   0·35   ||0·36 |  0·32    |0·58 |   0·48    |
+  |0·64 |   0·67   |0·59 |   0·51   ||0·50 |  0·48    |0·74 |   0·68    |
+  |0·85 |   0·84   |0·78 |   0·71   ||0·66 |  0·67    |0·96 |   0·91    |
+  |0·91 |   0·90   |0·83 |   0·79   ||0·79 |  0·75    |1·00 |   l·00    |
+  |0·99 |   0·95   |0·89 |   0·86   ||0·87 |  0·82    |1·04 |   1·08    |
+  |1·05 |   1·05   |1·00 |   0·98   ||0·98 |  0·93    |1·21 |   1·22    |
+  |1·15 |   1·15   |1·10 |   1·10   ||1·04 |  1·05    |1·37 |   1·36    |
+  |1·29 |   1·25   |1·18 |   1·22   ||1·18 |  1·17    |1·48 |   1·50    |
+  |1·33 |   1·35   |1·32 |   1·34   ||1·31 |  1·28    |1·66 |   1·64    |
+  |1·41 |   1·40   |1·46 |   1·41   ||1·39 |  1·35    |1·73 |   1·72    |
+  |1·45 |   1·46   |1·53 |   1·49   ||1·48 |  1·43    |1·90 |   2·81    |
+  |1·77 |   1·63   |1·73 |   1·69   ||1·69 |  1·62    |2·23 |   2·04    |
+  |2·00 |   1·76   |1·80 |   1·85   ||1·81 |  1·78    |2·48 |   2·24    |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXXIII.
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------
+  |            | Ordinates to the six curves of          |
+  |            | distribution, drawn from the axis of    |
+  |            | each curve at selected centesimal       |
+  |            | divisions of it.                        |
+  |            |                                         |
+  |            | They are here reduced to a common       |
+  |            | measure, by dividing the observed       |
+  |            | deviations in each series by the        |
+  |Abscissae   | probable error appropriate to the       |
+  |reckoned in | series, and multiplying by 100. For the |
+  |centesimal  | values of M, whence the deviations are  |
+  |parts of the| measured, and for those of the          |
+  |interval    | corresponding probable error, see the   |
+  |between the | headings to the columns in Table II.    |
+  |limits of   |-----------------------------------------|
+  |the curve.  |    No. of   |          KL |          AN |
+  |0° to 100°. |    Ridges   |Values of -- |Values of -- |
+  |            |    in AH.   |          NB |          AH |
+  |            |-------------|-------------|-------------|
+  |            |Right.| Left.|Right.| Left.|Right.| Left.|
+  |------------|------|------|------|------|-------------|
+  |     5      | -291 | -211 | -244 | -196 | -230 | -217 |
+  |         10 | -213 | -158 | -204 | -164 | -183 | -172 |
+  |         20 | -135 | -105 | -120 | -103 | -130 | -111 |
+  |(P) 25      | -109 | - 84 | - 92 | - 87 | - 87 | -100 |
+  |         30 | - 83 | - 74 | - 64 | - 68 | - 60 | - 89 |
+  |         40 | - 44 | - 37 | - 44 | - 31 | - 23 | - 42 |
+  |(M) 50      | +  4 |    0 |    0 |    0 |    0 |    0 |
+  |         60 | + 39 | + 31 | + 56 | + 23 | + 43 | + 33 |
+  |         70 | + 74 | + 79 | + 72 | + 68 | + 87 | + 83 |
+  |(Q) 75      | + 91 | +116 | +104 | +116 | +113 | +103 |
+  |         80 | +113 | +168 | +120 | +138 | +143 | +150 |
+  |         90 | +170 | +200 | +248 | +203 | +213 | +242 |
+  |    95      | +200 | +231 | +340 | +225 | +253 | +311 |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------
+
+  -------------------------------------+
+  |                  |                 |
+  |     Observed.    |   Calculated.   |
+  |------------------|-----------------|
+  |   Mean of the    |                 |
+  |  corresponding   |                 |
+  |   ordinates in   |                 |
+  |  the six curves  |                 |
+  |  after reduction |                 |
+  |   to the common  |   Ordinates to  |
+  |     scale of     | the normal curve|
+  |   p.e. = 100.    | of distribution,|
+  | 965 observations | probable error  |
+  |     in all.      |      = 100.     |
+  |------------------|-----------------|
+  |      -231        |       -244      |
+  |      -182        |       -190      |
+  |      -117        |       -125      |
+  |      - 93        |       -100      |
+  |      - 73        |       - 78      |
+  |      - 37        |       - 38      |
+  |      +  1        |          0      |
+  |      + 38        |       + 38      |
+  |      + 77        |       + 78      |
+  |      +107        |       +100      |
+  |      +139        |       +125      |
+  |      +213        |       +190      |
+  |      +260        |       +244      |
+  -------------------------------------+
+
+Table XXXII. is derived from Table XXXI. by a process described by myself
+in many publications, more especially in _Natural Inheritance_, and will
+now be assumed as understood. Each of the six pairs of columns contain,
+side by side, the Observed and Calculated values of one of the six series,
+the data on which the calculations were made being also entered at the
+top. The calculated figures agree with the observed ones very respectably
+throughout, as can be judged even by those who are ignorant of the
+principles of the method. Let us take the value that 10 per cent of each
+of the six series falls short of, and 90 per cent exceed; they are entered
+in the line opposite 10; we find for the six pairs successively,
+
+  _Obs._:  5·5   4·8   0·64   0·59   0·50   0·74
+
+  _Calc._: 6·0   4·2   0·67   0·51   0·48   0·68
+
+The correspondence between the more mediocre cases is much closer than
+these, and very much closer than between the extreme cases given in the
+table, namely, the values that 5 per cent fall short of, and 95 exceed.
+These are of course less regular, the observed instances being very few;
+but even here the observations are found to agree respectably well with
+the proportions given by calculation, which is necessarily based upon the
+supposition of an infinite number of cases having been included in the
+series.
+
+As the want of agreement between calculation and observation must be
+caused in part by the paucity of observations, it is worth while to make
+a larger group, by throwing the six series together, as in Table XXXIII.,
+making a grand total of 965 observations. Their value is not so great as
+if they were observations taken from that number of different persons,
+still they are equivalent to a large increase of those already discussed.
+The six series of observed values were made comparable on equal terms by
+first reducing them to a uniform PE and then by assigning to M, the point
+of departure, the value of 0. The results are given in the last column but
+one, where the orderly run of the observed data is much more conspicuous
+than it was before. Though there is an obvious want of exact symmetry in
+the observed values, their general accord with those of the calculated
+values is very fair. It is quite close enough to establish the general
+proposition, that we are justified in the conception of a typical form of
+loop, different for the two thumbs; the departure from the typical form
+being usually small, sometimes rather greater, and rarely greater still.
+
+I do not see my way to discuss the variations of the arches, because they
+possess no distinct points of reference. But their general appearance does
+not give the impression of clustering around a typical centre. They
+suggest the idea of a fountain-head, whose stream begins to broaden out
+from the first.
+
+As regards other patterns, I have made many measurements altogether, but
+the specimens of each sort were comparatively few, except in whorled
+patterns. In all cases where I was able to form a well-founded opinion,
+the existence of a typical centre was indicated.
+
+It would be tedious to enumerate the many different trials made for my own
+satisfaction, to gain assurance that the variability of the several
+patterns is really of the quasi-normal kind just described. In the first
+trial I measured in various ways the dimensions of about 500 enlarged
+photographs of loops, and about as many of other patterns, and found that
+the measurements in each and every case formed a quasi-normal series. I do
+not care to submit these results, because they necessitate more
+explanation and analysis than the interest of the corrected results would
+perhaps justify, to eliminate from them the effect of variety of size of
+thumb, and some other uncertainties. Those measurements referred to some
+children, a few women, many youths, and a fair number of adults; and
+allowance has to be made for variability in stature in each of these
+classes.
+
+The proportions of a typical loop on the thumb are easily ascertained if
+we may assume that the most frequent values of its variable elements,
+taken separately, are the same as those that enter into the most frequent
+combination of the elements taken collectively. This would necessarily be
+true if the variability of each element separately, and that of the sum of
+them in combination, were all strictly normal, but as they are only
+quasi-normal, the assumption must be tested. I have done so by making the
+comparisons (_A_) and (_B_) shown in Table XXXIV., which come out
+correctly to within the first decimal place.
+
+TABLE XXXIV.
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                                        |Right | Left |
+  |                                        |Thumb.|Thumb.|
+  |----------------------------------------|------|------|
+  |(_a_)  Median of all the values of KL   | 12·5 | 10·1 |
+  |(_b_)  Median of all the values of NB   | 10·1 |  8·9 |
+  |                                        |------|------|
+  |(_A_)  Value of _a/b_                   |  1·24|  1·11|
+  |(_A_)  Median of all the fractions KL/NB|  1·15|  1·10|
+  |========================================|======|======|
+  |(_c_)  Median of all the values of AN   |  4·6 |  4·6 |
+  |(_d_)  Median of all the values of AH   |  4·4 |  3·3 |
+  |                                        |------|------|
+  |(_B_)  Value of _c/d_                   |  1·05|  1·40|
+  |(_B_)  Median of all the fractions AN/AH|  1·08|  1·36|
+  +------------------------------------------------------+
+
+It has been shown that the patterns are hereditary, and we have seen that
+they are uncorrelated with race or temperament or any other noticeable
+peculiarity, inasmuch as groups of very different classes are alike in
+their finger marks. They cannot exercise the slightest influence on
+marriage selection, the very existence both of the ridges and of the
+patterns having been almost overlooked; they are too small to attract
+attention, or to be thought worthy of notice. We therefore possess a
+perfect instance of promiscuity in marriage, or, as it is now called,
+panmixia, in respect to these patterns. We might consequently have
+expected them to be hybridised. But that is not the case; they _refuse to
+blend_. Their classes are as clearly separated as those of any of the
+genera of plants and animals. They keep pure and distinct, as if they had
+severally descended from a thorough-bred ancestry, each in respect to its
+own peculiar character.
+
+As regards other forms of natural selection, we know that races are kept
+pure by the much more frequent destruction of those individuals who depart
+the more widely from the typical centre. But natural selection was shown
+to be inoperative in respect to individual varieties of patterns, and
+unable to exercise the slightest check upon their vagaries. Yet, for all
+that, the loops and other classes of patterns are isolated from one
+another just as thoroughly and just in the same way as are the genera or
+species of plants and animals. There is no statistical difference between
+the form of the law of distribution of individual Loops about their
+respective typical centres, and that of the law by which, say, the Shrimps
+described in Mr. Weldon's recent memoirs (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1891 and
+1892) are distributed about theirs. In both cases the distribution is in
+quasi-accordance with the theoretical law of Frequency of Error, this form
+of distribution being entirely caused in the patterns, by _internal_
+conditions, and in no way by natural selection in the ordinary sense of
+that term.
+
+It is impossible not to recognise the fact so clearly illustrated by these
+patterns in the thumbs, that natural selection has no monopoly of
+influence in the construction of genera, but that it could be wholly
+dispensed with, the internal conditions acting by themselves being
+sufficient. When the internal conditions are in harmony with the external
+ones, as they appear to be in all long-established races, their joint
+effects will curb individual variability more tightly than either could do
+by itself. The normal character of the distribution about the typical
+centre will not be thereby interfered with. The probable divergence (=
+probable error) of an individual taken at random, will be lessened, and
+that is all.
+
+Not only is it impossible to substantiate a claim for natural selection,
+that it is the sole agent in forming genera, but it seems, from the
+experience of artificial selection, that it is scarcely competent to do so
+by favouring mere _varieties_, in the sense in which I understand the
+term.
+
+My contention is that it acts by favouring small _sports_. Mere varieties
+from a common typical centre blend freely in the offspring, and the
+offspring of every race whose _statistical_ characters are constant,
+necessarily tend, as I have often shown, to regress towards their common
+typical centre. Sports, on the other hand, do not blend freely; they are
+fresh typical centres or sub-species, which suddenly arise we do not yet
+know precisely through what uncommon concurrence of circumstance, and
+which observations show to be strongly transmissible by inheritance.
+
+A mere variety can never establish a sticking-point in the forward course
+of evolution, but each new sport affords one. A substantial change of type
+is effected, as I conceive, by a succession of small changes of typical
+centre, each more or less stable, and each being in its turn favoured and
+established by natural selection, to the exclusion of its competitors. The
+distinction between a mere variety and a sport is real and fundamental. I
+argued this point in _Natural Inheritance_, but had then to draw my
+illustrations from non-physiological experiences, no appropriate
+physiological ones being then at hand: this want is now excellently
+supplied by observations of the patterns on the digits.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  AH, number of ridges in, 200
+
+  Allix, 60
+
+  A. L. W. system, 80
+
+  Ambiguities in minutiæ, 91, 111
+
+  America, 163
+
+  Anthropometric laboratory, 4, 35
+
+  Arches, 7, 75, 78;
+    interpretations of, 114, 193
+
+  Artisans, 59
+
+  Artists, 58
+
+  Assyrian bricks, 25
+
+  Atkinson, R. F., 192
+
+  Author, the, finger prints of, 8, 58, 73
+
+  Axis of pattern, 68
+
+
+  Ball for inking, 42
+
+  Ball of thumb, 96
+
+  Basques, 18, 192
+
+  Bearings as by compass, 84
+
+  Beech, Dr. Fletcher, 197
+
+  Benzole, 36, 41
+
+  Bertillon, 2, 15, 154, 169;
+    _Bertillonage_, 155, 164, 167
+
+  Bewick, 26
+
+  Bible, the, 22
+
+  Bifurcations, 91
+
+  Binomial law, 11, 112
+
+  Bird's nest, 34
+
+  Blacklead, 49
+
+  Blood as ink, 45
+
+  Bowditch, H. P., Professor, 47
+
+  British Museum, 25
+
+  Brobdingnags, 1
+
+  Brothers, 171
+
+  Burns of finger, 59
+
+
+  C. set of standard patterns, 177
+
+  Callosities, 59
+
+  Cambo, 18, 192
+
+  Camera lucida, 52, 104
+
+  Cards, 38;
+    keeping in order, 145
+
+  Casts, 49
+
+  Centesimal scale, 12, 17, 124, 129, 182
+
+  Cheiromancy, 1, 26;
+    creases, 56
+
+  Chequer-work, 106
+
+  Chess board, 106
+
+  Chinese deed, 24;
+    money, 25;
+    cheiromancy, 26;
+    registration of Chinese, 26, 152
+
+  Cicatrix, 59
+
+  Circular patterns, optical illusion, 77
+
+  Collins, F. H., 17, 21, 177, 190, 193
+
+  Collodion, 51
+
+  Colour-blindness, 71
+
+  Comparison of prints, 90, 167
+
+  Compass bearings, 84
+
+  Compasses, test by the points of, 61
+
+  Copper sheeting for inking, 42;
+    for smoking, 48
+
+  Cores, 6, 76, 145
+
+  Correlation, 158
+
+  Couplets of digits, 119;
+    of A and B brothers, 172
+
+  Creases, 1, 56;
+    in infant, 57
+
+  Criminals, 149
+
+  Crosse, Dr., 192
+
+  Cylinder, revolving, 49
+
+
+  Dabs by the finger, 40, 90, 153
+
+  Darenth Asylum, 19, 197
+
+  Demography, Congress of, 163
+
+  Deserters, 149, 164
+
+  Development, 58
+
+  Digits, peculiarities of, 114
+
+  Direction of twist, 78
+
+  Divergence of ridges, 68
+
+  Drawing master, 48
+
+  Ducts, 57
+
+  Dyes, 44
+
+
+  Ear-marking the A, B sets of brothers, 172
+
+  Embryology, 58
+
+  Enclosures within ridges, 92
+
+  English, the, 17, 192
+
+  Enlargements, 51
+
+  Envelopes to rods or staples, 76
+
+  Error, law of, 19, 198;
+    "probable," 199
+
+  EVIDENTIAL VALUE, Chap. VII., 100
+
+  Evolution, 20, 60
+
+  Eyes in patterns, 143
+
+
+  Fauld, Mr., 26
+
+  Feet, prints of, 45;
+    ridges on, 57, 58
+
+  Féré, M., 197
+
+  Ferris, Major, 149
+
+  Ferro-prussiate process, 51, 53, 90
+
+  File, 63
+
+  Flexure, lines of, in palm, 56
+
+  Focus of eye, range of, 72
+
+  Folders;--inked, 42;
+    smoked, 48
+
+  Foot-paths, 107
+
+  Forgeot, Dr., 46
+
+  Forks, 91
+
+  Fraternity, 16, 171
+
+  Frequency of error, law of, 19, 198
+
+  Funnel, 36
+
+  Furrows, not followed, 82
+
+
+  G----, Sir W., 89, 97
+
+  GENERA, Chap. XIII., 198;
+    the nine chief genera, 6, 80
+
+  Glass, temporary prints on, 30;
+    etched, 47;
+    for lantern, 51
+
+  Glue, 48
+
+  Goldie, Sir G. T., 192
+
+  Granulations on rollers, 34
+
+  Greenleaf, Col. C. R., 164
+
+  Gulliver, 1
+
+  Gum, 48
+
+  Gutta-percha, 50
+
+
+  Hand, 23, 45
+
+  Harrild, Messrs., 36, 41
+
+  Hawksley, 42
+
+  Haycraft, Dr. J. B., 51
+
+  Head-length and breadth, 158
+
+  Hebrews, 18, 192, 194
+
+  Herbette, M., 168
+
+  HEREDITY, Chap. XI., 170;
+    _see also_ 16
+
+  Herschel, Sir W. J., 4, 9, 27;
+    instructions for printing, 45;
+    data for persistence, 89;
+    right fore-finger of, 95;
+    official experience, 27, 149, 153
+
+  Hindoos, 152
+
+
+  I (or Inner side), 70
+
+  Identification, 147;
+    _see_ Jezebel, 113
+
+  Idiots, 8, 19, 59, 197
+
+  Illusion, 66, 77
+
+  Indexing, power of, 14, 139, 167;
+    methods of, 131;
+    specimen of, 133;
+    search in, 166
+
+  India-rubber for roller, 40
+
+  Ink, printer's, 37;
+    for stamp, 45
+
+  Inner side, 70
+
+  Interpolation of ridges, 102, 104
+
+  Interspace, 54, 67
+
+  Interval, equally discernible, 65, 101
+
+  Islands, 92
+
+
+  Japan, 23, 26
+
+  Jews, 18, 192, 194
+
+  Jezebel, 113
+
+
+  Kensington, S., my laboratory at, 4, 35
+
+  Klaatsch, Dr. H., 60
+
+  Kollmann, Dr. A., 58
+
+
+  Labels, gummed, as for luggage, 48
+
+  Laboratory, anthropometric, 4, 35
+
+  Labourers, 59, 197
+
+  Lace, 9, 98
+
+  Ladies' hands, ridges on, 32
+
+  Language, inadequacy of, 172
+
+  Lankester, Prof. Ray, 45
+
+  Left and right, 70
+
+  Lenses, 72
+
+  Letters, alike when reversed, 71
+
+  Licked paper, 48
+
+  Linen-tester (lens), 73
+
+  Linseed oil, 37
+
+  Litharge, 35
+
+  Lithography, 43
+
+  Loops, 7, 75, 78;
+    predominance of, 101;
+    relationships of, 184;
+    on thumbs, 200;
+    typical shape of, 207
+
+  Lying Bob, 27
+
+  Lyon, 155
+
+
+  Mammalia, 60
+
+  Marseille, 155
+
+  Measurement of patterns, 82
+
+  Memoirs by the author, 3
+
+  METHODS OF INDEXING, Chap. IX., 131
+
+  METHODS OF PRINTING, Chap. III., 30
+
+  Mica, 47, 51
+
+  Minutiæ, 54;
+    ambiguities in, 91, 99
+
+  Monkey pattern, 18, 54, 77;
+    ridges on tail, 60;
+    Purkenje on, 86, 88;
+    stuffed, 97
+
+  Morgue, 148;
+    _see_ Jezebel, 113
+
+  Mould for casting rollers, 40
+
+  Mountain ranges, 32
+
+  Mucilage, 48
+
+  Mummies, ridges still visible, 97
+
+
+  Nail-marks, 25, 67
+
+  Natural selection, 20, 210
+
+  Negro, 18, 192, 195;
+    cheiromancy, 26
+
+  Ngeu-yang-siun, 25
+
+  Notes, musical, 63
+
+
+  Oil, oxidisation of, 34, 43;
+    for ink, 37
+
+  Orientation, 68
+
+  Outer side, 70
+
+  Outlines, 6, 69;
+    followed with a point, 74
+
+  Overtones, 63
+
+
+  Pacinian bodies, 60
+
+  Pad for stamp, 32, 44;
+    of paper, 38
+
+  Palm of the hand, 54, 88, 113
+
+  Palmistry, 1, 26;
+    _see_ Cheiromancy, 56
+
+  Panmixia, 20, 209
+
+  Pantagraph, 52
+
+  Paper in pads, 38;
+    _see_ Cards
+
+  Papillæ, 60
+
+  Paraffin, 36
+
+  Paris, 155
+
+  Passports, 15, 149
+
+  Paste, 48
+
+  PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES, Chap. V., 64;
+    _see also_ 2, 54, 170;
+    number of easily distinguishable patterns, 100;
+    standard, 74, 80;
+    ditto C. set, 177;
+    percentage frequency of, 115
+
+  PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS, Chap. VIII., 114
+
+  PERSISTENCE, Chap. VI., 89
+
+  PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION, Chap. X., 147;
+    _see also_ 16, 113;
+    lecture on, 2
+
+  Photographers, 147;
+    photographs, 3, 51
+
+  Plots, triangular, 67, 82
+
+  Plumbago, 49
+
+  Pocket printing apparatus, 40
+
+  Points of reference, 90
+
+  Poole, Mr. S. L., 25
+
+  Pores, 57
+
+  PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS, Chap. II., 22
+
+  Printing, the methods of, 30;
+    printer's ink, 35
+
+  Prism, 52, 104
+
+  Purkenje's _Commentatio_, 84;
+    _see also_ 8, 64, 67;
+    on slope of loop, 119
+
+
+  RACES AND CLASSES, Chap. XII., 192;
+    _see also_ 17
+
+  Radial, 70
+
+  Random events, 172;
+    _see also_ 126
+
+  Razor, prints on, 30
+
+  Reconstruction of hidden ridges, 102
+
+  Reeves and Co., 35
+
+  Registration in India, 28, 151
+
+  Regression, 21, 171
+
+  Relationship in fingers, 12, 123;
+    fraternal, 171, 175;
+    in twins, 185;
+    filial, 190;
+    ditto of like-patterned parents, 187;
+    in patterns, 178;
+    paternal and maternal, 190
+
+  Reticulation, 108
+
+  Reversals, 43, 71
+
+  RIDGES AND THEIR USES, Chap. IV., 54;
+    _see also_ low relief of ridges, 32;
+    counting them, 73;
+    ridge-interval, 62:--measurement by, 83;
+    squares of one in the side, 102;
+    of six, 103;
+    of five, 107, 111
+
+  Right and left, 70
+
+  Robinson, Dr. Louis, 45
+
+  Rods, 76
+
+  Rolled prints, 7, 39, 68
+
+  Roller, 36;
+    small, 40
+
+  Royal Institution, 2
+
+
+  Sand, ridges on, 54
+
+  Scars, 59, 97
+
+  Seal, 22;
+    sealing-wax casts, 50
+
+  Seamstresses, 59
+
+  Selection, 20, 209
+
+  Shrimps, 210
+
+  _Signalements_, 156
+
+  Size (glue), 48, 49
+
+  Skin disease on fingers, 122
+
+  Slab, 4, 35, 41
+
+  Slopes, 136;
+    on fore-finger, 118
+
+  Smart, Major Charles, 164
+
+  Smoke-prints, 47
+
+  Snow on mountain ranges, 32
+
+  Soda (washing), 36, 41
+
+  Spielman, Isidore, Mr., 192
+
+  Spirals, 74
+
+  Sports, 20, 211
+
+  Squares (interpolations), 10, 101
+
+  Standard patterns, 74, 76;
+    the C. set, 177
+
+  Staples, 76, 83
+
+  Stereoscope, 9
+
+  Students, in Art and Science, 197
+
+  Surnames, Hindoo and Chinese, 14, 152
+
+  Swift, Dean, 1
+
+  Symbols for patterns, 144
+
+  Systems of ridges on palm, 54
+
+
+  Tables, _see_ list of, p. xiii.
+
+  Tabor, Mr., 26
+
+  Tabulations, 179
+
+  Tang dynasty, 25
+
+  Tattoo marks, 97
+
+  Taylor, T. Meadows, Mr., 24
+
+  Teeth, 166
+
+  Tests of calculated Randoms, 173;
+    of classification, 179
+
+  Thompson, Gilbert, Mr., 27, 44
+
+  Thrills, their relation to notes, 63
+
+  Thumb, loops on, 200;
+    ball of, 96, 98
+
+  _Tipsahi_, 24
+
+  Titchener, E. B., Mr., 62
+
+  Title-page, prints on, 8, 58, 73;
+    index-number to them, 135
+
+  Toes, 57
+
+  Tools, callosities caused by, 59
+
+  Transitional patterns, 79, 143, 178
+
+  Triangular plots, 67, 86, 87
+
+  Turpentine, 36
+
+  Twins, 17, 167, 185
+
+  Twist, direction of, 78
+
+  Type, 19, 198
+
+
+  Ulnar, 70
+
+  United States, system used in, 15, 164
+
+
+  Variation, 20, 211
+
+  Varnish, prints on when undried, 50
+
+  Velvet, 63
+
+
+  Wall-paper, 66
+
+  Water colours, 44
+
+  Wax;--sealing, 50;
+    dentist's, 50
+
+  Weldon, Prof., 210
+
+  Welsh, the, 17, 192
+
+  Wen-teh, the Empress, 25
+
+  Whitening, 49
+
+  Whorls, 7, 75, 78
+
+  Wundt, Professor, laboratory at Leipzig, 62
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, _Edinburgh_.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Der Tastapparat der Hand der menschlichen Rassen und der Affen._ Dr.
+Arthur Kollmann. Leopold Voss, Leipzig, 1883. He has also published a more
+recent memoir.
+
+[2] "Morphologie der Tastballen der Saugethiere," _Jahrbuch_, xiv. p. 407.
+Leipzig, 1888.
+
+[3] _Ann. Sc. Nat._, 5th series, vol. ix. 1868.
+
+[4] The Latin is obscure. "Mira vallecularum tangentium in interna parte
+manus pedisque ... dispositio flexuraque attentionem ... in se trahit."
+There are three ways of translating "tangentium," and none of them makes
+good sense. In the index of prints he uses the phrase "vallecularum
+tactui." It would seem that he looked upon the furrows, and not the
+ridges, as the special seat of touch.
+
+[5] The results arrived at by M. Féré in a Memoir (_Comptes Rendus, Soc.
+Biologie_, July 2, 1891; Masson, 120 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris) may be
+collated with mine. The Memoir is partly a review of my paper in the
+_Phil. Trans._, and contains many observations of his own. His data are
+derived from epileptics and others mentally affected. He has, by the way,
+curiously misinterpreted my views about symmetry.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}.
+
+Subscripted characters are indicated by =subscript=.
+
+Characters in smaller font are indicated by ~small~.
+
+Punctuation has been corrected without note.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
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+      The Project Gutenberg eBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton.
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+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Finger Prints
+
+Author: Francis Galton
+
+Release Date: August 5, 2011 [EBook #36979]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FINGER PRINTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
+
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+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+
+<p class="center"><span class="giant">FINGER PRINTS</span></p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="huge">FINGER PRINTS</span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/title.jpg" alt="FINGER PRINTS OF THE AUTHOR" /></div>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><small>BY</small></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">FRANCIS GALTON, F.R.S., <small>ETC.</small></span></p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">London<br />
+MACMILLAN AND CO.<br />
+AND NEW YORK<br />
+1892</p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p>
+<h2>CONTENTS</h2>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_I">CHAPTER I</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Introduction</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Distinction between creases and ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_1">1</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Origin of the inquiry</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_2">2</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Summaries of the subsequent chapters</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_3">3-21</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">Viz. of  ii., <a href="#Page_3">3</a>;</span>
+    <span class="spacer2">iii., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>;</span>
+    <span class="spacer">iv., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;v., <a href="#Page_5">5</a>;</span>
+    vi., <a href="#Page_8">8</a>;
+    <span class="spacer2">&nbsp;vii., <a href="#Page_10">10</a>;</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">&nbsp;<span class="spacer2">viii., <a href="#Page_12">12</a>;</span>
+    <span style="margin-left: -.5em;">ix., <a href="#Page_13">13</a>;</span>
+    <span class="spacer2">&nbsp;&nbsp;x., <a href="#Page_14">14</a>;</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span style="margin-left: 1em;"><span class="spacer2">&nbsp;&nbsp;xi., <a href="#Page_16">16</a>;</span>
+    <span style="margin-left: -.5em;">xii., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>;</span>
+    <span class="spacer2">xiii., <a href="#Page_19">19</a>;</span></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_II">CHAPTER II</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Previous Use of Finger Prints</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Superstition of personal contact</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_22">22</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Rude hand-prints</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Seals to documents</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Chinese finger marks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">The <i>tipsahi</i> of Bengal</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_24">24</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Nail-marks on Assyrian bricks</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Nail-mark on Chinese coins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Ridges and cheiromancy&mdash;China, Japan, and by negroes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Modern usage&mdash;Bewick, Fauld, Tabor, and G. Thompson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Their official use by Sir W. J. Herschel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_III">CHAPTER III</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Methods of Printing</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Impression on polished glass or razor</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_30">30</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">The two contrasted methods of printing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_31">31</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">General remarks on printing from reliefs&mdash;ink; low relief of ridges; layer of ink; drying due to oxidisation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32-34</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Apparatus at my own laboratory&mdash;slab; roller; benzole (or equivalent); funnel; ink; cards</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_35">35-38</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Method of its manipulation</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_38">38-40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Pocket apparatus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Rollers and their manufacture</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Other parts of the apparatus</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_41">41</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Folders&mdash;long serviceable if air be excluded</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_42">42</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Lithography</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_43">43</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Water colours and dyes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_44">44</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Sir W. Herschel&#8217;s official instructions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Printing as from engraved plates&mdash;Prof. Ray Lankester; Dr. L. Robinson</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_45">45</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Methods of Dr. Forgeot</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_46">46</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Smoke prints&mdash;mica; adhesive paper, by licking with tongue</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_47">47-48</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Plumbago; whitening</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Casts&mdash;sealing-wax; dentist&#8217;s wax; gutta-percha; undried varnish; collodion</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_49">49-51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Photographs</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Prints on glass and mica for lantern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_51">51</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Enlargements&mdash;photographic, by camera lucida, pantagraph</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_52">52-53</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IV">CHAPTER IV</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Ridges and their Uses</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">General character of the ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span>Systems on the palm&mdash;principal ones; small interpolated systems</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_54"><ins class="correction" title="original: 45">54</ins>-55</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Cheiromantic creases&mdash;their directions; do not strictly correspond with those of ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_56">56-57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Ridges on the soles of the feet</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Pores</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_57">57</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Development:&mdash;embryology; subsequent growth; disintegration by age, by injuries</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_58">58-59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Evolution</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Apparent use as regards pressure&mdash;theoretic; experiment with compass points</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_60">60-61</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Apparent use as regards rubbing&mdash;thrill thereby occasioned</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_62">62-63</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_V">CHAPTER V</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Patterns: their Outlines and Cores</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">My earlier failures in classifying prints; their causes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_64">64-66</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">The triangular plots</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Outlines of patterns&mdash;eight sets of ten digits given as examples</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_69">69-70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Supplies of ridges to pattern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Letters that read alike when reversed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_71">71</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Magnifying glasses, spectacles, etc.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_72">72</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Rolled impressions, their importance</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_73">73</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Standard patterns, cores, and their nomenclature</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_74">74-77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Direction of twist, nomenclature</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Arches, loops, whorls</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_78">78</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Transitional cases</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">The nine genera</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Measurements&mdash;by ridge-intervals; by aid of bearings like compass</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_82">82-84</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Purkenje&mdash;his <i>Commentatio</i> and a translation of it in part</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_84">84-88</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VI">CHAPTER VI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Persistence</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Evidence available</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_89">89</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">About thirty-five points of reference in each print</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Photo-enlargement; orientation; tracing axes of ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_90">90-91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Ambiguities in minuti&aelig;</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_91">91</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">V. H. Hd. as child and boy, a solitary change in one of the minuti&aelig;</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Eight couplets from other persons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">One from Sir W. G.</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Summary of 389 comparisons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Ball of a thumb</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Results as to persistence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VII">CHAPTER VII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Evidential Value</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Method of rough comparison</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_100">100</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Chance against guessing a pattern</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Number of independent elements in a print&mdash;squares respectively of one, six, and five ridge-intervals in side</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_101">101-103</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Interpolation, three methods of</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_103">103-105</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Local accidents inside square</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_107">107</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Uncertainties outside it</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_109">109</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Compound results</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_110">110</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Effect of failure in one, two, or more prints</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_111">111</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Final conclusions&mdash;Jezebel</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_112">112-113</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">CHAPTER VIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Peculiarities of the Digits</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Frequency per cent of arches, loops, and whorls generally, and on the several digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_114">114-115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span>Characteristic groups of digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116-118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Relationships between the digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_119">119</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Centesimal scale of relationship</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_124">124-126</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Digits of same and of different names</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_130">130</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_IX">CHAPTER IX</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Methods of Indexing</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Use of an index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Method of few conspicuous differences in many fingers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_131">131</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Specimen index</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Order in which the digits are noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_134">134</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Examples of indexing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Effect of regarding slopes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_135">135</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Number of index-heads required for 100 sets in each of twelve different methods</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136-138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in forefingers only</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_138">138</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">List of commonest index-headings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Number of headings to 100 sets, according to the digits that are noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Transitional cases; sub-classifications</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_143">143-144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Symbols for patterns</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_144">144</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Storing cards</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Number of entries under each head when only the first three fingers are noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_X">CHAPTER X</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Personal Identification</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Printers and photographers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_147">147</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Use of means of identification to honest persons; in regard to criminals</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_148">148-149</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Major Ferris, Mr. Tabor, N. Borneo</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_149">149-153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Best digits for registration purposes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_153">153</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_x" id="Page_x">[Pg x]</a></span>Registration of criminals&mdash;M. Bertillon</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_154">154</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Details of <i>Bertillonage</i>; success attributed to it; a theoretic error</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_155">155-158</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Verification on a small scale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_158">158-162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Experiences in the United States</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_163">163</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Body marks; teeth</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_165">165-166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Value of finger prints for search in a register</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_166">166</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Identification by comparison</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_167">167</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Remarks by M. Herbette</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_168">168</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XI">CHAPTER XI</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Heredity</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Different opinions</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Larger meaning of heredity</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_170">170</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Connection between filial and fraternal relationships</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Fraternity, a faulty word but the best available</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_171">171</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">A and B brothers</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_172">172</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Test case of calculated randoms</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_173">173</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Fraternities by double A. L. W. events</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">The C. standard patterns</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_177">177</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Limitation of couplets in large fraternities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_178">178</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Test of accurate classification</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_179">179</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Fraternities by double C. events</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Centesimal scale applied</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_184">184</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Twins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_185">185</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Children of like-patterned parents</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_187">187</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Simple filial relationship</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Influences of father and mother</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XII">CHAPTER XII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Races and Classes</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Data for races</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_192">192</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xi" id="Page_xi">[Pg xi]</a></span>Racial differences are statistical only</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Calculations by Mr. F. H. Collins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_193">193</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Hebrew peculiarities</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Negro peculiarities, questionable</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_196">196</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Data for different classes in temperament, faculty, etc., and results</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">M. F&eacute;r&eacute;</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_197">197</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><a href="#CHAPTER_XIII">CHAPTER XIII</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td><span class="smcap">Genera</span></td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Type, meaning of</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Law of frequency of error</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_198">198</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Discussion of three elements in the loops on either thumb</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_200">200-207</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Proportions of typical loops</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">The patterns are transmitted under conditions of panmixia, yet do not blend</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Their genera are not due to selection; inference</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_210">210</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="dent">Sports; variations</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_211">211</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xii" id="Page_xii">[Pg xii]</a></span></p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiii" id="Page_xiii">[Pg xiii]</a></span></p>
+<h2>DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Summary of evidence in favour of finger marks being persistent</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_96">96</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Interpolation of ridges</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_104">104</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">I.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the
+different digits, as observed in the 5000 digits of 500 different persons</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_115">115</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">II.</td><td>Distribution of the A. L. W. patterns on the corresponding digits
+of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_116">116</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">III.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Arches on the digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_117">117</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IV.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Loops on the digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">V.</td><td>Percentage frequency of Whorls on the digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_118">118</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI<i>a</i>.</td><td>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs
+in the same digits of the two hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VI<i>b</i>.</td><td>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs
+in various couplets of different digits</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_120">120</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VII.</td><td>Couplets of fingers of different names in the same and in the opposite hands</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_121">121</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">VIII.</td><td>Measures of relationship between the digits on a centesimal scale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_129">129</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">IX.</td><td>Index to 100 sets of finger prints</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_133">133</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">X.</td><td>Number of different index-heads in 100 sets, according to the number of digits noted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_136">136</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XI.</td><td>Number of entries under the same heads in 100 sets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_139">139</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XII.</td><td>Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the sets were registered in 500 sets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_140">140</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIII.</td><td>Percentage of entries falling under a single head in 100, 300, and 500 sets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_141">141</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIV.</td><td>Number of different index-headings in 100 sets, according to the number of fingers in each set, and to the method of indexing</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_142">142</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XV.</td><td>Number of entries in 500 sets, each of the fore, middle, and ring-fingers only</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_146">146</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xiv" id="Page_xiv">[Pg xiv]</a></span>XVI.</td><td>Number of cases of various anthropometric data
+that severally fell in the three classes of large, medium, and small, when certain<br />limiting values were adopted</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_159">159</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XVII.</td><td>Distribution of 500 sets of measures, each set consisting of five elements, into classes</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_160">160</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XVIII.</td><td>Number of the above sets that fell under the same headings</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_161">161</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XIX.</td><td>Further analysis of the two headings that contained the most numerous entries</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_162">162</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XX.</td><td>Observed random couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXI.</td><td>Calculated random couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_174">174</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXII.</td><td>Observed fraternal couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_175">175</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXIII.</td><td>Fraternal couplets&mdash;random, observed, and utmost feasible</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_176">176</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXIV.</td><td>Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_181">181</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXV.</td><td>Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets&mdash;random and observed</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXVI.</td><td>Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets&mdash;resemblance measured on centesimal scale</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_182">182</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXVII.</td><td>Twins</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_186">186</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXVIII.</td><td>Children of like-patterned parents</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_188">188</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXIX.</td><td>Paternal and maternal influence</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_190">190</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXX.</td><td>Different races, percentage frequency of arches in fore-finger</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_194">194</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXXI.</td><td>Distribution of number of ridges in AH, and of other measures in loops</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_203">203</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXXII.</td><td>Ordinates to their schemes of distribution</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_204">204</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXXIII.</td><td>Comparison of the above with calculated values</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_205">205</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">XXXIV.</td><td>Proportions of a typical loop on the right and left thumbs respectively</td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_209">209</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xv" id="Page_xv">[Pg xv]</a></span></p>
+<h2>DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES</h2>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2">&nbsp;</td><td align="right"><small>PAGE</small></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">I.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 1. Chinese coin with the symbol of the nail-mark of the Empress Wen-teh</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 2. Order on a camp sutler by Mr. Gilbert Thompson, who used his finger print for the same purpose as the scroll-work in
+    cheques, viz. to ensure the detection of erasures</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">II.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 3. Form of card used at my anthropometric laboratory for finger prints. It shows the places where they are severally impressed,
+    whether dabbed or rolled (<a href="#Page_40">p. 40</a>), and the hole by which they are secured in their box</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_145">145</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 4. Small printing roller, used in the pocket apparatus, actual size. It may be covered either with india-rubber tubing or with roller composition</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_40">40</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">III.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 5. Diagram of the chief peculiarities of ridges, called here <i>minuti&aelig;</i> (the scale is about eight times the natural size)</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 6. The systems of ridges and the creases in the palm, indicated respectively by continuous and by dotted lines. Nos. 2, 3, 4, and 5 show
+    variations in the boundaries of the systems of ridges, and places where smaller systems are sometimes interpolated</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_54">54</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">IV.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 7. The effects of scars and cuts on the ridges: <i>a</i> is the result of a deep ulcer; <i>b</i> the finger of a tailor (temporarily) scarred by
+    the needle; <i>c</i> the result of a deep cut</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_59">59</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 8. Formation of the interspace: filled in (3) by a loop; in (4) by a scroll. The triangular plot or plots are indicated. In (1) there is
+    no interspace, but a succession of arches are formed, gradually flattening into straight lines</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_67">67</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">V.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 9. Specimens of rolled thumb prints, of the natural size, in which the patterns have been outlined, <a href="#Page_69">p. 69</a>, and on which lines
+    have been drawn for orientation and charting</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_68">68</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">VI.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 10. Specimens of the outlines of the patterns on the ten digits of eight different persons, not selected but taken as they came.
+    Its object is to give a general idea of the degree of their variety. The supply of ridges from the <i>inner</i> (or thumb side) are coloured blue, those
+    from the <i>outer</i> are red (the scale is of the natural size)</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_70">70</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_xvi" id="Page_xvi">[Pg xvi]</a></span>VII.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 11. Standard patterns of Arches, together with some transitional forms, all with their names below</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 12. As above, with respect to Loops</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">VIII.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 13. As above, with respect to Whorls</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_75">75</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 14. Cores to Loops, which may consist either of single lines, here called <i>rods</i>, or of a recurved line or <i>staple</i>, while the ridges that
+    immediately envelops them is called an <i>envelope</i></td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_76">76</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 15. Cores to Whorls</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_77">77</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">IX.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 15. Transitional patterns, enlarged three times, between Arches and either Loops or Whorls</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">X.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 16. Transitional patterns, as above, but between Loops and Whorls</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_79">79</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XI.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 17. Diagram showing the nine genera formed by the corresponding combinations of the two letters by which they are expressed, each being <i>i</i>,
+    <i>j</i>, or <i>o</i> as the case may be. The first two diagrams are Arches, and not strictly patterns at all, but may with some justice be symbolised by <i>jj</i></td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_80">80</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 18. Ambiguities in minuti&aelig;, showing that certain details in them are not to be trusted, while others are</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XII.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 19. The illustrations to Purkenje&#8217;s <i>Commentatio</i>. They are photo-lithographed from the original, which is not clearly printed</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_86">86</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XIII.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 20. Enlarged impressions of the same two fingers of V. H. Hd., first when a child of 2&#189;, and subsequently when a boy of 15 years of age. The lower pair are
+    interesting from containing the unique case of failure of exact coincidence yet observed. It is marked A. The numerals indicate the correspondences</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_92">92</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XIV.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 21. Contains portions on an enlarged scale of eight couplets of finger prints, the first print in each couplet having been taken many
+    years before the second, as shown by the attached dates. The points of correspondence in each couplet are indicated by similar numerals</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_93">93</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td valign="top" align="right">XV.&mdash;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 22. The fore-finger of Sir W. J. Herschel as printed on two occasions, many years apart (enlarged scale). The numerals are here
+    inserted on a plan that has the merit of clearness, but some of the lineations are thereby sacrificed</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_95">95</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>Fig. 23. Shows the periods of life over which the evidence of identity extends in Figs 20-22. [By an oversight, not perceived until too late
+    for remedy, the bottom line begins at &aelig;t. 62 instead of 67]</td>
+    <td valign="bottom" align="right"><a href="#Page_97">97</a></td></tr></table>
+
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_1" id="Page_1">[Pg 1]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_I" id="CHAPTER_I"></a>CHAPTER I</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">INTRODUCTION</span></p>
+
+<p>The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with two
+totally distinct classes of marks. The most conspicuous are the creases or
+folds of the skin which interest the followers of palmistry, but which are
+no more significant to others than the creases in old clothes; they show
+the lines of most frequent flexure, and nothing more. The least
+conspicuous marks, but the most numerous by far, are the so-called
+papillary ridges; they form the subject of the present book. If they had
+been only twice as large as they are, they would have attracted general
+attention and been commented on from the earliest times. Had Dean Swift
+known and thought of them, when writing about the Brobdingnags, whom he
+constructs on a scale twelve times as great as our own, he would certainly
+have made Gulliver express horror at the ribbed fingers of the giants who
+handled him. The ridges on their palms would have been as broad as the
+thongs of our coach-whips.</p>
+
+<p>Let no one despise the ridges on account of their<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_2" id="Page_2">[Pg 2]</a></span> smallness, for they are
+in some respects the most important of all anthropological data. We shall
+see that they form patterns, considerable in size and of a curious variety
+of shape, whose boundaries can be firmly outlined, and which are little
+worlds in themselves. They have the unique merit of retaining all their
+peculiarities unchanged throughout life, and afford in consequence an
+incomparably surer criterion of identity than any other bodily feature.
+They may be made to throw welcome light on some of the most interesting
+biological questions of the day, such as heredity, symmetry, correlation,
+and the nature of genera and species. A representation of their lineations
+is easily secured in a self-recorded form, by inking the fingers in the
+way that will be explained, and pressing them on paper. There is no
+prejudice to be overcome in procuring these most trustworthy sign-manuals,
+no vanity to be pacified, no untruths to be guarded against.</p>
+
+<p>My attention was first drawn to the ridges in 1888 when preparing a
+lecture on Personal Identification for the Royal Institution, which had
+for its principal object an account of the anthropometric method of
+Bertillon, then newly introduced into the prison administration of France.
+Wishing to treat the subject generally, and having a vague knowledge of
+the value sometimes assigned to finger marks, I made inquiries, and was
+surprised to find, both how much had been done, and how much there
+remained to do, before establishing their theoretical value and practical
+utility.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span>Enough was then seen to show that the subject was of real importance, and
+I resolved to investigate it; all the more so, as the modern processes of
+photographic printing would enable the evidence of such results as might
+be arrived at, to be presented to the reader on an enlarged and easily
+legible form, and in a trustworthy shape. Those that are put forward in
+the following pages, admit of considerable extension and improvement, and
+it is only the fact that an account of them seems useful, which causes me
+to delay no further before submitting what has thus far been attained, to
+the criticism of others.</p>
+
+<p>I have already published the following memoirs upon this subject:</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>1. &#8220;Personal Identification.&#8221; <i>Journal Royal Inst.</i> 25th May 1888, and
+<i>Nature</i>, 28th June 1888.</p>
+
+<p>2. &#8220;Patterns in Thumb and Finger Marks.&#8221; <i>Phil. Trans. Royal Society</i>,
+vol. clxxxii. (1891) b. pp. 1-23. [This almost wholly referred to
+thumb marks.]</p>
+
+<p>3. &#8220;Method of Indexing Finger Marks.&#8221; <i>Proc. Royal Society</i>, vol.
+xlix. (1891).</p>
+
+<p>4. &#8220;Identification by Finger Tips.&#8221; <i>Nineteenth Century</i>, August 1891.</p></div>
+
+<p>This first and introductory chapter contains a brief and orderly summary
+of the contents of those that follow.</p>
+
+<p>The second chapter treats of the previous employment of finger prints
+among various nations, which has been almost wholly confined to making
+daubs, without paying any regard to the delicate lineations with which
+this book is alone concerned. Their object was partly superstitious and
+partly ceremonial; superstitious, so far as a personal contact between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span>
+the finger and the document was supposed to be of mysterious efficacy:
+ceremonial, as a formal act whose due performance in the presence of
+others could be attested. A few scattered instances are mentioned of
+persons who had made finger prints with enough care to show their
+lineations, and who had studied them; some few of these had used them as
+signatures. Attention is especially drawn to Sir William Herschel, who
+brought the method of finger prints into regular official employment when
+he was &#8220;Collector&#8221; or chief administrator of the Hooghly district in
+Bengal, and my large indebtedness to him is expressed in this chapter and
+in other places.</p>
+
+<p>In the third chapter various methods of making good prints from the
+fingers are described at length, and more especially that which I have now
+adopted on a somewhat large scale, at my anthropometric laboratory, which,
+through the kindness of the authorities of South Kensington, is at present
+lodged in the galleries of their Science Collections. There, the ten
+digits of both hands of all the persons who come to be measured, are
+impressed with clearness and rapidity, and a very large collection of
+prints is steadily accumulating, each set being, as we shall see, a
+sign-manual that differentiates the person who made it, throughout the
+whole of his life, from all the rest of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>Descriptions are also given of various methods of enlarging a finger print
+to a convenient size, when it is desired to examine it closely.
+Photography is the readiest of all; on the other hand the prism (as in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span> a
+camera lucida) has merits of its own, and so has an enlarging pantagraph,
+when it is furnished with a small microscope and cross wires to serve as a
+pointer.</p>
+
+<p>In the fourth chapter the character and purpose of the ridges, whose
+lineations appear in the finger print, are discussed. They have been the
+topic of a considerable amount of careful physiological study in late
+years, by writers who have investigated their development in early periods
+of unborn life, as well as their evolutionary history. They are perfectly
+defined in the monkeys, but appear in a much less advanced stage in other
+mammalia. Their courses run somewhat independently of the lines of
+flexure. They are studded with pores, which are the open mouths of ducts
+proceeding from the somewhat deeply-seated glands which secrete
+perspiration, so one of their functions is to facilitate the riddance of
+that excretion. The ridges increase in height as the skin is thickened by
+hard usage, until callosities begin to be formed, which may altogether
+hide them. But the way in which they assist the touch and may tend to
+neutralise the dulling effect of a thick protective skin, is still
+somewhat obscure. They certainly seem to help in the discrimination of the
+character of surfaces that are variously rubbed between the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>These preliminary topics having been disposed of, we are free in the fifth
+chapter to enter upon the direct course of our inquiry, beginning with a
+discussion of the various patterns formed by the lineations. It will be
+shown how systems of parallel ridges sweep in bold curves across the
+palmar surface<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span> of the hand, and how, whenever the boundaries of two
+systems diverge, the interspace is filled up by a compact little system of
+its own, variously curved or whorled, having a fictitious resemblance to
+an eddy between two currents. An interspace of this kind is found in the
+bulb of each finger. The ridges run in parallel lines across the finger,
+up to its last joint, beyond which the insertion of the finger-nail causes
+a compression of the ridges on either side; their intermediate courses are
+in consequence so much broadened out that they commonly separate, and form
+two systems with an interspace between them. The independent patterns that
+appear in this interspace upon the bulbs of the fingers, are those with
+which this book is chiefly concerned.</p>
+
+<p>At first sight, the maze formed by the minute lineations is bewildering,
+but it is shown that every interspace can be surely outlined, and when
+this is done, the character of the pattern it encloses, starts
+conspicuously into view. Examples are given to show how the outlining is
+performed, and others in which the outlines alone are taken into
+consideration. The cores of the patterns are also characteristic, and are
+described separately. It is they alone that have attracted the notice of
+previous inquirers. The outlines fall for the most part into nine distinct
+genera, defined by the relative directions of the divergent ridges that
+enclose them. The upper pair (those that run towards the finger-tip) may
+unite, or one or other of them may surmount the other, thus making three
+possibilities. There are three similar<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span> possibilities in respect to the
+lower pair; so, as any one of the first group may be combined with any one
+of the second, there are 3 &times; 3, or nine possibilities in all. The practice
+of somewhat rolling the finger when printing from it, is necessary in
+order to impress enough of its surface to ensure that the points at which
+the boundaries of the pattern begin to diverge, shall be always included.</p>
+
+<p>Plates are given of the principal varieties of patterns, having regard
+only to their more fundamental differences, and names are attached for the
+convenience of description; specimens are also given of the outlines of
+the patterns in all the ten digits of eight different persons, taken at
+hazard, to afford a first idea of the character of the material to be
+dealt with. Another and less minute system of classification under three
+heads is then described, which is very useful for rough preliminary
+purposes, and of which frequent use is made further on. It is into Arches,
+Loops, and Whorls. In the Arches, there is no pattern strictly speaking,
+for there is no interspace; the need for it being avoided by a successive
+and regular broadening out of the ridges as they cross the bulb of the
+finger. In Loops, the interspace is filled with a system of ridges that
+bends back upon itself, and in which no one ridge turns through a complete
+circle. Whorls contain all cases in which at least one ridge turns through
+a complete circle, and they include certain double patterns which have a
+whorled appearance. The transitional cases are few; they are fully
+described, pictured, and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> classified. One great advantage of the rude
+A. L. W. system is that it can be applied, with little risk of error, to
+impressions that are smudged or imperfect; it is therefore very useful so
+far as it goes. Thus it can be easily applied to my own finger prints on
+the title-page, made as they are from digits that are creased and
+roughened by seventy years of life, and whose impressions have been
+closely clipped in order to fit them into a limited space.</p>
+
+<p>A third method of classification is determined by the origin of the ridges
+which supply the interspace, whether it be from the thumb side or the
+little-finger side; in other words, from the Inner or the Outer side.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, a translation from the Latin is given of the famous Thesis or
+<i>Commentatio</i> of Purkenje, delivered at the University of Breslau in 1823,
+together with his illustrations. It is a very rare pamphlet, and has the
+great merit of having first drawn attention to the patterns and attempted
+to classify them.</p>
+
+<p>In the sixth chapter we reach the question of Persistence: whether or no
+the patterns are so durable as to afford a sure basis for identification.
+The answer was different from what had been expected. So far as the
+proportions of the patterns go, they are <i>not</i> absolutely fixed, even in
+the adult, inasmuch as they change with the shape of the finger. If the
+finger is plumped out or emaciated, or variously deformed by usage, gout,
+or age, the proportions of the pattern will vary also. Two prints of the
+same finger, one taken before and the other after an interval of many
+years,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span> cannot be expected to be as closely alike as two prints similarly
+made from the same woodcut. They are far from satisfying the shrewd test
+of the stereoscope, which shows if there has been an alteration even of a
+letter in two otherwise duplicate pages of print. The measurements vary at
+different periods, even in the adult, just as much if not more than his
+height, span, and the lengths of his several limbs. On the other hand, the
+numerous bifurcations, origins, islands, and enclosures in the ridges that
+compose the pattern, are proved to be <i>almost beyond change</i>. A comparison
+is made between the pattern on a finger, and one on a piece of lace; the
+latter may be stretched or shrunk as a whole, but the threads of which it
+is made retain their respective peculiarities. The evidence on which these
+conclusions are founded is considerable, and almost wholly derived from
+the collections made by Sir W. Herschel, who most kindly placed them at my
+disposal. They refer to one or more fingers, and in a few instances to the
+whole hand, of fifteen different persons. The intervals before and after
+which the prints were taken, amount in some cases to thirty years. Some of
+them reach from babyhood to boyhood, some from childhood to youth, some
+from youth to advanced middle age, one from middle life to incipient old
+age. These four stages nearly include the whole of the ordinary life of
+man. I have compared altogether some 700 points of reference in these
+couplets of impressions, and only found a single instance of discordance,
+in which a ridge that was<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> cleft in a child became united in later years.
+Photographic enlargements are given in illustration, which include between
+them a total of 157 pairs of points of reference, all bearing distinctive
+numerals to facilitate comparison and to prove their unchangeableness.
+Reference is made to another illustrated publication of mine, which raises
+the total number of points compared to 389, all of which were successful,
+with the single exception above mentioned. The fact of an almost complete
+persistence in the peculiarities of the ridges from birth to death, may
+now be considered as determined. They existed before birth, and they
+persist after death, until effaced by decomposition.</p>
+
+<p>In the seventh chapter an attempt is made to appraise the evidential value
+of finger prints by the common laws of Probability, paying great heed not
+to treat variations that are really correlated, as if they were
+independent. An artifice is used by which the number of portions is
+determined, into which a print may be divided, in each of which the purely
+local conditions introduce so much uncertainty, that a guess derived from
+a knowledge of the outside conditions is as likely as not to be wrong. A
+square of six ridge-intervals in the side was shown by three different
+sets of experiments to be larger than required; one of four
+ridge-intervals in the side was too small, but one of five ridge-intervals
+appeared to be closely correct. A six-ridge interval square was, however,
+at first adopted, in order to gain assurance that the error should be on
+the safe side. As<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span> an ordinary finger print contains about twenty-four of
+these squares, the uncertainty in respect to the entire contents of the
+pattern <i>due to this cause alone</i>, is expressed by a fraction of which the
+numerator is 1, and the denominator is 2 multiplied into itself
+twenty-four times, which amounts to a number so large that it requires
+eight figures to express it.</p>
+
+<p>A further attempt was made to roughly appraise the neglected uncertainties
+relating to the outside conditions, but large as they are, they seem much
+inferior in their joint effect to the magnitude of that just discussed.</p>
+
+<p>Next it was found possible, by the use of another artifice, to obtain some
+idea of the evidential value of identity when two prints agree in all but
+one, two, three, or any other number of particulars. This was done by
+using the five ridge-interval squares, of which thirty-five may be
+considered to go into a single finger print, being about the same as the
+number of the bifurcations, origins, and other points of comparison. The
+accidental similarity in their numbers enables us to treat them roughly as
+equivalent. On this basis the well-known method of binomial calculation is
+easily applied, with the general result that, notwithstanding a failure of
+evidence in a few points, as to the identity of two sets of prints, each,
+say, of three fingers, amply enough evidence would be supplied by the
+remainder to prevent any doubt that the two sets of prints were made by
+the same person. When a close correspondence exists in respect to all the
+ten digits, the thoroughness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span> of the differentiation of each man from all
+the rest of the human species is multiplied to an extent far beyond the
+capacity of human imagination. There can be no doubt that the evidential
+value of identity afforded by prints of two or three of the fingers, is so
+great as to render it superfluous to seek confirmation from other sources.</p>
+
+<p>The eighth chapter deals with the frequency with which the several kinds
+of patterns appear on the different digits of the same person, severally
+and in connection. The subject is a curious one, and the inquiry
+establishes unexpected relationships and distinctions between different
+fingers and between the two hands, to whose origin there is at present no
+clue. The relationships are themselves connected in the following
+way;&mdash;calling any two digits on one of the hands by the letters A and B
+respectively, and the digit on the other hand, that corresponds to B, by
+the symbol B1, then the kinship between A and B1 is identical, in a
+statistical sense, with the kinship between A and B.</p>
+
+<p>The chief novelty in this chapter is an attempt to classify nearness of
+relationship upon a centesimal scale, in which the number of
+correspondences due to mere chance counts as 0&deg;, and complete identity as
+100&deg;. It seems reasonable to adopt the scale with only slight reservation,
+when the average numbers of the Arches, Loops, and Whorls are respectively
+the same in the two kinds of digit which are compared together; but when
+they differ greatly, there are no means free from objection, of
+determining the 100&deg;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span> division of the scale; so the results, if noted at
+all, are subject to grave doubt.</p>
+
+<p>Applying this scale, it appears that digits on opposite hands, which bear
+the same name, are more nearly related together than digits bearing
+different names, in about the proportion of three to two. It seems also,
+that of all the digits, none are so nearly related as the middle finger to
+the two adjacent ones.</p>
+
+<p>In the ninth chapter, various methods of indexing are discussed and
+proposed, by which a set of finger prints may be so described by a few
+letters, that it can be easily searched for and found in any large
+collection, just as the name of a person is found in a directory. The
+procedure adopted, is to apply the Arch-Loop-Whorl classification to all
+ten digits, describing each digit in the order in which it is taken, by
+the letter <i>a</i>, <i>l</i>, or <i>w</i>, as the case may be, and arranging the results
+in alphabetical sequence. The downward direction of the slopes of loops on
+the fore-fingers is also taken into account, whether it be towards the
+Inner or the Outer side, thus replacing L on the fore-finger by either <i>i</i>
+or <i>o</i>.</p>
+
+<p>Many alternative methods are examined, including both the recognition and
+the non-recognition of all sloped patterns. Also the gain in
+differentiation, when all the ten digits are catalogued, instead of only a
+few of them. There is so much correlation between the different fingers,
+and so much peculiarity in each, that theoretical notions of the value of
+different methods of classification are of little worth; it is only by
+actual trial that the best can be determined.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> Whatever plan of index be
+adopted, many patterns must fall under some few headings and few or no
+patterns under others, the former class resembling in that respect the
+Smiths, Browns, and other common names that occur in directories. The
+general value of the index much depends on the facility with which these
+frequent forms can be broken up by sub-classification, the rarer forms
+being easily dealt with. This branch of the subject has, however, been but
+lightly touched, under the belief that experience with larger collections
+than my own, was necessary before it could be treated thoroughly; means
+are, however, indicated for breaking up the large battalions, which have
+answered well thus far, and seem to admit of considerable extension. Thus,
+the number of ridges in a loop (which is by far the commonest pattern) on
+any particular finger, at the part of the impression where the ridges are
+cut by the axis of the loop, is a fairly definite and effective datum as
+well as a simple one; so also is the character of its inmost lineation, or
+core.</p>
+
+<p>In the tenth chapter we come to a practical result of the inquiry, namely,
+its possible use as a means of differentiating a man from his fellows. In
+civil as well as in criminal cases, the need of some such system is shown
+to be greatly felt in many of our dependencies; where the features of
+natives are distinguished with difficulty; where there is but little
+variety of surnames; where there are strong motives for prevarication,
+especially connected with land-tenure and pensions, and a proverbial
+prevalence of unveracity.</p>
+
+<p>It is also shown that the value to honest men of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> sure means of
+identifying themselves is not so small among civilised nations even in
+peace time, as to be disregarded, certainly not in times of war and of
+strict passports. But the value to honest men is always great of being
+able to identify offenders, whether they be merely deserters or formerly
+convicted criminals, and the method of finger prints is shown to be
+applicable to that purpose. For aid in searching the registers of a
+criminal intelligence bureau, its proper rank is probably a secondary one;
+the primary being some form of the already established Bertillon
+anthropometric method. Whatever power the latter gives of successfully
+searching registers, that power would be multiplied many hundredfold by
+the inclusion of finger prints, because their peculiarities are entirely
+unconnected with other personal characteristics, as we shall see further
+on. A brief account is given in this chapter of the Bertillon system, and
+an attempt is made on a small scale to verify its performance, by
+analysing five hundred sets of measures made at my own laboratory. These,
+combined with the quoted experiences in attempting to identify deserters
+in the United States, allow a high value to this method, though not so
+high as has been claimed for it, and show the importance of supplementary
+means. But whenever two suspected duplicates of measurements, bodily
+marks, photographs and finger prints have to be compared, the lineations
+of the finger prints would give an incomparably more trustworthy answer to
+the question, whether or no the suspicion of their referring to the same
+person was justified, than all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span> the rest put together. Besides this, while
+measurements and photographs are serviceable only for adults, and even
+then under restrictions, the finger prints are available throughout life.
+It seems difficult to believe, now that their variety and persistence have
+been proved, the means of classifying them worked out, and the method of
+rapidly obtaining clear finger prints largely practised at my laboratory
+and elsewhere, that our criminal administration can long neglect the use
+of such a powerful auxiliary. It requires no higher skill and judgment to
+make, register, and hunt out finger prints, than is to be found in
+abundance among ordinary clerks. Of course some practice is required
+before facility can be gained in reading and recognising them, but not a
+few persons of whom I have knowledge, have interested themselves in doing
+so, and found no difficulty.</p>
+
+<p>The eleventh chapter treats of Heredity, and affirmatively answers the
+question whether patterns are transmissible by descent. The inquiry proved
+more troublesome than was expected, on account of the great variety in
+patterns and the consequent rarity with which the same pattern, other than
+the common Loop, can be expected to appear in relatives. The available
+data having been attacked both by the Arch-Loop-Whorl method, and by a
+much more elaborate system of classification&mdash;described and figured as the
+C system, the resemblances between children of either sex, of the same
+parents (or more briefly &#8220;fraternal&#8221; resemblances, as they are here
+called, for want<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> of a better term), have been tabulated and discussed. A
+batch of twins have also been analysed. Then cases have been treated in
+which both parents had the same pattern on corresponding fingers; this
+pattern was compared with the pattern on the corresponding finger of the
+child. In these and other ways, results were obtained, all testifying to
+the conspicuous effect of heredity, and giving results that can be
+measured on the centesimal scale already described. But though the
+qualitative results are clear, the quantitative are as yet not well
+defined, and that part of the inquiry must lie over until a future time,
+when I shall have more data and when certain foreseen improvements in the
+method of work may perhaps be carried out. There is a decided appearance,
+first observed by Mr. F. Howard Collins, of whom I shall again have to
+speak, of the influence of the mother being stronger than that of the
+father, in transmitting these patterns.</p>
+
+<p>In the twelfth chapter we come to a branch of the subject of which I had
+great expectations, that have been falsified, namely, their use in
+indicating Race and Temperament. I thought that any hereditary
+peculiarities would almost of necessity vary in different races, and that
+so fundamental and enduring a feature as the finger markings must in some
+way be correlated with temperament.</p>
+
+<p>The races I have chiefly examined are English, most of whom were of the
+upper and middle classes; the others chiefly from London board schools;
+Welsh, from the purest Welsh-speaking districts of South<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span> Wales; Jews from
+the large London schools, and Negroes from the territories of the Royal
+Niger Company. I have also a collection of Basque prints taken at Cambo,
+some twenty miles inland from Biarritz, which, although small, is large
+enough to warrant a provisional conclusion. As a first and only an
+approximately correct description, the English, Welsh, Jews, Negroes, and
+Basques, may all be spoken of as identical in the character of their
+finger prints; the same familiar patterns appearing in all of them with
+much the same degrees of frequency, the differences between groups of
+different races being not larger than those that occasionally occur
+between groups of the same race. The Jews have, however, a decidedly
+larger proportion of Whorled patterns than other races, and I should have
+been tempted to make an assertion about a peculiarity in the Negroes, had
+not one of their groups differed greatly from the rest. The task of
+examination has been laborious thus far, but it would be much more so to
+arrive with correctness at a second and closer approximation to the truth.
+It is doubtful at present whether it is worth while to pursue the subject,
+except in the case of the Hill tribes of India and a few other peculiarly
+diverse races, for the chance of discovering some characteristic and
+perhaps a more monkey-like pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Considerable collections of prints of persons belonging to different
+classes have been analysed, such as students in science, and students in
+arts; farm labourers; men of much culture; and the lowest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> idiots in the
+London district (who are all sent to Darenth Asylum), but I do not, still
+as a first approximation, find any decided difference between their finger
+prints. The ridges of artists are certainly not more delicate and close
+than those of men of quite another stamp.</p>
+
+<p>In Chapter XIII. the question is discussed and answered affirmatively, of
+the right of the nine fundamentally differing patterns to be considered as
+different genera; also of their more characteristic varieties to rank as
+different genera, or species, as the case may be. The chief test applied,
+respected the frequency with which the various Loops that occurred on the
+thumbs, were found to differ, in successive degrees of difference, from
+the central form of all of them; it was found to accord with the
+requirements of the well-known law of Frequency of Error, proving the
+existence of a central type, from which the departures were, in common
+phraseology, accidental. Now all the evidence in the last chapter concurs
+in showing that no sensible amount of correlation exists between any of
+the patterns on the one hand, and any of the bodily faculties or
+characteristics on the other. It would be absurd therefore to assert that
+in the struggle for existence, a person with, say, a loop on his right
+middle finger has a better chance of survival, or a better chance of early
+marriage, than one with an arch. Consequently genera and species are here
+seen to be formed without the slightest aid from either Natural or Sexual
+Selection, and these finger<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> patterns are apparently the only peculiarity
+in which Panmixia, or the effect of promiscuous marriages, admits of being
+studied on a large scale. The result of Panmixia in finger markings,
+corroborates the arguments I have used in <i>Natural Inheritance</i> and
+elsewhere, to show that &#8220;organic stability&#8221; is the primary factor by which
+the distinctions between genera are maintained; consequently, the progress
+of evolution is not a smooth and uniform progression, but one that
+proceeds by jerks, through successive &#8220;sports&#8221; (as they are called), some
+of them implying considerable organic changes, and each in its turn being
+favoured by Natural Selection.</p>
+
+<p>The same word &#8220;variation&#8221; has been indiscriminately applied to two very
+different conceptions, which ought to be clearly distinguished; the one is
+that of the &#8220;sports&#8221; just alluded to, which are changes in the position of
+organic stability, and may, through the aid of Natural Selection, become
+fresh steps in the onward course of evolution; the other is that of the
+Variations proper, which are merely strained conditions of a stable form
+of organisation, and not in any way an overthrow of them. Sports do not
+blend freely together; variations proper do so. Natural Selection acts
+upon variations proper, just as it does upon sports, by preserving the
+best to become parents, and eliminating the worst, but its action upon
+mere variations can, as I conceive, be of no permanent value to evolution,
+because there is a constant tendency in the offspring to &#8220;regress&#8221; towards
+the parental type. The amount and results<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> of this tendency have been
+fully established in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>. It is there shown, that after
+a certain departure from the central typical form has been reached in any
+race, a further departure becomes impossible without the aid of these
+sports. In the successive generations of such a population, the average
+tendency of filial regression towards the racial centre must at length
+counterbalance the effects of filial dispersion; consequently the best of
+the produce cannot advance beyond the level already attained by the
+parents, the rest falling short of it in various degrees.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>In concluding these introductory remarks, I have to perform the grateful
+duty of acknowledging my indebtedness to Mr. F. Howard Collins, who
+materially helped me during the past year. He undertook the numerous and
+tedious tabulations upon which the chapters on Heredity, and on Races and
+Classes, are founded, and he thoroughly revised nearly the whole of my
+MS., to the great advantage of the reader of this book.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_II" id="CHAPTER_II"></a>CHAPTER II</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS</span></p>
+
+<p>The employment of impressions of the hand or fingers to serve as
+sign-manuals will probably be found in every nation of importance, but the
+significance attached to them differs. It ranges from a mere superstition
+that personal contact is important, up to the conviction of which this
+book will furnish assurance, that when they are properly made, they are
+incomparably the most sure and unchanging of all forms of signature. The
+existence of the superstitious basis is easily noted in children and the
+uneducated; it occupies a prominent place in the witchcrafts of
+barbarians. The modern witness who swears on the Bible, is made to hold it
+and afterwards to kiss it; he who signs a document, touches a seal or
+wafer, and declares that &#8220;this is my act and deed.&#8221; Students of the
+primitive customs of mankind find abundant instances of the belief, that
+personal contact communicates some mysterious essence from the thing
+touched to the person who touches it, and <i>vice versa</i>; but it is
+unnecessary here to enter further into these elementary human reasonings,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span>
+which are fully described and discussed by various well-known writers.</p>
+
+<p>The next grade of significance attached to an impression resembles that
+which commends itself to the mind of a hunter who is practised in
+tracking. He notices whether a footprint he happens to light upon, is
+larger or smaller, broader or narrower, or otherwise differs from the
+average, in any special peculiarity; he thence draws his inferences as to
+the individual who made it. So, when a chief presses his hand smeared with
+blood or grime, upon a clean surface, a mark is left in some degree
+characteristic of him. It may be that of a broad stumpy hand, or of a long
+thin one; it may be large or small; it may even show lines corresponding
+to the principal creases of the palm. Such hand prints have been made and
+repeated in many semi-civilised nations, and have even been impressed in
+vermilion on their State documents, as formerly by the sovereign of Japan.
+Though mere smudges, they serve in a slight degree to individualise the
+signer, while they are more or less clothed with the superstitious
+attributes of personal contact. So far as I can learn, no higher form of
+finger printing than this has ever existed, in regular and well-understood
+use, in any barbarous or semi-civilised nation. The ridges dealt with in
+this book could not be seen at all in such rude prints, much less could
+they be utilised as strictly distinctive features. It is possible that
+when impressions of the fingers have been made in wax, and used as seals
+to documents, they may sometimes have been subjected<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> to minute scrutiny;
+but no account has yet reached me of trials in any of their courts of law,
+about disputed signatures, in which the identity of the party who was said
+to have signed with his finger print, had been established or disproved by
+comparing it with a print made by him then and there. The reader need be
+troubled with only a few examples, taken out of a considerable collection
+of extracts from books and letters, in which prints, or rather daubs of
+the above kind, are mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>A good instance of their small real value may be seen in the <i>Trans. China
+Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</i>, Part 1, 1847, published at
+Hong-Kong, which contains a paper on &#8220;Land Tenure in China,&#8221; by T. Meadows
+Taylor, with a deed concerning a sale of land, in facsimile, and its
+translation: this ends, &#8220;The mother and the son, the sellers, have in the
+presence of all the parties, received the price of the land in full,
+amounting to sixty-four taels and five mace, in perfect dollars weighed in
+scales. <i>Impression of the finger of the mother, of the maiden name of
+Chin.</i>&#8221; The impression, as it appears in the woodcut, is roundish in
+outline, and was therefore made by the tip and not the bulb of the finger.
+Its surface is somewhat mottled, but there is no trace of any ridges.</p>
+
+<p>The native clerks of Bengal give the name of <i>tipsahi</i> to the mark
+impressed by illiterate persons who, refusing to make either a <b>X</b> or their
+caste-mark, dip their finger into the ink-pot and touch the document. The
+tipsahi is not supposed to individualise the signer, it is merely a
+personal ceremony performed in the presence of witnesses.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate1" id="plate1"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 1.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 1.</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig1.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center">Chinese Coin, Tang Dynasty, about 618 <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span>,<br />with nail mark of the Empress Wen-teh, figured in relief.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 2.</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig2.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center">Order on a Camp Sutler, by the officer of a surveying party in New Mexico. 1882.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span>Many impressions of fingers are found on ancient pottery, as on Roman
+tiles; indeed the Latin word <i>palmatus</i> is said to mean an impression in
+soft clay, such as a mark upon a wall, stamped by a blow with the palm.
+Nail-marks are used ornamentally by potters of various nations. They exist
+on Assyrian bricks as signatures; for instance, in the Assyrian room of
+the British Museum, on the west side of the case C 43, one of these bricks
+contains a notice of sale and is prefaced by words that were translated
+for me thus: &#8220;Nail-mark of Nabu-sum-usur, the seller of the field, (used)
+like his seal.&#8221; A somewhat amusing incident affected the design of the
+Chinese money during the great Tang dynasty, about 618 <span class="smcaplc">A.D.</span> A new and
+important issue of coinage was to be introduced, and the Secretary of the
+Censors himself moulded the design in wax, and humbly submitted it to the
+Empress Wen-teh for approval. She, through maladroitness, dug the end of
+her enormously long finger-nail into its face, marking it deeply as with a
+carpenter&#8217;s gouge. The poor Secretary of the Censors, Ngeu-yang-siun, who
+deserves honour from professional courtiers, suppressing such sentiments
+as he must have felt when his work was mauled, accepted the nail-mark of
+the Empress as an interesting supplement to the design; he changed it into
+a crescent in relief, and the new coins were stamped accordingly. (See
+<i>Coins and Medals</i>, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, 1885, p.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> 221.) A
+drawing of one of these is given in <a href="#plate1">Plate 1</a>, Fig. 1.</p>
+
+<p>The European practitioners of palmistry and cheiromancy do not seem to
+have paid particular attention to the ridges with which we are concerned.
+A correspondent of the American Journal <i>Science</i>, viii. 166, states,
+however, that the Chinese class the stri&aelig; at the ends of the fingers into
+&#8220;pots&#8221; when arranged in a coil, and into &#8220;hooks.&#8221; They are also regarded
+by the cheiromantists in Japan. A curious account has reached me of
+negroes in the United States who, laying great stress on the possession of
+finger prints in wax or dough for witchcraft purposes, are also said to
+examine their stri&aelig;.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving Purkenje to be spoken of in a later chapter, because he deals
+chiefly with classification, the first well-known person who appears to
+have studied the lineations of the ridges as a means of identification,
+was Bewick, who made an impression of his own thumb on a block of wood and
+engraved it, as well as an impression of a finger. They were used as
+fanciful designs for his illustrated books. Occasional instances of
+careful study may also be noted, such as that of Mr. Fauld (<i>Nature</i>,
+xxii. p. 605, Oct. 28, 1880), who seems to have taken much pains, and that
+of Mr. Tabor, the eminent photographer of San Francisco, who, noticing the
+lineations of a print that he had accidentally made with his own inked
+finger upon a blotting-paper, experimented further, and finally proposed
+the method of finger prints for the registration of Chinese, whose
+identification<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> has always been a difficulty, and was giving a great deal
+of trouble at that particular time; but his proposal dropped through.
+Again Mr. Gilbert Thompson, an American geologist, when on Government duty
+in 1882 in the wild parts of New Mexico, paid the members of his party by
+order of the camp sutler. To guard against forgery he signed his name
+across the impression made by his finger upon the order, after first
+pressing it on his office pad. He was good enough to send me the duplicate
+of one of these cheques made out in favour of a man who bore the ominous
+name of &#8220;Lying Bob&#8221; (<a href="#plate1">Plate 1</a>, Fig. 2). The impression took the place of
+the scroll work on an ordinary cheque; it was in violet aniline ink, and
+looked decidedly pretty. From time to time sporadic instances like these
+are met with, but none are comparable in importance to the regular and
+official employment made of finger prints by Sir William Herschel, during
+more than a quarter of a century in Bengal. I was exceedingly obliged to
+him for much valuable information when first commencing this study, and
+have been almost wholly indebted to his kindness for the materials used in
+this book for proving the persistence of the lineations throughout life.</p>
+
+<p>Sir William Herschel has presented me with one of the two original
+&#8220;Contracts&#8221; in Bengali, dated 1858, which suggested to his mind the idea
+of using this method of identification. It was so difficult to obtain
+credence to the signatures of the natives, that he thought he would use
+the signature of the hand<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> itself, chiefly with the intention of
+frightening the man who made it from afterwards denying his formal act;
+however, the impression proved so good that Sir W. Herschel became
+convinced that the same method might be further utilised. He finally
+introduced the use of finger prints in several departments at Hooghly in
+1877, after seventeen years&#8217; experience of the value of the evidence they
+afforded. A too brief account of his work was given by him in <i>Nature</i>,
+xxiii. p. 23 (Nov. 25, 1880). He mentions there that he had been taking
+finger marks as sign-manuals for more than twenty years, and had
+introduced them for practical purposes in several ways in India with
+marked benefit. They rendered attempts to repudiate signatures quite
+hopeless. Finger prints were taken of Pensioners to prevent their
+personation by others after their death; they were used in the office for
+Registration of Deeds, and at a gaol where each prisoner had to sign with
+his finger. By comparing the prints of persons then living, with their
+prints taken twenty years previously, he considered he had proved that the
+lapse of at least that period made no change sufficient to affect the
+utility of the plan. He informs me that he submitted, in 1877, a report in
+semi-official form to the Inspector-General of Gaols, asking to be allowed
+to extend the process; but no result followed. In 1881, at the request of
+the Governor of the gaol at Greenwich (Sydney), he sent a description of
+the method, but no further steps appear to have been taken there.</p>
+
+<p>If the use of finger prints ever becomes of general<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span> importance, Sir
+William Herschel must be regarded as the first who devised a feasible
+method for regular use, and afterwards officially adopted it. His method
+of printing for those purposes will be found in the next chapter.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_III" id="CHAPTER_III"></a>CHAPTER III</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">METHODS OF PRINTING</span></p>
+
+<p>It will be the aim of this chapter to show how to make really good and
+permanent impressions of the fingers. It is very easy to do so when the
+principles of the art are understood and practised, but difficult
+otherwise.</p>
+
+<p>One example of the ease of making good, but not permanent impressions, is
+found, and should be tried, by pressing the bulb of a finger against
+well-polished glass, or against the highly-polished blade of a razor. The
+finger must be <i>very slightly</i> oiled, as by passing it through the hair;
+if it be moist, dry it with a handkerchief before the oiling. Then press
+the bulb of the finger on the glass or razor, as the case may be, and a
+beautiful impression will be left. The hardness of the glass or steel
+prevents its surface from rising into the furrows under the pressure of
+the ridges, while the layer of oil which covers the bottom of the furrows
+is too thin to reach down to the glass or steel; consequently the ridges
+alone are printed. There is no capillary or other action to spread the
+oil, so the impression<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> remains distinct. A merely moist and not oily
+finger leaves a similar mark, but it soon evaporates.</p>
+
+<p>This simple method is often convenient for quickly noting the character of
+a finger pattern. The impression may be made on a window-pane, a
+watch-glass, or even an eye-glass, if nothing better is at hand. The
+impression is not seen to its fullest advantage except by means of a
+single small source of bright light. The glass or steel has to be so
+inclined as just <i>not</i> to reflect the light into the eye. That part of the
+light which falls on the oily impression is not so sharply reflected from
+it as from the surface of the glass or steel. Consequently some stray
+beams of the light which is scattered from the oil, reach the eye, while
+all of the light reflected from the highly-polished glass or steel passes
+in another direction and is unseen. The result is a brilliantly luminous
+impression on a dark background. The impression ceases to be visible when
+the glass or steel is not well polished, and itself scatters the light,
+like the oil.</p>
+
+<p>There are two diametrically opposed methods of printing, each being the
+complement of the other. The method used in ordinary printing, is to ink
+the projecting surfaces only, leaving the depressed parts clean. The other
+method, used in printing from engraved plates, is to ink the whole
+surface, and then to clean the ink from the projecting parts, leaving the
+depressions only filled with it. Either of these two courses can be
+adopted in taking finger prints, but not the two together, for when they
+are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span> combined in equal degrees the result must be a plain black blot.</p>
+
+<p>The following explanations will be almost entirely confined to the first
+method, namely, that of ordinary printing, as the second method has so far
+not given equally good results.</p>
+
+<p>The ink used may be either printer&#8217;s ink or water colour, but for
+producing the best work, rapidly and on a large scale, the method of
+printer&#8217;s ink seems in every respect preferable. However, water colour
+suffices for some purposes, and as there is so much convenience in a pad,
+drenched with dye, such as is commonly used for hand stamps, and which is
+always ready for use, many may prefer it. The processes with printer&#8217;s ink
+will be described first.</p>
+
+<p>The relief formed by the ridges is low. In the fingers of very young
+children, and of some ladies whose hands are rarely submitted to rough
+usage, the ridges are exceptionally faint; their crests hardly rise above
+the furrows, yet it is the crests only that are to be inked. Consequently
+the layer of ink on the slab or pad on which the finger is pressed for the
+purpose of blackening it, must be <i>very thin</i>. Its thickness must be less
+than half the elevation of the ridges, for when the finger is pressed
+down, the crests displace the ink immediately below them, and drives it
+upwards into the furrows which would otherwise be choked with it.</p>
+
+<p>It is no violent misuse of metaphor to compare the ridges to the crests of
+mountain ranges, and the depth of the blackening that they ought to
+receive,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span> to that of the newly-fallen snow upon the mountaintops in the
+early autumn, when it powders them from above downwards to a
+sharply-defined level. The most desirable blackening of the fingers
+corresponds to a snowfall which covers all the higher passes, but descends
+no lower.</p>
+
+<p>With a finger so inked it is scarcely possible to fail in making a good
+imprint; the heaviest pressure cannot spoil it. The first desideratum is,
+then, to cover the slab by means of which the finger is to be blackened,
+with an extremely thin layer of ink.</p>
+
+<p>This cannot be accomplished with printer&#8217;s ink unless the slab is very
+clean, the ink somewhat fluid, and the roller that is used to spread it,
+in good condition. When a plate of glass is used for the slab, it is easy,
+by holding the inked slab between the eye and the light, to judge of the
+correct amount of inking. It should appear by no means black, but of a
+somewhat light brown.</p>
+
+<p>The thickness of ink transferred by the finger to the paper is much less
+than that which lay upon the slab. The ink adheres to the slab as well as
+to the finger; when they are separated, only a portion of the ink is
+removed by the finger. Again, when the inked finger is pressed on the
+paper, only a portion of the ink that was on the finger is transferred to
+the paper. Owing to this double reduction, it seldom happens that a clear
+impression is at the same time black. An ideally perfect material for
+blackening would lie loosely on the slab like dust, it would cling very
+lightly to the finger, but adhere firmly to the paper.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span>The last preliminary to be noticed is the slowness with which the
+printer&#8217;s ink hardens on the slab, and the rapidity with which it dries on
+paper. While serviceable for hours in the former case, in the latter it
+will be dry in a very few seconds. The drying or hardening of this oily
+ink has nothing whatever to do with the loss of moisture in the ordinary
+sense of the word, that is to say, of the loss of the contained water: it
+is wholly due to oxidisation of the oil. An extremely thin oxidised film
+soon forms on the surface of the layer on the slab, and this shields the
+lower-lying portions of the layer from the air, and retards further
+oxidisation. But paper is very unlike a polished slab; it is a fine felt,
+full of minute interstices. When a printed period (.) is placed under the
+microscope it looks like a drop of tar in the middle of a clean
+bird&#8217;s-nest. The ink is minutely divided among the interstices of the
+paper, and a large surface being thereby exposed to the air, it oxidises
+at once, while a print from the finger upon glass will not dry for two or
+three days. One effect of oxidisation is to give a granulated appearance
+to the ink on rollers which have been allowed to get dirty. This
+granulation leaves clots on the slab which are fatal to good work:
+whenever they are seen, the roller must be cleaned at once.</p>
+
+<p>The best ink for finger printing is not the best for ordinary printing. It
+is important to a commercial printer that his ink should dry rapidly on
+the paper, and he does not want a particularly thin layer of it;
+consequently, he prefers ink that contains various<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span> drying materials, such
+as litharge, which easily part with their oxygen. In finger prints this
+rapid drying is unnecessary, and the drying materials do harm by making
+the ink too stiff. The most serviceable ink for our purpose is made of any
+pure &#8220;drying&#8221; oil (or oil that oxidises rapidly), mixed with lampblack and
+very little else. I get mine in small collapsible tubes, each holding
+about a quarter of an ounce, from Messrs. Reeve &amp; Sons, 113 Cheapside,
+London, W.C. Some thousands of fingers may be printed from the contents of
+one of these little tubes.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now pass on to descriptions of printing apparatus. First, of that
+in regular use at my anthropometric laboratory at South Kensington, which
+has acted perfectly for three years; then of a similar but small apparatus
+convenient to carry about or send abroad, and of temporary arrangements in
+case any part of it may fail. Then lithographic printing will be noticed.
+In all these cases some kind of printer&#8217;s ink has to be used. Next, smoke
+prints will be described, which at times are very serviceable; after this
+the methods of water colours and aniline dyes; then casts of various
+kinds; last of all, enlargements.</p>
+
+<p><i>Laboratory apparatus.</i>&mdash;Mine consists of: 1, slab; 2, roller; 3, bottle
+of benzole (paraffin, turpentine, or solution of washing soda); 4, a
+funnel, with blotting-paper to act as a filter; 5, printer&#8217;s ink; 6, rags
+and duster; 7, a small glass dish; 8, cards to print on.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Slab</i> is a sheet of polished copper, 10&#189; inches by 7, and about
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>1</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">16</span> inch thick, mounted on a solid board &#190; inch thick, with projecting
+ears for ease of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_36" id="Page_36">[Pg 36]</a></span> handling. The whole weighs 2&#189; lbs. Each day it is
+cleaned with the benzole and left bright. [A slab of more than double the
+length and less than half the width might, as my assistant thinks, answer
+better.]</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Roller</i> is an ordinary small-sized printer&#8217;s roller, 6 inches long
+and 3 in diameter, obtained from Messrs. Harrild, 25 Farringdon Street,
+London. Mine remained in good condition for quite a year and a half. When
+it is worn the maker exchanges it for a new one at a trifling cost. A good
+roller is of the highest importance; it affords the only means of
+spreading ink evenly and thinly, and with quickness and precision, over a
+large surface. The ingenuity of printers during more than four centuries
+in all civilised nations, has been directed to invent the most suitable
+composition for rollers, with the result that particular mixtures of glue,
+treacle, etc., are now in general use, the proportions between the
+ingredients differing according to the temperature at which the roller is
+intended to be used. The roller, like the slab, is cleansed with benzole
+every day (a very rapid process) and then put out of the reach of dust.
+Its clean surface is smooth and shining.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Benzole</i> is kept in a pint bottle. Sometimes paraffin or turpentine
+has been used instead; washing soda does not smell, but it dissolves the
+ink more slowly. They are otherwise nearly equally effective in cleansing
+the rollers and fingers. When dirty, the benzole can be rudely filtered
+and used again.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Funnel</i> holds blotting-paper for filtering the benzole. Where much
+printing is going on, and <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_37" id="Page_37">[Pg 37]</a></span>consequent washing of hands, it is worth while
+to use a filter, as it saves a little daily expense, though benzole is
+very cheap, and a few drops of it will clean a large surface.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Ink</i> has already been spoken of. The more fluid it is the better, so
+long as it does not &#8220;run.&#8221; A thick ink cannot be so thinned by adding
+turpentine, etc., as to make it equal to ink that was originally fluid.
+The variety of oils used in making ink, and of the added materials, is
+endless. For our purpose, any oil that dries and does not spread, such as
+boiled or burnt linseed oil, mixed with lampblack, is almost all that is
+wanted. The burnt oil is the thicker of the two, and dries the faster.
+Unfortunately the two terms, burnt and boiled linseed oil, have no
+definite meaning in the trade, boiling or burning not being the simple
+processes these words express, but including an admixture of drying
+materials, which differ with each manufacturer; moreover, there are two,
+if not three, fundamentally distinct qualities of linseed, in respect to
+the oil extracted from it. The ink used in the laboratory and described
+above, answers all requirements. Many other inks have suited less well;
+less even than that which can be made, in a very homely way, with a little
+soot off a plate that had been smoked over a candle, mixed with such
+boiled linseed oil as can be bought at unpretentious oil and colour shops,
+its only fault being a tendency to run.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rags</i>, and a comparatively clean duster, are wanted for cleaning the slab
+and roller, without scratching them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_38" id="Page_38">[Pg 38]</a></span>The small <i>Glass Dish</i> holds the benzole, into which the inked fingers are
+dipped before wiping them with the duster. Soap and water complete the
+preliminary cleansing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Cards</i>, lying flat, and being more easily manipulated than paper, are now
+used at the laboratory for receiving the impressions. They are of rather
+large size, 11&#189; &times; 5 inches, to enable the prints of the ten digits to
+be taken on the same card in two rather different ways (see <a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>, Fig.
+3), and to afford space for writing notes. The cards must have a smooth
+and yet slightly absorbent surface. If too highly glazed they cease to
+absorb, and more ink will remain on the fingers and less be transferred
+from them to the paper. A little trial soon determines the best specimen
+from among a few likely alternatives. &#8220;Correspondence cards&#8221; are suitable
+for taking prints of not more than three fingers, and are occasionally
+employed in the laboratory. Paper books and pads were tried, but their
+surfaces are inferior to cards in flatness, and their use is now
+abandoned.</p>
+
+<p>The cards should be <i>very</i> white, because, if a photographic enlargement
+should at any time be desired, a slight tint on the card will be an
+impediment to making a photograph that shall be as sharp in its lines as
+an engraving, it being recollected that the cleanest prints are brown, and
+therefore not many shades darker than the tints of ordinary cards.</p>
+
+<p>The method of printing at the laboratory is to squeeze a drop or so of ink
+on to the slab, and to work it thoroughly with the roller until a thin and
+even<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_39" id="Page_39">[Pg 39]</a></span> layer is spread, just as is done by printers, from one of whom a
+beginner might well purchase a lesson. The thickness of the layer of ink
+is tested from time to time by taking a print of a finger, and comparing
+its clearness and blackness with that of a standard print, hung up for the
+purpose close at hand. If too much ink has been put on the slab, some of
+it must be cleaned off, and the slab rolled afresh with what remains on it
+and on the roller. But this fault should seldom be committed; little ink
+should be put on at first, and more added little by little, until the
+required result is attained.</p>
+
+<p>The right hand of the subject, which should be quite passive, is taken by
+the operator, and the bulbs of his four fingers laid flat on the inked
+slab and pressed gently but firmly on it by the flattened hand of the
+operator. Then the inked fingers are laid flat upon the upper part of the
+right-hand side of the card (<a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>, Fig. 3), and pressed down gently and
+firmly, just as before, by the flattened hand of the operator. This
+completes the process for one set of prints of the four fingers of the
+right hand. Then the bulb of the thumb is slightly <i>rolled</i> on the inked
+slab, and again on the lower part of the card, which gives a more extended
+but not quite so sharp an impression. Each of the four fingers of the same
+hand, in succession, is similarly rolled and impressed. This completes the
+process for the second set of prints of the digits of the right hand. Then
+the left hand is treated in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>The result is indicated by the diagram, which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_40" id="Page_40">[Pg 40]</a></span> shows on what parts of the
+card the impressions fall. Thus each of the four fingers is impressed
+twice, once above with a simple dab, and once below with a rolled
+impression, but each thumb is only impressed once; the thumbs being more
+troublesome to print from than fingers. Besides, the cards would have to
+be made even larger than they are, if two impressions of each thumb had to
+be included. It takes from two and a half to three minutes to obtain the
+eighteen impressions that are made on each card.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>pocket apparatus</i> is similar to one originally made and used by Sir
+William J. Herschel (see <a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 4, in which the roller and its
+bearings are drawn of the same size as those I use). A small cylinder of
+hard wood, or of brass tube, say 1&#190; inch long, and &#189; or &#190; inch in
+diameter, has a pin firmly driven into each end to serve as an axle. A
+piece of tightly-fitting india-rubber tubing is drawn over the cylinder.
+The cylinder, thus coated with a soft smooth compressible material, turns
+on its axle in two brackets, each secured by screws, as shown in <a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>,
+Fig. 4, to a board (say 6 &times; 2&#189; &times; &#188; inch) that serves as handle. This
+makes a very fair and durable roller; it can be used in the heat and damp
+of the tropics, and is none the worse for a wetting, but it is by no means
+so good for delicate work as a cylinder covered with roller composition.
+These are not at all difficult to make; I have cast them for myself. The
+mould is a piece of brass tube, polished inside. A thick disc, with a
+central hole for the lower pin of the cylinder, fits smoothly into the
+lower end of the mould, and a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_41" id="Page_41">[Pg 41]</a></span> ring with a thin bar across it, fits over
+the other end, the upper pin of the cylinder entering a hole in the middle
+of the bar; thus the cylinder is firmly held in the right position. After
+slightly oiling the inside of the mould, warming it, inserting the disc
+and cylinder, and fitting on the ring, the melted composition is poured in
+on either side of the bar. As it contracts on cooling, rather more must be
+poured in than at first appears necessary. Finally the roller is pushed
+out of the mould by a wooden ramrod, applied to the bottom of the disc.
+The composition must be melted like glue, in a vessel surrounded by hot
+water, which should never be allowed to boil; otherwise it will be spoilt.
+Harrild&#8217;s best composition is more than twice the cost of that ordinarily
+used, and is expensive for large rollers, but for these miniature ones the
+cost is unimportant. The mould with which my first roller was made, was an
+old pewter squirt with the nozzle cut off; its piston served the double
+purpose of disc and ramrod.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Slab</i> is a piece of thick plate glass, of the same length and width
+as the handle to the roller, so they pack up easily together; its edges
+are ground to save the fingers and roller alike from being cut. (Porcelain
+takes the ink better than glass, but is not to be commonly found in the
+shops, of a convenient shape and size; a glazed tile makes a capital
+slab.) A collapsible tube of printer&#8217;s ink, a few rags, and a phial of
+washing soda, complete the equipment (benzole may spoil india-rubber).
+When using the apparatus, spread a newspaper on the table to prevent<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_42" id="Page_42">[Pg 42]</a></span>
+accident, have other pieces of newspaper ready to clean the roller, and to
+remove any surplus of ink from it by the simple process of rolling it on
+the paper. Take care that the washing soda is in such a position that it
+cannot be upset and ruin the polish of the table. With these precautions,
+the apparatus may be used with cleanliness even in a drawing-room. The
+roller is of course laid on its back when not in use.</p>
+
+<p>My assistant has taken good prints of the three first fingers of the right
+hands of more than 300 school children, say 1000 fingers, in a few hours
+during the same day, by this apparatus. Hawksley, 357 Oxford Street, W.,
+sells a neatly fitted-up box with all the necessary apparatus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Rougher arrangements.</i>&mdash;A small ball made by tying chamois leather round
+soft rags, may be used in the absence of a roller. The fingers are inked
+from the ball, over which the ink has been evenly distributed, by dabbing
+it many times against a slab or plate. This method gives good results, but
+is slow; it would be intolerably tedious to employ it on a large scale, on
+all ten digits of many persons.</p>
+
+<p>It is often desirable to obtain finger prints from persons at a distance,
+who could not be expected to trouble themselves to acquire the art of
+printing for the purpose of making a single finger print. On these
+occasions I send folding-cases to them, each consisting of two pieces of
+thin copper sheeting, fastened side by side to a slip of pasteboard, by
+bending the edges of the copper over it. The pasteboard is half cut
+through at the back, along the space between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_43" id="Page_43">[Pg 43]</a></span> the copper sheets, so that
+it can be folded like a reply post-card, the copper sheets being thus
+brought face to face, but prevented from touching by the margin of an
+interposed card, out of which the middle has been cut away. The two pieces
+of copper being inked and folded up, may then be sent by post. On arrival
+the ink is fresh, and the folders can be used as ordinary inked slabs.
+(See also Smoke Printing, page 47.)</p>
+
+<p>The fluidity of even a very thin layer of ink seems to be retained for an
+indefinite time if the air is excluded to prevent oxidisation. I made
+experiments, and found that if pieces of glass (photographic quarter
+plates) be inked, and placed face to face, separated only by narrow paper
+margins, and then wrapped up without other precaution, they will remain
+good for a year and a half.</p>
+
+<p>A slight film of oxidisation on the surface of the ink is a merit, not a
+harm; it is cleaner to work with and gives a blacker print, because the
+ink clings less tenaciously to the finger, consequently more of it is
+transferred to the paper.</p>
+
+<p>If a blackened plate becomes dry, and is re-inked without first being
+cleaned, the new ink will rob the old of some of its oxygen and it will
+become dry in a day or even less.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lithography.</i>&mdash;Prints may be made on &#8220;transfer-paper,&#8221; and thence
+transferred to stone. It is better not to impress the fingers directly
+upon the stone, as the print from the stone would be reversed as compared
+with the original impression, and mistakes are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_44" id="Page_44">[Pg 44]</a></span> likely to arise in
+consequence. The print is re-reversed, or put right, by impressing the
+fingers on transfer-paper. It might sometimes be desirable to obtain
+rapidly a large number of impressions of the finger prints of a suspected
+person. In this case lithography would be easier, quicker, and cheaper
+than photography.</p>
+
+<p><i>Water Colours and Dyes.</i>&mdash;The pads most commonly used with office stamps
+are made of variously prepared gelatine, covered with fine silk to protect
+the surface, and saturated with an aniline dye. If the surface be touched,
+the finger is inked, and if the circumstances are all favourable, a good
+print may be made, but there is much liability to blot. The pad remains
+ready for use during many days without any attention, fresh ink being
+added at long intervals. The advantage of a dye over an ordinary water
+colour is, that it percolates the silk without any of its colour being
+kept back; while a solution of lampblack or Indian ink, consisting of
+particles of soot suspended in water, leaves all its black particles
+behind when it is carefully filtered; only clear water then passes
+through.</p>
+
+<p>A serviceable pad may be made out of a few thicknesses of cloth or felt
+with fine silk or cambric stretched over it. The ink should be of a slowly
+drying sort, made, possibly, of ordinary ink, with the admixture of brown
+sugar, honey, glycerine or the like, to bring it to a proper consistence.</p>
+
+<p>Mr. Gilbert Thompson&#8217;s results by this process have already been
+mentioned. A similar process was employed for the Bengal finger prints by
+Sir W.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_45" id="Page_45">[Pg 45]</a></span> Herschel, who sent me the following account: &#8220;As to the printing
+of the fingers themselves, no doubt practice makes perfect. But I took no
+pains with my native officials, some dozen or so of whom learnt to do it
+quite well enough for all practical purposes from Bengali written
+instructions, and using nothing but a kind of lampblack ink made by the
+native orderly for use with the office seal.&#8221; A batch of these
+impressions, which he was so good as to send me, are all clear, and in
+most cases very good indeed. It would be easier to employ this method in a
+very damp climate than in England, where a very thin layer of lampblack is
+apt to dry too quickly on the fingers.</p>
+
+<p><i>Printing as from Engraved Plates.</i>&mdash;Professor Ray Lankester kindly sent
+me his method of taking prints with water colours. &#8220;You take a watery
+brushful or two of the paint and rub it over the hands, rubbing one hand
+against the other until they feel sticky. A <i>thin</i> paper (tissue is best)
+placed on an oval cushion the shape of the hand, should be ready, and the
+hand pressed not too firmly on to it. I enclose a rough sample, done
+without a cushion. You require a cushion for the hollow of the hand, and
+the paint must be rubbed by the two hands until they feel sticky, not
+watery.&#8221; This is the process of printing from engravings, the ink being
+removed from the ridges, and lying in the furrows. Blood can be used in
+the same way.</p>
+
+<p>The following is extracted from an article by Dr. Louis Robinson in the
+<i>Nineteenth Century</i>, May 1892, p. 303:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="blockquot"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_46" id="Page_46">[Pg 46]</a></span>&#8220;I found that direct prints of the infant&#8217;s feet on paper would answer
+much better [than photography]. After trying various methods I found
+that the best results could be got by covering the foot by means of a
+soft stencil brush with a composition of lampblack, soap, syrup, and
+blue-black ink; wiping it gently from heel to toe with a
+smoothly-folded silk handkerchief to remove the superfluous pigment,
+and then applying a moderately flexible paper, supported on a soft
+pad, direct to the foot.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>A curious method with paper and ordinary writing ink, lately contrived by
+Dr. Forgeot, is analogous to lithography. He has described in one of the
+many interesting pamphlets published by the &#8220;Laboratoire d&#8217;Anthropologie
+Criminelle&#8221; of Lyon (<i>Stenheil</i>, 2 Rue Casimir-Delavigne, Paris), his new
+process of rendering visible the previously invisible details of such
+faint finger prints as thieves may have left on anything they have
+handled, the object being to show how evidence may sometimes be obtained
+for their identification. It is well known that pressure of the hand on
+the polished surface of glass or metal leaves a latent image very
+difficult to destroy, and which may be rendered visible by suitable
+applications, but few probably have suspected that this may be the case,
+to a considerable degree, with ordinary paper. Dr. Forgeot has shown that
+if a slightly greasy hand, such for example as a hand that has just been
+passed through the hair, be pressed on clean paper, and if common ink be
+afterwards brushed lightly over the paper, it will refuse to lie thickly
+on the greasy parts, and that the result will be a very fair picture of
+the minute markings on the fingers. He has even used<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_47" id="Page_47">[Pg 47]</a></span> these productions as
+negatives, and printed good photographs from them. He has also sent me a
+photographic print made from a piece of glass which had been exposed to
+the vapour of hydrofluoric acid, after having been touched by a greasy
+hand. I have made many trials of his method with considerable success. It
+affords a way of obtaining serviceable impressions in the absence of
+better means. Dr. Forgeot&#8217;s pamphlet describes other methods of a
+generally similar kind, which he has found to be less good than the above.</p>
+
+<p><i>Smoke Printing.</i>&mdash;When other apparatus is not at hand, a method of
+obtaining very clear impressions is to smoke a plate over a lighted
+candle, to press the finger on the blackened surface, and then on an
+adhesive one. The following details must, however, be borne in mind: the
+plate must not be smoked too much, for the same reason that a slab must
+not be inked too much; and the adhesive surface must be only slightly
+damped, not wetted, or the impression will be blurred. A crockery plate is
+better than glass or metal, as the soot does not adhere to it so tightly,
+and it is less liable to crack. Professor Bowditch finds mica (which is
+sold at photographic stores in small sheets) to be the best material.
+Certainly the smoke comes wholly off the mica on to the parts of the
+finger that touch it, and a beautiful negative is left behind, which can
+be utilised in the camera better than glass that has been similarly
+treated; but it does not serve so well for a plate that is intended to be
+kept ready for use in a pocket-book, its softness<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_48" id="Page_48">[Pg 48]</a></span> rendering it too liable
+to be scratched. I prefer to keep a slip of very thin copper sheeting in
+my pocket-book, with which, and with the gummed back of a postage stamp,
+or even the gummed fringe to a sheet of stamps, impressions can easily be
+taken. The thin copper quickly cools, and a wax match supplies enough
+smoke. The folders spoken of (<a href="#Page_42">p. 42</a>) may be smoked instead of being inked,
+and are in some cases preferable to carry in the pocket or to send by
+post, being so easy to smoke afresh. Luggage labels that are thickly
+gummed at the back furnish a good adhesive surface. The fault of gummed
+paper lies in the difficulty of damping it without its curling up. The
+gummed paper sold by stationers is usually thinner than luggage labels,
+and still more difficult to keep flat. Paste rubbed in a very thin layer
+over a card makes a surface that holds soot firmly, and one that will not
+stick to other surfaces if accidentally moistened. Glue, isinglass, size,
+and mucilage, are all suitable. It was my fortune as a boy to receive
+rudimentary lessons in drawing from a humble and rather grotesque master.
+He confided to me the discovery, which he claimed as his own, that pencil
+drawings could be fixed by licking them; and as I write these words, the
+image of his broad swab-like tongue performing the operation, and of his
+proud eyes gleaming over the drawing he was operating on, come vividly to
+remembrance. This reminiscence led me to try whether licking a piece of
+paper would give it a sufficiently adhesive surface. It did so. Nay, it
+led me a step further, for I took two pieces of paper and licked both.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_49" id="Page_49">[Pg 49]</a></span>
+The dry side of the one was held over the candle as an equivalent to a
+plate for collecting soot, being saved by the moisture at the back from
+igniting (it had to be licked two or three times during the process), and
+the impression was made on the other bit of paper. An ingenious person
+determined to succeed in obtaining the record of a finger impression, can
+hardly fail altogether under any ordinary circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Physiologists who are familiar with the revolving cylinder covered with
+highly-glazed paper, which is smoked, and then used for the purpose of
+recording the delicate movements of a tracer, will have noticed the beauty
+of the impression sometimes left by a finger that had accidentally touched
+it. They are also well versed in the art of varnishing such impressions to
+preserve them in a durable form.</p>
+
+<p>A cake of blacklead (plumbago), such as is sold for blackening grates,
+when rubbed on paper leaves a powdery surface that readily blackens the
+fingers, and shows the ridges distinctly. A small part of the black comes
+off when the fingers are pressed on sticky paper, but I find it difficult
+to ensure good prints. The cakes are convenient to carry and cleanly to
+handle. Whitening, and still more, whitening mixed with size, may be used
+in the same way, but it gathers in the furrows, not on the ridges.</p>
+
+<p><i>Casts</i> give undoubtedly the most exact representation of the ridges, but
+they are difficult and unsatisfactory to examine, puzzling the eye by
+showing too conspicuously the variation of their heights,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_50" id="Page_50">[Pg 50]</a></span> whereas we only
+want to know their courses. Again, as casts must be of a uniform colour,
+the finer lines are indistinctly seen except in a particular light.
+Lastly, they are both cumbrous to preserve and easily broken.</p>
+
+<p>A sealing-wax impression is the simplest and best kind of cast, and the
+finger need not be burnt in making it. The plan is to make a considerable
+pool of flaming sealing-wax, stirring it well with the still unmelted
+piece of the stick, while it is burning. Then blow out the flame and wait
+a little, until the upper layer has cooled. Sealing-wax that has been well
+aflame takes a long time to harden thoroughly after it has parted with
+nearly all its heat. By selecting the proper moment after blowing out the
+flame, the wax will be cool enough for the finger to press it without
+discomfort, and it will still be sufficiently soft to take a sharp
+impression. Dentist&#8217;s wax, which is far less brittle, is easily worked,
+and takes impressions that are nearly as sharp as those of sealing-wax; it
+has to be well heated and kneaded, then plunged for a moment in cold water
+to chill the surface, and immediately impressed. Gutta-percha can also be
+used. The most delicate of all impressions is that left upon a thick clot
+of varnish, which has been exposed to the air long enough for a thin film
+to have formed over it. The impression is transient, but lingers
+sufficiently to be easily photographed. It happened, oddly enough, that a
+few days after I had noticed this effect, and had been experimenting upon
+it, I heard an interesting memoir &#8220;On the Minute Structure of Striped
+Muscle, with special allusion to a new<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_51" id="Page_51">[Pg 51]</a></span> method of investigation by means
+of &#8216;Impressions&#8217; stamped in Collodion,&#8221; submitted to the Royal Society by
+Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in which an analogous method was used to obtain
+impressions of delicate microscopic structures.</p>
+
+<p><i>Photographs</i> are valuable in themselves, and the negatives serve for
+subsequent <i>enlargements</i>. They are unquestionably accurate, and the
+labour of making them being mechanical, may be delegated. If the print be
+in printer&#8217;s ink on white paper, the process is straightforward, first of
+obtaining a negative and afterwards photo-prints from it. The importance
+of the paper or card used to receive the finger print being quite white,
+has already been pointed out. An imprint on white crockery-ware is
+beautifully clear. Some of the photographs may be advantageously printed
+by the ferro-prussiate process. The paper used for it does not curl when
+dry, its texture is good for writing on, and the blue colour of the print
+makes handwriting clearly legible, whether it be in ink or in pencil.</p>
+
+<p>Prints on glass have great merits for use as lantern slides, but it must
+be recollected that they may take some days to dry, and that when dry the
+ink can be only too easily detached from them by water, which insinuates
+itself between the dry ink and the glass. Of course they could be
+varnished, if the trouble and cost were no objection, and so preserved.
+The negative print left on an inked slab, after the finger has touched it,
+is sometimes very clear, that on smoked glass better, and on smoked mica
+the clearest of all.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_52" id="Page_52">[Pg 52]</a></span> These have merely to be placed in the enlarging
+camera, where the negative image thrown on argento-bromide paper will
+yield a positive print. (See <a href="#Page_90">p. 90</a>.)</p>
+
+<p>I have made, by hand, many enlargements with a prism (camera lucida), but
+it is difficult to enlarge more than five times by means of it. So much
+shade is cast by the head that the prism can hardly be used at a less
+distance than 3 inches from the print, or one quarter the distance (12
+inches) at which a book is usually read, while the paper on which the
+drawing is made cannot well be more than 15 inches below the prism; so it
+makes an enlargement of <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>4 &times; 15</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">12</span> or five-fold. This is a very
+convenient method of analysing a pattern, since the lines follow only the
+axes of the ridges, as in <a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 5. The prism and attached
+apparatus may be kept permanently mounted, ready for use at any time,
+without the trouble of any adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>An enlarging pantagraph has also been of frequent use to me, in which the
+cross-wires of a low-power microscope took the place of the pointer. It
+has many merits, but its action was not equally free in all directions;
+the enlarged traces were consequently jagged, and required subsequent
+smoothing.</p>
+
+<p>All hand-made enlargements are tedious to produce, as the total length of
+lineations to be followed is considerable. In a single finger print made
+by dabbing down the finger, their actual length amounts to about 18
+inches; therefore in a five-fold enlargement of the entire print the
+pencil has to be carefully directed over five times that distance, or more
+than 7 feet.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_53" id="Page_53">[Pg 53]</a></span>Large copies of tracings made on transparent paper, either by the Camera
+Lucida or by the Pantagraph, are easily printed by the ferro-prussiate
+photographic process mentioned above, in the same way that plans are
+copied by engineers.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_54" id="Page_54">[Pg 54]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IV" id="CHAPTER_IV"></a>CHAPTER IV</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">THE RIDGES AND THEIR USES</span></p>
+
+<p>The palmar surface of the hands and the soles of the feet, both in men and
+monkeys, are covered with minute ridges that bear a superficial
+resemblance to those made on sand by wind or flowing water. They form
+systems which run in bold sweeps, though the courses of the individual
+ridges are less regular. Each ridge (<a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 5) is characterised by
+numerous minute peculiarities, called <i>Minuti&aelig;</i> in this book, here
+dividing into two, and there uniting with another (<i>a</i>, <i>b</i>), or it may
+divide and almost immediately reunite, enclosing a small circular or
+elliptical space (<i>c</i>); at other times its beginning or end is markedly
+independent (<i>d</i>, <i>e</i>); lastly, the ridge may be so short as to form a
+small island (<i>f</i>).</p>
+
+<p>Whenever an interspace is left between the boundaries of different systems
+of ridges, it is filled by a small system of its own, which will have some
+characteristic shape, and be called a <i>pattern</i> in this book.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate3" id="plate3"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 3.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 5.</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig5.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center">Characteristic peculiarities in Ridges<br />(about 8 times the natural size).</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 6.</span></p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig6.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p class="center">Systems of Ridges, and the Creases in the Palm.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_55" id="Page_55">[Pg 55]</a></span>There are three particularly well-marked systems of ridges in the palm of
+the hand marked in <a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>, Fig. 6, <small>1</small>, as Th, AB, and BC. The system Th
+is that which runs over the ball of the thumb and adjacent parts of the
+palm. It is bounded by the line <i>a</i> which starts from the middle of the
+palm close to the wrist, and sweeps thence round the ball of the thumb to
+the edge of the palm on the side of the thumb, which it reaches about half
+an inch, more or less, below the base of the fore-finger. The system AB is
+bounded towards the thumb by the above line <i>a</i>, and towards the little
+finger by the line <i>b</i>; the latter starts from about the middle of the
+little-finger side of the palm, and emerges on the opposite side just
+below the fore-finger. Consequently, every ridge that wholly crosses the
+palm is found in AB. The system BC is bounded thumbwards by the line <i>b</i>,
+until that line arrives at a point immediately below the axis of the
+fore-finger; there the boundary of BC leaves the line <i>b</i>, and skirts the
+base of the fore-finger until it reaches the interval which separates the
+fore and middle fingers. The upper boundary of BC is the line <i>c</i>, which
+leaves the little-finger side of the palm at a small distance below the
+base of the little finger, and terminates between the fore and middle
+fingers. Other systems are found between <i>c</i> and the middle, ring, and
+little fingers; they are somewhat more variable than those just described,
+as will be seen by comparing the five different palms shown in Fig. 6.</p>
+
+<p>An interesting example of the interpolation of a small and independent
+system occurs frequently in the middle of one or other of the systems AB
+or BC, at the place where the space covered by the systems<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_56" id="Page_56">[Pg 56]</a></span> of ridges
+begins to broaden out very rapidly. There are two ways in which the
+necessary supply of ridges makes its appearance, the one is by a series of
+successive embranchments (Fig. 6, <small>1</small>), the other is by the insertion of
+an independent system, as shown in <small>4</small>, <small>5</small>. Another example of an
+interpolated system, but of rarer occurrence, is found in the system Th,
+on the ball of the thumb, as seen in <small>2</small>.</p>
+
+<p>Far more definite in position, and complex in lineation, are the small
+independent systems which appear on the bulbs of the thumb and fingers.
+They are more instructive to study, more easy to classify, and will alone
+be discussed in this book.</p>
+
+<p>In the diagram of the hand, Fig. 6, <small>1</small>, the three chief cheiromantic
+creases are indicated by dots, but are not numbered. They are made (1) by
+the flexure of the thumb, (2) of the four fingers simultaneously, and (3)
+of the middle, ring, and little fingers simultaneously, while the
+fore-finger remains extended. There is no exact accordance between the
+courses of the creases and those of the adjacent ridges, less still do the
+former agree with the boundaries of the systems. The accordance is closest
+between the crease (1) and the ridges in Th; nevertheless that crease does
+not agree with the line <i>a</i>, but usually lies considerably within it. The
+crease (2) cuts the ridges on either side, at an angle of about 30
+degrees. The crease (3) is usually parallel to the ridges between which it
+runs, but is often far from accordant with the line <i>c</i>. The creases at
+the various joints of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_57" id="Page_57">[Pg 57]</a></span> thumb and fingers cut the ridges at small
+angles, say, very roughly, of 15 degrees.</p>
+
+<p>The supposition is therefore untenable that the courses of the ridges are
+wholly determined by the flexures. It appears, however, that the courses
+of the ridges and those of the lines of flexure may be in part, but in
+part only, due to the action of the same causes.</p>
+
+<p>The fact of the creases of the hand being strongly marked in the
+newly-born child, has been considered by some to testify to the archaic
+and therefore important character of their origin. The crumpled condition
+of the hand of the infant, during some months before its birth, seems to
+me, however, quite sufficient to account for the creases.</p>
+
+<p>I possess a few specimens of hand prints of persons taken when children,
+and again, after an interval of several years: they show a general
+accordance in respect to the creases, but not sufficiently close for
+identification.</p>
+
+<p>The ridges on the feet and toes are less complex than those on the hands
+and digits, and are less serviceable for present purposes, though equally
+interesting to physiologists. Having given but little attention to them
+myself, they will not be again referred to.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>The ridges are studded with minute pores which are the open mouths of the
+ducts of the somewhat deeply-seated glands, whose office is to secrete
+perspiration: <a href="#plate10">Plate 10</a>, <i>n</i>, is a good example of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_58" id="Page_58">[Pg 58]</a></span> them. The distance
+between adjacent pores on the same ridge is, roughly speaking, about half
+that which separates the ridges. The lines of a pattern are such as an
+artist would draw, if dots had been made on a sheet of paper in positions
+corresponding to the several pores, and he endeavoured to connect them by
+evenly flowing curves; it would be difficult to draw a pattern under these
+conditions, and within definite boundaries, that cannot be matched in a
+living hand.</p>
+
+<p>The embryological development of the ridges has been studied by many, but
+more especially by Dr. A. Kollmann,<a name='fna_1' id='fna_1' href='#f_1'><small>[1]</small></a> whose careful investigations and
+bibliography should be consulted by physiologists interested in the
+subject. He conceives the ridges to be formed through lateral pressures
+between nascent structures.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate4" id="plate4"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 4.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 7.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">SCARS and CUTS, and their Effects on the Ridges.</span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig7a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig7b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig7c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>a</i><br />Effect of an Ulcer.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>b</i><br />Finger of a Tailor.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>c</i><br />Effect of a Cut.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 8.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">FORMATION OF INTERSPACE and Examples of the Enclosed Patterns.</span></p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btbl" align="center"><img src="images/fig8a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btb"><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="btb"><img src="images/fig8b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btb"><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="btb"><img src="images/fig8c.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btb"><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td class="btbr"><img src="images/fig8d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">1</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>The ridges are said to be first discernible in the fourth month of
+f&oelig;tal life, and fully formed by the sixth. In babies and children the
+delicacy of the ridges is proportionate to the smallness of their stature.
+They grow simultaneously with the general growth of the body, and continue
+to be sharply defined until old age has set in, when an incipient
+disintegration of the texture of the skin spoils, and may largely
+obliterate them, as in the finger prints on the title-page. They develop
+most in hands that do a moderate amount of work, and they are strongly
+developed in the foot, which has the hard work of <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_59" id="Page_59">[Pg 59]</a></span>supporting the weight
+of the body. They are, as already mentioned, but faintly developed in the
+hands of ladies, rendered delicate by the continual use of gloves and lack
+of manual labour, and in idiots of the lowest type who are incapable of
+labouring at all. When the skin becomes thin, the ridges simultaneously
+subside in height. They are obliterated by the callosities formed on the
+hands of labourers and artisans in many trades, by the constant pressure
+of their peculiar tools. The ridges on the side of the left fore-finger of
+tailors and seamstresses are often temporarily destroyed by the needle; an
+instance of this is given in <a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 7, <i>b</i>. Injuries, when they are
+sufficiently severe to leave permanent scars, destroy the ridges to that
+extent. If a piece of flesh is sliced off, or if an ulcer has eaten so
+deeply as to obliterate the perspiratory glands, a white cicatrix, without
+pores or ridges, is the result (Fig. 7, <i>a</i>). Lesser injuries are not
+permanent. My assistant happened to burn his finger rather sharply; the
+daily prints he took of it, illustrated the progress of healing in an
+interesting manner; finally the ridges were wholly restored. A deep clean
+cut leaves a permanent thin mark across the ridges (Fig. 7, <i>c</i>),
+sometimes without any accompanying puckering; but there is often a
+displacement of the ridges on both sides of it, exactly like a &#8220;fault&#8221; in
+stratified rocks. A cut, or other injury that is not a clean incision,
+leaves a scar with puckerings on all sides, as in Fig. 7, <i>a</i>, making the
+ridges at that part undecipherable, even if it does not wholly obliterate
+them.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_60" id="Page_60">[Pg 60]</a></span>The latest and best investigations on the evolution of the ridges have
+been made by Dr. H. Klaatsch.<a name='fna_2' id='fna_2' href='#f_2'><small>[2]</small></a> He shows that the earliest appearance in
+the Mammalia of structures analogous to ridges is one in which small
+eminences occur on the ball of the foot, through which the sweat glands
+issue in no particular order. The arrangement of the papill&aelig; into rows,
+and the accompanying orderly arrangement of the sweat glands, is a
+subsequent stage in evolution. The prehensile tail of the Howling Monkey
+serves as a fifth hand, and the naked concave part of the tail, with which
+it grasps and holds on to boughs, is furnished with ridges arranged
+transversely in beautiful order. The numerous drawings of the hands of
+monkeys by Allix<a name='fna_3' id='fna_3' href='#f_3'><small>[3]</small></a> may be referred to with advantage.</p>
+
+<p>The uses of the ridges are primarily, as I suppose, to raise the mouths of
+the ducts, so that the excretions which they pour out may the more easily
+be got rid of; and secondarily, in some obscure way, to assist the sense
+of touch. They are said to be moulded upon the subcutaneous papill&aelig; in
+such a manner that the ultimate organs of touch, namely, the Pacinian
+bodies, etc.&mdash;into the variety of which it is unnecessary here to
+enter&mdash;are more closely congregated under the bases of the ridges than
+under the furrows, and it is easy, on those grounds, to make reasonable
+guesses how the ridges may assist the sense of touch. They must
+concentrate pressures,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_61" id="Page_61">[Pg 61]</a></span> that would otherwise be spread over the surface
+generally, upon the parts which are most richly supplied with the
+terminations of nerves. By their means it would become possible to
+neutralise the otherwise dulling effect of a thick protective epidermis.
+Their existence in transverse ridges on the inner surface of the
+prehensile tails of monkeys admits of easy justification from this point
+of view. The ridges so disposed cannot prevent the tail from curling, and
+they must add materially to its sensitiveness. They seem to produce the
+latter effect on the hands of man, for, as the epidermis thickens under
+use within moderate limits, so the prominence of the ridges increases.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing the ultimate organs of the sense of touch to be really
+congregated more thickly under the ridges than under the furrows&mdash;on which
+there has been some question&mdash;the power of tactile discrimination would
+depend very much on the closeness of the ridges. The well-known experiment
+with the two points of a pair of compasses, is exactly suited to test the
+truth of this. It consists in determining the smallest distance apart, of
+the two points, at which their simultaneous pressure conveys the sensation
+of a double prick. Those persons in whom the ridge-interval was short
+might be expected to perceive the double sensation, while others whose
+ridge-interval was wide would only perceive a single one, the distance
+apart of the compass points, and the parts touched by them, being the same
+in both cases. I was very glad to avail myself of the kind offer of Mr.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_62" id="Page_62">[Pg 62]</a></span>
+E. B. Titchener to make an adequate course of experiments at Professor
+Wundt&#8217;s psycho-physical laboratory at Leipzig, to decide this question. He
+had the advantage there of being able to operate on fellow-students who
+were themselves skilled in such lines of investigation, so while his own
+experience was a considerable safeguard against errors of method, that
+safety was reinforced by the fact that his experiments were conducted
+under the watchful eyes of competent and critical friends. The result of
+the enquiry was decisive. It was proved to demonstration that the fineness
+or coarseness of the ridges in different persons had no effect whatever on
+the delicacy of their tactile discrimination. Moreover, it made no
+difference in the results, whether one or both points of the compass
+rested on the ridges or in the furrows.</p>
+
+<p>The width of the ridge-interval is certainly no test of the relative power
+of discrimination of the different parts of the same hand, because, while
+the ridge-interval is nearly uniform over the whole of the palmar surface,
+the least distance between the compass points that gives the sensation of
+doubleness is more than four times greater when they are applied to some
+parts of the palm than when they are applied to the bulbs of the fingers.</p>
+
+<p>The ridges may subserve another purpose in the act of touch, namely, that
+of enabling the character of surfaces to be perceived by the act of
+rubbing them with the fingers. We all of us perform this, as it were,
+intuitively. It is interesting to ask a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_63" id="Page_63">[Pg 63]</a></span> person who is ignorant of the
+real intention, to shut his eyes and to ascertain as well as he can by the
+sense of touch alone, the material of which any object is made that is
+afterwards put into his hands. He will be observed to explore it very
+carefully by rubbing its surface in many directions, and with many degrees
+of pressure. The ridges engage themselves with the roughness of the
+surface, and greatly help in calling forth the required sensation, which
+is that of a thrill; usually faint, but always to be perceived when the
+sensation is analysed, and which becomes very distinct when the
+indentations are at equal distances apart, as in a file or in velvet. A
+thrill is analogous to a musical note, and the characteristics to the
+sense of touch, of different surfaces when they are rubbed by the fingers,
+may be compared to different qualities of sound or noise. There are,
+however, no pure over-tones in the case of touch, as there are in nearly
+all sounds.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_64" id="Page_64">[Pg 64]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_V" id="CHAPTER_V"></a>CHAPTER V</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES</span></p>
+
+<p>The patterns on the thumb and fingers were first discussed at length by
+Purkenje in 1823, in a University Thesis or <i>Commentatio</i>. I have
+translated the part that chiefly concerns us, and appended it to this
+chapter together with his corresponding illustrations. Subsequent writers
+have adopted his standard types, diminishing or adding to their number as
+the case may be, and guided as he had been, by the superficial appearance
+of the lineations.</p>
+
+<p>In my earlier trials some three years ago, an attempt at classification
+was made upon that same principle, when the experience gained was
+instructive. It had seemed best to limit them to the prints of a single
+digit, and the thumb was selected. I collected enough specimens to fill
+fourteen sheets, containing in the aggregate 504 prints of right thumbs,
+arranged in six lines and six columns (6 &times; 6 &times; 14 = 504), and another set
+of fourteen sheets containing the corresponding left thumbs. Then, for the
+greater convenience of study these sheets were photographed, and
+enlargements upon paper to about<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_65" id="Page_65">[Pg 65]</a></span> two and a half times the natural size
+made from the negatives. The enlargements of the right thumb prints were
+reversed, in order to make them comparable on equal terms with those of
+the left. The sheets were then cut up into rectangles about the size of
+small playing-cards, each of which contained a single print, and the
+register number in my catalogue was entered on its back, together with the
+letters L. for left, or R.R. for reversed right, as the case might be.</p>
+
+<p>On trying to sort them according to Purkenje&#8217;s standards, I failed
+completely, and many analogous plans were attempted without success. Next
+I endeavoured to sort the patterns into groups so that the central pattern
+of each group should differ by a unit of &#8220;equally discernible difference&#8221;
+from the central patterns of the adjacent groups, proposing to adopt those
+central patterns as standards of reference. After tedious re-sortings,
+some sixty standards were provisionally selected, and the whole laid by
+for a few days. On returning to the work with a fresh mind, it was painful
+to find how greatly my judgment had changed in the interim, and how faulty
+a classification that seemed tolerably good a week before, looked then.
+Moreover, I suffered the shame and humiliation of discovering that the
+identity of certain duplicates had been overlooked, and that one print had
+been mistaken for another. Repeated trials of the same kind made it
+certain that finality would never be reached by the path hitherto
+pursued.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_66" id="Page_66">[Pg 66]</a></span>On considering the causes of these doubts and blunders, different
+influences were found to produce them, any one of which was sufficient by
+itself to give rise to serious uncertainty. A complex pattern is capable
+of suggesting various readings, as the figuring on a wall-paper may
+suggest a variety of forms and faces to those who have such fancies. The
+number of illusive renderings of prints taken from the same finger, is
+greatly increased by such trifles as the relative breadths of their
+respective lineations and the differences in their depths of tint. The
+ridges themselves are soft in substance, and of various heights, so that a
+small difference in the pressure applied, or in the quantity of ink used,
+may considerably affect the width of the lines and the darkness of
+portions of the print. Certain ridges may thereby catch the attention at
+one time, though not at others, and give a bias to some false conception
+of the pattern. Again, it seldom happens that different impressions of the
+same digit are printed from exactly the same part of it, consequently the
+portion of the pattern that supplies the dominant character will often be
+quite different in the two prints. Hence the eye is apt to be deceived
+when it is guided merely by the general appearance. A third cause of error
+is still more serious; it is that patterns, especially those of a spiral
+form, may be apparently similar, yet fundamentally unlike, the unaided eye
+being frequently unable to analyse them and to discern real differences.
+Besides all this, the judgment is distracted by the mere size of the
+pattern, which catches the attention at once,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_67" id="Page_67">[Pg 67]</a></span> and by other secondary
+matters such as the number of turns in the whorled patterns, and the
+relative dimensions of their different parts. The first need to be
+satisfied, before it could become possible to base the classification upon
+a more sure foundation than that of general appearance, was to establish a
+well-defined point or points of reference in the patterns. This was done
+by utilising the centres of the one or two triangular plots (see <a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>,
+Fig. 8, <small>2</small>, <small>3</small>, <small>4</small>) which are found in the great majority of patterns,
+and whose existence was pointed out by Purkenje, but not their more remote
+cause, which is as follows:</p>
+
+<p>The ridges, as was shown in the diagram (<a href="#plate3">Plate 3</a>) of the palm of the hand,
+run athwart the fingers in rudely parallel lines up to the last joint, and
+if it were not for the finger-nail, would apparently continue parallel up
+to the extreme finger-tip. But the presence of the nail disturbs their
+parallelism and squeezes them downwards on both sides of the finger. (See
+Fig. 8, <small>2</small>.) Consequently, the ridges that run close to the tip are
+greatly arched, those that successively follow are gradually less arched
+until, in some cases, all signs of the arch disappear at about the level
+of the first joint (Fig. 8, <small>1</small>). Usually, however, this gradual
+transition from an arch to a straight line fails to be carried out,
+causing a break in the orderly sequence, and a consequent interspace (Fig.
+8, <small>2</small>). The topmost boundary of the interspace is formed by the lowermost
+arch, and its lowermost boundary by the topmost straight ridge. But an
+equally large number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_68" id="Page_68">[Pg 68]</a></span> ducts exist within the interspace, as are to be
+found in adjacent areas of equal size, whose mouths require to be
+supported and connected. This is effected by the interpolation of an
+independent system of ridges arranged in loops (Fig. 8, <small>3</small>; also <a href="#plate5">Plate 5</a>,
+Fig. 9, <i>a</i>, <i>f</i>), or in scrolls (Fig. 8, <small>4</small>; also Fig. 9, <i>g</i>, <i>h</i>), and
+this interpolated system forms the &#8220;pattern.&#8221; Now the existence of an
+interspace implies the divergence of two previously adjacent ridges (Fig.
+8, <small>2</small>), in order to embrace it. Just in front of the place where the
+divergence begins, and before the sweep of the pattern is reached, there
+are usually one or more very short cross-ridges. Their effect is to
+complete the enclosure of the minute triangular plot in question. Where
+there is a plot on both sides of the finger, the line that connects them
+(Fig. 8, <small>4</small>) serves as a base line whereby the pattern may be oriented,
+and the position of any point roughly charted. Where there is a plot on
+only one side of the finger (Fig. 8, <small>3</small>), the pattern has almost
+necessarily an axis, which serves for orientation, and the pattern can
+still be charted, though on a different principle, by dropping a
+perpendicular from the plot on to the axis, in the way there shown.</p>
+
+<p>These plots form corner-stones to my system of outlining and subsequent
+classification; it is therefore extremely important that a sufficient area
+of the finger should be printed to include them. This can always be done
+by slightly <i>rolling</i> the finger (<a href="#Page_39">p. 39</a>), the result being, in the
+language of map-makers, a cylindrical projection of the finger (see <a href="#plate5">Plate
+5</a>, Fig. 9, <i>a-h</i>). Large as these impressions look, they are of the
+natural size, taken from ordinary thumbs.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate5" id="plate5"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 5.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 9.</span></p>
+<p class="center">EXAMPLES OF OUTLINED PATTERNS</p>
+<p class="center">(The Specimens are rolled impressions of natural size).</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig9e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>a</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>e</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig9f.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>b</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>f</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9c.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig9g.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>c</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>g</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig9d.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig9h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>d</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center"><i>h</i></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_69" id="Page_69">[Pg 69]</a></span><i>The outlines.</i>&mdash;The next step is to give a clear and definite shape to
+the pattern by drawing its outline (Fig. 9). Take a fine pen, pencil, or
+paint brush, and follow in succession each of the two diverging ridges
+that start from either plot. The course of each ridge must be followed
+with scrupulous conscientiousness, marking it with a clean line as far as
+it can be traced. If the ridge bifurcates, always follow the branch that
+trends towards the middle of the pattern. If it stops short, let the
+outline stop short also, and recommence on a fresh ridge, choosing that
+which to the best of the judgment prolongs the course of the one that
+stopped. These outlines have an extraordinary effect in making finger
+markings intelligible to an untrained eye. What seemed before to be a
+vague and bewildering maze of lineations over which the glance wandered
+distractedly, seeking in vain for a point on which to fix itself, now
+suddenly assumes the shape of a sharply-defined figure. Whatever
+difficulties may arise in classifying these figures, they are as nothing
+compared to those experienced in attempting to classify unoutlined
+patterns, the outlines giving a precision to their general features which
+was wanting before.</p>
+
+<p>After a pattern has been treated in this way, there is no further occasion
+to pore minutely into the finger print, in order to classify it correctly,
+for the bold firm curves of the outline are even more distinct than the
+largest capital letters in the title-page of a book.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_70" id="Page_70">[Pg 70]</a></span>A fair idea of the way in which the patterns are distributed, is given by
+<a href="#plate6">Plate 6</a>. Eight persons were taken in the order in which they happened to
+present themselves, and <a href="#plate6">Plate 6</a> shows the result. For greater clearness,
+colour has been employed to distinguish between the ridges that are
+supplied from the inner and outer sides of the hand respectively. The
+words right and left <i>must be avoided</i> in speaking of patterns, for the
+two hands are symmetrically disposed, only in a reversed sense. The right
+hand does not look like a left hand, but like the reflection of a left
+hand in a looking-glass, and <i>vice versa</i>. The phrases we shall employ
+will be the <i>Inner</i> and the <i>Outer</i>; or thumb-side and little-finger side
+(terms which were unfortunately misplaced in my memoir in the <i>Phil.
+Trans.</i> 1891).</p>
+
+<p>There need be no difficulty in remembering the meaning of these terms, if
+we bear in mind that the great toes are undoubtedly innermost; that if we
+walked on all fours as children do, and as our remote ancestors probably
+did, the thumbs also would be innermost, as is the case when the two hands
+are impressed side by side on paper. Inner and outer are better than
+thumb-side and little-finger side, because the latter cannot be applied to
+the thumbs and little fingers themselves. The anatomical words radial and
+ulnar referring to the two bones of the fore-arm, are not in popular use,
+and they might be similarly inappropriate, for it would sound oddly to
+speak of the radial side of the radius.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate6" id="plate6"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 6.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 10.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">OUTLINES of the Patterns of the Digits of Eight Persons, taken at random.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="6" align="center"><span class="smcap">Left Hand.</span></td>
+    <td colspan="5" align="center"><span class="smcap">Right Hand.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center">Little finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Ring finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Middle finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Fore finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Thumb.</td>
+    <td align="center">Little finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Ring finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Middle finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Fore finger.</td>
+    <td align="center">Thumb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td colspan="5" align="center"><img src="images/fig10left.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td colspan="5" align="center"><img src="images/fig10right.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_71" id="Page_71">[Pg 71]</a></span>The two plots just described will therefore be henceforth designated as
+the Inner and the Outer plots respectively, and symbolised by the letters
+I and O.</p>
+
+<p>The system of ridges in Fig. 10 that comes from the inner side &#8220;I&#8221; are
+coloured blue; those from the outer &#8220;O&#8221; are coloured red. The employment
+of colour instead of variously stippled surfaces is of conspicuous
+advantage to the great majority of persons, though unhappily nearly
+useless to about one man in every twenty-five, who is constitutionally
+colour-blind.</p>
+
+<p>It may be convenient when marking finger prints with letters for
+reference, to use those that look alike, both in a direct and in a
+reversed aspect, as they may require to be read either way. The print is a
+reversed picture of the pattern upon the digit that made it. The pattern
+on one hand is, as already said, a reversed picture of a similar pattern
+as it shows on the other. In the various processes by which prints are
+multiplied, the patterns may be reversed and re-reversed. Thus, if a
+finger is impressed on a lithographic stone, the impressions from that
+stone are reversals of the impression made by the same finger upon paper.
+If made on transfer paper and thence transferred to stone, there is a
+re-reversal. There are even more varied possibilities when photography is
+employed. It is worth recollecting that there are twelve capital letters
+in the English alphabet which, if printed in block type, are unaffected by
+being reversed. They are <b>A.H.I.M.O.T.U.V.W.X.Y.Z.</b> Some symbols do the
+same,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_72" id="Page_72">[Pg 72]</a></span> such as, * + - = :. These and the letters <b>H.O.I.X.</b> have the
+further peculiarity of appearing unaltered when upside down.</p>
+
+<p><i>Lenses.</i>&mdash;As a rule, only a small magnifying power is needed for drawing
+outlines, sufficient to allow the eye to be brought within six inches of
+the paper, for it is only at that short distance that the <i>minuti&aelig;</i> of a
+full-sized finger print begin to be clearly discerned. Persons with normal
+sight, during their childhood and boy- or girlhood, are able to read as
+closely as this without using a lens, the range in adjustment of the focus
+of the eye being then large. But as age advances the range contracts, and
+an elderly person with otherwise normal eyesight requires glasses to read
+a book even at twelve inches from his eye. I now require much optical aid;
+when reading a book, spectacles of 12-inch focus are necessary; and when
+studying a finger print, 12-inch eye-glasses in addition, the double power
+enabling me to see clearly at a distance of only six inches. Perhaps the
+most convenient focus for a lens in ordinary use is 3 inches. It should be
+mounted at the end of a long arm that can easily be pushed in any
+direction, sideways, backwards, forwards, and up or down. It is
+undesirable to use a higher power than this unless it is necessary,
+because the field of view becomes narrowed to an inconvenient degree, and
+the nearer the head is to the paper, the darker is the shadow that it
+casts; there is also insufficient room for the use of a pencil.</p>
+
+<p>Every now and then a closer inspection is wanted;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_73" id="Page_73">[Pg 73]</a></span> for which purpose a
+doublet of &#189;-inch focus, standing on three slim legs, answers well.</p>
+
+<p>For studying the markings on the fingers themselves, a small folding lens,
+sold at opticians&#8217; shops under the name of a &#8220;linen tester,&#8221; is very
+convenient. It is so called because it was originally constructed for the
+purpose of counting the number of threads in a given space, in a sample of
+linen. It is equally well adapted for counting the number of ridges in a
+given space.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>Whoever desires to occupy himself with finger prints, ought to give much
+time and practice to drawing outlines of different impressions of the same
+digits. His own ten fingers, and those of a few friends, will furnish the
+necessary variety of material on which to work. He should not rest
+satisfied until he has gained an assurance that all patterns possess
+definite figures, which may be latent but are potentially present, and
+that the ridges form something more than a nondescript congeries of
+ramifications and twists. He should continue to practise until he finds
+that the same ridges have been so nearly followed in duplicate
+impressions, that even in difficult cases his work will rarely vary more
+than a single ridge-interval.</p>
+
+<p>When the triangular plot happens not to be visible, owing to the print
+failing to include it, which is often the case when the finger is not
+rolled, as is well shown in the prints of my own ten digits on the
+title-page, the trend of the ridges so far as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_74" id="Page_74">[Pg 74]</a></span> they are seen, usually
+enables a practised eye to roughly estimate its true position. By means of
+this guidance an approximate, but fairly correct, outline can be drawn.
+When the habit of judging patterns by their outlines has become familiar,
+the eye will trace them for itself without caring to draw them, and will
+prefer an unoutlined pattern to work upon, but even then it is essential
+now and then to follow the outline with a fine point, say that of a
+penknife or a dry pen.</p>
+
+<p>In selecting standard forms of patterns for the convenience of
+description, we must be content to disregard a great many of the more
+obvious characteristics. For instance, the size of generally similar
+patterns in Fig. 10 will be found to vary greatly, but the words large,
+medium, or small may be applied to any pattern, so there is no necessity
+to draw a standard outline for each size. Similarly as regards the inwards
+or outwards slope of patterns, it is needless to print here a separate
+standard outline for either slope, and equally unnecessary to print
+outlines in duplicate, with reversed titles, for the right and left hands
+respectively. The phrase &#8220;a simple spiral&#8221; conveys a well-defined general
+idea, but there are four concrete forms of it (see bottom row of <a href="#plate11">Plate 11</a>,
+Fig. 17, <i>oj</i>, <i>jo</i>, <i>ij</i>, <i>ji</i>) which admit of being verbally
+distinguished. Again the internal proportions of any pattern, say those of
+simple spirals, may vary greatly without affecting the fact of their being
+simple spirals. They may be wide or narrow at their mouths, they may be
+twisted up into a point (<a href="#plate8">Plate 8</a>, Fig. 14, <small>52</small>), or they may run in broad
+curls of uniform width (Fig. 14, <small>51</small>, <small>54</small>). Perhaps the best general
+rule in selecting standard outlines, is to limit them to such as cannot be
+turned into any other by viewing them in an altered aspect, as upside down
+or from the back, or by magnifying or deforming them, whether it be
+through stretching, shrinking, or puckering any part of them. Subject to
+this general rule and to further and more particular descriptions, the
+sets (<a href="#plate7">Plates 7</a> and <a href="#plate8">8</a>, Figs. 11, 12, 13) will be found to give considerable
+help in naming the usual patterns.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate7" id="plate7"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 7.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 11.</span><br />ARCHES.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11a.jpg" alt="" /><br />1<br />Plain Arch.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11b.jpg" alt="" /><br />2<br />Forked Arch.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11c.jpg" alt="" /><br />3<br />Tented Arch.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig11d.jpg" alt="" /><br />4<br />(<i>See</i> Loops, 12.)</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btblr" colspan="4"><img src="images/fig11e.jpg" alt="" /><br />5<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 22.)</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr" colspan="4"><img src="images/fig11f.jpg" alt="" /><br />6<br />Arch with Ring.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr" colspan="4"><img src="images/fig11g.jpg" alt="" /><br />7<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 24.)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 12.</span><br />LOOPS.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig12a.jpg" alt="" /><br />8<br />(<i>See</i> Arches, 2.)</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12b.jpg" alt="" /><br />9<br />Nascent Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12c.jpg" alt="" /><br />10<br />Plain Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12d.jpg" alt="" /><br />11<br />Invaded Loop.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig12e.jpg" alt="" /><br />12<br />Tented Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12f.jpg" alt="" /><br />13<br />Crested Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12g.jpg" alt="" /><br />14<br />Eyeletted Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig12h.jpg" alt="" /><br />15<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 21.).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btblr"><img src="images/fig12i.jpg" alt="" /><br />16<br />Twined Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig12j.jpg" alt="" /><br />17<br />Loop with nascent curl.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig12k.jpg" alt="" /><br />18<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 21.)</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig12l.jpg" alt="" /><br />19<br />(<i>See</i> Whorls, 22.)</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate8" id="plate8"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 8.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 13.</span><br />WHORLS.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig13a.jpg" alt="" /><br />20<br />Small Spiral in Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13b.jpg" alt="" /><br />21<br />Spiral in Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13c.jpg" alt="" /><br />22<br />Circlet in Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13d.jpg" alt="" /><br />23<br />Ring in Loop.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig13e.jpg" alt="" /><br />24<br />Rings.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13f.jpg" alt="" /><br />25<br />Ellipses.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig13g.jpg" alt="" /><br />26<br />Spiro-rings.</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btblr"><img src="images/fig13h.jpg" alt="" /><br />27<br />Simple Spiral.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig13i.jpg" alt="" /><br />28<br />Nascent Duplex Spiral.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig13j.jpg" alt="" /><br />29<br />Duplex Spiral.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig13k.jpg" alt="" /><br />30<br />Banded Duplex Spiral.</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 14.</span><br /><span class="smcap">CORES to LOOPS.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="12">Rods:&mdash;their envelopes are indicated by dots.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.31.jpg" alt="" /><br />31<br />Single.</td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.32.jpg" alt="" /><br />32<br />Eyed.</td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.33.jpg" alt="" /><br />33<br />Double.</td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.34.jpg" alt="" /><br />34<br />Multiple.</td><td><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.35.jpg" alt="" /><br />35<br />Monkey.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="12">Staples:&mdash;their envelopes are indicated by dots.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.36.jpg" alt="" /><br />36<br />Plain.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.37.jpg" alt="" /><br />37<br />&#188; parted.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.38.jpg" alt="" /><br />38<br />&#189; parted.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.39.jpg" alt="" /><br />39<br />&#190; parted.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.40.jpg" alt="" /><br />40<br />Tuning fork.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.41.jpg" alt="" /><br />41<br />Single eyed.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.42.jpg" alt="" /><br />42<br />Double eyed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="12">Envelopes whether to Rods or Staples:&mdash;here staples only are dotted.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.43.jpg" alt="" /><br />43<br />Plain.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.44.jpg" alt="" /><br />44<br />&#188; parted.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.45.jpg" alt="" /><br />45<br />&#189; parted.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.46.jpg" alt="" /><br />46<br />&#190; parted.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.47.jpg" alt="" /><br />47<br />Single eyed.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.48.jpg" alt="" /><br />48<br />Double eyed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" colspan="13"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span><br /><span class="smcap">CORES to WHORLS.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.49.jpg" alt="" /><br />49<br />Circles.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.50.jpg" alt="" /><br />50<br />Ellipses.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.51.jpg" alt="" /><br />51<br />Spiral.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.52.jpg" alt="" /><br />52<br />Twist.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.53.jpg" alt="" /><br />53<br />Plait.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig14.54.jpg" alt="" /><br />54<br />Deep Spiral.</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_75" id="Page_75">[Pg 75]</a></span>It will be observed that they are grouped under the three principal heads
+of Arches, Loops, and Whorls, and that under each of these heads some
+analogous patterns as <small>4</small>, <small>5</small>, <small>7</small>, <small>8</small>, etc., are introduced and
+underlined with the word &#8220;see&#8221; so and so, and thus noted as really
+belonging to one of the other heads. This is done to indicate the
+character of the transitional cases that unite respectively the Arches
+with the Loops, the Arches with the Whorls, and the Loops with the Whorls.
+More will follow in respect to these. The &#8220;tented arch&#8221; (<small>3</small>) is extremely
+rare on the thumb; I do not remember ever to have seen it there,
+consequently it did not appear in the plate of patterns in the <i>Phil.
+Trans.</i> which referred to thumbs. On the other hand, the &#8220;banded duplex
+spiral&#8221; (<small>30</small>) is common in the thumb, but rare elsewhere. There are some
+compound patterns, especially the &#8220;spiral in loop&#8221; (<small>21</small>) and the &#8220;circlet
+in loop&#8221; (<small>22</small>), which are as much loops as whorls; but are reckoned as
+whorls.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_76" id="Page_76">[Pg 76]</a></span> The &#8220;twinned loop&#8221; (<small>16</small>) is of more frequent occurrence than
+would be supposed from the examination of <i>dabbed</i> impressions, as the
+only part of the outer loop then in view resembles outside arches; it is
+due to a double separation of the ridges (<a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 8), and a
+consequent double interspace. The &#8220;crested loop&#8221; (<small>13</small>) may sometimes be
+regarded as an incipient form of a &#8220;duplex spiral&#8221; (<small>29</small>).</p>
+
+<p>The reader may also refer to <a href="#plate16">Plate 16</a>, which contains what is there called
+the C set of standard patterns. They were arranged and used for a special
+purpose, as described in <a href="#CHAPTER_XI">Chapter XI.</a> They refer to impressions of the
+right hand.</p>
+
+<p>As a variety of Cores, differing in shape and size, may be found within
+each of the outlines, it is advisable to describe them separately. <a href="#plate8">Plate
+8</a>, Fig. 14 shows a series of the cores of loops, in which the innermost
+lineations may be either straight or curved back; in the one case they are
+here called rods (<small>31</small> to <small>35</small>); in the other (<small>36</small> to <small>42</small>), staples. The
+first of the ridges that envelops the core, whether the core be a rod,
+many rods, or a staple, is also shown and named (<small>43</small> to <small>48</small>). None of
+the descriptions are intended to apply to more than the <i>very end</i> of the
+core, say, from the tip downwards to a distance equal to two average
+ridge-intervals in length. If more of the core be taken into account, the
+many varieties in their lower parts begin to make description confusing.
+In respect to the &#8220;parted&#8221; staples and envelopes, and those that are
+single-eyed, the description may further mention the side on which the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_77" id="Page_77">[Pg 77]</a></span>
+parting or the eye occurs, whether it be the Inner or the Outer.</p>
+
+<p>At the bottom of Fig. 14, <small>49-54</small>, is given a series of rings, spirals,
+and plaits, in which nearly all the clearly distinguishable varieties are
+included, no regard being paid to the direction of the twist or to the
+number of turns. <small>49</small> is a set of concentric circles, <small>50</small> of ellipses:
+they are rarely so in a strict sense throughout the pattern, usually
+breaking away into a more or less spiriform arrangement as in <small>51</small>. A
+curious optical effect is connected with the circular forms, which becomes
+almost annoying when many specimens are examined in succession. They seem
+to be cones standing bodily out from the paper. This singular appearance
+becomes still more marked when they are viewed with only one eye; no
+stereoscopic guidance then correcting the illusion of their being contour
+lines.</p>
+
+<p>Another curious effect is seen in <small>53</small>, which has the appearance of a
+plait or overlap; two systems of ridges that roll together, end bluntly,
+the end of the one system running right into a hollow curve of the other,
+and there stopping short; it seems, at the first glance, to run beneath
+it, as if it were a plait. This mode of ending forms a singular contrast
+to that shown in <small>51</small> and <small>52</small>, where the ridges twist themselves into a
+point. <small>54</small> is a deep spiral, sometimes having a large core filled with
+upright and nearly parallel lines; occasionally they are bulbous, and
+resemble the commoner &#8220;monkey&#8221; type, see <small>35</small>.</p>
+
+<p>When the direction of twist is described, the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_78" id="Page_78">[Pg 78]</a></span> language must be
+unambiguous: the following are the rules I adopt. The course of the ridge
+is always followed <i>towards</i> the <i>centre</i> of the pattern, and not away
+from it. Again, the direction of its course when so followed is specified
+at the place where it attains its <i>highest</i> point, or that nearest to the
+finger-tip; its course at that point must needs be horizontal, and
+therefore directed either towards the inner or the outer side.</p>
+
+<p>The amount of twist has a strong tendency to coincide with either one,
+two, three, four, or more half-turns, and not to stop short in
+intermediate positions. Here are indications of some unknown fundamental
+law, analogous apparently to that which causes Loops to be by far the
+commonest pattern.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>The classification into Arches, Loops, and Whorls is based on the degree
+of curvature of the ridges, and enables almost any pattern to be sorted
+under one or other of those three heads. There are a few ambiguous
+patterns, and others which are nondescript, but the former are uncommon
+and the latter rare; as these exceptions give little real inconvenience,
+the classification works easily and well.</p>
+
+<p>Arches are formed when the ridges run from one side to the other of the
+bulb of the digit without making any backward turn or twist. Loops, when
+there is a single backward turn, but no twist. Whorls, when there is a
+turn through at least one complete circle; they are also considered to
+include all duplex spirals.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate9" id="plate9"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 9.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 15.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS&mdash;Arches and Loops</span> (enlarged three times).</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15a.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>a</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15b.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>b</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15c.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>c</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15d.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>d</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15e.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>e</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15f.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>f</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15g.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>g</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15h.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>h</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig15i.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>i</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig15j.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>j</i></td>
+    <td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig15k.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>k</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><a name="plate10" id="plate10"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 10.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">FIG. 16.</span></p>
+<p class="center">TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS&mdash;<span class="smcap">Loops and Whorls</span> (enlarged three times).</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16l.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>l</i></td>
+    <td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16m.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>m</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16n.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>n</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16o.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>o</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16p.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>p</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16q.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>q</i></td>
+    <td colspan="3" align="center"><img src="images/fig16r.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>r</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16s.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>s</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16t.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>t</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center"><img src="images/fig16u.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>u</i></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_79" id="Page_79">[Pg 79]</a></span>The chief theoretical objection to this threefold system of classification
+lies in the existence of certain compound patterns, by far the most common
+of which are Whorls enclosed within Loops (<a href="#plate7">Plates 7</a>, <a href="#plate8">8</a>, Fig. 12, <small>15</small>,
+<small>18</small>, <small>19</small>, and Fig. 13, <small>20-23</small>). They are as much Loops as Whorls, and
+properly ought to be relegated to a fourth class. I have not done so, but
+called them Whorls, for a practical reason which is cogent. In an
+imperfect impression, such as is made by merely dabbing the inked finger
+upon paper, the enveloping loop is often too incompletely printed to
+enable its existence to be surely ascertained, especially when the
+enclosed whorl is so large (Fig. 13, <small>23</small>) that there are only one or two
+enveloping ridges to represent the loop. On the other hand, the whorled
+character of the core can hardly fail to be recognised. The practical
+difficulties lie almost wholly in rightly classifying a few transitional
+forms, diagrammatically and roughly expressed in Fig. 11, <small>4</small>, <small>5</small>, and
+Fig. 12, <small>8</small>, <small>18</small>, <small>19</small>, with the words &#8220;see&#8221; so and so written below,
+and of which actual examples are given on an enlarged scale in <a href="#plate9">Plates 9</a>
+and <a href="#plate10">10</a>, Figs. 15 and 16. Here Fig. 15, <i>a</i> is an undoubted arch, and <i>c</i>
+an undoubted nascent loop; but <i>b</i> is transitional between them, though
+nearer to a loop than an arch, <i>d</i> may be thought transitional in the same
+way, but it has an incipient curl which becomes marked in <i>e</i>, while it
+has grown into a decided whorl in <i>f</i>; <i>d</i> should also be compared with
+<i>j</i>, which is in some sense a stage towards <i>k</i>. <i>g</i> is a nascent
+tented-arch, fully developed in <i>i</i>, where the pattern as a whole has a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_80" id="Page_80">[Pg 80]</a></span>
+slight slope, but is otherwise fairly symmetrical. In <i>h</i> there is some
+want of symmetry, and a tendency to the formation of a loop on the right
+side (refer back to <a href="#plate7">Plate 7</a>, Fig. 11, <small>4</small>, and Fig. 12, <small>12</small>); it is a
+transitional case between a tented arch and a loop, with most resemblance
+to the latter. <a href="#plate10">Plate 10</a>, Fig. 16 illustrates eyed patterns; here <i>l</i> and
+<i>m</i> are parts of decided loops; <i>p</i>, <i>q</i>, and <i>r</i> are decided whorls, but
+<i>n</i> is transitional, inclining towards a loop, and <i>o</i> is transitional,
+inclining towards a whorl. <i>s</i> is a nascent form of an invaded loop, and
+is nearly related to <i>l</i>; <i>t</i> and <i>u</i> are decidedly invaded loops.</p>
+
+<p>The Arch-Loop-Whorl, or, more briefly, the A. L. W. system of
+classification, while in some degree artificial, is very serviceable for
+preliminary statistics, such as are needed to obtain a broad view of the
+distribution of the various patterns. A minute subdivision under numerous
+heads would necessitate a proportional and somewhat overwhelming amount of
+statistical labour. Fifty-four different standard varieties are by no
+means an extravagant number, but to treat fifty-four as thoroughly as
+three would require eighteen times as much material and labour. Effort is
+economised by obtaining broad results from a discussion of the A. L. W.
+classes, afterwards verifying or extending them by special inquiries into
+a few of the further subdivisions.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate11" id="plate11"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 11.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 17.</span></p>
+<p class="center">ORIGIN OF SUPPLY OF RIDGES TO PATTERNS OF PRINTS OF RIGHT HAND.</p>
+<p class="center">Of the two letters in the left upper corner of each compartment, the first refers to the source of upper boundary of the pattern,<br />the second to the lower boundary.
+For patterns on the prints of left hands, <i>Ii</i> and <i>Oo</i> must be interchanged.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><span class="smcap">Arches</span></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Rings</span></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Duplex Spirals</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub">from both sides</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">from neither side</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">from both sides</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><i>I</i> and <i>O</i> both absent</td>
+    <td colspan="2" rowspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><i>I</i> and <i>O</i> both present</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">upper supply from</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btr"><i>I</i> side</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>O</i> side</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr"><i>jj</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub"><i>jj</i></td>
+    <td colspan="2" class="btrdoub"><i>jj</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>oi</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>io</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><img src="images/fig17b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td colspan="2" class="bbrdoub" align="center"><i>I</i>&nbsp;<img src="images/fig17c.jpg" alt="" />&nbsp;<i>O</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17d.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17e.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" colspan="6"><br /></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><span class="smcap">Spirals</span></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Loops</span></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Spirals</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub">from <i>I</i> side</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">from <i>I</i> side</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">from <i>O</i> side</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">from <i>O</i> side</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">above</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">below</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>I</i> absent</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><i>O</i> absent</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">above</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">below</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr"><i>oj</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub"><i>jo</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>oo</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub"><i>ii</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>ij</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>ji</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17f.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><img src="images/fig17g.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17h.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><img src="images/fig17i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17j.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><img src="images/fig17k.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 18.</span></p>
+<p class="center">Ambiguities in prints of the Minuti&aelig;.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig18a.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>a</i></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig18b.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>b</i></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig18c.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>c</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig18d.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>d</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig18e.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>e</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig18f.jpg" alt="" /><br /><i>f</i></td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_81" id="Page_81">[Pg 81]</a></span>The divergent ridges that bound any simple pattern admit of nine, and only
+nine, distinct variations in the first part of their course. The bounding
+ridge that has attained the summit of any such pattern must have arrived
+either from the Inner plot (I), the Outer plot (O), or from both.
+Similarly as regards the bounding ridge that lies at the lowest point of
+the pattern. Any one of the three former events may occur in connection
+with any of the three latter events, so they afford in all 3 &times; 3, or nine
+possible combinations. It is convenient to distinguish them by easily
+intelligible symbols. Thus, let <i>i</i> signify a bounding line which starts
+from the point I, whether it proceeds to the summit or to the base of the
+pattern; let <i>o</i> be a line that similarly proceeds from O, and let <i>u</i> be
+a line that unites the two plots I and O, either by summit or by base.
+Again, let two symbols be used, of which the first shall always refer to
+the summit, and the second to the base of the pattern. Then the nine
+possible cases are&mdash;<i>uu</i>, <i>ui</i>, <i>uo</i>; <i>iu</i>, <i>ii</i>, <i>io</i>; <i>ou</i>, <i>oi</i>, <i>oo</i>.
+The case of the arches is peculiar, but they may be fairly classed under
+the symbol <i>uu</i>.</p>
+
+<p>This easy method of classification has much power. For example, the four
+possible kinds of simple spirals (see the 1st, 2nd, and the 5th and 6th
+diagrams in the lowest row of <a href="#plate11">Plate 11</a>, Fig. 17) are wholly determined by
+the letters <i>oj</i>, <i>jo</i>, <i>ij</i>, <i>ji</i> respectively. The two forms of duplex
+spirals are similarly determined by <i>oi</i> and <i>io</i> (see 4th and 5th
+diagrams in the upper row of Fig. 17), the two slopes of loops by <i>oo</i> and
+<i>ii</i> (3rd and 4th in the lower row). It also shows very distinctly the
+sources whence the streams of ridges proceed that feed the pattern, which
+itself affords another basis for classification.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_82" id="Page_82">[Pg 82]</a></span> The resource against
+uncertainty in respect to ambiguous or difficult patterns is to compile a
+dictionary of them, with the heads under which it is advisable that they
+should severally be classed. It would load these pages too heavily to give
+such a dictionary here. Moreover, it ought to be revised by many
+experienced eyes, and the time is hardly ripe for this; when it is, it
+would be no difficult task, out of the large number of prints of separate
+fingers which for instance I possess (some 15,000), to make an adequate
+selection, to enlarge them photographically, and finally to print the
+results in pairs, the one untouched, the other outlined and classified.</p>
+
+<p>It may be asked why ridges are followed and not furrows, the furrow being
+the real boundary between two systems. The reply is, that the ridges are
+the easiest to trace; and, as the error through following the ridges
+cannot exceed one-half of a ridge-interval, I have been content to
+disregard it. I began by tracing furrows, but preferred the ridges after
+trial.</p>
+
+<p><i>Measurements.</i>&mdash;It has been already shown that when both plots are
+present (<a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 8, <small>4</small>), they form the termini of a base line, from
+which any part of the pattern may be triangulated, as surveyors would say.
+Also, that when only one plot exists (<small>3</small>), and the pattern has an axis
+(which it necessarily has in all ordinary <i>ii</i> and <i>oo</i> cases), a
+perpendicular can be let fall upon that axis, whose intersection with it
+will serve as a second point of reference. But our methods must not be too
+refined. The centres of the plots are not determinable with real
+exactness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_83" id="Page_83">[Pg 83]</a></span> and repeated prints from so soft a substance as flesh are
+often somewhat dissimilar, the one being more or less broadened out than
+the other, owing to unequal pressure. It is therefore well to use such
+other more convenient points of reference as the particular pattern may
+present. In loops, the intersection of the axis with the summit of the
+innermost bend, whether it be a staple or the envelope to a rod (Fig. 14,
+second and third rows of diagrams), is a well-defined position. In
+spirals, the centre of the pattern is fairly well defined; also a
+perpendicular erected from the middle of the base to the outline above and
+below (Fig. 8, <small>4</small>) is precise and convenient.</p>
+
+<p>In prints of adults, measurements may be made in absolute units of length,
+as in fractions of an inch, or else in millimetres. An average
+ridge-interval makes, however, a better unit, being independent of growth;
+it is strictly necessary to adopt it in prints made by children, if
+present measurements are hereafter to be compared with future ones. The
+simplest plan of determining and employing this unit is to count the
+number of ridges to the nearest half-ridge, within the space of one-tenth
+of an inch, measured along the axis of the finger at and about the point
+where it cuts the <i>summit</i> of the outline; then, having already prepared
+scales suitable for the various likely numbers, to make the measurements
+with the appropriate scale. Thus, if five ridges were crossed by the axis
+at that part, in the space of one-tenth of an inch, each unit of the scale
+to be used would be one-fiftieth of an inch; if there were four ridges,
+each<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_84" id="Page_84">[Pg 84]</a></span> unit of the scale would be one-fortieth of an inch; if six ridges
+one-sixtieth, and so forth. There is no theoretical or practical
+difficulty, only rough indications being required.</p>
+
+<p>It is unnecessary to describe in detail how the bearings of any point may
+be expressed after the fashion of compass bearings, the direction I-O
+taking the place of East-West, the uppermost direction that of North, and
+the lowermost of South. Little more is practically wanted than to be able
+to describe roughly the position of some remarkable feature in the print,
+as of an island or an enclosure. A ridge that is characterised by these or
+any other marked peculiarity is easily identified by the above means, and
+it thereupon serves as an exact basis for the description of other
+features.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Purkenje&#8217;s &#8220;Commentatio.&#8221;</i></p>
+
+<p>Reference has already been made to Purkenje, who has the honour of being
+the person who first described the inner scrolls (as distinguished from
+the outlines of the patterns) formed by the ridges. He did so in a
+University Thesis delivered at Breslau in 1823, entitled <i>Commentatio de
+examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei</i> (a physiological
+examination of the visual organ and of the cutaneous system). The thesis
+is an ill-printed small 8vo pamphlet of fifty-eight pages, written in a
+form of Latin that is difficult to translate accurately into free English.
+It is, however, of great historical interest and reputation, having been
+referred to by nearly all<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_85" id="Page_85">[Pg 85]</a></span> subsequent writers, some of whom there is
+reason to suspect never saw it, but contented themselves with quoting a
+very small portion at second-hand. No copy of the pamphlet existed in any
+public medical library in England, nor in any private one so far as I
+could learn; neither could I get a sight of it at some important
+continental libraries. One copy was known of it in America. The very
+zealous Librarian of the Royal College of Surgeons was so good as to take
+much pains at my instance, to procure one: his zeal was happily and
+unexpectedly rewarded by success, and the copy is now securely lodged in
+the library of the College.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>The Title</i></p>
+
+<p>Commentatio de Examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei
+quam pro loco in gratioso medicorum ordine rite obtinendo die Dec. 22,
+1823. H.X.L.C. publice defendit Johannes Evangelista Purkenje, Med.
+doctor, Phys. et Path. Professor publicus ordinarius des. Assumto socio
+Guilielmo Kraus Medicinae studioso.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><i>Translation</i>, p. 42.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Our attention is next engaged by the wonderful arrangement and
+curving of the minute furrows connected with the organ of touch<a name='fna_4' id='fna_4' href='#f_4'><small>[4]</small></a> on
+the inner surfaces of the hand and foot,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_86" id="Page_86">[Pg 86]</a></span> especially on the last
+phalanx of each finger. Some general account of them is always to be
+found in every manual of physiology and anatomy, but in an organ of
+such importance as the human hand, used as it is for very varied
+movements, and especially serviceable to the sense of touch, no
+research, however minute, can fail in yielding some gratifying
+addition to our knowledge of that organ. After numberless
+observations, I have thus far met with nine principal varieties of
+curvature according to which the tactile furrows are disposed upon the
+inner surface of the last phalanx of the fingers. I will describe them
+concisely, and refer to the diagrams for further explanation (see
+<a href="#plate12">Plate 12</a>, Fig. 19).</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Transverse flexures.</i>&mdash;The minute furrows starting from the bend
+of the joint, run from one side of the phalanx to the other; at first
+transversely in nearly straight lines, then by degrees they become
+more and more curved towards the middle, until at last they are bent
+into arches that are almost concentric with the circumference of the
+finger.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Central Longitudinal Stria.</i>&mdash;This configuration is nearly the
+same as in 1, the only difference being that a perpendicular stria is
+enclosed within the transverse furrows, as if it were a nucleus.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Oblique Stria.</i>&mdash;A solitary line runs from one or other of the two
+sides of the finger, passing obliquely between the transverse curves
+in 1, and ending near the middle.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Oblique Sinus.</i>&mdash;If this oblique line recurves towards the side
+from which it started, and is accompanied by several others, all
+recurved in the same way, the result is an oblique sinus, more or less
+upright, or horizontal, as the case may be. A junction at its base, of
+minute lines proceeding from either of its sides, forms a triangle.
+This distribution of the furrows, in which an oblique sinus is found,
+is by far the most common, and it may be considered as a special
+characteristic of man; the furrows that are packed in longitudinal
+rows are, on the other hand, peculiar to monkeys. The vertex of the
+oblique sinus is generally inclined towards the radial side of the
+hand, but it must be observed that the contrary is more frequently the
+case in the fore-finger, the vertex there tending towards the ulnar
+side. Scarcely any other configuration is to be found on the toes. The
+ring finger, too, is often marked with one of the more intricate kinds
+of pattern, while the remaining fingers have either the oblique sinus
+or one of the other simpler forms.</p></div>
+
+<p><a name="plate12" id="plate12"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 12.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 19.</span></p>
+<p class="center">THE STANDARD PATTERNS OF PURKENJE.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top1.jpg" alt="" /><br />1</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top2.jpg" alt="" /><br />2</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top3.jpg" alt="" /><br />3</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top4.jpg" alt="" /><br />4</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top5.jpg" alt="" /><br />5</td></tr></table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top6.jpg" alt="" /><br />6</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top7.jpg" alt="" /><br />7</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top8.jpg" alt="" /><br />8</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_top9.jpg" alt="" /><br />9</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">The Cores of the above Patterns.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom1.jpg" alt="" /><br />1</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom2.jpg" alt="" /><br />2</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom3.jpg" alt="" /><br />3</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom4.jpg" alt="" /><br />4</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom5.jpg" alt="" /><br />5</td></tr></table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom6.jpg" alt="" /><br />6</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom7.jpg" alt="" /><br />7</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom8.jpg" alt="" /><br />8</td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig19_bottom9.jpg" alt="" /><br />9</td></tr></table>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_87" id="Page_87">[Pg 87]</a></span>5. <i>Almond.</i>&mdash;Here
+the oblique sinus, as already described, encloses an almond-shaped figure, blunt above, pointed below, and formed of
+concentric furrows.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Spiral.</i>&mdash;When the transverse flexures described in 1 do not pass
+gradually from straight lines into curves, but assume that form
+suddenly with a more rapid divergence, a semicircular space is
+necessarily created, which stands upon the straight and horizontal
+lines below, as it were upon a base. This space is filled by a spiral
+either of a simple or composite form. The term &#8216;simple&#8217; spiral is to
+be understood in the usual geometric sense. I call the spiral
+&#8216;composite&#8217; when it is made up of several lines proceeding from the
+same centre, or of lines branching at intervals and twisted upon
+themselves. At either side, where the spiral is contiguous to the
+place at which the straight and curved lines begin to diverge, in
+order to enclose it, two triangles are formed, just like the single
+one that is formed at the side of the oblique sinus.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Ellipse</i>, or <i>Elliptical Whorl</i>.&mdash;The semicircular space described
+in 6 is here filled with concentric ellipses enclosing a short single
+line in their middle.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>Circle</i>, or <i>Circular Whorl</i>.&mdash;Here a single point takes the place
+of the short line mentioned in 7. It is surrounded by a number of
+concentric circles reaching to the ridges that bound the semicircular
+space.</p>
+
+<p>9. <i>Double Whorl.</i>&mdash;One portion of the transverse lines runs forward
+with a bend and recurves upon itself with a half turn, and is embraced
+by another portion which proceeds from the other side in the same way.
+This produces a doubly twisted figure which is rarely met with except
+on the thumb, fore, and ring fingers. The ends of the curved portions
+may be variously inclined; they may be nearly perpendicular, of
+various degrees of obliquity, or nearly horizontal.</p>
+
+<p>In all of the forms 6, 7, 8, and 9, triangles may be seen at the
+points where the divergence begins between the transverse <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_88" id="Page_88">[Pg 88]</a></span>and the
+arched lines, and at both sides. On the remaining phalanges, the
+transverse lines proceed diagonally, and are straight or only slightly
+curved.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>(He then proceeds to speak of the palm of the hand in men and in
+monkeys.)</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_89" id="Page_89">[Pg 89]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VI" id="CHAPTER_VI"></a>CHAPTER VI</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">PERSISTENCE</span></p>
+
+<p>The evidence that the minuti&aelig; persist throughout life is derived from the
+scrutiny and comparison of various duplicate impressions, one of each pair
+having been made many years ago, the other recently. Those which I have
+studied more or less exhaustively are derived from the digits of fifteen
+different persons. In some cases repeated impressions of one finger only
+were available; in most cases of two fingers; in some of an entire hand.
+Altogether the whole or part of repeated impressions of between twenty and
+thirty different digits have been studied. I am indebted to Sir W. J.
+Herschel for almost all these valuable data, without which it would have
+been impossible to carry on the inquiry. The only other prints are those
+of Sir W. G&mdash;&mdash;, who, from curiosity, took impressions of his own fingers
+in sealing-wax in 1874, and fortunately happened to preserve them. He was
+good enough to make others for me last year, from which photographic
+prints were made. The following table gives an analysis of the above data.
+It would be well worth while to hunt up and take the present finger
+prints<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_90" id="Page_90">[Pg 90]</a></span> of such of the Hindoos as may now be alive, whose impressions were
+taken in India by Sir W. J. Herschel, and are still preserved. Many years
+must elapse before my own large collection of finger prints will be
+available for the purpose of testing persistence during long periods.</p>
+
+<p>The pattern in every distinct finger print, even though it be only a
+dabbed impression, contains on a rough average thirty-five different
+points of reference, in addition to its general peculiarities of outline
+and core. They consist of forkings, beginnings or ends of ridges, islands,
+and enclosures. These minute details are by no means peculiar to the
+pattern itself, but are distributed with almost equal abundance throughout
+the whole palmar surface. In order to make an exhaustive comparison of two
+impressions they ought to be photographically enlarged to a size not
+smaller than those shown in <a href="#plate15">Plate 15</a>. Two negatives of impressions can
+thus be taken side by side on an ordinary quarter-plate, and any number of
+photographic prints made from them; but, for still more comfortable
+working, a further enlargement is desirable, say by the prism, <a href="#Page_52">p. 52</a>. Some
+of the prints may be made on ferro-prussiate paper, as already mentioned
+<a href="#Page_51">pp. 51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>; they are more convenient by far than prints made by the silver
+or by the platinum process.</p>
+
+<p>Having placed the enlarged prints side by side, two or three conspicuous
+and convenient points of reference, whether islands, enclosures, or
+particularly distinct bifurcations, should be identified and marked. By
+their help, the position of the prints should be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_91" id="Page_91">[Pg 91]</a></span> readjusted, so that they
+shall be oriented exactly alike. From each point of reference, in
+succession, the spines of the ridges are then to be followed with a fine
+pencil, in the two prints alternately, neatly marking each new point of
+comparison with a numeral in coloured ink (<a href="#plate13">Plate 13</a>). When both of the
+prints are good and clear, this is rapidly done; wherever the impressions
+are faulty, there may be many ambiguities requiring patience to unravel.
+At first I was timid, and proceeded too hesitatingly when one of the
+impressions was indistinct, making short alternate traces. Afterwards on
+gaining confidence, I traced boldly, starting from any well-defined point
+of reference and not stopping until there were reasonable grounds for
+hesitation, and found it easy in this way to trace the unions between
+opposite and incompletely printed ends of ridges, and to disentangle many
+bad impressions.</p>
+
+<p>An exact correspondence between the <i>details</i> of two minuti&aelig; is of
+secondary importance. Thus, the commonest point of reference is a
+bifurcation; now the neck or point of divergence of a new ridge is apt to
+be a little low, and sometimes fails to take the ink; hence a new ridge
+may appear in one of the prints to have an independent origin, and in the
+other to be a branch. The <i>apparent</i> origin is therefore of little
+importance, the main fact to be attended to is that a new ridge comes into
+existence at a particular point; <i>how</i> it came into existence is a
+secondary matter. Similarly, an apparently broken ridge may in reality be
+due to an imperfectly printed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_92" id="Page_92">[Pg 92]</a></span> enclosure; and an island in one print may
+appear as part of an enclosure in the other. Moreover, this variation in
+details may be the effect not only of imperfect inking or printing, but of
+disintegration due to old age, which renders the impressions of the ridges
+ragged and broken, as in my own finger prints on the title-page.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#plate11">Plate 11</a>, Fig. 18 explains the nature of the apparent discrepancies better
+than a verbal description. In <i>a</i> a new ridge appears to be suddenly
+intruded between two adjacent ones, which have separated to make room for
+it; but a second print, taken from the same finger, may have the
+appearance of either <i>b</i> or <i>c</i>, showing that the new ridge is in reality
+a fork of one or other of them, the low connecting neck having failed to
+leave an impression. The second line of examples shows how an enclosure
+which is clearly defined in <i>d</i> may give rise to the appearance of broken
+continuity shown in <i>e</i>, and how a distinct island <i>f</i> in one of the
+prints may be the remnant of an enclosure which is shown in the other.
+These remarks are offered as a caution against attaching undue importance
+to disaccord in the details of the minuti&aelig; that are found in the same
+place in different prints. Usually, however, the distinction between a
+fork and the beginning of a new ridge is clear enough; the islands and
+enclosures are also mostly well marked.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate13" id="plate13"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 13.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20.</span></p>
+<p class="center">V. H. H-D &aelig;t. 2&#189; in 1877, and again as a boy in Nov. 1890.</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig20a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig20b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">1r 1887<span class="spacer"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span>V. H. H-d</td>
+    <td class="br">1r 1890<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>V. H. H-d</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig20c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig20d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">3r 1887<span class="spacer"> &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span>V. H. H-d</td>
+    <td class="bbr">3r 1890<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>V. H. H-d</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_93" id="Page_93">[Pg 93]</a></span><a href="#plate13">Plate 13</a> gives impressions taken from the fingers of a child of 2&#189;
+years in 1877, and again in 1890, when a boy of 15. They are enlarged
+photographically to the same size, and are therefore on different scales.
+The impressions from the baby-hand are not sharp, but sufficiently
+distinct for comparison. Every bifurcation, and beginning or ending of a
+ridge, common to the two impressions, is marked with a numeral in blue
+ink. There is only one island in the present instance, and that is in the
+upper pair of prints; it is clearly seen in the right hand print, lying to
+the left of the inscribed number 13, but the badness of the left hand
+print makes it hardly decipherable, so it is not numbered. There are a
+total of twenty-six good points of comparison common to the upper pair of
+prints; there are forty-three points in the lower pair, forty-two of which
+appear in both, leaving a single point of disagreement; it is marked A on
+the fifth ridge counting from the top. Here a bifurcated ridge in the baby
+is filled up in the boy. This one exception, small though it be, is in my
+experience unique. The total result of the two pairs of prints is to
+afford sixty-eight successes and one failure. The student will find it
+well worth his while to study these and the following prints step by step,
+to satisfy himself of the extraordinarily exact coincidences between the
+two members of either of the pairs. Of course the patterns generally must
+be the same, if the ridges composing them are exactly alike, and the most
+cursory glance shows them to be so.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate14" id="plate14"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 14.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21b.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21c.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21d.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">1881<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1 AEEH</td>
+    <td class="btr">1r<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1890</td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">1862<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>5 FKH</td>
+    <td class="btr">1r<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1888</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21e.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21f.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21g.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21h.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">1881<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>2 AEEH</td>
+    <td class="btr">3r<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1890</td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">1859<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>6 RFH</td>
+    <td class="btr">2r<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1890</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21i.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21j.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21k.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21l.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">1862<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>3 NHT</td>
+    <td class="btr"><span class="spacer">&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</span>1890</td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">1860<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>7 WJH</td>
+    <td class="btr">thumb<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1890</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><img src="images/fig21m.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21n.jpg" alt="" /></td><td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21o.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig21p.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btblr">1862<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>4 NHT</td>
+    <td class="btbr2">2r<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1890</td><td class="btbr2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btbr2">1859<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>8 WJH</td>
+    <td class="btbr2">3r<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>1890</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><a href="#plate14">Plate 14</a>, Fig. 21 contains rather less than a quarter of each of eight
+pairs that were published in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_94" id="Page_94">[Pg 94]</a></span> the <i>Phil. Trans.</i> memoir above alluded to.
+They were there enlarged photographically to twice their natural size,
+which was hardly enough, as it did not allow sufficient space for
+inserting the necessary reference numbers. Consequently they have been
+again considerably enlarged, so much so that it is impossible to put more
+than a portion of each on the page. However, what is given suffices. The
+omitted portions may be studied in the memoir. The cases of <small>1</small> and <small>2</small>
+are prints of different fingers of the same individual, first as a child 8
+years old, and then as a boy of 17. They have been enlarged on the same
+scale but not to the same size; so the print of the child includes a
+larger proportion of the original impression than that of the boy. It is
+therefore only a part of the child&#8217;s print which is comparable with that
+of the boy. The remaining six cases refer to four different men, belonging
+to three quite different families, although their surnames happen to have
+the same initial, H. They were adults when the first print was made, and
+from 26 to 31 years older on the second occasion. There is an exact
+agreement throughout between the two members of each of the eight several
+couplets.</p>
+
+<p>In the pair 2. A. E. H. Hl., there is an interesting dot at the point <small>4</small>
+(being an island it deserved to have had two numbers, one for the
+beginning and one for the end). Small as it is, it persists; its growth in
+size corresponding to the growth of the child in stature.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate15" id="plate15"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 15.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">RIGHT FOREFINGER of Sir W. J. H.</span> in 1860 and in 1888.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig22a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><img src="images/fig22b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 23.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">DISTRIBUTION of the PERIODS of LIFE</span>,<br />to which the evidence of persistency refers.</p>
+<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/fig23.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_95" id="Page_95">[Pg 95]</a></span>For the sake of those who are deficient in the colour sense and therefore
+hardly able, if at all, to distinguish even the blue numerals in Figs. 20,
+21, I give an eleventh example, <a href="#plate15">Plate 15</a>, Fig. 22, printed all in black.
+The numerals are here very legible, but space for their insertion had to
+be obtained by sacrificing some of the lineations. It is the right
+fore-finger of Sir W. Herschel and has been already published twice; first
+in the account of my lecture at the Royal Institution, and secondly, in
+its present conspicuous form, in my paper in the <i>Nineteenth Century</i>. The
+number of years that elapsed between the two impressions is thirty-one,
+and the prints contain twenty-four points of comparison, all of which will
+be seen to agree. I also possess a later print than this, taken in 1890
+from the same finger, which tells the same tale.</p>
+
+<p>The final result of the prints in these pages is that they give
+photographic enlargements of the whole or portions of eleven couplets
+belonging to six different persons, who are members of five unrelated
+families, and which contain between them 158 points of comparison, of
+which only one failed. Adding the portions of the prints that are omitted
+here, but which will be found in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>, the material that I
+have thus far published contains 389 points of comparison, of which one
+failed. The details are given in the annexed table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_96" id="Page_96">[Pg 96]</a></span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Order in<br />the Figs.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Initials.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Digit of<br />right hand.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Age at<br />date of<br />first print.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Dates of<br />the two<br />prints.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Years<br />elapsed<br />between<br />the two<br />prints.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Total points of<br />agreement in</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btr">1st. &nbsp; 2nd.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Figs. 20<br />and 21.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Figs. 20, 22,<br />and in<br /><i>Ph. Trans.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><span class="smcap">Fig. 20</span></td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1.</td>
+    <td class="br">V. H. Hd.</td>
+    <td class="br">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">2&#189;</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1877-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">13</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">26</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">26</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">2.</td>
+    <td class="br">V. H. Hd.</td>
+    <td class="br">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">2&#189;</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1877-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">13</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span class="smcap">Fig. 21</span></td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1.</td>
+    <td class="br">A. E. H. Hl.</td>
+    <td class="br">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1881-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">33</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">2.</td>
+    <td class="br">A. E. H. Hl.</td>
+    <td class="br">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1881-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">3.</td>
+    <td class="br">N. H. Tn.</td>
+    <td class="br">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1862-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">4.</td>
+    <td class="br">N. H. Tn.</td>
+    <td class="br">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1862-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">5.</td>
+    <td class="br">F. K. Ht.</td>
+    <td class="br">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1862-88</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">26</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">12</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">55</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">6.</td>
+    <td class="br">R. F. Hn.</td>
+    <td class="br">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1859-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">7.</td>
+    <td class="br">W. J. Hl.</td>
+    <td class="br">Thumb</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">30</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1860-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">30</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">8.</td>
+    <td class="br">W. J. Hl.</td>
+    <td class="br">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1859-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">32</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span class="smcap">Fig. 22</span></td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1.</td>
+    <td class="br">W. J. Hl.</td>
+    <td class="br">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1859-90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">24</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" align="center" class="btlr"><span style="margin-left: 16em;">Total points of agreement</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">157</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">388</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="6" align="right" class="bblr">Do.<span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span>of disagreement</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />It is difficult to give a just estimate of the number of points of
+comparison that I have studied in other couplets of prints, because they
+were not examined as exhaustively as in these. There were no less than one
+hundred and eleven of them in the ball of the thumb of the child V. H.
+Hd., besides twenty-five in the imperfect prints of his middle and little
+fingers; these alone raise the total of 389 to 525. I must on the whole
+have looked for more than 700 points of comparison, and have found
+agreement in every single case that was examined, except the one already
+mentioned in Fig. 20, of a ridge that was split in the child, but had
+closed up some few years later.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_97" id="Page_97">[Pg 97]</a></span>The prints in the two plates cover the intervals from childhood to
+boyhood, from boyhood to early manhood, from manhood to about the age of
+60, and another set&mdash;that of Sir W. G.&mdash;covers the interval from 67 to 80.
+This is clearly expressed by the diagram (<a href="#plate15">Plate 15</a>, Fig. 23). As there is
+no sign, except in one case, of change during any one of these four
+intervals, which together almost wholly cover the ordinary life of man, we
+are justified in inferring that between birth and death there is
+absolutely no change in, say, 699 out of 700 of the numerous
+characteristics in the markings of the fingers of the same person, such as
+can be impressed by them whenever it is desirable to do so. Neither can
+there be any change after death, up to the time when the skin perishes
+through decomposition; for example, the marks on the fingers of many
+Egyptian mummies, and on the paws of stuffed monkeys, still remain
+legible. Very good evidence and careful inquiry is thus seen to justify
+the popular idea of the persistence of finger markings, that has hitherto
+been too rashly jumped at, and which wrongly ascribed the persistence to
+the general appearance of the pattern, rather than to the minuti&aelig; it
+contains. There appear to be no external bodily characteristics, other
+than deep scars and tattoo marks, comparable in their persistence to these
+markings, whether they be on the finger, on other parts of the palmar
+surface of the hand, or on the sole of the foot. At the same time they are
+out of all proportion more numerous than any other measurable features;
+about thirty-five of them are situated on the bulb of each of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_98" id="Page_98">[Pg 98]</a></span> ten
+digits, in addition to more than 100 on the ball of the thumb, which has
+not one-fifth of the superficies of the rest of the palmar surface. The
+total number of points suitable for comparison on the two hands must
+therefore be not less than one thousand and nearer to two; an estimate
+which I verified by a rough count on my own hand; similarly in respect to
+the feet. The dimensions of the limbs and body alter in the course of
+growth and decay; the colour, quantity, and quality of the hair, the tint
+and quality of the skin, the number and set of the teeth, the expression
+of the features, the gestures, the handwriting, even the eye-colour,
+change after many years. There seems no persistence in the visible parts
+of the body, except in these minute and hitherto too much disregarded
+ridges.</p>
+
+<p>It must be emphasised that it is in the minuti&aelig;, and <i>not</i> in the measured
+dimensions of any portion of the pattern, that this remarkable persistence
+is observed, not even if the measurements be made in units of a
+ridge-interval. The pattern grows simultaneously with the finger, and its
+proportions vary with its fatness, leanness, usage, gouty deformation, or
+age. But, though the pattern as a whole may become considerably altered in
+length or breadth, the number of ridges, their embranchments, and other
+minuti&aelig; remain unchanged. So it is with the pattern on a piece of lace.
+The piece as a whole may be stretched in this way, or shrunk in that, and
+its outline altogether altered; nevertheless every one of the component
+threads, and every knot in every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_99" id="Page_99">[Pg 99]</a></span> thread, can easily be traced and
+identified in both. Therefore, in speaking of the persistence of the marks
+on the finger, the phrase must be taken to apply principally to the
+minuti&aelig;, and to the general character of the pattern; not to the measure
+of its length, breadth, or other diameter; these being no more constant
+than the stature, or any other of the ordinary anthropometric data.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_100" id="Page_100">[Pg 100]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VII" id="CHAPTER_VII"></a>CHAPTER VII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">EVIDENTIAL VALUE</span></p>
+
+<p>The object of this chapter is to give an approximate numerical idea of the
+value of finger prints as a means of Personal Identification. Though the
+estimates that will be made are professedly and obviously far below the
+truth, they are amply sufficient to prove that the evidence afforded by
+finger prints may be trusted in a most remarkable degree.</p>
+
+<p>Our problem is this: given two finger prints, which are alike in their
+minuti&aelig;, what is the chance that they were made by different persons?</p>
+
+<p>The first attempt at comparing two finger prints would be directed to a
+rough general examination of their respective patterns. If they do not
+agree in being arches, loops, or whorls, there can be no doubt that the
+prints are those of different fingers, neither can there be doubt when
+they are distinct forms of the same general class. But to agree thus far
+goes only a short way towards establishing identity, for the number of
+patterns that are promptly distinguishable from one another is not large.
+My earlier inquiries showed this, when endeavouring to sort the prints<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_101" id="Page_101">[Pg 101]</a></span> of
+1000 thumbs into groups that differed each from the rest by an &#8220;equally
+discernible&#8221; interval. While the attempt, as already mentioned, was not
+successful in its main object, it showed that nearly all the collection
+could be sorted into 100 groups, in each of which the prints had a fairly
+near resemblance. Moreover, twelve or fifteen of the groups referred to
+different varieties of the loop; and as two-thirds of all the prints are
+loops, two-thirds of the 1000 specimens fell into twelve or fifteen
+groups. The chance that an unseen pattern is some particular variety of
+loop, is therefore compounded of 2 to 3 against its being a loop at all,
+and of 1 to 12 or 15, as the case may be, against its being the specified
+kind of loop. This makes an adverse chance of only 2 to 36, or to 45, say
+as 2 to 40, or as 1 to 20. This very rude calculation suffices to show
+that on the average, no great reliance can be placed on a general
+resemblance in the appearance of two finger prints, as a proof that they
+were made by the same finger, though the obvious disagreement of two
+prints is conclusive evidence that they were made by different fingers.</p>
+
+<p>When we proceed to a much more careful comparison, and collate
+successively the numerous minuti&aelig;, their coincidence throughout would be
+an evidence of identity, whose value we will now try to appraise.</p>
+
+<p>Let us first consider the question, how far may the minuti&aelig;, or groups of
+them, be treated as <i>independent</i> variables?</p>
+
+<p>Suppose that a tiny square of paper of only one average ridge-interval in
+the side, be cut out and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_102" id="Page_102">[Pg 102]</a></span> dropped at random on a finger print; it will
+mask from view a minute portion of one, or possibly of two ridges. There
+can be little doubt that what was hidden could be correctly interpolated
+by simply joining the ends of the ridge or ridges that were interrupted.
+It is true, the paper might possibly have fallen exactly upon, and hidden,
+a minute island or enclosure, and that our reconstruction would have
+failed in consequence, but such an accident is improbable in a high
+degree, and may be almost ignored.</p>
+
+<p>Repeating the process with a much larger square of paper, say of twelve
+ridge-intervals in the side, the improbability of correctly reconstructing
+the masked portion will have immensely increased. The number of ridges
+that enter the square on any one side will perhaps, as often as not,
+differ from the number which emerge from the opposite side; and when they
+are the same, it does not at all follow that they would be continuous each
+to each, for in so large a space forks and junctions are sure to occur
+between some, and it is impossible to know which, of the ridges.
+Consequently, there must exist a certain size of square with more than one
+and less than twelve ridge-intervals in the side, which will mask so much
+of the print, that it will be an even chance whether the hidden portion
+can, on the average, be rightly reconstructed or not. The size of that
+square must now be considered.</p>
+
+<p>If the reader will refer to <a href="#plate14">Plate 14</a>, in which there are eight much
+enlarged photographs of portions of different finger prints, he will
+observe that the length of each of the portions exceeds the breadth in
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_103" id="Page_103">[Pg 103]</a></span> proportion of 3 to 2. Consequently, by drawing one line down the
+middle and two lines across, each portion may be divided into six squares.
+Moreover, it will be noticed that the side of each of these squares has a
+length of about six ridge-intervals. I cut out squares of paper of this
+size, and throwing one of them at random on any one of the eight portions,
+succeeded almost as frequently as not in drawing lines on its back which
+comparison afterwards showed to have followed the true course of the
+ridges. The provisional estimate that a length of six ridge-intervals
+approximated to but exceeded that of the side of the desired square,
+proved to be correct by the following more exact observations, and by
+three different methods.</p>
+
+<p>I. The first set of tests to verify this estimate were made upon
+photographic enlargements of various thumb prints, to double their natural
+size. A six-ridge-interval square of paper was damped and laid at random
+on the print, the core of the pattern, which was too complex in many cases
+to serve as an average test, being alone avoided. The prints being on
+ordinary albuminised paper, which is slightly adherent when moistened, the
+patch stuck temporarily wherever it was placed and pressed down. Next, a
+sheet of tracing-paper, which we will call No. 1, was laid over all, and
+the margin of the square patch was traced upon it, together with the
+course of the surrounding ridges up to that margin. Then I interpolated on
+the tracing-paper what seemed to be the most likely course of those ridges
+which were hidden<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_104" id="Page_104">[Pg 104]</a></span> by the square. No. 1 was then removed, and a second
+sheet, No. 2, was laid on, and the margin of the patch was outlined on it
+as before, together with the ridges leading up to it. Next, a corner only
+of No. 2 was raised, the square patch was whisked away from underneath,
+the corner was replaced, the sheet was flattened down, and the actual
+courses of the ridges within the already marked outline were traced in.
+Thus there were two tracings of the margin of the square, of which No. 1
+contained the ridges as I had interpolated them, No. 2 as they really
+were, and it was easy to compare the two. The results are given in the
+first column of the following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Interpolation of Ridges in a six-ridge-interval Square.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Result.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Double<br />Enlargements.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Six-fold scale<br />with prism.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Twenty-fold<br />scale with<br />chequer-work.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Wrong</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Total</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">32</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">23</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">75</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />II. In the second method the tracing-papers were discarded, and the prism
+of a camera lucida used. It threw an image three times the size of the
+photo-enlargement, upon a card, and there it was traced. The same general
+principle was adopted as in the first method, but the results being on a
+larger scale, and drawn on stout paper, were more satisfactory and
+convenient. They are given in the second column of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_105" id="Page_105">[Pg 105]</a></span> the table. In this and
+the foregoing methods two different portions of the same print were
+sometimes dealt with, for it was a little more convenient and seemed as
+good a way of obtaining average results as that of always using portions
+of different finger prints. The total number of fifty-two trials, by one
+or other of the two methods, were made from about forty different prints.
+(I am not sure of the exact number.)</p>
+
+<p>The results in each of the two methods were sometimes quite right,
+sometimes quite wrong, sometimes neither one nor the other. The latter
+depended on the individual judgment as to which class it belonged, and
+might be battled over with more or less show of reason by advocates on
+opposite sides. Equally dividing these intermediate cases between &#8220;right&#8221;
+and &#8220;wrong,&#8221; the results were obtained as shown. In one, and only one, of
+the cases, the most reasonable interpretation had not been given, and the
+result had been wrong when it ought to have been right. The purely
+personal error was therefore disregarded, and the result entered as
+&#8220;right.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>III. A third attempt was made by a different method, upon the lineations
+of a finger print drawn on about a twenty-fold scale. It had first been
+enlarged four times by photography, and from this enlargement the axes of
+the ridges had been drawn with a five-fold enlarging pantagraph. The aim
+now was to reconstruct the entire finger print by two successive and
+independent acts of interpolation. A sheet of transparent tracing-paper
+was ruled<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_106" id="Page_106">[Pg 106]</a></span> into six-ridge-interval squares, and every one of its alternate
+squares was rendered opaque by pasting white paper upon it, giving it the
+appearance of a chess-board. When this chequer-work was laid on the print,
+exactly one half of the six-ridge squares were masked by the opaque
+squares, while the ridges running up to them could be seen. They were not
+quite so visible as if each opaque square had been wholly detached from
+its neighbours, instead of touching them at the extreme corners, still the
+loss of information thereby occasioned was small, and not worth laying
+stress upon. It is easily understood that when the chequer-work was moved
+parallel to itself, through the space of one square, whether upwards or
+downwards, or to the right or left, the parts that were previously masked
+became visible, and those that were visible became masked. The object was
+to interpolate the ridges in every opaque square under one of these
+conditions, then to do the same for the remaining squares under the other
+condition, and finally, by combining the results, to obtain a complete
+scheme of the ridges wholly by interpolation. This was easily done by
+using two sheets of tracing-paper, laid in succession over the
+chequer-work, whose position on the print had been changed meanwhile, and
+afterwards tracing the lineations that were drawn on one of the two sheets
+upon the vacant squares of the other. The results are given in the third
+column of the table.</p>
+
+<p>The three methods give roughly similar results, and we may therefore
+accept the ratios of their totals,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_107" id="Page_107">[Pg 107]</a></span> which is 27 to 75, or say 1 to 3, as
+representing the chance that the reconstruction of any six-ridge-interval
+square would be correct under the given conditions. On reckoning the
+chance as 1 to 2, which will be done at first, it is obvious that the
+error, whatever it may be, is on the safe side. A closer equality in the
+chance that the ridges in a square might run in the observed way or in
+some other way, would result from taking a square of five ridge-intervals
+in the side. I believe this to be very closely the right size. A
+four-ridge-interval square is certainly too small.</p>
+
+<p>When the reconstructed squares were wrong, they had none the less a
+natural appearance. This was especially seen, and on a large scale, in the
+result of the method by chequer-work, in which the lineations of an entire
+print were constructed by guess. Being so familiar with the run of these
+ridges in finger prints, I can speak with confidence on this. My
+assumption is, that any one of these reconstructions represents lineations
+that might have occurred in Nature, in association with the conditions
+outside the square, just as well as the lineations of the actual finger
+print. The courses of the ridges in each square are subject to
+uncertainties, due to petty <i>local</i> incidents, to which the conditions
+outside the square give no sure indication. They appear to be in great
+part determined by the particular disposition of each one or more of the
+half hundred or so sweat-glands which the square contains. The ridges
+rarely run in evenly flowing lines, but may be compared to footways across
+a broken country, which, while they<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_108" id="Page_108">[Pg 108]</a></span> follow a general direction, are
+continually deflected by such trifles as a tuft of grass, a stone, or a
+puddle. Even if the number of ridges emerging from a six-ridge-interval
+square equals the number of those which enter, it does not follow that
+they run across in parallel lines, for there is plenty of room for any one
+of the ridges to end, and another to bifurcate. It is impossible,
+therefore, to know beforehand in which, if in any of the ridges, these
+peculiarities will be found. When the number of entering and issuing
+ridges is unequal, the difficulty is increased. There may, moreover, be
+islands or enclosures in any particular part of the square. It therefore
+seems right to look upon the squares as independent variables, in the
+sense that when the surrounding conditions are alone taken into account,
+the ridges within their limits may either run in the observed way or in a
+different way, the chance of these two contrasted events being taken (for
+safety&#8217;s sake) as approximately equal.</p>
+
+<p>In comparing finger prints which are alike in their general pattern, it
+may well happen that the proportions of the patterns differ; one may be
+that of a slender boy, the other that of a man whose fingers have been
+broadened or deformed by ill-usage. It is therefore requisite to imagine
+that only one of the prints is divided into exact squares, and to suppose
+that a reticulation has been drawn over the other, in which each mesh
+included the corresponding parts of the former print. Frequent trials have
+shown that there is no practical difficulty in actually doing<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_109" id="Page_109">[Pg 109]</a></span> this, and
+it is the only way of making a fair comparison between the two.</p>
+
+<p>These six-ridge-interval squares may thus be regarded as independent
+units, each of which is equally liable to fall into one or other of two
+alternative classes, when the surrounding conditions are alone known. The
+inevitable consequence from this datum is that the chance of an exact
+correspondence between two different finger prints, in each of the
+six-ridge-interval squares into which they may be divided, and which are
+about 24 in number, is at least as 1 to 2 multiplied into itself 24 times
+(usually written 2<sup>24</sup>), that is as 1 to about ten thousand millions. But
+we must not forget that the six-ridge square was taken in order to ensure
+under-estimation, a five-ridge square would have been preferable, so the
+adverse chances would in reality be enormously greater still.</p>
+
+<p>It is hateful to blunder in calculations of adverse chances, by
+overlooking correlations between variables, and to falsely assume them
+independent, with the result that inflated estimates are made which
+require to be proportionately reduced. Here, however, there seems to be
+little room for such an error.</p>
+
+<p>We must next combine the above enormously unfavourable chance, which we
+will call <i>a</i>, with the other chances of not guessing correctly beforehand
+the surrounding conditions under which <i>a</i> was calculated. These latter
+are divisible into <i>b</i> and <i>c</i>; the chance <i>b</i> is that of not guessing
+correctly the general course of the ridges adjacent to each square, and
+<i>c</i> that of not guessing rightly the number of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_110" id="Page_110">[Pg 110]</a></span> ridges that enter and
+issue from the square. The chance <i>b</i> has already been discussed, with the
+result that it might be taken as 1 to 20 for two-thirds of all the
+patterns. It would be higher for the remainder, and very high indeed for
+some few of them, but as it is advisable always to underestimate, it may
+be taken as 1 to 20; or, to obtain the convenience of dealing only with
+values of 2 multiplied into itself, the still lower ratio of 1 to 2<sup>4</sup>,
+that is as 1 to 16. As to the remaining chance <i>c</i> with which <i>a</i> and <i>b</i>
+have to be compounded, namely, that of guessing aright the number of
+ridges that enter and leave each side of a particular square, I can offer
+no careful observations. The number of the ridges would for the most part
+vary between five and seven, and those in the different squares are
+certainly not quite independent of one another. We have already arrived at
+such large figures that it is surplusage to heap up more of them,
+therefore, let us say, as a mere nominal sum much below the real figure,
+that the chance against guessing each and every one of these data
+correctly is as 1 to 250, or say 1 to 2<sup>8</sup> (= 256).</p>
+
+<p>The result is, that the chance of lineations, constructed by the
+imagination according to strictly natural forms, which shall be found to
+resemble those of a single finger print in all their minuti&aelig;, is less than
+1 to 2<sup>24</sup> &times; 2<sup>4</sup> &times; 2<sup>8</sup>, or 1 to 2<sup>36</sup>, or 1 to about sixty-four thousand
+millions. The inference is, that as the number of the human race is
+reckoned at about sixteen thousand millions, it is a smaller chance than 1
+to 4 that the print of a <i>single</i> finger of any given<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_111" id="Page_111">[Pg 111]</a></span> person would be
+exactly like that of the same finger of any other member of the human
+race.</p>
+
+<p>When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to
+have the same minuti&aelig;, the improbability of 1 to 2<sup>36</sup> becomes squared,
+and reaches a figure altogether beyond the range of the imagination; when
+three fingers, it is cubed, and so on.</p>
+
+<p>A single instance has shown that the minuti&aelig; are <i>not</i> invariably
+permanent throughout life, but that one or more of them may possibly
+change. They may also be destroyed by wounds, and more or less
+disintegrated by hard work, disease, or age. Ambiguities will thus arise
+in their interpretation, one person asserting a resemblance in respect to
+a particular feature, while another asserts dissimilarity. It is therefore
+of interest to know how far a conceded resemblance in the great majority
+of the minuti&aelig; combined with some doubt as to the remainder, will tell in
+favour of identity. It will now be convenient to change our datum from a
+six-ridge to a five-ridge square of which about thirty-five are contained
+in a single print, 35 &times; 5<sup>2</sup> or 35 &times; 25 being much the same as 24 &times; 6<sup>2</sup>
+or 24 &times; 36. The reason for the change is that this number of thirty-five
+happens to be the same as that of the minuti&aelig;. We shall therefore not be
+acting unfairly if, with reservation, and for the sake of obtaining some
+result, however rough, we consider the thirty-five minuti&aelig; themselves as
+so many independent variables, and accept the chance now as 1 to 2<sup>35</sup>.</p>
+
+<p>This has to be multiplied, as before, into the factor of 2<sup>4</sup> &times; 2<sup>8</sup>
+(which may still be considered<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_112" id="Page_112">[Pg 112]</a></span> appropriate, though it is too small),
+making the total of adverse chances 1 to 2<sup>47</sup>. Upon such a basis, the
+calculation is simple. There would on the average be 47 instances, out of
+the total 2<sup>47</sup> combinations, of similarity in all but one particular;
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>47&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;46</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;2</span> in all but two;
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>47&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;46&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;45</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">1&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;2&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;3</span>
+in all but three, and so on according to the well-known binomial expansion. Taking for
+convenience the powers of 2 to which these values approximate, or rather
+with the view of not overestimating, let us take the power of 2 that falls
+short of each of them; these may be reckoned as respectively equal to
+2<sup>6</sup>, 2<sup>10</sup>, 2<sup>14</sup>, 2<sup>18</sup>, etc. Hence the roughly approximate chances of
+resemblance in all particulars are as 2<sup>47</sup> to 1; in all particulars but
+one, as 2<sup>47-6</sup>, or 2<sup>41</sup> to 1; in all but two, as 2<sup>37</sup> to 1; in all but
+three, as 2<sup>33</sup> to 1; in all but four, as 2<sup>29</sup> to 1. Even 2<sup>29</sup> is so
+large as to require a row of nine figures to express it. Hence a few
+instances of dissimilarity in the two prints of a single finger, still
+leave untouched an enormously large residue of evidence in favour of
+identity, and when two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to
+that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc.,
+far above the level of that amount of probability which begins to rank as
+certainty.</p>
+
+<p>Whatever reductions a legitimate criticism may make in the numerical
+results arrived at in this chapter, bearing in mind the occasional
+ambiguities pictured in Fig. 18, the broad fact remains, that a complete
+or nearly complete accordance between two prints of a single finger, and
+vastly more so between<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_113" id="Page_113">[Pg 113]</a></span> the prints of two or more fingers, affords
+evidence requiring no corroboration, that the persons from whom they were
+made are the same. Let it also be remembered, that this evidence is
+applicable not only to adults, but can establish the identity of the same
+person at any stage of his life between babyhood and old age, and for some
+time after his death.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>We read of the dead body of Jezebel being devoured by the dogs of Jezreel,
+so that no man might say, &#8220;This is Jezebel,&#8221; and that the dogs left only
+her skull, the palms of her hands, and the soles of her feet; but the
+palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are the very remains by which
+a corpse might be most surely identified, if impressions of them, made
+during life, were available.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_114" id="Page_114">[Pg 114]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_VIII" id="CHAPTER_VIII"></a>CHAPTER VIII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS</span></p>
+
+<p>The data used in this chapter are the prints of 5000 different digits,
+namely, the ten digits of 500 different persons; each digit can thus be
+treated, both separately and in combination, in 500 cases. Five hundred
+cannot be called a large number, but it suffices for approximate results;
+the percentages that it yields may, for instance, be expected to be
+trustworthy, more often than not, within two units.</p>
+
+<p>When preparing the tables for this chapter, I gave a more liberal
+interpretation to the word &#8220;Arch&#8221; than subsequently. At first, every
+pattern between a Forked-Arch and a Nascent-Loop (<a href="#plate7">Plate 7</a>) was rated as an
+Arch; afterwards they were rated as Loops.</p>
+
+<p>The relative frequency of the three several classes in the 5000 digits was
+as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>Arches</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td><td align="right">6&middot;5</td><td>per cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Loops</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right">67&middot;5</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Whorls</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="right" class="botbor">26&middot;0</td><td align="center">"</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>Total</td><td align="right">100&middot;0</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>From this it appears, that on the average out of every<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_115" id="Page_115">[Pg 115]</a></span> 15 or 16 digits,
+one has an arch; out of every 3 digits, two have loops; out of every 4
+digits, one has a whorl.</p>
+
+<p>This coarse statistical treatment leaves an inadequate impression, each
+digit and each hand having its own peculiarity, as we shall see in the
+following table:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table I.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the different digits,<br />from observations of the 5000 digits of 500 persons.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Digit.</td>
+    <td colspan="4" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Right Hand.</span></td>
+    <td colspan="4" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Left Hand.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btr">Arch.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Whorl.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">Total.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Arch.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Loop.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Whorl.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Thumb</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">44</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">100</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">65</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore-finger</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">17</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">100</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">17</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">55</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">28</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle do.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">78</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">15</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">100</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">76</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">16</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Ring &nbsp; &nbsp; do.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">45</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">100</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">66</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">31</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Little &nbsp;&nbsp; do.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">86</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">13</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">100</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">90</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center">Total</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">30</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">323</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">147</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">500</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">352</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">113</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">500</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The percentage of arches on the various digits varies from 1 to 17; of
+loops, from 53 to 90; of whorls, from 13 to 45, consequently the
+statistics of the digits must be separated, and not massed
+indiscriminately.</p>
+
+<p>Are the A. L. W. patterns distributed in the same way upon the
+corresponding digits of the two hands? The answer from the last table is
+distinct and curious, and will be best appreciated on rearranging the
+entries as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_116" id="Page_116">[Pg 116]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table II.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Digit.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Arches.</span></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub"><span class="smcap">Loops.</span></td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr"><span class="smcap">Whorls.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Fore-finger</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">28</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle do.</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">78</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">76</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">15</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">16</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Little &nbsp;&nbsp; do.</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">86</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">90</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">13</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">8</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Thumb</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">65</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">44</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">30</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Ring &nbsp; &nbsp; do.</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">53</span></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">66</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">45</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">31</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Total &nbsp; &nbsp; 1000</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">30</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">323</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">350</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">147</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">113</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><br />The digits are seen to fall into two well-marked groups; the one including
+the fore, middle, and little fingers, the other including the thumb and
+ring-finger. As regards the first group, the frequency with which any
+pattern occurs in any named digit is statistically the same, whether that
+digit be on the right or on the left hand; as regards the second group,
+the frequency differs greatly in the two hands. But though in the first
+group the two fore-fingers, the two middle, and the two little fingers of
+the right hand are severally circumstanced alike in the frequency with
+which their various patterns occur, the difference between the frequency
+of the patterns on a fore, a middle, and a little finger, respectively, is
+very great.</p>
+
+<p>In the second group, though the thumbs on opposite hands do not resemble
+each other in the statistical frequency of the A. L. W. patterns, nor do
+the ring-fingers, there is a great resemblance<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_117" id="Page_117">[Pg 117]</a></span> between the respective
+frequencies in the thumbs and ring-fingers; for instance, the Whorls on
+either of these fingers on the left hand are only two-thirds as common as
+those on the right. The figures in each line and in each column are
+consistent throughout in expressing these curious differences, which must
+therefore be accepted as facts, and not as statistical accidents, whatever
+may be their explanation.</p>
+
+<p>One of the most noticeable peculiarities in Table I. is the much greater
+frequency of Arches on the fore-fingers than on any other of the four
+digits. It amounts to 17 per cent on the fore-fingers, while on the thumbs
+and on the remaining fingers the frequency diminishes (Table III.) in a
+ratio that roughly accords with the distance of each digit from the
+fore-finger.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table III.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="btlr" align="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Arches.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Hand.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Thumb.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Fore-finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Middle finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Ring-finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Little finger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><i>17</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">7</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Left</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>17</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">8</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Mean</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>17</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">7&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2&middot;5</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The frequency of Loops (Table IV.) has two maxima; the principal one is on
+the little finger, the secondary on the middle finger.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_118" id="Page_118">[Pg 118]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table IV.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="btlr" align="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Loops.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Hand.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Thumb.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Fore-finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Middle finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Ring-finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Little finger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">53</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">53</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">78</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">66</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">86</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Left</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">65</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">55</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">76</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">53</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">90</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Mean</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">59</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">54</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">77</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">59&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">88</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />Whorls (Table V.) are most common on the thumb and the ring-finger, most
+rare on the middle and little fingers.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table V.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="6" class="btlr" align="center"><i>Percentage frequency of Whorls.</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">Hand.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Thumb.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Fore-finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Middle finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Ring-finger.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Little finger.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Right</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">44</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">30</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">15</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">45</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Left</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">30</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">28</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">31</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Mean</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">37</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">29</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">15&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">38</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">10&middot;5</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The fore-finger is peculiar in the frequency with which the direction of
+the slopes of its loops differs from that which is by far the most common
+in all other digits. A loop <i>must</i> have a slope, being caused by the
+disposition of the ridges into the form of a pocket, opening downwards to
+one or other side of the finger. If it opens towards the inner or thumb
+side of the hand, it will be called an inner slope;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_119" id="Page_119">[Pg 119]</a></span> if towards the outer
+or little-finger side, it will be called an outer slope. In all digits,
+except the fore-fingers, the inner slope is much the more rare of the two;
+but in the fore-fingers the inner slope appears two-thirds as frequently
+as the outer slope. Out of the percentage of 53 loops of the one or other
+kind on the right fore-finger, 21 of them have an inner and 32 an outer
+slope; out of the percentage of 55 loops on the left fore-finger, 21 have
+inner and 34 have outer slopes. These subdivisions 21-21 and 32-34
+corroborate the strong statistical similarity that was observed to exist
+between the frequency of the several patterns on the right and left
+fore-fingers; a condition which was also found to characterise the middle
+and little fingers.</p>
+
+<p>It is strange that Purkenje considers the &#8220;inner&#8221; slope on the fore-finger
+to be more frequent than the &#8220;outer&#8221; (<a href="#Page_86">p. 86</a>, <small>4</small>). My nomenclature differs
+from his, but there is no doubt as to the disagreement in meaning. The
+facts to be adduced hereafter make it most improbable that the persons
+observed were racially unlike in this particular.</p>
+
+<p>The tendencies of digits to resemble one another will now be considered in
+their various combinations. They will be taken two at a time, in order to
+learn the frequency with which both members of the various couplets are
+affected by the same A. L. W. class of pattern. Every combination will be
+discussed, except those into which the little finger enters. These are
+omitted, because the overwhelming frequency of loops in the little fingers
+would<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_120" id="Page_120">[Pg 120]</a></span> make the results of comparatively little interest, while their
+insertion would greatly increase the size of the table.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table</span> VI<i>a</i>.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern<br />occurs in the</i> same digits <i>of the two hands</i>.</p>
+<p class="center">(From observation of 5000 digits of 500 persons.)</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Couplets of Digits.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl">The two</td><td class="btr">thumbs</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">48</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">24</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">74</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td><td class="br">fore-fingers</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">9</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">38</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">67</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td><td  class="br">middle fingers</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">65</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">77</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl" align="center">"</td><td  class="bbr">ring-fingers</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">46</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">26</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">74</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="5" class="bbl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Mean of the Totals</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">72</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table</span> VI<i>b</i>.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern<br />occurs in various couplets of</i> different digits.</p>
+<p class="center">(From 500 persons as above.)</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Couplets of Digits.</td>
+    <td colspan="4" class="btrdoub" align="center"><span class="smcap">Of Same Hands.</span></td>
+    <td colspan="4" class="btr" align="center"><span class="smcap">Of Opposite Hands.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arch.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Total.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Arch.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Thumb and fore-finger</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">53</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">33</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">15</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and middle finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">48</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">58</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">47</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">56</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">61</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">38</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">57</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore and middle finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">48</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">65</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">46</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">62</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore and ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">54</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">54</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Middle and ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">65</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">64</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" class="bbl"><span style="margin-left: 6em;">Means of the Totals</span></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">59</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">57</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_121" id="Page_121">[Pg 121]</a></span>A striking feature in this last table is the close similarity between
+corresponding entries relating to the same and to the opposite hands.
+There are eighteen sets to be compared; namely, six couplets of different
+names, in each of which the frequency of three different classes of
+patterns is discussed. The eighteen pairs of corresponding couplets are
+closely alike in every instance. It is worth while to rearrange the
+figures as below, for the greater convenience of observing their
+resemblances.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table VII.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Couplet.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" class="btrdoub" align="center">Arches in</td>
+    <td colspan="2" class="btrdoub" align="center">Loops in</td>
+    <td colspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Whorls in</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Same<br />hand.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Opposite<br />hand.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Same<br />hand.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Opposite<br />hand.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Same<br />hand.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Opposite<br />hand.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Thumb and fore-finger</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">33</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and middle finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">48</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">47</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Thumb and ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">38</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore and middle finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">48</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">46</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore and ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">17</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Middle and ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">12</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The agreement in the above entries is so curiously close as to have
+excited grave suspicion that it was due to some absurd blunder, by which
+the same figures were made inadvertently to do duty twice over, but
+subsequent checking disclosed no error.<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_122" id="Page_122">[Pg 122]</a></span> Though the unanimity of the
+results is wonderful, they are fairly arrived at, and leave no doubt that
+the relationship of any one particular digit, whether thumb, fore, middle,
+ring or little finger, to any other particular digit, is the same, whether
+the two digits are on the same or on opposite hands. It would be a most
+interesting subject of statistical inquiry to ascertain whether the
+distribution of malformations, or of the various forms of skin disease
+among the digits, corroborates this unexpected and remarkable result. I am
+sorry to have no means of undertaking it, being assured on good authority
+that no adequate collection of the necessary data has yet been published.</p>
+
+<p>It might be hastily inferred from the statistical identity of the
+connection between, say, the right thumb and each of the two fore-fingers,
+that the patterns on the two fore-fingers ought always to be alike,
+whether arch, loop, or whorl. If X, it may be said, is identical both with
+Y and with Z, then Y and Z must be identical with one another. But the
+statement of the problem is wrong; X is not identical with Y and Z, but
+only bears an identical amount of statistical resemblance to each of them;
+so this reasoning is inadmissible. The character of the pattern on any
+digit is determined by causes of whose precise nature we are ignorant; but
+we may rest assured that they are numerous and variable, and that their
+variations are in large part independent of one another. We can in
+imagination divide them into groups, calling those that are common to the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_123" id="Page_123">[Pg 123]</a></span>
+thumb and the fore-finger of either hand, and to those couplets
+exclusively, the A causes; those that are common to the two thumbs and to
+these exclusively, the B causes; and similarly those common to the two
+fore-fingers exclusively, the C causes.</p>
+
+<p>Then the sum of the variable causes determining the class of pattern in
+the four several digits now in question are these:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td>Right thumb</td>
+    <td>A + B + an</td>
+    <td>unclassed</td><td>residue</td><td>called</td>
+    <td>X(<sub>1</sub>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Left thumb</td>
+    <td>A + B +</td>
+    <td class="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td>
+    <td>X(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Right fore-finger</td>
+    <td>A + C +</td>
+    <td class="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td>
+    <td>Z(<sub>1</sub>)</td></tr>
+<tr><td>Left fore-finger</td>
+    <td>A + C +</td>
+    <td class="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td><td align="center">"</td>
+    <td>Z(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The nearness of relationship between the two thumbs is sufficiently
+indicated by a fraction that expresses the proportion between all the
+causes common to the two thumbs exclusively, and the totality of the
+causes by which the A. L. W. class of the patterns of the thumbs is
+determined, that is to say, by</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="botbor" align="center">A + B</td>
+    <td rowspan="2"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">(1).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">A + B + X(<sub>1</sub>) + X(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />Similarly, the nearness of the relationship between the two fore-fingers by</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="botbor" align="center">A + C</td>
+    <td rowspan="2"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">(2).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">A + C + Z(<sub>1</sub>) + Z(<sub>2</sub>)</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />And that between a thumb and a fore-finger by</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="botbor" align="center">A</td>
+    <td rowspan="2"><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle">(3).</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">A + B + C + X(<sub>1</sub>) (or X(<sub>2</sub>)) + Z(<sub>1</sub>) (or Z(<sub>2</sub>))</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The fractions (1) and (2) being both greater than (3), it follows that the
+relationships between the two thumbs, or between the two fore-fingers, are
+closer<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_124" id="Page_124">[Pg 124]</a></span> than that between the thumb and either fore-finger; at the same
+time it is clear that neither of the two former relationships is so close
+as to reach identity. Similarly as regards the other couplets of digits.
+The tabular entries fully confirm this deduction, for, without going now
+into further details, it will be seen from the &#8220;Mean of the Totals&#8221; at the
+bottom line of Table VI<i>b</i> that the average percentage of cases in which
+two different digits have the same class of patterns, whether they be on
+the same or on opposite hands, is 59 or 57 (say 58), while the average
+percentage of cases in which right and left digits bearing the same name
+have the same class of pattern (Table VI<i>a</i>) is 72. This is barely
+two-thirds of the 100 which would imply identity. At the same time, the 72
+considerably exceeds the 58.</p>
+
+<p>Let us now endeavour to measure the relationships between the various
+couplets of digits on a well-defined centesimal scale, first recalling the
+fundamental principles of the connection that subsists between
+relationships of all kinds, whether between digits, or between kinsmen, or
+between any of those numerous varieties of related events with which
+statisticians deal.</p>
+
+<p>Relationships are all due to the joint action of two groups of variable
+causes, the one common to both of the related objects, the other special
+to each, as in the case just discussed. Using an analogous nomenclature to
+that already employed, the peculiarity of one of the two objects is due to
+an aggregate of variable causes that we may call C+X, and that of the
+other<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_125" id="Page_125">[Pg 125]</a></span> to C+Z, in which C are the causes common to both, and X and Z the
+special ones. In exact proportion as X and Z diminish, and C becomes of
+overpowering effect, so does the closeness of the relationship increase.
+When X and Z both disappear, the result is identity of character. On the
+other hand, when C disappears, all relationship ceases, and the variations
+of the two objects are strictly independent. The simplest case is that in
+which X and Z are equal, and <i>in this</i>, it becomes easy to devise a scale
+in which 0&deg; shall stand for no relationship, and 100&deg; for identity, and
+upon which the intermediate degrees of relationship may be marked at their
+proper value. Upon this assumption, but with some misgiving, I will
+attempt to subject the digits to this form of measurement. It will save
+time first to work out an example, and then, after gaining in that way, a
+clearer understanding of what the process is, to discuss its defects. Let
+us select for our example the case that brings out these defects in the
+most conspicuous manner, as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>Table V. tells us that the percentage of whorls in the right ring-finger
+is 45, and in the left ring-finger 31. Table VI<i>a</i> tells us that the
+percentage of the double event of a whorl occurring on both the
+ring-fingers of the same person is 26. It is required to express the
+relationship between the right and left ring-fingers on a centesimal
+scale, in which 0&deg; shall stand for no relationship at all, and 100&deg; for
+the closest possible relationship.</p>
+
+<p>If no relationship should exist, there would <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_126" id="Page_126">[Pg 126]</a></span>nevertheless be a certain
+percentage of instances, due to pure chance, of the double event of whorls
+occurring in both ring-fingers, and it is easy to calculate their
+frequency from the above data. The number of possible combinations of 100
+right ring-fingers with 100 left ones is 100 &times; 100, and of these 45 &times; 31
+would be double events as above (call these for brevity &#8220;double whorls&#8221;).
+Consequently the chance of a double whorl in any single couplet is
+<span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>45&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;31</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">100&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;100</span>,
+and their average frequency in 100 couplets,&mdash;in other
+words, their average percentage is <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>45&nbsp;&times;&nbsp;31</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">100</span>
+= 13&middot;95, say 14. If, then, the observed percentage of double whorls should be only 14, it would be a
+proof that the A. L. W. classes of patterns on the right and left
+ring-fingers were quite independent; so their relationship, as expressed
+on the centesimal scale, would be 0&deg;. There could never be less than 14
+double whorls under the given conditions, except through some statistical
+irregularity.</p>
+
+<p>Now consider the opposite extreme of the closest possible relationship,
+subject however, and this is the weak point, to the paramount condition
+that the average frequencies of the A. L. W. classes may be taken as
+<i>pre-established</i>. As there are 45 per cent of whorls on the right
+ring-finger, and only 31 on the left, the tendency to form double whorls,
+however stringent it may be, can only be satisfied in 31 cases. There
+remains a superfluity of 14 per cent cases in the right ring-finger which
+perforce must have for their partners either arches or loops. Hence the
+percentage of frequency that indicates the closest<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_127" id="Page_127">[Pg 127]</a></span> feasible relationship
+under the pre-established conditions, would be 31.</p>
+
+<p>The range of all possible relationships in respect to whorls, would
+consequently lie between a percentage frequency of the minimum 14 and the
+maximum 31, while the observed frequency is of the intermediate value of
+26. Subtracting the 14 from these three values, we have the series of 0,
+12, 17. These terms can be converted into their equivalents in a
+centesimal scale that reaches from 0&deg; to 100&deg; instead of from 0&deg; to 17&deg;,
+by the ordinary rule of three, 12:<i>x</i>::17:100; <i>x</i>=70 or 71, whence the
+value <i>x</i> of the observed relationship on the centesimal scale would be
+70&deg; or 71&deg;, neglecting decimals.</p>
+
+<p>This method of obtaining the value of 100&deg; is open to grave objection in
+the present example. We have no right to consider that the 45 per cent of
+whorls on the right ring-finger, and the 31 on the left, can be due to
+pre-established conditions, which would exercise a paramount effect even
+though the whorls were due entirely to causes common to both fingers.
+There is some self-contradiction in such a supposition. Neither are we at
+liberty to assume that the respective effects of the special causes X and
+Z are equal in average amount; if they were, the percentage of whorls on
+the right and on the left finger would invariably be equal.</p>
+
+<p>In this particular example the difficulty of determining correctly the
+scale value of 100&deg; is exceptionally great; elsewhere, the percentages of
+frequency in the two members of each couplet are more alike. In<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_128" id="Page_128">[Pg 128]</a></span> the two
+fore-fingers, and again in the two middle fingers, they are closely alike.
+Therefore, in these latter cases, it is not unreasonable to pass over the
+objection that X and Z have not been proved to be equal, but we must
+accept the results in all other cases with great caution.</p>
+
+<p>When the digits are of different names,&mdash;as the thumb and the
+fore-finger,&mdash;whether the digits be on the same or on opposite hands,
+there are two cases to be worked out; namely, such as (1) right thumb and
+left fore-finger, and (2) left thumb and right fore-finger. Each accounts
+for 50 per cent of the observed cases; therefore the mean of the two
+percentages is the correct percentage. The relationships calculated in the
+following table do not include arches, except in two instances mentioned
+in a subsequent paragraph, as the arches are elsewhere too rare to furnish
+useful results.</p>
+
+<p>It did not seem necessary to repeat the calculation for couplets of digits
+of different names, situated on opposite hands, as those that were
+calculated on closely the same data for similar couplets situated on the
+same hands, suffice for both. It is evident from the irregularity in the
+run of the figures that the units in the several entries cannot be more
+than vaguely approximate. They have, however, been retained, as being
+possibly better than nothing at all.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_129" id="Page_129">[Pg 129]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table VIII.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Approximate Measures of Relationship between the various Digits, on a Centesimal Scale.</i></p>
+<p class="center">(0&deg; = no relationship; 100&deg; = the utmost feasible likeness.)</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" colspan="4" align="center">Couplets.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Means.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" colspan="4" align="center"><br /><i>Digits of the same name.</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">Right</td><td>and</td><td>&nbsp; left</td><td class="br">thumbs</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">57</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">64</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">61</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="br">fore-fingers</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">37</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">59</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">48</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">"</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="br">middle fingers</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">34</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">52</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl" align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="bbr">ring fingers</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">61</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">70</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">65</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" colspan="4"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Means</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">47&deg;</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">61&deg;</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">54&deg;</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" colspan="4" align="center"><br /><i>Digits of different names on<br />the same or on opposite hands.</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2">Thumb and</td><td class="br" colspan="2">fore-finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">19</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">29</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2" align="center">"</td><td class="br" colspan="2">middle finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">19</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">34</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">27</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2" align="center">"</td><td class="br" colspan="2">ring-finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">33</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">44</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">39</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2">Fore and</td><td class="br" colspan="2">middle finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">52</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">68</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">60</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" colspan="2" align="center">"</td><td class="br" colspan="2">ring finger</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">34</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl" colspan="2">Middle and</td><td class="bbr" colspan="2">ring finger</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">31</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">74</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" colspan="4"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Means</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">28&deg;</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">47&deg;</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">37&deg;</span></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><br />The arches were sufficiently numerous in the fore-fingers (17 per cent) to
+fully justify the application of this method of calculation. The result
+was 43&deg;, which agrees fairly with 48&deg;, the mean of the loops and the
+whorls. In the middle finger the frequency of the arches was only half the
+above amount and barely suffices for calculation. It gave the result of
+38&deg;, which also agrees fairly with 43&deg;, the mean of the loops and the
+whorls for that finger.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_130" id="Page_130">[Pg 130]</a></span>Some definite results may be gathered from this table notwithstanding the
+irregularity with which the figures run. Its upper and lower halves
+clearly belong to different statistical groups, the entries in the former
+being almost uniformly larger than those in the latter, in the proportion
+of 54&deg; to 37&deg;, say 3 to 2, which roughly represents in numerical terms the
+nearer relationship between digits of the same name, as compared to that
+between digits of different names. It seems also that of the 6 couplets of
+digits bearing different names, the relationship is closest between the
+middle finger and the two adjacent ones (60&deg; and 52&deg;, as against 24&deg;, 27&deg;,
+39&deg; and 23&deg;). It is further seen in every pair of entries that whorls are
+related together more closely than loops. I note this, but cannot explain
+it. So far as my statistical inquiries into heredity have hitherto gone,
+all peculiarities were found to follow the same law of transmission, none
+being more surely inherited than others. If there were a tendency in any
+one out of many alternative characters to be more heritable than the rest,
+that character would become universally prevalent, in the absence of
+restraining influences. But it does not follow that there are no peculiar
+restraining influences here, nor that what is true for heredity, should be
+true, in all its details, as regards the relationships between the
+different digits.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_131" id="Page_131">[Pg 131]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_IX" id="CHAPTER_IX"></a>CHAPTER IX</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">METHODS OF INDEXING</span></p>
+
+<p>In this chapter the system of classification by Arches, Loops, and Whorls
+described in <a href="#CHAPTER_V">Chapter V.</a> will be used for indexing two, three, six or ten
+digits, as the case may be.</p>
+
+<p>An index to each set of finger marks made by the same person, is needful
+in almost every kind of inquiry, whether it be for descriptive purposes,
+for investigations into race and heredity, or into questions of symmetry
+and correlation. It is essential to possess an index to the finger marks
+of known criminals before the method of finger prints can be utilised as
+an organised means of detection.</p>
+
+<p>The ideal index might be conceived to consist of a considerable number of
+compartments, or their equivalents, each bearing a different
+index-heading, into which the sets of finger prints of different persons
+may be severally sorted, so that all similar sets shall lie in the same
+compartment.</p>
+
+<p>The principle of the proposed method of index-headings is, that they
+should depend upon a few conspicuous differences of pattern in many
+fingers,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_132" id="Page_132">[Pg 132]</a></span> and not upon many minute differences in a few fingers. It is
+carried into effect by distinguishing the A. L. W. class of pattern on
+each digit in succession, by a letter,&mdash;<i>a</i> for Arch, <i>l</i> for Loop, <i>w</i>
+for Whorl; or else, as an alternative method, to subdivide <i>l</i> by using
+<i>i</i> for a loop with an Inner slope, and <i>o</i> for one with an Outer slope,
+as the case may be. In this way, the class of pattern in each set of ten
+digits is described by a sequence of ten letters, the various combinations
+of which are alphabetically arranged and form the different
+index-headings. Let us now discuss the best method of carrying out this
+principle, by collating the results of alternative methods of applying it.
+We have to consider the utility of the <i>i</i> and <i>o</i> as compared to the
+simple <i>l</i>, and the gain through taking all ten digits into account,
+instead of only some of them.</p>
+
+<p>It will be instructive to print here an actual index to the finger prints
+of 100 different persons, who were not in any way selected, but taken as
+they came, and to use it as the basis of a considerable portion of the
+following remarks, to be checked where necessary, by results derived from
+an index to 500 cases, in which these hundred are included.</p>
+
+<p>This index is compiled on the principle shortly to be explained, entitled
+the &#8220;<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger&#8221; method.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_133" id="Page_133">[Pg 133]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table IX.&mdash;Index to 100 Sets of Finger Prints.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Order<br />of<br />Entry.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">A<br />Right.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">B<br />Left.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">C<br />Rt.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">D<br />Lt.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt" align="center">F.M.R.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">F.M.R.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">T.L.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">T.L.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center"><i>a a a</i></td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center"><i>a a a</i></td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center"><i>a a</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><i>l a</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">11</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">13</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">14</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l a</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a a</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l a</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l a</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">15</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l a</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l w</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">16</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">17</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">18</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">19</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">20</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">21</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">22</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">23</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">24</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">25</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">26</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">27</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">28</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">29</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">30</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">31</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">32</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">33</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">34</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">35</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">36</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">37</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">38</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">39</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">40</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_134" id="Page_134">[Pg 134]</a></span>41</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">43</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">44</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">45</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">46</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i w l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">47</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">48</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">49</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">50</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">51</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">52</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o a w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">53</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">54</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">55</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">56</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">57</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">58</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">59</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">60</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">61</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">62</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">63</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">64</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">65</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">66</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w a l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">67</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">68</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">69</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">70</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">71</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">72</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">73</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">74</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">75</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">76</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">77</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">78</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">79</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">80</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">81</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">82</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">83</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">84</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">85</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">86</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l w</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">87</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w w</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">88</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">89</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">90</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">91</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">92</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">93</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">94</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l w</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">95</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">96</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">97</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">98</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">99</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>"</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">100</span></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>w w</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The sequence in which the digits have been registered is not from the
+thumb outwards to the little finger, but, on account of various good
+reasons that will be appreciated as we proceed, in the following order.</p>
+
+<p>The ten digits are registered in four groups, which are distinguished in
+the Index by the letters A, B, C, D:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>A. <i>First.</i> The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the <i>right</i> hand
+taken in that order.</p>
+
+<p>B. <i>Second.</i> The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the <i>left</i> hand
+taken in that order.</p>
+
+<p>C. <i>Third.</i> The thumb and little finger of the <i>right</i> hand.</p>
+
+<p>D. <i>Fourth.</i> The thumb and little finger of the <i>left</i> hand.</p></div>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_135" id="Page_135">[Pg 135]</a></span>Consequently an index-heading will be of the form&mdash;</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center">First<br />group.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">Second<br />group.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">Third<br />group.</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">Fourth<br />group.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />These index-headings are catalogued in alphabetical order. The method used
+in the Index is that which takes note of no slopes, except those of loops
+in the fore-finger of either hand. Consequently the index-heading for my
+own digits, printed on the title-page, is <i>wlw oll wl wl</i>. Those of the
+eight sets in <a href="#plate6">Plate VI.</a> are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w</i></td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>o l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>i l w</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>i w l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>i l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>w w l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>o l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l l</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a l</i></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><i>o a a</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>a a a</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l a</i></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center"><i>l a</i></td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><br />For convenience of description and reference, the successive entries in
+the specimen index have been numbered from 1 to 100, but that is no part
+of the system: those figures would be replaced in a real index by names
+and addresses.</p>
+
+<p>A preliminary way of obtaining an idea of the differentiating power of an
+index is to count the number of the different headings that are required
+to classify a specified number of cases. A table is appended which shows
+the numbers of the headings in the three alternative methods (1) of noting
+slopes of all kinds in all digits, (2) of noting slopes of Loops<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_136" id="Page_136">[Pg 136]</a></span> only and
+in the fore-fingers only, and (3) of disregarding the slopes altogether.
+Also in each of these three cases taking account of&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(<i>a</i>) All the ten digits;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of both hands;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) those same three fingers, but of the right hand only;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) the fore and middle fingers of the right hand.</p></div>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table X.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>No. of different index-heads in 100 sets of Finger Prints.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">No. of<br />digits<br />regarded.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr" align="center">Digits noted.</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="btr" align="center">Account taken of</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">All<br />slopes.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i><br />in fore-fingers.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">No<br />slope.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br">All the 10 digits</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">82</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">76</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">71</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Fore, middle, and ring-fingers of both hands</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">65</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">43</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Of right hand only</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">25</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Fore and middle of right hand only</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The column headed &#8220;all slopes&#8221; refers to the method first used with
+success, and described in my Memoir, already alluded to (<i>Proc. Roy.
+Soc.</i>, 1891), accompanied by a specimen index, from which the present one
+was derived. There the direction of the slope of every pattern that has
+one, is taken into account, and in order to give as much scope as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_137" id="Page_137">[Pg 137]</a></span>
+possible to the method, the term Arch (I then called it a Primary) was
+construed somewhat over-liberally (see <a href="#Page_114">p. 114</a>). It was made to include the
+forked-arch Fig. 12 (<small>2</small>), and even the nascent-loop (<small>9</small>), so long as not
+more than a single recurved ridge lay within the outline of the pattern;
+therefore many of the so-called arches had slopes. It is not necessary to
+trouble the reader with the numerical nomenclature that was then used, the
+method itself being now obsolete. Full particulars of it are, however,
+given in the Memoir.</p>
+
+<p>A somewhat large experience in sorting finger prints in various ways and
+repeatedly, made it only too evident that the mental strain and risk of
+error caused by taking all slopes into account was considerable. The
+judgment became fatigued and the eye puzzled by having to assign opposite
+meanings to the same actual direction of a slope in the right and left
+hands respectively. There was also a frequent doubt as to the existence of
+a slope in large whorls of the spiral- and circlet-in-loop patterns (Fig.
+13, <small>21</small>, <small>22</small>) when the impressions had not been rolled. A third
+objection is the rarity of the inner slopes in any other digit than the
+fore-finger. It acted like a soporific to the judgment not only of myself
+but of others, so that when an inner slope did occur it was apt to be
+overlooked. The first idea was to discard slopes altogether,
+notwithstanding the accompanying loss of index power, but this would be an
+unnecessarily trenchant measure. The slope of a loop, though it be on the
+fore-finger alone, decidedly merits recognition, for it differentiates
+such loops into two not very<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_138" id="Page_138">[Pg 138]</a></span> unequal classes. Again, there is little
+chance of mistake in noting it, the impression of the thumb on the one
+side and those of the remaining fingers on the other, affording easy
+guidance to the eye and judgment. These considerations determined the
+method I now use exclusively, by which Table IX. was compiled, and to
+which the second column of Table X., headed &#8220;<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in fore-fingers,&#8221;
+refers.</p>
+
+<p>The heading of the third column, &#8220;no slope,&#8221; explains itself, no account
+having been there taken of any slopes whatever, so <i>i</i> and <i>o</i> disappear,
+having become merged under <i>l</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The table gives a very favourable impression of the differentiating power
+of all these methods of indexing. By the &#8220;<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger&#8221; method,
+it requires as many as 76 different index-headings to include the finger
+prints of 100 different persons, 195 of 300 persons, and 285 of 500.</p>
+
+<p>The number of entries under each index-heading varies greatly; reference
+to the index of 100 sets showing no less than six entries (Nos. 60-65)
+under one of them, and four entries (Nos. 18-21 and 37-40) under each of
+two others. Thus, although a large portion of the 100 sets are solitary
+entries under their several headings, and can be found by a single
+reference, the remainder are grouped together like the commoner surnames
+in a directory. They are troublesome to distinguish, and cannot be
+subdivided at all except by supplementary characteristics, such as the
+number of ridges in some specified part of the pattern, or the character
+of the cores.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_139" id="Page_139">[Pg 139]</a></span>In other respects the difference of merit between the three methods is
+somewhat greater, as is succinctly indicated by the next table.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XI.</span>&mdash;<i>In 100 Sets.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Number of Entries<br />under the same head.</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="btr" align="center">No. of different index-headings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">All<br />slopes.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i><br />fore-fingers<br />only.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">No<br />slope.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">71</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">63</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">58</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">13</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">83</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">76</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">71</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />Hence it is evident that the second method of &#8220;<i>i-o</i> fore-finger&#8221; is
+capable of dealing rapidly with 100 cases, but that the method of &#8220;no
+slope&#8221; will give trouble in twelve out of the hundred cases.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_140" id="Page_140">[Pg 140]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XII.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the<br />sets of Finger Prints were registered.</i></p>
+<p class="center">(500 sets observed.)</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="6" align="center" class="btlrdoub"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in fore-fingers.</td>
+    <td colspan="6" align="center" class="btr">No slope.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">No.<br />for<br />Reference.</td>
+    <td class="btr" colspan="4" align="center">Index-heading.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Frequency<br />per<br />cent.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">No.<br />for<br />Reference.</td>
+    <td class="btr" colspan="4" align="center">Index-heading.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Frequency<br />per<br />cent.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">1&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .8em;">I.</span></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1&middot;2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">II.</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">2&middot;8</td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .2em;">III.</span></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="btr"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="3" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center">9&middot;2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1&middot;4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">4&middot;0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>i l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">1&middot;2</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">IV.</span></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="bt"><i>w l</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td rowspan="2" valign="middle" class="btr" align="center">3&middot;2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1&middot;4</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>o l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">2&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .9em;">V.</span></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>a l l</i></td>
+    <td class="bt"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr"><i>l l</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">3&middot;0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o l w</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>u l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">VI.</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>l l w</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>l l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3&middot;0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .2em;">VII.</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>w l l</i></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br"><i>"</i></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bb"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">1&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">VIII.</td>
+    <td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bb"><i>w w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bb"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr"><i>w w</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">1&middot;4</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>The headings in the right half of the table include more cases than
+the left half, because a combination of two or more cases that
+severally contain less than 1 per cent of the finger prints, and are
+therefore ignored in the first half of the table, may exceed 1 per
+cent and find a place in the second half.</p></div>
+
+<p>The entries in Table XII. are derived from a catalogue of 500 sets, and
+include all entries that appeared more than five times; in other words,
+whose frequency exceeded 1 per cent. These are the index-headings that
+give enough trouble to deserve notice in catalogues of, say, from 500 to
+1000 sets.</p>
+
+<p>In the left half of Table XII. all the index-headings are given, under
+each of which more than 1 per<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_141" id="Page_141">[Pg 141]</a></span> cent of the sets fell, when the method of
+&#8220;<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> in fore-fingers&#8221; was adopted; also the respective percentage
+of the cases that fell under them. In the right half of the table are the
+corresponding index-headings, together with the percentages of frequency,
+when the &#8220;no slope&#8221; method is employed. These are distinguished by Roman
+numerals. The great advantage of the &#8220;<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger&#8221; method lies
+in its power of breaking up certain large groups which are very
+troublesome to deal with by the &#8220;no slope&#8221; method. According to the latter
+as many as 9&middot;2 per cent of all the entries fall under the index-heading
+marked III., but according to the &#8220;<i>i-o</i> fore-finger&#8221; method these are
+distributed among the headings 3, 4, and 5. The &#8220;all slopes&#8221; method has
+the peculiar merit of breaking up the large group Nos. 11 and VIII. of
+&#8220;all whorls,&#8221; but its importance is not great on that account, as whorls
+are distinguishable by their cores, which are less troublesome to observe
+than their slopes.</p>
+
+<p>The percentage of all the entries that fall under a single index-heading,
+according to the &#8220;<i>i-o</i> fore-finger&#8221; method, diminishes with the number of
+entries at the following rate:&mdash;</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XIII.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" colspan="3" align="center">Total number of entries.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">100</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">300</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Percentage of entries falling under a single head</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">63</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">49&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">39&middot;8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_142" id="Page_142">[Pg 142]</a></span>It may be that every one of the 4<sup>2</sup> &times; 3<sup>8</sup>, or one hundred and five
+thousand possible varieties of index-headings, according to the &#8220;<i>i-o</i>
+fore-finger&#8221; method, may occur in Nature, but there is much probability
+that some of them may be so rare that instances of no entry under certain
+heads would appear in the register, even of an enormous number of persons.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>Hitherto we have supposed that prints of the ten fingers have in each case
+been indexed. The question now to be considered is the gain through
+dealing in each case with all ten digits, instead of following the easier
+practice of regarding only a few of them. The following table, drawn up
+from the hundred cases by the &#8220;all slopes&#8221; method, will show its amount.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XIV.</span>&mdash;<i>From 100 Sets.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr">Digits.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" class="btr">No. of<br />digits.</td>
+    <td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">No. of different index-headings.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btr">All<br />slopes.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>i</i> and <i>o</i><br />fore-finger.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">No slope.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Fore and middle  of right hand</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore, middle and ring of right hand</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">23</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">16</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore, middle and ring of both hands</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">65</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">50</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">45</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">All ten digits</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">83</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">76</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">73</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The trouble of printing, reading off, and indexing the ten digits, is
+practically twice that of dealing with the six fingers; namely, three on
+each of the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_143" id="Page_143">[Pg 143]</a></span> hands; the thumb being inconvenient to print from, and having
+to be printed separately, even for a dabbed impression, while the fingers
+of either hand can be dabbed down simultaneously.</p>
+
+<p>For a large collection the ten digit method is certainly the best, as it
+breaks up the big battalions; also in case of one or more fingers having
+been injured, it gives reserve material to work upon.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>We now come to the great difficulty in all classifications; that of
+transitional cases. What is to be done with those prints which cannot be
+certainly classed as Arches, Loops, or Whorls, but which lie between some
+two of them? These occur about once in every forty digits, or once in
+every four pairs of hands. The roughest way is to put a mark by the side
+of the entry to indicate doubt, a better one is to make a mark that shall
+express the nature of the peculiarity; thus a particular eyed pattern
+(<a href="#plate10">Plate 10</a>, Fig. 16, <i>n</i>) may be transitional between a loop and a whorl;
+under whichever of the two it is entered, the mark might be an <i>e</i> to show
+that anyhow it is an eye. Then, when it is required to discover whether an
+index contains a duplicate of a given specimen in which a transitional
+pattern occurs, the two headings between which the doubt lies have to be
+searched, and the marked entries will limit the search. Many alternative
+ways of marking may be successfully used, but I am not yet prepared to
+propose one as being distinctly the best. When there are two of these
+marks in the same set, it<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_144" id="Page_144">[Pg 144]</a></span> seldom happens that more than two references
+have to be made, as it is usual for the ambiguity to be of the same kind
+in both of the doubtful fingers. If the ambiguities were quite
+independent, then two marks would require four references, and three marks
+would require nine. There are a few nondescript prints that would fall
+under a separate heading, such as Z. Similarly, as regards lost or injured
+fingers.</p>
+
+<p>I have tried various methods of sub-classification, and find no difficulty
+in any of them, but general rules seem inadvisable; it being best to treat
+each large group on its own merits.</p>
+
+<p>One method that I have adopted and described in the <i>Proc. Royal Soc.</i>, is
+to sketch in a cursive and symbolic form the patterns of the several
+fingers in the order in which they appear in the print, confining myself
+to a limited number of symbols, such as might be used for printer&#8217;s types.
+They sufficed fairly for some thousands of the finger marks upon which
+they were tried, but doubtless they could be improved. A little violence
+has of course to be used now and then, in fitting some unusual patterns to
+some one or other of these few symbols. But we are familiar with such
+processes in ordinary spelling, making the same letter do duty for
+different sounds, as <i>a</i> in the words <i>as</i>, <i>ale</i>, <i>ask</i>, and <i>all</i>. The
+plan of using symbols has many secondary merits. It facilitates a
+leisurely revision of first determinations, it affords a pictorial record
+of the final judgment that is directly comparable with the print itself,
+and it almost wholly checks blunders between inner and outer slopes. A
+beginner in finger reading will educate his judgment by habitually using
+them at first.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate2" id="plate2"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 2.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 3.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">Dabbed down simultaneously.</td><td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Dabbed down simultaneously.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center"><img src="images/fig3a.jpg" alt="" /></td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><img src="images/fig3b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">Rolled separately.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">Rolled separately.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center" colspan="3"><img src="images/fig3c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Left hand.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Right hand.</td></tr></table>
+<p class="center">Form of card used for impressions of the ten digits. 11&#189; &times; 5 inches.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 4.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig4a.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" valign="bottom"><img src="images/fig4c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">Roller seen from above.</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Side view.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center"><img src="images/fig4b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td valign="top"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">The outer ring is to be taken</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">as representing either a thin</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">india-rubber tube, or a thick</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">layer of the composition</span><br />
+    <span style="margin-left: 2em;">used in printers&#8217; rollers.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center">End view.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="center">Roller and its bearings, of a pocket printing apparatus.</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_145" id="Page_145">[Pg 145]</a></span>The cores give great assistance in breaking up the very large groups of
+all-loops (see Table XII., Nos. 11 and VIII.); so does an entry of the
+approximate number of ridges in some selected fingers, that lie between
+the core and the upper outline of the loop.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>The plan I am now using for keeping finger prints in regular order, is
+this:&mdash;In the principal collection, the prints of each person&#8217;s ten digits
+are taken on the same large card; the four fingers of either hand being
+<i>dabbed</i> down simultaneously above, and all the ten digits <i>rolled</i>
+separately below. (<a href="#plate2">Plate 2</a>, Fig. 3.) Each card has a hole three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, punched in the middle near to the bottom edge, and
+the cards are kept in trays, which they loosely fit, like the card
+catalogues used in many libraries. Each tray holds easily 500 cards, which
+are secured by a long stout wire passing like a skewer through the ends of
+the box and the holes in the cards. The hinder end of the box is sloped,
+so the cards can be tilted back and easily examined; they can be inserted
+or removed after withdrawing the wire.</p>
+
+<p>It will be recollected that the leading and therefore the most conspicuous
+headings in the index refer to the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the
+right hand, as entered in column A of the Specimen Register (Table IX.)
+The variety of these in the &#8220;<i>i</i> and <i>o</i> fore-finger&#8221; method, of which we
+are now speaking, cannot exceed thirty-six, there being<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_146" id="Page_146">[Pg 146]</a></span> only four
+varieties (<i>a</i>, <i>i</i>, <i>o</i>, <i>w</i>) in the fore-finger, and three varieties
+(<i>a</i>, <i>l</i>, <i>w</i>) in each of the other two; so their maximum number is 4 &times; 3
+&times; 3 = 36. The actual number of such index-headings in 500 cases, and the
+number of entries that fell under each, was found to be as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XV.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>No. of entries in 500 cases, under each of the thirty-six possible index-letters<br />
+for the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand by<br />the &#8220;i-o fore-finger&#8221; method.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>i</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>o</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">17</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl"><i>a</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>i</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>l</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">45</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">54</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">88</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">11</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">33</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">59</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">52</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="3" class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl"><i>a</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>i</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>o</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td class="dent2"><i>w</i></td><td align="center" class="br"><i>a</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&mdash;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="br"><i>l</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl">&nbsp;</td><td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">11</td>
+    <td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td class="bb">&nbsp;</td><td align="center" class="bbr"><i>w</i></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">47</td></tr></table>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><i>a</i> = Arch.<br />
+<i>i</i> = Inward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.<br />
+<i>o</i> = Outward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.<br />
+<i>l</i> = Loop of either kind on the middle or ring finger.<br />
+<i>w</i> = Whorl.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>These 500 cases supply no entries at all to eleven of the thirty-six
+index-headings, less than five entries (or under 1 per cent) to ten
+others, and the supply is distributed very unevenly among the remaining
+fifteen. This table makes it easy to calculate beforehand the spaces
+required for an index of any specified number of prints, whether they be
+on the pages of a Register, or in compartments, or in drawers of movable
+cards.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_147" id="Page_147">[Pg 147]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_X" id="CHAPTER_X"></a>CHAPTER X</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION</span></p>
+
+<p>We shall speak in this chapter of the aid that finger prints can give to
+personal identification, supposing throughout that facilities exist for
+taking them well and cheaply, and that more or less practice in reading
+them has been acquired by many persons. A few introductory words will show
+this supposition to be reasonable. At the present moment any printer, and
+there are many printers in every town, would, at a small charge, blacken a
+slab and take the prints effectively, after being warned to use very
+little ink, as described in <a href="#CHAPTER_III">Chapter III.</a> The occupation of finger printing
+would, however, fall more naturally into the hands of photographers, who,
+in addition to being found everywhere, are peculiarly well suited to it,
+for, taken as a class, they are naturally gifted with manual dexterity and
+mechanical ingenuity. Having secured good impressions, they could multiply
+them when necessary, and enlarge when desired, while the ticketing and
+preservation of the negatives would fall into their usual business
+routine. As they already occupy themselves with one means<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_148" id="Page_148">[Pg 148]</a></span> of
+identification, a second means of obtaining the same result is allied to
+their present work.</p>
+
+<p>Were it the custom for persons about to travel to ask for prints of their
+fingers when they were photographed, a familiarity with the peculiarities
+of finger prints, and the methods of describing and classifying them,
+would become common. Wherever finger prints may be wanted for purposes of
+attestation and the like, the fact mentioned by Sir W. Herschel (<a href="#Page_45">p. 45</a>) as
+to the readiness with which his native orderlies learnt to take them with
+the ink of his office stamp, must not be forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>The remarks about to be made refer to identification generally, and are
+not affected by the fact that the complete process may or may not include
+the preliminary search of a catalogue; the two stages of search and of
+comparison will be treated separately towards the close of the chapter.</p>
+
+<p>In civilised lands, honest citizens rarely need additional means of
+identification to their signatures, their photographs, and to personal
+introductions. The cases in which other evidence is wanted are chiefly
+connected with violent death through accident, murder, or suicide, which
+yield the constant and gruesome supply to the Morgue of Paris, and to
+corresponding institutions in other large towns, where the bodies of
+unknown persons are exposed for identification, often in vain. But when
+honest persons travel to distant countries where they have few or no
+friends, the need for a means of recognition is more frequently felt. The
+risk of death<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_149" id="Page_149">[Pg 149]</a></span> through accident or crime is increased, and the probability
+of subsequent identification diminished. There is a possibility not too
+remote to be disregarded, especially in times of war, of a harmless person
+being arrested by mistake for another man, and being in sore straits to
+give satisfactory proof of the error. A signature may be distrusted as a
+forgery. There is also some small chance, when he returns to his own
+country after a long absence, of finding difficulty in proving who he is.
+But in civilised lands and in peaceable times, the chief use of a sure
+means of identification is to benefit society by detecting rogues, rather
+than to establish the identity of men who are honest. Is this criminal an
+old offender? Is this new recruit a deserter? Is this professed pensioner
+personating a man who is dead? Is this upstart claimant to property the
+true heir, who was believed to have died in foreign lands?</p>
+
+<p>In India and in many of our Colonies the absence of satisfactory means for
+identifying persons of other races is seriously felt. The natives are
+mostly unable to sign; their features are not readily distinguished by
+Europeans; and in too many cases they are characterised by a strange
+amount of litigiousness, wiliness, and unveracity. The experience of Sir
+W. Herschel, and the way in which he met these unfavourable conditions by
+the method of finger prints, has been briefly described in <a href="#Page_27">p. 27</a>. Lately
+Major Ferris, of the Indian Staff Corps, happening to visit my laboratory
+during my absence, and knowing but little of what Sir W. Herschel had
+done, was greatly impressed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_150" id="Page_150">[Pg 150]</a></span> by the possibilities of finger prints. After
+acquainting himself with the process, we discussed the subject together,
+and he very kindly gave me his views for insertion here. They are as
+follow, with a few trifling changes of words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;During a period of twenty-three years, eighteen of which have been
+passed in the Political Department of the Bombay Government, the great
+need of an official system of identification has been constantly
+forced on my mind.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The uniformity in the colour of hair, eyes, and complexion of the
+Indian races renders identification far from easy, and the difficulty
+of recording the description of an individual, so that he may be
+afterwards recognised, is very great. Again, their hand-writing,
+whether it be in Persian or Devanagri letters, is devoid of character
+and gives but little help towards identification.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The tenacity with which a native of India cleaves to his ancestral
+land, his innate desire to acquire more and more, and the obligation
+that accrues to him at birth of safeguarding that which has already
+been acquired, amounts to a religion, and passes the comprehension of
+the ordinary Western mind. This passion, or religion, coupled with a
+natural taste for litigation, brings annually into the Civil Courts an
+enormous number of suits affecting land. In a native State at one time
+under my political charge, the percentage of suits for the possession
+of land in which the title was disputed amounted to no less than 92,
+while in 83 per cent of these the writing by which the transfer of
+title purported to have been made, was repudiated by the former
+title-holder as fraudulent and not executed by him. When it is
+remembered that an enormous majority of the landholders whose titles
+come into court are absolutely illiterate, and that their execution of
+the documents is attested by a mark made by a third party, frequently,
+though not always apparently, interested in the transfer, it will be
+seen that there is a wide door open to fraud, whether by false
+repudiation or by criminal attempt at dispossession.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;It has frequently happened in my experience that a transfer <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_151" id="Page_151">[Pg 151]</a></span>of title
+or possession was repudiated; the person purporting to have executed
+the transfer asserting that he had no knowledge of it, and never
+authorised any one to write, sign, or present it for registration.
+This was met by a categorical statement on the part of the beneficiary
+and of the attesting witnesses, concerning the time, date, and
+circumstances of the execution and registration, that demolished the
+simple denial of the man whom it was sought to dispossess. Without
+going into the ethics of falsehood among Western and Eastern peoples,
+it would be impossible to explain how what is repugnant to the one as
+downright lying, is very frequently considered as no more than venial
+prevarication by the other. This, however, is too large a subject for
+present purposes, but the fact remains that perjury is perpetrated in
+Indian Courts to an extent unknown in the United Kingdom.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;The interests of landholders are partially safeguarded by the Act
+that requires all documents effecting the transfer of immovable
+property to be registered, but it could be explained, though not in
+the short space of this letter, how the provisions of the Act can be,
+and frequently are, fulfilled in the absence of the principal person,
+the executor.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Enough has been said to show that if some simple but efficient means
+could be contrived to identify the person who has executed a bond,
+cases of fraud such as these would practically disappear from the
+judicial registers. Were the legislature to amend the Registration Act
+and require that the original document as well as the copy in the
+Registration Book should bear the imprint of one or more fingers of
+the parties to the deed, I have little hesitation in saying that not
+only would fraud be detected, but that in a short time the facility of
+that detection would act as a deterrent for the future. [This was
+precisely the experience of Sir W. Herschel.&mdash;F.G.] In the majority of
+cases, the mere question would be, Is the man A the same person as B,
+or is he not? and of that question the finger marks would give
+unerring proof. For example, to take the simplest case, A is sued for
+possession of some land, the title of which he is stated to have
+parted with to another for a consideration. The document and the
+Registration Book both bear the imprint of the index finger of the
+right hand of A. A <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_152" id="Page_152">[Pg 152]</a></span>repudiates, and a comparison shows that whereas
+the finger pattern of A is a whorl, the imprint on the document is a
+loop; consequently A did not execute it.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In the identification of Government pensioners the finger print
+method would be very valuable. At one period, I had the payment of
+many hundreds of military pensioners. Personation was most difficult
+to detect in persons coming from a distance, who had no local
+acquaintances, and more especially where the claimants were women. The
+marks of identification noted in the pension roll were usually
+variations of:&mdash;&#8220;Hair black&mdash;Eyes brown&mdash;Complexion wheat
+colour&mdash;Marks of tattooing on fore-arm&#8221;&mdash;terms which are equally
+appropriate to a large number of the pensioners. The description was
+supplemented in some instances, where the pensioner had some
+distinguishing mark or scar, but such cases are considerably rarer
+than might be supposed, and in women the marks are not infrequently in
+such a position as to practically preclude comparison. Here also the
+imprint of one or more finger prints on the pension certificate, would
+be sufficient to settle any doubt as to identity.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;As a large number of persons pass through the Indian gaols not only
+while undergoing terms of imprisonment, but in default of payment of a
+fine, it could not but prove of value were the finger prints of one
+and all secured. They might assist in identifying persons who have
+formerly been convicted, of whom the local police have no knowledge,
+and who bear a name that may be the common property of half a hundred
+in any small town.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>Whatever difficulty may be felt in the identification of Hindoos, is
+experienced in at least an equal degree in that of the Chinese residents
+in our Colonies and Settlements, who to European eyes are still more alike
+than the Hindoos, and in whose names there is still less variety. I have
+already referred (<a href="#Page_26">p. 26</a>) to Mr. Tabor, of San Francisco, and his proposal
+in respect to the registration of the Chinese. Remarks<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_153" id="Page_153">[Pg 153]</a></span> showing the need
+of some satisfactory method of identifying them, have reached me from
+various sources. The <i>British North Borneo Herald</i>, August 1, 1888, that
+lies before me as I write, alludes to the difficulty of identifying
+coolies, either by photographs or measurements, as likely to become
+important in the early future of that country.</p>
+
+<p>For purposes of registration, the method of printing to be employed, must
+be one that gives little trouble on the one hand, and yields the maximum
+of efficiency for that amount of trouble on the other. Sir W. Herschel
+impressed simultaneously the fore and middle fingers of the right hand. To
+impress simultaneously the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right
+hand ought, however, to be better, the trouble being no greater, while
+three prints are obviously more effective than two, especially for an
+off-hand comparison. Moreover, the patterns on the ring-finger are much
+more variable than those on the middle finger. Much as rolled impressions
+are to be preferred for minute and exhaustive comparisons, they would
+probably be inconvenient for purposes of registration or attestation. Each
+finger has to be rolled separately, and each separate rolling takes more
+time than a dab of all the fingers of one hand simultaneously. Now a
+dabbed impression of even two fingers is more useful for registration
+purposes than the rolled impression of one; much more is a dabbed
+impression of three, especially when the third is the variable
+ring-finger. Again, in a simultaneous impression, there is no doubt as to
+the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_154" id="Page_154">[Pg 154]</a></span> sequence of the finger prints being correct, but there may be some
+occasional bungling when the fingers are printed separately.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>For most criminal investigations, and for some other purposes also, the
+question is not the simple one just considered, namely, &#8220;Is A the same
+person, or a different person from B?&#8221; but the much more difficult problem
+of &#8220;Who is this unknown person X? Is his name contained in such and such a
+register?&#8221; We will now consider how this question may be answered.</p>
+
+<p>Registers of criminals are kept in all civilised countries, but in France
+they are indexed according to the method of M. Alphonse Bertillon, which
+admits of an effective search being made through a large collection. We
+shall see how much the differentiating power of the French or of any other
+system of indexing might be increased by including finger prints in the
+register.</p>
+
+<p>M. Bertillon has described his system in three pamphlets:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>(1) <i>Une application pratique de l&#8217;anthropometrie</i>, Extrait des
+Annales de D&eacute;mographie Interne. Paris 1881. (2) <i>Les signalements
+anthropometriques</i>, Conference faite au Congr&egrave;s Penitentiare
+International de Rome, Nov. 22, 1885. (3) <i>Sur le fonctionnement du
+service des signalements</i>. All the above are published by Masson, 120
+Boulevard St. Germain, Paris. To these must be added a very
+interesting but anonymous pamphlet, based on official documents, and
+which I have reason to know is authorised by M. Bertillon, namely, (4)
+<i>L&#8217;anthropometrie Judiciare en Paris, en 1889</i>: G. Stenheil, 2 Rue
+Casimir-Delavigne, Paris.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_155" id="Page_155">[Pg 155]</a></span>Besides these a substantial volume is forthcoming, which may give a
+satisfactory solution to some present uncertainties.</p></div>
+
+<p>The scale on which the service is carried on, is very large. It was begun
+in 1883, and by the end of 1887 no less than 60,000 sets of measures were
+in hand, but thus far only about one half of the persons arrested in Paris
+were measured, owing to the insufficiency of the staff. Arrangements were
+then made for its further extension. There are from 100 to 150 prisoners
+sentenced each day by the Courts of Law in Paris to more than a few days&#8217;
+imprisonment, and every one of these is sent to the D&eacute;p&ocirc;t for twenty-four
+hours. While there, they are now submitted to <i>Bertillonage</i>, a newly
+coined word that has already come into use. This is done in the forenoon,
+by three operators and three clerks; six officials in all. About half of
+the prisoners are old offenders, of whom a considerable proportion give
+their names correctly, as is rapidly verified by an alphabetically
+arranged catalogue of cards, each of which contains front and profile
+photographs, and measurements. The remainder are examined strictly; their
+bodily marks are recorded according to a terse system of a few letters,
+and they are variously measured. Each person occupies seven or eight
+minutes. They are then photographed. From sixty to seventy-five prisoners
+go through this complete process every forenoon. In the afternoon the
+officials are engaged in making numerous copies of each set of records,
+one of which is sent to Lyon, and another to Marseille, where there are
+similar establishments. They also classify<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_156" id="Page_156">[Pg 156]</a></span> the copies of records that are
+received from those towns and elsewhere in France, of which from seventy
+to one hundred arrive daily. Lastly, they search the Registers for
+duplicate sets of measures of those, whether in Paris or in the provinces,
+who were suspected of having given false names. The entire staff consists
+of ten persons. It is difficult to rightly interpret the figures given in
+the pamphlet (4) at pp. 22-24, as they appear to disagree, but as I
+understand them, 562 prisoners who gave false names in the year 1890 were
+recognised by <i>Bertillonage</i>, and only four other persons were otherwise
+discovered to have been convicted previously, who had escaped recognition
+by its means.</p>
+
+<p>I had the pleasure of seeing the system in operation in Paris a few years
+ago, and was greatly impressed by the deftness of the measuring, and with
+the swiftness and success with which the assistants searched for the cards
+containing entries similar to the measures of the prisoner then under
+examination.</p>
+
+<p>It is stated in the <i>Signalements</i> (p. 12) that the basis of the
+classification are the four measurements (1) Head-length, (2)
+Head-breadth, (3) Middle-finger-length, (4) Foot-length, their constancy
+during adult life nearly always [as stated] holding good. Each of these
+four elements severally is considered as belonging to one or other of
+three equally numerous classes&mdash;small, medium, and large; consequently
+there are 3<sup>4</sup> or 81 principal headings, under some one of which the card
+of each prisoner is in the first instance sorted. Each of these primary
+headings is successively<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_157" id="Page_157">[Pg 157]</a></span> subdivided, on the same general principle of a
+three-fold classification, according to other measures that are more or
+less subject to uncertainties, namely, the height, the span, the cubit,
+the length and breadth of the ear, and the height of the bust. The
+eye-colour alone is subjected to seven divisions. The general result is
+(pp. 19, 22) that a total of twelve measures are employed, of which eleven
+are classed on the three-fold principle, and one on the seven-fold, giving
+a final result of 3<sup>11</sup> &times; 7, or more than a million possible combinations.
+M. Bertillon considers it by no means necessary to stop here, but in his
+chapter (p. 22) on the &#8220;Infinite Extension of the Classification,&#8221; claims
+that the method may be indefinitely extended.</p>
+
+<p>The success of the system is considered by many experts to be fully
+proved, notwithstanding many apparent objections, one of which is the
+difficulty due to transitional cases: a belief in its success has
+certainly obtained a firm hold upon the popular imagination in France. Its
+general acceptance elsewhere seems to have been delayed in part by a
+theoretical error in the published calculations of its efficiency: the
+measures of the limbs which are undoubtedly correlated being treated as
+independent, and in part by the absence of a sufficiently detailed account
+of the practical difficulties experienced in its employment. Thus in the
+<i>Application pratique</i>, p. 9: &#8220;We are embarrassed what to choose, the
+number of human measures which vary independently of each other being
+considerable.&#8221; In the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_158" id="Page_158">[Pg 158]</a></span><i>Signalements</i>, p. 19: &#8220;It has been shown&#8221; (by
+assuming this independent variability) &#8220;that by seven measurements, 60,000
+photographs can be separated into batches of less than ten in each.&#8221; (By
+the way, even on that assumption, the result is somewhat exaggerated, the
+figures having been arrived at by successively taking the higher of the
+two nearest round values.) In short, the general tone of these two memoirs
+is one of enthusiastic belief in the method, based almost wholly, so far
+as is there shown, on questionable <i>theoretic</i> grounds of efficiency.</p>
+
+<p>To learn how far correlation interferes with the regularity of
+distribution, causing more entries to be made under some index-heads than
+others, as was the case with finger prints, I have classified on the
+Bertillon system, 500 sets of measures taken at my laboratory. It was not
+practicable to take more than three of the four primary measures, namely,
+the head-length, its breadth, and the middle-finger-length. The other
+measure, that of foot-length, is not made at my laboratory, as it would
+require the shoes to be taken off, which is inconvenient since persons of
+all ranks and both sexes are measured there; but this matters little for
+the purpose immediately in view. It should, however, be noted that the
+head-length and head-breadth have especial importance, being only slightly
+correlated, either together or with any other dimension of the body. Many
+a small man has a head that is large in one or both directions, while a
+small man rarely has a large foot, finger, or cubit, and conversely with
+respect to large men.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_159" id="Page_159">[Pg 159]</a></span>The following set of five measures of each of the 500 persons were then
+tabulated: (1) head-length; (2) head-breadth; (3) span; (4) body-height,
+that is the height of the top of the head from the seat on which the
+person sits; (5) middle-finger-length. The measurements were to the
+nearest tenth of an inch, but in cases of doubt, half-tenths were recorded
+in (1), (2), and (5). With this moderate minuteness of measurement, it was
+impossible so to divide the measures as to give better results than the
+following, which show that the numbers in the three classes are not as
+equal as desirable. But they nevertheless enable us to arrive at an
+approximate idea of the irregular character of the distribution.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XVI.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td rowspan="2" class="btlr" align="center">Dimensions<br />measured.</td>
+    <td rowspan="2" colspan="3" class="btr" align="center">Medium<br />measures in<br />inches and<br />tenths.</td>
+    <td colspan="4" align="center" class="btr">Nos. in the three classes respectively.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">-<br />below.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">0<br />medium.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">+<br />above.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" valign="middle">Total.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">1. Head-length</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">to</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;7</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">101</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">191</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">208</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">2. Head-breadth</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;0</span></td>
+    <td align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">173</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">201</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">126</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">3. Span</td>
+    <td align="center">68&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">70&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">137</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">165</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">198</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">4. Body-height</td>
+    <td align="center">35&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">36&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">139</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">168</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">193</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">500</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">5. Middle-finger</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">"</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4&middot;6</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">180</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">176</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">144</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">500</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The distribution of the measures is shown in Table XVII.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_160" id="Page_160">[Pg 160]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XVII.</span></p>
+
+<p class="center"><i>Distribution of 500 sets of measures into classes. Each set consists of
+five elements;<br />each element is classed as + or above medium class; M, or
+mediocre; -, or below medium class.</i></p>
+
+<p class="center">(Total number of classes is 3<sup>5</sup> = 243.)</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center" rowspan="3">3<br />Span.</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center" rowspan="3">4<br />Body-<br />height.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">5<br />Middle-<br />finger.</td>
+
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="9">1 Head-length, 2 Head-breadth.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bt">1 2</td>
+    <td class="bt">1 2</td>
+    <td class="btr">1 2</td>
+
+    <td class="bt">1 2</td>
+    <td class="bt">1 2</td>
+    <td class="btr">1 2</td>
+
+    <td class="bt">1 2</td>
+    <td class="bt">1 2</td>
+    <td class="btr">1 2</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bt">- -</td>
+    <td class="bt">- M</td>
+    <td class="btr">- +</td>
+    <td class="bt">M -</td>
+    <td class="bt">M M</td>
+    <td class="btr">M +</td>
+    <td class="bt">+ -</td>
+    <td class="bt">+ M</td>
+    <td class="btr">+ +</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td class="bt" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">7</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">M</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td align="center">5</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">7</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">+</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">M</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td class="bt" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">M</td>
+    <td align="center">M</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">5</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">7</td>
+    <td align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">M</td>
+    <td align="center">+</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">5</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">7</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center">+</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">+</td>
+    <td align="center">M</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+</td>
+
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">4</td>
+    <td align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" align="center">+</td>
+    <td align="center">+</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">M</td>
+    <td align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-</td>
+    <td align="center">5</td>
+    <td align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">3</td>
+    <td align="center">8</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bb">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">9</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">24</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">19</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_161" id="Page_161">[Pg 161]</a></span>The frequency with which 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., sets were found to fall under
+the same index-heading, is shown in Table XVIII.</p>
+
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table XVIII.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">No. of sets<br />under same<br />index-heading.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Frequency<br />of its<br />occurrence.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">No. of<br />entries.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">83</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">47</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">47</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">47</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">94</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">25</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">75</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">16</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">64</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">35</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">18</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">20</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">14</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">28</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">19</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bblr">24</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">24</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="bbl">Total entries</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">500</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />No example was found of 83, say of one-third, of the 243 possible
+combinations. In one case no less than 24 sets fell under the same head;
+in another case 19 did so, and there were two cases in which 14, 11, and
+10 severally did the same. Thus, out of 500 sets (see the five bottom
+lines in the last column of the above table) no less than 113 sets fell
+into four classes, each of which included from 10 to 24 entries.</p>
+
+<p>The 24 sets whose Index-number is + M, + + + admit of being easily
+subdivided and rapidly sorted by an expert, into smaller groups, paying
+regard to<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_162" id="Page_162">[Pg 162]</a></span> considerable differences only, in the head-length and
+head-breadth. After doing this, two comparatively large groups remain,
+with five cases in each, which require further analysis. They are as
+follow, the height and eye-colour being added in each case, and brackets
+being so placed as to indicate measures that do not differ to a sufficient
+amount to be surely distinguished. No two sets are alike throughout, some
+difference of considerable magnitude always occurring to distinguish them.
+Nos. 2 and 3 come closest together, and are distinguished by eye-colour
+alone.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XIX.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="11" align="center">Five cases of Head-length 8&middot;0, and Head-breadth 6&middot;1.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Span.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Body.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Finger.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Height.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">Eye-colour.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">1.</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">72&middot;4</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">38&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;8</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">71&middot;2</td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td>br. grey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">2.</td>
+    <td align="center">72&middot;6</td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">37&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;7</td>
+    <td align="center">71&middot;4</td>
+    <td>br. grey</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">3.</td>
+    <td align="center">72&middot;7</td>
+    <td align="center">36&middot;7</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;7</td>
+    <td align="center">71&middot;4</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>blue</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">4.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">73&middot;9</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">36&middot;4</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">5&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">70&middot;7</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">5.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">75&middot;3</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">37&middot;9</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;8</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">73&middot;4</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>blue</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="11" align="center">Five cases of Head-length 7&middot;8, and Head-breadth 6&middot;0.</td></tr>
+<tr><td>&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">6.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">70&middot;8</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">37&middot;8</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;7</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">70&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">7.</td><td rowspan="2" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">71&middot;9</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">36&middot;2</td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;7</td>
+    <td align="center">69&middot;3</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>blue</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">8.</td>
+    <td align="center">72&middot;4</td><td rowspan="3" valign="middle"><span class="giant">{</span></td>
+    <td align="center">37&middot;2</td>
+    <td align="center">4&middot;7</td>
+    <td align="center">68&middot;4</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>brown</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">9.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">74&middot;8</td>
+    <td align="center">37&middot;8</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">5&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">73&middot;1</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>blue</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="right">10.</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">79&middot;9</td>
+    <td align="center">37&middot;3</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">5&middot;3</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">75&middot;6</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>blue grey</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>This is satisfactory. It shows that each one of the 500 sets may be
+distinguished from all the others by means of only seven elements; for if
+it is possible so to subdivide twenty-four entries that come under one
+index-heading, we may assume that we could do so in the other cases where
+the entries were fewer. The other measures that I possess&mdash;strength of
+grasp<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_163" id="Page_163">[Pg 163]</a></span> and breathing capacity&mdash;are closely correlated with stature and
+bulk, while eyesight and reaction-time are uncorrelated, but the latter
+are hardly suited to test the further application of the Bertillon method.</p>
+
+<p>It would appear, from these and other data, that a purely anthropometric
+classification, irrespective of bodily marks and photographs, would enable
+an expert to deal with registers of considerable size.</p>
+
+<p>Bearing in mind that mediocrities differ less from one another than
+members of either of the extreme classes, and would therefore be more
+difficult to distinguish, it seems probable that with comparatively few
+exceptions, <i>at least</i> two thousand adults of the same sex might be
+individualised, merely by means of twelve careful measures, on the
+Bertillon system, making reasonable allowances for that small change of
+proportions that occurs after the lapse of a few years, and for
+inaccuracies of measurement. This estimate may be far below the truth, but
+more cannot, I think, be safely inferred from the above very limited
+experiment.</p>
+
+<p>The system of registration adopted in the American army for tracing
+suspected deserters, was described in a memoir contributed to the
+&#8220;International Congress of Demography,&#8221; held in London in 1891. The memoir
+has so far been only published in the <i>Abstracts of Papers</i>, p. 233 (Eyre
+and Spottiswoode). Its phraseology is unfortunately so curt as sometimes
+to be difficult to understand; it runs as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_164" id="Page_164">[Pg 164]</a></span>Personal identity as determined by scars and other body marks by
+Colonel Charles R. Greenleaf and Major Charles Smart, Medical
+Department, U.S. Army.</p>
+
+<p><br />Desertions from United States army believed to greatly exceed
+deserters, owing to repeaters.</p>
+
+<p>Detection of repeaters possible if all body marks of all recruits
+recorded, all deserters noted, and all recruits compared with previous
+deserters.</p>
+
+<p>In like manner men discharged for cause excluded from re-entry.</p>
+
+<p>Bertillon&#8217;s anthropometric method insufficient before courts-martial,
+because possible inaccuracies in measurement, and because of allowable
+errors.</p>
+
+<p>But identity acknowledged following coincident indelible marks, when
+height, age, and hair fairly correspond.</p>
+
+<p>That is, Bertillon&#8217;s collateral evidence is practically primary
+evidence for such purposes.</p>
+
+<p>There is used for each man an outline figure card giving anterior and
+posterior surfaces, divided by dotted lines into regions.</p>
+
+<p>These, showing each permanent mark, are filed alphabetically at the
+Surgeon-General&#8217;s office, War Department.</p>
+
+<p>As a man goes out for cause, or deserts, his card is placed in a
+separate file.</p>
+
+<p>The cards of recruits are compared with the last-mentioned file.</p>
+
+<p>To make this comparison, a register in two volumes is opened, one for
+light-eyed and one for dark-eyed men. Each is subdivided into a fair
+number of pages, according to height of entrants, and each page is
+ruled in columns for body regions. Tattooed and non-tattooed men of
+similar height and eyes are entered on opposite pages. Recruits
+without tattoos are not compared with deserters with tattoos; but
+recruits with tattoos are compared with both classes.</p>
+
+<p>On the register S T B M, etc., are used as abbreviations for scar,
+tattoo, birth-mark, mole, etc.</p>
+
+<p>One inch each side of recorded height allowed for variation or
+defective measurement.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_165" id="Page_165">[Pg 165]</a></span>When probability of identity appears, the original card is used for
+comparison.</p>
+
+<p>Owing to obstacles in inaugurating new system, its practical working
+began with 1891, and, to include May 1891 [= 5 months, F.G.], out of
+sixty-two cases of suspected fraud sixty-one proved real.</p></div>
+
+<p>There was some interesting discussion, both upon this memoir and on a
+verbal communication concerning the French method, that had been made by
+M. Jacques Bertillon the statistician, who is a brother of its originator.
+It appeared that there was room for doubt whether the anthropometric
+method had received a fair trial in America, the measurements being made
+by persons not specially trained, whereas in France the establishments,
+though small, are thoroughly efficient.</p>
+
+<p>There are almost always moles or birth-marks, serving for identification,
+on the body of every one, and a record of these is, as already noted, an
+important though subsidiary part of the Bertillon system. Body-marks are
+noted in the English registers of criminals, and it is curious how large a
+proportion of these men are tattooed and scarred. How far the body-marks
+admit of being usefully charted on the American plan, it is difficult to
+say, the success of the method being largely dependent on the care with
+which they are recorded. The number of persons hitherto dealt with on the
+American plan appears not to be very large. As observations of this class
+require the person to be undressed, they are unsuitable for popular
+purposes of identification, but<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_166" id="Page_166">[Pg 166]</a></span> the marks have the merit of serving to
+identify at all ages, which the measurements of the limbs have not.</p>
+
+<p>It seems strange that no register of this kind, so far as I know, takes
+account of the teeth. If a man, on being first registered, is deficient in
+certain teeth, they are sure to be absent when he is examined on a future
+occasion. He may, and probably will in the meantime, have lost others, but
+the fact of his being without specified teeth on the first occasion,
+excludes the possibility of his being afterwards mistaken for a man who
+still possesses them.</p>
+
+<p>We will now separately summarise the results arrived at, in respect to the
+two processes that may both be needed in order to effect an
+identification.</p>
+
+<p>First, as regards <i>search in an Index</i>.&mdash;Some sets of measures will give
+trouble, but the greater proportion can apparently be catalogued with so
+much certainty, that if a second set of measures of any individual be
+afterwards taken, no tedious search will be needed to hunt out the former
+set. Including the bodily marks and photographs, let us rate the Bertillon
+method as able to cope with a register of 20,000 adults of the same sex,
+with a small and definable, but as yet unknown, average dose of
+difficulty, which we will call <i>x</i>.</p>
+
+<p>A catalogue of 500 sets of finger prints easily fulfils the same
+conditions. I could lay a fair claim to much more, but am content with
+this. Now the finger patterns have been shown to be so independent of
+other conditions that they cannot be notably, if at all, correlated with
+the bodily measurements or with<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_167" id="Page_167">[Pg 167]</a></span> any other feature, not the slightest
+trace of any relation between them having yet been found, as will be shown
+at <a href="#Page_186">p. 186</a>, and more fully in <a href="#CHAPTER_XII">Chapter XII.</a> For instance, it would be
+totally impossible to fail to distinguish between the finger prints of
+twins, who in other respects appeared exactly alike. Finger prints may
+therefore be treated without the fear of any sensible error, as varying
+quite independently of the measures and records in the Bertillon system.
+Their inclusion would consequently increase its power fully five-hundred
+fold. Suppose one moderate dose of difficulty, <i>x</i>, is enough for dealing
+with the measurements, etc., of 20,000 adult persons of the same sex by
+the Bertillon method, and a similar dose of difficulty with the finger
+prints of 500 persons, then two such doses could deal with a register of
+20,000 &times; 500, or 10,000,000.</p>
+
+<p>We now proceed to consider the second and final process, namely, that of
+identification by <i>Comparison</i>. When the data concerning a suspected
+person are discovered to bear a general likeness to one of those already
+on the register, and a minute comparison shows their finger prints to
+agree in all or nearly all particulars, the evidence thereby afforded that
+they were made by the same person, far transcends in trustworthiness any
+other evidence that can ordinarily be obtained, and vastly exceeds all
+that can be derived from any number of ordinary anthropometric data. <i>By
+itself it is amply sufficient to convict.</i> <i>Bertillonage</i> can rarely
+supply more than grounds for very strong suspicion: the method of finger
+prints affords<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_168" id="Page_168">[Pg 168]</a></span> certainty. It is easy, however, to understand that so long
+as the peculiarities of finger prints are not generally understood, a
+juryman would be cautious in accepting their evidence, but it is to be
+hoped that attention will now gradually become drawn to their marvellous
+virtues, and that after their value shall have been established in a few
+conspicuous cases, it will come to be popularly recognised.</p>
+
+<p>Let us not forget two great and peculiar merits of finger prints; they are
+self-signatures, free from all possibility of faults in observation or of
+clerical error; and they apply throughout life.</p>
+
+<p>An abstract of the remarks made by M. Herbette, Director of the
+Penitentiary Department of the Minist&egrave;re de l&#8217;Int&eacute;rieur, France, at the
+International Penitentiary Congress at Rome, after the communication by M.
+Alphonse Bertillon had been read, may fitly follow.</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>&#8220;Proceeding to a more extended view of the subject and praising the
+successful efforts of M. Bertillon, M. Herbette pointed out how a
+verification of the physical personality, and of the identity of
+people of adult age, would fulfil requirements of modern society in an
+indisputable manner under very varied conditions.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;If it were a question, for instance, of giving to the inhabitants of
+a country, to the soldiers of an army, or to travellers proceeding to
+distant lands, notices or personal cards as recognisable signs,
+enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were a question of
+completing the obligatory records of civil life by perfectly sure
+indications, such as would prevent all error, or substitution of
+persons; if it were a question of recording the distinctive marks of
+an individual in documents, titles or contracts, where his identity
+requires to be established for his own interest, for that of third
+parties, or for that of the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_169" id="Page_169">[Pg 169]</a></span>State,&mdash;there the anthropometric system
+of identification would find place.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Should it be a question of a life certificate, of a life assurance,
+or of a proof of death, or should it be required to certify the
+identity of a person who was insane, severely wounded, or of a dead
+body that had been partly destroyed, or so disfigured as to be hardly
+recognisable from a sudden or violent death due to crime, accident,
+shipwreck, or battle&mdash;how great would be the advantage of being able
+to trace these characters, unchangeable as they are in each
+individual, infinitely variable as between one individual and another,
+indelible, at least in part, even in death.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;There is still more cause to be interested in this subject when it is
+a question of identifying persons who are living at a great distance,
+and after the lapse of a considerable time, when the physiognomy, the
+features, and the physical habits may have changed from natural or
+artificial causes, and to be able to identify them without taking a
+journey and without cost, by the simple exchange of a few lines or
+figures that may be sent from one country or continent to another, so
+as to give information in America as to who any particular man is, who
+has just arrived from France, and to certify whether a certain
+traveller found in Rome is the same person who was measured in
+Stockholm ten years before.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;In one word, to fix the human personality, to give to each human
+being an identity, an individuality that can be depended upon with
+certainty, lasting, unchangeable, always recognisable and easily
+adduced, this appears to be in the largest sense the aim of the new
+method.</p>
+
+<p>&#8220;Consequently, it may be said that the extent of the problem, as well
+as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of
+penitentiary work and the interest, which is however by no means
+inconsiderable, that penal action has excited amongst various nations.
+These are the motives for giving to the labours of M. Bertillon and to
+their practical utilisation the publicity they merit.&#8221;</p></div>
+
+<p>These full and clear remarks seem even more applicable to the method of
+finger prints than to that of anthropometry.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_170" id="Page_170">[Pg 170]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XI" id="CHAPTER_XI"></a>CHAPTER XI</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">HEREDITY</span></p>
+
+<p>Some of those who have written on finger marks affirm that they are
+transmissible by descent, others assert the direct contrary, but no
+inquiry hitherto appears to justify a definite conclusion.</p>
+
+<p><a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a> shows a close correlation to exist between the patterns on
+the several fingers of the same person. Hence we are justified in assuming
+that the patterns are partly dependent on constitutional causes, in which
+case it would indeed be strange if the general law of heredity failed in
+this particular case.</p>
+
+<p>After examining many prints, the frequency with which some peculiar
+pattern was found to characterise members of the same family convinced me
+of the reality of an hereditary tendency. The question was how to submit
+the belief to numerical tests; particular kinships had to be selected, and
+methods of discussion devised.</p>
+
+<p>It must here be borne in mind that &#8220;Heredity&#8221; implies more than its
+original meaning of a relationship between parent and child. It includes
+that<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_171" id="Page_171">[Pg 171]</a></span> which connects children of the same parents, and which I have shown
+(<i>Natural Inheritance</i>) to be just twice as close in the case of stature
+as that which connects a child and either of its two parents. Moreover,
+the closeness of the fraternal and the filial relations are to a great
+extent interdependent, for in any population whose faculties remain
+<i>statistically</i> the same during successive generations, it has been shown
+that a simple algebraical equation must exist, that connects together the
+three elements of Filial Relation, Fraternal Relation, and Regression, by
+which a knowledge of any two of them determines the value of the third. So
+far as Regression may be treated as being constant in value, the Filial
+and the Fraternal relations become reciprocally connected. It is not
+possible briefly to give an adequate explanation of all this now, or to
+show how strictly observations were found to confirm the theory; this has
+been fully done in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>, and the conclusions will here be
+assumed.</p>
+
+<p>The fraternal relation, besides disclosing more readily than other
+kinships the existence or non-existence of heredity, is at the same time
+more convenient, because it is easier to obtain examples of brothers and
+sisters alone, than with the addition of their father and mother. The
+resemblance between those who are twins is also an especially significant
+branch of the fraternal relationship. The word &#8220;fraternities&#8221; will be used
+to include the children of both sexes who are born of the same parents; it
+being impossible to name the familiar kinship in<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_172" id="Page_172">[Pg 172]</a></span> question either in
+English, French, Latin, or Greek, without circumlocution or using an
+incorrect word, thus affording a striking example of the way in which
+abstract thought outruns language, and its expression is hampered by the
+inadequacy of language. In this dilemma I prefer to fall upon the second
+horn, that of incorrectness of phraseology, subject to the foregoing
+explanation and definition.</p>
+
+<p>The first preliminary experiments were made with the help of the
+Arch-Loop-Whorl classification, on the same principle as that already
+described and utilised in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a>he following addition. Each
+of the two members of any couplet of fingers has a distinctive name&mdash;for
+instance, the couplet may consist of a finger and a thumb: or again, if it
+should consist of two fore-fingers, one will be a right fore-finger and
+the other a left one, but the two brothers in a couplet of brothers rank
+equally as such. The plan was therefore adopted of &#8220;ear-marking&#8221; the
+prints of the first of the two brothers that happened to come to hand,
+with an A, and that of the second brother with a B; and so reducing the
+questions to the shape:&mdash;How often does the pattern on the finger of a B
+brother agree with that on the corresponding finger of an A brother? How
+often would it occur between two persons who had no family likeness? How
+often would it correspond if the kinship between A and B were as close as
+it is possible to conceive? Or transposing the questions, and using the
+same words as in <a href="#CHAPTER_VIII">Chapter VIII.</a>, what is the relative frequency of (1)
+Random occurrences, (2) Observed<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_173" id="Page_173">[Pg 173]</a></span> occurrences, (3) Utmost possibilities?
+It was shown in that chapter how to find the value of (2) upon a
+centesimal scale in which &#8220;Randoms&#8221; ranked as 0&deg; and &#8220;Utmost
+possibilities&#8221; as 100&deg;.</p>
+
+<p>The method there used of calculating the frequency of the &#8220;Random&#8221; events
+will be accepted without hesitation by all who are acquainted with the
+theory and the practice of problems of probability. Still, it is as well
+to occasionally submit calculation to test. The following example was sent
+to me for that purpose by a friend who, not being mathematically minded,
+had demurred somewhat to the possibility of utilising the calculated
+&#8220;Randoms.&#8221;</p>
+
+<p>The prints of 101 (by mistake for 100) couplets of prints of the right
+fore-fingers of school children were taken by him from a large collection,
+the two members, A and B, being picked out at random and formed into a
+couplet. It was found that among the A children there were 22 arches, 50
+loops, and 29 whorls, and among the B children 25, 34, and 42
+respectively, as is shown by the <i>italic</i> numerals in the last column, and
+again in the bottom row of Table XX. The remainder of the table shows the
+number of times in which an arch, loop, or whorl of an A child was
+associated with an arch, loop, or whorl of a B child.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_174" id="Page_174">[Pg 174]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XX.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Observed Random Couplets.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="2">B children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="2">Totals in<br />B children.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Arches</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>25</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Loops</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>34</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Whorls</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>42</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Totals in A children</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>22</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>50</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>29</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">101</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXI.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Calculated Random Couplets.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="2">B children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="2">Totals in<br />B children.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Arches</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">5&middot;00</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">12&middot;50</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;25</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>25</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Loops</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">6&middot;80</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">17&middot;00</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;86</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>34</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Whorls</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">8&middot;40</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">21&middot;00</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">12&middot;18</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>42</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Totals in A children</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>22</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>50</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>29</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">101</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The question, then, was how far calculations from the above data would
+correspond with the contents of Table XX. The answer is that it does so
+admirably. Multiply each of the italicised A totals into each of the
+italicised B totals, and after dividing each result by 101, enter it in
+the square at which the column<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_175" id="Page_175">[Pg 175]</a></span> that has the A total at its base, is
+intersected by the row that has the B total at its side. We thus obtain
+Table XXI.</p>
+
+<p>We will now discuss in order the following relationships: the Fraternal,
+first in the ordinary sense, and then in the special case of twins of the
+same set; Filial, in the special case in which both parents have the same
+particular pattern on the same finger; lastly, the relative influence of
+the father and mother in transmitting their patterns.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fraternal relationship.</i>&mdash;In 105 fraternities the <i>observed</i> figures were
+as in Table XXII.:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><br /><span class="smcap">Table</span> XXII.</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Observed Fraternal Couplets.</i></p>
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="2">B children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="2">Totals in<br />B children.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Arches</td>
+    <td align="center" class="borbold"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>19</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Loops</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="borbold">42</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">15</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>61</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Whorls</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="borbold" align="center">10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;"><i>25</i></span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Totals in A children</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>10</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>68</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><i>27</i></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">105</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The squares that run diagonally from the top at the left, to the bottom at
+the right, contain the double<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_176" id="Page_176">[Pg 176]</a></span> events, and it is with these that we are
+now concerned. Are the entries in those squares larger or not than the
+randoms, calculated as above, viz. the values of 10 &times; 19, 68 &times; 61, 27 &times;
+25, all divided by 105? The calculated Randoms are shown in the first line
+of Table XXIII., the third line gives the greatest feasible number of
+correspondences which would occur if the kinship were as close as
+possible, subject to the reservation explained in <a href="#Page_127">p. 127</a>. As there shown,
+the <i>lower</i> of the A and B values is taken in each case, for Arches,
+Loops, and Whorls respectively.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXIII.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" rowspan="2">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">A and B both being</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Arches.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Loops.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Whorls.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="btlr">Random</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1&middot;7</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">37&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Observed</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5&middot;0</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10&middot;0</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Utmost feasible</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">10&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">61&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">25&middot;0</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />In every instance, the Observed values are seen to exceed the Random.</p>
+
+<p>Many other cases of this description were calculated, all yielding the
+same general result, but these results are not as satisfactory as can be
+wished, owing to their dilution by inappropriate cases, the A. L. W.
+system being somewhat artificial.</p>
+
+<p><a name="plate16" id="plate16"></a>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="note">PLATE 16.</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Fig. 24</span></p>
+<p class="center">The &#8220;C&#8221; set of standard patterns, for prints of the Right Hand.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.1.jpg" alt="" /><br />1</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.2.jpg" alt="" /><br />2</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.3.jpg" alt="" /><br />3</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.4.jpg" alt="" /><br />4</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.5.jpg" alt="" /><br />5</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.6.jpg" alt="" /><br />6</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.7.jpg" alt="" /><br />7</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.8.jpg" alt="" /><br />8</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.9.jpg" alt="" /><br />9</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.10.jpg" alt="" /><br />10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.11.jpg" alt="" /><br />11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.12.jpg" alt="" /><br />12</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.13.jpg" alt="" /><br />13</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.14.jpg" alt="" /><br />14</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.15.jpg" alt="" /><br />15</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.16.jpg" alt="" /><br />16</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.17.jpg" alt="" /><br />17</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.18.jpg" alt="" /><br />18</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.19.jpg" alt="" /><br />19</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.20.jpg" alt="" /><br />20</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.21.jpg" alt="" /><br />21</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.22.jpg" alt="" /><br />22</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.23.jpg" alt="" /><br />23</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.24.jpg" alt="" /><br />24</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.25.jpg" alt="" /><br />25</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.26.jpg" alt="" /><br />26</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.27.jpg" alt="" /><br />27</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.28.jpg" alt="" /><br />28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.29.jpg" alt="" /><br />29</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.30.jpg" alt="" /><br />30</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.31.jpg" alt="" /><br />31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.32.jpg" alt="" /><br />32</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.33.jpg" alt="" /><br />33</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.34.jpg" alt="" /><br />34</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.35.jpg" alt="" /><br />35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.36.jpg" alt="" /><br />36</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.37.jpg" alt="" /><br />37</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.38.jpg" alt="" /><br />38</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.39.jpg" alt="" /><br />39</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><img src="images/fig24.40.jpg" alt="" /><br />40</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.41.jpg" alt="" /><br />41</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.42.jpg" alt="" /><br />42</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.43.jpg" alt="" /><br />43</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.44.jpg" alt="" /><br />44</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.45.jpg" alt="" /><br />45</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.46.jpg" alt="" /><br />46</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.47.jpg" alt="" /><br />47</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><img src="images/fig24.48.jpg" alt="" /><br />48</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><img src="images/fig24.49.jpg" alt="" /><br />49</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btbl"><img src="images/fig24.50.jpg" alt="" /><br />50</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig24.51.jpg" alt="" /><br />51</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btb"><img src="images/fig24.52.jpg" alt="" /><br />52</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btbr"><img src="images/fig24.53.jpg" alt="" /><br />53</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btbr">&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p>With the view of obtaining a more satisfactory result the patterns were
+subdivided under fifty-three heads, and an experiment was made with the
+fore, <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_177" id="Page_177">[Pg 177]</a></span>middle, and ring-fingers of 150 fraternal couplets (300
+individuals and 900 digits) by Mr. F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook
+the considerable labour of indexing and tabulating them.</p>
+
+<p>The provisional list of standard patterns published in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i>
+was not appropriate for this purpose. It related chiefly to thumbs, and
+consequently omitted the tented arch; it also referred to the left hand,
+but in the following tabulations the right hand has been used; and its
+numbering is rather inconvenient. The present set of fifty-three patterns
+has faults, and cannot be considered in any way as final, but it was
+suitable for our purposes and may be convenient to others; as Mr. Collins
+worked wholly by it, it may be distinguished as the &#8220;C. set.&#8221; The banded
+patterns, 24-31, are very rarely found on the fingers, but being common on
+the thumb, were retained, on the chance of our requiring the introduction
+of thumb patterns into the tabulations. The numerals refer to the patterns
+as seen in impressions of the <i>right hand</i> only. [They would be equally
+true for the patterns as seen on the <i>fingers themselves</i> of the left
+hand.] For impressions of the left hand the numerals up to 7 inclusive
+would be the same, but those of all the rest would be changed. These are
+arranged in couplets, the one member of the couplet being a reversed
+picture of the other, those in each couplet being distinguished by
+severally bearing an odd and an even number. Therefore, in impressions of
+the left hand, 8 would have to be changed into 9, and 9 into 8; 10 into
+11, and 11 into 10; and<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_178" id="Page_178">[Pg 178]</a></span> so on, up to the end, viz. 52 and 53. The numeral
+54 was used to express nondescript patterns.</p>
+
+<p>The finger prints had to be gone through repeatedly, some weeks elapsing
+between the inspections, and under conditions which excluded the
+possibility of unconscious bias; a subject of frequent communication
+between Mr. Collins and myself. Living at a distance apart, it was not
+easy at the time they were made, to bring our respective interpretations
+of transitional and of some of the other patterns, especially the invaded
+loops, into strict accordance, so I prefer to keep his work, in which I
+have perfect confidence, independent from my own. Whenever a fraternity
+consisted of more than two members, they were divided, according to a
+prearranged system, into as many couplets as there were individuals. Thus,
+while a fraternity of three individuals furnished all of its three
+possible varieties of couplets, (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), one of four
+individuals was not allowed to furnish more than four of its possible
+couplets, the two italicised ones being omitted, (1, 2), (1, 3), (<i>1, 4</i>),
+(<i>2, 3</i>), (2, 4), (3, 4), and so on. Without this precaution, a single
+very large family might exercise a disproportionate and even overwhelming
+statistical influence.</p>
+
+<p>It would be essential to exact working, that the mutual relations of the
+patterns should be taken into account; for example, suppose an arch to be
+found on the fore-finger of one brother and a nascent loop on that of the
+other; then, as these patterns are evidently related, their concurrence
+ought to be<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_179" id="Page_179">[Pg 179]</a></span> interpreted as showing some degree of resemblance. However,
+it was impossible to take cognizance of partial resemblances, the mutual
+relations of the patterns not having, as yet, been determined with
+adequate accuracy.</p>
+
+<p>The completed tabulations occupied three large sheets, one for each of the
+fingers, ruled crossways into fifty-three vertical columns for the A
+brothers, and fifty-three horizontal rows for the B brothers. Thus, if the
+register number of the pattern of A was 10, and that of B was 42, then a
+mark would be put in the square limited by the ninth and tenth horizontal
+lines, and by the forty-first and forty-second vertical ones. The marks
+were scattered sparsely over the sheet. Those in each square were then
+added up, and finally the numbers in each of the rows and in each of the
+columns were severally totalled.</p>
+
+<p>If the number of couplets had been much greater than they are, a test of
+the accuracy with which their patterns had been classed under the
+appropriate heads, would be found in the frequency with which the same
+patterns were registered in the corresponding finger of the A and B
+brothers. The A and B groups are strictly homogeneous, consequently the
+frequency of their patterns in corresponding fingers ought to be alike.
+The success with which this test has been fulfilled in the present case,
+is passably good, its exact degree being shown in the following
+paragraphs, where the numbers of entries under each head are arranged in
+as orderly a manner as the case admits,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_180" id="Page_180">[Pg 180]</a></span> the smaller of the two numbers
+being the one that stands first, whether it was an A or a B. All instances
+in which there were at least five entries under either A or B, are
+included; the rest being disregarded. The result is as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="blockquot"><p>I. Thirteen cases of more or less congruity between the number of A
+and B entries under the same head:&mdash;5-7; 5-7; 5-8; 6-8; 7-10; 8-9;
+8-12; 9-12; 10-10; 11-13; 12-16; 14-18; 72-73. (This last refers to
+loops on the middle finger.)</p>
+
+<p>II. Six cases of more or less incongruity:&mdash;1-7; 6-12; 14-20; 14-22;
+22-35; 39-50.</p></div>
+
+<p>The three Tables, XXIV., XXV., XXVI., contain the results of the
+tabulations and the deductions from them.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_181" id="Page_181">[Pg 181]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXIV.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Comparison of three Fingers of the Right Hand in 150 Fraternal Couplets.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="3">Index<br />No. of<br />Pattern</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="3">Fore-fingers.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="3">Middle fingers.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="3">Ring-fingers.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Down<br />columns</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Along<br />lines</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Double<br />events</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Down<br />columns</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Along<br />lines</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Double<br />events</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Down<br />columns</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Along<br />lines</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Double<br />events</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">A<br />and<br />B</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">A<br />and<br />B</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">A<br />and<br />B</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">15</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">... </td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">... </td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">15</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">19</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">21</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">22</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">23</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">27</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">32</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">33</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">34</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">38</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">39</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">22</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">41</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">22</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">73</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">72</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">39</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">43</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">44</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">45</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">46</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">47</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">48</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">49</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">52</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center">53</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_182" id="Page_182">[Pg 182]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXV.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Comparison between Random and Observed Events.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlrdoub">Fore.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">Middle.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Ring.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">Random.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Random.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Random.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">1&middot;20</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;26</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;23</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;08</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;11</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;05</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">1&middot;28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;05</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;23</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;08</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;07</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1&middot;87</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;06</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;05</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;08</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;95</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2&middot;05</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;46</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;64</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">34&middot;08</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1&middot;68</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">5&middot;18</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;16</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;11</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;67</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;06</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;32</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;72</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">0&middot;08</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">...</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;48</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bblr">0&middot;48</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">13&middot;00</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">16</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">All others.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bblr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;29</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;28</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">0&middot;12</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bblr">11&middot;31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">20</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">37&middot;11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">45</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">19&middot;09</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">30</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXVI.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Centesimal Scale (to nearest whole numbers).</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">150 fraternal couplets.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Random.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Utmost<br />possibilities.</td>
+    <td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">Reduced<br />to lower<br />limit=0.</td>
+    <td colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">Reduced<br />to upper<br />limit=100.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td  colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td  colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">Centesimal scale.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Fore-finger</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">11&middot;31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">20</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">115</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">0</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">104</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">0&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&deg;</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">100&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">37&middot;11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">45</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">117</td>
+    <td align="center">0</td>
+    <td align="center">10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">80</span></td>
+    <td align="center">0&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center">10&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">19&middot;09</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">118</td>
+    <td align="center">0</td>
+    <td align="center">12</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">99</span></td>
+    <td align="center">0&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center">12&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" colspan="4">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" colspan="3">Mean</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">0&deg;</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">10&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">100&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">50 additional couplets,</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td  colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td  colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Middle finger only</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">11</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">22</span></td>
+    <td align="center">0</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">14</span></td>
+    <td align="center">0&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center">21&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr">Loops only, and on<br />middle finger only.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td  colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td  colspan="3" align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">150 couplets</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">34&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">72</span></td>
+    <td align="center">0</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">72</span></td>
+    <td align="center">0&deg;</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">1&#188;&deg;</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">100&deg;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">50 couplets</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">14</span></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">0</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.5em;">0&middot;6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: 1em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">0&deg;</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&deg;</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">100&deg;</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_183" id="Page_183">[Pg 183]</a></span>Table XXIV. contains all the Observed events, and is to be read thus,
+beginning at the first entry. Pattern No. 1 occurs on the right
+fore-finger fifteen times among the A brothers, and twelve times among the
+B brothers; while in four of these cases both brothers have that same
+pattern.</p>
+
+<p>Table XXV. compares the Random events with the Observed ones. Every case
+in which the calculated expectation is equal to or exceeds 0&middot;05, is
+inserted in detail; the remaining group of petty cases are summed together
+and their totals entered in the bottom line. For fear of misapprehension
+or forgetfulness, one other example of the way in which the Randoms are
+calculated will be given here, taking for the purpose the first entry in
+Table XXIV. Thus, the number of all the different combinations of the 150
+A with the 150 B individuals in the 150 couplets, is 150 &times; 150. Out of
+these, the number of double events in which pattern No. 1 would appear in
+the same combination, is 15 &times; 12 = 180. Therefore in 150 trials, the
+double event of pattern No. 1 would appear upon the average, on 180
+divided by 150, or on 1&middot;20 occasions. As a matter of fact, it appeared
+four times. These figures will be found in the first line of Table XXV.;
+the rest of its contents have been calculated in the same way.</p>
+
+<p>Leaving aside the Randoms that exceed 0 but are less than 1, there are
+nineteen cases in which the Random may be compared with the Observed
+values; in all but two of these the Observed are the highest, and in these
+two the Random exceed the Observed by<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_184" id="Page_184">[Pg 184]</a></span> only trifling amounts, namely, 5&middot;18
+Random against 5&middot;00 Observed; 1&middot;87 Random against 1&middot;00 Observed. It is
+impossible, therefore, to doubt from the steady way in which the Observed
+values overtop the Randoms, that there is a greater average likeness in
+the finger marks of two brothers, than in those of two persons taken at
+hazard.</p>
+
+<p>Table XXVI. gives the results of applying the centesimal scale to the
+measurement of the average closeness of fraternal resemblance, in respect
+to finger prints, according to the method and under the reservations
+already explained in page 125. The average value thus assigned to it is a
+little more than 10&deg;. The values obtained from the three fingers
+severally, from which that average was derived, are 9&deg;, 10&deg;, and 12&deg;; they
+agree together better than might have been expected. The value obtained
+from a set of fifty additional couplets of the middle fingers only, of
+fraternals, is wider, being 21&deg;. Its inclusion with the rest raises the
+average of all to between 10 and 11.</p>
+
+<p>In the pre-eminently frequent event of loops with an outward slope on the
+middle finger, it is remarkable that the Random cases are nearly equal to
+the Observed ones; they are 34&middot;08 to 35&middot;00. It was to obtain some
+assurance that this equality was not due to statistical accident, that the
+additional set of fifty couplets were tabulated. They tell, however, the
+same tale, viz. 6&middot;4 Randoms to 7&middot;0 Observed. The loops on the fore-fingers
+confirm this, showing 5&middot;18 Randoms to 5&middot;00 Observed; those on the
+ring-finger have the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_185" id="Page_185">[Pg 185]</a></span> same peculiarity, though in a slighter degree, 13 to
+16: the average of other patterns shows a much greater difference than
+that. I am unable to account for this curious behaviour of the loops,
+which can hardly be due to statistical accident, in the face of so much
+concurrent evidence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Twins.</i>&mdash;The signs of heredity between brothers and sisters ought to be
+especially apparent between twins of the same sex, who are physiologically
+related in a peculiar degree and are sometimes extraordinarily alike. More
+rarely, they are remarkably dissimilar. The instances of only a moderate
+family resemblance between twins of the same sex are much less frequent
+than between ordinary brothers and sisters, or between twins of opposite
+sex. All this has been discussed in my <i>Human Faculty</i>. In order to test
+the truth of the expectation, I procured prints of the fore, middle, and
+ring-fingers of seventeen sets of twins, and compared them, with the
+results shown in Table XXVII.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_186" id="Page_186">[Pg 186]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXVII.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">17 Sets of Twins</span> (A and B).</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Comparison between the patterns on the Fore, Middle, and Ring-fingers respectively of the Right hand.</i></p>
+<p class="center">Agreement (=), 19 cases; partial (&middot;&middot;), 13 cases; disagreement (&times;), 19 cases.</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">A</td>
+    <td class="bt">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">B</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">42</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">42</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">21</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">21</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">40</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">40</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="bt">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle<span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center">32</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">15</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">32</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">33</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">33</td>
+    <td align="center">40</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">19</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">43</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">15</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center">15</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">34</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">40</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">40</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">46</td>
+    <td align="center">35</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">35</td>
+    <td align="center">40</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">14</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">32</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center">49</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">14</td>
+    <td align="center">15</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">49</td>
+    <td align="center">15</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">16</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">=</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">23</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">14</td>
+    <td align="center">19</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">42</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">48</td>
+    <td align="center">32</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">22</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">32</td>
+    <td align="center">14</td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">16</td>
+    <td align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">18</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td align="center">18</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">23</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Fore</td>
+    <td align="center">48</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">33</td>
+    <td align="center">(loop)</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">22</td>
+    <td align="center">48</td>
+    <td align="center">&times;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">22</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">Ring</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="bb" align="center">&middot;&middot;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">35</td>
+    <td class="bbr" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" colspan="3">&nbsp;</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The result is that out of the seventeen sets (=51 couplets), two sets
+agree in all their three couplets of fingers; four sets agree in two; five
+sets agree in one of the couplets. There are instances of partial
+agreement in five others, and a disagreement throughout in only one of the
+seventeen sets. In another collection of seventeen sets, made to compare
+with this, six agreed in two of their three couplets, and five agreed in
+one of them. There cannot then be the slightest doubt as to the strong
+tendency to resemblance in the finger patterns in twins.</p>
+
+<p>This remark must by no means be forced into the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_187" id="Page_187">[Pg 187]</a></span> sense of meaning that the
+similarity is so great, that the finger print of one twin might
+occasionally be mistaken for that of the other. When patterns fall into
+the same class, their general forms may be conspicuously different (see <a href="#Page_74">p.
+74</a>), while their smaller details, namely, the number of ridges and the
+minuti&aelig;, are practically independent of the pattern.</p>
+
+<p>It may be mentioned that I have an inquiry in view, which has not yet been
+fairly begun, owing to the want of sufficient data, namely to determine
+the minutest biological unit that may be hereditarily transmissible. The
+minuti&aelig; in the finger prints of twins seem suitable objects for this
+purpose.</p>
+
+<p><i>Children of like-patterned Parents.</i>&mdash;When two parents are alike, the
+average resemblance, in stature at all events, which their children bear
+to them, is as close as the fraternal resemblance between the children,
+and twice as close as that which the children bear to either parent
+separately, when the parents are unlike.</p>
+
+<p>The fifty-eight parentages affording fifty couplets of the fore, middle,
+and ring-fingers respectively give 58 &times; 3 = 174 parental couplets in all;
+of these, 27 or 14 per cent are alike in their pattern, as shown by Table
+XXVIII. The total number of children to these twenty-seven pairs is 109,
+of which 59 (or 54 per cent) have the same pattern as their parents. This
+fact requires analysis, as on account of the great frequency of loops, and
+especially of the pattern No. 42 on the middle finger, a large number of
+the cases of similarity of pattern between child and parents would be mere
+random coincidences.</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_188" id="Page_188">[Pg 188]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXVIII.</span>&mdash;<i>Children of like-patterned Parents.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">The 27<br />cases.</td>
+    <td class="bt">Patterns of&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center">F.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">M.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&mdash;of Sons.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Alike.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Total<br />sons.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">&mdash;of Daughters.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Alike.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Total<br />daughters.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Total<br />children.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Alike</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btlr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bt">Fore</td>
+    <td class="bt" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span>, <span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">34</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">34</td>
+    <td class="br">34</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 48</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br">41</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span>, 40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">48</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="dent2">Middle</td>
+    <td align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 38, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br">40, <span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">40, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">10</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">48, 48, 14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42, 48, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">9</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">11</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span>, 40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">12</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">13</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">14</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">15</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 46, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">16</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">34, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br">33, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">17</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">40, 42, <span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">18</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42 (twins)</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="brdoub">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">19</td>
+    <td class="dent2">Ring</td>
+    <td align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br">33, 42, 14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br">32, 40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">20</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 16</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br">16, 14, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">21</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span>, 35, 48, 32, 14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">22</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">23</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br">40, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">24</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br">40, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">25</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 40, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">26</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">42</td>
+    <td class="br">49, 14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="br">42, 42, 42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">3</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">5</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="blr">27</td>
+    <td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center">46</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">46</td>
+    <td class="br">48, 40, 16</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">4</td>
+    <td class="br">16, 38</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">2</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">6</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">22</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">41</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Daughters</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">37</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">65</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Sons</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">22</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">44</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td colspan="3" class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr"><span style="margin-left: 4em;">Total Children</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">59</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">109</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: -.5em;">109</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">59</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_189" id="Page_189">[Pg 189]</a></span>There are nineteen cases of both parents having the commonest of the loop
+patterns, No. 42, on a corresponding finger. They have between them
+seventy-five children, of whom forty-eight have the pattern No. 42, on the
+same finger as their parents, and eighteen others have loops of other
+kinds on that same finger, making a total of sixty-six coincidences out of
+the possible 75, or 88 per cent, which is a great increase upon the normal
+proportion of loops of the No. 42 pattern in the fore, middle, and
+ring-fingers collectively. Again, there are three cases of both parents
+having a tendrilled-loop No. 15, which ranks as a whorl. Out of their
+total number of seventeen children, eleven have whorls and only six have
+loops.</p>
+
+<p>Lastly, there is a single case of both parents having an arch, and all
+their three children have arches; whereas in the total of 109 children in
+the table, there are only four other cases of an arch.</p>
+
+<p>This partial analysis accounts for the whole of the like-patterned
+parents, except four couples, which are one of No. 34, two of No. 40, and
+one of No. 46. These concur in telling the same general tale, recollecting
+that No. 46 might almost be reckoned as a transitional case between a loop
+and a whorl.</p>
+
+<p>The decided tendency to hereditary transmission cannot be gainsaid in the
+face of these results, but the number of cases is too few to justify
+quantitative conclusions. It is not for the present worth while to extend
+them, for the reason already mentioned, namely, an ignorance of the
+allowance that ought to be made for related patterns. On this account it
+does<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_190" id="Page_190">[Pg 190]</a></span> not seem useful to print the results of a large amount of tabulation
+bearing on the simple filial relationship between the child and either
+parent separately, except so far as appears in the following paragraph.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relative Influence of the Father and the Mother.</i>&mdash;Through one of those
+statistical accidents which are equivalent to long runs of luck at a
+gaming table, a concurrence in the figures brought out by Mr. Collins
+suggested to him the existence of a decided preponderance of maternal
+influence in the hereditary transmission of finger patterns. His further
+inquiries have, however, cast some doubt on earlier and provisional
+conclusions, and the following epitomises all of value that can as yet be
+said in favour of the superiority of the maternal influence.</p>
+
+<p>The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hands of the father,
+mother, and all their accessible children, in many families, were
+severally tabulated under the fifty-three heads already specified. The
+total number of children was 389, namely 136 sons and 219 daughters. The
+same pattern was found on the same finger, both of a child and of one or
+other of his parents, in the following number of cases:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXIX.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Relative Influence of Father and Mother.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Fore.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Middle.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Ring.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Totals.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Corrected<br />Totals.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr">Father and son</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">17</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">28</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">80</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">80</td>
+    <td class="bt" rowspan="2"><span class="giant">}</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" rowspan="2" align="center">149</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr"><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span>"<span class="spacer3"> &nbsp;</span>"<span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span>daughter</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">29</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">52</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">30</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">(111)</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">69</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">Mother and son</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">50</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">26</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">94</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">94</td>
+    <td class="bb" rowspan="2"><span class="giant">}</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" rowspan="2" align="center">186</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr"><span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span>"<span class="spacer3"> &nbsp; </span>"<span class="spacer3">&nbsp;</span>daughter</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">38</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">75</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">35</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">(148)</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">92</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_191" id="Page_191">[Pg 191]</a></span>The entries in the first three columns are not comparable on equal terms,
+on account of the large difference between the numbers of the sons and
+daughters. This difference is easily remedied by multiplying the number of
+daughters by <span style="font-size: 0.8em;"><sup>136</sup></span>&frasl;<span style="font-size: 0.6em;">219</span>,
+that is by 0&middot;621, as has been done in the fifth
+column headed Corrected Totals. It would appear from these figures, that
+the maternal influence is more powerful than the paternal in the
+proportion of 186 to 149, or as 5 to 4; but, as some of the details from
+which the totals are built up, vary rather widely, it is better for the
+present to reserve an opinion as to their trustworthiness.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_192" id="Page_192">[Pg 192]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XII" id="CHAPTER_XII"></a>CHAPTER XII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">RACES AND CLASSES</span></p>
+
+<p>The races whose finger prints I have studied in considerable numbers are
+English, pure Welsh, Hebrew, and Negro; also some Basques from Cambo in
+the French Pyrenees, twenty miles south-east of Bayonne. For the Welsh
+prints I am primarily indebted to the very obliging help of Mr. R. W.
+Atkinson, of Cardiff, who interested the masters of schools in purely
+Welsh-speaking mountainous districts on my behalf; for the Hebrew prints
+to Mr. Isidore Spielman, who introduced me to the great Hebrew schools in
+London, whose head-masters gave cordial assistance; and for the Negro
+prints to Sir George Taubman Goldie, Dep. Governor of the Royal Niger Co.,
+who interested Dr Crosse on my behalf, from whom valuable sets of prints
+were received, together with particulars of the races of the men from whom
+they were made. As to the Basques, they were printed by myself.</p>
+
+<p>It requires considerable patience and caution to arrive at trustworthy
+conclusions, but it may emphatically be said that there is no <i>peculiar</i>
+pattern which<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_193" id="Page_193">[Pg 193]</a></span> characterises persons of any of the above races. There is
+no particular pattern that is special to any one of them, which when met
+with enables us to assert, or even to suspect, the nationality of the
+person on whom it appeared. The only differences so far observed, are
+statistical, and cannot be determined except through patience and caution,
+and by discussing large groups.</p>
+
+<p>I was misled at first by some accidental observations, and as it seemed
+reasonable to expect to find racial differences in finger marks, the
+inquiries were continued in varied ways until hard fact had made hope no
+longer justifiable.</p>
+
+<p>After preliminary study, I handed over the collection of racial finger
+prints to Mr F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook the labour of
+tabulating them in many ways, of which it will be only necessary to give
+an example. Thus, at one time attention was concentrated on a single
+finger and a single pattern, the most instructive instance being that of
+arches on the right fore-finger. They admit of being defined with
+sufficient clearness, having only one doubtful frontier of much
+importance, namely that at which they begin to break away into
+nascent-loops, etc. They also occur with considerable frequency on the
+fore-finger, so the results from a few hundred specimens ought to be
+fairly trustworthy. It mattered little in the inquiry, at what level the
+limit was drawn to separate arches from nascent-loops, so long as the same
+limit was observed in all races alike. Much pains were taken to secure
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_194" id="Page_194">[Pg 194]</a></span>uniformity of treatment, and Mr. Collins selected two limits, the one
+based on a strict and the other on a somewhat less strict interpretation
+of the term &#8220;arches,&#8221; but the latter was not so liberal as that which I
+had used myself in the earlier inquiries (see p. 114). His results showed
+no great difference in the proportionate frequency of arches in the
+different races, whichever limit was observed; the following table refers
+to the more liberal limit:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXX.</span></p>
+<p class="center"><i>Frequency of Arches in the Right Fore-Finger.</i></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center">No. of<br />Persons.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Race.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">No. of<br />Arches.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Per Cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">250</span></td>
+    <td class="btr">English</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">34</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">13&middot;6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">250</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Welsh</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">26</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10&middot;8</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">1332</td>
+    <td class="br">Hebrew</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">105</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;9</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">250</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Negro</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">27</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11&middot;3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><i>Hebrews in detail</i>&mdash;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">500</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Boys, Bell Lane School</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">35</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;0</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">400</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Girls, Bell Lane School</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">34</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">220</span></td>
+    <td class="br">Boys, Tavistock St. &amp; Hanway St.</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">18</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;2</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">212</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr">Girls, Hanway Street School</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">18</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;5</span></td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />The two contrasted values here are the English and the Hebrew. The 1332
+cases of the latter give a percentage result of 7&middot;9, which differs as may
+be seen less than 1 per cent from that of any one of the four large groups
+upon which the average is based. The 250 cases of English are
+comparatively few, but the experience I have had of other English prints
+is so large as to enable me to say confidently that the <span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_195" id="Page_195">[Pg 195]</a></span>percentage result
+of 13&middot;6 is not too great. It follows, that the percentage of arches in the
+English and in the Hebrew differs in the ratio of 13&middot;6 to 7&middot;9, or nearly
+as 5 to 3. This is the largest statistical difference yet met with. The
+deficiency in arches among the Hebrews, and to some extent in loops also,
+is made up by a superiority in whorls, chiefly of the tendril or
+circlet-in-loop patterns.</p>
+
+<p>It would be very rash to suppose that this relative infrequency of arches
+among the Hebrews was of fundamental importance, considering that such
+totally distinct races as the Welsh and the Negro have them in an
+intermediate proportion. Still, why does it occur? The only answer I can
+suggest is that the patterns being in some degree hereditary, such
+accidental preponderances as may have existed among a not very numerous
+ancestry might be perpetuated. I have some reason to believe that local
+peculiarities of this sort exist in England, the children in schools of
+some localities seeming to be statistically more alike in their patterns
+than English children generally.</p>
+
+<p>Another of the many experiments was the tabulation separately by Mr.
+Collins of the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand of fifty
+persons of each of the five races above-mentioned: English, Welsh, Basque,
+Hebrew, and different groups of Negroes. The number of instances is of
+course too small for statistical deductions, but they served to make it
+clear that no very marked characteristic distinguished the races. The
+impressions from Negroes betray the general clumsiness of their fingers,
+but their patterns<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_196" id="Page_196">[Pg 196]</a></span> are not, so far as I can find, different from those of
+others, they are not simpler as judged either by their contours or by the
+number of origins, embranchments, islands, and enclosures contained in
+them. Still, whether it be from pure fancy on my part, or from the way in
+which they were printed, or from some real peculiarity, the general aspect
+of the Negro print strikes me as characteristic. The width of the ridges
+seems more uniform, their intervals more regular, and their courses more
+parallel than with us. In short, they give an idea of greater simplicity,
+due to causes that I have not yet succeeded in submitting to the test of
+measurement.</p>
+
+<p>The above are only a few examples of the laborious work so kindly
+undertaken for me by Mr. F. H. Collins, but it would serve no useful
+purpose to give more in this book, as no positive results have as yet been
+derived from it other than the little already mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The most hopeful direction in which this inquiry admits of being pursued
+is among the Hill tribes of India, Australian blacks, and other diverse
+and so-called aboriginal races. The field of ethnology is large, and it
+would be unwise as yet to neglect the chance of somewhere finding
+characteristic patterns.</p>
+
+<hr style="width: 25%;" />
+
+<p>Differences between finger prints of different classes might continue to
+exist although those of different races are inconspicuous, because every
+race contains men of various temperaments and faculties, and we cannot
+tell, except by observation, whether any of these are correlated with the
+finger marks. Several different<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_197" id="Page_197">[Pg 197]</a></span> classes have been examined both by Mr.
+Collins and myself. The ordinary laboratory work supplies finger prints of
+persons of much culture, and of many students both in the Art and in the
+Science schools. I took a large number of prints from the worst idiots in
+the London district, through the obliging assistance of Dr. Fletcher
+Beech, of the Darenth Asylum; my collections made at Board Schools are
+numerous, and I have one of field labourers in Dorsetshire and
+Somersetshire. But there is no notable difference in any of them. For
+example; the measurements of the ridge-interval gave the same results in
+the art-students and in the science-students, and I have prints of eminent
+thinkers and of eminent statesmen that can be matched by those of
+congenital idiots.<a name='fna_5' id='fna_5' href='#f_5'><small>[5]</small></a> No indications of temperament, character, or ability
+are to be found in finger marks, so far as I have been able to discover.</p>
+
+<p>Of course these conclusions must not be applied to the general shape of
+the hand, which as yet I have not studied, but which seems to offer a very
+interesting field for exact inquiry.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_198" id="Page_198">[Pg 198]</a></span></p>
+<h2><a name="CHAPTER_XIII" id="CHAPTER_XIII"></a>CHAPTER XIII</h2>
+<p class="center"><span class="large">GENERA</span></p>
+
+<p>The same familiar patterns recur in every large collection of finger
+prints, and the eye soon selects what appear to be typical forms; but are
+they truly &#8220;typical&#8221; or not? By a type I understand an ideal form around
+which the actual forms are grouped, very closely in its immediate
+neighbourhood, and becoming more rare with increasing rapidity at an
+increasing distance from it, just as is the case with shot marks to the
+right or left of a line drawn vertically through the bull&#8217;s eye of a
+target. The analogy is exact; in both cases there is a well-defined point
+of departure; in both cases the departure of individual instances from
+that point is due to a multitude of independently variable causes. In
+short, both are realisations of the now well-known theoretical law of
+Frequency of Error. The problem then is this:&mdash;take some one of the
+well-marked patterns, such as it appears on a particular digit,&mdash;say a
+loop on the right thumb; find the average number of ridges that cross a
+specified portion of it; then this average value will determine an ideal
+centre from which individual<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_199" id="Page_199">[Pg 199]</a></span> departures may be measured; next, tabulate
+the frequency of the departures that attain to each of many successive
+specified distances from that ideal centre; then see whether their
+diminishing frequency as the distances increase, is or is not in
+accordance with the law of frequency of error. If it is, then the central
+form has the attributes of a true type, and such will be shown to be the
+case with the loops of either thumb. I shall only give the data and the
+results, not the precise way in which they are worked out, because an
+account of the method employed in similar cases will be found in <i>Natural
+Inheritance</i>, and again in the Memoir on Finger Prints in the <i>Phil.
+Trans.</i>; it is too technical to be appropriate here, and would occupy too
+much space. The only point which need be briefly explained and of which
+non-mathematical readers might be ignorant, is how a single numerical
+table derived from abstract calculations can be made to apply to such
+minute objects as finger prints, as well as to the shot marks on a huge
+target; what is the common unit by which departures on such different
+scales are measured? The answer is that it is a self-contained unit
+appropriate to <i>each series severally</i>, and technically called the
+Probable Error, or more briefly, P.E., in the headings to the following
+tables. In order to determine it, the range of the central half of the
+series has to be measured, namely, of that part of the series which
+remains after its two extreme quarters have been cut off and removed. The
+series had no limitation before, its two ends tailing away indefinitely
+into nothingness,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_200" id="Page_200">[Pg 200]</a></span> but, by the artifice of lopping off a definite fraction
+of the whole series from both ends of it, a sharply-defined length, call
+it PQ, is obtained. Such series as have usually to be dealt with are
+fairly symmetrical, so the position of the half-way point M, between P and
+Q, corresponds with rough accuracy to the average of the positions of all
+the members of the series, that is to the point whence departures have to
+be measured. MP, or MQ,&mdash;or still better, &#189;(MP + MQ) is the
+above-mentioned Probable Error. It is so called because the amount of
+Error, or Departure from M of any one observation, falls just as often
+within the distance PE as it falls without it. In the calculated tables of
+the Law of Frequency, PE (or a multiple of it) is taken as unity. In each
+observed series, the actual measures have to be converted into another
+scale, in which the PE of that series is taken as unity. Then observation
+and calculation may be compared on equal terms.</p>
+
+
+<div class="figleft"><img src="images/fig_pg200.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+<p>Observations were made on the loops of the right and left thumbs
+respectively. AHB is taken as the primary line of reference in the loop;
+it is the line that, coinciding with the axis of the <i>uppermost portion</i>,
+and that only, of the core, cuts the summit of the core at H, the upper
+outline at A, and the lower outline, if it cuts it at all, as<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_201" id="Page_201">[Pg 201]</a></span> it nearly
+always does, at B. K is the centre of the single triangular plot that
+appears in the loop, which may be either I or O. KNL is a perpendicular
+from K to the axis, cutting it at N, and the outline beyond at L. In some
+loops N will lie above H, as in <a href="#plate4">Plate 4</a>, Fig. 8; in some it may coincide
+with H. (See <a href="#plate6">Plate 6</a> for numerous varieties of loop.) These points were
+pricked in each print with a fine needle; the print was then turned face
+downwards and careful measurements made between the prick holes at the
+back. Also the number of ridges in AH were counted, the ridge at A being
+reckoned as 0, the next ridge as 1, and so on up to H. Whenever the line
+AH passed across the neck of a bifurcation, there was necessarily a single
+ridge on one side of the point of intersection and two ridges on the
+other, so there would clearly be doubt whether to reckon the neck as one
+or as two ridges. A compromise was made by counting it as 1&#189;. After the
+number of ridges in AH had been counted in each case, any residual
+fractions of &#189; were alternately treated as 0 and as 1. Finally, six
+series were obtained; three for the right thumb, and three for the left.
+They referred respectively (1) to the Number of Ridges in AH; (2) to
+KL/NB; (3) to AN/AH, all the three being independent of stature. The
+number of measures in each of the six series varied from 140 to 176; they
+are reduced to percentages in Table XXXI.</p>
+
+<p>We see at a glance that the different numbers of ridges in AH do not occur
+with equal frequency, that a single ridge in the thumb is a rarity, and so
+are<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_202" id="Page_202">[Pg 202]</a></span> cases above fifteen in number, but those of seven, eight, and nine
+are frequent. There is clearly a rude order in their distribution, the
+number of cases tailing away into nothingness, at the top and bottom of
+the column. A vast amount of statistical analogy assures us that the
+orderliness of the distribution would be increased if many more cases had
+been observed, and later on, this inference will be confirmed. There is a
+sharp inferior limit to the numbers of ridges, because they cannot be less
+than 0, but independently of this, we notice the infrequency of small
+numbers as well as of large ones. There is no strict limit to the latter,
+but the trend of the entries shows that forty, say, or more ridges in AH
+are practically impossible. Therefore, in no individual case can the
+number of ridges in AH depart very widely from seven, eight, or nine,
+though the range of possible departures is not sharply defined, except at
+the lower limit of 0. The range of variation is <i>not</i> &#8220;rounded off,&#8221; to
+use a common but very inaccurate expression often applied to the way in
+which genera are isolated. The range of possible departures is not defined
+by any rigid boundary, but the rarity of the stragglers rapidly increases
+with the distance at which they are found, until no more of them are met
+with.</p>
+
+<p>The values of KL/NB and of AN/AH run in a less orderly sequence, but
+concur distinctly in telling a similar tale. Considering the paucity of
+the observations, there is nothing in these results to contradict the
+expectation of increased regularity, should a large addition be made to
+their number.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_203" id="Page_203">[Pg 203]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXI.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="3">No. of<br />ridges<br />in AH.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="2">No. of cases reduced<br />to per cents.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">KL<br />&mdash;<br />NB</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center" colspan="2">No. of cases reduced<br />to per cents.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">AN<br />&mdash;<br />AH</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">No. of cases reduced<br />to per cents.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">Left.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">171 cases.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">166 cases.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">149 cases.</td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">140 cases.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">176 cases.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">163 cases.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">0&middot;3-0&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="btrdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">0&middot;1-0&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;5-0&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;3-0&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;7-0&middot;8</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;5-0&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;9-1&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">21</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;7-0&middot;8</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;1-1&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">23</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">0&middot;9-1&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">22</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">15</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">18</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;3-1&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">24</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;1-1&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">15</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">13</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;5-1&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;3-1&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">12</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">16</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;7-1&middot;8</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;5-1&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;9-2&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;7-1&middot;8</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;1-2&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;9-2&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">above</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;1-2&middot;2</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">12</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">11</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;3-2&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">13</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;5-2&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">14</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;7-2&middot;8</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">15</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6</span></td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="brdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">2&middot;9-3&middot;0</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="blr" align="center">above</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">2</span></td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">...</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">above</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">1</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bblr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">100</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">100</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">100</td>
+    <td class="bbrdoub" align="center">100</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">100</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">100</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_204" id="Page_204">[Pg 204]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXII.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btlr" rowspan="4">Abscissae<br />reckoned in<br />centesimal<br />parts of<br />the<br />interval<br />between<br />the limits<br />of the<br />scheme.<br />0&deg; to 100&deg;.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr" colspan="12">Ordinates to the six schemes of Distribution, being the ordinates drawn from the base of each scheme<br />at selected centesimal divisions of the base.</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="4" align="center" class="btrdoub">No. of ridges in AH.</td>
+    <td colspan="4" align="center" class="btrdoub">Values of KL/NB</td>
+    <td colspan="4" align="center" class="btr">Values of AN/AH</td></tr>
+<tr><td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Right.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">Left.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Right.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btrdoub">Left.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Right.</td>
+    <td colspan="2" align="center" class="btr">Left.</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=10&middot;4<br />p.e.=2&middot;3</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">Calculated<br />from<br />M=7&middot;8<br />p.e.=1&middot;9</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1&middot;15<br />p.e.=0&middot;25</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1&middot;10<br />p.e.=0&middot;31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1&middot;08<br />p.e.=0&middot;30</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Observed.</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">Calculated<br />from<br />M=1&middot;36<br />p.e.=0&middot;36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="btl"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">3&middot;2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;54</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;54</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;49</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btrdoub">0&middot;35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;36</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;32</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;58</td>
+    <td align="center" class="btr">0&middot;48</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;0</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">4&middot;2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;64</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;67</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;59</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">0&middot;51</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;50</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;48</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;74</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;68</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">20</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5&middot;4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;85</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;84</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;78</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">0&middot;71</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;66</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;67</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;96</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;91</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">25</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">5&middot;9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;91</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;83</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">0&middot;79</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;79</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;75</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;00</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">l&middot;00</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">30</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;6</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">6&middot;3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;99</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;95</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;89</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">0&middot;86</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;87</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;82</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;04</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;08</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">40</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;5</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;1</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;05</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;05</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;00</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">0&middot;98</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;98</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">0&middot;93</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;21</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;22</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">50</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">10&middot;5</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">10&middot;4</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">7&middot;8</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;15</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;15</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">1&middot;10</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;04</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;05</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;37</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;36</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">60</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">11&middot;3</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">11&middot;3</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;4</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">8&middot;2</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;29</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;25</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;18</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">1&middot;22</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;18</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;17</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;48</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;50</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">70</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">12&middot;1</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">12&middot;2</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;3</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;33</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;32</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">1&middot;34</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;31</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;28</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;66</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;64</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">75</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">12&middot;5</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">12&middot;7</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;9</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub"><span style="margin-left: .5em;">9&middot;7</span></td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;41</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;40</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;46</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">1&middot;41</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;39</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;35</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;73</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;72</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">80</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">13&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">13&middot;3</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">11&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">10&middot;2</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;45</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;46</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;53</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">1&middot;49</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;48</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;43</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">2&middot;81</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">90</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">14&middot;3</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">14&middot;8</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">11&middot;5</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">11&middot;4</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;77</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;63</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;73</td>
+    <td align="center" class="brdoub">1&middot;69</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;69</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">1&middot;62</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">2&middot;23</td>
+    <td align="center" class="br">2&middot;04</td></tr>
+<tr><td align="center" class="bbl">95</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">15&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">16&middot;0</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">12&middot;2</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">12&middot;2</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">2&middot;00</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">1&middot;76</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">1&middot;80</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbrdoub">1&middot;85</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">1&middot;81</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">1&middot;78</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">2&middot;48</td>
+    <td align="center" class="bbr">2&middot;24</td></tr></table>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_205" id="Page_205">[Pg 205]</a></span></p>
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXIII.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td class="btlr" align="center" rowspan="4" colspan="2">Abscissae<br />reckoned in<br />centesimal<br />parts of<br />the interval<br />between the<br />limits of the<br />curve.<br />0&deg; to 100&deg;.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="6">Ordinates to the six curves of distribution, drawn from the axis of<br />each curve at selected centesimal divisions of it.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Observed.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Calculated.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br" colspan="6"><br />They are here reduced to a common measure, by dividing the<br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">observed deviations in each series by the probable error</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">appropriate to the series, and multiplying by 100. For the</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">values of M, whence the deviations are measured, and for</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">those of the corresponding probable error, see the headings</span><br /><span style="margin-left: 1em;">to the columns in Table II.</span></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">Mean of the<br />corresponding<br />ordinates in the<br />six curves after<br />reduction to the<br />common scale of<br />p.e. = 100.<br />965 observations<br />in all.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" rowspan="3">Ordinates to the<br />normal curve<br />of distribution,<br />probable error<br />= 100.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">No. of Ridges in AH.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">Values of KL/NB</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center" colspan="2">Values of AN/AH</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Left.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 2em;">5</span></td>
+    <td class="btr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-291</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-211</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-244</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-196</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-230</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-217</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-231</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">-244</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-213</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-158</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-204</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-164</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-183</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-172</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-182</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-190</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">20</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-135</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-105</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-120</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-103</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-130</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-111</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-117</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-125</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">(P)<span style="margin-left: .5em;">25</span></td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-109</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;84</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;92</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;87</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;87</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-100</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;93</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">-100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">30</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;83</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;74</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;64</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;68</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;60</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;89</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;73</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">40</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;44</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;37</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;44</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;31</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;23</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;42</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;37</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">- &nbsp;38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">(M) 50</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp; &nbsp;4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp; &nbsp;1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center"><span style="margin-left: 1.25em;">0</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">60</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;39</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;31</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;56</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;23</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;43</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;33</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;38</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;38</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">70</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;74</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;79</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;72</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;68</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;87</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;83</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;77</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;78</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">(Q) 75</td>
+    <td class="br">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+&nbsp;91</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+116</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+104</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+116</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+113</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+103</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+107</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+100</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">80</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+113</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+168</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+120</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+138</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+143</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+150</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+139</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+125</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">90</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+170</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+200</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+248</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+203</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+213</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+242</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+213</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">+190</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl">95</td>
+    <td class="bbr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+200</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+231</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+340</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+225</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+253</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+311</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+260</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">+244</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br /><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_206" id="Page_206">[Pg 206]</a></span>Table XXXII. is derived from Table XXXI. by a process described by myself
+in many publications, more especially in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>, and will
+now be assumed as understood. Each of the six pairs of columns contain,
+side by side, the Observed and Calculated values of one of the six series,
+the data on which the calculations were made being also entered at the
+top. The calculated figures agree with the observed ones very respectably
+throughout, as can be judged even by those who are ignorant of the
+principles of the method. Let us take the value that 10 per cent of each
+of the six series falls short of, and 90 per cent exceed; they are entered
+in the line opposite 10; we find for the six pairs successively,</p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="table">
+<tr><td><i>Obs.</i>:</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>5&middot;5</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>4&middot;8</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>0&middot;64</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>0&middot;59</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>0&middot;50</td><td><span class="spacer">&nbsp;</span></td>
+    <td>0&middot;74</td></tr>
+<tr><td><i>Calc.</i>:</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>6&middot;0</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>4&middot;2</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>0&middot;67</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>0&middot;51</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>0&middot;48</td><td>&nbsp;</td>
+    <td>0&middot;68</td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The correspondence between the more mediocre cases is much closer than
+these, and very much closer than between the extreme cases given in the
+table, namely, the values that 5 per cent fall short of, and 95 exceed.
+These are of course less regular, the observed instances being very few;
+but even here the observations are found to agree respectably well with
+the proportions given by calculation, which is necessarily based upon the
+supposition of an infinite number of cases having been included in the
+series.</p>
+
+<p>As the want of agreement between calculation and observation must be
+caused in part by the<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_207" id="Page_207">[Pg 207]</a></span> paucity of observations, it is worth while to make
+a larger group, by throwing the six series together, as in Table XXXIII.,
+making a grand total of 965 observations. Their value is not so great as
+if they were observations taken from that number of different persons,
+still they are equivalent to a large increase of those already discussed.
+The six series of observed values were made comparable on equal terms by
+first reducing them to a uniform PE and then by assigning to M, the point
+of departure, the value of 0. The results are given in the last column but
+one, where the orderly run of the observed data is much more conspicuous
+than it was before. Though there is an obvious want of exact symmetry in
+the observed values, their general accord with those of the calculated
+values is very fair. It is quite close enough to establish the general
+proposition, that we are justified in the conception of a typical form of
+loop, different for the two thumbs; the departure from the typical form
+being usually small, sometimes rather greater, and rarely greater still.</p>
+
+<p>I do not see my way to discuss the variations of the arches, because they
+possess no distinct points of reference. But their general appearance does
+not give the impression of clustering around a typical centre. They
+suggest the idea of a fountain-head, whose stream begins to broaden out
+from the first.</p>
+
+<p>As regards other patterns, I have made many measurements altogether, but
+the specimens of each sort were comparatively few, except in whorled
+patterns. In all cases where I was able to form a<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_208" id="Page_208">[Pg 208]</a></span> well-founded opinion,
+the existence of a typical centre was indicated.</p>
+
+<p>It would be tedious to enumerate the many different trials made for my own
+satisfaction, to gain assurance that the variability of the several
+patterns is really of the quasi-normal kind just described. In the first
+trial I measured in various ways the dimensions of about 500 enlarged
+photographs of loops, and about as many of other patterns, and found that
+the measurements in each and every case formed a quasi-normal series. I do
+not care to submit these results, because they necessitate more
+explanation and analysis than the interest of the corrected results would
+perhaps justify, to eliminate from them the effect of variety of size of
+thumb, and some other uncertainties. Those measurements referred to some
+children, a few women, many youths, and a fair number of adults; and
+allowance has to be made for variability in stature in each of these
+classes.</p>
+
+<p>The proportions of a typical loop on the thumb are easily ascertained if
+we may assume that the most frequent values of its variable elements,
+taken separately, are the same as those that enter into the most frequent
+combination of the elements taken collectively. This would necessarily be
+true if the variability of each element separately, and that of the sum of
+them in combination, were all strictly normal, but as they are only
+quasi-normal, the assumption must be tested. I have done so by making the
+comparisons (<i>A</i>) and (<i>B</i>) shown in Table XXXIV.,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_209" id="Page_209">[Pg 209]</a></span> which come out
+correctly to within the first decimal place.</p>
+
+<p class="center"><span class="smcap">Table XXXIV.</span></p>
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" summary="table">
+<tr><td colspan="2" class="btlr">&nbsp;</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Right Thumb.</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">Left Thumb.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btl">(<i>a</i>)</td>
+    <td class="btr">Median of all the values of KL</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">12&middot;5</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">10&middot;1</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">(<i>b</i>)</td>
+    <td class="br">Median of all the values of NB</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">10&middot;1</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">8&middot;9</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl" rowspan="2">(<i>A</i>)</td>
+    <td class="br">Value of <i>a/b</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1&middot;24</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1&middot;11</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="br">( Median of all the fractions KL/NB</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;15</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">1&middot;10</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="btdoubl">(<i>c</i>)</td>
+    <td class="btdoubr">Median of all the values of AN</td>
+    <td class="btdoubr" align="center">4&middot;6</td>
+    <td class="btdoubr" align="center">4&middot;6</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bl">(<i>d</i>)</td>
+    <td class="br">Median of all the values of AH</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">4&middot;4</td>
+    <td class="br" align="center">3&middot;3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbl" rowspan="2">(<i>B</i>)</td>
+    <td class="br">Value of <i>c/d</i></td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1&middot;05</td>
+    <td class="btr" align="center">1&middot;40</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="bbr">Median of all the fractions AN/AH</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">1&middot;08</td>
+    <td class="bbr" align="center">1&middot;36</td></tr></table>
+
+<p><br />It has been shown that the patterns are hereditary, and we have seen that
+they are uncorrelated with race or temperament or any other noticeable
+peculiarity, inasmuch as groups of very different classes are alike in
+their finger marks. They cannot exercise the slightest influence on
+marriage selection, the very existence both of the ridges and of the
+patterns having been almost overlooked; they are too small to attract
+attention, or to be thought worthy of notice. We therefore possess a
+perfect instance of promiscuity in marriage, or, as it is now called,
+panmixia, in respect to these patterns. We might consequently have
+expected them to be hybridised. But that is not the case; they <i>refuse to
+blend</i>. Their classes are as clearly separated as those of<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_210" id="Page_210">[Pg 210]</a></span> any of the
+genera of plants and animals. They keep pure and distinct, as if they had
+severally descended from a thorough-bred ancestry, each in respect to its
+own peculiar character.</p>
+
+<p>As regards other forms of natural selection, we know that races are kept
+pure by the much more frequent destruction of those individuals who depart
+the more widely from the typical centre. But natural selection was shown
+to be inoperative in respect to individual varieties of patterns, and
+unable to exercise the slightest check upon their vagaries. Yet, for all
+that, the loops and other classes of patterns are isolated from one
+another just as thoroughly and just in the same way as are the genera or
+species of plants and animals. There is no statistical difference between
+the form of the law of distribution of individual Loops about their
+respective typical centres, and that of the law by which, say, the Shrimps
+described in Mr. Weldon&#8217;s recent memoirs (<i>Proc. Roy. Soc.</i>, 1891 and
+1892) are distributed about theirs. In both cases the distribution is in
+quasi-accordance with the theoretical law of Frequency of Error, this form
+of distribution being entirely caused in the patterns, by <i>internal</i>
+conditions, and in no way by natural selection in the ordinary sense of
+that term.</p>
+
+<p>It is impossible not to recognise the fact so clearly illustrated by these
+patterns in the thumbs, that natural selection has no monopoly of
+influence in the construction of genera, but that it could be wholly
+dispensed with, the internal conditions acting by themselves being
+sufficient. When the internal<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_211" id="Page_211">[Pg 211]</a></span> conditions are in harmony with the external
+ones, as they appear to be in all long-established races, their joint
+effects will curb individual variability more tightly than either could do
+by itself. The normal character of the distribution about the typical
+centre will not be thereby interfered with. The probable divergence (=
+probable error) of an individual taken at random, will be lessened, and
+that is all.</p>
+
+<p>Not only is it impossible to substantiate a claim for natural selection,
+that it is the sole agent in forming genera, but it seems, from the
+experience of artificial selection, that it is scarcely competent to do so
+by favouring mere <i>varieties</i>, in the sense in which I understand the
+term.</p>
+
+<p>My contention is that it acts by favouring small <i>sports</i>. Mere varieties
+from a common typical centre blend freely in the offspring, and the
+offspring of every race whose <i>statistical</i> characters are constant,
+necessarily tend, as I have often shown, to regress towards their common
+typical centre. Sports, on the other hand, do not blend freely; they are
+fresh typical centres or sub-species, which suddenly arise we do not yet
+know precisely through what uncommon concurrence of circumstance, and
+which observations show to be strongly transmissible by inheritance.</p>
+
+<p>A mere variety can never establish a sticking-point in the forward course
+of evolution, but each new sport affords one. A substantial change of type
+is effected, as I conceive, by a succession of small changes of typical
+centre, each more or less stable,<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_212" id="Page_212">[Pg 212]</a></span> and each being in its turn favoured and
+established by natural selection, to the exclusion of its competitors. The
+distinction between a mere variety and a sport is real and fundamental. I
+argued this point in <i>Natural Inheritance</i>, but had then to draw my
+illustrations from non-physiological experiences, no appropriate
+physiological ones being then at hand: this want is now excellently
+supplied by observations of the patterns on the digits.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_213" id="Page_213">[Pg 213]</a></span></p>
+<h2>INDEX</h2>
+
+<p class="index">
+AH, number of ridges in, <a href="#Page_200">200</a><br />
+<br />
+Allix, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+A. L. W. system, <a href="#Page_80">80</a><br />
+<br />
+Ambiguities in minuti&aelig;, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a><br />
+<br />
+America, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+<br />
+Anthropometric laboratory, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Arches, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">interpretations of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Artisans, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Artists, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Assyrian bricks, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Atkinson, R. F., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Author, the, finger prints of, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Axis of pattern, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ball for inking, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Ball of thumb, <a href="#Page_96">96</a><br />
+<br />
+Basques, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Bearings as by compass, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<br />
+Beech, Dr. Fletcher, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Benzole, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Bertillon, <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_154">154</a>, <a href="#Page_169">169</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>Bertillonage</i>, <a href="#Page_155">155</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Bewick, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Bible, the, <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Bifurcations, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Binomial law, <a href="#Page_11">11</a>, <a href="#Page_112">112</a><br />
+<br />
+Bird&#8217;s nest, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Blacklead, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Blood as ink, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Bowditch, H. P., Professor, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+British Museum, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Brobdingnags, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Brothers, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Burns of finger, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+C. set of standard patterns, <a href="#Page_177">177</a><br />
+<br />
+Callosities, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Cambo, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Camera lucida, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br /><a name="cards" id="cards"></a>
+Cards, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">keeping in order, <a href="#Page_145">145</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Casts, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Centesimal scale, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_124">124</a>, <a href="#Page_129">129</a>, <a href="#Page_182">182</a><br />
+<br />
+Cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">creases, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Chequer-work, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Chess board, <a href="#Page_106">106</a><br />
+<br />
+Chinese deed, <a href="#Page_24">24</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">money, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">registration of Chinese, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cicatrix, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Circular patterns, optical illusion, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Collins, F. H., <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>, <a href="#Page_193">193</a><br />
+<br />
+Collodion, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Colour-blindness, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Comparison of prints, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a><br />
+<br />
+Compass bearings, <a href="#Page_84">84</a><br />
+<br />
+Compasses, test by the points of, <a href="#Page_61">61</a><br />
+<br />
+Copper sheeting for inking, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for smoking, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Cores, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_145">145</a><br />
+<br />
+Correlation, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Couplets of digits, <a href="#Page_119">119</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of A and B brothers, <a href="#Page_172">172</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Creases, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_56">56</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in infant, <a href="#Page_57">57</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Criminals, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Crosse, Dr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Cylinder, revolving, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Dabs by the finger, <a href="#Page_40">40</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a><br />
+<br />
+Darenth Asylum, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Demography, Congress of, <a href="#Page_163">163</a><br />
+<br />
+Deserters, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Development, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Digits, peculiarities of, <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+Direction of twist, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Divergence of ridges, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Drawing master, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Ducts, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Dyes, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ear-marking the A, B sets of brothers, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Embryology, <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+Enclosures within ridges, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+English, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Enlargements, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_214" id="Page_214">[Pg 214]</a></span><br />
+Envelopes to rods or staples, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Error, law of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">&#8220;probable,&#8221; <a href="#Page_199">199</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Evidential Value</span>, Chap. VII., <a href="#Page_100">100</a><br />
+<br />
+Evolution, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Eyes in patterns, <a href="#Page_143">143</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Fauld, Mr., <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Feet, prints of, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridges on, <a href="#Page_57">57</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a></span><br />
+<br />
+F&eacute;r&eacute;, M., <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Ferris, Major, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Ferro-prussiate process, <a href="#Page_51">51</a>, <a href="#Page_53">53</a>, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<br />
+File, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Flexure, lines of, in palm, <a href="#Page_56">56</a><br />
+<br />
+Focus of eye, range of, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Folders;&mdash;inked, <a href="#Page_42">42</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">smoked, <a href="#Page_48">48</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Foot-paths, <a href="#Page_107">107</a><br />
+<br />
+Forgeot, Dr., <a href="#Page_46">46</a><br />
+<br />
+Forks, <a href="#Page_91">91</a><br />
+<br />
+Fraternity, <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Frequency of error, law of, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+
+Funnel, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Furrows, not followed, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+G&mdash;&mdash;, Sir W., <a href="#Page_89">89</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Genera</span>, Chap. XIII., <a href="#Page_198">198</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the nine chief genera, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Glass, temporary prints on, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">etched, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for lantern, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Glue, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Goldie, Sir G. T., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Granulations on rollers, <a href="#Page_34">34</a><br />
+<br />
+Greenleaf, Col. C. R., <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Gulliver, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Gum, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Gutta-percha, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Hand, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Harrild, Messrs., <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Hawksley, <a href="#Page_42">42</a><br />
+<br />
+Haycraft, Dr. J. B., <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Head-length and breadth, <a href="#Page_158">158</a><br />
+<br />
+Hebrews, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Herbette, M., <a href="#Page_168">168</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Heredity</span>, Chap. XI., <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_16">16</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Herschel, Sir W. J., <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">instructions for printing, <a href="#Page_45">45</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">data for persistence, <a href="#Page_89">89</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">right fore-finger of, <a href="#Page_95">95</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">official experience, <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a>, <a href="#Page_153">153</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Hindoos, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+I (or Inner side), <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Identification, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> Jezebel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Idiots, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Illusion, <a href="#Page_66">66</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a><br />
+<br />
+Indexing, power of, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_139">139</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">methods of, <a href="#Page_131">131</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">specimen of, <a href="#Page_133">133</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">search in, <a href="#Page_166">166</a></span><br />
+<br />
+India-rubber for roller, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Ink, printer&#8217;s, <a href="#Page_37">37</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for stamp, <a href="#Page_45">45</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Inner side, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Interpolation of ridges, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Interspace, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Interval, equally discernible, <a href="#Page_65">65</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Islands, <a href="#Page_92">92</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Japan, <a href="#Page_23">23</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Jews, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_194">194</a><br />
+<br />
+Jezebel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Kensington, S., my laboratory at, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Klaatsch, Dr. H., <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Kollmann, Dr. A., <a href="#Page_58">58</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Labels, gummed, as for luggage, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Laboratory, anthropometric, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Labourers, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Lace, <a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a><br />
+<br />
+Ladies&#8217; hands, ridges on, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Language, inadequacy of, <a href="#Page_172">172</a><br />
+<br />
+Lankester, Prof. Ray, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Left and right, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Lenses, <a href="#Page_72">72</a><br />
+<br />
+Letters, alike when reversed, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+Licked paper, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Linen-tester (lens), <a href="#Page_73">73</a><br />
+<br />
+Linseed oil, <a href="#Page_37">37</a><br />
+<br />
+Litharge, <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Lithography, <a href="#Page_43">43</a><br />
+<br />
+Loops, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">predominance of, <a href="#Page_101">101</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">relationships of, <a href="#Page_184">184</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on thumbs, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">typical shape of, <a href="#Page_207">207</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Lying Bob, <a href="#Page_27">27</a><br />
+<br />
+Lyon, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Mammalia, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Marseille, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Measurement of patterns, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Memoirs by the author, <a href="#Page_3">3</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Methods of Indexing</span>, Chap. IX., <a href="#Page_131">131</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Methods of Printing</span>, Chap. III., <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Mica, <a href="#Page_47">47</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a><br />
+<br />
+Minuti&aelig;, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ambiguities in, <a href="#Page_91">91</a>, <a href="#Page_99">99</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Monkey pattern, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_77">77</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridges on tail, <a href="#Page_60">60</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">Purkenje on, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">stuffed, <a href="#Page_97">97</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Morgue, <a href="#Page_148">148</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> Jezebel, <a href="#Page_113">113</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Mould for casting rollers, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Mountain ranges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Mucilage, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+Mummies, ridges still visible, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Nail-marks, <a href="#Page_25">25</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a><br />
+<br />
+Natural selection, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+Negro, <a href="#Page_18">18</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a>, <a href="#Page_195">195</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_26">26</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Ngeu-yang-siun, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Notes, musical, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_215" id="Page_215">[Pg 215]</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Oil, oxidisation of, <a href="#Page_34">34</a>, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">for ink, <a href="#Page_37">37</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Orientation, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Outer side, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Outlines, <a href="#Page_6">6</a>, <a href="#Page_69">69</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">followed with a point, <a href="#Page_74">74</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Overtones, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Pacinian bodies, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Pad for stamp, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of paper, <a href="#Page_38">38</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Palm of the hand, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_88">88</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a><br />
+<br />
+Palmistry, <a href="#Page_1">1</a>, <a href="#Page_26">26</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> Cheiromancy, <a href="#Page_56">56</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Panmixia, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Pantagraph, <a href="#Page_52">52</a><br />
+<br />
+Paper in pads, <a href="#Page_38">38</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see</i> <a href="#cards">Cards</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Papill&aelig;, <a href="#Page_60">60</a><br />
+<br />
+Paraffin, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Paris, <a href="#Page_155">155</a><br />
+<br />
+Passports, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_149">149</a><br />
+<br />
+Paste, <a href="#Page_48">48</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Patterns: Their Outlines and Cores</span>, Chap. V., <a href="#Page_64">64</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_2">2</a>, <a href="#Page_54">54</a>, <a href="#Page_170">170</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">number of easily distinguishable patterns, <a href="#Page_100">100</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">standard, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_80">80</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ditto C. set, <a href="#Page_177">177</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">percentage frequency of, <a href="#Page_115">115</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Peculiarities of the Digits</span>, Chap. VIII., <a href="#Page_114">114</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Persistence</span>, Chap. VI., <a href="#Page_89">89</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Personal Identification</span>, Chap. X., <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_16">16</a>, <a href="#Page_113">113</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">lecture on, <a href="#Page_2">2</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Photographers, <a href="#Page_147">147</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">photographs, <a href="#Page_3">3</a>, <a href="#Page_51">51</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Plots, triangular, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_82">82</a><br />
+<br />
+Plumbago, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Pocket printing apparatus, <a href="#Page_40">40</a><br />
+<br />
+Points of reference, <a href="#Page_90">90</a><br />
+<br />
+Poole, Mr. S. L., <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Pores, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Previous Use of Finger Prints</span>, Chap. II., <a href="#Page_22">22</a><br />
+<br />
+Printing, the methods of, <a href="#Page_30">30</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">printer&#8217;s ink, <a href="#Page_35">35</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Prism, <a href="#Page_52">52</a>, <a href="#Page_104">104</a><br />
+<br />
+Purkenje&#8217;s <i>Commentatio</i>, <a href="#Page_84">84</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_64">64</a>, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on slope of loop, <a href="#Page_119">119</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Races and Classes</span>, Chap. XII., <a href="#Page_192">192</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_17">17</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Radial, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Random events, <a href="#Page_172">172</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> <a href="#Page_126">126</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Razor, prints on, <a href="#Page_30">30</a><br />
+<br />
+Reconstruction of hidden ridges, <a href="#Page_102">102</a><br />
+<br />
+Reeves and Co., <a href="#Page_35">35</a><br />
+<br />
+Registration in India, <a href="#Page_28">28</a>, <a href="#Page_151">151</a><br />
+<br />
+Regression, <a href="#Page_21">21</a>, <a href="#Page_171">171</a><br />
+<br />
+Relationship in fingers, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>, <a href="#Page_123">123</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">fraternal, <a href="#Page_171">171</a>, <a href="#Page_175">175</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in twins, <a href="#Page_185">185</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">filial, <a href="#Page_190">190</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ditto of like-patterned parents, <a href="#Page_187">187</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">in patterns, <a href="#Page_178">178</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">paternal and maternal, <a href="#Page_190">190</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Reticulation, <a href="#Page_108">108</a><br />
+<br />
+Reversals, <a href="#Page_43">43</a>, <a href="#Page_71">71</a><br />
+<br />
+<span class="smcap">Ridges and Their Uses</span>, Chap. IV., <a href="#Page_54">54</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;"><i>see also</i> low relief of ridges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">counting them, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ridge-interval, <a href="#Page_62">62</a>:&mdash;measurement by, <a href="#Page_83">83</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">squares of one in the side, <a href="#Page_102">102</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of six, <a href="#Page_103">103</a>;</span><br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of five, <a href="#Page_107">107</a>, <a href="#Page_111">111</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Right and left, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+Robinson, Dr. Louis, <a href="#Page_45">45</a><br />
+<br />
+Rods, <a href="#Page_76">76</a><br />
+<br />
+Rolled prints, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_39">39</a>, <a href="#Page_68">68</a><br />
+<br />
+Roller, <a href="#Page_36">36</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">small, <a href="#Page_40">40</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Royal Institution, <a href="#Page_2">2</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Sand, ridges on, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+Scars, <a href="#Page_59">59</a>, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Seal, <a href="#Page_22">22</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">sealing-wax casts, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Seamstresses, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Selection, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_209">209</a><br />
+<br />
+Shrimps, <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+<i>Signalements</i>, <a href="#Page_156">156</a><br />
+<br />
+Size (glue), <a href="#Page_48">48</a>, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Skin disease on fingers, <a href="#Page_122">122</a><br />
+<br />
+Slab, <a href="#Page_4">4</a>, <a href="#Page_35">35</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Slopes, <a href="#Page_136">136</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">on fore-finger, <a href="#Page_118">118</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Smart, Major Charles, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+Smoke-prints, <a href="#Page_47">47</a><br />
+<br />
+Snow on mountain ranges, <a href="#Page_32">32</a><br />
+<br />
+Soda (washing), <a href="#Page_36">36</a>, <a href="#Page_41">41</a><br />
+<br />
+Spielman, Isidore, Mr., <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Spirals, <a href="#Page_74">74</a><br />
+<br />
+Sports, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<br />
+Squares (interpolations), <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_101">101</a><br />
+<br />
+Standard patterns, <a href="#Page_74">74</a>, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">the C. set, <a href="#Page_177">177</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Staples, <a href="#Page_76">76</a>, <a href="#Page_83">83</a><br />
+<br />
+Stereoscope, <a href="#Page_9">9</a><br />
+<br />
+Students, in Art and Science, <a href="#Page_197">197</a><br />
+<br />
+Surnames, Hindoo and Chinese, <a href="#Page_14">14</a>, <a href="#Page_152">152</a><br />
+<br />
+Swift, Dean, <a href="#Page_1">1</a><br />
+<br />
+Symbols for patterns, <a href="#Page_144">144</a><br />
+<br />
+Systems of ridges on palm, <a href="#Page_54">54</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Tables, <i>see</i> list of, p. <a href="#Page_xiii">xiii.</a><br />
+<br />
+Tabor, Mr., <a href="#Page_26">26</a><br />
+<br />
+Tabulations, <a href="#Page_179">179</a><br />
+<br />
+Tang dynasty, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Tattoo marks, <a href="#Page_97">97</a><br />
+<br />
+Taylor, T. Meadows, Mr., <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<br />
+Teeth, <a href="#Page_166">166</a><br />
+<br />
+Tests of calculated Randoms, <a href="#Page_173">173</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">of classification, <a href="#Page_179">179</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Thompson, Gilbert, Mr., <a href="#Page_27">27</a>, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Thrills, their relation to notes, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+Thumb, loops on, <a href="#Page_200">200</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">ball of, <a href="#Page_96">96</a>, <a href="#Page_98">98</a></span><br />
+<br />
+<i>Tipsahi</i>, <a href="#Page_24">24</a><br />
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="Page_216" id="Page_216">[Pg 216]</a></span><br />
+Titchener, E. B., Mr., <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+<br />
+Title-page, prints on, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_58">58</a>, <a href="#Page_73">73</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">index-number to them, <a href="#Page_135">135</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Toes, <a href="#Page_57">57</a><br />
+<br />
+Tools, callosities caused by, <a href="#Page_59">59</a><br />
+<br />
+Transitional patterns, <a href="#Page_79">79</a>, <a href="#Page_143">143</a>, <a href="#Page_178">178</a><br />
+<br />
+Triangular plots, <a href="#Page_67">67</a>, <a href="#Page_86">86</a>, <a href="#Page_87">87</a><br />
+<br />
+Turpentine, <a href="#Page_36">36</a><br />
+<br />
+Twins, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_167">167</a>, <a href="#Page_185">185</a><br />
+<br />
+Twist, direction of, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Type, <a href="#Page_19">19</a>, <a href="#Page_198">198</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Ulnar, <a href="#Page_70">70</a><br />
+<br />
+United States, system used in, <a href="#Page_15">15</a>, <a href="#Page_164">164</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Variation, <a href="#Page_20">20</a>, <a href="#Page_211">211</a><br />
+<br />
+Varnish, prints on when undried, <a href="#Page_50">50</a><br />
+<br />
+Velvet, <a href="#Page_63">63</a><br />
+<br />
+<br />
+Wall-paper, <a href="#Page_66">66</a><br />
+<br />
+Water colours, <a href="#Page_44">44</a><br />
+<br />
+Wax;&mdash;sealing, <a href="#Page_50">50</a>;<br />
+<span style="margin-left: 1em;">dentist&#8217;s, <a href="#Page_50">50</a></span><br />
+<br />
+Weldon, Prof., <a href="#Page_210">210</a><br />
+<br />
+Welsh, the, <a href="#Page_17">17</a>, <a href="#Page_192">192</a><br />
+<br />
+Wen-teh, the Empress, <a href="#Page_25">25</a><br />
+<br />
+Whitening, <a href="#Page_49">49</a><br />
+<br />
+Whorls, <a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_75">75</a>, <a href="#Page_78">78</a><br />
+<br />
+Wundt, Professor, laboratory at Leipzig, <a href="#Page_62">62</a><br />
+</p>
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">THE END</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center"><i>Printed by</i> <span class="smcap">R. &amp; R. Clark</span>, <i>Edinburgh</i>.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Footnotes:</strong></p>
+
+<p><a name='f_1' id='f_1' href='#fna_1'>[1]</a> <i>Der Tastapparat der Hand der menschlichen Rassen und der Affen.</i> Dr.
+Arthur Kollmann. Leopold Voss, Leipzig, 1883. He has also published a more
+recent memoir.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_2' id='f_2' href='#fna_2'>[2]</a> &#8220;Morphologie der Tastballen der Saugethiere,&#8221; <i>Jahrbuch</i>, xiv. p. 407.
+Leipzig, 1888.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_3' id='f_3' href='#fna_3'>[3]</a> <i>Ann. Sc. Nat.</i>, 5th series, vol. ix. 1868.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_4' id='f_4' href='#fna_4'>[4]</a> The Latin is obscure. &#8220;Mira vallecularum tangentium in interna parte
+manus pedisque ... dispositio flexuraque attentionem ... in se trahit.&#8221;
+There are three ways of translating &#8220;tangentium,&#8221; and none of them makes
+good sense. In the index of prints he uses the phrase &#8220;vallecularum
+tactui.&#8221; It would seem that he looked upon the furrows, and not the
+ridges, as the special seat of touch.</p>
+
+<p><a name='f_5' id='f_5' href='#fna_5'>[5]</a> The results arrived at by M. F&eacute;r&eacute; in a Memoir (<i>Comptes Rendus, Soc.
+Biologie</i>, July 2, 1891; Masson, 120 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris) may be
+collated with mine. The Memoir is partly a review of my paper in the
+<i>Phil. Trans.</i>, and contains many observations of his own. His data are
+derived from epileptics and others mentally affected. He has, by the way,
+curiously misinterpreted my views about symmetry.</p>
+
+
+<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p>
+<hr style="width: 50%;" />
+<p><strong>Transcriber&#8217;s Notes:</strong></p>
+
+<p>Punctuation has been corrected without note.</p>
+
+<p>Images do not necessarily match the sizes described in the original text.</p>
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
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+</body>
+</html>
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@@ -0,0 +1,7700 @@
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Finger Prints
+
+Author: Francis Galton
+
+Release Date: August 5, 2011 [EBook #36979]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK FINGER PRINTS ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by The Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
+https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images
+generously made available by The Internet Archive.)
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+FINGER PRINTS
+
+
+
+
+  FINGER PRINTS
+
+
+  [Illustration: FINGER PRINTS OF THE AUTHOR]
+
+
+  BY
+  FRANCIS GALTON, F.R.S., ETC.
+
+
+  London
+  MACMILLAN AND CO.
+  AND NEW YORK
+  1892
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+CONTENTS
+
+
+  CHAPTER I
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  INTRODUCTION                                                         1
+
+    Distinction between creases and ridges                             1
+
+    Origin of the inquiry                                              2
+
+    Summaries of the subsequent chapters                            3-21
+
+      Viz. of   ii.,  3;   iii.,  4;     iv.,  5;
+                 v.,  5;    vi.,  8;    vii., 10;
+              viii., 12;    ix., 13;      x., 14;
+                xi., 16;   xii., 17;   xiii., 19;
+
+
+  CHAPTER II
+
+  PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS                                       22
+
+    Superstition of personal contact                                  22
+
+    Rude hand-prints                                                  23
+
+    Seals to documents                                                23
+
+    Chinese finger marks                                              24
+
+    The _tipsahi_ of Bengal                                           24
+
+    Nail-marks on Assyrian bricks                                     25
+
+    Nail-mark on Chinese coins                                        25
+
+    Ridges and cheiromancy--China, Japan, and by negroes              26
+
+    Modern usage--Bewick, Fauld, Tabor, and G. Thompson               26
+
+    Their official use by Sir W. J. Herschel                          27
+
+
+  CHAPTER III
+
+  METHODS OF PRINTING                                                 30
+
+    Impression on polished glass or razor                             30
+
+    The two contrasted methods of printing                            31
+
+    General remarks on printing from reliefs--ink; low relief
+    of ridges; layer of ink; drying due to oxidisation             32-34
+
+    Apparatus at my own laboratory--slab; roller; benzole
+    (or equivalent); funnel; ink; cards                            35-38
+
+    Method of its manipulation                                     38-40
+
+    Pocket apparatus                                                  40
+
+    Rollers and their manufacture                                     40
+
+    Other parts of the apparatus                                      41
+
+    Folders--long serviceable if air be excluded                      42
+
+    Lithography                                                       43
+
+    Water colours and dyes                                            44
+
+    Sir W. Herschel's official instructions                           45
+
+    Printing as from engraved plates--Prof. Ray Lankester;
+    Dr. L. Robinson                                                   45
+
+    Methods of Dr. Forgeot                                            46
+
+    Smoke prints--mica; adhesive paper, by licking with tongue     47-48
+
+    Plumbago; whitening                                               49
+
+    Casts--sealing-wax; dentist's wax; gutta-percha; undried
+    varnish; collodion                                             49-51
+
+    Photographs                                                       51
+
+    Prints on glass and mica for lantern                              51
+
+    Enlargements--photographic, by camera lucida, pantagraph       52-53
+
+
+  CHAPTER IV
+
+  THE RIDGES AND THEIR USES                                           54
+
+    General character of the ridges                                   54
+
+    Systems on the palm--principal ones; small interpolated
+    systems                                                        54-55
+
+    Cheiromantic creases--their directions; do not strictly
+    correspond with those of ridges                                56-57
+
+    Ridges on the soles of the feet                                   57
+
+    Pores                                                             57
+
+    Development:--embryology; subsequent growth; disintegration
+    by age, by injuries                                            58-59
+
+    Evolution                                                         60
+
+    Apparent use as regards pressure--theoretic; experiment
+    with compass points                                            60-61
+
+    Apparent use as regards rubbing--thrill thereby occasioned     62-63
+
+
+  CHAPTER V
+
+  PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES                                  64
+
+    My earlier failures in classifying prints; their causes        64-66
+
+    The triangular plots                                              67
+
+    Outlines of patterns--eight sets of ten digits given as
+    examples                                                       69-70
+
+    Supplies of ridges to pattern                                     71
+
+    Letters that read alike when reversed                             71
+
+    Magnifying glasses, spectacles, etc.                              72
+
+    Rolled impressions, their importance                              73
+
+    Standard patterns, cores, and their nomenclature               74-77
+
+    Direction of twist, nomenclature                                  78
+
+    Arches, loops, whorls                                             78
+
+    Transitional cases                                                79
+
+    The nine genera                                                   80
+
+    Measurements--by ridge-intervals; by aid of bearings like
+    compass                                                        82-84
+
+    Purkenje--his _Commentatio_ and a translation of it in part    84-88
+
+
+  CHAPTER VI
+
+  PERSISTENCE                                                         89
+
+    Evidence available                                                89
+
+    About thirty-five points of reference in each print               90
+
+    Photo-enlargement; orientation; tracing axes of ridges         90-91
+
+    Ambiguities in minutiae                                            91
+
+    V. H. Hd. as child and boy, a solitary change in one of
+    the minutiae                                                       92
+
+    Eight couplets from other persons                                 93
+
+    One from Sir W. G.                                                95
+
+    Summary of 389 comparisons                                        96
+
+    Ball of a thumb                                                   96
+
+    Results as to persistence                                         97
+
+
+  CHAPTER VII
+
+  EVIDENTIAL VALUE                                                   100
+
+    Method of rough comparison                                       100
+
+    Chance against guessing a pattern                                101
+
+    Number of independent elements in a print--squares
+    respectively of one, six, and five ridge-intervals in
+    side                                                         101-103
+
+    Interpolation, three methods of                              103-105
+
+    Local accidents inside square                                    107
+
+    Uncertainties outside it                                         109
+
+    Compound results                                                 110
+
+    Effect of failure in one, two, or more prints                    111
+
+    Final conclusions--Jezebel                                   112-113
+
+
+  CHAPTER VIII
+
+  PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS                                        114
+
+    Frequency per cent of arches, loops, and whorls
+    generally, and on the several digits                         114-115
+
+    Characteristic groups of digits                              116-118
+
+    Relationships between the digits                                 119
+
+    Centesimal scale of relationship                             124-126
+
+    Digits of same and of different names                            130
+
+
+  CHAPTER IX
+
+  METHODS OF INDEXING                                                131
+
+    Use of an index                                                  131
+
+    Method of few conspicuous differences in many fingers            131
+
+    Specimen index                                                   133
+
+    Order in which the digits are noted                              134
+
+    Examples of indexing                                             135
+
+    Effect of regarding slopes                                       135
+
+    Number of index-heads required for 100 sets in each of
+    twelve different methods                                     136-138
+
+    _i_ and _o_ in forefingers only                                  138
+
+    List of commonest index-headings                                 140
+
+    Number of headings to 100 sets, according to the digits
+    that are noted                                                   142
+
+    Transitional cases; sub-classifications                      143-144
+
+    Symbols for patterns                                             144
+
+    Storing cards                                                    145
+
+    Number of entries under each head when only the first
+    three fingers are noted                                          146
+
+
+  CHAPTER X
+
+  PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION                                            147
+
+    Printers and photographers                                       147
+
+    Use of means of identification to honest persons; in
+    regard to criminals                                          148-149
+
+    Major Ferris, Mr. Tabor, N. Borneo                           149-153
+
+    Best digits for registration purposes                            153
+
+    Registration of criminals--M. Bertillon                          154
+
+    Details of _Bertillonage_; success attributed to it; a
+    theoretic error                                              155-158
+
+    Verification on a small scale                                158-162
+
+    Experiences in the United States                                 163
+
+    Body marks; teeth                                            165-166
+
+    Value of finger prints for search in a register                  166
+
+    Identification by comparison                                     167
+
+    Remarks by M. Herbette                                           168
+
+
+  CHAPTER XI
+
+  HEREDITY                                                           170
+
+    Different opinions                                               170
+
+    Larger meaning of heredity                                       170
+
+    Connection between filial and fraternal relationships            171
+
+    Fraternity, a faulty word but the best available                 171
+
+    A and B brothers                                                 172
+
+    Test case of calculated randoms                                  173
+
+    Fraternities by double A. L. W. events                           175
+
+    The C. standard patterns                                         177
+
+    Limitation of couplets in large fraternities                     178
+
+    Test of accurate classification                                  179
+
+    Fraternities by double C. events                                 181
+
+    Centesimal scale applied                                         184
+
+    Twins                                                            185
+
+    Children of like-patterned parents                               187
+
+    Simple filial relationship                                       190
+
+    Influences of father and mother                                  190
+
+
+  CHAPTER XII
+
+  RACES AND CLASSES                                                  192
+
+    Data for races                                                   192
+
+    Racial differences are statistical only                          193
+
+    Calculations by Mr. F. H. Collins                                193
+
+    Hebrew peculiarities                                             194
+
+    Negro peculiarities, questionable                                196
+
+    Data for different classes in temperament, faculty, etc.,
+    and results                                                      197
+
+    M. Fere                                                          197
+
+
+  CHAPTER XIII
+
+  GENERA                                                             198
+
+    Type, meaning of                                                 198
+
+    Law of frequency of error                                        198
+
+    Discussion of three elements in the loops on either thumb    200-207
+
+    Proportions of typical loops                                     209
+
+    The patterns are transmitted under conditions of panmixia,
+    yet do not blend                                                 209
+
+    Their genera are not due to selection; inference                 210
+
+    Sports; variations                                               211
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  Summary of evidence in favour of finger marks being persistent      96
+
+  Interpolation of ridges                                            104
+
+  I. Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the
+  different digits, as observed in the 5000 digits of 500
+  different persons                                                  115
+
+  II. Distribution of the A. L. W. patterns on the corresponding
+  digits of the two hands                                            116
+
+  III. Percentage frequency of Arches on the digits of the two
+  hands                                                              117
+
+  IV. Percentage frequency of Loops on the digits of the two hands   118
+
+  V. Percentage frequency of Whorls on the digits of the two hands   118
+
+  VI_a_. Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern
+  occurs in the same digits of the two hands                         120
+
+  VI_b_. Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern
+  occurs in various couplets of different digits                     120
+
+  VII. Couplets of fingers of different names in the same and in
+  the opposite hands                                                 121
+
+  VIII. Measures of relationship between the digits on a
+  centesimal scale                                                   129
+
+  IX. Index to 100 sets of finger prints                             133
+
+  X. Number of different index-heads in 100 sets, according to
+  the number of digits noted                                         136
+
+  XI. Number of entries under the same heads in 100 sets             139
+
+  XII. Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the
+  sets were registered in 500 sets                                   140
+
+  XIII. Percentage of entries falling under a single head in 100,
+  300, and 500 sets                                                  141
+
+  XIV. Number of different index-headings in 100 sets, according
+  to the number of fingers in each set, and to the method of
+  indexing                                                           142
+
+  XV. Number of entries in 500 sets, each of the fore, middle,
+  and ring-fingers only                                              146
+
+  XVI. Number of cases of various anthropometric data that
+  severally fell in the three classes of large, medium, and
+  small, when certain limiting values were adopted                   159
+
+  XVII. Distribution of 500 sets of measures, each set consisting
+  of five elements, into classes                                     160
+
+  XVIII. Number of the above sets that fell under the same
+  headings                                                           161
+
+  XIX. Further analysis of the two headings that contained the
+  most numerous entries                                              162
+
+  XX. Observed random couplets                                       174
+
+  XXI. Calculated random couplets                                    174
+
+  XXII. Observed fraternal couplets                                  175
+
+  XXIII. Fraternal couplets--random, observed, and utmost
+  feasible                                                           176
+
+  XXIV. Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets        181
+
+  XXV. Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets--
+  random and observed                                                182
+
+  XXVI. Three fingers of right hand in 150 fraternal couplets--
+  resemblance measured on centesimal scale                           182
+
+  XXVII. Twins                                                       186
+
+  XXVIII. Children of like-patterned parents                         188
+
+  XXIX. Paternal and maternal influence                              190
+
+  XXX. Different races, percentage frequency of arches in
+  fore-finger                                                        194
+
+  XXXI. Distribution of number of ridges in AH, and of other
+  measures in loops                                                  203
+
+  XXXII. Ordinates to their schemes of distribution                  204
+
+  XXXIII. Comparison of the above with calculated values             205
+
+  XXXIV. Proportions of a typical loop on the right and left
+  thumbs respectively                                                209
+
+
+
+
+DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES
+
+
+                                                                    PAGE
+
+  I.--Fig. 1. Chinese coin with the symbol of the nail-mark of
+  the Empress Wen-teh                                                 25
+
+  Fig. 2. Order on a camp sutler by Mr. Gilbert Thompson, who
+  used his finger print for the same purpose as the scroll-work
+  in cheques, viz. to ensure the detection of erasures                27
+
+  II.--Fig. 3. Form of card used at my anthropometric laboratory
+  for finger prints. It shows the places where they are severally
+  impressed, whether dabbed or rolled (p. 40), and the hole by
+  which they are secured in their box                                145
+
+  Fig. 4. Small printing roller, used in the pocket apparatus,
+  actual size. It may be covered either with india-rubber tubing
+  or with roller composition                                          40
+
+  III.--Fig. 5. Diagram of the chief peculiarities of ridges,
+  called here _minutiae_ (the scale is about eight times the
+  natural size)                                                       54
+
+  Fig. 6. The systems of ridges and the creases in the palm,
+  indicated respectively by continuous and by dotted lines. Nos.
+  2, 3, 4, and 5 show variations in the boundaries of the systems
+  of ridges, and places where smaller systems are sometimes
+  interpolated                                                        54
+
+  IV.--Fig. 7. The effects of scars and cuts on the ridges: _a_
+  is the result of a deep ulcer; _b_ the finger of a tailor
+  (temporarily) scarred by the needle; _c_ the result of a deep
+  cut                                                                 59
+
+  Fig. 8. Formation of the interspace: filled in (3) by a loop;
+  in (4) by a scroll. The triangular plot or plots are indicated.
+  In (1) there is no interspace, but a succession of arches are
+  formed, gradually flattening into straight lines                    67
+
+  V.--Fig. 9. Specimens of rolled thumb prints, of the natural
+  size, in which the patterns have been outlined, p. 69, and on
+  which lines have been drawn for orientation and charting            68
+
+  VI.--Fig. 10. Specimens of the outlines of the patterns on the
+  ten digits of eight different persons, not selected but taken
+  as they came. Its object is to give a general idea of the degree
+  of their variety. The supply of ridges from the _inner_ (or
+  thumb side) are coloured blue, those from the _outer_ are red
+  (the scale is of the natural size)                                  70
+
+  VII.--Fig. 11. Standard patterns of Arches, together with some
+  transitional forms, all with their names below                      75
+
+  Fig. 12. As above, with respect to Loops                            75
+
+  VIII.--Fig. 13. As above, with respect to Whorls                    75
+
+  Fig. 14. Cores to Loops, which may consist either of single
+  lines, here called _rods_, or of a recurved line or _staple_,
+  while the ridges that immediately envelops them is called an
+  _envelope_                                                          76
+
+  Fig. 15. Cores to Whorls                                            77
+
+  IX.--Fig. 15. Transitional patterns, enlarged three times,
+  between Arches and either Loops or Whorls                           79
+
+  X.--Fig. 16. Transitional patterns, as above, but between Loops
+  and Whorls                                                          79
+
+  XI.--Fig. 17. Diagram showing the nine genera formed by the
+  corresponding combinations of the two letters by which they are
+  expressed, each being _i_, _j_, or _o_ as the case may be. The
+  first two diagrams are Arches, and not strictly patterns at all,
+  but may with some justice be symbolised by _jj_                     80
+
+  Fig. 18. Ambiguities in minutiae, showing that certain details in
+  them are not to be trusted, while others are                        92
+
+  XII.--Fig. 19. The illustrations to Purkenje's _Commentatio_.
+  They are photo-lithographed from the original, which is not
+  clearly printed                                                     86
+
+  XIII.--Fig. 20. Enlarged impressions of the same two fingers
+  of V. H. Hd., first when a child of 2-1/2, and subsequently when
+  a boy of 15 years of age. The lower pair are interesting from
+  containing the unique case of failure of exact coincidence yet
+  observed. It is marked A. The numerals indicate the
+  correspondences                                                     92
+
+  XIV.--Fig. 21. Contains portions on an enlarged scale of eight
+  couplets of finger prints, the first print in each couplet
+  having been taken many years before the second, as shown by the
+  attached dates. The points of correspondence in each couplet are
+  indicated by similar numerals                                       93
+
+  XV.--Fig. 22. The fore-finger of Sir W. J. Herschel as printed
+  on two occasions, many years apart (enlarged scale). The numerals
+  are here inserted on a plan that has the merit of clearness, but
+  some of the lineations are thereby sacrificed                       95
+
+  Fig. 23. Shows the periods of life over which the evidence of
+  identity extends in Figs 20-22. [By an oversight, not perceived
+  until too late for remedy, the bottom line begins at aet. 62
+  instead of 67]                                                      97
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER I
+
+INTRODUCTION
+
+
+The palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are covered with two
+totally distinct classes of marks. The most conspicuous are the creases or
+folds of the skin which interest the followers of palmistry, but which are
+no more significant to others than the creases in old clothes; they show
+the lines of most frequent flexure, and nothing more. The least
+conspicuous marks, but the most numerous by far, are the so-called
+papillary ridges; they form the subject of the present book. If they had
+been only twice as large as they are, they would have attracted general
+attention and been commented on from the earliest times. Had Dean Swift
+known and thought of them, when writing about the Brobdingnags, whom he
+constructs on a scale twelve times as great as our own, he would certainly
+have made Gulliver express horror at the ribbed fingers of the giants who
+handled him. The ridges on their palms would have been as broad as the
+thongs of our coach-whips.
+
+Let no one despise the ridges on account of their smallness, for they are
+in some respects the most important of all anthropological data. We shall
+see that they form patterns, considerable in size and of a curious variety
+of shape, whose boundaries can be firmly outlined, and which are little
+worlds in themselves. They have the unique merit of retaining all their
+peculiarities unchanged throughout life, and afford in consequence an
+incomparably surer criterion of identity than any other bodily feature.
+They may be made to throw welcome light on some of the most interesting
+biological questions of the day, such as heredity, symmetry, correlation,
+and the nature of genera and species. A representation of their lineations
+is easily secured in a self-recorded form, by inking the fingers in the
+way that will be explained, and pressing them on paper. There is no
+prejudice to be overcome in procuring these most trustworthy sign-manuals,
+no vanity to be pacified, no untruths to be guarded against.
+
+My attention was first drawn to the ridges in 1888 when preparing a
+lecture on Personal Identification for the Royal Institution, which had
+for its principal object an account of the anthropometric method of
+Bertillon, then newly introduced into the prison administration of France.
+Wishing to treat the subject generally, and having a vague knowledge of
+the value sometimes assigned to finger marks, I made inquiries, and was
+surprised to find, both how much had been done, and how much there
+remained to do, before establishing their theoretical value and practical
+utility.
+
+Enough was then seen to show that the subject was of real importance, and
+I resolved to investigate it; all the more so, as the modern processes of
+photographic printing would enable the evidence of such results as might
+be arrived at, to be presented to the reader on an enlarged and easily
+legible form, and in a trustworthy shape. Those that are put forward in
+the following pages, admit of considerable extension and improvement, and
+it is only the fact that an account of them seems useful, which causes me
+to delay no further before submitting what has thus far been attained, to
+the criticism of others.
+
+I have already published the following memoirs upon this subject:
+
+    1. "Personal Identification." _Journal Royal Inst._ 25th May 1888, and
+    _Nature_, 28th June 1888.
+
+    2. "Patterns in Thumb and Finger Marks." _Phil. Trans. Royal Society_,
+    vol. clxxxii. (1891) b. pp. 1-23. [This almost wholly referred to
+    thumb marks.]
+
+    3. "Method of Indexing Finger Marks." _Proc. Royal Society_, vol.
+    xlix. (1891).
+
+    4. "Identification by Finger Tips." _Nineteenth Century_, August 1891.
+
+This first and introductory chapter contains a brief and orderly summary
+of the contents of those that follow.
+
+The second chapter treats of the previous employment of finger prints
+among various nations, which has been almost wholly confined to making
+daubs, without paying any regard to the delicate lineations with which
+this book is alone concerned. Their object was partly superstitious and
+partly ceremonial; superstitious, so far as a personal contact between
+the finger and the document was supposed to be of mysterious efficacy:
+ceremonial, as a formal act whose due performance in the presence of
+others could be attested. A few scattered instances are mentioned of
+persons who had made finger prints with enough care to show their
+lineations, and who had studied them; some few of these had used them as
+signatures. Attention is especially drawn to Sir William Herschel, who
+brought the method of finger prints into regular official employment when
+he was "Collector" or chief administrator of the Hooghly district in
+Bengal, and my large indebtedness to him is expressed in this chapter and
+in other places.
+
+In the third chapter various methods of making good prints from the
+fingers are described at length, and more especially that which I have now
+adopted on a somewhat large scale, at my anthropometric laboratory, which,
+through the kindness of the authorities of South Kensington, is at present
+lodged in the galleries of their Science Collections. There, the ten
+digits of both hands of all the persons who come to be measured, are
+impressed with clearness and rapidity, and a very large collection of
+prints is steadily accumulating, each set being, as we shall see, a
+sign-manual that differentiates the person who made it, throughout the
+whole of his life, from all the rest of mankind.
+
+Descriptions are also given of various methods of enlarging a finger print
+to a convenient size, when it is desired to examine it closely.
+Photography is the readiest of all; on the other hand the prism (as in a
+camera lucida) has merits of its own, and so has an enlarging pantagraph,
+when it is furnished with a small microscope and cross wires to serve as a
+pointer.
+
+In the fourth chapter the character and purpose of the ridges, whose
+lineations appear in the finger print, are discussed. They have been the
+topic of a considerable amount of careful physiological study in late
+years, by writers who have investigated their development in early periods
+of unborn life, as well as their evolutionary history. They are perfectly
+defined in the monkeys, but appear in a much less advanced stage in other
+mammalia. Their courses run somewhat independently of the lines of
+flexure. They are studded with pores, which are the open mouths of ducts
+proceeding from the somewhat deeply-seated glands which secrete
+perspiration, so one of their functions is to facilitate the riddance of
+that excretion. The ridges increase in height as the skin is thickened by
+hard usage, until callosities begin to be formed, which may altogether
+hide them. But the way in which they assist the touch and may tend to
+neutralise the dulling effect of a thick protective skin, is still
+somewhat obscure. They certainly seem to help in the discrimination of the
+character of surfaces that are variously rubbed between the fingers.
+
+These preliminary topics having been disposed of, we are free in the fifth
+chapter to enter upon the direct course of our inquiry, beginning with a
+discussion of the various patterns formed by the lineations. It will be
+shown how systems of parallel ridges sweep in bold curves across the
+palmar surface of the hand, and how, whenever the boundaries of two
+systems diverge, the interspace is filled up by a compact little system of
+its own, variously curved or whorled, having a fictitious resemblance to
+an eddy between two currents. An interspace of this kind is found in the
+bulb of each finger. The ridges run in parallel lines across the finger,
+up to its last joint, beyond which the insertion of the finger-nail causes
+a compression of the ridges on either side; their intermediate courses are
+in consequence so much broadened out that they commonly separate, and form
+two systems with an interspace between them. The independent patterns that
+appear in this interspace upon the bulbs of the fingers, are those with
+which this book is chiefly concerned.
+
+At first sight, the maze formed by the minute lineations is bewildering,
+but it is shown that every interspace can be surely outlined, and when
+this is done, the character of the pattern it encloses, starts
+conspicuously into view. Examples are given to show how the outlining is
+performed, and others in which the outlines alone are taken into
+consideration. The cores of the patterns are also characteristic, and are
+described separately. It is they alone that have attracted the notice of
+previous inquirers. The outlines fall for the most part into nine distinct
+genera, defined by the relative directions of the divergent ridges that
+enclose them. The upper pair (those that run towards the finger-tip) may
+unite, or one or other of them may surmount the other, thus making three
+possibilities. There are three similar possibilities in respect to the
+lower pair; so, as any one of the first group may be combined with any one
+of the second, there are 3 x 3, or nine possibilities in all. The practice
+of somewhat rolling the finger when printing from it, is necessary in
+order to impress enough of its surface to ensure that the points at which
+the boundaries of the pattern begin to diverge, shall be always included.
+
+Plates are given of the principal varieties of patterns, having regard
+only to their more fundamental differences, and names are attached for the
+convenience of description; specimens are also given of the outlines of
+the patterns in all the ten digits of eight different persons, taken at
+hazard, to afford a first idea of the character of the material to be
+dealt with. Another and less minute system of classification under three
+heads is then described, which is very useful for rough preliminary
+purposes, and of which frequent use is made further on. It is into Arches,
+Loops, and Whorls. In the Arches, there is no pattern strictly speaking,
+for there is no interspace; the need for it being avoided by a successive
+and regular broadening out of the ridges as they cross the bulb of the
+finger. In Loops, the interspace is filled with a system of ridges that
+bends back upon itself, and in which no one ridge turns through a complete
+circle. Whorls contain all cases in which at least one ridge turns through
+a complete circle, and they include certain double patterns which have a
+whorled appearance. The transitional cases are few; they are fully
+described, pictured, and classified. One great advantage of the rude A.
+L. W. system is that it can be applied, with little risk of error, to
+impressions that are smudged or imperfect; it is therefore very useful so
+far as it goes. Thus it can be easily applied to my own finger prints on
+the title-page, made as they are from digits that are creased and
+roughened by seventy years of life, and whose impressions have been
+closely clipped in order to fit them into a limited space.
+
+A third method of classification is determined by the origin of the ridges
+which supply the interspace, whether it be from the thumb side or the
+little-finger side; in other words, from the Inner or the Outer side.
+
+Lastly, a translation from the Latin is given of the famous Thesis or
+_Commentatio_ of Purkenje, delivered at the University of Breslau in 1823,
+together with his illustrations. It is a very rare pamphlet, and has the
+great merit of having first drawn attention to the patterns and attempted
+to classify them.
+
+In the sixth chapter we reach the question of Persistence: whether or no
+the patterns are so durable as to afford a sure basis for identification.
+The answer was different from what had been expected. So far as the
+proportions of the patterns go, they are _not_ absolutely fixed, even in
+the adult, inasmuch as they change with the shape of the finger. If the
+finger is plumped out or emaciated, or variously deformed by usage, gout,
+or age, the proportions of the pattern will vary also. Two prints of the
+same finger, one taken before and the other after an interval of many
+years, cannot be expected to be as closely alike as two prints similarly
+made from the same woodcut. They are far from satisfying the shrewd test
+of the stereoscope, which shows if there has been an alteration even of a
+letter in two otherwise duplicate pages of print. The measurements vary at
+different periods, even in the adult, just as much if not more than his
+height, span, and the lengths of his several limbs. On the other hand, the
+numerous bifurcations, origins, islands, and enclosures in the ridges that
+compose the pattern, are proved to be _almost beyond change_. A comparison
+is made between the pattern on a finger, and one on a piece of lace; the
+latter may be stretched or shrunk as a whole, but the threads of which it
+is made retain their respective peculiarities. The evidence on which these
+conclusions are founded is considerable, and almost wholly derived from
+the collections made by Sir W. Herschel, who most kindly placed them at my
+disposal. They refer to one or more fingers, and in a few instances to the
+whole hand, of fifteen different persons. The intervals before and after
+which the prints were taken, amount in some cases to thirty years. Some of
+them reach from babyhood to boyhood, some from childhood to youth, some
+from youth to advanced middle age, one from middle life to incipient old
+age. These four stages nearly include the whole of the ordinary life of
+man. I have compared altogether some 700 points of reference in these
+couplets of impressions, and only found a single instance of discordance,
+in which a ridge that was cleft in a child became united in later years.
+Photographic enlargements are given in illustration, which include between
+them a total of 157 pairs of points of reference, all bearing distinctive
+numerals to facilitate comparison and to prove their unchangeableness.
+Reference is made to another illustrated publication of mine, which raises
+the total number of points compared to 389, all of which were successful,
+with the single exception above mentioned. The fact of an almost complete
+persistence in the peculiarities of the ridges from birth to death, may
+now be considered as determined. They existed before birth, and they
+persist after death, until effaced by decomposition.
+
+In the seventh chapter an attempt is made to appraise the evidential value
+of finger prints by the common laws of Probability, paying great heed not
+to treat variations that are really correlated, as if they were
+independent. An artifice is used by which the number of portions is
+determined, into which a print may be divided, in each of which the purely
+local conditions introduce so much uncertainty, that a guess derived from
+a knowledge of the outside conditions is as likely as not to be wrong. A
+square of six ridge-intervals in the side was shown by three different
+sets of experiments to be larger than required; one of four
+ridge-intervals in the side was too small, but one of five ridge-intervals
+appeared to be closely correct. A six-ridge interval square was, however,
+at first adopted, in order to gain assurance that the error should be on
+the safe side. As an ordinary finger print contains about twenty-four of
+these squares, the uncertainty in respect to the entire contents of the
+pattern _due to this cause alone_, is expressed by a fraction of which the
+numerator is 1, and the denominator is 2 multiplied into itself
+twenty-four times, which amounts to a number so large that it requires
+eight figures to express it.
+
+A further attempt was made to roughly appraise the neglected uncertainties
+relating to the outside conditions, but large as they are, they seem much
+inferior in their joint effect to the magnitude of that just discussed.
+
+Next it was found possible, by the use of another artifice, to obtain some
+idea of the evidential value of identity when two prints agree in all but
+one, two, three, or any other number of particulars. This was done by
+using the five ridge-interval squares, of which thirty-five may be
+considered to go into a single finger print, being about the same as the
+number of the bifurcations, origins, and other points of comparison. The
+accidental similarity in their numbers enables us to treat them roughly as
+equivalent. On this basis the well-known method of binomial calculation is
+easily applied, with the general result that, notwithstanding a failure of
+evidence in a few points, as to the identity of two sets of prints, each,
+say, of three fingers, amply enough evidence would be supplied by the
+remainder to prevent any doubt that the two sets of prints were made by
+the same person. When a close correspondence exists in respect to all the
+ten digits, the thoroughness of the differentiation of each man from all
+the rest of the human species is multiplied to an extent far beyond the
+capacity of human imagination. There can be no doubt that the evidential
+value of identity afforded by prints of two or three of the fingers, is so
+great as to render it superfluous to seek confirmation from other sources.
+
+The eighth chapter deals with the frequency with which the several kinds
+of patterns appear on the different digits of the same person, severally
+and in connection. The subject is a curious one, and the inquiry
+establishes unexpected relationships and distinctions between different
+fingers and between the two hands, to whose origin there is at present no
+clue. The relationships are themselves connected in the following
+way;--calling any two digits on one of the hands by the letters A and B
+respectively, and the digit on the other hand, that corresponds to B, by
+the symbol B1, then the kinship between A and B1 is identical, in a
+statistical sense, with the kinship between A and B.
+
+The chief novelty in this chapter is an attempt to classify nearness of
+relationship upon a centesimal scale, in which the number of
+correspondences due to mere chance counts as 0 deg., and complete identity as
+100 deg. It seems reasonable to adopt the scale with only slight reservation,
+when the average numbers of the Arches, Loops, and Whorls are respectively
+the same in the two kinds of digit which are compared together; but when
+they differ greatly, there are no means free from objection, of
+determining the 100 deg. division of the scale; so the results, if noted at
+all, are subject to grave doubt.
+
+Applying this scale, it appears that digits on opposite hands, which bear
+the same name, are more nearly related together than digits bearing
+different names, in about the proportion of three to two. It seems also,
+that of all the digits, none are so nearly related as the middle finger to
+the two adjacent ones.
+
+In the ninth chapter, various methods of indexing are discussed and
+proposed, by which a set of finger prints may be so described by a few
+letters, that it can be easily searched for and found in any large
+collection, just as the name of a person is found in a directory. The
+procedure adopted, is to apply the Arch-Loop-Whorl classification to all
+ten digits, describing each digit in the order in which it is taken, by
+the letter _a_, _l_, or _w_, as the case may be, and arranging the results
+in alphabetical sequence. The downward direction of the slopes of loops on
+the fore-fingers is also taken into account, whether it be towards the
+Inner or the Outer side, thus replacing L on the fore-finger by either _i_
+or _o_.
+
+Many alternative methods are examined, including both the recognition and
+the non-recognition of all sloped patterns. Also the gain in
+differentiation, when all the ten digits are catalogued, instead of only a
+few of them. There is so much correlation between the different fingers,
+and so much peculiarity in each, that theoretical notions of the value of
+different methods of classification are of little worth; it is only by
+actual trial that the best can be determined. Whatever plan of index be
+adopted, many patterns must fall under some few headings and few or no
+patterns under others, the former class resembling in that respect the
+Smiths, Browns, and other common names that occur in directories. The
+general value of the index much depends on the facility with which these
+frequent forms can be broken up by sub-classification, the rarer forms
+being easily dealt with. This branch of the subject has, however, been but
+lightly touched, under the belief that experience with larger collections
+than my own, was necessary before it could be treated thoroughly; means
+are, however, indicated for breaking up the large battalions, which have
+answered well thus far, and seem to admit of considerable extension. Thus,
+the number of ridges in a loop (which is by far the commonest pattern) on
+any particular finger, at the part of the impression where the ridges are
+cut by the axis of the loop, is a fairly definite and effective datum as
+well as a simple one; so also is the character of its inmost lineation, or
+core.
+
+In the tenth chapter we come to a practical result of the inquiry, namely,
+its possible use as a means of differentiating a man from his fellows. In
+civil as well as in criminal cases, the need of some such system is shown
+to be greatly felt in many of our dependencies; where the features of
+natives are distinguished with difficulty; where there is but little
+variety of surnames; where there are strong motives for prevarication,
+especially connected with land-tenure and pensions, and a proverbial
+prevalence of unveracity.
+
+It is also shown that the value to honest men of sure means of
+identifying themselves is not so small among civilised nations even in
+peace time, as to be disregarded, certainly not in times of war and of
+strict passports. But the value to honest men is always great of being
+able to identify offenders, whether they be merely deserters or formerly
+convicted criminals, and the method of finger prints is shown to be
+applicable to that purpose. For aid in searching the registers of a
+criminal intelligence bureau, its proper rank is probably a secondary one;
+the primary being some form of the already established Bertillon
+anthropometric method. Whatever power the latter gives of successfully
+searching registers, that power would be multiplied many hundredfold by
+the inclusion of finger prints, because their peculiarities are entirely
+unconnected with other personal characteristics, as we shall see further
+on. A brief account is given in this chapter of the Bertillon system, and
+an attempt is made on a small scale to verify its performance, by
+analysing five hundred sets of measures made at my own laboratory. These,
+combined with the quoted experiences in attempting to identify deserters
+in the United States, allow a high value to this method, though not so
+high as has been claimed for it, and show the importance of supplementary
+means. But whenever two suspected duplicates of measurements, bodily
+marks, photographs and finger prints have to be compared, the lineations
+of the finger prints would give an incomparably more trustworthy answer to
+the question, whether or no the suspicion of their referring to the same
+person was justified, than all the rest put together. Besides this, while
+measurements and photographs are serviceable only for adults, and even
+then under restrictions, the finger prints are available throughout life.
+It seems difficult to believe, now that their variety and persistence have
+been proved, the means of classifying them worked out, and the method of
+rapidly obtaining clear finger prints largely practised at my laboratory
+and elsewhere, that our criminal administration can long neglect the use
+of such a powerful auxiliary. It requires no higher skill and judgment to
+make, register, and hunt out finger prints, than is to be found in
+abundance among ordinary clerks. Of course some practice is required
+before facility can be gained in reading and recognising them, but not a
+few persons of whom I have knowledge, have interested themselves in doing
+so, and found no difficulty.
+
+The eleventh chapter treats of Heredity, and affirmatively answers the
+question whether patterns are transmissible by descent. The inquiry proved
+more troublesome than was expected, on account of the great variety in
+patterns and the consequent rarity with which the same pattern, other than
+the common Loop, can be expected to appear in relatives. The available
+data having been attacked both by the Arch-Loop-Whorl method, and by a
+much more elaborate system of classification--described and figured as the
+C system, the resemblances between children of either sex, of the same
+parents (or more briefly "fraternal" resemblances, as they are here
+called, for want of a better term), have been tabulated and discussed. A
+batch of twins have also been analysed. Then cases have been treated in
+which both parents had the same pattern on corresponding fingers; this
+pattern was compared with the pattern on the corresponding finger of the
+child. In these and other ways, results were obtained, all testifying to
+the conspicuous effect of heredity, and giving results that can be
+measured on the centesimal scale already described. But though the
+qualitative results are clear, the quantitative are as yet not well
+defined, and that part of the inquiry must lie over until a future time,
+when I shall have more data and when certain foreseen improvements in the
+method of work may perhaps be carried out. There is a decided appearance,
+first observed by Mr. F. Howard Collins, of whom I shall again have to
+speak, of the influence of the mother being stronger than that of the
+father, in transmitting these patterns.
+
+In the twelfth chapter we come to a branch of the subject of which I had
+great expectations, that have been falsified, namely, their use in
+indicating Race and Temperament. I thought that any hereditary
+peculiarities would almost of necessity vary in different races, and that
+so fundamental and enduring a feature as the finger markings must in some
+way be correlated with temperament.
+
+The races I have chiefly examined are English, most of whom were of the
+upper and middle classes; the others chiefly from London board schools;
+Welsh, from the purest Welsh-speaking districts of South Wales; Jews from
+the large London schools, and Negroes from the territories of the Royal
+Niger Company. I have also a collection of Basque prints taken at Cambo,
+some twenty miles inland from Biarritz, which, although small, is large
+enough to warrant a provisional conclusion. As a first and only an
+approximately correct description, the English, Welsh, Jews, Negroes, and
+Basques, may all be spoken of as identical in the character of their
+finger prints; the same familiar patterns appearing in all of them with
+much the same degrees of frequency, the differences between groups of
+different races being not larger than those that occasionally occur
+between groups of the same race. The Jews have, however, a decidedly
+larger proportion of Whorled patterns than other races, and I should have
+been tempted to make an assertion about a peculiarity in the Negroes, had
+not one of their groups differed greatly from the rest. The task of
+examination has been laborious thus far, but it would be much more so to
+arrive with correctness at a second and closer approximation to the truth.
+It is doubtful at present whether it is worth while to pursue the subject,
+except in the case of the Hill tribes of India and a few other peculiarly
+diverse races, for the chance of discovering some characteristic and
+perhaps a more monkey-like pattern.
+
+Considerable collections of prints of persons belonging to different
+classes have been analysed, such as students in science, and students in
+arts; farm labourers; men of much culture; and the lowest idiots in the
+London district (who are all sent to Darenth Asylum), but I do not, still
+as a first approximation, find any decided difference between their finger
+prints. The ridges of artists are certainly not more delicate and close
+than those of men of quite another stamp.
+
+In Chapter XIII. the question is discussed and answered affirmatively, of
+the right of the nine fundamentally differing patterns to be considered as
+different genera; also of their more characteristic varieties to rank as
+different genera, or species, as the case may be. The chief test applied,
+respected the frequency with which the various Loops that occurred on the
+thumbs, were found to differ, in successive degrees of difference, from
+the central form of all of them; it was found to accord with the
+requirements of the well-known law of Frequency of Error, proving the
+existence of a central type, from which the departures were, in common
+phraseology, accidental. Now all the evidence in the last chapter concurs
+in showing that no sensible amount of correlation exists between any of
+the patterns on the one hand, and any of the bodily faculties or
+characteristics on the other. It would be absurd therefore to assert that
+in the struggle for existence, a person with, say, a loop on his right
+middle finger has a better chance of survival, or a better chance of early
+marriage, than one with an arch. Consequently genera and species are here
+seen to be formed without the slightest aid from either Natural or Sexual
+Selection, and these finger patterns are apparently the only peculiarity
+in which Panmixia, or the effect of promiscuous marriages, admits of being
+studied on a large scale. The result of Panmixia in finger markings,
+corroborates the arguments I have used in _Natural Inheritance_ and
+elsewhere, to show that "organic stability" is the primary factor by which
+the distinctions between genera are maintained; consequently, the progress
+of evolution is not a smooth and uniform progression, but one that
+proceeds by jerks, through successive "sports" (as they are called), some
+of them implying considerable organic changes, and each in its turn being
+favoured by Natural Selection.
+
+The same word "variation" has been indiscriminately applied to two very
+different conceptions, which ought to be clearly distinguished; the one is
+that of the "sports" just alluded to, which are changes in the position of
+organic stability, and may, through the aid of Natural Selection, become
+fresh steps in the onward course of evolution; the other is that of the
+Variations proper, which are merely strained conditions of a stable form
+of organisation, and not in any way an overthrow of them. Sports do not
+blend freely together; variations proper do so. Natural Selection acts
+upon variations proper, just as it does upon sports, by preserving the
+best to become parents, and eliminating the worst, but its action upon
+mere variations can, as I conceive, be of no permanent value to evolution,
+because there is a constant tendency in the offspring to "regress" towards
+the parental type. The amount and results of this tendency have been
+fully established in _Natural Inheritance_. It is there shown, that after
+a certain departure from the central typical form has been reached in any
+race, a further departure becomes impossible without the aid of these
+sports. In the successive generations of such a population, the average
+tendency of filial regression towards the racial centre must at length
+counterbalance the effects of filial dispersion; consequently the best of
+the produce cannot advance beyond the level already attained by the
+parents, the rest falling short of it in various degrees.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+In concluding these introductory remarks, I have to perform the grateful
+duty of acknowledging my indebtedness to Mr. F. Howard Collins, who
+materially helped me during the past year. He undertook the numerous and
+tedious tabulations upon which the chapters on Heredity, and on Races and
+Classes, are founded, and he thoroughly revised nearly the whole of my
+MS., to the great advantage of the reader of this book.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER II
+
+PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS
+
+
+The employment of impressions of the hand or fingers to serve as
+sign-manuals will probably be found in every nation of importance, but the
+significance attached to them differs. It ranges from a mere superstition
+that personal contact is important, up to the conviction of which this
+book will furnish assurance, that when they are properly made, they are
+incomparably the most sure and unchanging of all forms of signature. The
+existence of the superstitious basis is easily noted in children and the
+uneducated; it occupies a prominent place in the witchcrafts of
+barbarians. The modern witness who swears on the Bible, is made to hold it
+and afterwards to kiss it; he who signs a document, touches a seal or
+wafer, and declares that "this is my act and deed." Students of the
+primitive customs of mankind find abundant instances of the belief, that
+personal contact communicates some mysterious essence from the thing
+touched to the person who touches it, and _vice versa_; but it is
+unnecessary here to enter further into these elementary human reasonings,
+which are fully described and discussed by various well-known writers.
+
+The next grade of significance attached to an impression resembles that
+which commends itself to the mind of a hunter who is practised in
+tracking. He notices whether a footprint he happens to light upon, is
+larger or smaller, broader or narrower, or otherwise differs from the
+average, in any special peculiarity; he thence draws his inferences as to
+the individual who made it. So, when a chief presses his hand smeared with
+blood or grime, upon a clean surface, a mark is left in some degree
+characteristic of him. It may be that of a broad stumpy hand, or of a long
+thin one; it may be large or small; it may even show lines corresponding
+to the principal creases of the palm. Such hand prints have been made and
+repeated in many semi-civilised nations, and have even been impressed in
+vermilion on their State documents, as formerly by the sovereign of Japan.
+Though mere smudges, they serve in a slight degree to individualise the
+signer, while they are more or less clothed with the superstitious
+attributes of personal contact. So far as I can learn, no higher form of
+finger printing than this has ever existed, in regular and well-understood
+use, in any barbarous or semi-civilised nation. The ridges dealt with in
+this book could not be seen at all in such rude prints, much less could
+they be utilised as strictly distinctive features. It is possible that
+when impressions of the fingers have been made in wax, and used as seals
+to documents, they may sometimes have been subjected to minute scrutiny;
+but no account has yet reached me of trials in any of their courts of law,
+about disputed signatures, in which the identity of the party who was said
+to have signed with his finger print, had been established or disproved by
+comparing it with a print made by him then and there. The reader need be
+troubled with only a few examples, taken out of a considerable collection
+of extracts from books and letters, in which prints, or rather daubs of
+the above kind, are mentioned.
+
+A good instance of their small real value may be seen in the _Trans. China
+Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society_, Part 1, 1847, published at
+Hong-Kong, which contains a paper on "Land Tenure in China," by T. Meadows
+Taylor, with a deed concerning a sale of land, in facsimile, and its
+translation: this ends, "The mother and the son, the sellers, have in the
+presence of all the parties, received the price of the land in full,
+amounting to sixty-four taels and five mace, in perfect dollars weighed in
+scales. _Impression of the finger of the mother, of the maiden name of
+Chin._" The impression, as it appears in the woodcut, is roundish in
+outline, and was therefore made by the tip and not the bulb of the finger.
+Its surface is somewhat mottled, but there is no trace of any ridges.
+
+The native clerks of Bengal give the name of _tipsahi_ to the mark
+impressed by illiterate persons who, refusing to make either a X or their
+caste-mark, dip their finger into the ink-pot and touch the document. The
+tipsahi is not supposed to individualise the signer, it is merely a
+personal ceremony performed in the presence of witnesses.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 1.
+
+FIG. 1. Chinese Coin, Tang Dynasty, about 618 A.D., with nail mark of the
+Empress Wen-teh, figured in relief.
+
+FIG. 2. Order on a Camp Sutler, by the officer of a surveying party in New
+Mexico. 1882.]
+
+
+Many impressions of fingers are found on ancient pottery, as on Roman
+tiles; indeed the Latin word _palmatus_ is said to mean an impression in
+soft clay, such as a mark upon a wall, stamped by a blow with the palm.
+Nail-marks are used ornamentally by potters of various nations. They exist
+on Assyrian bricks as signatures; for instance, in the Assyrian room of
+the British Museum, on the west side of the case C 43, one of these bricks
+contains a notice of sale and is prefaced by words that were translated
+for me thus: "Nail-mark of Nabu-sum-usur, the seller of the field, (used)
+like his seal." A somewhat amusing incident affected the design of the
+Chinese money during the great Tang dynasty, about 618 A.D. A new and
+important issue of coinage was to be introduced, and the Secretary of the
+Censors himself moulded the design in wax, and humbly submitted it to the
+Empress Wen-teh for approval. She, through maladroitness, dug the end of
+her enormously long finger-nail into its face, marking it deeply as with a
+carpenter's gouge. The poor Secretary of the Censors, Ngeu-yang-siun, who
+deserves honour from professional courtiers, suppressing such sentiments
+as he must have felt when his work was mauled, accepted the nail-mark of
+the Empress as an interesting supplement to the design; he changed it into
+a crescent in relief, and the new coins were stamped accordingly. (See
+_Coins and Medals_, edited by Stanley Lane Poole, 1885, p. 221.) A
+drawing of one of these is given in Plate 1, Fig. 1.
+
+The European practitioners of palmistry and cheiromancy do not seem to
+have paid particular attention to the ridges with which we are concerned.
+A correspondent of the American Journal _Science_, viii. 166, states,
+however, that the Chinese class the striae at the ends of the fingers into
+"pots" when arranged in a coil, and into "hooks." They are also regarded
+by the cheiromantists in Japan. A curious account has reached me of
+negroes in the United States who, laying great stress on the possession of
+finger prints in wax or dough for witchcraft purposes, are also said to
+examine their striae.
+
+Leaving Purkenje to be spoken of in a later chapter, because he deals
+chiefly with classification, the first well-known person who appears to
+have studied the lineations of the ridges as a means of identification,
+was Bewick, who made an impression of his own thumb on a block of wood and
+engraved it, as well as an impression of a finger. They were used as
+fanciful designs for his illustrated books. Occasional instances of
+careful study may also be noted, such as that of Mr. Fauld (_Nature_,
+xxii. p. 605, Oct. 28, 1880), who seems to have taken much pains, and that
+of Mr. Tabor, the eminent photographer of San Francisco, who, noticing the
+lineations of a print that he had accidentally made with his own inked
+finger upon a blotting-paper, experimented further, and finally proposed
+the method of finger prints for the registration of Chinese, whose
+identification has always been a difficulty, and was giving a great deal
+of trouble at that particular time; but his proposal dropped through.
+Again Mr. Gilbert Thompson, an American geologist, when on Government duty
+in 1882 in the wild parts of New Mexico, paid the members of his party by
+order of the camp sutler. To guard against forgery he signed his name
+across the impression made by his finger upon the order, after first
+pressing it on his office pad. He was good enough to send me the duplicate
+of one of these cheques made out in favour of a man who bore the ominous
+name of "Lying Bob" (Plate 1, Fig. 2). The impression took the place of
+the scroll work on an ordinary cheque; it was in violet aniline ink, and
+looked decidedly pretty. From time to time sporadic instances like these
+are met with, but none are comparable in importance to the regular and
+official employment made of finger prints by Sir William Herschel, during
+more than a quarter of a century in Bengal. I was exceedingly obliged to
+him for much valuable information when first commencing this study, and
+have been almost wholly indebted to his kindness for the materials used in
+this book for proving the persistence of the lineations throughout life.
+
+Sir William Herschel has presented me with one of the two original
+"Contracts" in Bengali, dated 1858, which suggested to his mind the idea
+of using this method of identification. It was so difficult to obtain
+credence to the signatures of the natives, that he thought he would use
+the signature of the hand itself, chiefly with the intention of
+frightening the man who made it from afterwards denying his formal act;
+however, the impression proved so good that Sir W. Herschel became
+convinced that the same method might be further utilised. He finally
+introduced the use of finger prints in several departments at Hooghly in
+1877, after seventeen years' experience of the value of the evidence they
+afforded. A too brief account of his work was given by him in _Nature_,
+xxiii. p. 23 (Nov. 25, 1880). He mentions there that he had been taking
+finger marks as sign-manuals for more than twenty years, and had
+introduced them for practical purposes in several ways in India with
+marked benefit. They rendered attempts to repudiate signatures quite
+hopeless. Finger prints were taken of Pensioners to prevent their
+personation by others after their death; they were used in the office for
+Registration of Deeds, and at a gaol where each prisoner had to sign with
+his finger. By comparing the prints of persons then living, with their
+prints taken twenty years previously, he considered he had proved that the
+lapse of at least that period made no change sufficient to affect the
+utility of the plan. He informs me that he submitted, in 1877, a report in
+semi-official form to the Inspector-General of Gaols, asking to be allowed
+to extend the process; but no result followed. In 1881, at the request of
+the Governor of the gaol at Greenwich (Sydney), he sent a description of
+the method, but no further steps appear to have been taken there.
+
+If the use of finger prints ever becomes of general importance, Sir
+William Herschel must be regarded as the first who devised a feasible
+method for regular use, and afterwards officially adopted it. His method
+of printing for those purposes will be found in the next chapter.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER III
+
+METHODS OF PRINTING
+
+
+It will be the aim of this chapter to show how to make really good and
+permanent impressions of the fingers. It is very easy to do so when the
+principles of the art are understood and practised, but difficult
+otherwise.
+
+One example of the ease of making good, but not permanent impressions, is
+found, and should be tried, by pressing the bulb of a finger against
+well-polished glass, or against the highly-polished blade of a razor. The
+finger must be _very slightly_ oiled, as by passing it through the hair;
+if it be moist, dry it with a handkerchief before the oiling. Then press
+the bulb of the finger on the glass or razor, as the case may be, and a
+beautiful impression will be left. The hardness of the glass or steel
+prevents its surface from rising into the furrows under the pressure of
+the ridges, while the layer of oil which covers the bottom of the furrows
+is too thin to reach down to the glass or steel; consequently the ridges
+alone are printed. There is no capillary or other action to spread the
+oil, so the impression remains distinct. A merely moist and not oily
+finger leaves a similar mark, but it soon evaporates.
+
+This simple method is often convenient for quickly noting the character of
+a finger pattern. The impression may be made on a window-pane, a
+watch-glass, or even an eye-glass, if nothing better is at hand. The
+impression is not seen to its fullest advantage except by means of a
+single small source of bright light. The glass or steel has to be so
+inclined as just _not_ to reflect the light into the eye. That part of the
+light which falls on the oily impression is not so sharply reflected from
+it as from the surface of the glass or steel. Consequently some stray
+beams of the light which is scattered from the oil, reach the eye, while
+all of the light reflected from the highly-polished glass or steel passes
+in another direction and is unseen. The result is a brilliantly luminous
+impression on a dark background. The impression ceases to be visible when
+the glass or steel is not well polished, and itself scatters the light,
+like the oil.
+
+There are two diametrically opposed methods of printing, each being the
+complement of the other. The method used in ordinary printing, is to ink
+the projecting surfaces only, leaving the depressed parts clean. The other
+method, used in printing from engraved plates, is to ink the whole
+surface, and then to clean the ink from the projecting parts, leaving the
+depressions only filled with it. Either of these two courses can be
+adopted in taking finger prints, but not the two together, for when they
+are combined in equal degrees the result must be a plain black blot.
+
+The following explanations will be almost entirely confined to the first
+method, namely, that of ordinary printing, as the second method has so far
+not given equally good results.
+
+The ink used may be either printer's ink or water colour, but for
+producing the best work, rapidly and on a large scale, the method of
+printer's ink seems in every respect preferable. However, water colour
+suffices for some purposes, and as there is so much convenience in a pad,
+drenched with dye, such as is commonly used for hand stamps, and which is
+always ready for use, many may prefer it. The processes with printer's ink
+will be described first.
+
+The relief formed by the ridges is low. In the fingers of very young
+children, and of some ladies whose hands are rarely submitted to rough
+usage, the ridges are exceptionally faint; their crests hardly rise above
+the furrows, yet it is the crests only that are to be inked. Consequently
+the layer of ink on the slab or pad on which the finger is pressed for the
+purpose of blackening it, must be _very thin_. Its thickness must be less
+than half the elevation of the ridges, for when the finger is pressed
+down, the crests displace the ink immediately below them, and drives it
+upwards into the furrows which would otherwise be choked with it.
+
+It is no violent misuse of metaphor to compare the ridges to the crests of
+mountain ranges, and the depth of the blackening that they ought to
+receive, to that of the newly-fallen snow upon the mountaintops in the
+early autumn, when it powders them from above downwards to a
+sharply-defined level. The most desirable blackening of the fingers
+corresponds to a snowfall which covers all the higher passes, but descends
+no lower.
+
+With a finger so inked it is scarcely possible to fail in making a good
+imprint; the heaviest pressure cannot spoil it. The first desideratum is,
+then, to cover the slab by means of which the finger is to be blackened,
+with an extremely thin layer of ink.
+
+This cannot be accomplished with printer's ink unless the slab is very
+clean, the ink somewhat fluid, and the roller that is used to spread it,
+in good condition. When a plate of glass is used for the slab, it is easy,
+by holding the inked slab between the eye and the light, to judge of the
+correct amount of inking. It should appear by no means black, but of a
+somewhat light brown.
+
+The thickness of ink transferred by the finger to the paper is much less
+than that which lay upon the slab. The ink adheres to the slab as well as
+to the finger; when they are separated, only a portion of the ink is
+removed by the finger. Again, when the inked finger is pressed on the
+paper, only a portion of the ink that was on the finger is transferred to
+the paper. Owing to this double reduction, it seldom happens that a clear
+impression is at the same time black. An ideally perfect material for
+blackening would lie loosely on the slab like dust, it would cling very
+lightly to the finger, but adhere firmly to the paper.
+
+The last preliminary to be noticed is the slowness with which the
+printer's ink hardens on the slab, and the rapidity with which it dries on
+paper. While serviceable for hours in the former case, in the latter it
+will be dry in a very few seconds. The drying or hardening of this oily
+ink has nothing whatever to do with the loss of moisture in the ordinary
+sense of the word, that is to say, of the loss of the contained water: it
+is wholly due to oxidisation of the oil. An extremely thin oxidised film
+soon forms on the surface of the layer on the slab, and this shields the
+lower-lying portions of the layer from the air, and retards further
+oxidisation. But paper is very unlike a polished slab; it is a fine felt,
+full of minute interstices. When a printed period (.) is placed under the
+microscope it looks like a drop of tar in the middle of a clean
+bird's-nest. The ink is minutely divided among the interstices of the
+paper, and a large surface being thereby exposed to the air, it oxidises
+at once, while a print from the finger upon glass will not dry for two or
+three days. One effect of oxidisation is to give a granulated appearance
+to the ink on rollers which have been allowed to get dirty. This
+granulation leaves clots on the slab which are fatal to good work:
+whenever they are seen, the roller must be cleaned at once.
+
+The best ink for finger printing is not the best for ordinary printing. It
+is important to a commercial printer that his ink should dry rapidly on
+the paper, and he does not want a particularly thin layer of it;
+consequently, he prefers ink that contains various drying materials, such
+as litharge, which easily part with their oxygen. In finger prints this
+rapid drying is unnecessary, and the drying materials do harm by making
+the ink too stiff. The most serviceable ink for our purpose is made of any
+pure "drying" oil (or oil that oxidises rapidly), mixed with lampblack and
+very little else. I get mine in small collapsible tubes, each holding
+about a quarter of an ounce, from Messrs. Reeve & Sons, 113 Cheapside,
+London, W.C. Some thousands of fingers may be printed from the contents of
+one of these little tubes.
+
+Let us now pass on to descriptions of printing apparatus. First, of that
+in regular use at my anthropometric laboratory at South Kensington, which
+has acted perfectly for three years; then of a similar but small apparatus
+convenient to carry about or send abroad, and of temporary arrangements in
+case any part of it may fail. Then lithographic printing will be noticed.
+In all these cases some kind of printer's ink has to be used. Next, smoke
+prints will be described, which at times are very serviceable; after this
+the methods of water colours and aniline dyes; then casts of various
+kinds; last of all, enlargements.
+
+_Laboratory apparatus._--Mine consists of: 1, slab; 2, roller; 3, bottle
+of benzole (paraffin, turpentine, or solution of washing soda); 4, a
+funnel, with blotting-paper to act as a filter; 5, printer's ink; 6, rags
+and duster; 7, a small glass dish; 8, cards to print on.
+
+The _Slab_ is a sheet of polished copper, 10-1/2 inches by 7, and about
+1/16 inch thick, mounted on a solid board 3/4 inch thick, with projecting
+ears for ease of handling. The whole weighs 2-1/2 lbs. Each day it is
+cleaned with the benzole and left bright. [A slab of more than double the
+length and less than half the width might, as my assistant thinks, answer
+better.]
+
+The _Roller_ is an ordinary small-sized printer's roller, 6 inches long
+and 3 in diameter, obtained from Messrs. Harrild, 25 Farringdon Street,
+London. Mine remained in good condition for quite a year and a half. When
+it is worn the maker exchanges it for a new one at a trifling cost. A good
+roller is of the highest importance; it affords the only means of
+spreading ink evenly and thinly, and with quickness and precision, over a
+large surface. The ingenuity of printers during more than four centuries
+in all civilised nations, has been directed to invent the most suitable
+composition for rollers, with the result that particular mixtures of glue,
+treacle, etc., are now in general use, the proportions between the
+ingredients differing according to the temperature at which the roller is
+intended to be used. The roller, like the slab, is cleansed with benzole
+every day (a very rapid process) and then put out of the reach of dust.
+Its clean surface is smooth and shining.
+
+The _Benzole_ is kept in a pint bottle. Sometimes paraffin or turpentine
+has been used instead; washing soda does not smell, but it dissolves the
+ink more slowly. They are otherwise nearly equally effective in cleansing
+the rollers and fingers. When dirty, the benzole can be rudely filtered
+and used again.
+
+The _Funnel_ holds blotting-paper for filtering the benzole. Where much
+printing is going on, and consequent washing of hands, it is worth while
+to use a filter, as it saves a little daily expense, though benzole is
+very cheap, and a few drops of it will clean a large surface.
+
+The _Ink_ has already been spoken of. The more fluid it is the better, so
+long as it does not "run." A thick ink cannot be so thinned by adding
+turpentine, etc., as to make it equal to ink that was originally fluid.
+The variety of oils used in making ink, and of the added materials, is
+endless. For our purpose, any oil that dries and does not spread, such as
+boiled or burnt linseed oil, mixed with lampblack, is almost all that is
+wanted. The burnt oil is the thicker of the two, and dries the faster.
+Unfortunately the two terms, burnt and boiled linseed oil, have no
+definite meaning in the trade, boiling or burning not being the simple
+processes these words express, but including an admixture of drying
+materials, which differ with each manufacturer; moreover, there are two,
+if not three, fundamentally distinct qualities of linseed, in respect to
+the oil extracted from it. The ink used in the laboratory and described
+above, answers all requirements. Many other inks have suited less well;
+less even than that which can be made, in a very homely way, with a little
+soot off a plate that had been smoked over a candle, mixed with such
+boiled linseed oil as can be bought at unpretentious oil and colour shops,
+its only fault being a tendency to run.
+
+_Rags_, and a comparatively clean duster, are wanted for cleaning the slab
+and roller, without scratching them.
+
+The small _Glass Dish_ holds the benzole, into which the inked fingers are
+dipped before wiping them with the duster. Soap and water complete the
+preliminary cleansing.
+
+_Cards_, lying flat, and being more easily manipulated than paper, are now
+used at the laboratory for receiving the impressions. They are of rather
+large size, 11-1/2 x 5 inches, to enable the prints of the ten digits to
+be taken on the same card in two rather different ways (see Plate 2, Fig.
+3), and to afford space for writing notes. The cards must have a smooth
+and yet slightly absorbent surface. If too highly glazed they cease to
+absorb, and more ink will remain on the fingers and less be transferred
+from them to the paper. A little trial soon determines the best specimen
+from among a few likely alternatives. "Correspondence cards" are suitable
+for taking prints of not more than three fingers, and are occasionally
+employed in the laboratory. Paper books and pads were tried, but their
+surfaces are inferior to cards in flatness, and their use is now
+abandoned.
+
+The cards should be _very_ white, because, if a photographic enlargement
+should at any time be desired, a slight tint on the card will be an
+impediment to making a photograph that shall be as sharp in its lines as
+an engraving, it being recollected that the cleanest prints are brown, and
+therefore not many shades darker than the tints of ordinary cards.
+
+The method of printing at the laboratory is to squeeze a drop or so of ink
+on to the slab, and to work it thoroughly with the roller until a thin and
+even layer is spread, just as is done by printers, from one of whom a
+beginner might well purchase a lesson. The thickness of the layer of ink
+is tested from time to time by taking a print of a finger, and comparing
+its clearness and blackness with that of a standard print, hung up for the
+purpose close at hand. If too much ink has been put on the slab, some of
+it must be cleaned off, and the slab rolled afresh with what remains on it
+and on the roller. But this fault should seldom be committed; little ink
+should be put on at first, and more added little by little, until the
+required result is attained.
+
+The right hand of the subject, which should be quite passive, is taken by
+the operator, and the bulbs of his four fingers laid flat on the inked
+slab and pressed gently but firmly on it by the flattened hand of the
+operator. Then the inked fingers are laid flat upon the upper part of the
+right-hand side of the card (Plate 2, Fig. 3), and pressed down gently and
+firmly, just as before, by the flattened hand of the operator. This
+completes the process for one set of prints of the four fingers of the
+right hand. Then the bulb of the thumb is slightly _rolled_ on the inked
+slab, and again on the lower part of the card, which gives a more extended
+but not quite so sharp an impression. Each of the four fingers of the same
+hand, in succession, is similarly rolled and impressed. This completes the
+process for the second set of prints of the digits of the right hand. Then
+the left hand is treated in the same way.
+
+The result is indicated by the diagram, which shows on what parts of the
+card the impressions fall. Thus each of the four fingers is impressed
+twice, once above with a simple dab, and once below with a rolled
+impression, but each thumb is only impressed once; the thumbs being more
+troublesome to print from than fingers. Besides, the cards would have to
+be made even larger than they are, if two impressions of each thumb had to
+be included. It takes from two and a half to three minutes to obtain the
+eighteen impressions that are made on each card.
+
+The _pocket apparatus_ is similar to one originally made and used by Sir
+William J. Herschel (see Plate 3, Fig. 4, in which the roller and its
+bearings are drawn of the same size as those I use). A small cylinder of
+hard wood, or of brass tube, say 1-3/4 inch long, and 1/2 or 3/4 inch in
+diameter, has a pin firmly driven into each end to serve as an axle. A
+piece of tightly-fitting india-rubber tubing is drawn over the cylinder.
+The cylinder, thus coated with a soft smooth compressible material, turns
+on its axle in two brackets, each secured by screws, as shown in Plate 2,
+Fig. 4, to a board (say 6 x 2-1/2 x 1/4 inch) that serves as handle. This
+makes a very fair and durable roller; it can be used in the heat and damp
+of the tropics, and is none the worse for a wetting, but it is by no means
+so good for delicate work as a cylinder covered with roller composition.
+These are not at all difficult to make; I have cast them for myself. The
+mould is a piece of brass tube, polished inside. A thick disc, with a
+central hole for the lower pin of the cylinder, fits smoothly into the
+lower end of the mould, and a ring with a thin bar across it, fits over
+the other end, the upper pin of the cylinder entering a hole in the middle
+of the bar; thus the cylinder is firmly held in the right position. After
+slightly oiling the inside of the mould, warming it, inserting the disc
+and cylinder, and fitting on the ring, the melted composition is poured in
+on either side of the bar. As it contracts on cooling, rather more must be
+poured in than at first appears necessary. Finally the roller is pushed
+out of the mould by a wooden ramrod, applied to the bottom of the disc.
+The composition must be melted like glue, in a vessel surrounded by hot
+water, which should never be allowed to boil; otherwise it will be spoilt.
+Harrild's best composition is more than twice the cost of that ordinarily
+used, and is expensive for large rollers, but for these miniature ones the
+cost is unimportant. The mould with which my first roller was made, was an
+old pewter squirt with the nozzle cut off; its piston served the double
+purpose of disc and ramrod.
+
+The _Slab_ is a piece of thick plate glass, of the same length and width
+as the handle to the roller, so they pack up easily together; its edges
+are ground to save the fingers and roller alike from being cut. (Porcelain
+takes the ink better than glass, but is not to be commonly found in the
+shops, of a convenient shape and size; a glazed tile makes a capital
+slab.) A collapsible tube of printer's ink, a few rags, and a phial of
+washing soda, complete the equipment (benzole may spoil india-rubber).
+When using the apparatus, spread a newspaper on the table to prevent
+accident, have other pieces of newspaper ready to clean the roller, and to
+remove any surplus of ink from it by the simple process of rolling it on
+the paper. Take care that the washing soda is in such a position that it
+cannot be upset and ruin the polish of the table. With these precautions,
+the apparatus may be used with cleanliness even in a drawing-room. The
+roller is of course laid on its back when not in use.
+
+My assistant has taken good prints of the three first fingers of the right
+hands of more than 300 school children, say 1000 fingers, in a few hours
+during the same day, by this apparatus. Hawksley, 357 Oxford Street, W.,
+sells a neatly fitted-up box with all the necessary apparatus.
+
+_Rougher arrangements._--A small ball made by tying chamois leather round
+soft rags, may be used in the absence of a roller. The fingers are inked
+from the ball, over which the ink has been evenly distributed, by dabbing
+it many times against a slab or plate. This method gives good results, but
+is slow; it would be intolerably tedious to employ it on a large scale, on
+all ten digits of many persons.
+
+It is often desirable to obtain finger prints from persons at a distance,
+who could not be expected to trouble themselves to acquire the art of
+printing for the purpose of making a single finger print. On these
+occasions I send folding-cases to them, each consisting of two pieces of
+thin copper sheeting, fastened side by side to a slip of pasteboard, by
+bending the edges of the copper over it. The pasteboard is half cut
+through at the back, along the space between the copper sheets, so that
+it can be folded like a reply post-card, the copper sheets being thus
+brought face to face, but prevented from touching by the margin of an
+interposed card, out of which the middle has been cut away. The two pieces
+of copper being inked and folded up, may then be sent by post. On arrival
+the ink is fresh, and the folders can be used as ordinary inked slabs.
+(See also Smoke Printing, page 47.)
+
+The fluidity of even a very thin layer of ink seems to be retained for an
+indefinite time if the air is excluded to prevent oxidisation. I made
+experiments, and found that if pieces of glass (photographic quarter
+plates) be inked, and placed face to face, separated only by narrow paper
+margins, and then wrapped up without other precaution, they will remain
+good for a year and a half.
+
+A slight film of oxidisation on the surface of the ink is a merit, not a
+harm; it is cleaner to work with and gives a blacker print, because the
+ink clings less tenaciously to the finger, consequently more of it is
+transferred to the paper.
+
+If a blackened plate becomes dry, and is re-inked without first being
+cleaned, the new ink will rob the old of some of its oxygen and it will
+become dry in a day or even less.
+
+_Lithography._--Prints may be made on "transfer-paper," and thence
+transferred to stone. It is better not to impress the fingers directly
+upon the stone, as the print from the stone would be reversed as compared
+with the original impression, and mistakes are likely to arise in
+consequence. The print is re-reversed, or put right, by impressing the
+fingers on transfer-paper. It might sometimes be desirable to obtain
+rapidly a large number of impressions of the finger prints of a suspected
+person. In this case lithography would be easier, quicker, and cheaper
+than photography.
+
+_Water Colours and Dyes._--The pads most commonly used with office stamps
+are made of variously prepared gelatine, covered with fine silk to protect
+the surface, and saturated with an aniline dye. If the surface be touched,
+the finger is inked, and if the circumstances are all favourable, a good
+print may be made, but there is much liability to blot. The pad remains
+ready for use during many days without any attention, fresh ink being
+added at long intervals. The advantage of a dye over an ordinary water
+colour is, that it percolates the silk without any of its colour being
+kept back; while a solution of lampblack or Indian ink, consisting of
+particles of soot suspended in water, leaves all its black particles
+behind when it is carefully filtered; only clear water then passes
+through.
+
+A serviceable pad may be made out of a few thicknesses of cloth or felt
+with fine silk or cambric stretched over it. The ink should be of a slowly
+drying sort, made, possibly, of ordinary ink, with the admixture of brown
+sugar, honey, glycerine or the like, to bring it to a proper consistence.
+
+Mr. Gilbert Thompson's results by this process have already been
+mentioned. A similar process was employed for the Bengal finger prints by
+Sir W. Herschel, who sent me the following account: "As to the printing
+of the fingers themselves, no doubt practice makes perfect. But I took no
+pains with my native officials, some dozen or so of whom learnt to do it
+quite well enough for all practical purposes from Bengali written
+instructions, and using nothing but a kind of lampblack ink made by the
+native orderly for use with the office seal." A batch of these
+impressions, which he was so good as to send me, are all clear, and in
+most cases very good indeed. It would be easier to employ this method in a
+very damp climate than in England, where a very thin layer of lampblack is
+apt to dry too quickly on the fingers.
+
+_Printing as from Engraved Plates._--Professor Ray Lankester kindly sent
+me his method of taking prints with water colours. "You take a watery
+brushful or two of the paint and rub it over the hands, rubbing one hand
+against the other until they feel sticky. A _thin_ paper (tissue is best)
+placed on an oval cushion the shape of the hand, should be ready, and the
+hand pressed not too firmly on to it. I enclose a rough sample, done
+without a cushion. You require a cushion for the hollow of the hand, and
+the paint must be rubbed by the two hands until they feel sticky, not
+watery." This is the process of printing from engravings, the ink being
+removed from the ridges, and lying in the furrows. Blood can be used in
+the same way.
+
+The following is extracted from an article by Dr. Louis Robinson in the
+_Nineteenth Century_, May 1892, p. 303:--
+
+    "I found that direct prints of the infant's feet on paper would answer
+    much better [than photography]. After trying various methods I found
+    that the best results could be got by covering the foot by means of a
+    soft stencil brush with a composition of lampblack, soap, syrup, and
+    blue-black ink; wiping it gently from heel to toe with a
+    smoothly-folded silk handkerchief to remove the superfluous pigment,
+    and then applying a moderately flexible paper, supported on a soft
+    pad, direct to the foot."
+
+A curious method with paper and ordinary writing ink, lately contrived by
+Dr. Forgeot, is analogous to lithography. He has described in one of the
+many interesting pamphlets published by the "Laboratoire d'Anthropologie
+Criminelle" of Lyon (_Stenheil_, 2 Rue Casimir-Delavigne, Paris), his new
+process of rendering visible the previously invisible details of such
+faint finger prints as thieves may have left on anything they have
+handled, the object being to show how evidence may sometimes be obtained
+for their identification. It is well known that pressure of the hand on
+the polished surface of glass or metal leaves a latent image very
+difficult to destroy, and which may be rendered visible by suitable
+applications, but few probably have suspected that this may be the case,
+to a considerable degree, with ordinary paper. Dr. Forgeot has shown that
+if a slightly greasy hand, such for example as a hand that has just been
+passed through the hair, be pressed on clean paper, and if common ink be
+afterwards brushed lightly over the paper, it will refuse to lie thickly
+on the greasy parts, and that the result will be a very fair picture of
+the minute markings on the fingers. He has even used these productions as
+negatives, and printed good photographs from them. He has also sent me a
+photographic print made from a piece of glass which had been exposed to
+the vapour of hydrofluoric acid, after having been touched by a greasy
+hand. I have made many trials of his method with considerable success. It
+affords a way of obtaining serviceable impressions in the absence of
+better means. Dr. Forgeot's pamphlet describes other methods of a
+generally similar kind, which he has found to be less good than the above.
+
+_Smoke Printing._--When other apparatus is not at hand, a method of
+obtaining very clear impressions is to smoke a plate over a lighted
+candle, to press the finger on the blackened surface, and then on an
+adhesive one. The following details must, however, be borne in mind: the
+plate must not be smoked too much, for the same reason that a slab must
+not be inked too much; and the adhesive surface must be only slightly
+damped, not wetted, or the impression will be blurred. A crockery plate is
+better than glass or metal, as the soot does not adhere to it so tightly,
+and it is less liable to crack. Professor Bowditch finds mica (which is
+sold at photographic stores in small sheets) to be the best material.
+Certainly the smoke comes wholly off the mica on to the parts of the
+finger that touch it, and a beautiful negative is left behind, which can
+be utilised in the camera better than glass that has been similarly
+treated; but it does not serve so well for a plate that is intended to be
+kept ready for use in a pocket-book, its softness rendering it too liable
+to be scratched. I prefer to keep a slip of very thin copper sheeting in
+my pocket-book, with which, and with the gummed back of a postage stamp,
+or even the gummed fringe to a sheet of stamps, impressions can easily be
+taken. The thin copper quickly cools, and a wax match supplies enough
+smoke. The folders spoken of (p. 42) may be smoked instead of being inked,
+and are in some cases preferable to carry in the pocket or to send by
+post, being so easy to smoke afresh. Luggage labels that are thickly
+gummed at the back furnish a good adhesive surface. The fault of gummed
+paper lies in the difficulty of damping it without its curling up. The
+gummed paper sold by stationers is usually thinner than luggage labels,
+and still more difficult to keep flat. Paste rubbed in a very thin layer
+over a card makes a surface that holds soot firmly, and one that will not
+stick to other surfaces if accidentally moistened. Glue, isinglass, size,
+and mucilage, are all suitable. It was my fortune as a boy to receive
+rudimentary lessons in drawing from a humble and rather grotesque master.
+He confided to me the discovery, which he claimed as his own, that pencil
+drawings could be fixed by licking them; and as I write these words, the
+image of his broad swab-like tongue performing the operation, and of his
+proud eyes gleaming over the drawing he was operating on, come vividly to
+remembrance. This reminiscence led me to try whether licking a piece of
+paper would give it a sufficiently adhesive surface. It did so. Nay, it
+led me a step further, for I took two pieces of paper and licked both.
+The dry side of the one was held over the candle as an equivalent to a
+plate for collecting soot, being saved by the moisture at the back from
+igniting (it had to be licked two or three times during the process), and
+the impression was made on the other bit of paper. An ingenious person
+determined to succeed in obtaining the record of a finger impression, can
+hardly fail altogether under any ordinary circumstances.
+
+Physiologists who are familiar with the revolving cylinder covered with
+highly-glazed paper, which is smoked, and then used for the purpose of
+recording the delicate movements of a tracer, will have noticed the beauty
+of the impression sometimes left by a finger that had accidentally touched
+it. They are also well versed in the art of varnishing such impressions to
+preserve them in a durable form.
+
+A cake of blacklead (plumbago), such as is sold for blackening grates,
+when rubbed on paper leaves a powdery surface that readily blackens the
+fingers, and shows the ridges distinctly. A small part of the black comes
+off when the fingers are pressed on sticky paper, but I find it difficult
+to ensure good prints. The cakes are convenient to carry and cleanly to
+handle. Whitening, and still more, whitening mixed with size, may be used
+in the same way, but it gathers in the furrows, not on the ridges.
+
+_Casts_ give undoubtedly the most exact representation of the ridges, but
+they are difficult and unsatisfactory to examine, puzzling the eye by
+showing too conspicuously the variation of their heights, whereas we only
+want to know their courses. Again, as casts must be of a uniform colour,
+the finer lines are indistinctly seen except in a particular light.
+Lastly, they are both cumbrous to preserve and easily broken.
+
+A sealing-wax impression is the simplest and best kind of cast, and the
+finger need not be burnt in making it. The plan is to make a considerable
+pool of flaming sealing-wax, stirring it well with the still unmelted
+piece of the stick, while it is burning. Then blow out the flame and wait
+a little, until the upper layer has cooled. Sealing-wax that has been well
+aflame takes a long time to harden thoroughly after it has parted with
+nearly all its heat. By selecting the proper moment after blowing out the
+flame, the wax will be cool enough for the finger to press it without
+discomfort, and it will still be sufficiently soft to take a sharp
+impression. Dentist's wax, which is far less brittle, is easily worked,
+and takes impressions that are nearly as sharp as those of sealing-wax; it
+has to be well heated and kneaded, then plunged for a moment in cold water
+to chill the surface, and immediately impressed. Gutta-percha can also be
+used. The most delicate of all impressions is that left upon a thick clot
+of varnish, which has been exposed to the air long enough for a thin film
+to have formed over it. The impression is transient, but lingers
+sufficiently to be easily photographed. It happened, oddly enough, that a
+few days after I had noticed this effect, and had been experimenting upon
+it, I heard an interesting memoir "On the Minute Structure of Striped
+Muscle, with special allusion to a new method of investigation by means
+of 'Impressions' stamped in Collodion," submitted to the Royal Society by
+Dr. John Berry Haycraft, in which an analogous method was used to obtain
+impressions of delicate microscopic structures.
+
+_Photographs_ are valuable in themselves, and the negatives serve for
+subsequent _enlargements_. They are unquestionably accurate, and the
+labour of making them being mechanical, may be delegated. If the print be
+in printer's ink on white paper, the process is straightforward, first of
+obtaining a negative and afterwards photo-prints from it. The importance
+of the paper or card used to receive the finger print being quite white,
+has already been pointed out. An imprint on white crockery-ware is
+beautifully clear. Some of the photographs may be advantageously printed
+by the ferro-prussiate process. The paper used for it does not curl when
+dry, its texture is good for writing on, and the blue colour of the print
+makes handwriting clearly legible, whether it be in ink or in pencil.
+
+Prints on glass have great merits for use as lantern slides, but it must
+be recollected that they may take some days to dry, and that when dry the
+ink can be only too easily detached from them by water, which insinuates
+itself between the dry ink and the glass. Of course they could be
+varnished, if the trouble and cost were no objection, and so preserved.
+The negative print left on an inked slab, after the finger has touched it,
+is sometimes very clear, that on smoked glass better, and on smoked mica
+the clearest of all. These have merely to be placed in the enlarging
+camera, where the negative image thrown on argento-bromide paper will
+yield a positive print. (See p. 90.)
+
+I have made, by hand, many enlargements with a prism (camera lucida), but
+it is difficult to enlarge more than five times by means of it. So much
+shade is cast by the head that the prism can hardly be used at a less
+distance than 3 inches from the print, or one quarter the distance (12
+inches) at which a book is usually read, while the paper on which the
+drawing is made cannot well be more than 15 inches below the prism; so it
+makes an enlargement of (4 x 15)/12 or five-fold. This is a very
+convenient method of analysing a pattern, since the lines follow only the
+axes of the ridges, as in Plate 3, Fig. 5. The prism and attached
+apparatus may be kept permanently mounted, ready for use at any time,
+without the trouble of any adjustment.
+
+An enlarging pantagraph has also been of frequent use to me, in which the
+cross-wires of a low-power microscope took the place of the pointer. It
+has many merits, but its action was not equally free in all directions;
+the enlarged traces were consequently jagged, and required subsequent
+smoothing.
+
+All hand-made enlargements are tedious to produce, as the total length of
+lineations to be followed is considerable. In a single finger print made
+by dabbing down the finger, their actual length amounts to about 18
+inches; therefore in a five-fold enlargement of the entire print the
+pencil has to be carefully directed over five times that distance, or more
+than 7 feet.
+
+Large copies of tracings made on transparent paper, either by the Camera
+Lucida or by the Pantagraph, are easily printed by the ferro-prussiate
+photographic process mentioned above, in the same way that plans are
+copied by engineers.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IV
+
+THE RIDGES AND THEIR USES
+
+
+The palmar surface of the hands and the soles of the feet, both in men and
+monkeys, are covered with minute ridges that bear a superficial
+resemblance to those made on sand by wind or flowing water. They form
+systems which run in bold sweeps, though the courses of the individual
+ridges are less regular. Each ridge (Plate 3, Fig. 5) is characterised by
+numerous minute peculiarities, called _Minutiae_ in this book, here
+dividing into two, and there uniting with another (_a_, _b_), or it may
+divide and almost immediately reunite, enclosing a small circular or
+elliptical space (_c_); at other times its beginning or end is markedly
+independent (_d_, _e_); lastly, the ridge may be so short as to form a
+small island (_f_).
+
+Whenever an interspace is left between the boundaries of different systems
+of ridges, it is filled by a small system of its own, which will have some
+characteristic shape, and be called a _pattern_ in this book.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 3.
+
+FIG. 5. Characteristic peculiarities in Ridges (about 8 times the natural
+size).
+
+FIG. 6. Systems of Ridges, and the Creases in the Palm.]
+
+
+There are three particularly well-marked systems of ridges in the palm of
+the hand marked in Plate 3, Fig. 6, ~1~, as Th, AB, and BC. The system Th
+is that which runs over the ball of the thumb and adjacent parts of the
+palm. It is bounded by the line _a_ which starts from the middle of the
+palm close to the wrist, and sweeps thence round the ball of the thumb to
+the edge of the palm on the side of the thumb, which it reaches about half
+an inch, more or less, below the base of the fore-finger. The system AB is
+bounded towards the thumb by the above line _a_, and towards the little
+finger by the line _b_; the latter starts from about the middle of the
+little-finger side of the palm, and emerges on the opposite side just
+below the fore-finger. Consequently, every ridge that wholly crosses the
+palm is found in AB. The system BC is bounded thumbwards by the line _b_,
+until that line arrives at a point immediately below the axis of the
+fore-finger; there the boundary of BC leaves the line _b_, and skirts the
+base of the fore-finger until it reaches the interval which separates the
+fore and middle fingers. The upper boundary of BC is the line _c_, which
+leaves the little-finger side of the palm at a small distance below the
+base of the little finger, and terminates between the fore and middle
+fingers. Other systems are found between _c_ and the middle, ring, and
+little fingers; they are somewhat more variable than those just described,
+as will be seen by comparing the five different palms shown in Fig. 6.
+
+An interesting example of the interpolation of a small and independent
+system occurs frequently in the middle of one or other of the systems AB
+or BC, at the place where the space covered by the systems of ridges
+begins to broaden out very rapidly. There are two ways in which the
+necessary supply of ridges makes its appearance, the one is by a series of
+successive embranchments (Fig. 6, ~1~), the other is by the insertion of
+an independent system, as shown in ~4~, ~5~. Another example of an
+interpolated system, but of rarer occurrence, is found in the system Th,
+on the ball of the thumb, as seen in ~2~.
+
+Far more definite in position, and complex in lineation, are the small
+independent systems which appear on the bulbs of the thumb and fingers.
+They are more instructive to study, more easy to classify, and will alone
+be discussed in this book.
+
+In the diagram of the hand, Fig. 6, ~1~, the three chief cheiromantic
+creases are indicated by dots, but are not numbered. They are made (1) by
+the flexure of the thumb, (2) of the four fingers simultaneously, and (3)
+of the middle, ring, and little fingers simultaneously, while the
+fore-finger remains extended. There is no exact accordance between the
+courses of the creases and those of the adjacent ridges, less still do the
+former agree with the boundaries of the systems. The accordance is closest
+between the crease (1) and the ridges in Th; nevertheless that crease does
+not agree with the line _a_, but usually lies considerably within it. The
+crease (2) cuts the ridges on either side, at an angle of about 30
+degrees. The crease (3) is usually parallel to the ridges between which it
+runs, but is often far from accordant with the line _c_. The creases at
+the various joints of the thumb and fingers cut the ridges at small
+angles, say, very roughly, of 15 degrees.
+
+The supposition is therefore untenable that the courses of the ridges are
+wholly determined by the flexures. It appears, however, that the courses
+of the ridges and those of the lines of flexure may be in part, but in
+part only, due to the action of the same causes.
+
+The fact of the creases of the hand being strongly marked in the
+newly-born child, has been considered by some to testify to the archaic
+and therefore important character of their origin. The crumpled condition
+of the hand of the infant, during some months before its birth, seems to
+me, however, quite sufficient to account for the creases.
+
+I possess a few specimens of hand prints of persons taken when children,
+and again, after an interval of several years: they show a general
+accordance in respect to the creases, but not sufficiently close for
+identification.
+
+The ridges on the feet and toes are less complex than those on the hands
+and digits, and are less serviceable for present purposes, though equally
+interesting to physiologists. Having given but little attention to them
+myself, they will not be again referred to.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The ridges are studded with minute pores which are the open mouths of the
+ducts of the somewhat deeply-seated glands, whose office is to secrete
+perspiration: Plate 10, _n_, is a good example of them. The distance
+between adjacent pores on the same ridge is, roughly speaking, about half
+that which separates the ridges. The lines of a pattern are such as an
+artist would draw, if dots had been made on a sheet of paper in positions
+corresponding to the several pores, and he endeavoured to connect them by
+evenly flowing curves; it would be difficult to draw a pattern under these
+conditions, and within definite boundaries, that cannot be matched in a
+living hand.
+
+The embryological development of the ridges has been studied by many, but
+more especially by Dr. A. Kollmann,[1] whose careful investigations and
+bibliography should be consulted by physiologists interested in the
+subject. He conceives the ridges to be formed through lateral pressures
+between nascent structures.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 4.
+
+FIG. 7. SCARS AND CUTS, AND THEIR EFFECTS ON THE RIDGES.
+
+FIG. 8. FORMATION OF INTERSPACE AND EXAMPLES OF THE ENCLOSED PATTERNS.]
+
+
+The ridges are said to be first discernible in the fourth month of
+foetal life, and fully formed by the sixth. In babies and children the
+delicacy of the ridges is proportionate to the smallness of their stature.
+They grow simultaneously with the general growth of the body, and continue
+to be sharply defined until old age has set in, when an incipient
+disintegration of the texture of the skin spoils, and may largely
+obliterate them, as in the finger prints on the title-page. They develop
+most in hands that do a moderate amount of work, and they are strongly
+developed in the foot, which has the hard work of supporting the weight
+of the body. They are, as already mentioned, but faintly developed in the
+hands of ladies, rendered delicate by the continual use of gloves and lack
+of manual labour, and in idiots of the lowest type who are incapable of
+labouring at all. When the skin becomes thin, the ridges simultaneously
+subside in height. They are obliterated by the callosities formed on the
+hands of labourers and artisans in many trades, by the constant pressure
+of their peculiar tools. The ridges on the side of the left fore-finger of
+tailors and seamstresses are often temporarily destroyed by the needle; an
+instance of this is given in Plate 4, Fig. 7, _b_. Injuries, when they are
+sufficiently severe to leave permanent scars, destroy the ridges to that
+extent. If a piece of flesh is sliced off, or if an ulcer has eaten so
+deeply as to obliterate the perspiratory glands, a white cicatrix, without
+pores or ridges, is the result (Fig. 7, _a_). Lesser injuries are not
+permanent. My assistant happened to burn his finger rather sharply; the
+daily prints he took of it, illustrated the progress of healing in an
+interesting manner; finally the ridges were wholly restored. A deep clean
+cut leaves a permanent thin mark across the ridges (Fig. 7, _c_),
+sometimes without any accompanying puckering; but there is often a
+displacement of the ridges on both sides of it, exactly like a "fault" in
+stratified rocks. A cut, or other injury that is not a clean incision,
+leaves a scar with puckerings on all sides, as in Fig. 7, _a_, making the
+ridges at that part undecipherable, even if it does not wholly obliterate
+them.
+
+The latest and best investigations on the evolution of the ridges have
+been made by Dr. H. Klaatsch.[2] He shows that the earliest appearance in
+the Mammalia of structures analogous to ridges is one in which small
+eminences occur on the ball of the foot, through which the sweat glands
+issue in no particular order. The arrangement of the papillae into rows,
+and the accompanying orderly arrangement of the sweat glands, is a
+subsequent stage in evolution. The prehensile tail of the Howling Monkey
+serves as a fifth hand, and the naked concave part of the tail, with which
+it grasps and holds on to boughs, is furnished with ridges arranged
+transversely in beautiful order. The numerous drawings of the hands of
+monkeys by Allix[3] may be referred to with advantage.
+
+The uses of the ridges are primarily, as I suppose, to raise the mouths of
+the ducts, so that the excretions which they pour out may the more easily
+be got rid of; and secondarily, in some obscure way, to assist the sense
+of touch. They are said to be moulded upon the subcutaneous papillae in
+such a manner that the ultimate organs of touch, namely, the Pacinian
+bodies, etc.--into the variety of which it is unnecessary here to
+enter--are more closely congregated under the bases of the ridges than
+under the furrows, and it is easy, on those grounds, to make reasonable
+guesses how the ridges may assist the sense of touch. They must
+concentrate pressures, that would otherwise be spread over the surface
+generally, upon the parts which are most richly supplied with the
+terminations of nerves. By their means it would become possible to
+neutralise the otherwise dulling effect of a thick protective epidermis.
+Their existence in transverse ridges on the inner surface of the
+prehensile tails of monkeys admits of easy justification from this point
+of view. The ridges so disposed cannot prevent the tail from curling, and
+they must add materially to its sensitiveness. They seem to produce the
+latter effect on the hands of man, for, as the epidermis thickens under
+use within moderate limits, so the prominence of the ridges increases.
+
+Supposing the ultimate organs of the sense of touch to be really
+congregated more thickly under the ridges than under the furrows--on which
+there has been some question--the power of tactile discrimination would
+depend very much on the closeness of the ridges. The well-known experiment
+with the two points of a pair of compasses, is exactly suited to test the
+truth of this. It consists in determining the smallest distance apart, of
+the two points, at which their simultaneous pressure conveys the sensation
+of a double prick. Those persons in whom the ridge-interval was short
+might be expected to perceive the double sensation, while others whose
+ridge-interval was wide would only perceive a single one, the distance
+apart of the compass points, and the parts touched by them, being the same
+in both cases. I was very glad to avail myself of the kind offer of Mr.
+E. B. Titchener to make an adequate course of experiments at Professor
+Wundt's psycho-physical laboratory at Leipzig, to decide this question. He
+had the advantage there of being able to operate on fellow-students who
+were themselves skilled in such lines of investigation, so while his own
+experience was a considerable safeguard against errors of method, that
+safety was reinforced by the fact that his experiments were conducted
+under the watchful eyes of competent and critical friends. The result of
+the enquiry was decisive. It was proved to demonstration that the fineness
+or coarseness of the ridges in different persons had no effect whatever on
+the delicacy of their tactile discrimination. Moreover, it made no
+difference in the results, whether one or both points of the compass
+rested on the ridges or in the furrows.
+
+The width of the ridge-interval is certainly no test of the relative power
+of discrimination of the different parts of the same hand, because, while
+the ridge-interval is nearly uniform over the whole of the palmar surface,
+the least distance between the compass points that gives the sensation of
+doubleness is more than four times greater when they are applied to some
+parts of the palm than when they are applied to the bulbs of the fingers.
+
+The ridges may subserve another purpose in the act of touch, namely, that
+of enabling the character of surfaces to be perceived by the act of
+rubbing them with the fingers. We all of us perform this, as it were,
+intuitively. It is interesting to ask a person who is ignorant of the
+real intention, to shut his eyes and to ascertain as well as he can by the
+sense of touch alone, the material of which any object is made that is
+afterwards put into his hands. He will be observed to explore it very
+carefully by rubbing its surface in many directions, and with many degrees
+of pressure. The ridges engage themselves with the roughness of the
+surface, and greatly help in calling forth the required sensation, which
+is that of a thrill; usually faint, but always to be perceived when the
+sensation is analysed, and which becomes very distinct when the
+indentations are at equal distances apart, as in a file or in velvet. A
+thrill is analogous to a musical note, and the characteristics to the
+sense of touch, of different surfaces when they are rubbed by the fingers,
+may be compared to different qualities of sound or noise. There are,
+however, no pure over-tones in the case of touch, as there are in nearly
+all sounds.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER V
+
+PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES
+
+
+The patterns on the thumb and fingers were first discussed at length by
+Purkenje in 1823, in a University Thesis or _Commentatio_. I have
+translated the part that chiefly concerns us, and appended it to this
+chapter together with his corresponding illustrations. Subsequent writers
+have adopted his standard types, diminishing or adding to their number as
+the case may be, and guided as he had been, by the superficial appearance
+of the lineations.
+
+In my earlier trials some three years ago, an attempt at classification
+was made upon that same principle, when the experience gained was
+instructive. It had seemed best to limit them to the prints of a single
+digit, and the thumb was selected. I collected enough specimens to fill
+fourteen sheets, containing in the aggregate 504 prints of right thumbs,
+arranged in six lines and six columns (6 x 6 x 14 = 504), and another set
+of fourteen sheets containing the corresponding left thumbs. Then, for the
+greater convenience of study these sheets were photographed, and
+enlargements upon paper to about two and a half times the natural size
+made from the negatives. The enlargements of the right thumb prints were
+reversed, in order to make them comparable on equal terms with those of
+the left. The sheets were then cut up into rectangles about the size of
+small playing-cards, each of which contained a single print, and the
+register number in my catalogue was entered on its back, together with the
+letters L. for left, or R.R. for reversed right, as the case might be.
+
+On trying to sort them according to Purkenje's standards, I failed
+completely, and many analogous plans were attempted without success. Next
+I endeavoured to sort the patterns into groups so that the central pattern
+of each group should differ by a unit of "equally discernible difference"
+from the central patterns of the adjacent groups, proposing to adopt those
+central patterns as standards of reference. After tedious re-sortings,
+some sixty standards were provisionally selected, and the whole laid by
+for a few days. On returning to the work with a fresh mind, it was painful
+to find how greatly my judgment had changed in the interim, and how faulty
+a classification that seemed tolerably good a week before, looked then.
+Moreover, I suffered the shame and humiliation of discovering that the
+identity of certain duplicates had been overlooked, and that one print had
+been mistaken for another. Repeated trials of the same kind made it
+certain that finality would never be reached by the path hitherto
+pursued.
+
+On considering the causes of these doubts and blunders, different
+influences were found to produce them, any one of which was sufficient by
+itself to give rise to serious uncertainty. A complex pattern is capable
+of suggesting various readings, as the figuring on a wall-paper may
+suggest a variety of forms and faces to those who have such fancies. The
+number of illusive renderings of prints taken from the same finger, is
+greatly increased by such trifles as the relative breadths of their
+respective lineations and the differences in their depths of tint. The
+ridges themselves are soft in substance, and of various heights, so that a
+small difference in the pressure applied, or in the quantity of ink used,
+may considerably affect the width of the lines and the darkness of
+portions of the print. Certain ridges may thereby catch the attention at
+one time, though not at others, and give a bias to some false conception
+of the pattern. Again, it seldom happens that different impressions of the
+same digit are printed from exactly the same part of it, consequently the
+portion of the pattern that supplies the dominant character will often be
+quite different in the two prints. Hence the eye is apt to be deceived
+when it is guided merely by the general appearance. A third cause of error
+is still more serious; it is that patterns, especially those of a spiral
+form, may be apparently similar, yet fundamentally unlike, the unaided eye
+being frequently unable to analyse them and to discern real differences.
+Besides all this, the judgment is distracted by the mere size of the
+pattern, which catches the attention at once, and by other secondary
+matters such as the number of turns in the whorled patterns, and the
+relative dimensions of their different parts. The first need to be
+satisfied, before it could become possible to base the classification upon
+a more sure foundation than that of general appearance, was to establish a
+well-defined point or points of reference in the patterns. This was done
+by utilising the centres of the one or two triangular plots (see Plate 4,
+Fig. 8, ~2~, ~3~, ~4~) which are found in the great majority of patterns,
+and whose existence was pointed out by Purkenje, but not their more remote
+cause, which is as follows:
+
+The ridges, as was shown in the diagram (Plate 3) of the palm of the hand,
+run athwart the fingers in rudely parallel lines up to the last joint, and
+if it were not for the finger-nail, would apparently continue parallel up
+to the extreme finger-tip. But the presence of the nail disturbs their
+parallelism and squeezes them downwards on both sides of the finger. (See
+Fig. 8, ~2~.) Consequently, the ridges that run close to the tip are
+greatly arched, those that successively follow are gradually less arched
+until, in some cases, all signs of the arch disappear at about the level
+of the first joint (Fig. 8, ~1~). Usually, however, this gradual
+transition from an arch to a straight line fails to be carried out,
+causing a break in the orderly sequence, and a consequent interspace (Fig.
+8, ~2~). The topmost boundary of the interspace is formed by the lowermost
+arch, and its lowermost boundary by the topmost straight ridge. But an
+equally large number of ducts exist within the interspace, as are to be
+found in adjacent areas of equal size, whose mouths require to be
+supported and connected. This is effected by the interpolation of an
+independent system of ridges arranged in loops (Fig. 8, ~3~; also Plate 5,
+Fig. 9, _a_, _f_), or in scrolls (Fig. 8, ~4~; also Fig. 9, _g_, _h_), and
+this interpolated system forms the "pattern." Now the existence of an
+interspace implies the divergence of two previously adjacent ridges (Fig.
+8, ~2~), in order to embrace it. Just in front of the place where the
+divergence begins, and before the sweep of the pattern is reached, there
+are usually one or more very short cross-ridges. Their effect is to
+complete the enclosure of the minute triangular plot in question. Where
+there is a plot on both sides of the finger, the line that connects them
+(Fig. 8, ~4~) serves as a base line whereby the pattern may be oriented,
+and the position of any point roughly charted. Where there is a plot on
+only one side of the finger (Fig. 8, ~3~), the pattern has almost
+necessarily an axis, which serves for orientation, and the pattern can
+still be charted, though on a different principle, by dropping a
+perpendicular from the plot on to the axis, in the way there shown.
+
+These plots form corner-stones to my system of outlining and subsequent
+classification; it is therefore extremely important that a sufficient area
+of the finger should be printed to include them. This can always be done
+by slightly _rolling_ the finger (p. 39), the result being, in the
+language of map-makers, a cylindrical projection of the finger (see Plate
+5, Fig. 9, _a-h_). Large as these impressions look, they are of the
+natural size, taken from ordinary thumbs.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 5.
+
+FIG. 9. EXAMPLES OF OUTLINED PATTERNS (The Specimens are rolled
+impressions of natural size).]
+
+
+_The outlines._--The next step is to give a clear and definite shape to
+the pattern by drawing its outline (Fig. 9). Take a fine pen, pencil, or
+paint brush, and follow in succession each of the two diverging ridges
+that start from either plot. The course of each ridge must be followed
+with scrupulous conscientiousness, marking it with a clean line as far as
+it can be traced. If the ridge bifurcates, always follow the branch that
+trends towards the middle of the pattern. If it stops short, let the
+outline stop short also, and recommence on a fresh ridge, choosing that
+which to the best of the judgment prolongs the course of the one that
+stopped. These outlines have an extraordinary effect in making finger
+markings intelligible to an untrained eye. What seemed before to be a
+vague and bewildering maze of lineations over which the glance wandered
+distractedly, seeking in vain for a point on which to fix itself, now
+suddenly assumes the shape of a sharply-defined figure. Whatever
+difficulties may arise in classifying these figures, they are as nothing
+compared to those experienced in attempting to classify unoutlined
+patterns, the outlines giving a precision to their general features which
+was wanting before.
+
+After a pattern has been treated in this way, there is no further occasion
+to pore minutely into the finger print, in order to classify it correctly,
+for the bold firm curves of the outline are even more distinct than the
+largest capital letters in the title-page of a book.
+
+A fair idea of the way in which the patterns are distributed, is given by
+Plate 6. Eight persons were taken in the order in which they happened to
+present themselves, and Plate 6 shows the result. For greater clearness,
+colour has been employed to distinguish between the ridges that are
+supplied from the inner and outer sides of the hand respectively. The
+words right and left _must be avoided_ in speaking of patterns, for the
+two hands are symmetrically disposed, only in a reversed sense. The right
+hand does not look like a left hand, but like the reflection of a left
+hand in a looking-glass, and _vice versa_. The phrases we shall employ
+will be the _Inner_ and the _Outer_; or thumb-side and little-finger side
+(terms which were unfortunately misplaced in my memoir in the _Phil.
+Trans._ 1891).
+
+There need be no difficulty in remembering the meaning of these terms, if
+we bear in mind that the great toes are undoubtedly innermost; that if we
+walked on all fours as children do, and as our remote ancestors probably
+did, the thumbs also would be innermost, as is the case when the two hands
+are impressed side by side on paper. Inner and outer are better than
+thumb-side and little-finger side, because the latter cannot be applied to
+the thumbs and little fingers themselves. The anatomical words radial and
+ulnar referring to the two bones of the fore-arm, are not in popular use,
+and they might be similarly inappropriate, for it would sound oddly to
+speak of the radial side of the radius.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 6.
+
+FIG. 10. OUTLINES OF THE PATTERNS OF THE DIGITS OF EIGHT PERSONS, TAKEN AT
+RANDOM.]
+
+
+The two plots just described will therefore be henceforth designated as
+the Inner and the Outer plots respectively, and symbolised by the letters
+I and O.
+
+The system of ridges in Fig. 10 that comes from the inner side "I" are
+coloured blue; those from the outer "O" are coloured red. The employment
+of colour instead of variously stippled surfaces is of conspicuous
+advantage to the great majority of persons, though unhappily nearly
+useless to about one man in every twenty-five, who is constitutionally
+colour-blind.
+
+It may be convenient when marking finger prints with letters for
+reference, to use those that look alike, both in a direct and in a
+reversed aspect, as they may require to be read either way. The print is a
+reversed picture of the pattern upon the digit that made it. The pattern
+on one hand is, as already said, a reversed picture of a similar pattern
+as it shows on the other. In the various processes by which prints are
+multiplied, the patterns may be reversed and re-reversed. Thus, if a
+finger is impressed on a lithographic stone, the impressions from that
+stone are reversals of the impression made by the same finger upon paper.
+If made on transfer paper and thence transferred to stone, there is a
+re-reversal. There are even more varied possibilities when photography is
+employed. It is worth recollecting that there are twelve capital letters
+in the English alphabet which, if printed in block type, are unaffected by
+being reversed. They are A.H.I.M.O.T.U.V.W.X.Y.Z. Some symbols do the
+same, such as, * + - = :. These and the letters H.O.I.X. have the
+further peculiarity of appearing unaltered when upside down.
+
+_Lenses._--As a rule, only a small magnifying power is needed for drawing
+outlines, sufficient to allow the eye to be brought within six inches of
+the paper, for it is only at that short distance that the _minutiae_ of a
+full-sized finger print begin to be clearly discerned. Persons with normal
+sight, during their childhood and boy- or girlhood, are able to read as
+closely as this without using a lens, the range in adjustment of the focus
+of the eye being then large. But as age advances the range contracts, and
+an elderly person with otherwise normal eyesight requires glasses to read
+a book even at twelve inches from his eye. I now require much optical aid;
+when reading a book, spectacles of 12-inch focus are necessary; and when
+studying a finger print, 12-inch eye-glasses in addition, the double power
+enabling me to see clearly at a distance of only six inches. Perhaps the
+most convenient focus for a lens in ordinary use is 3 inches. It should be
+mounted at the end of a long arm that can easily be pushed in any
+direction, sideways, backwards, forwards, and up or down. It is
+undesirable to use a higher power than this unless it is necessary,
+because the field of view becomes narrowed to an inconvenient degree, and
+the nearer the head is to the paper, the darker is the shadow that it
+casts; there is also insufficient room for the use of a pencil.
+
+Every now and then a closer inspection is wanted; for which purpose a
+doublet of 1/2-inch focus, standing on three slim legs, answers well.
+
+For studying the markings on the fingers themselves, a small folding lens,
+sold at opticians' shops under the name of a "linen tester," is very
+convenient. It is so called because it was originally constructed for the
+purpose of counting the number of threads in a given space, in a sample of
+linen. It is equally well adapted for counting the number of ridges in a
+given space.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Whoever desires to occupy himself with finger prints, ought to give much
+time and practice to drawing outlines of different impressions of the same
+digits. His own ten fingers, and those of a few friends, will furnish the
+necessary variety of material on which to work. He should not rest
+satisfied until he has gained an assurance that all patterns possess
+definite figures, which may be latent but are potentially present, and
+that the ridges form something more than a nondescript congeries of
+ramifications and twists. He should continue to practise until he finds
+that the same ridges have been so nearly followed in duplicate
+impressions, that even in difficult cases his work will rarely vary more
+than a single ridge-interval.
+
+When the triangular plot happens not to be visible, owing to the print
+failing to include it, which is often the case when the finger is not
+rolled, as is well shown in the prints of my own ten digits on the
+title-page, the trend of the ridges so far as they are seen, usually
+enables a practised eye to roughly estimate its true position. By means of
+this guidance an approximate, but fairly correct, outline can be drawn.
+When the habit of judging patterns by their outlines has become familiar,
+the eye will trace them for itself without caring to draw them, and will
+prefer an unoutlined pattern to work upon, but even then it is essential
+now and then to follow the outline with a fine point, say that of a
+penknife or a dry pen.
+
+In selecting standard forms of patterns for the convenience of
+description, we must be content to disregard a great many of the more
+obvious characteristics. For instance, the size of generally similar
+patterns in Fig. 10 will be found to vary greatly, but the words large,
+medium, or small may be applied to any pattern, so there is no necessity
+to draw a standard outline for each size. Similarly as regards the inwards
+or outwards slope of patterns, it is needless to print here a separate
+standard outline for either slope, and equally unnecessary to print
+outlines in duplicate, with reversed titles, for the right and left hands
+respectively. The phrase "a simple spiral" conveys a well-defined general
+idea, but there are four concrete forms of it (see bottom row of Plate 11,
+Fig. 17, _oj_, _jo_, _ij_, _ji_) which admit of being verbally
+distinguished. Again the internal proportions of any pattern, say those of
+simple spirals, may vary greatly without affecting the fact of their being
+simple spirals. They may be wide or narrow at their mouths, they may be
+twisted up into a point (Plate 8, Fig. 14, ~52~), or they may run in broad
+curls of uniform width (Fig. 14, ~51~, ~54~). Perhaps the best general
+rule in selecting standard outlines, is to limit them to such as cannot be
+turned into any other by viewing them in an altered aspect, as upside down
+or from the back, or by magnifying or deforming them, whether it be
+through stretching, shrinking, or puckering any part of them. Subject to
+this general rule and to further and more particular descriptions, the
+sets (Plates 7 and 8, Figs. 11, 12, 13) will be found to give considerable
+help in naming the usual patterns.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 7.
+
+FIG. 11. ARCHES.
+
+FIG. 12. LOOPS.]
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 8.
+
+FIG. 13. WHORLS. CORES TO LOOPS.
+
+FIG. 14. Rods:--their envelopes are indicated by dots. Staples:--their
+envelopes are indicated by dots. Envelopes whether to Rods or
+Staples:--here staples only are dotted.
+
+FIG. 15. CORES TO WHORLS.]
+
+
+It will be observed that they are grouped under the three principal heads
+of Arches, Loops, and Whorls, and that under each of these heads some
+analogous patterns as ~4~, ~5~, ~7~, ~8~, etc., are introduced and
+underlined with the word "see" so and so, and thus noted as really
+belonging to one of the other heads. This is done to indicate the
+character of the transitional cases that unite respectively the Arches
+with the Loops, the Arches with the Whorls, and the Loops with the Whorls.
+More will follow in respect to these. The "tented arch" (~3~) is extremely
+rare on the thumb; I do not remember ever to have seen it there,
+consequently it did not appear in the plate of patterns in the _Phil.
+Trans._ which referred to thumbs. On the other hand, the "banded duplex
+spiral" (~30~) is common in the thumb, but rare elsewhere. There are some
+compound patterns, especially the "spiral in loop" (~21~) and the "circlet
+in loop" (~22~), which are as much loops as whorls; but are reckoned as
+whorls. The "twinned loop" (~16~) is of more frequent occurrence than
+would be supposed from the examination of _dabbed_ impressions, as the
+only part of the outer loop then in view resembles outside arches; it is
+due to a double separation of the ridges (Plate 4, Fig. 8), and a
+consequent double interspace. The "crested loop" (~13~) may sometimes be
+regarded as an incipient form of a "duplex spiral" (~29~).
+
+The reader may also refer to Plate 16, which contains what is there called
+the C set of standard patterns. They were arranged and used for a special
+purpose, as described in Chapter XI. They refer to impressions of the
+right hand.
+
+As a variety of Cores, differing in shape and size, may be found within
+each of the outlines, it is advisable to describe them separately. Plate
+8, Fig. 14 shows a series of the cores of loops, in which the innermost
+lineations may be either straight or curved back; in the one case they are
+here called rods (~31~ to ~35~); in the other (~36~ to ~42~), staples. The
+first of the ridges that envelops the core, whether the core be a rod,
+many rods, or a staple, is also shown and named (~43~ to ~48~). None of
+the descriptions are intended to apply to more than the _very end_ of the
+core, say, from the tip downwards to a distance equal to two average
+ridge-intervals in length. If more of the core be taken into account, the
+many varieties in their lower parts begin to make description confusing.
+In respect to the "parted" staples and envelopes, and those that are
+single-eyed, the description may further mention the side on which the
+parting or the eye occurs, whether it be the Inner or the Outer.
+
+At the bottom of Fig. 14, ~49-54~, is given a series of rings, spirals,
+and plaits, in which nearly all the clearly distinguishable varieties are
+included, no regard being paid to the direction of the twist or to the
+number of turns. ~49~ is a set of concentric circles, ~50~ of ellipses:
+they are rarely so in a strict sense throughout the pattern, usually
+breaking away into a more or less spiriform arrangement as in ~51~. A
+curious optical effect is connected with the circular forms, which becomes
+almost annoying when many specimens are examined in succession. They seem
+to be cones standing bodily out from the paper. This singular appearance
+becomes still more marked when they are viewed with only one eye; no
+stereoscopic guidance then correcting the illusion of their being contour
+lines.
+
+Another curious effect is seen in ~53~, which has the appearance of a
+plait or overlap; two systems of ridges that roll together, end bluntly,
+the end of the one system running right into a hollow curve of the other,
+and there stopping short; it seems, at the first glance, to run beneath
+it, as if it were a plait. This mode of ending forms a singular contrast
+to that shown in ~51~ and ~52~, where the ridges twist themselves into a
+point. ~54~ is a deep spiral, sometimes having a large core filled with
+upright and nearly parallel lines; occasionally they are bulbous, and
+resemble the commoner "monkey" type, see ~35~.
+
+When the direction of twist is described, the language must be
+unambiguous: the following are the rules I adopt. The course of the ridge
+is always followed _towards_ the _centre_ of the pattern, and not away
+from it. Again, the direction of its course when so followed is specified
+at the place where it attains its _highest_ point, or that nearest to the
+finger-tip; its course at that point must needs be horizontal, and
+therefore directed either towards the inner or the outer side.
+
+The amount of twist has a strong tendency to coincide with either one,
+two, three, four, or more half-turns, and not to stop short in
+intermediate positions. Here are indications of some unknown fundamental
+law, analogous apparently to that which causes Loops to be by far the
+commonest pattern.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The classification into Arches, Loops, and Whorls is based on the degree
+of curvature of the ridges, and enables almost any pattern to be sorted
+under one or other of those three heads. There are a few ambiguous
+patterns, and others which are nondescript, but the former are uncommon
+and the latter rare; as these exceptions give little real inconvenience,
+the classification works easily and well.
+
+Arches are formed when the ridges run from one side to the other of the
+bulb of the digit without making any backward turn or twist. Loops, when
+there is a single backward turn, but no twist. Whorls, when there is a
+turn through at least one complete circle; they are also considered to
+include all duplex spirals.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 9.
+
+FIG. 15. TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS--ARCHES AND LOOPS (enlarged three times).]
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 10.
+
+FIG. 16. TRANSITIONAL PATTERNS--LOOPS AND WHORLS (enlarged three times).]
+
+
+The chief theoretical objection to this threefold system of classification
+lies in the existence of certain compound patterns, by far the most common
+of which are Whorls enclosed within Loops (Plates 7, 8, Fig. 12, ~15~,
+~18~, ~19~, and Fig. 13, ~20-23~). They are as much Loops as Whorls, and
+properly ought to be relegated to a fourth class. I have not done so, but
+called them Whorls, for a practical reason which is cogent. In an
+imperfect impression, such as is made by merely dabbing the inked finger
+upon paper, the enveloping loop is often too incompletely printed to
+enable its existence to be surely ascertained, especially when the
+enclosed whorl is so large (Fig. 13, ~23~) that there are only one or two
+enveloping ridges to represent the loop. On the other hand, the whorled
+character of the core can hardly fail to be recognised. The practical
+difficulties lie almost wholly in rightly classifying a few transitional
+forms, diagrammatically and roughly expressed in Fig. 11, ~4~, ~5~, and
+Fig. 12, ~8~, ~18~, ~19~, with the words "see" so and so written below,
+and of which actual examples are given on an enlarged scale in Plates 9
+and 10, Figs. 15 and 16. Here Fig. 15, _a_ is an undoubted arch, and _c_
+an undoubted nascent loop; but _b_ is transitional between them, though
+nearer to a loop than an arch, _d_ may be thought transitional in the same
+way, but it has an incipient curl which becomes marked in _e_, while it
+has grown into a decided whorl in _f_; _d_ should also be compared with
+_j_, which is in some sense a stage towards _k_. _g_ is a nascent
+tented-arch, fully developed in _i_, where the pattern as a whole has a
+slight slope, but is otherwise fairly symmetrical. In _h_ there is some
+want of symmetry, and a tendency to the formation of a loop on the right
+side (refer back to Plate 7, Fig. 11, ~4~, and Fig. 12, ~12~); it is a
+transitional case between a tented arch and a loop, with most resemblance
+to the latter. Plate 10, Fig. 16 illustrates eyed patterns; here _l_ and
+_m_ are parts of decided loops; _p_, _q_, and _r_ are decided whorls, but
+_n_ is transitional, inclining towards a loop, and _o_ is transitional,
+inclining towards a whorl. _s_ is a nascent form of an invaded loop, and
+is nearly related to _l_; _t_ and _u_ are decidedly invaded loops.
+
+The Arch-Loop-Whorl, or, more briefly, the A. L. W. system of
+classification, while in some degree artificial, is very serviceable for
+preliminary statistics, such as are needed to obtain a broad view of the
+distribution of the various patterns. A minute subdivision under numerous
+heads would necessitate a proportional and somewhat overwhelming amount of
+statistical labour. Fifty-four different standard varieties are by no
+means an extravagant number, but to treat fifty-four as thoroughly as
+three would require eighteen times as much material and labour. Effort is
+economised by obtaining broad results from a discussion of the A. L. W.
+classes, afterwards verifying or extending them by special inquiries into
+a few of the further subdivisions.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 11.
+
+FIG. 17. ORIGIN OF SUPPLY OF RIDGES TO PATTERNS OF PRINTS OF RIGHT HAND.
+
+FIG. 18. Ambiguities in prints of the Minutiae.]
+
+
+The divergent ridges that bound any simple pattern admit of nine, and only
+nine, distinct variations in the first part of their course. The bounding
+ridge that has attained the summit of any such pattern must have arrived
+either from the Inner plot (I), the Outer plot (O), or from both.
+Similarly as regards the bounding ridge that lies at the lowest point of
+the pattern. Any one of the three former events may occur in connection
+with any of the three latter events, so they afford in all 3 x 3, or nine
+possible combinations. It is convenient to distinguish them by easily
+intelligible symbols. Thus, let _i_ signify a bounding line which starts
+from the point I, whether it proceeds to the summit or to the base of the
+pattern; let _o_ be a line that similarly proceeds from O, and let _u_ be
+a line that unites the two plots I and O, either by summit or by base.
+Again, let two symbols be used, of which the first shall always refer to
+the summit, and the second to the base of the pattern. Then the nine
+possible cases are--_uu_, _ui_, _uo_; _iu_, _ii_, _io_; _ou_, _oi_, _oo_.
+The case of the arches is peculiar, but they may be fairly classed under
+the symbol _uu_.
+
+This easy method of classification has much power. For example, the four
+possible kinds of simple spirals (see the 1st, 2nd, and the 5th and 6th
+diagrams in the lowest row of Plate 11, Fig. 17) are wholly determined by
+the letters _oj_, _jo_, _ij_, _ji_ respectively. The two forms of duplex
+spirals are similarly determined by _oi_ and _io_ (see 4th and 5th
+diagrams in the upper row of Fig. 17), the two slopes of loops by _oo_ and
+_ii_ (3rd and 4th in the lower row). It also shows very distinctly the
+sources whence the streams of ridges proceed that feed the pattern, which
+itself affords another basis for classification. The resource against
+uncertainty in respect to ambiguous or difficult patterns is to compile a
+dictionary of them, with the heads under which it is advisable that they
+should severally be classed. It would load these pages too heavily to give
+such a dictionary here. Moreover, it ought to be revised by many
+experienced eyes, and the time is hardly ripe for this; when it is, it
+would be no difficult task, out of the large number of prints of separate
+fingers which for instance I possess (some 15,000), to make an adequate
+selection, to enlarge them photographically, and finally to print the
+results in pairs, the one untouched, the other outlined and classified.
+
+It may be asked why ridges are followed and not furrows, the furrow being
+the real boundary between two systems. The reply is, that the ridges are
+the easiest to trace; and, as the error through following the ridges
+cannot exceed one-half of a ridge-interval, I have been content to
+disregard it. I began by tracing furrows, but preferred the ridges after
+trial.
+
+_Measurements._--It has been already shown that when both plots are
+present (Plate 4, Fig. 8, ~4~), they form the termini of a base line, from
+which any part of the pattern may be triangulated, as surveyors would say.
+Also, that when only one plot exists (~3~), and the pattern has an axis
+(which it necessarily has in all ordinary _ii_ and _oo_ cases), a
+perpendicular can be let fall upon that axis, whose intersection with it
+will serve as a second point of reference. But our methods must not be too
+refined. The centres of the plots are not determinable with real
+exactness, and repeated prints from so soft a substance as flesh are
+often somewhat dissimilar, the one being more or less broadened out than
+the other, owing to unequal pressure. It is therefore well to use such
+other more convenient points of reference as the particular pattern may
+present. In loops, the intersection of the axis with the summit of the
+innermost bend, whether it be a staple or the envelope to a rod (Fig. 14,
+second and third rows of diagrams), is a well-defined position. In
+spirals, the centre of the pattern is fairly well defined; also a
+perpendicular erected from the middle of the base to the outline above and
+below (Fig. 8, ~4~) is precise and convenient.
+
+In prints of adults, measurements may be made in absolute units of length,
+as in fractions of an inch, or else in millimetres. An average
+ridge-interval makes, however, a better unit, being independent of growth;
+it is strictly necessary to adopt it in prints made by children, if
+present measurements are hereafter to be compared with future ones. The
+simplest plan of determining and employing this unit is to count the
+number of ridges to the nearest half-ridge, within the space of one-tenth
+of an inch, measured along the axis of the finger at and about the point
+where it cuts the _summit_ of the outline; then, having already prepared
+scales suitable for the various likely numbers, to make the measurements
+with the appropriate scale. Thus, if five ridges were crossed by the axis
+at that part, in the space of one-tenth of an inch, each unit of the scale
+to be used would be one-fiftieth of an inch; if there were four ridges,
+each unit of the scale would be one-fortieth of an inch; if six ridges
+one-sixtieth, and so forth. There is no theoretical or practical
+difficulty, only rough indications being required.
+
+It is unnecessary to describe in detail how the bearings of any point may
+be expressed after the fashion of compass bearings, the direction I-O
+taking the place of East-West, the uppermost direction that of North, and
+the lowermost of South. Little more is practically wanted than to be able
+to describe roughly the position of some remarkable feature in the print,
+as of an island or an enclosure. A ridge that is characterised by these or
+any other marked peculiarity is easily identified by the above means, and
+it thereupon serves as an exact basis for the description of other
+features.
+
+
+_Purkenje's "Commentatio."_
+
+Reference has already been made to Purkenje, who has the honour of being
+the person who first described the inner scrolls (as distinguished from
+the outlines of the patterns) formed by the ridges. He did so in a
+University Thesis delivered at Breslau in 1823, entitled _Commentatio de
+examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei_ (a physiological
+examination of the visual organ and of the cutaneous system). The thesis
+is an ill-printed small 8vo pamphlet of fifty-eight pages, written in a
+form of Latin that is difficult to translate accurately into free English.
+It is, however, of great historical interest and reputation, having been
+referred to by nearly all subsequent writers, some of whom there is
+reason to suspect never saw it, but contented themselves with quoting a
+very small portion at second-hand. No copy of the pamphlet existed in any
+public medical library in England, nor in any private one so far as I
+could learn; neither could I get a sight of it at some important
+continental libraries. One copy was known of it in America. The very
+zealous Librarian of the Royal College of Surgeons was so good as to take
+much pains at my instance, to procure one: his zeal was happily and
+unexpectedly rewarded by success, and the copy is now securely lodged in
+the library of the College.
+
+_The Title_
+
+Commentatio de Examine physiologico organi visus et systematis cutanei
+quam pro loco in gratioso medicorum ordine rite obtinendo die Dec. 22,
+1823. H.X.L.C. publice defendit Johannes Evangelista Purkenje, Med.
+doctor, Phys. et Path. Professor publicus ordinarius des. Assumto socio
+Guilielmo Kraus Medicinae studioso.
+
+_Translation_, p. 42.
+
+    "Our attention is next engaged by the wonderful arrangement and
+    curving of the minute furrows connected with the organ of touch[4] on
+    the inner surfaces of the hand and foot, especially on the last
+    phalanx of each finger. Some general account of them is always to be
+    found in every manual of physiology and anatomy, but in an organ of
+    such importance as the human hand, used as it is for very varied
+    movements, and especially serviceable to the sense of touch, no
+    research, however minute, can fail in yielding some gratifying
+    addition to our knowledge of that organ. After numberless
+    observations, I have thus far met with nine principal varieties of
+    curvature according to which the tactile furrows are disposed upon the
+    inner surface of the last phalanx of the fingers. I will describe them
+    concisely, and refer to the diagrams for further explanation (see
+    Plate 12, Fig. 19).
+
+    1. _Transverse flexures._--The minute furrows starting from the bend
+    of the joint, run from one side of the phalanx to the other; at first
+    transversely in nearly straight lines, then by degrees they become
+    more and more curved towards the middle, until at last they are bent
+    into arches that are almost concentric with the circumference of the
+    finger.
+
+    2. _Central Longitudinal Stria._--This configuration is nearly the
+    same as in 1, the only difference being that a perpendicular stria is
+    enclosed within the transverse furrows, as if it were a nucleus.
+
+    3. _Oblique Stria._--A solitary line runs from one or other of the two
+    sides of the finger, passing obliquely between the transverse curves
+    in 1, and ending near the middle.
+
+    4. _Oblique Sinus._--If this oblique line recurves towards the side
+    from which it started, and is accompanied by several others, all
+    recurved in the same way, the result is an oblique sinus, more or less
+    upright, or horizontal, as the case may be. A junction at its base, of
+    minute lines proceeding from either of its sides, forms a triangle.
+    This distribution of the furrows, in which an oblique sinus is found,
+    is by far the most common, and it may be considered as a special
+    characteristic of man; the furrows that are packed in longitudinal
+    rows are, on the other hand, peculiar to monkeys. The vertex of the
+    oblique sinus is generally inclined towards the radial side of the
+    hand, but it must be observed that the contrary is more frequently the
+    case in the fore-finger, the vertex there tending towards the ulnar
+    side. Scarcely any other configuration is to be found on the toes. The
+    ring finger, too, is often marked with one of the more intricate kinds
+    of pattern, while the remaining fingers have either the oblique sinus
+    or one of the other simpler forms.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 12.
+
+FIG. 19. THE STANDARD PATTERNS OF PURKENJE.]
+
+
+    5. _Almond._--Here the oblique sinus, as already described, encloses
+    an almond-shaped figure, blunt above, pointed below, and formed of
+    concentric furrows.
+
+    6. _Spiral._--When the transverse flexures described in 1 do not pass
+    gradually from straight lines into curves, but assume that form
+    suddenly with a more rapid divergence, a semicircular space is
+    necessarily created, which stands upon the straight and horizontal
+    lines below, as it were upon a base. This space is filled by a spiral
+    either of a simple or composite form. The term 'simple' spiral is to
+    be understood in the usual geometric sense. I call the spiral
+    'composite' when it is made up of several lines proceeding from the
+    same centre, or of lines branching at intervals and twisted upon
+    themselves. At either side, where the spiral is contiguous to the
+    place at which the straight and curved lines begin to diverge, in
+    order to enclose it, two triangles are formed, just like the single
+    one that is formed at the side of the oblique sinus.
+
+    7. _Ellipse_, or _Elliptical Whorl_.--The semicircular space described
+    in 6 is here filled with concentric ellipses enclosing a short single
+    line in their middle.
+
+    8. _Circle_, or _Circular Whorl_.--Here a single point takes the place
+    of the short line mentioned in 7. It is surrounded by a number of
+    concentric circles reaching to the ridges that bound the semicircular
+    space.
+
+    9. _Double Whorl._--One portion of the transverse lines runs forward
+    with a bend and recurves upon itself with a half turn, and is embraced
+    by another portion which proceeds from the other side in the same way.
+    This produces a doubly twisted figure which is rarely met with except
+    on the thumb, fore, and ring fingers. The ends of the curved portions
+    may be variously inclined; they may be nearly perpendicular, of
+    various degrees of obliquity, or nearly horizontal.
+
+    In all of the forms 6, 7, 8, and 9, triangles may be seen at the
+    points where the divergence begins between the transverse and the
+    arched lines, and at both sides. On the remaining phalanges, the
+    transverse lines proceed diagonally, and are straight or only slightly
+    curved."
+
+(He then proceeds to speak of the palm of the hand in men and in
+monkeys.)
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VI
+
+PERSISTENCE
+
+
+The evidence that the minutiae persist throughout life is derived from the
+scrutiny and comparison of various duplicate impressions, one of each pair
+having been made many years ago, the other recently. Those which I have
+studied more or less exhaustively are derived from the digits of fifteen
+different persons. In some cases repeated impressions of one finger only
+were available; in most cases of two fingers; in some of an entire hand.
+Altogether the whole or part of repeated impressions of between twenty and
+thirty different digits have been studied. I am indebted to Sir W. J.
+Herschel for almost all these valuable data, without which it would have
+been impossible to carry on the inquiry. The only other prints are those
+of Sir W. G----, who, from curiosity, took impressions of his own fingers
+in sealing-wax in 1874, and fortunately happened to preserve them. He was
+good enough to make others for me last year, from which photographic
+prints were made. The following table gives an analysis of the above data.
+It would be well worth while to hunt up and take the present finger
+prints of such of the Hindoos as may now be alive, whose impressions were
+taken in India by Sir W. J. Herschel, and are still preserved. Many years
+must elapse before my own large collection of finger prints will be
+available for the purpose of testing persistence during long periods.
+
+The pattern in every distinct finger print, even though it be only a
+dabbed impression, contains on a rough average thirty-five different
+points of reference, in addition to its general peculiarities of outline
+and core. They consist of forkings, beginnings or ends of ridges, islands,
+and enclosures. These minute details are by no means peculiar to the
+pattern itself, but are distributed with almost equal abundance throughout
+the whole palmar surface. In order to make an exhaustive comparison of two
+impressions they ought to be photographically enlarged to a size not
+smaller than those shown in Plate 15. Two negatives of impressions can
+thus be taken side by side on an ordinary quarter-plate, and any number of
+photographic prints made from them; but, for still more comfortable
+working, a further enlargement is desirable, say by the prism, p. 52. Some
+of the prints may be made on ferro-prussiate paper, as already mentioned
+pp. 51, 53; they are more convenient by far than prints made by the silver
+or by the platinum process.
+
+Having placed the enlarged prints side by side, two or three conspicuous
+and convenient points of reference, whether islands, enclosures, or
+particularly distinct bifurcations, should be identified and marked. By
+their help, the position of the prints should be readjusted, so that they
+shall be oriented exactly alike. From each point of reference, in
+succession, the spines of the ridges are then to be followed with a fine
+pencil, in the two prints alternately, neatly marking each new point of
+comparison with a numeral in coloured ink (Plate 13). When both of the
+prints are good and clear, this is rapidly done; wherever the impressions
+are faulty, there may be many ambiguities requiring patience to unravel.
+At first I was timid, and proceeded too hesitatingly when one of the
+impressions was indistinct, making short alternate traces. Afterwards on
+gaining confidence, I traced boldly, starting from any well-defined point
+of reference and not stopping until there were reasonable grounds for
+hesitation, and found it easy in this way to trace the unions between
+opposite and incompletely printed ends of ridges, and to disentangle many
+bad impressions.
+
+An exact correspondence between the _details_ of two minutiae is of
+secondary importance. Thus, the commonest point of reference is a
+bifurcation; now the neck or point of divergence of a new ridge is apt to
+be a little low, and sometimes fails to take the ink; hence a new ridge
+may appear in one of the prints to have an independent origin, and in the
+other to be a branch. The _apparent_ origin is therefore of little
+importance, the main fact to be attended to is that a new ridge comes into
+existence at a particular point; _how_ it came into existence is a
+secondary matter. Similarly, an apparently broken ridge may in reality be
+due to an imperfectly printed enclosure; and an island in one print may
+appear as part of an enclosure in the other. Moreover, this variation in
+details may be the effect not only of imperfect inking or printing, but of
+disintegration due to old age, which renders the impressions of the ridges
+ragged and broken, as in my own finger prints on the title-page.
+
+Plate 11, Fig. 18 explains the nature of the apparent discrepancies better
+than a verbal description. In _a_ a new ridge appears to be suddenly
+intruded between two adjacent ones, which have separated to make room for
+it; but a second print, taken from the same finger, may have the
+appearance of either _b_ or _c_, showing that the new ridge is in reality
+a fork of one or other of them, the low connecting neck having failed to
+leave an impression. The second line of examples shows how an enclosure
+which is clearly defined in _d_ may give rise to the appearance of broken
+continuity shown in _e_, and how a distinct island _f_ in one of the
+prints may be the remnant of an enclosure which is shown in the other.
+These remarks are offered as a caution against attaching undue importance
+to disaccord in the details of the minutiae that are found in the same
+place in different prints. Usually, however, the distinction between a
+fork and the beginning of a new ridge is clear enough; the islands and
+enclosures are also mostly well marked.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 13.
+
+FIG. 20. V. H. H-D aet. 2-1/2 in 1877, and again as a boy in Nov. 1890.]
+
+
+Plate 13 gives impressions taken from the fingers of a child of 2-1/2
+years in 1877, and again in 1890, when a boy of 15. They are enlarged
+photographically to the same size, and are therefore on different scales.
+The impressions from the baby-hand are not sharp, but sufficiently
+distinct for comparison. Every bifurcation, and beginning or ending of a
+ridge, common to the two impressions, is marked with a numeral in blue
+ink. There is only one island in the present instance, and that is in the
+upper pair of prints; it is clearly seen in the right hand print, lying to
+the left of the inscribed number 13, but the badness of the left hand
+print makes it hardly decipherable, so it is not numbered. There are a
+total of twenty-six good points of comparison common to the upper pair of
+prints; there are forty-three points in the lower pair, forty-two of which
+appear in both, leaving a single point of disagreement; it is marked A on
+the fifth ridge counting from the top. Here a bifurcated ridge in the baby
+is filled up in the boy. This one exception, small though it be, is in my
+experience unique. The total result of the two pairs of prints is to
+afford sixty-eight successes and one failure. The student will find it
+well worth his while to study these and the following prints step by step,
+to satisfy himself of the extraordinarily exact coincidences between the
+two members of either of the pairs. Of course the patterns generally must
+be the same, if the ridges composing them are exactly alike, and the most
+cursory glance shows them to be so.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 14.
+
+FIG. 21.]
+
+
+Plate 14, Fig. 21 contains rather less than a quarter of each of eight
+pairs that were published in the _Phil. Trans._ memoir above alluded to.
+They were there enlarged photographically to twice their natural size,
+which was hardly enough, as it did not allow sufficient space for
+inserting the necessary reference numbers. Consequently they have been
+again considerably enlarged, so much so that it is impossible to put more
+than a portion of each on the page. However, what is given suffices. The
+omitted portions may be studied in the memoir. The cases of ~1~ and ~2~
+are prints of different fingers of the same individual, first as a child 8
+years old, and then as a boy of 17. They have been enlarged on the same
+scale but not to the same size; so the print of the child includes a
+larger proportion of the original impression than that of the boy. It is
+therefore only a part of the child's print which is comparable with that
+of the boy. The remaining six cases refer to four different men, belonging
+to three quite different families, although their surnames happen to have
+the same initial, H. They were adults when the first print was made, and
+from 26 to 31 years older on the second occasion. There is an exact
+agreement throughout between the two members of each of the eight several
+couplets.
+
+In the pair 2. A. E. H. Hl., there is an interesting dot at the point ~4~
+(being an island it deserved to have had two numbers, one for the
+beginning and one for the end). Small as it is, it persists; its growth in
+size corresponding to the growth of the child in stature.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 15.
+
+FIG. 22. RIGHT FOREFINGER OF SIR W. J. H. in 1860 and in 1888.]
+
+
+FIG. 23. DISTRIBUTION OF THE PERIODS OF LIFE, to which the evidence of
+persistency refers.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |         | Age |        | Age  |          Ages, 0--80 years.           |
+  |Persons. |  at |Interval|  at  |                                       |
+  |         |first|   in   |second|                                       |
+  |         |print| years  |print |    10   20   30   40   50   60   70   |
+  |------------------------------------|----|----|----|----|----|----|----|
+  |  H. H--d|   2 |   13   |  15  |----+--  |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  A. H--l|   4 |   12   |  16  | ---+--- |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  J. H--l|   8 |   13   |  21  |  --+----+    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  E. H--l|  10 |   13   |  23  |    |----+--  |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |W.J. H--l|  26 |   30   |  56  |    |    |  --+----+----+--  |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |R.F. H--n|  26 |   31   |  57  |    |    |  --+----+----+--- |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |N.H. T--n|  27 |   28   |  55  |    |    |   -+----+----+--  |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |F.H. H--t|  27 |   26   |  53  |    |    |   -+----+----+-   |    |    |
+  |         |     |        |      |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |    |
+  |  W. G--e|  62 |   17   |  79  |    |    |    |    |    |    |----+----|
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+For the sake of those who are deficient in the colour sense and therefore
+hardly able, if at all, to distinguish even the blue numerals in Figs. 20,
+21, I give an eleventh example, Plate 15, Fig. 22, printed all in black.
+The numerals are here very legible, but space for their insertion had to
+be obtained by sacrificing some of the lineations. It is the right
+fore-finger of Sir W. Herschel and has been already published twice; first
+in the account of my lecture at the Royal Institution, and secondly, in
+its present conspicuous form, in my paper in the _Nineteenth Century_. The
+number of years that elapsed between the two impressions is thirty-one,
+and the prints contain twenty-four points of comparison, all of which will
+be seen to agree. I also possess a later print than this, taken in 1890
+from the same finger, which tells the same tale.
+
+The final result of the prints in these pages is that they give
+photographic enlargements of the whole or portions of eleven couplets
+belonging to six different persons, who are members of five unrelated
+families, and which contain between them 158 points of comparison, of
+which only one failed. Adding the portions of the prints that are omitted
+here, but which will be found in the _Phil. Trans._, the material that I
+have thus far published contains 389 points of comparison, of which one
+failed. The details are given in the annexed table:--
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | Order |  Initials. |Digit | Age  |Dates of| Years |   Total points    |
+  |  in   |            | of   |  at  |the two |elapsed|  of agreement in  |
+  | the   |            |right | date |prints. |between|-------------------|
+  | Figs. |            |hand. |  of  |--------|the two|Figs. 20|Figs. 20, |
+  |       |            |      |first |        |prints.|and 21. |22, and in|
+  |       |            |      |print.|1st  2nd|       |        |Ph. Trans.|
+  |-------|------------|------|------|--------|-------|--------|----------|
+  |FIG. 20|            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |   1.  |V. H. Hd.   |Fore  | 2-1/2| 1877-90|   13  |   26   |    26    |
+  |   2.  |V. H. Hd.   |Ring  | 2-1/2| 1877-90|   13  |   42   |    42    |
+  |       |            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |FIG. 21|            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |   1.  |A. E. H. Hl.|Fore  | 8    | 1881-90|    9  |   11   |    33    |
+  |   2.  |A. E. H. Hl.|Ring  | 8    | 1881-90|    9  |    5   |    36    |
+  |   3.  |N. H. Tn.   |Fore  |28    | 1862-90|   28  |    6   |    27    |
+  |   4.  |N. H. Tn.   |Middle|28    | 1862-90|   28  |   10   |    36    |
+  |   5.  |F. K. Ht.   |Fore  |28    | 1862-88|   26  |   12   |    55    |
+  |   6.  |R. F. Hn.   |Middle|31    | 1859-90|   31  |    6   |    27    |
+  |   7.  |W. J. Hl.   |Thumb |30    | 1860-90|   30  |    9   |    50    |
+  |   8.  |W. J. Hl.   |Ring  |31    | 1859-90|   31  |    6   |    32    |
+  |       |            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |FIG. 22|            |      |      |        |       |        |          |
+  |   1.  |W. J. Hl.   |Fore  |31    | 1859-90|   31  |   24   |    24    |
+  |---------------------------------------------------|--------|----------|
+  |                      Total points of agreement    |  157   |   388    |
+  |                          Do.      of disagreement |    1   |     1    |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+It is difficult to give a just estimate of the number of points of
+comparison that I have studied in other couplets of prints, because they
+were not examined as exhaustively as in these. There were no less than one
+hundred and eleven of them in the ball of the thumb of the child V. H.
+Hd., besides twenty-five in the imperfect prints of his middle and little
+fingers; these alone raise the total of 389 to 525. I must on the whole
+have looked for more than 700 points of comparison, and have found
+agreement in every single case that was examined, except the one already
+mentioned in Fig. 20, of a ridge that was split in the child, but had
+closed up some few years later.
+
+The prints in the two plates cover the intervals from childhood to
+boyhood, from boyhood to early manhood, from manhood to about the age of
+60, and another set--that of Sir W. G.--covers the interval from 67 to 80.
+This is clearly expressed by the diagram (Plate 15, Fig. 23). As there is
+no sign, except in one case, of change during any one of these four
+intervals, which together almost wholly cover the ordinary life of man, we
+are justified in inferring that between birth and death there is
+absolutely no change in, say, 699 out of 700 of the numerous
+characteristics in the markings of the fingers of the same person, such as
+can be impressed by them whenever it is desirable to do so. Neither can
+there be any change after death, up to the time when the skin perishes
+through decomposition; for example, the marks on the fingers of many
+Egyptian mummies, and on the paws of stuffed monkeys, still remain
+legible. Very good evidence and careful inquiry is thus seen to justify
+the popular idea of the persistence of finger markings, that has hitherto
+been too rashly jumped at, and which wrongly ascribed the persistence to
+the general appearance of the pattern, rather than to the minutiae it
+contains. There appear to be no external bodily characteristics, other
+than deep scars and tattoo marks, comparable in their persistence to these
+markings, whether they be on the finger, on other parts of the palmar
+surface of the hand, or on the sole of the foot. At the same time they are
+out of all proportion more numerous than any other measurable features;
+about thirty-five of them are situated on the bulb of each of the ten
+digits, in addition to more than 100 on the ball of the thumb, which has
+not one-fifth of the superficies of the rest of the palmar surface. The
+total number of points suitable for comparison on the two hands must
+therefore be not less than one thousand and nearer to two; an estimate
+which I verified by a rough count on my own hand; similarly in respect to
+the feet. The dimensions of the limbs and body alter in the course of
+growth and decay; the colour, quantity, and quality of the hair, the tint
+and quality of the skin, the number and set of the teeth, the expression
+of the features, the gestures, the handwriting, even the eye-colour,
+change after many years. There seems no persistence in the visible parts
+of the body, except in these minute and hitherto too much disregarded
+ridges.
+
+It must be emphasised that it is in the minutiae, and _not_ in the measured
+dimensions of any portion of the pattern, that this remarkable persistence
+is observed, not even if the measurements be made in units of a
+ridge-interval. The pattern grows simultaneously with the finger, and its
+proportions vary with its fatness, leanness, usage, gouty deformation, or
+age. But, though the pattern as a whole may become considerably altered in
+length or breadth, the number of ridges, their embranchments, and other
+minutiae remain unchanged. So it is with the pattern on a piece of lace.
+The piece as a whole may be stretched in this way, or shrunk in that, and
+its outline altogether altered; nevertheless every one of the component
+threads, and every knot in every thread, can easily be traced and
+identified in both. Therefore, in speaking of the persistence of the marks
+on the finger, the phrase must be taken to apply principally to the
+minutiae, and to the general character of the pattern; not to the measure
+of its length, breadth, or other diameter; these being no more constant
+than the stature, or any other of the ordinary anthropometric data.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VII
+
+EVIDENTIAL VALUE
+
+
+The object of this chapter is to give an approximate numerical idea of the
+value of finger prints as a means of Personal Identification. Though the
+estimates that will be made are professedly and obviously far below the
+truth, they are amply sufficient to prove that the evidence afforded by
+finger prints may be trusted in a most remarkable degree.
+
+Our problem is this: given two finger prints, which are alike in their
+minutiae, what is the chance that they were made by different persons?
+
+The first attempt at comparing two finger prints would be directed to a
+rough general examination of their respective patterns. If they do not
+agree in being arches, loops, or whorls, there can be no doubt that the
+prints are those of different fingers, neither can there be doubt when
+they are distinct forms of the same general class. But to agree thus far
+goes only a short way towards establishing identity, for the number of
+patterns that are promptly distinguishable from one another is not large.
+My earlier inquiries showed this, when endeavouring to sort the prints of
+1000 thumbs into groups that differed each from the rest by an "equally
+discernible" interval. While the attempt, as already mentioned, was not
+successful in its main object, it showed that nearly all the collection
+could be sorted into 100 groups, in each of which the prints had a fairly
+near resemblance. Moreover, twelve or fifteen of the groups referred to
+different varieties of the loop; and as two-thirds of all the prints are
+loops, two-thirds of the 1000 specimens fell into twelve or fifteen
+groups. The chance that an unseen pattern is some particular variety of
+loop, is therefore compounded of 2 to 3 against its being a loop at all,
+and of 1 to 12 or 15, as the case may be, against its being the specified
+kind of loop. This makes an adverse chance of only 2 to 36, or to 45, say
+as 2 to 40, or as 1 to 20. This very rude calculation suffices to show
+that on the average, no great reliance can be placed on a general
+resemblance in the appearance of two finger prints, as a proof that they
+were made by the same finger, though the obvious disagreement of two
+prints is conclusive evidence that they were made by different fingers.
+
+When we proceed to a much more careful comparison, and collate
+successively the numerous minutiae, their coincidence throughout would be
+an evidence of identity, whose value we will now try to appraise.
+
+Let us first consider the question, how far may the minutiae, or groups of
+them, be treated as _independent_ variables?
+
+Suppose that a tiny square of paper of only one average ridge-interval in
+the side, be cut out and dropped at random on a finger print; it will
+mask from view a minute portion of one, or possibly of two ridges. There
+can be little doubt that what was hidden could be correctly interpolated
+by simply joining the ends of the ridge or ridges that were interrupted.
+It is true, the paper might possibly have fallen exactly upon, and hidden,
+a minute island or enclosure, and that our reconstruction would have
+failed in consequence, but such an accident is improbable in a high
+degree, and may be almost ignored.
+
+Repeating the process with a much larger square of paper, say of twelve
+ridge-intervals in the side, the improbability of correctly reconstructing
+the masked portion will have immensely increased. The number of ridges
+that enter the square on any one side will perhaps, as often as not,
+differ from the number which emerge from the opposite side; and when they
+are the same, it does not at all follow that they would be continuous each
+to each, for in so large a space forks and junctions are sure to occur
+between some, and it is impossible to know which, of the ridges.
+Consequently, there must exist a certain size of square with more than one
+and less than twelve ridge-intervals in the side, which will mask so much
+of the print, that it will be an even chance whether the hidden portion
+can, on the average, be rightly reconstructed or not. The size of that
+square must now be considered.
+
+If the reader will refer to Plate 14, in which there are eight much
+enlarged photographs of portions of different finger prints, he will
+observe that the length of each of the portions exceeds the breadth in
+the proportion of 3 to 2. Consequently, by drawing one line down the
+middle and two lines across, each portion may be divided into six squares.
+Moreover, it will be noticed that the side of each of these squares has a
+length of about six ridge-intervals. I cut out squares of paper of this
+size, and throwing one of them at random on any one of the eight portions,
+succeeded almost as frequently as not in drawing lines on its back which
+comparison afterwards showed to have followed the true course of the
+ridges. The provisional estimate that a length of six ridge-intervals
+approximated to but exceeded that of the side of the desired square,
+proved to be correct by the following more exact observations, and by
+three different methods.
+
+I. The first set of tests to verify this estimate were made upon
+photographic enlargements of various thumb prints, to double their natural
+size. A six-ridge-interval square of paper was damped and laid at random
+on the print, the core of the pattern, which was too complex in many cases
+to serve as an average test, being alone avoided. The prints being on
+ordinary albuminised paper, which is slightly adherent when moistened, the
+patch stuck temporarily wherever it was placed and pressed down. Next, a
+sheet of tracing-paper, which we will call No. 1, was laid over all, and
+the margin of the square patch was traced upon it, together with the
+course of the surrounding ridges up to that margin. Then I interpolated on
+the tracing-paper what seemed to be the most likely course of those ridges
+which were hidden by the square. No. 1 was then removed, and a second
+sheet, No. 2, was laid on, and the margin of the patch was outlined on it
+as before, together with the ridges leading up to it. Next, a corner only
+of No. 2 was raised, the square patch was whisked away from underneath,
+the corner was replaced, the sheet was flattened down, and the actual
+courses of the ridges within the already marked outline were traced in.
+Thus there were two tracings of the margin of the square, of which No. 1
+contained the ridges as I had interpolated them, No. 2 as they really
+were, and it was easy to compare the two. The results are given in the
+first column of the following table:--
+
+INTERPOLATION OF RIDGES IN A SIX-RIDGE-INTERVAL SQUARE.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------+
+  |Result.|   Double    |Six-fold scale| Twenty-fold |Total.|
+  |       |Enlargements.| with prism.  |  scale with |      |
+  |       |             |              |chequer-work.|      |
+  |-------|-------------|--------------|-------------|------|
+  |Right  |     12      |      8       |      7      |  27  |
+  |Wrong  |     20      |     12       |     16      |  48  |
+  |-------|-------------|--------------|-------------|------|
+  |Total  |     32      |     20       |     23      |  75  |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------+
+
+II. In the second method the tracing-papers were discarded, and the prism
+of a camera lucida used. It threw an image three times the size of the
+photo-enlargement, upon a card, and there it was traced. The same general
+principle was adopted as in the first method, but the results being on a
+larger scale, and drawn on stout paper, were more satisfactory and
+convenient. They are given in the second column of the table. In this and
+the foregoing methods two different portions of the same print were
+sometimes dealt with, for it was a little more convenient and seemed as
+good a way of obtaining average results as that of always using portions
+of different finger prints. The total number of fifty-two trials, by one
+or other of the two methods, were made from about forty different prints.
+(I am not sure of the exact number.)
+
+The results in each of the two methods were sometimes quite right,
+sometimes quite wrong, sometimes neither one nor the other. The latter
+depended on the individual judgment as to which class it belonged, and
+might be battled over with more or less show of reason by advocates on
+opposite sides. Equally dividing these intermediate cases between "right"
+and "wrong," the results were obtained as shown. In one, and only one, of
+the cases, the most reasonable interpretation had not been given, and the
+result had been wrong when it ought to have been right. The purely
+personal error was therefore disregarded, and the result entered as
+"right."
+
+III. A third attempt was made by a different method, upon the lineations
+of a finger print drawn on about a twenty-fold scale. It had first been
+enlarged four times by photography, and from this enlargement the axes of
+the ridges had been drawn with a five-fold enlarging pantagraph. The aim
+now was to reconstruct the entire finger print by two successive and
+independent acts of interpolation. A sheet of transparent tracing-paper
+was ruled into six-ridge-interval squares, and every one of its alternate
+squares was rendered opaque by pasting white paper upon it, giving it the
+appearance of a chess-board. When this chequer-work was laid on the print,
+exactly one half of the six-ridge squares were masked by the opaque
+squares, while the ridges running up to them could be seen. They were not
+quite so visible as if each opaque square had been wholly detached from
+its neighbours, instead of touching them at the extreme corners, still the
+loss of information thereby occasioned was small, and not worth laying
+stress upon. It is easily understood that when the chequer-work was moved
+parallel to itself, through the space of one square, whether upwards or
+downwards, or to the right or left, the parts that were previously masked
+became visible, and those that were visible became masked. The object was
+to interpolate the ridges in every opaque square under one of these
+conditions, then to do the same for the remaining squares under the other
+condition, and finally, by combining the results, to obtain a complete
+scheme of the ridges wholly by interpolation. This was easily done by
+using two sheets of tracing-paper, laid in succession over the
+chequer-work, whose position on the print had been changed meanwhile, and
+afterwards tracing the lineations that were drawn on one of the two sheets
+upon the vacant squares of the other. The results are given in the third
+column of the table.
+
+The three methods give roughly similar results, and we may therefore
+accept the ratios of their totals, which is 27 to 75, or say 1 to 3, as
+representing the chance that the reconstruction of any six-ridge-interval
+square would be correct under the given conditions. On reckoning the
+chance as 1 to 2, which will be done at first, it is obvious that the
+error, whatever it may be, is on the safe side. A closer equality in the
+chance that the ridges in a square might run in the observed way or in
+some other way, would result from taking a square of five ridge-intervals
+in the side. I believe this to be very closely the right size. A
+four-ridge-interval square is certainly too small.
+
+When the reconstructed squares were wrong, they had none the less a
+natural appearance. This was especially seen, and on a large scale, in the
+result of the method by chequer-work, in which the lineations of an entire
+print were constructed by guess. Being so familiar with the run of these
+ridges in finger prints, I can speak with confidence on this. My
+assumption is, that any one of these reconstructions represents lineations
+that might have occurred in Nature, in association with the conditions
+outside the square, just as well as the lineations of the actual finger
+print. The courses of the ridges in each square are subject to
+uncertainties, due to petty _local_ incidents, to which the conditions
+outside the square give no sure indication. They appear to be in great
+part determined by the particular disposition of each one or more of the
+half hundred or so sweat-glands which the square contains. The ridges
+rarely run in evenly flowing lines, but may be compared to footways across
+a broken country, which, while they follow a general direction, are
+continually deflected by such trifles as a tuft of grass, a stone, or a
+puddle. Even if the number of ridges emerging from a six-ridge-interval
+square equals the number of those which enter, it does not follow that
+they run across in parallel lines, for there is plenty of room for any one
+of the ridges to end, and another to bifurcate. It is impossible,
+therefore, to know beforehand in which, if in any of the ridges, these
+peculiarities will be found. When the number of entering and issuing
+ridges is unequal, the difficulty is increased. There may, moreover, be
+islands or enclosures in any particular part of the square. It therefore
+seems right to look upon the squares as independent variables, in the
+sense that when the surrounding conditions are alone taken into account,
+the ridges within their limits may either run in the observed way or in a
+different way, the chance of these two contrasted events being taken (for
+safety's sake) as approximately equal.
+
+In comparing finger prints which are alike in their general pattern, it
+may well happen that the proportions of the patterns differ; one may be
+that of a slender boy, the other that of a man whose fingers have been
+broadened or deformed by ill-usage. It is therefore requisite to imagine
+that only one of the prints is divided into exact squares, and to suppose
+that a reticulation has been drawn over the other, in which each mesh
+included the corresponding parts of the former print. Frequent trials have
+shown that there is no practical difficulty in actually doing this, and
+it is the only way of making a fair comparison between the two.
+
+These six-ridge-interval squares may thus be regarded as independent
+units, each of which is equally liable to fall into one or other of two
+alternative classes, when the surrounding conditions are alone known. The
+inevitable consequence from this datum is that the chance of an exact
+correspondence between two different finger prints, in each of the
+six-ridge-interval squares into which they may be divided, and which are
+about 24 in number, is at least as 1 to 2 multiplied into itself 24 times
+(usually written 2{24}), that is as 1 to about ten thousand millions. But
+we must not forget that the six-ridge square was taken in order to ensure
+under-estimation, a five-ridge square would have been preferable, so the
+adverse chances would in reality be enormously greater still.
+
+It is hateful to blunder in calculations of adverse chances, by
+overlooking correlations between variables, and to falsely assume them
+independent, with the result that inflated estimates are made which
+require to be proportionately reduced. Here, however, there seems to be
+little room for such an error.
+
+We must next combine the above enormously unfavourable chance, which we
+will call _a_, with the other chances of not guessing correctly beforehand
+the surrounding conditions under which _a_ was calculated. These latter
+are divisible into _b_ and _c_; the chance _b_ is that of not guessing
+correctly the general course of the ridges adjacent to each square, and
+_c_ that of not guessing rightly the number of ridges that enter and
+issue from the square. The chance _b_ has already been discussed, with the
+result that it might be taken as 1 to 20 for two-thirds of all the
+patterns. It would be higher for the remainder, and very high indeed for
+some few of them, but as it is advisable always to underestimate, it may
+be taken as 1 to 20; or, to obtain the convenience of dealing only with
+values of 2 multiplied into itself, the still lower ratio of 1 to 2{4},
+that is as 1 to 16. As to the remaining chance _c_ with which _a_ and _b_
+have to be compounded, namely, that of guessing aright the number of
+ridges that enter and leave each side of a particular square, I can offer
+no careful observations. The number of the ridges would for the most part
+vary between five and seven, and those in the different squares are
+certainly not quite independent of one another. We have already arrived at
+such large figures that it is surplusage to heap up more of them,
+therefore, let us say, as a mere nominal sum much below the real figure,
+that the chance against guessing each and every one of these data
+correctly is as 1 to 250, or say 1 to 2{8} (= 256).
+
+The result is, that the chance of lineations, constructed by the
+imagination according to strictly natural forms, which shall be found to
+resemble those of a single finger print in all their minutiae, is less than
+1 to 2{24} x 2{4} x 2{8}, or 1 to 2{36}, or 1 to about sixty-four thousand
+millions. The inference is, that as the number of the human race is
+reckoned at about sixteen thousand millions, it is a smaller chance than 1
+to 4 that the print of a _single_ finger of any given person would be
+exactly like that of the same finger of any other member of the human
+race.
+
+When two fingers of each of the two persons are compared, and found to
+have the same minutiae, the improbability of 1 to 2{36} becomes squared,
+and reaches a figure altogether beyond the range of the imagination; when
+three fingers, it is cubed, and so on.
+
+A single instance has shown that the minutiae are _not_ invariably
+permanent throughout life, but that one or more of them may possibly
+change. They may also be destroyed by wounds, and more or less
+disintegrated by hard work, disease, or age. Ambiguities will thus arise
+in their interpretation, one person asserting a resemblance in respect to
+a particular feature, while another asserts dissimilarity. It is therefore
+of interest to know how far a conceded resemblance in the great majority
+of the minutiae combined with some doubt as to the remainder, will tell in
+favour of identity. It will now be convenient to change our datum from a
+six-ridge to a five-ridge square of which about thirty-five are contained
+in a single print, 35 x 5{2} or 35 x 25 being much the same as 24 x 6{2}
+or 24 x 36. The reason for the change is that this number of thirty-five
+happens to be the same as that of the minutiae. We shall therefore not be
+acting unfairly if, with reservation, and for the sake of obtaining some
+result, however rough, we consider the thirty-five minutiae themselves as
+so many independent variables, and accept the chance now as 1 to 2{35}.
+
+This has to be multiplied, as before, into the factor of 2{4} x 2{8}
+(which may still be considered appropriate, though it is too small),
+making the total of adverse chances 1 to 2{47}. Upon such a basis, the
+calculation is simple. There would on the average be 47 instances, out of
+the total 2{47} combinations, of similarity in all but one particular; (47
+x 46)/(1 x 2) in all but two; (47 x 46 x 45)/(1 x 2 x 3) in all but three,
+and so on according to the well-known binomial expansion. Taking for
+convenience the powers of 2 to which these values approximate, or rather
+with the view of not overestimating, let us take the power of 2 that falls
+short of each of them; these may be reckoned as respectively equal to
+2{6}, 2{10}, 2{14}, 2{18}, etc. Hence the roughly approximate chances of
+resemblance in all particulars are as 2{47} to 1; in all particulars but
+one, as 2{47-6}, or 2{41} to 1; in all but two, as 2{37} to 1; in all but
+three, as 2{33} to 1; in all but four, as 2{29} to 1. Even 2{29} is so
+large as to require a row of nine figures to express it. Hence a few
+instances of dissimilarity in the two prints of a single finger, still
+leave untouched an enormously large residue of evidence in favour of
+identity, and when two, three, or more fingers in the two persons agree to
+that extent, the strength of the evidence rises by squares, cubes, etc.,
+far above the level of that amount of probability which begins to rank as
+certainty.
+
+Whatever reductions a legitimate criticism may make in the numerical
+results arrived at in this chapter, bearing in mind the occasional
+ambiguities pictured in Fig. 18, the broad fact remains, that a complete
+or nearly complete accordance between two prints of a single finger, and
+vastly more so between the prints of two or more fingers, affords
+evidence requiring no corroboration, that the persons from whom they were
+made are the same. Let it also be remembered, that this evidence is
+applicable not only to adults, but can establish the identity of the same
+person at any stage of his life between babyhood and old age, and for some
+time after his death.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We read of the dead body of Jezebel being devoured by the dogs of Jezreel,
+so that no man might say, "This is Jezebel," and that the dogs left only
+her skull, the palms of her hands, and the soles of her feet; but the
+palms of the hands and the soles of the feet are the very remains by which
+a corpse might be most surely identified, if impressions of them, made
+during life, were available.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER VIII
+
+PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS
+
+
+The data used in this chapter are the prints of 5000 different digits,
+namely, the ten digits of 500 different persons; each digit can thus be
+treated, both separately and in combination, in 500 cases. Five hundred
+cannot be called a large number, but it suffices for approximate results;
+the percentages that it yields may, for instance, be expected to be
+trustworthy, more often than not, within two units.
+
+When preparing the tables for this chapter, I gave a more liberal
+interpretation to the word "Arch" than subsequently. At first, every
+pattern between a Forked-Arch and a Nascent-Loop (Plate 7) was rated as an
+Arch; afterwards they were rated as Loops.
+
+The relative frequency of the three several classes in the 5000 digits was
+as follows:--
+
+  Arches                     6.5 per cent.
+  Loops                     67.5    "
+  Whorls                    26.0    "
+                           ------
+               Total       100.0
+
+From this it appears, that on the average out of every 15 or 16 digits,
+one has an arch; out of every 3 digits, two have loops; out of every 4
+digits, one has a whorl.
+
+This coarse statistical treatment leaves an inadequate impression, each
+digit and each hand having its own peculiarity, as we shall see in the
+following table:--
+
+TABLE I.
+
+_Percentage frequency of Arches, Loops, and Whorls on the different
+digits, from observations of the 5000 digits of 500 persons._
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |           |      RIGHT HAND.        ||        LEFT HAND.        |
+  |  Digit.   |-----------------------------------------------------|
+  |           |Arch.|Loop.|Whorl.|Total.||Arch.|Loop.| Whorl.|Total.|
+  |-----------+-----------------------------------------------------|
+  |Thumb      |  3  | 53  |  44  | 100  ||  5  | 65  |  30   | 100  |
+  |Fore-finger| 17  | 53  |  30  | 100  || 17  | 55  |  28   | 100  |
+  |Middle do. |  7  | 78  |  15  | 100  ||  8  | 76  |  16   | 100  |
+  |Ring   do. |  2  | 53  |  45  | 100  ||  3  | 66  |  31   | 100  |
+  |Little do. |  1  | 86  |  13  | 100  ||  2  | 90  |   8   | 100  |
+  |-----------+-----+-----+------+------||-----+-----+-------+------|
+  |   Total   | 30  |323  | 147  | 500  || 35  |352  | 113   | 500  |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The percentage of arches on the various digits varies from 1 to 17; of
+loops, from 53 to 90; of whorls, from 13 to 45, consequently the
+statistics of the digits must be separated, and not massed
+indiscriminately.
+
+Are the A. L. W. patterns distributed in the same way upon the
+corresponding digits of the two hands? The answer from the last table is
+distinct and curious, and will be best appreciated on rearranging the
+entries as follows:--
+
+TABLE II.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |            |     ARCHES.    ||     LOOPS.     ||     WHORLS.    |
+  |   Digit.   |----------------||----------------||----------------|
+  |            | Right. | Left. || Right. | Left. || Right. | Left. |
+  |------------|--------|-------||--------|-------||----------------|
+  | Fore-finger|   17   |   17  ||   53   |   53  ||   30   |   28  |
+  | Middle do. |    7   |    8  ||   78   |   76  ||   15   |   16  |
+  | Little do. |    1   |    2  ||   86   |   90  ||   13   |    8  |
+  |            |        |       ||        |       ||        |       |
+  | Thumb      |    3   |    5  ||   53   |   65  ||   44   |   30  |
+  | Ring   do. |    2   |    3  ||   53   |   66  ||   45   |   31  |
+  |------------|--------|-------||--------|-------||----------------|
+  | Total 1000 |   30   |   35  ||  323   |  350  ||  147   |  113  |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The digits are seen to fall into two well-marked groups; the one including
+the fore, middle, and little fingers, the other including the thumb and
+ring-finger. As regards the first group, the frequency with which any
+pattern occurs in any named digit is statistically the same, whether that
+digit be on the right or on the left hand; as regards the second group,
+the frequency differs greatly in the two hands. But though in the first
+group the two fore-fingers, the two middle, and the two little fingers of
+the right hand are severally circumstanced alike in the frequency with
+which their various patterns occur, the difference between the frequency
+of the patterns on a fore, a middle, and a little finger, respectively, is
+very great.
+
+In the second group, though the thumbs on opposite hands do not resemble
+each other in the statistical frequency of the A. L. W. patterns, nor do
+the ring-fingers, there is a great resemblance between the respective
+frequencies in the thumbs and ring-fingers; for instance, the Whorls on
+either of these fingers on the left hand are only two-thirds as common as
+those on the right. The figures in each line and in each column are
+consistent throughout in expressing these curious differences, which must
+therefore be accepted as facts, and not as statistical accidents, whatever
+may be their explanation.
+
+One of the most noticeable peculiarities in Table I. is the much greater
+frequency of Arches on the fore-fingers than on any other of the four
+digits. It amounts to 17 per cent on the fore-fingers, while on the thumbs
+and on the remaining fingers the frequency diminishes (Table III.) in a
+ratio that roughly accords with the distance of each digit from the
+fore-finger.
+
+TABLE III.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+  |      _Percentage frequency of Arches._     |
+  |--------------------------------------------|
+  |Hand.|Thumb.| Fore- |Middle | Ring- |Little |
+  |     |      |finger.|finger.|finger.|finger.|
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Right|  3   |  17   |   7   |   2   |   1   |
+  |Left |  5   |  17   |   8   |   3   |   4   |
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Mean |  4   |  17   |  7.5  |  2.5  |  2.5  |
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+
+The frequency of Loops (Table IV.) has two maxima; the principal one is on
+the little finger, the secondary on the middle finger.
+
+TABLE IV.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+  |       _Percentage frequency of Loops._     |
+  |--------------------------------------------|
+  |Hand.|Thumb.|Fore-  |Middle |Ring-  |Little |
+  |     |      |finger.|finger.|finger.|finger.|
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Right|  53  |   53  |   78  |   66  |   86  |
+  |Left |  65  |   55  |   76  |   53  |   90  |
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Mean |  59  |   54  |   77  |  59.5 |   88  |
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+
+Whorls (Table V.) are most common on the thumb and the ring-finger, most
+rare on the middle and little fingers.
+
+TABLE V.
+
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+  |     _Percentage frequency of Whorls._      |
+  |--------------------------------------------|
+  |Hand.|Thumb.|Fore-  |Middle |Ring-  |Little |
+  |     |      |finger.|finger.|finger.|finger.|
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Right|  44  |   30  |   15  |  45   |  13   |
+  |Left |  30  |   28  |   16  |  31   |   8   |
+  |-----|------|-------|-------|-------|-------|
+  |Mean |  37  |   29  |  15.5 |  38   | 10.5  |
+  +--------------------------------------------+
+
+The fore-finger is peculiar in the frequency with which the direction of
+the slopes of its loops differs from that which is by far the most common
+in all other digits. A loop _must_ have a slope, being caused by the
+disposition of the ridges into the form of a pocket, opening downwards to
+one or other side of the finger. If it opens towards the inner or thumb
+side of the hand, it will be called an inner slope; if towards the outer
+or little-finger side, it will be called an outer slope. In all digits,
+except the fore-fingers, the inner slope is much the more rare of the two;
+but in the fore-fingers the inner slope appears two-thirds as frequently
+as the outer slope. Out of the percentage of 53 loops of the one or other
+kind on the right fore-finger, 21 of them have an inner and 32 an outer
+slope; out of the percentage of 55 loops on the left fore-finger, 21 have
+inner and 34 have outer slopes. These subdivisions 21-21 and 32-34
+corroborate the strong statistical similarity that was observed to exist
+between the frequency of the several patterns on the right and left
+fore-fingers; a condition which was also found to characterise the middle
+and little fingers.
+
+It is strange that Purkenje considers the "inner" slope on the fore-finger
+to be more frequent than the "outer" (p. 86, ~4~). My nomenclature differs
+from his, but there is no doubt as to the disagreement in meaning. The
+facts to be adduced hereafter make it most improbable that the persons
+observed were racially unlike in this particular.
+
+The tendencies of digits to resemble one another will now be considered in
+their various combinations. They will be taken two at a time, in order to
+learn the frequency with which both members of the various couplets are
+affected by the same A. L. W. class of pattern. Every combination will be
+discussed, except those into which the little finger enters. These are
+omitted, because the overwhelming frequency of loops in the little fingers
+would make the results of comparatively little interest, while their
+insertion would greatly increase the size of the table.
+
+TABLE VI_a_.
+
+_Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs in the_
+same digits _of the two hands_.
+
+(From observation of 5000 digits of 500 persons.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  | Couplets of Digits.  |Arches.|Loops.|Whorls.|Total.|
+  |----------------------|-------|------|-------|------|
+  |The two thumbs        |   2   |  48  |  24   |  74  |
+  |   "    fore-fingers  |   9   |  38  |  20   |  67  |
+  |   "    middle fingers|   3   |  65  |   9   |  77  |
+  |   "    ring-fingers  |   2   |  46  |  26   |  74  |
+  |----------------------------------------------------|
+  |        Mean of the Totals                      72  |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE VI_b_.
+
+_Percentage of cases in which the same class of pattern occurs in various
+couplets of_ different digits.
+
+(From 500 persons as above.)
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |  Couplets of |      OF SAME HANDS.       ||    OF OPPOSITE HANDS.     |
+  |   Digits.    |---------------------------||---------------------------|
+  |              |Arch.|Loops.|Whorls.|Total.||Arch.|Loops.|Whorls.|Total.|
+  |--------------|-----|------|-------|------||-----|------|-------|------|
+  |Thumb and     |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | fore-finger  |  2  |  35  |  16   |  53  ||  2  |  33  |  15   | 50   |
+  |Thumb and     |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | middle finger|  1  |  48  |   9   |  58  ||  1  |  47  |   8   | 56   |
+  |Thumb and     |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | ring-finger  |  1  |  40  |  20   |  61  ||  1  |  38  |  18   | 57   |
+  |Fore and      |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | middle finger|  5  |  48  |  12   |  65  ||  5  |  46  |  11   | 62   |
+  |Fore and      |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | ring-finger  |  2  |  35  |  17   |  54  ||  2  |  35  |  17   | 54   |
+  |Middle and    |     |      |       |      ||     |      |       |      |
+  | ring-finger  |  2  |  50  |  13   |  65  ||  2  |  50  |  12   | 64   |
+  |-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |          Means of the Totals         59  ||                      57   |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+A striking feature in this last table is the close similarity between
+corresponding entries relating to the same and to the opposite hands.
+There are eighteen sets to be compared; namely, six couplets of different
+names, in each of which the frequency of three different classes of
+patterns is discussed. The eighteen pairs of corresponding couplets are
+closely alike in every instance. It is worth while to rearrange the
+figures as below, for the greater convenience of observing their
+resemblances.
+
+TABLE VII.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                |  Arches in   ||   Loops in   ||  Whorls in   |
+  |                |--------------||--------------||--------------|
+  |   Couplet.     |Same |Opposite||Same |Opposite||Same |Opposite|
+  |                |hand.| hand.  ||hand.| hand.  ||hand.| hand.  |
+  |----------------|-----|--------||-----|--------||-----|--------|
+  |Thumb and       |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  fore-finger   |  2  |   2    || 35  |   33   ||  16 |   15   |
+  |Thumb and       |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  middle finger |  1  |   1    || 48  |   47   ||   9 |    8   |
+  |Thumb and ring- |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  1  |   1    || 40  |   38   ||  20 |   18   |
+  |Fore and middle |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  5  |   5    || 48  |   46   ||  12 |   11   |
+  |Fore and ring-  |     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  2  |   2    || 35  |   35   ||  17 |   17   |
+  |Middle and ring-|     |        ||     |        ||     |        |
+  |  finger        |  2  |   2    || 50  |   50   ||  13 |   12   |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The agreement in the above entries is so curiously close as to have
+excited grave suspicion that it was due to some absurd blunder, by which
+the same figures were made inadvertently to do duty twice over, but
+subsequent checking disclosed no error. Though the unanimity of the
+results is wonderful, they are fairly arrived at, and leave no doubt that
+the relationship of any one particular digit, whether thumb, fore, middle,
+ring or little finger, to any other particular digit, is the same, whether
+the two digits are on the same or on opposite hands. It would be a most
+interesting subject of statistical inquiry to ascertain whether the
+distribution of malformations, or of the various forms of skin disease
+among the digits, corroborates this unexpected and remarkable result. I am
+sorry to have no means of undertaking it, being assured on good authority
+that no adequate collection of the necessary data has yet been published.
+
+It might be hastily inferred from the statistical identity of the
+connection between, say, the right thumb and each of the two fore-fingers,
+that the patterns on the two fore-fingers ought always to be alike,
+whether arch, loop, or whorl. If X, it may be said, is identical both with
+Y and with Z, then Y and Z must be identical with one another. But the
+statement of the problem is wrong; X is not identical with Y and Z, but
+only bears an identical amount of statistical resemblance to each of them;
+so this reasoning is inadmissible. The character of the pattern on any
+digit is determined by causes of whose precise nature we are ignorant; but
+we may rest assured that they are numerous and variable, and that their
+variations are in large part independent of one another. We can in
+imagination divide them into groups, calling those that are common to the
+thumb and the fore-finger of either hand, and to those couplets
+exclusively, the A causes; those that are common to the two thumbs and to
+these exclusively, the B causes; and similarly those common to the two
+fore-fingers exclusively, the C causes.
+
+Then the sum of the variable causes determining the class of pattern in
+the four several digits now in question are these:--
+
+  Right thumb        A + B + an unclassed residue called X(=1=)
+  Left thumb         A + B +        "        "      "    X(=2=)
+  Right fore-finger  A + C +        "        "      "    Z(=1=)
+  Left fore-finger   A + C +        "        "      "    Z(=2=)
+
+The nearness of relationship between the two thumbs is sufficiently
+indicated by a fraction that expresses the proportion between all the
+causes common to the two thumbs exclusively, and the totality of the
+causes by which the A. L. W. class of the patterns of the thumbs is
+determined, that is to say, by
+
+            A + B
+  -----------------------      (1).
+  A + B + X(=1=) + X(=2=)
+
+Similarly, the nearness of the relationship between the two fore-fingers
+by
+
+            A + C
+  -----------------------      (2).
+  A + C + Z(=1=) + Z(=2=)
+
+And that between a thumb and a fore-finger by
+
+                        A
+  ---------------------------------------------------      (3).
+  A + B + C + X(=1=) (or X(=2=)) + Z(=1=) (or Z(=2=))
+
+The fractions (1) and (2) being both greater than (3), it follows that the
+relationships between the two thumbs, or between the two fore-fingers, are
+closer than that between the thumb and either fore-finger; at the same
+time it is clear that neither of the two former relationships is so close
+as to reach identity. Similarly as regards the other couplets of digits.
+The tabular entries fully confirm this deduction, for, without going now
+into further details, it will be seen from the "Mean of the Totals" at the
+bottom line of Table VI_b_ that the average percentage of cases in which
+two different digits have the same class of patterns, whether they be on
+the same or on opposite hands, is 59 or 57 (say 58), while the average
+percentage of cases in which right and left digits bearing the same name
+have the same class of pattern (Table VI_a_) is 72. This is barely
+two-thirds of the 100 which would imply identity. At the same time, the 72
+considerably exceeds the 58.
+
+Let us now endeavour to measure the relationships between the various
+couplets of digits on a well-defined centesimal scale, first recalling the
+fundamental principles of the connection that subsists between
+relationships of all kinds, whether between digits, or between kinsmen, or
+between any of those numerous varieties of related events with which
+statisticians deal.
+
+Relationships are all due to the joint action of two groups of variable
+causes, the one common to both of the related objects, the other special
+to each, as in the case just discussed. Using an analogous nomenclature to
+that already employed, the peculiarity of one of the two objects is due to
+an aggregate of variable causes that we may call C+X, and that of the
+other to C+Z, in which C are the causes common to both, and X and Z the
+special ones. In exact proportion as X and Z diminish, and C becomes of
+overpowering effect, so does the closeness of the relationship increase.
+When X and Z both disappear, the result is identity of character. On the
+other hand, when C disappears, all relationship ceases, and the variations
+of the two objects are strictly independent. The simplest case is that in
+which X and Z are equal, and _in this_, it becomes easy to devise a scale
+in which 0 deg. shall stand for no relationship, and 100 deg. for identity, and
+upon which the intermediate degrees of relationship may be marked at their
+proper value. Upon this assumption, but with some misgiving, I will
+attempt to subject the digits to this form of measurement. It will save
+time first to work out an example, and then, after gaining in that way, a
+clearer understanding of what the process is, to discuss its defects. Let
+us select for our example the case that brings out these defects in the
+most conspicuous manner, as follows:--
+
+Table V. tells us that the percentage of whorls in the right ring-finger
+is 45, and in the left ring-finger 31. Table VI_a_ tells us that the
+percentage of the double event of a whorl occurring on both the
+ring-fingers of the same person is 26. It is required to express the
+relationship between the right and left ring-fingers on a centesimal
+scale, in which 0 deg. shall stand for no relationship at all, and 100 deg. for
+the closest possible relationship.
+
+If no relationship should exist, there would nevertheless be a certain
+percentage of instances, due to pure chance, of the double event of whorls
+occurring in both ring-fingers, and it is easy to calculate their
+frequency from the above data. The number of possible combinations of 100
+right ring-fingers with 100 left ones is 100 x 100, and of these 45 x 31
+would be double events as above (call these for brevity "double whorls").
+Consequently the chance of a double whorl in any single couplet is
+(45x31)/(100x100), and their average frequency in 100 couplets,--in other
+words, their average percentage is (45x31)/100 = 13.95, say 14. If, then,
+the observed percentage of double whorls should be only 14, it would be a
+proof that the A. L. W. classes of patterns on the right and left
+ring-fingers were quite independent; so their relationship, as expressed
+on the centesimal scale, would be 0 deg. There could never be less than 14
+double whorls under the given conditions, except through some statistical
+irregularity.
+
+Now consider the opposite extreme of the closest possible relationship,
+subject however, and this is the weak point, to the paramount condition
+that the average frequencies of the A. L. W. classes may be taken as
+_pre-established_. As there are 45 per cent of whorls on the right
+ring-finger, and only 31 on the left, the tendency to form double whorls,
+however stringent it may be, can only be satisfied in 31 cases. There
+remains a superfluity of 14 per cent cases in the right ring-finger which
+perforce must have for their partners either arches or loops. Hence the
+percentage of frequency that indicates the closest feasible relationship
+under the pre-established conditions, would be 31.
+
+The range of all possible relationships in respect to whorls, would
+consequently lie between a percentage frequency of the minimum 14 and the
+maximum 31, while the observed frequency is of the intermediate value of
+26. Subtracting the 14 from these three values, we have the series of 0,
+12, 17. These terms can be converted into their equivalents in a
+centesimal scale that reaches from 0 deg. to 100 deg. instead of from 0 deg. to 17 deg.,
+by the ordinary rule of three, 12:_x_::17:100; _x_=70 or 71, whence the
+value _x_ of the observed relationship on the centesimal scale would be
+70 deg. or 71 deg., neglecting decimals.
+
+This method of obtaining the value of 100 deg. is open to grave objection in
+the present example. We have no right to consider that the 45 per cent of
+whorls on the right ring-finger, and the 31 on the left, can be due to
+pre-established conditions, which would exercise a paramount effect even
+though the whorls were due entirely to causes common to both fingers.
+There is some self-contradiction in such a supposition. Neither are we at
+liberty to assume that the respective effects of the special causes X and
+Z are equal in average amount; if they were, the percentage of whorls on
+the right and on the left finger would invariably be equal.
+
+In this particular example the difficulty of determining correctly the
+scale value of 100 deg. is exceptionally great; elsewhere, the percentages of
+frequency in the two members of each couplet are more alike. In the two
+fore-fingers, and again in the two middle fingers, they are closely alike.
+Therefore, in these latter cases, it is not unreasonable to pass over the
+objection that X and Z have not been proved to be equal, but we must
+accept the results in all other cases with great caution.
+
+When the digits are of different names,--as the thumb and the
+fore-finger,--whether the digits be on the same or on opposite hands,
+there are two cases to be worked out; namely, such as (1) right thumb and
+left fore-finger, and (2) left thumb and right fore-finger. Each accounts
+for 50 per cent of the observed cases; therefore the mean of the two
+percentages is the correct percentage. The relationships calculated in the
+following table do not include arches, except in two instances mentioned
+in a subsequent paragraph, as the arches are elsewhere too rare to furnish
+useful results.
+
+It did not seem necessary to repeat the calculation for couplets of digits
+of different names, situated on opposite hands, as those that were
+calculated on closely the same data for similar couplets situated on the
+same hands, suffice for both. It is evident from the irregularity in the
+run of the figures that the units in the several entries cannot be more
+than vaguely approximate. They have, however, been retained, as being
+possibly better than nothing at all.
+
+TABLE VIII.
+
+_Approximate Measures of Relationship between the various Digits, on a
+Centesimal Scale._
+
+(0 deg. = no relationship; 100 deg. = the utmost feasible likeness.)
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |            Couplets.            | Loops. | Whorls.| Means. |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  | _Digits of the same name._      |        |        |        |
+  |                                 |        |        |        |
+  | Right and left thumbs           |   57   |   64   |   61   |
+  |   "        "   fore-fingers     |   37   |   59   |   48   |
+  |   "        "   middle fingers   |   34   |   52   |   43   |
+  |   "        "   ring fingers     |   61   |   70   |   65   |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  |                  Means          |   47 deg.  |   61 deg.  |   54 deg.  |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  | _Digits of different names on   |        |        |        |
+  | the same or on opposite hands._ |        |        |        |
+  |                                 |        |        |        |
+  | Thumb and fore-finger           |   19   |   29   |   24   |
+  |     "     middle finger         |   19   |   34   |   27   |
+  |     "     ring-finger           |   33   |   44   |   39   |
+  | Fore and middle finger          |   52   |   68   |   60   |
+  |     "    ring finger            |   13   |   34   |   23   |
+  | Middle and ring finger          |   31   |   74   |   52   |
+  |---------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  |                  Means          |   28 deg.  |   47 deg.  |   37 deg.  |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The arches were sufficiently numerous in the fore-fingers (17 per cent) to
+fully justify the application of this method of calculation. The result
+was 43 deg., which agrees fairly with 48 deg., the mean of the loops and the
+whorls. In the middle finger the frequency of the arches was only half the
+above amount and barely suffices for calculation. It gave the result of
+38 deg., which also agrees fairly with 43 deg., the mean of the loops and the
+whorls for that finger.
+
+Some definite results may be gathered from this table notwithstanding the
+irregularity with which the figures run. Its upper and lower halves
+clearly belong to different statistical groups, the entries in the former
+being almost uniformly larger than those in the latter, in the proportion
+of 54 deg. to 37 deg., say 3 to 2, which roughly represents in numerical terms the
+nearer relationship between digits of the same name, as compared to that
+between digits of different names. It seems also that of the 6 couplets of
+digits bearing different names, the relationship is closest between the
+middle finger and the two adjacent ones (60 deg. and 52 deg., as against 24 deg., 27 deg.,
+39 deg. and 23 deg.). It is further seen in every pair of entries that whorls are
+related together more closely than loops. I note this, but cannot explain
+it. So far as my statistical inquiries into heredity have hitherto gone,
+all peculiarities were found to follow the same law of transmission, none
+being more surely inherited than others. If there were a tendency in any
+one out of many alternative characters to be more heritable than the rest,
+that character would become universally prevalent, in the absence of
+restraining influences. But it does not follow that there are no peculiar
+restraining influences here, nor that what is true for heredity, should be
+true, in all its details, as regards the relationships between the
+different digits.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER IX
+
+METHODS OF INDEXING
+
+
+In this chapter the system of classification by Arches, Loops, and Whorls
+described in Chapter V. will be used for indexing two, three, six or ten
+digits, as the case may be.
+
+An index to each set of finger marks made by the same person, is needful
+in almost every kind of inquiry, whether it be for descriptive purposes,
+for investigations into race and heredity, or into questions of symmetry
+and correlation. It is essential to possess an index to the finger marks
+of known criminals before the method of finger prints can be utilised as
+an organised means of detection.
+
+The ideal index might be conceived to consist of a considerable number of
+compartments, or their equivalents, each bearing a different
+index-heading, into which the sets of finger prints of different persons
+may be severally sorted, so that all similar sets shall lie in the same
+compartment.
+
+The principle of the proposed method of index-headings is, that they
+should depend upon a few conspicuous differences of pattern in many
+fingers, and not upon many minute differences in a few fingers. It is
+carried into effect by distinguishing the A. L. W. class of pattern on
+each digit in succession, by a letter,--_a_ for Arch, _l_ for Loop, _w_
+for Whorl; or else, as an alternative method, to subdivide _l_ by using
+_i_ for a loop with an Inner slope, and _o_ for one with an Outer slope,
+as the case may be. In this way, the class of pattern in each set of ten
+digits is described by a sequence of ten letters, the various combinations
+of which are alphabetically arranged and form the different
+index-headings. Let us now discuss the best method of carrying out this
+principle, by collating the results of alternative methods of applying it.
+We have to consider the utility of the _i_ and _o_ as compared to the
+simple _l_, and the gain through taking all ten digits into account,
+instead of only some of them.
+
+It will be instructive to print here an actual index to the finger prints
+of 100 different persons, who were not in any way selected, but taken as
+they came, and to use it as the basis of a considerable portion of the
+following remarks, to be checked where necessary, by results derived from
+an index to 500 cases, in which these hundred are included.
+
+This index is compiled on the principle shortly to be explained, entitled
+the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method.
+
+TABLE IX.--INDEX TO 100 SETS OF FINGER PRINTS.
+
+  +------------------------------------+
+  |      |    A       B      C     D   |
+  |Order |  Right.  Left.   Rt.   Lt.  |
+  | of   |-----------------------------|
+  |Entry.|  F.M.R.  F.M.R.  T.L.  T.L. |
+  |------|-----------------------------|
+  |   1  | _a a a   a a a   a a   l a_ |
+  |   2  | _  "       "     a l   a l_ |
+  |   3  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |   4  | _  "       "     w l   l l_ |
+  |   5  | _a a l   a a l   a l   a l_ |
+  |   6  | _  "       "     l l   l l_ |
+  |   7  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |   8  | _  "     a a w   l l   l l_ |
+  |   9  | _  "     a l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  10  | _  "       "     l w   w l_ |
+  |  11  | _  "     o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  12  | _a a w   a a l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  13  | _  "     a l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  14  | _a l a   a a a   l a   l a_ |
+  |  15  | _  "       "     l a   l w_ |
+  |  16  | _  "     o l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  17  | _a l l   a a l   l l   a l_ |
+  |  18  | _  "       "     l l   l l_ |
+  |  19  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  20  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  21  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  22  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  23  | _  "     a l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  24  | _  "     i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  25  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  26  | _a l l   i l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  27  | _  "     o a l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  28  | _  "     o l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  29  | _  "     w w w   w l   l l_ |
+  |  30  | _a l w   i l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  31  | _  "     o a l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  32  | _  "     o l l   l w   l l_ |
+  |  33  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  34  | _  "     o l w   a l   a l_ |
+  |  35  | _i l l   a l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  36  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  37  | _  "     i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  38  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  39  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  40  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  41  | _i l l   i l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  42  | _  "     i w w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  43  | _i l w   i l l   l l   w l_ |
+  |  44  | _  "       "     w w   w l_ |
+  |  45  | _  "     i l w   w w   w l_ |
+  |  46  | _  "     i w l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  47  | _  "     w l w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  48  | _  "     w w l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  49  | _i w w   a l l   w l   w l_ |
+  |  50  | _  "     w w w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  51  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  52  | _o a w   o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  53  | _o l l   o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  54  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  55  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  56  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  57  | _  "     i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  58  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  59  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  60  | _  "     o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  61  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  62  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  63  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  64  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  65  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  66  | _  "     w a l   l l   w l_ |
+  |  67  | _  "     w w w   l l   w l_ |
+  |  68  | _o l w   a l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  69  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  70  | _  "     i l l   w l   w l_ |
+  |  71  | _  "     o l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  72  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  73  | _  "     o l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  74  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  75  | _w l l   i l l   l l   w l_ |
+  |  76  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  77  | _w l l   w l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  78  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  79  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  80  | _  "     w l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  81  | _w l w   o l w   l l   l l_ |
+  |  82  | _  "       "     l l   a l_ |
+  |  83  | _  "       "     w l   l l_ |
+  |  84  | _  "     w w w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  85  | _  "       "     w w   l l_ |
+  |  86  | _  "       "     w w   l w_ |
+  |  87  | _  "       "     w w   w w_ |
+  |  88  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  89  | _w w l   i l l   l l   l l_ |
+  |  90  | _  "     w l l   w l   l l_ |
+  |  91  | _w w w   o l w   w l   l l_ |
+  |  92  | _  "     w l w   w l   w l_ |
+  |  93  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  |  94  | _  "     w w l   l l   l w_ |
+  |  95  | _  "     w w w   i l   l l_ |
+  |  96  | _  "       "     w l   l l_ |
+  |  97  | _  "       "     w l   w l_ |
+  |  98  | _  "       "     w w   w l_ |
+  |  99  | _  "       "      "     " _ |
+  | 100  | _  "       "     w w   w w_ |
+  +------------------------------------+
+
+The sequence in which the digits have been registered is not from the
+thumb outwards to the little finger, but, on account of various good
+reasons that will be appreciated as we proceed, in the following order.
+
+The ten digits are registered in four groups, which are distinguished in
+the Index by the letters A, B, C, D:--
+
+    A. _First._ The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the _right_ hand
+    taken in that order.
+
+    B. _Second._ The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the _left_ hand
+    taken in that order.
+
+    C. _Third._ The thumb and little finger of the _right_ hand.
+
+    D. _Fourth._ The thumb and little finger of the _left_ hand.
+
+Consequently an index-heading will be of the form--
+
+  First         Second      Third      Fourth
+  group.        group.      group.     group.
+
+  _a a l_      _a a w_      _l l_      _l l_
+
+These index-headings are catalogued in alphabetical order. The method used
+in the Index is that which takes note of no slopes, except those of loops
+in the fore-finger of either hand. Consequently the index-heading for my
+own digits, printed on the title-page, is _wlw oll wl wl_. Those of the
+eight sets in Plate VI. are as follows:--
+
+  _i l w    i l l    w w    w l_
+  _o l w    o l w    w l    l l_
+  _o l w    o l w    w l    l l_
+  _o l w    o l l    l l    l l_
+  _i l w    i l w    w l    w l_
+  _i l w    i w l    l l    l l_
+  _i l l    w w l    l l    l l_
+  _o l l    a a l    l l    a l_
+  _o a a    a a a    l a    l a_
+
+For convenience of description and reference, the successive entries in
+the specimen index have been numbered from 1 to 100, but that is no part
+of the system: those figures would be replaced in a real index by names
+and addresses.
+
+A preliminary way of obtaining an idea of the differentiating power of an
+index is to count the number of the different headings that are required
+to classify a specified number of cases. A table is appended which shows
+the numbers of the headings in the three alternative methods (1) of noting
+slopes of all kinds in all digits, (2) of noting slopes of Loops only and
+in the fore-fingers only, and (3) of disregarding the slopes altogether.
+Also in each of these three cases taking account of--
+
+    (_a_) All the ten digits;
+
+    (_b_) the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of both hands;
+
+    (_c_) those same three fingers, but of the right hand only;
+
+    (_d_) the fore and middle fingers of the right hand.
+
+TABLE X.
+
+_No. of different index-heads in 100 sets of Finger Prints._
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |           |                    |      Account taken of        |
+  |  No. of   |                    |------------------------------|
+  |  digits   |    Digits noted.   |   All   |_i_ and _o_|  No    |
+  | regarded. |                    | slopes. |  in fore- | slope. |
+  |           |                    |         |  fingers. |        |
+  |-----------|--------------------|---------|-----------|--------|
+  |     10    | All the 10 digits  |    82   |     76    |   71   |
+  |           |                    |         |           |        |
+  |           | Fore, middle,      |         |           |        |
+  |      6    | and ring-fingers   |    65   |     50    |   43   |
+  |           | of both hands      |         |           |        |
+  |           |                    |         |           |        |
+  |      3    | Of right hand only |    25   |     16    |   14   |
+  |           |                    |         |           |        |
+  |      2    | Fore and middle of |    12   |      8    |    7   |
+  |           | right hand only    |         |           |        |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The column headed "all slopes" refers to the method first used with
+success, and described in my Memoir, already alluded to (_Proc. Roy.
+Soc._, 1891), accompanied by a specimen index, from which the present one
+was derived. There the direction of the slope of every pattern that has
+one, is taken into account, and in order to give as much scope as
+possible to the method, the term Arch (I then called it a Primary) was
+construed somewhat over-liberally (see p. 114). It was made to include the
+forked-arch Fig. 12 (~2~), and even the nascent-loop (~9~), so long as not
+more than a single recurved ridge lay within the outline of the pattern;
+therefore many of the so-called arches had slopes. It is not necessary to
+trouble the reader with the numerical nomenclature that was then used, the
+method itself being now obsolete. Full particulars of it are, however,
+given in the Memoir.
+
+A somewhat large experience in sorting finger prints in various ways and
+repeatedly, made it only too evident that the mental strain and risk of
+error caused by taking all slopes into account was considerable. The
+judgment became fatigued and the eye puzzled by having to assign opposite
+meanings to the same actual direction of a slope in the right and left
+hands respectively. There was also a frequent doubt as to the existence of
+a slope in large whorls of the spiral- and circlet-in-loop patterns (Fig.
+13, ~21~, ~22~) when the impressions had not been rolled. A third
+objection is the rarity of the inner slopes in any other digit than the
+fore-finger. It acted like a soporific to the judgment not only of myself
+but of others, so that when an inner slope did occur it was apt to be
+overlooked. The first idea was to discard slopes altogether,
+notwithstanding the accompanying loss of index power, but this would be an
+unnecessarily trenchant measure. The slope of a loop, though it be on the
+fore-finger alone, decidedly merits recognition, for it differentiates
+such loops into two not very unequal classes. Again, there is little
+chance of mistake in noting it, the impression of the thumb on the one
+side and those of the remaining fingers on the other, affording easy
+guidance to the eye and judgment. These considerations determined the
+method I now use exclusively, by which Table IX. was compiled, and to
+which the second column of Table X., headed "_i_ and _o_ in fore-fingers,"
+refers.
+
+The heading of the third column, "no slope," explains itself, no account
+having been there taken of any slopes whatever, so _i_ and _o_ disappear,
+having become merged under _l_.
+
+The table gives a very favourable impression of the differentiating power
+of all these methods of indexing. By the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method,
+it requires as many as 76 different index-headings to include the finger
+prints of 100 different persons, 195 of 300 persons, and 285 of 500.
+
+The number of entries under each index-heading varies greatly; reference
+to the index of 100 sets showing no less than six entries (Nos. 60-65)
+under one of them, and four entries (Nos. 18-21 and 37-40) under each of
+two others. Thus, although a large portion of the 100 sets are solitary
+entries under their several headings, and can be found by a single
+reference, the remainder are grouped together like the commoner surnames
+in a directory. They are troublesome to distinguish, and cannot be
+subdivided at all except by supplementary characteristics, such as the
+number of ridges in some specified part of the pattern, or the character
+of the cores.
+
+In other respects the difference of merit between the three methods is
+somewhat greater, as is succinctly indicated by the next table.
+
+TABLE XI.--_In 100 Sets._
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------+
+  |                    |No. of different index-headings.|
+  | Number of Entries  |--------------------------------|
+  |under the same head.|   All   |  _i_ and _o_ |  No   |
+  |                    | slopes. | fore-fingers | slope.|
+  |                    |         |     only.    |       |
+  |--------------------|---------|--------------|-------|
+  |          1         |    71   |       63     |   58  |
+  |          2         |    10   |        8     |    9  |
+  |          3         |     1   |        3     |    1  |
+  |          4         |   ...   |        2     |    2  |
+  |          5         |   ...   |      ...     |  ...  |
+  |          6         |     1   |      ...     |  ...  |
+  |         13         |   ...   |      ...     |    1  |
+  |--------------------|---------|--------------|-------|
+  |      Total         |    83   |       76     |   71  |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------+
+
+Hence it is evident that the second method of "_i-o_ fore-finger" is
+capable of dealing rapidly with 100 cases, but that the method of "no
+slope" will give trouble in twelve out of the hundred cases.
+
+TABLE XII.
+
+_Index-headings under which more than 1 per cent of the sets of Finger
+Prints were registered._
+
+(500 sets observed.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------
+  |          _i_ and _o_ in fore-fingers.            ||
+  |----------------------------------------------------
+  |    No.   |                             |Frequency||
+  |    for   |       Index-heading.        |   per   ||
+  |Reference.|                             |  cent.  ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     1    | _a l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   1.2   ||
+  |     2    | _a l l   i l l    "     " _ |   1.6   ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     3    | _i l l   i l l    "     " _ |   2.8   ||
+  |     4    | _o l l   i l l    "     " _ |   1.4   ||
+  |     5    | _o l l   o l l    "     " _ |   4.0   ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     6    | _i l l   o l l   w l   l l_ |   1.2   ||
+  |     7    | _o l l   o l l    "     " _ |   1.4   ||
+  |----------|-----------------------------|---------||
+  |     8    | _o l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   2.2   ||
+  |     9    | _o l w   u l l    "     " _ |   2.0   ||
+  |    10    | _w l l   w l l    "     " _ |   1.2   ||
+  |    11    | _w w w   w w w   w w   w w_ |   1.4   ||
+  +----------------------------------------------------
+
+  --------------------------------------------------+
+                     No slope.                      |
+  --------------------------------------------------|
+     No.    |                             |Frequency|
+     for    |       Index-heading.        |   per   |
+  Reference.|                             |  cent.  |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+       I.   | _a l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   1.2   |
+      II.   | _a l l   l l l    "     " _ |   2.2   |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+            |                             |         |
+     III.   | _l l l   l l l    "     " _ |   9.2   |
+            |                             |         |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+      IV.   | _l l l   l l l   w l   l l_ |   3.2   |
+            |                             |         |
+  ----------|-----------------------------|---------|
+       V.   | _l l l   a l l   l l   l l_ |   3.0   |
+      VI.   | _l l w   l l l    "     " _ |   3.0   |
+     VII.   | _w l l   w l l    "     " _ |   1.2   |
+    VIII.   | _w w w   w w w   w w   w w_ |   1.4   |
+  --------------------------------------------------+
+
+    The headings in the right half of the table include more cases than
+    the left half, because a combination of two or more cases that
+    severally contain less than 1 per cent of the finger prints, and are
+    therefore ignored in the first half of the table, may exceed 1 per
+    cent and find a place in the second half.
+
+The entries in Table XII. are derived from a catalogue of 500 sets, and
+include all entries that appeared more than five times; in other words,
+whose frequency exceeded 1 per cent. These are the index-headings that
+give enough trouble to deserve notice in catalogues of, say, from 500 to
+1000 sets.
+
+In the left half of Table XII. all the index-headings are given, under
+each of which more than 1 per cent of the sets fell, when the method of
+"_i_ and _o_ in fore-fingers" was adopted; also the respective percentage
+of the cases that fell under them. In the right half of the table are the
+corresponding index-headings, together with the percentages of frequency,
+when the "no slope" method is employed. These are distinguished by Roman
+numerals. The great advantage of the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method lies
+in its power of breaking up certain large groups which are very
+troublesome to deal with by the "no slope" method. According to the latter
+as many as 9.2 per cent of all the entries fall under the index-heading
+marked III., but according to the "_i-o_ fore-finger" method these are
+distributed among the headings 3, 4, and 5. The "all slopes" method has
+the peculiar merit of breaking up the large group Nos. 11 and VIII. of
+"all whorls," but its importance is not great on that account, as whorls
+are distinguishable by their cores, which are less troublesome to observe
+than their slopes.
+
+The percentage of all the entries that fall under a single index-heading,
+according to the "_i-o_ fore-finger" method, diminishes with the number of
+entries at the following rate:--
+
+TABLE XIII.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                               | Total number of entries. |
+  |                               |--------------------------|
+  |                               |   100  |   300  |   500  |
+  |-------------------------------|--------|--------|--------|
+  | Percentage of entries falling |        |        |        |
+  |   under a single head         |    63  |  49.0  |  39.8  |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------+
+
+It may be that every one of the 4{2} x 3{8}, or one hundred and five
+thousand possible varieties of index-headings, according to the "_i-o_
+fore-finger" method, may occur in Nature, but there is much probability
+that some of them may be so rare that instances of no entry under certain
+heads would appear in the register, even of an enormous number of persons.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Hitherto we have supposed that prints of the ten fingers have in each case
+been indexed. The question now to be considered is the gain through
+dealing in each case with all ten digits, instead of following the easier
+practice of regarding only a few of them. The following table, drawn up
+from the hundred cases by the "all slopes" method, will show its amount.
+
+TABLE XIV.--_From 100 Sets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                       |         |  No. of different index-headings.  |
+  |        Digits.        | No. of  |------------------------------------|
+  |                       | digits. |  All    |  _i_ and _o_ | No slope. |
+  |                       |         | slopes. | fore-finger. |           |
+  |-----------------------|---------|---------|--------------|-----------|
+  | Fore and middle of    |         |         |              |           |
+  |   right hand          |    2    |    11   |       8      |     7     |
+  |                       |         |         |              |           |
+  | Fore, middle and ring |         |         |              |           |
+  |   of right hand       |    3    |    23   |      16      |    14     |
+  |                       |         |         |              |           |
+  | Fore, middle and ring |         |         |              |           |
+  |   of both hands       |    6    |    65   |      50      |    45     |
+  |                       |         |         |              |           |
+  | All ten digits        |   10    |    83   |      76      |    73     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The trouble of printing, reading off, and indexing the ten digits, is
+practically twice that of dealing with the six fingers; namely, three on
+each of the hands; the thumb being inconvenient to print from, and having
+to be printed separately, even for a dabbed impression, while the fingers
+of either hand can be dabbed down simultaneously.
+
+For a large collection the ten digit method is certainly the best, as it
+breaks up the big battalions; also in case of one or more fingers having
+been injured, it gives reserve material to work upon.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+We now come to the great difficulty in all classifications; that of
+transitional cases. What is to be done with those prints which cannot be
+certainly classed as Arches, Loops, or Whorls, but which lie between some
+two of them? These occur about once in every forty digits, or once in
+every four pairs of hands. The roughest way is to put a mark by the side
+of the entry to indicate doubt, a better one is to make a mark that shall
+express the nature of the peculiarity; thus a particular eyed pattern
+(Plate 10, Fig. 16, _n_) may be transitional between a loop and a whorl;
+under whichever of the two it is entered, the mark might be an _e_ to show
+that anyhow it is an eye. Then, when it is required to discover whether an
+index contains a duplicate of a given specimen in which a transitional
+pattern occurs, the two headings between which the doubt lies have to be
+searched, and the marked entries will limit the search. Many alternative
+ways of marking may be successfully used, but I am not yet prepared to
+propose one as being distinctly the best. When there are two of these
+marks in the same set, it seldom happens that more than two references
+have to be made, as it is usual for the ambiguity to be of the same kind
+in both of the doubtful fingers. If the ambiguities were quite
+independent, then two marks would require four references, and three marks
+would require nine. There are a few nondescript prints that would fall
+under a separate heading, such as Z. Similarly, as regards lost or injured
+fingers.
+
+I have tried various methods of sub-classification, and find no difficulty
+in any of them, but general rules seem inadvisable; it being best to treat
+each large group on its own merits.
+
+One method that I have adopted and described in the _Proc. Royal Soc._, is
+to sketch in a cursive and symbolic form the patterns of the several
+fingers in the order in which they appear in the print, confining myself
+to a limited number of symbols, such as might be used for printer's types.
+They sufficed fairly for some thousands of the finger marks upon which
+they were tried, but doubtless they could be improved. A little violence
+has of course to be used now and then, in fitting some unusual patterns to
+some one or other of these few symbols. But we are familiar with such
+processes in ordinary spelling, making the same letter do duty for
+different sounds, as _a_ in the words _as_, _ale_, _ask_, and _all_. The
+plan of using symbols has many secondary merits. It facilitates a
+leisurely revision of first determinations, it affords a pictorial record
+of the final judgment that is directly comparable with the print itself,
+and it almost wholly checks blunders between inner and outer slopes. A
+beginner in finger reading will educate his judgment by habitually using
+them at first.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 2.
+
+FIG. 3. Form of card used for impressions of the ten digits. 11-1/2 x 5
+inches.
+
+FIG. 4. Roller and its bearings, of a pocket printing apparatus.]
+
+
+The cores give great assistance in breaking up the very large groups of
+all-loops (see Table XII., Nos. 11 and VIII.); so does an entry of the
+approximate number of ridges in some selected fingers, that lie between
+the core and the upper outline of the loop.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+The plan I am now using for keeping finger prints in regular order, is
+this:--In the principal collection, the prints of each person's ten digits
+are taken on the same large card; the four fingers of either hand being
+_dabbed_ down simultaneously above, and all the ten digits _rolled_
+separately below. (Plate 2, Fig. 3.) Each card has a hole three-eighths of
+an inch in diameter, punched in the middle near to the bottom edge, and
+the cards are kept in trays, which they loosely fit, like the card
+catalogues used in many libraries. Each tray holds easily 500 cards, which
+are secured by a long stout wire passing like a skewer through the ends of
+the box and the holes in the cards. The hinder end of the box is sloped,
+so the cards can be tilted back and easily examined; they can be inserted
+or removed after withdrawing the wire.
+
+It will be recollected that the leading and therefore the most conspicuous
+headings in the index refer to the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the
+right hand, as entered in column A of the Specimen Register (Table IX.)
+The variety of these in the "_i_ and _o_ fore-finger" method, of which we
+are now speaking, cannot exceed thirty-six, there being only four
+varieties (_a_, _i_, _o_, _w_) in the fore-finger, and three varieties
+(_a_, _l_, _w_) in each of the other two; so their maximum number is 4 x 3
+x 3 = 36. The actual number of such index-headings in 500 cases, and the
+number of entries that fell under each, was found to be as follows:--
+
+TABLE XV.
+
+_No. of entries in 500 cases, under each of the thirty-six possible
+index-letters for the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand by
+the "i-o fore-finger" method._
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | _a a a_ |  4 || _i a a_ |  1 || _o a a_ |  1 || _w a a_ | -- |
+  |     _l_ | 17 ||     _l_ |  3 ||     _l_ |  2 ||     _l_ | -- |
+  |     _w_ |  5 ||     _w_ | -- ||     _w_ |  1 ||     _w_ |  1 |
+  |         |    ||         |    ||         |    ||         |    |
+  | _a l a_ |  3 || _i l a_ | -- || _o l a_ |  2 || _w l a_ |  1 |
+  |     _l_ | 45 ||     _l_ | 54 ||     _l_ | 88 ||     _l_ | 40 |
+  |     _w_ | 11 ||     _w_ | 33 ||     _w_ | 59 ||     _w_ | 52 |
+  |         |    ||         |    ||         |    ||         |    |
+  | _a w a_ | -- || _i w a_ | -- || _o w a_ | -- || _w w a_ | -- |
+  |     _l_ | -- ||     _l_ |  3 ||     _l_ | -- ||     _l_ | 10 |
+  |     _w_ | -- ||     _w_ | 11 ||     _w_ |  6 ||     _w_ | 47 |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+    _a_ = Arch.
+
+    _i_ = Inward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.
+
+    _o_ = Outward-sloped Loop on the fore-finger.
+
+    _l_ = Loop of either kind on the middle or ring finger.
+
+    _w_ = Whorl.
+
+These 500 cases supply no entries at all to eleven of the thirty-six
+index-headings, less than five entries (or under 1 per cent) to ten
+others, and the supply is distributed very unevenly among the remaining
+fifteen. This table makes it easy to calculate beforehand the spaces
+required for an index of any specified number of prints, whether they be
+on the pages of a Register, or in compartments, or in drawers of movable
+cards.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER X
+
+PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION
+
+
+We shall speak in this chapter of the aid that finger prints can give to
+personal identification, supposing throughout that facilities exist for
+taking them well and cheaply, and that more or less practice in reading
+them has been acquired by many persons. A few introductory words will show
+this supposition to be reasonable. At the present moment any printer, and
+there are many printers in every town, would, at a small charge, blacken a
+slab and take the prints effectively, after being warned to use very
+little ink, as described in Chapter III. The occupation of finger printing
+would, however, fall more naturally into the hands of photographers, who,
+in addition to being found everywhere, are peculiarly well suited to it,
+for, taken as a class, they are naturally gifted with manual dexterity and
+mechanical ingenuity. Having secured good impressions, they could multiply
+them when necessary, and enlarge when desired, while the ticketing and
+preservation of the negatives would fall into their usual business
+routine. As they already occupy themselves with one means of
+identification, a second means of obtaining the same result is allied to
+their present work.
+
+Were it the custom for persons about to travel to ask for prints of their
+fingers when they were photographed, a familiarity with the peculiarities
+of finger prints, and the methods of describing and classifying them,
+would become common. Wherever finger prints may be wanted for purposes of
+attestation and the like, the fact mentioned by Sir W. Herschel (p. 45) as
+to the readiness with which his native orderlies learnt to take them with
+the ink of his office stamp, must not be forgotten.
+
+The remarks about to be made refer to identification generally, and are
+not affected by the fact that the complete process may or may not include
+the preliminary search of a catalogue; the two stages of search and of
+comparison will be treated separately towards the close of the chapter.
+
+In civilised lands, honest citizens rarely need additional means of
+identification to their signatures, their photographs, and to personal
+introductions. The cases in which other evidence is wanted are chiefly
+connected with violent death through accident, murder, or suicide, which
+yield the constant and gruesome supply to the Morgue of Paris, and to
+corresponding institutions in other large towns, where the bodies of
+unknown persons are exposed for identification, often in vain. But when
+honest persons travel to distant countries where they have few or no
+friends, the need for a means of recognition is more frequently felt. The
+risk of death through accident or crime is increased, and the probability
+of subsequent identification diminished. There is a possibility not too
+remote to be disregarded, especially in times of war, of a harmless person
+being arrested by mistake for another man, and being in sore straits to
+give satisfactory proof of the error. A signature may be distrusted as a
+forgery. There is also some small chance, when he returns to his own
+country after a long absence, of finding difficulty in proving who he is.
+But in civilised lands and in peaceable times, the chief use of a sure
+means of identification is to benefit society by detecting rogues, rather
+than to establish the identity of men who are honest. Is this criminal an
+old offender? Is this new recruit a deserter? Is this professed pensioner
+personating a man who is dead? Is this upstart claimant to property the
+true heir, who was believed to have died in foreign lands?
+
+In India and in many of our Colonies the absence of satisfactory means for
+identifying persons of other races is seriously felt. The natives are
+mostly unable to sign; their features are not readily distinguished by
+Europeans; and in too many cases they are characterised by a strange
+amount of litigiousness, wiliness, and unveracity. The experience of Sir
+W. Herschel, and the way in which he met these unfavourable conditions by
+the method of finger prints, has been briefly described in p. 27. Lately
+Major Ferris, of the Indian Staff Corps, happening to visit my laboratory
+during my absence, and knowing but little of what Sir W. Herschel had
+done, was greatly impressed by the possibilities of finger prints. After
+acquainting himself with the process, we discussed the subject together,
+and he very kindly gave me his views for insertion here. They are as
+follow, with a few trifling changes of words:--
+
+    "During a period of twenty-three years, eighteen of which have been
+    passed in the Political Department of the Bombay Government, the great
+    need of an official system of identification has been constantly
+    forced on my mind.
+
+    "The uniformity in the colour of hair, eyes, and complexion of the
+    Indian races renders identification far from easy, and the difficulty
+    of recording the description of an individual, so that he may be
+    afterwards recognised, is very great. Again, their hand-writing,
+    whether it be in Persian or Devanagri letters, is devoid of character
+    and gives but little help towards identification.
+
+    "The tenacity with which a native of India cleaves to his ancestral
+    land, his innate desire to acquire more and more, and the obligation
+    that accrues to him at birth of safeguarding that which has already
+    been acquired, amounts to a religion, and passes the comprehension of
+    the ordinary Western mind. This passion, or religion, coupled with a
+    natural taste for litigation, brings annually into the Civil Courts an
+    enormous number of suits affecting land. In a native State at one time
+    under my political charge, the percentage of suits for the possession
+    of land in which the title was disputed amounted to no less than 92,
+    while in 83 per cent of these the writing by which the transfer of
+    title purported to have been made, was repudiated by the former
+    title-holder as fraudulent and not executed by him. When it is
+    remembered that an enormous majority of the landholders whose titles
+    come into court are absolutely illiterate, and that their execution of
+    the documents is attested by a mark made by a third party, frequently,
+    though not always apparently, interested in the transfer, it will be
+    seen that there is a wide door open to fraud, whether by false
+    repudiation or by criminal attempt at dispossession.
+
+    "It has frequently happened in my experience that a transfer of title
+    or possession was repudiated; the person purporting to have executed
+    the transfer asserting that he had no knowledge of it, and never
+    authorised any one to write, sign, or present it for registration.
+    This was met by a categorical statement on the part of the beneficiary
+    and of the attesting witnesses, concerning the time, date, and
+    circumstances of the execution and registration, that demolished the
+    simple denial of the man whom it was sought to dispossess. Without
+    going into the ethics of falsehood among Western and Eastern peoples,
+    it would be impossible to explain how what is repugnant to the one as
+    downright lying, is very frequently considered as no more than venial
+    prevarication by the other. This, however, is too large a subject for
+    present purposes, but the fact remains that perjury is perpetrated in
+    Indian Courts to an extent unknown in the United Kingdom.
+
+    "The interests of landholders are partially safeguarded by the Act
+    that requires all documents effecting the transfer of immovable
+    property to be registered, but it could be explained, though not in
+    the short space of this letter, how the provisions of the Act can be,
+    and frequently are, fulfilled in the absence of the principal person,
+    the executor.
+
+    "Enough has been said to show that if some simple but efficient means
+    could be contrived to identify the person who has executed a bond,
+    cases of fraud such as these would practically disappear from the
+    judicial registers. Were the legislature to amend the Registration Act
+    and require that the original document as well as the copy in the
+    Registration Book should bear the imprint of one or more fingers of
+    the parties to the deed, I have little hesitation in saying that not
+    only would fraud be detected, but that in a short time the facility of
+    that detection would act as a deterrent for the future. [This was
+    precisely the experience of Sir W. Herschel.--F.G.] In the majority of
+    cases, the mere question would be, Is the man A the same person as B,
+    or is he not? and of that question the finger marks would give
+    unerring proof. For example, to take the simplest case, A is sued for
+    possession of some land, the title of which he is stated to have
+    parted with to another for a consideration. The document and the
+    Registration Book both bear the imprint of the index finger of the
+    right hand of A. A repudiates, and a comparison shows that whereas
+    the finger pattern of A is a whorl, the imprint on the document is a
+    loop; consequently A did not execute it.
+
+    "In the identification of Government pensioners the finger print
+    method would be very valuable. At one period, I had the payment of
+    many hundreds of military pensioners. Personation was most difficult
+    to detect in persons coming from a distance, who had no local
+    acquaintances, and more especially where the claimants were women. The
+    marks of identification noted in the pension roll were usually
+    variations of:--"Hair black--Eyes brown--Complexion wheat
+    colour--Marks of tattooing on fore-arm"--terms which are equally
+    appropriate to a large number of the pensioners. The description was
+    supplemented in some instances, where the pensioner had some
+    distinguishing mark or scar, but such cases are considerably rarer
+    than might be supposed, and in women the marks are not infrequently in
+    such a position as to practically preclude comparison. Here also the
+    imprint of one or more finger prints on the pension certificate, would
+    be sufficient to settle any doubt as to identity.
+
+    "As a large number of persons pass through the Indian gaols not only
+    while undergoing terms of imprisonment, but in default of payment of a
+    fine, it could not but prove of value were the finger prints of one
+    and all secured. They might assist in identifying persons who have
+    formerly been convicted, of whom the local police have no knowledge,
+    and who bear a name that may be the common property of half a hundred
+    in any small town."
+
+Whatever difficulty may be felt in the identification of Hindoos, is
+experienced in at least an equal degree in that of the Chinese residents
+in our Colonies and Settlements, who to European eyes are still more alike
+than the Hindoos, and in whose names there is still less variety. I have
+already referred (p. 26) to Mr. Tabor, of San Francisco, and his proposal
+in respect to the registration of the Chinese. Remarks showing the need
+of some satisfactory method of identifying them, have reached me from
+various sources. The _British North Borneo Herald_, August 1, 1888, that
+lies before me as I write, alludes to the difficulty of identifying
+coolies, either by photographs or measurements, as likely to become
+important in the early future of that country.
+
+For purposes of registration, the method of printing to be employed, must
+be one that gives little trouble on the one hand, and yields the maximum
+of efficiency for that amount of trouble on the other. Sir W. Herschel
+impressed simultaneously the fore and middle fingers of the right hand. To
+impress simultaneously the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right
+hand ought, however, to be better, the trouble being no greater, while
+three prints are obviously more effective than two, especially for an
+off-hand comparison. Moreover, the patterns on the ring-finger are much
+more variable than those on the middle finger. Much as rolled impressions
+are to be preferred for minute and exhaustive comparisons, they would
+probably be inconvenient for purposes of registration or attestation. Each
+finger has to be rolled separately, and each separate rolling takes more
+time than a dab of all the fingers of one hand simultaneously. Now a
+dabbed impression of even two fingers is more useful for registration
+purposes than the rolled impression of one; much more is a dabbed
+impression of three, especially when the third is the variable
+ring-finger. Again, in a simultaneous impression, there is no doubt as to
+the sequence of the finger prints being correct, but there may be some
+occasional bungling when the fingers are printed separately.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+For most criminal investigations, and for some other purposes also, the
+question is not the simple one just considered, namely, "Is A the same
+person, or a different person from B?" but the much more difficult problem
+of "Who is this unknown person X? Is his name contained in such and such a
+register?" We will now consider how this question may be answered.
+
+Registers of criminals are kept in all civilised countries, but in France
+they are indexed according to the method of M. Alphonse Bertillon, which
+admits of an effective search being made through a large collection. We
+shall see how much the differentiating power of the French or of any other
+system of indexing might be increased by including finger prints in the
+register.
+
+M. Bertillon has described his system in three pamphlets:--
+
+    (1) _Une application pratique de l'anthropometrie_, Extrait des
+    Annales de Demographie Interne. Paris 1881. (2) _Les signalements
+    anthropometriques_, Conference faite au Congres Penitentiare
+    International de Rome, Nov. 22, 1885. (3) _Sur le fonctionnement du
+    service des signalements_. All the above are published by Masson, 120
+    Boulevard St. Germain, Paris. To these must be added a very
+    interesting but anonymous pamphlet, based on official documents, and
+    which I have reason to know is authorised by M. Bertillon, namely, (4)
+    _L'anthropometrie Judiciare en Paris, en 1889_: G. Stenheil, 2 Rue
+    Casimir-Delavigne, Paris.
+
+    Besides these a substantial volume is forthcoming, which may give a
+    satisfactory solution to some present uncertainties.
+
+The scale on which the service is carried on, is very large. It was begun
+in 1883, and by the end of 1887 no less than 60,000 sets of measures were
+in hand, but thus far only about one half of the persons arrested in Paris
+were measured, owing to the insufficiency of the staff. Arrangements were
+then made for its further extension. There are from 100 to 150 prisoners
+sentenced each day by the Courts of Law in Paris to more than a few days'
+imprisonment, and every one of these is sent to the Depot for twenty-four
+hours. While there, they are now submitted to _Bertillonage_, a newly
+coined word that has already come into use. This is done in the forenoon,
+by three operators and three clerks; six officials in all. About half of
+the prisoners are old offenders, of whom a considerable proportion give
+their names correctly, as is rapidly verified by an alphabetically
+arranged catalogue of cards, each of which contains front and profile
+photographs, and measurements. The remainder are examined strictly; their
+bodily marks are recorded according to a terse system of a few letters,
+and they are variously measured. Each person occupies seven or eight
+minutes. They are then photographed. From sixty to seventy-five prisoners
+go through this complete process every forenoon. In the afternoon the
+officials are engaged in making numerous copies of each set of records,
+one of which is sent to Lyon, and another to Marseille, where there are
+similar establishments. They also classify the copies of records that are
+received from those towns and elsewhere in France, of which from seventy
+to one hundred arrive daily. Lastly, they search the Registers for
+duplicate sets of measures of those, whether in Paris or in the provinces,
+who were suspected of having given false names. The entire staff consists
+of ten persons. It is difficult to rightly interpret the figures given in
+the pamphlet (4) at pp. 22-24, as they appear to disagree, but as I
+understand them, 562 prisoners who gave false names in the year 1890 were
+recognised by _Bertillonage_, and only four other persons were otherwise
+discovered to have been convicted previously, who had escaped recognition
+by its means.
+
+I had the pleasure of seeing the system in operation in Paris a few years
+ago, and was greatly impressed by the deftness of the measuring, and with
+the swiftness and success with which the assistants searched for the cards
+containing entries similar to the measures of the prisoner then under
+examination.
+
+It is stated in the _Signalements_ (p. 12) that the basis of the
+classification are the four measurements (1) Head-length, (2)
+Head-breadth, (3) Middle-finger-length, (4) Foot-length, their constancy
+during adult life nearly always [as stated] holding good. Each of these
+four elements severally is considered as belonging to one or other of
+three equally numerous classes--small, medium, and large; consequently
+there are 3{4} or 81 principal headings, under some one of which the card
+of each prisoner is in the first instance sorted. Each of these primary
+headings is successively subdivided, on the same general principle of a
+three-fold classification, according to other measures that are more or
+less subject to uncertainties, namely, the height, the span, the cubit,
+the length and breadth of the ear, and the height of the bust. The
+eye-colour alone is subjected to seven divisions. The general result is
+(pp. 19, 22) that a total of twelve measures are employed, of which eleven
+are classed on the three-fold principle, and one on the seven-fold, giving
+a final result of 3{11} x 7, or more than a million possible combinations.
+M. Bertillon considers it by no means necessary to stop here, but in his
+chapter (p. 22) on the "Infinite Extension of the Classification," claims
+that the method may be indefinitely extended.
+
+The success of the system is considered by many experts to be fully
+proved, notwithstanding many apparent objections, one of which is the
+difficulty due to transitional cases: a belief in its success has
+certainly obtained a firm hold upon the popular imagination in France. Its
+general acceptance elsewhere seems to have been delayed in part by a
+theoretical error in the published calculations of its efficiency: the
+measures of the limbs which are undoubtedly correlated being treated as
+independent, and in part by the absence of a sufficiently detailed account
+of the practical difficulties experienced in its employment. Thus in the
+_Application pratique_, p. 9: "We are embarrassed what to choose, the
+number of human measures which vary independently of each other being
+considerable." In the _Signalements_, p. 19: "It has been shown" (by
+assuming this independent variability) "that by seven measurements, 60,000
+photographs can be separated into batches of less than ten in each." (By
+the way, even on that assumption, the result is somewhat exaggerated, the
+figures having been arrived at by successively taking the higher of the
+two nearest round values.) In short, the general tone of these two memoirs
+is one of enthusiastic belief in the method, based almost wholly, so far
+as is there shown, on questionable _theoretic_ grounds of efficiency.
+
+To learn how far correlation interferes with the regularity of
+distribution, causing more entries to be made under some index-heads than
+others, as was the case with finger prints, I have classified on the
+Bertillon system, 500 sets of measures taken at my laboratory. It was not
+practicable to take more than three of the four primary measures, namely,
+the head-length, its breadth, and the middle-finger-length. The other
+measure, that of foot-length, is not made at my laboratory, as it would
+require the shoes to be taken off, which is inconvenient since persons of
+all ranks and both sexes are measured there; but this matters little for
+the purpose immediately in view. It should, however, be noted that the
+head-length and head-breadth have especial importance, being only slightly
+correlated, either together or with any other dimension of the body. Many
+a small man has a head that is large in one or both directions, while a
+small man rarely has a large foot, finger, or cubit, and conversely with
+respect to large men.
+
+The following set of five measures of each of the 500 persons were then
+tabulated: (1) head-length; (2) head-breadth; (3) span; (4) body-height,
+that is the height of the top of the head from the seat on which the
+person sits; (5) middle-finger-length. The measurements were to the
+nearest tenth of an inch, but in cases of doubt, half-tenths were recorded
+in (1), (2), and (5). With this moderate minuteness of measurement, it was
+impossible so to divide the measures as to give better results than the
+following, which show that the numbers in the three classes are not as
+equal as desirable. But they nevertheless enable us to arrive at an
+approximate idea of the irregular character of the distribution.
+
+TABLE XVI.
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                |   Medium     |Nos. in the three classes respectively.|
+  |   Dimensions   | measures in  |---------------------------------------|
+  |    measured.   | inches and   |   -    |    0    |    +    |   Total. |
+  |                |   tenths.    | below. | medium. |  above. |          |
+  |----------------|--------------|--------|---------|---------|----------|
+  |1. Head-length  |  7.5 to  7.7 |  101   |   191   |   208   |    500   |
+  |2. Head-breadth |  6.0  "  6.1 |  173   |   201   |   126   |    500   |
+  |3. Span         | 68.0  " 70.5 |  137   |   165   |   198   |    500   |
+  |4. Body-height  | 35.0  " 36.0 |  139   |   168   |   193   |    500   |
+  |5. Middle-finger|  4.5  "  4.6 |  180   |   176   |   144   |    500   |
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The distribution of the measures is shown in Table XVII.
+
+TABLE XVII.
+
+_Distribution of 500 sets of measures into classes. Each set consists of
+five elements; each element is classed as + or above medium class; M, or
+mediocre; -, or below medium class._
+
+(Total number of classes is 3{5} = 243.)
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | +---- 3 Span.  |                                               |
+  | |              |                                               |
+  | |  +--4 Body-  |       1 Head-length, 2 Head-breadth.          |
+  | |  |    height.|                                               |
+  | |  |           |                                               |
+  | |  |  5 Middle-|-----------------------------------------------|
+  | |  |  | finger.| 1 2  1 2  1 2 | 1 2  1 2  1 2 | 1 2  1 2  1 2 |
+  | |  |  |        |---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | |  |  |        | - -  - M  - + | M -  M M  M + | + -  + M  + + |
+  |----------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | -  -  -        | 14    7    4  |  14   11   5  |  3    3    2  |
+  |       M        |  -    2    -  |   2    4   1  |  -    2    4  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   1    -   -  |  -    -    -  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | -  M  -        |  5    2    2  |   7    4   2  |  1    4    3  |
+  |       M        |  -    2    -  |   3    1   3  |  2    3    -  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   -    -   -  |  -    -    2  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | -  +  -        |  2    -    -  |   1    1   1  |  -    -    1  |
+  |       M        |  -    2    -  |   -    -   -  |  -    1    1  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   1    -   -  |  -    1    -  |
+  |----------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | M  -  -        |  4    -    1  |   3    4   3  |  1    2    2  |
+  |       M        |  3    2    -  |   3    2   3  |  2    4    -  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    -  |   -    1   2  |  -    1    -  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | M  M  -        |  1    3    1  |   4    3   2  |  4    4    3  |
+  |       M        |  5    3    -  |   7    5   2  |  2    6    5  |
+  |       +        |  2    1    1  |   1    1   -  |  1    4    2  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | M  +  -        |  2    1    1  |   5    2   -  |  -    2    2  |
+  |       M        |  2    2    -  |   3    3   1  |  1    6    7  |
+  |       +        |  -    -    1  |   2    -   -  |  3    2    2  |
+  |----------------|---------------|---------------|---------------|
+  | +  -  -        |  -    -    1  |   -    1   -  |  -    -    -  |
+  |       M        |  1    -    -  |   1    2   -  |  1    3    -  |
+  |       +        |  1    2    -  |   1    1   -  |  -    -    2  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | +  M  -        |  1    -    1  |   3    2   -  |  -    -    2  |
+  |       M        |  2    -    1  |   1    4   -  |  3    2    4  |
+  |       +        |  2    1    -  |   2    4   1  |  4    6    3  |
+  |                |               |               |               |
+  | +  +  -        |  1    2    -  |   1    -   1  |  1    2    2  |
+  |       M        |  -    1    -  |   5   10   3  |  3    8    9  |
+  |       +        |  2    2    2  |  11   10   3  |  9   24   19  |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The frequency with which 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., sets were found to fall under
+the same index-heading, is shown in Table XVIII.
+
+TABLE XVIII.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |  No. of sets  |                  |                 |
+  |  under same   | Frequency of its | No. of entries. |
+  | index-heading.|    occurrence.   |                 |
+  |---------------|------------------|-----------------|
+  |       0       |        83        |        0        |
+  |       1       |        47        |       47        |
+  |       2       |        47        |       94        |
+  |       3       |        25        |       75        |
+  |       4       |        16        |       64        |
+  |       5       |         7        |       35        |
+  |       6       |         3        |       18        |
+  |       7       |         4        |       28        |
+  |       8       |         1        |        8        |
+  |       9       |         2        |       18        |
+  |      10       |         2        |       20        |
+  |      11       |         2        |       22        |
+  |      14       |         2        |       28        |
+  |      19       |         1        |       19        |
+  |      24       |         1        |       24        |
+  |----------------------------------------------------|
+  |      Total entries                      500        |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+No example was found of 83, say of one-third, of the 243 possible
+combinations. In one case no less than 24 sets fell under the same head;
+in another case 19 did so, and there were two cases in which 14, 11, and
+10 severally did the same. Thus, out of 500 sets (see the five bottom
+lines in the last column of the above table) no less than 113 sets fell
+into four classes, each of which included from 10 to 24 entries.
+
+The 24 sets whose Index-number is + M, + + + admit of being easily
+subdivided and rapidly sorted by an expert, into smaller groups, paying
+regard to considerable differences only, in the head-length and
+head-breadth. After doing this, two comparatively large groups remain,
+with five cases in each, which require further analysis. They are as
+follow, the height and eye-colour being added in each case, and brackets
+being so placed as to indicate measures that do not differ to a sufficient
+amount to be surely distinguished. No two sets are alike throughout, some
+difference of considerable magnitude always occurring to distinguish them.
+Nos. 2 and 3 come closest together, and are distinguished by eye-colour
+alone.
+
+TABLE XIX.
+
+  Five cases of Head-length 8.0, and Head-breadth 6.1.
+
+           Span.     Body.    Finger.   Height.     Eye-colour.
+
+   1.     { 72.4      38.0      4.8     { 71.2     { br. grey
+   2.     { 72.6    { 37.0    { 4.7     { 71.4     { br. grey
+   3.     { 72.7    { 36.7    { 4.7     { 71.4       blue
+   4.       73.9      36.4      5.0       70.7       brown
+   5.       75.3      37.9      4.8       73.4       blue
+
+  Five cases of Head-length 7.8, and Head-breadth 6.0.
+
+   6.       70.8     37.8     { 4.7     { 70.0       brown
+   7.     { 71.9     36.2     { 4.7     { 69.3       blue
+   8.     { 72.4   { 37.2     { 4.7     { 68.4       brown
+   9.       74.8   { 37.8       5.0       73.1       blue
+  10.       79.9   { 37.3       5.3       75.6       blue grey
+
+This is satisfactory. It shows that each one of the 500 sets may be
+distinguished from all the others by means of only seven elements; for if
+it is possible so to subdivide twenty-four entries that come under one
+index-heading, we may assume that we could do so in the other cases where
+the entries were fewer. The other measures that I possess--strength of
+grasp and breathing capacity--are closely correlated with stature and
+bulk, while eyesight and reaction-time are uncorrelated, but the latter
+are hardly suited to test the further application of the Bertillon method.
+
+It would appear, from these and other data, that a purely anthropometric
+classification, irrespective of bodily marks and photographs, would enable
+an expert to deal with registers of considerable size.
+
+Bearing in mind that mediocrities differ less from one another than
+members of either of the extreme classes, and would therefore be more
+difficult to distinguish, it seems probable that with comparatively few
+exceptions, _at least_ two thousand adults of the same sex might be
+individualised, merely by means of twelve careful measures, on the
+Bertillon system, making reasonable allowances for that small change of
+proportions that occurs after the lapse of a few years, and for
+inaccuracies of measurement. This estimate may be far below the truth, but
+more cannot, I think, be safely inferred from the above very limited
+experiment.
+
+The system of registration adopted in the American army for tracing
+suspected deserters, was described in a memoir contributed to the
+"International Congress of Demography," held in London in 1891. The memoir
+has so far been only published in the _Abstracts of Papers_, p. 233 (Eyre
+and Spottiswoode). Its phraseology is unfortunately so curt as sometimes
+to be difficult to understand; it runs as follows:--
+
+    Personal identity as determined by scars and other body marks by
+    Colonel Charles R. Greenleaf and Major Charles Smart, Medical
+    Department, U.S. Army.
+
+    Desertions from United States army believed to greatly exceed
+    deserters, owing to repeaters.
+
+    Detection of repeaters possible if all body marks of all recruits
+    recorded, all deserters noted, and all recruits compared with previous
+    deserters.
+
+    In like manner men discharged for cause excluded from re-entry.
+
+    Bertillon's anthropometric method insufficient before courts-martial,
+    because possible inaccuracies in measurement, and because of allowable
+    errors.
+
+    But identity acknowledged following coincident indelible marks, when
+    height, age, and hair fairly correspond.
+
+    That is, Bertillon's collateral evidence is practically primary
+    evidence for such purposes.
+
+    There is used for each man an outline figure card giving anterior and
+    posterior surfaces, divided by dotted lines into regions.
+
+    These, showing each permanent mark, are filed alphabetically at the
+    Surgeon-General's office, War Department.
+
+    As a man goes out for cause, or deserts, his card is placed in a
+    separate file.
+
+    The cards of recruits are compared with the last-mentioned file.
+
+    To make this comparison, a register in two volumes is opened, one for
+    light-eyed and one for dark-eyed men. Each is subdivided into a fair
+    number of pages, according to height of entrants, and each page is
+    ruled in columns for body regions. Tattooed and non-tattooed men of
+    similar height and eyes are entered on opposite pages. Recruits
+    without tattoos are not compared with deserters with tattoos; but
+    recruits with tattoos are compared with both classes.
+
+    On the register S T B M, etc., are used as abbreviations for scar,
+    tattoo, birth-mark, mole, etc.
+
+    One inch each side of recorded height allowed for variation or
+    defective measurement.
+
+    When probability of identity appears, the original card is used for
+    comparison.
+
+    Owing to obstacles in inaugurating new system, its practical working
+    began with 1891, and, to include May 1891 [= 5 months, F.G.], out of
+    sixty-two cases of suspected fraud sixty-one proved real.
+
+There was some interesting discussion, both upon this memoir and on a
+verbal communication concerning the French method, that had been made by
+M. Jacques Bertillon the statistician, who is a brother of its originator.
+It appeared that there was room for doubt whether the anthropometric
+method had received a fair trial in America, the measurements being made
+by persons not specially trained, whereas in France the establishments,
+though small, are thoroughly efficient.
+
+There are almost always moles or birth-marks, serving for identification,
+on the body of every one, and a record of these is, as already noted, an
+important though subsidiary part of the Bertillon system. Body-marks are
+noted in the English registers of criminals, and it is curious how large a
+proportion of these men are tattooed and scarred. How far the body-marks
+admit of being usefully charted on the American plan, it is difficult to
+say, the success of the method being largely dependent on the care with
+which they are recorded. The number of persons hitherto dealt with on the
+American plan appears not to be very large. As observations of this class
+require the person to be undressed, they are unsuitable for popular
+purposes of identification, but the marks have the merit of serving to
+identify at all ages, which the measurements of the limbs have not.
+
+It seems strange that no register of this kind, so far as I know, takes
+account of the teeth. If a man, on being first registered, is deficient in
+certain teeth, they are sure to be absent when he is examined on a future
+occasion. He may, and probably will in the meantime, have lost others, but
+the fact of his being without specified teeth on the first occasion,
+excludes the possibility of his being afterwards mistaken for a man who
+still possesses them.
+
+We will now separately summarise the results arrived at, in respect to the
+two processes that may both be needed in order to effect an
+identification.
+
+First, as regards _search in an Index_.--Some sets of measures will give
+trouble, but the greater proportion can apparently be catalogued with so
+much certainty, that if a second set of measures of any individual be
+afterwards taken, no tedious search will be needed to hunt out the former
+set. Including the bodily marks and photographs, let us rate the Bertillon
+method as able to cope with a register of 20,000 adults of the same sex,
+with a small and definable, but as yet unknown, average dose of
+difficulty, which we will call _x_.
+
+A catalogue of 500 sets of finger prints easily fulfils the same
+conditions. I could lay a fair claim to much more, but am content with
+this. Now the finger patterns have been shown to be so independent of
+other conditions that they cannot be notably, if at all, correlated with
+the bodily measurements or with any other feature, not the slightest
+trace of any relation between them having yet been found, as will be shown
+at p. 186, and more fully in Chapter XII. For instance, it would be
+totally impossible to fail to distinguish between the finger prints of
+twins, who in other respects appeared exactly alike. Finger prints may
+therefore be treated without the fear of any sensible error, as varying
+quite independently of the measures and records in the Bertillon system.
+Their inclusion would consequently increase its power fully five-hundred
+fold. Suppose one moderate dose of difficulty, _x_, is enough for dealing
+with the measurements, etc., of 20,000 adult persons of the same sex by
+the Bertillon method, and a similar dose of difficulty with the finger
+prints of 500 persons, then two such doses could deal with a register of
+20,000 x 500, or 10,000,000.
+
+We now proceed to consider the second and final process, namely, that of
+identification by _Comparison_. When the data concerning a suspected
+person are discovered to bear a general likeness to one of those already
+on the register, and a minute comparison shows their finger prints to
+agree in all or nearly all particulars, the evidence thereby afforded that
+they were made by the same person, far transcends in trustworthiness any
+other evidence that can ordinarily be obtained, and vastly exceeds all
+that can be derived from any number of ordinary anthropometric data. _By
+itself it is amply sufficient to convict._ _Bertillonage_ can rarely
+supply more than grounds for very strong suspicion: the method of finger
+prints affords certainty. It is easy, however, to understand that so long
+as the peculiarities of finger prints are not generally understood, a
+juryman would be cautious in accepting their evidence, but it is to be
+hoped that attention will now gradually become drawn to their marvellous
+virtues, and that after their value shall have been established in a few
+conspicuous cases, it will come to be popularly recognised.
+
+Let us not forget two great and peculiar merits of finger prints; they are
+self-signatures, free from all possibility of faults in observation or of
+clerical error; and they apply throughout life.
+
+An abstract of the remarks made by M. Herbette, Director of the
+Penitentiary Department of the Ministere de l'Interieur, France, at the
+International Penitentiary Congress at Rome, after the communication by M.
+Alphonse Bertillon had been read, may fitly follow.
+
+    "Proceeding to a more extended view of the subject and praising the
+    successful efforts of M. Bertillon, M. Herbette pointed out how a
+    verification of the physical personality, and of the identity of
+    people of adult age, would fulfil requirements of modern society in an
+    indisputable manner under very varied conditions.
+
+    "If it were a question, for instance, of giving to the inhabitants of
+    a country, to the soldiers of an army, or to travellers proceeding to
+    distant lands, notices or personal cards as recognisable signs,
+    enabling them always to prove who they are; if it were a question of
+    completing the obligatory records of civil life by perfectly sure
+    indications, such as would prevent all error, or substitution of
+    persons; if it were a question of recording the distinctive marks of
+    an individual in documents, titles or contracts, where his identity
+    requires to be established for his own interest, for that of third
+    parties, or for that of the State,--there the anthropometric system
+    of identification would find place.
+
+    "Should it be a question of a life certificate, of a life assurance,
+    or of a proof of death, or should it be required to certify the
+    identity of a person who was insane, severely wounded, or of a dead
+    body that had been partly destroyed, or so disfigured as to be hardly
+    recognisable from a sudden or violent death due to crime, accident,
+    shipwreck, or battle--how great would be the advantage of being able
+    to trace these characters, unchangeable as they are in each
+    individual, infinitely variable as between one individual and another,
+    indelible, at least in part, even in death.
+
+    "There is still more cause to be interested in this subject when it is
+    a question of identifying persons who are living at a great distance,
+    and after the lapse of a considerable time, when the physiognomy, the
+    features, and the physical habits may have changed from natural or
+    artificial causes, and to be able to identify them without taking a
+    journey and without cost, by the simple exchange of a few lines or
+    figures that may be sent from one country or continent to another, so
+    as to give information in America as to who any particular man is, who
+    has just arrived from France, and to certify whether a certain
+    traveller found in Rome is the same person who was measured in
+    Stockholm ten years before.
+
+    "In one word, to fix the human personality, to give to each human
+    being an identity, an individuality that can be depended upon with
+    certainty, lasting, unchangeable, always recognisable and easily
+    adduced, this appears to be in the largest sense the aim of the new
+    method.
+
+    "Consequently, it may be said that the extent of the problem, as well
+    as the importance of its solution, far exceeds the limits of
+    penitentiary work and the interest, which is however by no means
+    inconsiderable, that penal action has excited amongst various nations.
+    These are the motives for giving to the labours of M. Bertillon and to
+    their practical utilisation the publicity they merit."
+
+These full and clear remarks seem even more applicable to the method of
+finger prints than to that of anthropometry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XI
+
+HEREDITY
+
+
+Some of those who have written on finger marks affirm that they are
+transmissible by descent, others assert the direct contrary, but no
+inquiry hitherto appears to justify a definite conclusion.
+
+Chapter VIII. shows a close correlation to exist between the patterns on
+the several fingers of the same person. Hence we are justified in assuming
+that the patterns are partly dependent on constitutional causes, in which
+case it would indeed be strange if the general law of heredity failed in
+this particular case.
+
+After examining many prints, the frequency with which some peculiar
+pattern was found to characterise members of the same family convinced me
+of the reality of an hereditary tendency. The question was how to submit
+the belief to numerical tests; particular kinships had to be selected, and
+methods of discussion devised.
+
+It must here be borne in mind that "Heredity" implies more than its
+original meaning of a relationship between parent and child. It includes
+that which connects children of the same parents, and which I have shown
+(_Natural Inheritance_) to be just twice as close in the case of stature
+as that which connects a child and either of its two parents. Moreover,
+the closeness of the fraternal and the filial relations are to a great
+extent interdependent, for in any population whose faculties remain
+_statistically_ the same during successive generations, it has been shown
+that a simple algebraical equation must exist, that connects together the
+three elements of Filial Relation, Fraternal Relation, and Regression, by
+which a knowledge of any two of them determines the value of the third. So
+far as Regression may be treated as being constant in value, the Filial
+and the Fraternal relations become reciprocally connected. It is not
+possible briefly to give an adequate explanation of all this now, or to
+show how strictly observations were found to confirm the theory; this has
+been fully done in _Natural Inheritance_, and the conclusions will here be
+assumed.
+
+The fraternal relation, besides disclosing more readily than other
+kinships the existence or non-existence of heredity, is at the same time
+more convenient, because it is easier to obtain examples of brothers and
+sisters alone, than with the addition of their father and mother. The
+resemblance between those who are twins is also an especially significant
+branch of the fraternal relationship. The word "fraternities" will be used
+to include the children of both sexes who are born of the same parents; it
+being impossible to name the familiar kinship in question either in
+English, French, Latin, or Greek, without circumlocution or using an
+incorrect word, thus affording a striking example of the way in which
+abstract thought outruns language, and its expression is hampered by the
+inadequacy of language. In this dilemma I prefer to fall upon the second
+horn, that of incorrectness of phraseology, subject to the foregoing
+explanation and definition.
+
+The first preliminary experiments were made with the help of the
+Arch-Loop-Whorl classification, on the same principle as that already
+described and utilised in Chapter VIII., with the following addition. Each
+of the two members of any couplet of fingers has a distinctive name--for
+instance, the couplet may consist of a finger and a thumb: or again, if it
+should consist of two fore-fingers, one will be a right fore-finger and
+the other a left one, but the two brothers in a couplet of brothers rank
+equally as such. The plan was therefore adopted of "ear-marking" the
+prints of the first of the two brothers that happened to come to hand,
+with an A, and that of the second brother with a B; and so reducing the
+questions to the shape:--How often does the pattern on the finger of a B
+brother agree with that on the corresponding finger of an A brother? How
+often would it occur between two persons who had no family likeness? How
+often would it correspond if the kinship between A and B were as close as
+it is possible to conceive? Or transposing the questions, and using the
+same words as in Chapter VIII., what is the relative frequency of (1)
+Random occurrences, (2) Observed occurrences, (3) Utmost possibilities?
+It was shown in that chapter how to find the value of (2) upon a
+centesimal scale in which "Randoms" ranked as 0 deg. and "Utmost
+possibilities" as 100 deg.
+
+The method there used of calculating the frequency of the "Random" events
+will be accepted without hesitation by all who are acquainted with the
+theory and the practice of problems of probability. Still, it is as well
+to occasionally submit calculation to test. The following example was sent
+to me for that purpose by a friend who, not being mathematically minded,
+had demurred somewhat to the possibility of utilising the calculated
+"Randoms."
+
+The prints of 101 (by mistake for 100) couplets of prints of the right
+fore-fingers of school children were taken by him from a large collection,
+the two members, A and B, being picked out at random and formed into a
+couplet. It was found that among the A children there were 22 arches, 50
+loops, and 29 whorls, and among the B children 25, 34, and 42
+respectively, as is shown by the _italic_ numerals in the last column, and
+again in the bottom row of Table XX. The remainder of the table shows the
+number of times in which an arch, loop, or whorl of an A child was
+associated with an arch, loop, or whorl of a B child.
+
+TABLE XX.
+
+_Observed Random Couplets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |             |       A children.      |  Totals in  |
+  | B children. |------------------------| B children. |
+  |             | Arches.| Loops.|Whorls.|             |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  | Arches      |    5   |   12  |    8  |     _25_    |
+  | Loops       |    8   |   18  |    8  |     _34_    |
+  | Whorls      |    9   |   20  |   13  |     _42_    |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  |Totals in A} |        |       |       |             |
+  |  children } |  _22_  |  _50_ |  _29_ |     101     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXI.
+
+_Calculated Random Couplets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |             |       A children.      |  Totals in  |
+  | B children. |------------------------| B children. |
+  |             | Arches.| Loops.|Whorls.|             |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  | Arches      |  5.00  | 12.50 |  7.25 |     _25_    |
+  | Loops       |  6.80  | 17.00 |  9.86 |     _34_    |
+  | Whorls      |  8.40  | 21.00 | 12.18 |     _42_    |
+  |-------------|--------|-------|-------|-------------|
+  |Totals in A} |        |       |       |             |
+  |  children } |  _22_  |  _50_ |  _29_ |     101     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+The question, then, was how far calculations from the above data would
+correspond with the contents of Table XX. The answer is that it does so
+admirably. Multiply each of the italicised A totals into each of the
+italicised B totals, and after dividing each result by 101, enter it in
+the square at which the column that has the A total at its base, is
+intersected by the row that has the B total at its side. We thus obtain
+Table XXI.
+
+We will now discuss in order the following relationships: the Fraternal,
+first in the ordinary sense, and then in the special case of twins of the
+same set; Filial, in the special case in which both parents have the same
+particular pattern on the same finger; lastly, the relative influence of
+the father and mother in transmitting their patterns.
+
+_Fraternal relationship._--In 105 fraternities the _observed_ figures were
+as in Table XXII.:--
+
+TABLE XXII.
+
+_Observed Fraternal Couplets._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+  |              |      A children.     |   Totals in  |
+  | B children.  |----------------------|  B children. |
+  |              |Arches.|Loops.|Whorls.|              |
+  |--------------|-------|------|-------|--------------|
+  |Arches        |   5   |  12  |   2   |      _19_    |
+  |              |-------+------|       |              |
+  |Loops         |   4   |  42  |  15   |      _61_    |
+  |              |-------|------|-------|              |
+  |Whorls        |   1   |  14  |  10   |      _25_    |
+  |--------------|-------+------+-------|--------------|
+  |Totals in A } |       |      |       |              |
+  |  children  } | _10_  | _68_ | _27_  |      105     |
+  +----------------------------------------------------+
+
+The squares that run diagonally from the top at the left, to the bottom at
+the right, contain the double events, and it is with these that we are
+now concerned. Are the entries in those squares larger or not than the
+randoms, calculated as above, viz. the values of 10 x 19, 68 x 61, 27 x
+25, all divided by 105? The calculated Randoms are shown in the first line
+of Table XXIII., the third line gives the greatest feasible number of
+correspondences which would occur if the kinship were as close as
+possible, subject to the reservation explained in p. 127. As there shown,
+the _lower_ of the A and B values is taken in each case, for Arches,
+Loops, and Whorls respectively.
+
+TABLE XXIII.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------+
+  |                 |    A and B both being      |
+  |                 |----------------------------|
+  |                 | Arches. | Loops. | Whorls. |
+  |-----------------|---------|--------|---------|
+  | Random          |   1.7   |  37.6  |   6.2   |
+  | Observed        |   5.0   |  42.0  |  10.0   |
+  | Utmost feasible |  10.0   |  61.0  |  25.0   |
+  +----------------------------------------------+
+
+In every instance, the Observed values are seen to exceed the Random.
+
+Many other cases of this description were calculated, all yielding the
+same general result, but these results are not as satisfactory as can be
+wished, owing to their dilution by inappropriate cases, the A. L. W.
+system being somewhat artificial.
+
+
+[Illustration: PLATE 16.
+
+FIG. 24. The "C" set of standard patterns, for prints of the Right Hand.]
+
+
+With the view of obtaining a more satisfactory result the patterns were
+subdivided under fifty-three heads, and an experiment was made with the
+fore, middle, and ring-fingers of 150 fraternal couplets (300
+individuals and 900 digits) by Mr. F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook
+the considerable labour of indexing and tabulating them.
+
+The provisional list of standard patterns published in the _Phil. Trans._
+was not appropriate for this purpose. It related chiefly to thumbs, and
+consequently omitted the tented arch; it also referred to the left hand,
+but in the following tabulations the right hand has been used; and its
+numbering is rather inconvenient. The present set of fifty-three patterns
+has faults, and cannot be considered in any way as final, but it was
+suitable for our purposes and may be convenient to others; as Mr. Collins
+worked wholly by it, it may be distinguished as the "C. set." The banded
+patterns, 24-31, are very rarely found on the fingers, but being common on
+the thumb, were retained, on the chance of our requiring the introduction
+of thumb patterns into the tabulations. The numerals refer to the patterns
+as seen in impressions of the _right hand_ only. [They would be equally
+true for the patterns as seen on the _fingers themselves_ of the left
+hand.] For impressions of the left hand the numerals up to 7 inclusive
+would be the same, but those of all the rest would be changed. These are
+arranged in couplets, the one member of the couplet being a reversed
+picture of the other, those in each couplet being distinguished by
+severally bearing an odd and an even number. Therefore, in impressions of
+the left hand, 8 would have to be changed into 9, and 9 into 8; 10 into
+11, and 11 into 10; and so on, up to the end, viz. 52 and 53. The numeral
+54 was used to express nondescript patterns.
+
+The finger prints had to be gone through repeatedly, some weeks elapsing
+between the inspections, and under conditions which excluded the
+possibility of unconscious bias; a subject of frequent communication
+between Mr. Collins and myself. Living at a distance apart, it was not
+easy at the time they were made, to bring our respective interpretations
+of transitional and of some of the other patterns, especially the invaded
+loops, into strict accordance, so I prefer to keep his work, in which I
+have perfect confidence, independent from my own. Whenever a fraternity
+consisted of more than two members, they were divided, according to a
+prearranged system, into as many couplets as there were individuals. Thus,
+while a fraternity of three individuals furnished all of its three
+possible varieties of couplets, (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 3), one of four
+individuals was not allowed to furnish more than four of its possible
+couplets, the two italicised ones being omitted, (1, 2), (1, 3), (_1, 4_),
+(_2, 3_), (2, 4), (3, 4), and so on. Without this precaution, a single
+very large family might exercise a disproportionate and even overwhelming
+statistical influence.
+
+It would be essential to exact working, that the mutual relations of the
+patterns should be taken into account; for example, suppose an arch to be
+found on the fore-finger of one brother and a nascent loop on that of the
+other; then, as these patterns are evidently related, their concurrence
+ought to be interpreted as showing some degree of resemblance. However,
+it was impossible to take cognizance of partial resemblances, the mutual
+relations of the patterns not having, as yet, been determined with
+adequate accuracy.
+
+The completed tabulations occupied three large sheets, one for each of the
+fingers, ruled crossways into fifty-three vertical columns for the A
+brothers, and fifty-three horizontal rows for the B brothers. Thus, if the
+register number of the pattern of A was 10, and that of B was 42, then a
+mark would be put in the square limited by the ninth and tenth horizontal
+lines, and by the forty-first and forty-second vertical ones. The marks
+were scattered sparsely over the sheet. Those in each square were then
+added up, and finally the numbers in each of the rows and in each of the
+columns were severally totalled.
+
+If the number of couplets had been much greater than they are, a test of
+the accuracy with which their patterns had been classed under the
+appropriate heads, would be found in the frequency with which the same
+patterns were registered in the corresponding finger of the A and B
+brothers. The A and B groups are strictly homogeneous, consequently the
+frequency of their patterns in corresponding fingers ought to be alike.
+The success with which this test has been fulfilled in the present case,
+is passably good, its exact degree being shown in the following
+paragraphs, where the numbers of entries under each head are arranged in
+as orderly a manner as the case admits, the smaller of the two numbers
+being the one that stands first, whether it was an A or a B. All instances
+in which there were at least five entries under either A or B, are
+included; the rest being disregarded. The result is as follows:--
+
+    I. Thirteen cases of more or less congruity between the number of A
+    and B entries under the same head:--5-7; 5-7; 5-8; 6-8; 7-10; 8-9;
+    8-12; 9-12; 10-10; 11-13; 12-16; 14-18; 72-73. (This last refers to
+    loops on the middle finger.)
+
+    II. Six cases of more or less incongruity:--1-7; 6-12; 14-20; 14-22;
+    22-35; 39-50.
+
+The three Tables, XXIV., XXV., XXVI., contain the results of the
+tabulations and the deductions from them.
+
+TABLE XXIV.
+
+_Comparison of three Fingers of the Right Hand in 150 Fraternal Couplets._
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |       |   Fore-fingers.    ||   Middle fingers.  ||    Ring-fingers.   |
+  |       |--------------------||--------------------||--------------------|
+  | Index |  Down |Along|Double||  Down |Along|Double||  Down |Along|Double|
+  | No. of|columns|lines|events||columns|lines|events||columns|lines|events|
+  |Pattern|-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------|
+  |       |       |     |   A  ||       |     |   A  ||       |     |   A  |
+  |       |   A   |  B  |  and ||   A   |  B  |  and ||   A   |  B  |  and |
+  |       |       |     |   B  ||       |     |   B  ||       |     |   B  |
+  |-------|-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------||-------|-----|------|
+  |    1  |  15   | 12  |   4  ||   8   |  5  |   2  ||   7   |  5  |   1  |
+  |    2  |   3   |  2  |      ||   3   |  2  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |    6  |   2   |  2  |   1  ||       |     |      ||   2   |  4  |      |
+  |    7  |       |  2  |      ||   2   |  1  |      ||   7   |  5  |   1  |
+  |    8  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  |    9  |   1   |  7  |      ||   4   |  1  |   1  ||   7   |  1  |      |
+  |   12  |   1   |     |      ||   2   |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   13  |       |     |      ||   2   |  1  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   14  |   4   |  3  |      ||   4   |  4  |   1  ||  20   | 14  |   1  |
+  |   15  |  16   | 12  |   3  ||   4   |  2  |      ||   3   |  4  |      |
+  |   16  |   2   |  3  |      ||   2   |  3  |      ||  10   |  7  |   2  |
+  |   17  |   4   |  3  |      ||   3   |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   18  |       |     |      ||   4   |  1  |      ||  18   | 14  |   6  |
+  |   19  |   3   |  3  |      ||   2   |  5  |      ||   1   |     |      |
+  |   20  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||   1   |  3  |   1  |
+  |   21  |       |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   22  |       |  4  |      ||   1   |  8  |      ||   1   |  2  |      |
+  |   23  |   1   |     |      ||   1   |     |      ||   6   |     |      |
+  |   27  |   1   |     |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   32  |   1   |     |      ||   1   |  3  |      ||   4   |  4  |      |
+  |   33  |   3   |  1  |   1  ||   1   |     |      ||   3   |  3  |   1  |
+  |   34  |   3   |  2  |      ||   4   |  1  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   35  |   2   |  3  |      ||       |  5  |      ||   9   | 12  |   2  |
+  |   38  |   2   |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   39  |   4   |     |      ||   3   |  1  |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   40  |  13   | 11  |   1  ||  14   | 22  |   6  ||   9   |  8  |      |
+  |   41  |  12   |  8  |      ||   1   |  3  |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  |   42  |  22   | 35  |   5  ||  73   | 72  |  35  ||  39   | 50  |  16  |
+  |   43  |  10   | 10  |   3  ||   4   |  1  |      ||       |  3  |      |
+  |   44  |   2   |  1  |      ||       |  2  |      ||       |  2  |      |
+  |   45  |   1   |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   46  |   8   |  6  |   1  ||   3   |  1  |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  |   47  |   3   |  4  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   48  |   6   | 12  |   1  ||   4   |  6  |      ||   2   |  3  |      |
+  |   49  |   1   |  1  |      ||       |     |      ||       |     |      |
+  |   52  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||   1   |     |      |
+  |   53  |       |     |      ||       |     |      ||       |  1  |      |
+  +------------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXV.
+
+_Comparison between Random and Observed Events._
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |       Fore.       ||      Middle.      ||       Ring.       |
+  |-------------------||-------------------||-------------------|
+  | Random.| Observed.|| Random.| Observed.|| Random.| Observed.|
+  |--------|----------||--------|----------||--------|----------|
+  |  1.20  |     4    ||  0.26  |     2    ||  0.23  |     1    |
+  |  0.08  |   ...    ||  0.11  |     1    ||  0.05  |   ...    |
+  |  1.28  |     3    ||  0.05  |   ...    ||  0.23  |   ...    |
+  |  0.08  |   ...    ||  0.07  |   ...    ||  1.87  |     1    |
+  |  0.06  |   ...    ||  0.05  |   ...    ||  0.08  |   ...    |
+  |  0.95  |     1    ||  2.05  |     6    ||  0.46  |     2    |
+  |  0.64  |   ...    || 34.08  |    35    ||  1.68  |     6    |
+  |  5.18  |     5    ||  0.16  |   ...    ||  0.11  |   ...    |
+  |  0.67  |     3    ||        |          ||  0.06  |     1    |
+  |  0.32  |     1    ||        |          ||  0.72  |     2    |
+  |  0.08  |   ...    ||        |          ||  0.48  |   ...    |
+  |  0.48  |     1    ||        |          || 13.00  |    16    |
+  |--------|          ||        |          ||        |          |
+  |   All  |          ||        |          ||        |          |
+  | others.|          ||        |          ||        |          |
+  |  0.29  |     2    ||  0.28  |     1    ||  0.12  |     1    |
+  |--------|----------||--------|----------||--------|----------|
+  | 11.31  |    20    || 37.11  |    45    || 19.09  |    30    |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXVI.
+
+_Centesimal Scale (to nearest whole numbers)._
+
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |150 fraternal|Random.|Observed.|    Utmost    |Reduced  |  Reduced to  |
+  |  couplets.  |       |         |possibilities.|to lower |    upper     |
+  |             |       |         |              |limit=0. |  limit=100.  |
+  |-------------|-------|---------|--------------|---------|--------------|
+  |             |       |         |              |         |  Centesimal  |
+  |             |       |         |              |         |    scale.    |
+  |             |       |         |              |         |--------------|
+  |Fore-finger  | 11.31 |    20   |     115      |0  9 104 |0 deg.  9 deg.    100 deg.|
+  |Middle       | 37.11 |    45   |     117      |0 10  80 |0 deg. 10 deg.    100 deg.|
+  |Ring         | 19.09 |    31   |     118      |0 12  99 |0 deg. 12 deg.    100 deg.|
+  |-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |                                               Mean     |0 deg. 10 deg.    100 deg.|
+  |-----------------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |50 additional|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |  couplets.  |       |         |              |         |              |
+  |-------------|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |Middle finger|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |only         |  8.2  |    11   |      22      |0  3  14 |0 deg. 21 deg.    100 deg.|
+  |-------------|-------|---------|--------------|---------|--------------|
+  | Loops only, |       |         |              |         |              |
+  |and on middle|       |         |              |         |              |
+  | finger only.|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |-------------|       |         |              |         |              |
+  |150 couplets | 34.0  |    35   |      72      |0 1   72 |0 deg. 1-1/4 deg. 100 deg.|
+  |50 couplets  |  6.4  |     7   |      14      |0 0.6  8 |0 deg. 8 deg.     100 deg.|
+  +-----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+Table XXIV. contains all the Observed events, and is to be read thus,
+beginning at the first entry. Pattern No. 1 occurs on the right
+fore-finger fifteen times among the A brothers, and twelve times among the
+B brothers; while in four of these cases both brothers have that same
+pattern.
+
+Table XXV. compares the Random events with the Observed ones. Every case
+in which the calculated expectation is equal to or exceeds 0.05, is
+inserted in detail; the remaining group of petty cases are summed together
+and their totals entered in the bottom line. For fear of misapprehension
+or forgetfulness, one other example of the way in which the Randoms are
+calculated will be given here, taking for the purpose the first entry in
+Table XXIV. Thus, the number of all the different combinations of the 150
+A with the 150 B individuals in the 150 couplets, is 150 x 150. Out of
+these, the number of double events in which pattern No. 1 would appear in
+the same combination, is 15 x 12 = 180. Therefore in 150 trials, the
+double event of pattern No. 1 would appear upon the average, on 180
+divided by 150, or on 1.20 occasions. As a matter of fact, it appeared
+four times. These figures will be found in the first line of Table XXV.;
+the rest of its contents have been calculated in the same way.
+
+Leaving aside the Randoms that exceed 0 but are less than 1, there are
+nineteen cases in which the Random may be compared with the Observed
+values; in all but two of these the Observed are the highest, and in these
+two the Random exceed the Observed by only trifling amounts, namely, 5.18
+Random against 5.00 Observed; 1.87 Random against 1.00 Observed. It is
+impossible, therefore, to doubt from the steady way in which the Observed
+values overtop the Randoms, that there is a greater average likeness in
+the finger marks of two brothers, than in those of two persons taken at
+hazard.
+
+Table XXVI. gives the results of applying the centesimal scale to the
+measurement of the average closeness of fraternal resemblance, in respect
+to finger prints, according to the method and under the reservations
+already explained in page 125. The average value thus assigned to it is a
+little more than 10 deg. The values obtained from the three fingers
+severally, from which that average was derived, are 9 deg., 10 deg., and 12 deg.; they
+agree together better than might have been expected. The value obtained
+from a set of fifty additional couplets of the middle fingers only, of
+fraternals, is wider, being 21 deg. Its inclusion with the rest raises the
+average of all to between 10 and 11.
+
+In the pre-eminently frequent event of loops with an outward slope on the
+middle finger, it is remarkable that the Random cases are nearly equal to
+the Observed ones; they are 34.08 to 35.00. It was to obtain some
+assurance that this equality was not due to statistical accident, that the
+additional set of fifty couplets were tabulated. They tell, however, the
+same tale, viz. 6.4 Randoms to 7.0 Observed. The loops on the fore-fingers
+confirm this, showing 5.18 Randoms to 5.00 Observed; those on the
+ring-finger have the same peculiarity, though in a slighter degree, 13 to
+16: the average of other patterns shows a much greater difference than
+that. I am unable to account for this curious behaviour of the loops,
+which can hardly be due to statistical accident, in the face of so much
+concurrent evidence.
+
+_Twins._--The signs of heredity between brothers and sisters ought to be
+especially apparent between twins of the same sex, who are physiologically
+related in a peculiar degree and are sometimes extraordinarily alike. More
+rarely, they are remarkably dissimilar. The instances of only a moderate
+family resemblance between twins of the same sex are much less frequent
+than between ordinary brothers and sisters, or between twins of opposite
+sex. All this has been discussed in my _Human Faculty_. In order to test
+the truth of the expectation, I procured prints of the fore, middle, and
+ring-fingers of seventeen sets of twins, and compared them, with the
+results shown in Table XXVII.
+
+TABLE XXVII.
+
+17 SETS OF TWINS (A and B).
+
+_Comparison between the patterns on the Fore, Middle, and Ring-fingers
+respectively of the Right hand._
+
+Agreement (=), 19 cases; partial (..), 13 cases; disagreement (x), 19
+cases.
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |      | A     B  |    A     B  | A     B  | A     B  | A     B  |
+  |----------------------------------------------------------------|
+  |Fore  | 42 =  42 |    21 =  21 | 40 =  40 |  6 =   6 |  1 =   1 |
+  |Middle| 42 =  42 |     8 =   8 | 32 x  42 | 15 .. 32 | 42 =  42 |
+  |Ring  | 42 =  42 |     8 =   8 | 42 =  42 | 33 =  33 | 40 x  19 |
+  |      |          |             |          |          |          |
+  |Fore  | 42 =  42 |    43 x  15 |  1 =   1 | 15 x  34 |  2 .. 42 |
+  |Middle| 42 =  42 |    42 .. 40 |  1 x  40 | 42 =  42 | 42 =  42 |
+  |Ring  | 42 .. 46 |    35 =  35 | 40 .. 42 | 14 x  32 | 42 x  14 |
+  |      |          |             |          |          |          |
+  |Fore  | 49 .. 14 |    15 x  49 | 15 .. 16 |  1 x  42 |  1 x  15 |
+  |Middle| 42 =  42 |    23 x  14 | 19 x  42 | 42 .. 48 | 32 x  22 |
+  |Ring  |  9 .. 32 |    14 .. 16 |  6 .. 18 | 42 x   8 | 18 x  23 |
+  |      |          |             |          |          |          |
+  |Fore  | 48 x  33 |(loop) x   9 |          |          |          |
+  |Middle| 42 x  22 |    48 x  22 |          |          |          |
+  |Ring  | 14 ..  6 |     9 .. 35 |          |          |          |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The result is that out of the seventeen sets (=51 couplets), two sets
+agree in all their three couplets of fingers; four sets agree in two; five
+sets agree in one of the couplets. There are instances of partial
+agreement in five others, and a disagreement throughout in only one of the
+seventeen sets. In another collection of seventeen sets, made to compare
+with this, six agreed in two of their three couplets, and five agreed in
+one of them. There cannot then be the slightest doubt as to the strong
+tendency to resemblance in the finger patterns in twins.
+
+This remark must by no means be forced into the sense of meaning that the
+similarity is so great, that the finger print of one twin might
+occasionally be mistaken for that of the other. When patterns fall into
+the same class, their general forms may be conspicuously different (see p.
+74), while their smaller details, namely, the number of ridges and the
+minutiae, are practically independent of the pattern.
+
+It may be mentioned that I have an inquiry in view, which has not yet been
+fairly begun, owing to the want of sufficient data, namely to determine
+the minutest biological unit that may be hereditarily transmissible. The
+minutiae in the finger prints of twins seem suitable objects for this
+purpose.
+
+_Children of like-patterned Parents._--When two parents are alike, the
+average resemblance, in stature at all events, which their children bear
+to them, is as close as the fraternal resemblance between the children,
+and twice as close as that which the children bear to either parent
+separately, when the parents are unlike.
+
+The fifty-eight parentages affording fifty couplets of the fore, middle,
+and ring-fingers respectively give 58 x 3 = 174 parental couplets in all;
+of these, 27 or 14 per cent are alike in their pattern, as shown by Table
+XXVIII. The total number of children to these twenty-seven pairs is 109,
+of which 59 (or 54 per cent) have the same pattern as their parents. This
+fact requires analysis, as on account of the great frequency of loops, and
+especially of the pattern No. 42 on the middle finger, a large number of
+the cases of similarity of pattern between child and parents would be mere
+random coincidences.
+
+TABLE XXVIII.--_Children of like-patterned Parents._
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  | The 27 | Patterns of--  F.  M. |    --of Sons.   | Alike. | Total |
+  | cases. |                       |                 |        | sons. |
+  |--------|-----------------------|-----------------|--------|-------|
+  |    1   | Fore            1   1 |  1              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    2   |                34  34 | 34              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    3   |                40  40 | 41              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |    4   |                42  42 | 48              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |    5   | Middle         40  40 | 40              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    6   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    7   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |    8   |                42  42 | 42, 38, 42, 42  |    3   |   4   |
+  |    9   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   10   |                42  42 | 48, 48, 14      |    1   |   4   |
+  |   11   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   12   |                42  42 | 40              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   13   |                42  42 |  1              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   14   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   15   |                42  42 | 42, 46, 42      |    2   |   3   |
+  |   16   |                42  42 | 34, 42          |    1   |   2   |
+  |   17   |                42  42 | 42              |    1   |   1   |
+  |   18   |                42  42 | ...             |   ...  |  ...  |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |   19   | Ring           14  14 | 33, 42, 14      |    1   |   3   |
+  |   20   |                14  14 | 42, 16          |   ...  |   2   |
+  |   21   |                14  14 |  6              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   22   |                42  42 | 40              |   ...  |   1   |
+  |   23   |                42  42 | 42, 42, 42      |    3   |   3   |
+  |   24   |                42  42 | ...             |   ...  |  ...  |
+  |   25   |                42  42 | 42, 42          |    2   |   2   |
+  |   26   |                42  42 | 49, 14          |   ...  |   2   |
+  |   27   |                46  46 | 48, 40, 16      |   ...  |   4   |
+  |        |                       |                 |--------|-------|
+  |        |                       |                 |   22   |  41   |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  |        |                       |                 |        |       |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |      --of Daughters.       | Alike. |    Total   ||  Total  |Alike.|
+  |                            |        | daughters. ||children.|      |
+  |----------------------------|--------|------------||---------|------|
+  |  1,  1                     |   2    |     2      ||    3    |   3  |
+  | 42, 48                     |  ...   |     2      ||    3    |   1  |
+  |  2, 40                     |   1    |     2      ||    3    |   1  |
+  | 42                         |   1    |     1      ||    2    |   1  |
+  |                            |        |            ||         |      |
+  | 40                         |   1    |     1      ||    2    |   2  |
+  | ...                        |  ...   |    ...     ||    1    |   1  |
+  | 40                         |  ...   |     1      ||    2    |   1  |
+  | 40,  1                     |  ...   |     2      ||    6    |   3  |
+  | 40, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    3    |   2  |
+  | 42, 42, 48, 42, 42         |   4    |     5      ||    9    |   5  |
+  |  1, 40                     |  ...   |     2      ||    3    |   1  |
+  | 42, 42, 42, 42             |   4    |     4      ||    5    |   4  |
+  | ...                        |  ...   |    ...     ||    1    |  ... |
+  | 42, 42, 42                 |   3    |     3      ||    4    |   4  |
+  | 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42, 42 |   3    |     3      ||    4    |   4  |
+  | 33, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    4    |   2  |
+  | 40, 42,  1                 |   1    |     3      ||    4    |   2  |
+  | 42, 42 (twins)             |   2    |     2      ||    2    |   2  |
+  |                            |        |            ||         |      |
+  | 32, 40                     |  ...   |     2      ||    5    |   1  |
+  | 16, 14, 42, 42             |   1    |     4      ||    6    |   1  |
+  |  9, 35, 48, 32, 14         |   1    |     5      ||    6    |   1  |
+  | 40                         |  ...   |     1      ||    2    |  ... |
+  | 40, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    5    |   4  |
+  | 40, 42                     |   1    |     2      ||    2    |   1  |
+  | 42, 40, 42                 |   2    |     3      ||    5    |   4  |
+  | 42, 42, 42                 |   3    |     3      ||    5    |   3  |
+  | 16, 38                     |  ...   |     2      ||    6    |  ... |
+  |                            |--------|------------||---------|------|
+  |          Daughters         |  37    |    65      ||         |      |
+  |          Sons              |  22    |    44      ||         |      |
+  |                            |--------|------------||         |      |
+  |          Total Children    |  59    |   109      ||   109   |  59  |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+There are nineteen cases of both parents having the commonest of the loop
+patterns, No. 42, on a corresponding finger. They have between them
+seventy-five children, of whom forty-eight have the pattern No. 42, on the
+same finger as their parents, and eighteen others have loops of other
+kinds on that same finger, making a total of sixty-six coincidences out of
+the possible 75, or 88 per cent, which is a great increase upon the normal
+proportion of loops of the No. 42 pattern in the fore, middle, and
+ring-fingers collectively. Again, there are three cases of both parents
+having a tendrilled-loop No. 15, which ranks as a whorl. Out of their
+total number of seventeen children, eleven have whorls and only six have
+loops.
+
+Lastly, there is a single case of both parents having an arch, and all
+their three children have arches; whereas in the total of 109 children in
+the table, there are only four other cases of an arch.
+
+This partial analysis accounts for the whole of the like-patterned
+parents, except four couples, which are one of No. 34, two of No. 40, and
+one of No. 46. These concur in telling the same general tale, recollecting
+that No. 46 might almost be reckoned as a transitional case between a loop
+and a whorl.
+
+The decided tendency to hereditary transmission cannot be gainsaid in the
+face of these results, but the number of cases is too few to justify
+quantitative conclusions. It is not for the present worth while to extend
+them, for the reason already mentioned, namely, an ignorance of the
+allowance that ought to be made for related patterns. On this account it
+does not seem useful to print the results of a large amount of tabulation
+bearing on the simple filial relationship between the child and either
+parent separately, except so far as appears in the following paragraph.
+
+_Relative Influence of the Father and the Mother._--Through one of those
+statistical accidents which are equivalent to long runs of luck at a
+gaming table, a concurrence in the figures brought out by Mr. Collins
+suggested to him the existence of a decided preponderance of maternal
+influence in the hereditary transmission of finger patterns. His further
+inquiries have, however, cast some doubt on earlier and provisional
+conclusions, and the following epitomises all of value that can as yet be
+said in favour of the superiority of the maternal influence.
+
+The fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hands of the father,
+mother, and all their accessible children, in many families, were
+severally tabulated under the fifty-three heads already specified. The
+total number of children was 389, namely 136 sons and 219 daughters. The
+same pattern was found on the same finger, both of a child and of one or
+other of his parents, in the following number of cases:--
+
+TABLE XXIX.
+
+_Relative Influence of Father and Mother._
+
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                     |Fore.|Middle.|Ring.|| Totals. | Corrected |     |
+  |                     |     |       |     ||         |   Totals. |     |
+  |---------------------|-----|-------|-----||---------|-----------|-----|
+  | Father and son      | 17  |  35   | 28  ||   80    |     80    |}149 |
+  |   "     "  daughter | 29  |  52   | 30  || (111)   |     69    |}    |
+  |                     |     |       |     ||         |           |     |
+  | Mother and son      | 18  |  50   | 26  ||   94    |     94    |}186 |
+  |   "     "  daughter | 38  |  75   | 35  || (148)   |     92    |}    |
+  +----------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The entries in the first three columns are not comparable on equal terms,
+on account of the large difference between the numbers of the sons and
+daughters. This difference is easily remedied by multiplying the number of
+daughters by 136/219, that is by 0.621, as has been done in the fifth
+column headed Corrected Totals. It would appear from these figures, that
+the maternal influence is more powerful than the paternal in the
+proportion of 186 to 149, or as 5 to 4; but, as some of the details from
+which the totals are built up, vary rather widely, it is better for the
+present to reserve an opinion as to their trustworthiness.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XII
+
+RACES AND CLASSES
+
+
+The races whose finger prints I have studied in considerable numbers are
+English, pure Welsh, Hebrew, and Negro; also some Basques from Cambo in
+the French Pyrenees, twenty miles south-east of Bayonne. For the Welsh
+prints I am primarily indebted to the very obliging help of Mr. R. W.
+Atkinson, of Cardiff, who interested the masters of schools in purely
+Welsh-speaking mountainous districts on my behalf; for the Hebrew prints
+to Mr. Isidore Spielman, who introduced me to the great Hebrew schools in
+London, whose head-masters gave cordial assistance; and for the Negro
+prints to Sir George Taubman Goldie, Dep. Governor of the Royal Niger Co.,
+who interested Dr Crosse on my behalf, from whom valuable sets of prints
+were received, together with particulars of the races of the men from whom
+they were made. As to the Basques, they were printed by myself.
+
+It requires considerable patience and caution to arrive at trustworthy
+conclusions, but it may emphatically be said that there is no _peculiar_
+pattern which characterises persons of any of the above races. There is
+no particular pattern that is special to any one of them, which when met
+with enables us to assert, or even to suspect, the nationality of the
+person on whom it appeared. The only differences so far observed, are
+statistical, and cannot be determined except through patience and caution,
+and by discussing large groups.
+
+I was misled at first by some accidental observations, and as it seemed
+reasonable to expect to find racial differences in finger marks, the
+inquiries were continued in varied ways until hard fact had made hope no
+longer justifiable.
+
+After preliminary study, I handed over the collection of racial finger
+prints to Mr F. Howard Collins, who kindly undertook the labour of
+tabulating them in many ways, of which it will be only necessary to give
+an example. Thus, at one time attention was concentrated on a single
+finger and a single pattern, the most instructive instance being that of
+arches on the right fore-finger. They admit of being defined with
+sufficient clearness, having only one doubtful frontier of much
+importance, namely that at which they begin to break away into
+nascent-loops, etc. They also occur with considerable frequency on the
+fore-finger, so the results from a few hundred specimens ought to be
+fairly trustworthy. It mattered little in the inquiry, at what level the
+limit was drawn to separate arches from nascent-loops, so long as the same
+limit was observed in all races alike. Much pains were taken to secure
+uniformity of treatment, and Mr. Collins selected two limits, the one
+based on a strict and the other on a somewhat less strict interpretation
+of the term "arches," but the latter was not so liberal as that which I
+had used myself in the earlier inquiries (see p. 114). His results showed
+no great difference in the proportionate frequency of arches in the
+different races, whichever limit was observed; the following table refers
+to the more liberal limit:--
+
+TABLE XXX.
+
+_Frequency of Arches in the Right Fore-Finger._
+
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |  No. of  |             Race.                |  No. of | Per Cents. |
+  | Persons. |                                  | Arches. |            |
+  |----------|----------------------------------|---------|------------|
+  |    250   | English                          |    34   |   13.6     |
+  |    250   | Welsh                            |    26   |   10.8     |
+  |   1332   | Hebrew                           |   105   |    7.9     |
+  |    250   | Negro                            |    27   |   11.3     |
+  |          |                                  |         |            |
+  |          |       _Hebrews in detail_--      |         |            |
+  |    500   | Boys, Bell Lane School           |    35   |    7.0     |
+  |    400   | Girls, Bell Lane School          |    34   |    8.5     |
+  |    220   | Boys, Tavistock St. & Hanway St. |    18   |    8.2     |
+  |    212   | Girls, Hanway Street School      |    18   |    8.5     |
+  +--------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+The two contrasted values here are the English and the Hebrew. The 1332
+cases of the latter give a percentage result of 7.9, which differs as may
+be seen less than 1 per cent from that of any one of the four large groups
+upon which the average is based. The 250 cases of English are
+comparatively few, but the experience I have had of other English prints
+is so large as to enable me to say confidently that the percentage result
+of 13.6 is not too great. It follows, that the percentage of arches in the
+English and in the Hebrew differs in the ratio of 13.6 to 7.9, or nearly
+as 5 to 3. This is the largest statistical difference yet met with. The
+deficiency in arches among the Hebrews, and to some extent in loops also,
+is made up by a superiority in whorls, chiefly of the tendril or
+circlet-in-loop patterns.
+
+It would be very rash to suppose that this relative infrequency of arches
+among the Hebrews was of fundamental importance, considering that such
+totally distinct races as the Welsh and the Negro have them in an
+intermediate proportion. Still, why does it occur? The only answer I can
+suggest is that the patterns being in some degree hereditary, such
+accidental preponderances as may have existed among a not very numerous
+ancestry might be perpetuated. I have some reason to believe that local
+peculiarities of this sort exist in England, the children in schools of
+some localities seeming to be statistically more alike in their patterns
+than English children generally.
+
+Another of the many experiments was the tabulation separately by Mr.
+Collins of the fore, middle, and ring-fingers of the right hand of fifty
+persons of each of the five races above-mentioned: English, Welsh, Basque,
+Hebrew, and different groups of Negroes. The number of instances is of
+course too small for statistical deductions, but they served to make it
+clear that no very marked characteristic distinguished the races. The
+impressions from Negroes betray the general clumsiness of their fingers,
+but their patterns are not, so far as I can find, different from those of
+others, they are not simpler as judged either by their contours or by the
+number of origins, embranchments, islands, and enclosures contained in
+them. Still, whether it be from pure fancy on my part, or from the way in
+which they were printed, or from some real peculiarity, the general aspect
+of the Negro print strikes me as characteristic. The width of the ridges
+seems more uniform, their intervals more regular, and their courses more
+parallel than with us. In short, they give an idea of greater simplicity,
+due to causes that I have not yet succeeded in submitting to the test of
+measurement.
+
+The above are only a few examples of the laborious work so kindly
+undertaken for me by Mr. F. H. Collins, but it would serve no useful
+purpose to give more in this book, as no positive results have as yet been
+derived from it other than the little already mentioned.
+
+The most hopeful direction in which this inquiry admits of being pursued
+is among the Hill tribes of India, Australian blacks, and other diverse
+and so-called aboriginal races. The field of ethnology is large, and it
+would be unwise as yet to neglect the chance of somewhere finding
+characteristic patterns.
+
+       *       *       *       *       *
+
+Differences between finger prints of different classes might continue to
+exist although those of different races are inconspicuous, because every
+race contains men of various temperaments and faculties, and we cannot
+tell, except by observation, whether any of these are correlated with the
+finger marks. Several different classes have been examined both by Mr.
+Collins and myself. The ordinary laboratory work supplies finger prints of
+persons of much culture, and of many students both in the Art and in the
+Science schools. I took a large number of prints from the worst idiots in
+the London district, through the obliging assistance of Dr. Fletcher
+Beech, of the Darenth Asylum; my collections made at Board Schools are
+numerous, and I have one of field labourers in Dorsetshire and
+Somersetshire. But there is no notable difference in any of them. For
+example; the measurements of the ridge-interval gave the same results in
+the art-students and in the science-students, and I have prints of eminent
+thinkers and of eminent statesmen that can be matched by those of
+congenital idiots.[5] No indications of temperament, character, or ability
+are to be found in finger marks, so far as I have been able to discover.
+
+Of course these conclusions must not be applied to the general shape of
+the hand, which as yet I have not studied, but which seems to offer a very
+interesting field for exact inquiry.
+
+
+
+
+CHAPTER XIII
+
+GENERA
+
+
+The same familiar patterns recur in every large collection of finger
+prints, and the eye soon selects what appear to be typical forms; but are
+they truly "typical" or not? By a type I understand an ideal form around
+which the actual forms are grouped, very closely in its immediate
+neighbourhood, and becoming more rare with increasing rapidity at an
+increasing distance from it, just as is the case with shot marks to the
+right or left of a line drawn vertically through the bull's eye of a
+target. The analogy is exact; in both cases there is a well-defined point
+of departure; in both cases the departure of individual instances from
+that point is due to a multitude of independently variable causes. In
+short, both are realisations of the now well-known theoretical law of
+Frequency of Error. The problem then is this:--take some one of the
+well-marked patterns, such as it appears on a particular digit,--say a
+loop on the right thumb; find the average number of ridges that cross a
+specified portion of it; then this average value will determine an ideal
+centre from which individual departures may be measured; next, tabulate
+the frequency of the departures that attain to each of many successive
+specified distances from that ideal centre; then see whether their
+diminishing frequency as the distances increase, is or is not in
+accordance with the law of frequency of error. If it is, then the central
+form has the attributes of a true type, and such will be shown to be the
+case with the loops of either thumb. I shall only give the data and the
+results, not the precise way in which they are worked out, because an
+account of the method employed in similar cases will be found in _Natural
+Inheritance_, and again in the Memoir on Finger Prints in the _Phil.
+Trans._; it is too technical to be appropriate here, and would occupy too
+much space. The only point which need be briefly explained and of which
+non-mathematical readers might be ignorant, is how a single numerical
+table derived from abstract calculations can be made to apply to such
+minute objects as finger prints, as well as to the shot marks on a huge
+target; what is the common unit by which departures on such different
+scales are measured? The answer is that it is a self-contained unit
+appropriate to _each series severally_, and technically called the
+Probable Error, or more briefly, P.E., in the headings to the following
+tables. In order to determine it, the range of the central half of the
+series has to be measured, namely, of that part of the series which
+remains after its two extreme quarters have been cut off and removed. The
+series had no limitation before, its two ends tailing away indefinitely
+into nothingness, but, by the artifice of lopping off a definite fraction
+of the whole series from both ends of it, a sharply-defined length, call
+it PQ, is obtained. Such series as have usually to be dealt with are
+fairly symmetrical, so the position of the half-way point M, between P and
+Q, corresponds with rough accuracy to the average of the positions of all
+the members of the series, that is to the point whence departures have to
+be measured. MP, or MQ,--or still better, 1/2(MP + MQ) is the
+above-mentioned Probable Error. It is so called because the amount of
+Error, or Departure from M of any one observation, falls just as often
+within the distance PE as it falls without it. In the calculated tables of
+the Law of Frequency, PE (or a multiple of it) is taken as unity. In each
+observed series, the actual measures have to be converted into another
+scale, in which the PE of that series is taken as unity. Then observation
+and calculation may be compared on equal terms.
+
+
+[Illustration]
+
+
+Observations were made on the loops of the right and left thumbs
+respectively. AHB is taken as the primary line of reference in the loop;
+it is the line that, coinciding with the axis of the _uppermost portion_,
+and that only, of the core, cuts the summit of the core at H, the upper
+outline at A, and the lower outline, if it cuts it at all, as it nearly
+always does, at B. K is the centre of the single triangular plot that
+appears in the loop, which may be either I or O. KNL is a perpendicular
+from K to the axis, cutting it at N, and the outline beyond at L. In some
+loops N will lie above H, as in Plate 4, Fig. 8; in some it may coincide
+with H. (See Plate 6 for numerous varieties of loop.) These points were
+pricked in each print with a fine needle; the print was then turned face
+downwards and careful measurements made between the prick holes at the
+back. Also the number of ridges in AH were counted, the ridge at A being
+reckoned as 0, the next ridge as 1, and so on up to H. Whenever the line
+AH passed across the neck of a bifurcation, there was necessarily a single
+ridge on one side of the point of intersection and two ridges on the
+other, so there would clearly be doubt whether to reckon the neck as one
+or as two ridges. A compromise was made by counting it as 1-1/2. After the
+number of ridges in AH had been counted in each case, any residual
+fractions of 1/2 were alternately treated as 0 and as 1. Finally, six
+series were obtained; three for the right thumb, and three for the left.
+They referred respectively (1) to the Number of Ridges in AH; (2) to
+KL/NB; (3) to AN/AH, all the three being independent of stature. The
+number of measures in each of the six series varied from 140 to 176; they
+are reduced to percentages in Table XXXI.
+
+We see at a glance that the different numbers of ridges in AH do not occur
+with equal frequency, that a single ridge in the thumb is a rarity, and so
+are cases above fifteen in number, but those of seven, eight, and nine
+are frequent. There is clearly a rude order in their distribution, the
+number of cases tailing away into nothingness, at the top and bottom of
+the column. A vast amount of statistical analogy assures us that the
+orderliness of the distribution would be increased if many more cases had
+been observed, and later on, this inference will be confirmed. There is a
+sharp inferior limit to the numbers of ridges, because they cannot be less
+than 0, but independently of this, we notice the infrequency of small
+numbers as well as of large ones. There is no strict limit to the latter,
+but the trend of the entries shows that forty, say, or more ridges in AH
+are practically impossible. Therefore, in no individual case can the
+number of ridges in AH depart very widely from seven, eight, or nine,
+though the range of possible departures is not sharply defined, except at
+the lower limit of 0. The range of variation is _not_ "rounded off," to
+use a common but very inaccurate expression often applied to the way in
+which genera are isolated. The range of possible departures is not defined
+by any rigid boundary, but the rarity of the stragglers rapidly increases
+with the distance at which they are found, until no more of them are met
+with.
+
+The values of KL/NB and of AN/AH run in a less orderly sequence, but
+concur distinctly in telling a similar tale. Considering the paucity of
+the observations, there is nothing in these results to contradict the
+expectation of increased regularity, should a large addition be made to
+their number.
+
+TABLE XXXI.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |      | No. of cases ||       | No. of cases ||       | No. of cases |
+  |      |   reduced    ||       |   reduced    ||       |   reduced    |
+  |No. of| to per cents.||   KL  | to per cents.||   AN  | to per cents.|
+  |ridges|--------------||   --  |--------------||   --  |--------------|
+  |in AH.| Right.| Left.||   NB  | Right.| Left.||   AH  | Right.| Left.|
+  |      |-------|------||       |-------|------||       |-------|------|
+  |      |  171  |  166 ||       |  149  |  140 ||       |  176  |  163 |
+  |      | cases.| cases||       | cases.| cases||       | cases | cases|
+  |------|-------|------||-------|-------|------||-------|-------|------|
+  |   1  |    1  |  ... ||0.3-0.4|    3  |    2 ||0.1-0.2|    2  |    1 |
+  |   2  |    2  |    1 ||0.5-0.6|    8  |   11 ||0.3-0.4|    7  |    3 |
+  |   3  |    2  |    3 ||0.7-0.8|    9  |   14 ||0.5-0.6|   11  |    3 |
+  |   4  |    2  |    5 ||0.9-1.0|   21  |   18 ||0.7-0.8|    9  |    9 |
+  |   5  |    3  |    5 ||1.1-1.2|   16  |   23 ||0.9-1.0|   22  |   15 |
+  |   6  |    4  |   18 ||1.3-1.4|   24  |    7 ||1.1-1.2|   15  |   13 |
+  |   7  |    8  |   14 ||1.5-1.6|    8  |   10 ||1.3-1.4|   12  |   12 |
+  |   8  |    8  |   16 ||1.7-1.8|    3  |    6 ||1.5-1.6|   11  |   14 |
+  |   9  |   11  |   10 ||1.9-2.0|    5  |    6 ||1.7-1.8|    8  |   10 |
+  |  10  |    9  |    8 ||2.1-2.2|    1  |    1 ||1.9-2.0|    1  |    5 |
+  |  11  |   14  |   10 || above |    2  |    2 ||2.1-2.2|  ...  |  ... |
+  |  12  |   11  |    8 ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2.3-2.4|    1  |    6 |
+  |  13  |   10  |    2 ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2.5-2.6|  ...  |    4 |
+  |  14  |    7  |  ... ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2.7-2.8|  ...  |    3 |
+  |  15  |    6  |  ... ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... ||2.9-3.0|  ...  |    1 |
+  |above |    2  |  ... ||  ...  |  ...  |  ... || above |    1  |    1 |
+  |      |-------|------||       |-------|------||       |-------|------|
+  |      |  100  |  100 ||       |  100  |  100 ||       |  100  |  100 |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXXII.
+
+  +---------------------------------------------+
+  |           |Ordinates to the six schemes of  |
+  |           |Distribution, being the ordinates|
+  |           |drawn from the base of each      |
+  |           |scheme at selected centesimal    |
+  |           |divisions of the base.           |
+  | Abscissae |---------------------------------|
+  | reckoned  |                                 |
+  | in        |     No. of ridges in AH.        |
+  | centesimal|                                 |
+  | parts of  |---------------------------------|
+  | the       |     Right.     |     Left.      |
+  | interval  |----------------|----------------|
+  | between   |  O  |Calculated|  O  |Calculated|
+  | the limits|  b  |from      |  b  |from      |
+  | of the    |  s  |M=10.4    |  s  |M=7.8     |
+  | scheme.   |  e  |p.e.=2.3  |  e  |p.e.=1.9  |
+  | 0 deg. to |  r  |          |  r  |          |
+  | 100 deg.  |  v  |          |  v  |          |
+  |           |  e  |          |  e  |          |
+  |           |  d  |          |  d  |          |
+  |-----------|-----|----------|-----|----------|
+  |   5       | 3.8 |    4.8   | 3.8 |   3.2    |
+  |     10    | 5.5 |    6.0   | 4.8 |   4.2    |
+  |     20    | 7.3 |    7.5   | 5.8 |   5.4    |
+  |  25       | 7.9 |    8.1   | 6.1 |   5.9    |
+  |     30    | 8.5 |    8.6   | 6.4 |   6.3    |
+  |     40    | 9.5 |    9.5   | 7.1 |   7.4    |
+  |     50    |10.5 |   10.4   | 7.8 |   7.8    |
+  |     60    |11.3 |   11.3   | 8.4 |   8.2    |
+  |     70    |12.1 |   12.2   | 9.3 |   9.3    |
+  |  75       |12.5 |   12.7   | 9.9 |   9.7    |
+  |     80    |13.0 |   13.3   |11.0 |  10.2    |
+  |     90    |14.3 |   14.8   |11.5 |  11.4    |
+  |  95       |15.0 |   16.0   |12.2 |  12.2    |
+  +---------------------------------------------+
+
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                   KL            ||                  AN              |
+  |         Values of --            ||        Values of --              |
+  |                   NB            ||                  AH              |
+  |---------------------------------||----------------------------------|
+  |     Right.     |     Left.      ||     Right.     |     Left.       |
+  |----------------|----------------||----------------|-----------------|
+  |  O  |Calculated|  O  |Calculated||  O  |Calculated|  O  |Calculated |
+  |  b  |from      |  b  |from      ||  b  |from      |  b  |from       |
+  |  s  |M=1.15    |  s  |M=1.10    ||  s  |M=1.08    |  s  |M=1.36     |
+  |  e  |p.e.=0.25 |  e  |p.e.=0.31 ||  e  |p.e.=0.30 |  e  |p.e.=0.36  |
+  |  r  |          |  r  |          ||  r  |          |  r  |           |
+  |  v  |          |  v  |          ||  v  |          |  v  |           |
+  |  e  |          |  e  |          ||  e  |          |  e  |           |
+  |  d  |          |  d  |          ||  d  |          |  d  |           |
+  |-----|----------|-----|----------||-----|----------|-----|-----------|
+  |0.54 |   0.54   |0.49 |   0.35   ||0.36 |  0.32    |0.58 |   0.48    |
+  |0.64 |   0.67   |0.59 |   0.51   ||0.50 |  0.48    |0.74 |   0.68    |
+  |0.85 |   0.84   |0.78 |   0.71   ||0.66 |  0.67    |0.96 |   0.91    |
+  |0.91 |   0.90   |0.83 |   0.79   ||0.79 |  0.75    |1.00 |   l.00    |
+  |0.99 |   0.95   |0.89 |   0.86   ||0.87 |  0.82    |1.04 |   1.08    |
+  |1.05 |   1.05   |1.00 |   0.98   ||0.98 |  0.93    |1.21 |   1.22    |
+  |1.15 |   1.15   |1.10 |   1.10   ||1.04 |  1.05    |1.37 |   1.36    |
+  |1.29 |   1.25   |1.18 |   1.22   ||1.18 |  1.17    |1.48 |   1.50    |
+  |1.33 |   1.35   |1.32 |   1.34   ||1.31 |  1.28    |1.66 |   1.64    |
+  |1.41 |   1.40   |1.46 |   1.41   ||1.39 |  1.35    |1.73 |   1.72    |
+  |1.45 |   1.46   |1.53 |   1.49   ||1.48 |  1.43    |1.90 |   2.81    |
+  |1.77 |   1.63   |1.73 |   1.69   ||1.69 |  1.62    |2.23 |   2.04    |
+  |2.00 |   1.76   |1.80 |   1.85   ||1.81 |  1.78    |2.48 |   2.24    |
+  +---------------------------------------------------------------------+
+
+TABLE XXXIII.
+
+  +-------------------------------------------------------
+  |            | Ordinates to the six curves of          |
+  |            | distribution, drawn from the axis of    |
+  |            | each curve at selected centesimal       |
+  |            | divisions of it.                        |
+  |            |                                         |
+  |            | They are here reduced to a common       |
+  |            | measure, by dividing the observed       |
+  |            | deviations in each series by the        |
+  |Abscissae   | probable error appropriate to the       |
+  |reckoned in | series, and multiplying by 100. For the |
+  |centesimal  | values of M, whence the deviations are  |
+  |parts of the| measured, and for those of the          |
+  |interval    | corresponding probable error, see the   |
+  |between the | headings to the columns in Table II.    |
+  |limits of   |-----------------------------------------|
+  |the curve.  |    No. of   |          KL |          AN |
+  |0 deg.to100deg. |    Ridges   |Values of -- |Values of -- |
+  |            |    in AH.   |          NB |          AH |
+  |            |-------------|-------------|-------------|
+  |            |Right.| Left.|Right.| Left.|Right.| Left.|
+  |------------|------|------|------|------|-------------|
+  |     5      | -291 | -211 | -244 | -196 | -230 | -217 |
+  |         10 | -213 | -158 | -204 | -164 | -183 | -172 |
+  |         20 | -135 | -105 | -120 | -103 | -130 | -111 |
+  |(P) 25      | -109 | - 84 | - 92 | - 87 | - 87 | -100 |
+  |         30 | - 83 | - 74 | - 64 | - 68 | - 60 | - 89 |
+  |         40 | - 44 | - 37 | - 44 | - 31 | - 23 | - 42 |
+  |(M) 50      | +  4 |    0 |    0 |    0 |    0 |    0 |
+  |         60 | + 39 | + 31 | + 56 | + 23 | + 43 | + 33 |
+  |         70 | + 74 | + 79 | + 72 | + 68 | + 87 | + 83 |
+  |(Q) 75      | + 91 | +116 | +104 | +116 | +113 | +103 |
+  |         80 | +113 | +168 | +120 | +138 | +143 | +150 |
+  |         90 | +170 | +200 | +248 | +203 | +213 | +242 |
+  |    95      | +200 | +231 | +340 | +225 | +253 | +311 |
+  +-------------------------------------------------------
+
+  -------------------------------------+
+  |                  |                 |
+  |     Observed.    |   Calculated.   |
+  |------------------|-----------------|
+  |   Mean of the    |                 |
+  |  corresponding   |                 |
+  |   ordinates in   |                 |
+  |  the six curves  |                 |
+  |  after reduction |                 |
+  |   to the common  |   Ordinates to  |
+  |     scale of     | the normal curve|
+  |   p.e. = 100.    | of distribution,|
+  | 965 observations | probable error  |
+  |     in all.      |      = 100.     |
+  |------------------|-----------------|
+  |      -231        |       -244      |
+  |      -182        |       -190      |
+  |      -117        |       -125      |
+  |      - 93        |       -100      |
+  |      - 73        |       - 78      |
+  |      - 37        |       - 38      |
+  |      +  1        |          0      |
+  |      + 38        |       + 38      |
+  |      + 77        |       + 78      |
+  |      +107        |       +100      |
+  |      +139        |       +125      |
+  |      +213        |       +190      |
+  |      +260        |       +244      |
+  -------------------------------------+
+
+Table XXXII. is derived from Table XXXI. by a process described by myself
+in many publications, more especially in _Natural Inheritance_, and will
+now be assumed as understood. Each of the six pairs of columns contain,
+side by side, the Observed and Calculated values of one of the six series,
+the data on which the calculations were made being also entered at the
+top. The calculated figures agree with the observed ones very respectably
+throughout, as can be judged even by those who are ignorant of the
+principles of the method. Let us take the value that 10 per cent of each
+of the six series falls short of, and 90 per cent exceed; they are entered
+in the line opposite 10; we find for the six pairs successively,
+
+  _Obs._:  5.5   4.8   0.64   0.59   0.50   0.74
+
+  _Calc._: 6.0   4.2   0.67   0.51   0.48   0.68
+
+The correspondence between the more mediocre cases is much closer than
+these, and very much closer than between the extreme cases given in the
+table, namely, the values that 5 per cent fall short of, and 95 exceed.
+These are of course less regular, the observed instances being very few;
+but even here the observations are found to agree respectably well with
+the proportions given by calculation, which is necessarily based upon the
+supposition of an infinite number of cases having been included in the
+series.
+
+As the want of agreement between calculation and observation must be
+caused in part by the paucity of observations, it is worth while to make
+a larger group, by throwing the six series together, as in Table XXXIII.,
+making a grand total of 965 observations. Their value is not so great as
+if they were observations taken from that number of different persons,
+still they are equivalent to a large increase of those already discussed.
+The six series of observed values were made comparable on equal terms by
+first reducing them to a uniform PE and then by assigning to M, the point
+of departure, the value of 0. The results are given in the last column but
+one, where the orderly run of the observed data is much more conspicuous
+than it was before. Though there is an obvious want of exact symmetry in
+the observed values, their general accord with those of the calculated
+values is very fair. It is quite close enough to establish the general
+proposition, that we are justified in the conception of a typical form of
+loop, different for the two thumbs; the departure from the typical form
+being usually small, sometimes rather greater, and rarely greater still.
+
+I do not see my way to discuss the variations of the arches, because they
+possess no distinct points of reference. But their general appearance does
+not give the impression of clustering around a typical centre. They
+suggest the idea of a fountain-head, whose stream begins to broaden out
+from the first.
+
+As regards other patterns, I have made many measurements altogether, but
+the specimens of each sort were comparatively few, except in whorled
+patterns. In all cases where I was able to form a well-founded opinion,
+the existence of a typical centre was indicated.
+
+It would be tedious to enumerate the many different trials made for my own
+satisfaction, to gain assurance that the variability of the several
+patterns is really of the quasi-normal kind just described. In the first
+trial I measured in various ways the dimensions of about 500 enlarged
+photographs of loops, and about as many of other patterns, and found that
+the measurements in each and every case formed a quasi-normal series. I do
+not care to submit these results, because they necessitate more
+explanation and analysis than the interest of the corrected results would
+perhaps justify, to eliminate from them the effect of variety of size of
+thumb, and some other uncertainties. Those measurements referred to some
+children, a few women, many youths, and a fair number of adults; and
+allowance has to be made for variability in stature in each of these
+classes.
+
+The proportions of a typical loop on the thumb are easily ascertained if
+we may assume that the most frequent values of its variable elements,
+taken separately, are the same as those that enter into the most frequent
+combination of the elements taken collectively. This would necessarily be
+true if the variability of each element separately, and that of the sum of
+them in combination, were all strictly normal, but as they are only
+quasi-normal, the assumption must be tested. I have done so by making the
+comparisons (_A_) and (_B_) shown in Table XXXIV., which come out
+correctly to within the first decimal place.
+
+TABLE XXXIV.
+
+  +------------------------------------------------------+
+  |                                        |Right | Left |
+  |                                        |Thumb.|Thumb.|
+  |----------------------------------------|------|------|
+  |(_a_)  Median of all the values of KL   | 12.5 | 10.1 |
+  |(_b_)  Median of all the values of NB   | 10.1 |  8.9 |
+  |                                        |------|------|
+  |(_A_)  Value of _a/b_                   |  1.24|  1.11|
+  |(_A_)  Median of all the fractions KL/NB|  1.15|  1.10|
+  |========================================|======|======|
+  |(_c_)  Median of all the values of AN   |  4.6 |  4.6 |
+  |(_d_)  Median of all the values of AH   |  4.4 |  3.3 |
+  |                                        |------|------|
+  |(_B_)  Value of _c/d_                   |  1.05|  1.40|
+  |(_B_)  Median of all the fractions AN/AH|  1.08|  1.36|
+  +------------------------------------------------------+
+
+It has been shown that the patterns are hereditary, and we have seen that
+they are uncorrelated with race or temperament or any other noticeable
+peculiarity, inasmuch as groups of very different classes are alike in
+their finger marks. They cannot exercise the slightest influence on
+marriage selection, the very existence both of the ridges and of the
+patterns having been almost overlooked; they are too small to attract
+attention, or to be thought worthy of notice. We therefore possess a
+perfect instance of promiscuity in marriage, or, as it is now called,
+panmixia, in respect to these patterns. We might consequently have
+expected them to be hybridised. But that is not the case; they _refuse to
+blend_. Their classes are as clearly separated as those of any of the
+genera of plants and animals. They keep pure and distinct, as if they had
+severally descended from a thorough-bred ancestry, each in respect to its
+own peculiar character.
+
+As regards other forms of natural selection, we know that races are kept
+pure by the much more frequent destruction of those individuals who depart
+the more widely from the typical centre. But natural selection was shown
+to be inoperative in respect to individual varieties of patterns, and
+unable to exercise the slightest check upon their vagaries. Yet, for all
+that, the loops and other classes of patterns are isolated from one
+another just as thoroughly and just in the same way as are the genera or
+species of plants and animals. There is no statistical difference between
+the form of the law of distribution of individual Loops about their
+respective typical centres, and that of the law by which, say, the Shrimps
+described in Mr. Weldon's recent memoirs (_Proc. Roy. Soc._, 1891 and
+1892) are distributed about theirs. In both cases the distribution is in
+quasi-accordance with the theoretical law of Frequency of Error, this form
+of distribution being entirely caused in the patterns, by _internal_
+conditions, and in no way by natural selection in the ordinary sense of
+that term.
+
+It is impossible not to recognise the fact so clearly illustrated by these
+patterns in the thumbs, that natural selection has no monopoly of
+influence in the construction of genera, but that it could be wholly
+dispensed with, the internal conditions acting by themselves being
+sufficient. When the internal conditions are in harmony with the external
+ones, as they appear to be in all long-established races, their joint
+effects will curb individual variability more tightly than either could do
+by itself. The normal character of the distribution about the typical
+centre will not be thereby interfered with. The probable divergence (=
+probable error) of an individual taken at random, will be lessened, and
+that is all.
+
+Not only is it impossible to substantiate a claim for natural selection,
+that it is the sole agent in forming genera, but it seems, from the
+experience of artificial selection, that it is scarcely competent to do so
+by favouring mere _varieties_, in the sense in which I understand the
+term.
+
+My contention is that it acts by favouring small _sports_. Mere varieties
+from a common typical centre blend freely in the offspring, and the
+offspring of every race whose _statistical_ characters are constant,
+necessarily tend, as I have often shown, to regress towards their common
+typical centre. Sports, on the other hand, do not blend freely; they are
+fresh typical centres or sub-species, which suddenly arise we do not yet
+know precisely through what uncommon concurrence of circumstance, and
+which observations show to be strongly transmissible by inheritance.
+
+A mere variety can never establish a sticking-point in the forward course
+of evolution, but each new sport affords one. A substantial change of type
+is effected, as I conceive, by a succession of small changes of typical
+centre, each more or less stable, and each being in its turn favoured and
+established by natural selection, to the exclusion of its competitors. The
+distinction between a mere variety and a sport is real and fundamental. I
+argued this point in _Natural Inheritance_, but had then to draw my
+illustrations from non-physiological experiences, no appropriate
+physiological ones being then at hand: this want is now excellently
+supplied by observations of the patterns on the digits.
+
+
+
+
+INDEX
+
+
+  AH, number of ridges in, 200
+
+  Allix, 60
+
+  A. L. W. system, 80
+
+  Ambiguities in minutiae, 91, 111
+
+  America, 163
+
+  Anthropometric laboratory, 4, 35
+
+  Arches, 7, 75, 78;
+    interpretations of, 114, 193
+
+  Artisans, 59
+
+  Artists, 58
+
+  Assyrian bricks, 25
+
+  Atkinson, R. F., 192
+
+  Author, the, finger prints of, 8, 58, 73
+
+  Axis of pattern, 68
+
+
+  Ball for inking, 42
+
+  Ball of thumb, 96
+
+  Basques, 18, 192
+
+  Bearings as by compass, 84
+
+  Beech, Dr. Fletcher, 197
+
+  Benzole, 36, 41
+
+  Bertillon, 2, 15, 154, 169;
+    _Bertillonage_, 155, 164, 167
+
+  Bewick, 26
+
+  Bible, the, 22
+
+  Bifurcations, 91
+
+  Binomial law, 11, 112
+
+  Bird's nest, 34
+
+  Blacklead, 49
+
+  Blood as ink, 45
+
+  Bowditch, H. P., Professor, 47
+
+  British Museum, 25
+
+  Brobdingnags, 1
+
+  Brothers, 171
+
+  Burns of finger, 59
+
+
+  C. set of standard patterns, 177
+
+  Callosities, 59
+
+  Cambo, 18, 192
+
+  Camera lucida, 52, 104
+
+  Cards, 38;
+    keeping in order, 145
+
+  Casts, 49
+
+  Centesimal scale, 12, 17, 124, 129, 182
+
+  Cheiromancy, 1, 26;
+    creases, 56
+
+  Chequer-work, 106
+
+  Chess board, 106
+
+  Chinese deed, 24;
+    money, 25;
+    cheiromancy, 26;
+    registration of Chinese, 26, 152
+
+  Cicatrix, 59
+
+  Circular patterns, optical illusion, 77
+
+  Collins, F. H., 17, 21, 177, 190, 193
+
+  Collodion, 51
+
+  Colour-blindness, 71
+
+  Comparison of prints, 90, 167
+
+  Compass bearings, 84
+
+  Compasses, test by the points of, 61
+
+  Copper sheeting for inking, 42;
+    for smoking, 48
+
+  Cores, 6, 76, 145
+
+  Correlation, 158
+
+  Couplets of digits, 119;
+    of A and B brothers, 172
+
+  Creases, 1, 56;
+    in infant, 57
+
+  Criminals, 149
+
+  Crosse, Dr., 192
+
+  Cylinder, revolving, 49
+
+
+  Dabs by the finger, 40, 90, 153
+
+  Darenth Asylum, 19, 197
+
+  Demography, Congress of, 163
+
+  Deserters, 149, 164
+
+  Development, 58
+
+  Digits, peculiarities of, 114
+
+  Direction of twist, 78
+
+  Divergence of ridges, 68
+
+  Drawing master, 48
+
+  Ducts, 57
+
+  Dyes, 44
+
+
+  Ear-marking the A, B sets of brothers, 172
+
+  Embryology, 58
+
+  Enclosures within ridges, 92
+
+  English, the, 17, 192
+
+  Enlargements, 51
+
+  Envelopes to rods or staples, 76
+
+  Error, law of, 19, 198;
+    "probable," 199
+
+  EVIDENTIAL VALUE, Chap. VII., 100
+
+  Evolution, 20, 60
+
+  Eyes in patterns, 143
+
+
+  Fauld, Mr., 26
+
+  Feet, prints of, 45;
+    ridges on, 57, 58
+
+  Fere, M., 197
+
+  Ferris, Major, 149
+
+  Ferro-prussiate process, 51, 53, 90
+
+  File, 63
+
+  Flexure, lines of, in palm, 56
+
+  Focus of eye, range of, 72
+
+  Folders;--inked, 42;
+    smoked, 48
+
+  Foot-paths, 107
+
+  Forgeot, Dr., 46
+
+  Forks, 91
+
+  Fraternity, 16, 171
+
+  Frequency of error, law of, 19, 198
+
+  Funnel, 36
+
+  Furrows, not followed, 82
+
+
+  G----, Sir W., 89, 97
+
+  GENERA, Chap. XIII., 198;
+    the nine chief genera, 6, 80
+
+  Glass, temporary prints on, 30;
+    etched, 47;
+    for lantern, 51
+
+  Glue, 48
+
+  Goldie, Sir G. T., 192
+
+  Granulations on rollers, 34
+
+  Greenleaf, Col. C. R., 164
+
+  Gulliver, 1
+
+  Gum, 48
+
+  Gutta-percha, 50
+
+
+  Hand, 23, 45
+
+  Harrild, Messrs., 36, 41
+
+  Hawksley, 42
+
+  Haycraft, Dr. J. B., 51
+
+  Head-length and breadth, 158
+
+  Hebrews, 18, 192, 194
+
+  Herbette, M., 168
+
+  HEREDITY, Chap. XI., 170;
+    _see also_ 16
+
+  Herschel, Sir W. J., 4, 9, 27;
+    instructions for printing, 45;
+    data for persistence, 89;
+    right fore-finger of, 95;
+    official experience, 27, 149, 153
+
+  Hindoos, 152
+
+
+  I (or Inner side), 70
+
+  Identification, 147;
+    _see_ Jezebel, 113
+
+  Idiots, 8, 19, 59, 197
+
+  Illusion, 66, 77
+
+  Indexing, power of, 14, 139, 167;
+    methods of, 131;
+    specimen of, 133;
+    search in, 166
+
+  India-rubber for roller, 40
+
+  Ink, printer's, 37;
+    for stamp, 45
+
+  Inner side, 70
+
+  Interpolation of ridges, 102, 104
+
+  Interspace, 54, 67
+
+  Interval, equally discernible, 65, 101
+
+  Islands, 92
+
+
+  Japan, 23, 26
+
+  Jews, 18, 192, 194
+
+  Jezebel, 113
+
+
+  Kensington, S., my laboratory at, 4, 35
+
+  Klaatsch, Dr. H., 60
+
+  Kollmann, Dr. A., 58
+
+
+  Labels, gummed, as for luggage, 48
+
+  Laboratory, anthropometric, 4, 35
+
+  Labourers, 59, 197
+
+  Lace, 9, 98
+
+  Ladies' hands, ridges on, 32
+
+  Language, inadequacy of, 172
+
+  Lankester, Prof. Ray, 45
+
+  Left and right, 70
+
+  Lenses, 72
+
+  Letters, alike when reversed, 71
+
+  Licked paper, 48
+
+  Linen-tester (lens), 73
+
+  Linseed oil, 37
+
+  Litharge, 35
+
+  Lithography, 43
+
+  Loops, 7, 75, 78;
+    predominance of, 101;
+    relationships of, 184;
+    on thumbs, 200;
+    typical shape of, 207
+
+  Lying Bob, 27
+
+  Lyon, 155
+
+
+  Mammalia, 60
+
+  Marseille, 155
+
+  Measurement of patterns, 82
+
+  Memoirs by the author, 3
+
+  METHODS OF INDEXING, Chap. IX., 131
+
+  METHODS OF PRINTING, Chap. III., 30
+
+  Mica, 47, 51
+
+  Minutiae, 54;
+    ambiguities in, 91, 99
+
+  Monkey pattern, 18, 54, 77;
+    ridges on tail, 60;
+    Purkenje on, 86, 88;
+    stuffed, 97
+
+  Morgue, 148;
+    _see_ Jezebel, 113
+
+  Mould for casting rollers, 40
+
+  Mountain ranges, 32
+
+  Mucilage, 48
+
+  Mummies, ridges still visible, 97
+
+
+  Nail-marks, 25, 67
+
+  Natural selection, 20, 210
+
+  Negro, 18, 192, 195;
+    cheiromancy, 26
+
+  Ngeu-yang-siun, 25
+
+  Notes, musical, 63
+
+
+  Oil, oxidisation of, 34, 43;
+    for ink, 37
+
+  Orientation, 68
+
+  Outer side, 70
+
+  Outlines, 6, 69;
+    followed with a point, 74
+
+  Overtones, 63
+
+
+  Pacinian bodies, 60
+
+  Pad for stamp, 32, 44;
+    of paper, 38
+
+  Palm of the hand, 54, 88, 113
+
+  Palmistry, 1, 26;
+    _see_ Cheiromancy, 56
+
+  Panmixia, 20, 209
+
+  Pantagraph, 52
+
+  Paper in pads, 38;
+    _see_ Cards
+
+  Papillae, 60
+
+  Paraffin, 36
+
+  Paris, 155
+
+  Passports, 15, 149
+
+  Paste, 48
+
+  PATTERNS: THEIR OUTLINES AND CORES, Chap. V., 64;
+    _see also_ 2, 54, 170;
+    number of easily distinguishable patterns, 100;
+    standard, 74, 80;
+    ditto C. set, 177;
+    percentage frequency of, 115
+
+  PECULIARITIES OF THE DIGITS, Chap. VIII., 114
+
+  PERSISTENCE, Chap. VI., 89
+
+  PERSONAL IDENTIFICATION, Chap. X., 147;
+    _see also_ 16, 113;
+    lecture on, 2
+
+  Photographers, 147;
+    photographs, 3, 51
+
+  Plots, triangular, 67, 82
+
+  Plumbago, 49
+
+  Pocket printing apparatus, 40
+
+  Points of reference, 90
+
+  Poole, Mr. S. L., 25
+
+  Pores, 57
+
+  PREVIOUS USE OF FINGER PRINTS, Chap. II., 22
+
+  Printing, the methods of, 30;
+    printer's ink, 35
+
+  Prism, 52, 104
+
+  Purkenje's _Commentatio_, 84;
+    _see also_ 8, 64, 67;
+    on slope of loop, 119
+
+
+  RACES AND CLASSES, Chap. XII., 192;
+    _see also_ 17
+
+  Radial, 70
+
+  Random events, 172;
+    _see also_ 126
+
+  Razor, prints on, 30
+
+  Reconstruction of hidden ridges, 102
+
+  Reeves and Co., 35
+
+  Registration in India, 28, 151
+
+  Regression, 21, 171
+
+  Relationship in fingers, 12, 123;
+    fraternal, 171, 175;
+    in twins, 185;
+    filial, 190;
+    ditto of like-patterned parents, 187;
+    in patterns, 178;
+    paternal and maternal, 190
+
+  Reticulation, 108
+
+  Reversals, 43, 71
+
+  RIDGES AND THEIR USES, Chap. IV., 54;
+    _see also_ low relief of ridges, 32;
+    counting them, 73;
+    ridge-interval, 62:--measurement by, 83;
+    squares of one in the side, 102;
+    of six, 103;
+    of five, 107, 111
+
+  Right and left, 70
+
+  Robinson, Dr. Louis, 45
+
+  Rods, 76
+
+  Rolled prints, 7, 39, 68
+
+  Roller, 36;
+    small, 40
+
+  Royal Institution, 2
+
+
+  Sand, ridges on, 54
+
+  Scars, 59, 97
+
+  Seal, 22;
+    sealing-wax casts, 50
+
+  Seamstresses, 59
+
+  Selection, 20, 209
+
+  Shrimps, 210
+
+  _Signalements_, 156
+
+  Size (glue), 48, 49
+
+  Skin disease on fingers, 122
+
+  Slab, 4, 35, 41
+
+  Slopes, 136;
+    on fore-finger, 118
+
+  Smart, Major Charles, 164
+
+  Smoke-prints, 47
+
+  Snow on mountain ranges, 32
+
+  Soda (washing), 36, 41
+
+  Spielman, Isidore, Mr., 192
+
+  Spirals, 74
+
+  Sports, 20, 211
+
+  Squares (interpolations), 10, 101
+
+  Standard patterns, 74, 76;
+    the C. set, 177
+
+  Staples, 76, 83
+
+  Stereoscope, 9
+
+  Students, in Art and Science, 197
+
+  Surnames, Hindoo and Chinese, 14, 152
+
+  Swift, Dean, 1
+
+  Symbols for patterns, 144
+
+  Systems of ridges on palm, 54
+
+
+  Tables, _see_ list of, p. xiii.
+
+  Tabor, Mr., 26
+
+  Tabulations, 179
+
+  Tang dynasty, 25
+
+  Tattoo marks, 97
+
+  Taylor, T. Meadows, Mr., 24
+
+  Teeth, 166
+
+  Tests of calculated Randoms, 173;
+    of classification, 179
+
+  Thompson, Gilbert, Mr., 27, 44
+
+  Thrills, their relation to notes, 63
+
+  Thumb, loops on, 200;
+    ball of, 96, 98
+
+  _Tipsahi_, 24
+
+  Titchener, E. B., Mr., 62
+
+  Title-page, prints on, 8, 58, 73;
+    index-number to them, 135
+
+  Toes, 57
+
+  Tools, callosities caused by, 59
+
+  Transitional patterns, 79, 143, 178
+
+  Triangular plots, 67, 86, 87
+
+  Turpentine, 36
+
+  Twins, 17, 167, 185
+
+  Twist, direction of, 78
+
+  Type, 19, 198
+
+
+  Ulnar, 70
+
+  United States, system used in, 15, 164
+
+
+  Variation, 20, 211
+
+  Varnish, prints on when undried, 50
+
+  Velvet, 63
+
+
+  Wall-paper, 66
+
+  Water colours, 44
+
+  Wax;--sealing, 50;
+    dentist's, 50
+
+  Weldon, Prof., 210
+
+  Welsh, the, 17, 192
+
+  Wen-teh, the Empress, 25
+
+  Whitening, 49
+
+  Whorls, 7, 75, 78
+
+  Wundt, Professor, laboratory at Leipzig, 62
+
+
+THE END
+
+
+_Printed by_ R. & R. CLARK, _Edinburgh_.
+
+
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+[1] _Der Tastapparat der Hand der menschlichen Rassen und der Affen._ Dr.
+Arthur Kollmann. Leopold Voss, Leipzig, 1883. He has also published a more
+recent memoir.
+
+[2] "Morphologie der Tastballen der Saugethiere," _Jahrbuch_, xiv. p. 407.
+Leipzig, 1888.
+
+[3] _Ann. Sc. Nat._, 5th series, vol. ix. 1868.
+
+[4] The Latin is obscure. "Mira vallecularum tangentium in interna parte
+manus pedisque ... dispositio flexuraque attentionem ... in se trahit."
+There are three ways of translating "tangentium," and none of them makes
+good sense. In the index of prints he uses the phrase "vallecularum
+tactui." It would seem that he looked upon the furrows, and not the
+ridges, as the special seat of touch.
+
+[5] The results arrived at by M. Fere in a Memoir (_Comptes Rendus, Soc.
+Biologie_, July 2, 1891; Masson, 120 Boulevard St. Germain, Paris) may be
+collated with mine. The Memoir is partly a review of my paper in the
+_Phil. Trans._, and contains many observations of his own. His data are
+derived from epileptics and others mentally affected. He has, by the way,
+curiously misinterpreted my views about symmetry.
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's Notes:
+
+Passages in italics are indicated by _italics_.
+
+Superscripted characters are indicated by {superscript}.
+
+Subscripted characters are indicated by =subscript=.
+
+Characters in smaller font are indicated by ~small~.
+
+Punctuation has been corrected without note.
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Finger Prints, by Francis Galton
+
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