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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 1
+       "Evangelical Church Conference" to "Fairbairn, Sir William"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2011 [EBook #36735]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10, SL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE EVELYN, JOHN: "He was admitted to the Middle Temple in
+      February 1637, and in May he became a fellow commoner of Balliol
+      College, Oxford." 'he' amended from 'be'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "The supposition that sensation thus rests on a
+      material process of absorption from external bodies naturally led
+      up to the idea that plants and even inorganic substances are
+      precipient, and so to an indistinct recognition of organic life as
+      a scale of intelligence." 'substances' amended from 'subtances'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "The conception of evolution was henceforward
+      irrepressible, and it incessantly reappears, in one shape or
+      another, up to the year 1858, when Charles Darwin and A.R. Wallace
+      published their Theory of Natural Selection." 'irrepressible'
+      amended from 'irrespressible'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "And those of the eighth group are not only
+      unintelligible without the assumption of evolution, but can be
+      proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in some
+      cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires."
+      'unintelligible' amended from 'unin-intelligible'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVORA: "From 1663 to 1665 it was held by the Spaniards. In
+      1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom Pedro, took refuge in Evora;
+      and here was signed the convention of Evora, by which he was
+      banished." 'From' amended from 'Fom'.
+
+    ARTICLE EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR: "From this time until her death
+      (13th May 1885), previously to which she had been a constant
+      invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming children's
+      stories." 'May' amended from 'may'.
+
+    ARTICLE EXAMINATIONS: "In many universities of the United States
+      there is a definite understanding that emoluments shall only be
+      accepted by those needing them." 'In' amended from 'It'.
+
+    ARTICLE EXECUTION: "There may still be imprisonment in England,
+      under the writ--rarely used in practice--ne exeat regno, which
+      issues to prevent a debtor from leaving the kingdom." 'kingdom'
+      amended from 'kindgom'.
+
+    ARTICLE EXECUTION: "Under the German Code of Civil Procedure (Arts.
+      796 et seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer
+      adequate security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the
+      process is called arrest) as a guarantee of payment." 'Procedure'
+      amended from 'Prodecure'.
+
+    ARTICLE EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF: "The Apocalypse is called 1 Esdras,
+      our author 2 Esdras, and Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras, or 3 and 4
+      Esdras." 'Apocalypse' amended from 'Apocalyspe'.
+
+    ARTICLE EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF: "It is difficult to follow its
+      progress clearly, and the account ceases abruptly in. vi. 17-19
+      with the notice of the conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of
+      Judah." 'progress' amended from 'progrees'.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+
+
+  FIRST  edition, published in three    volumes, 1768-1771.
+  SECOND    "        "        ten          "     1777-1784.
+  THIRD     "        "        eighteen     "     1788-1797.
+  FOURTH    "        "        twenty       "     1801-1810.
+  FIFTH     "        "        twenty       "     1815-1817.
+  SIXTH     "        "        twenty       "     1823-1824.
+  SEVENTH   "        "        twenty-one   "     1830-1842.
+  EIGHTH    "        "        twenty-two   "     1853-1860.
+  NINTH     "        "        twenty-five  "     1875-1889.
+  TENTH     "   ninth edition and eleven
+                  supplementary volumes,         1902-1903.
+  ELEVENTH  "  published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT
+
+  in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
+
+  by
+
+  THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
+  of the
+  UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
+
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF
+  ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+  ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+  VOLUME X
+  EVANGELICAL CHURCH to FRANCIS JOSEPH
+
+  New York
+
+  Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
+  342 Madison Avenue
+
+
+  Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
+  by
+  The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.
+
+
+                   VOLUME X, SLICE I
+
+  Evangelical Church Conference to Fairbairn, Sir William
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE     EXPULSION
+  EVANGELICAL UNION                 EXTENSION
+  EVANS, CHRISTMAS                  EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES
+  EVANS, EVAN HERBER                EXTERRITORIALITY
+  EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY         EXTORTION
+  EVANS, SIR JOHN                   EXTRACT
+  EVANS, OLIVER                     EXTRADITION
+  EVANSON, EDWARD                   EXTRADOS
+  EVANSTON                          EXTREME UNCTION
+  EVANSVILLE                        EYBESCHÜTZ, JONATHAN
+  EVARISTUS                         EYCK, VAN
+  EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL           EYE (English town)
+  EVE                               EYE (organ)
+  EVECTION                          EYEMOUTH
+  EVELETH                           EYLAU
+  EVELYN, JOHN                      EYRA
+  EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN            EYRE, EDWARD JOHN
+  EVEREST, SIR GEORGE               EYRE, SIR JAMES
+  EVEREST, MOUNT                    EYRIE
+  EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL           EZEKIEL
+  EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL          EZRA
+  EVERETT, EDWARD                   EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF
+  EVERETT (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)   EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF
+  EVERETT (Washington, U.S.A.)      EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF
+  EVERGLADES                        EZZO
+  EVERGREEN                         EZZOLIED
+  EVERLASTING                       F
+  EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE    FABBRONI, ANGELO
+  EVESHAM                           FABER
+  EVIDENCE                          FABER, BASIL
+  EVIL EYE                          FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM
+  EVOLUTION                         FABER, JACOBUS
+  EVORA                             FABER, JOHANN
+  ÉVREUX                            FABERT, ABRAHAM DE
+  EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON  FABIAN, SAINT
+  EWALD, JOHANNES                   FABIUS
+  EWART, WILLIAM                    FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS
+  EWE                               FABLE
+  EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT           FABLIAU
+  EWING, ALEXANDER                  FABRE, FERDINAND
+  EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR        FABRE D'ÉGLANTINE, FRANÇOIS NAZAIRE
+  EWING, THOMAS                     FABRETTI, RAPHAEL
+  EXAMINATIONS                      FABRIANI, SEVERINO
+  EXARCH                            FABRIANO
+  EXCAMBION                         FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS
+  EXCELLENCY                        FABRICIUS, GEORG
+  EXCHANGE                          FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
+  EXCHEQUER                         FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT
+  EXCISE                            FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN
+  EXCOMMUNICATION                   FABRIZI, NICOLA
+  EXCRETION                         FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL
+  EXECUTION                         FABYAN, ROBERT
+  EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS      FAÇADE
+  EXEDRA                            FACCIOLATI, JACOPO
+  EXELMANS, RENÉ JOSEPH ISIDORE     FACE
+  EXEQUATUR                         FACTION
+  EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS & DUKE OF  FACTOR
+  EXETER (England)                  FACTORY ACTS
+  EXETER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)    FACULA
+  EXETER BOOK                       FACULTY
+  EXHIBITION                        FAED, THOMAS
+  EXHUMATION                        FAENZA
+  EXILARCH                          FAEROE
+  EXILE                             FAESULAE
+  EXILI                             FAFNIR
+  EXMOOR FOREST                     FAGGING
+  EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW            FAGGOT
+  EXMOUTH                           FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES
+  EXODUS, BOOK OF                   FAGUET, ÉMILE
+  EXODUS, THE                       FA-HIEN
+  EXOGAMY                           FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK
+  EXORCISM                          FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL
+  EXORCIST                          FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LÉON CÉSAR
+  EXOTIC                            FAIENCE
+  EXPATRIATION                      FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE
+  EXPERT                            FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANÇOIS
+  EXPLOSIVES                        FAIR
+  EXPRESS                           FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN
+  EXPROPRIATION                     FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM
+
+
+
+
+INITIALS USED IN VOLUME X. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH
+THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
+
+
+A. B. R.
+    ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S.
+      Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
+      on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c.
+
+    Flower.
+
+A. D.
+    AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN.
+
+    Fielding, Henry.
+
+A. F. B.
+    ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.SC.
+      Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.
+
+    Felt.
+
+A. F. P.
+    ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.
+      Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
+      of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
+      of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892;
+      Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under Protector
+      Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.
+
+    Ferrar, Bishop;
+    Fox, Edward;
+    Fox, Richard.
+
+A. G.
+    MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).
+      H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of _The Chronicles of
+      Newgate_; _Secrets of the Prison House_; &c.
+
+    Finger Prints.
+
+A. Go.*
+    REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
+      Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.
+
+    Faber, Basil, Jacobus and Johann;
+    Familists;
+    Farel, G.;
+    Flacius.
+
+A. H.-S.
+    SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.
+      General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.
+
+    Fars;
+    Firuzabad.
+
+A. L.
+    ANDREW LANG.
+      See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.
+
+    Fairy;
+    Family.
+
+A. L. B.
+    ALFRED LYS BALDRY.
+      Art Critic of the _Globe_, 1893-1908. Author of _Modern Mural
+      Decoration_ and biographies of Albert Moore, Sir H. von Herkomer,
+      R.A., Sir J. E. Millais, P.R.A., Marcus Stone, R.A., and G. H.
+      Boughton, R.A.
+
+    Fortuny.
+
+A. N.
+    ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
+      See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
+
+    Falcon;
+    Fieldfare;
+    Finch;
+    Flycatcher;
+    Fowl.
+
+A. S.
+    ARTHUR SMITHELLS, F.R.S.
+      Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. Author of
+      Scientific Papers on Flame and Spectrum Analysis.
+
+    Flame.
+
+A. M. C.
+    AGNES MARY CLERKE.
+      See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.
+
+    Flamsteed.
+
+A. W.
+    ARTHUR WATSON.
+      Secretary in the Academic Department, University of London.
+
+    Examinations (_in part_).
+
+A. W. R.
+    ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
+      Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
+      _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.
+
+    Fixtures;
+    Flat.
+
+A. W. W.
+    ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, D.LITT., LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: WARD, A. W.
+
+    Foote, Samuel;
+    Ford, John.
+
+C. El.
+    SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
+      Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of
+      Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and
+      Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent
+      and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East
+      Africa, 1900-1904.
+
+    Finno-Ugrian.
+
+C. F. B.
+    CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
+      Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the
+      University of Dublin. Author of _Public Finance_; _Commerce of
+      Nations_; _Theory of International Trade_; &c.
+
+Finance.
+
+C. F. C.
+    C. F. CROSS, B.SC. (Lond.), F.C.S. F.I.C.
+      Analytical and Consulting Chemist.
+
+    Fibres.
+
+C. F. R.
+    CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M., PH.D.
+      Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire,
+      U.S.A. Author of _A Story of English Rhyme_; _A History of
+      American Literature_; &c.
+
+    Fiske, John.
+
+C. H. T.*
+    CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M.
+      See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.
+
+    Ezekiel.
+
+C. J.
+    CHARLES JOHNSON, M.A.
+      Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office. Joint Editor of the _Domesday
+      Survey_ for the _Victoria County History: Norfolk_.
+
+    Exchequer (_in part_).
+
+C. J. B. M.
+    CHARLES JOHN BRUCE MARRIOTT, M.A.
+      Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union.
+
+    Football: _Rugby_ (_in part_).
+
+C. J. N. F.
+    CHARLES JAMES NICOL FLEMING.
+      H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department.
+
+    Football: _Rugby_ (_in part_).
+
+C. L. K.
+    CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC., F.S.A.
+      Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
+      Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of
+      London_.
+
+    Fabyan;
+    Fastolf.
+
+C. P. I.
+    SIR COURTENAY PEREGRINE ILBERT, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
+      Clerk of the House of Commons. Chairman of Statute Law Committee.
+      Parliamentary Counsel to the Treasury, 1899-1901. Legal Member of
+      Council of Governor-General of India, 1882-1886; President, 1886.
+      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of
+      Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _The Government of India_;
+      _Legislative Method and Forms_.
+
+    Evidence.
+
+C. W. A.
+    CHARLES WILLIAM ALCOCK. (d. 1907).
+      Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London.
+
+    Football: _Association_ (_in part_).
+
+D. H.
+    DAVID HANNAY.
+      Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
+      History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.
+
+    First of June, Battle of the;
+    Fox, Charles James.
+
+D. Mn.
+    REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
+      Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director
+      of the London Missionary Society.
+
+    Excommunication.
+
+D. N. P.
+    DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
+      Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow.
+      Formerly Superintendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of
+      Physicians, Edinburgh. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University,
+      1884. Author of _Essentials of Human Physiology_; &c.
+
+    Fever.
+
+D. S. M.*
+    DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT.
+      Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author
+      of _Arabic _Papyri of the Bodleian Library_; _Mohammed and the
+      Rise of Islam_; _Cairo, Jerusalem_ and Damascus_.
+
+    Fatimites.
+
+E. B.
+    EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D.
+      Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the _New York Herald_ and the
+      _New York Times_. Author of _Fencing_; _Wilderness Pets_;
+      _Sporting in Nova Scotia_; &c.
+
+    Foil-fencing;
+    Football: _American_ (_in part_).
+
+E. Ca.
+    EGERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A.
+      Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _Schools and Masters of
+      Fence_; &c.
+
+    Fencing.
+
+Ed. C.*
+    THE HON. EDWARD EVAN CHARTERIS.
+      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
+
+    Fair (_in part_).
+
+E. C. B.
+    RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
+      Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
+      Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.
+
+    Fontevrault;
+    Francis of Assisi, St;
+    Francis of Paola, St.
+
+E. C. Q.
+    EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.
+      Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in
+      Celtic, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
+
+    Finn mac Cool.
+
+E. D. R.
+    LIEUT.-COLONEL EMILIUS C. DELMÉ RADCLIFFE.
+      Author of _Falconry: Notes on the Falconidae used in India in
+      Falconry_.
+
+    Falconry.
+
+E. E. A.
+    ERNEST E. AUSTEN.
+      Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South
+      Kensington.
+
+    Flea.
+
+E. E. H.
+    REV. EDWARD EVERETT HALE.
+      See the biographical article: HALE, E. E.
+
+    Everett, Edward.
+
+E. G.
+    EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
+
+    Ewald, Johannes;
+    Fabliau;
+    Fabre, Ferdinand;
+    Feuillet;
+    Finland: _Literature_;
+    FitzGerald, Edward;
+    Flaubert;
+    Flemish Literature;
+    Forssell.
+
+E. H. P.
+    EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A.
+      See the biographical article: PALMER, E. H.
+
+    Firdousi (_in part_).
+
+E. K.
+    EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.
+      Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head
+      of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology,
+      Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, City and Guilds of London
+      Institute. Author of _A Manual of Dyeing_; &c. Editor of _Journal
+      of the Society of Dyers and Colourists_.
+
+    Finishing.
+
+E. M. Ha.
+    ERNEST MAES HARVEY.
+      Partner in Messrs. Allen Harvey & Ross, Bullion Brokers, London.
+
+    Exchange.
+
+E. O.*
+    EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
+      Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
+      Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
+      Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the University of
+      Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
+      Senior Students_.
+
+    Fistula.
+
+E. O. S.
+    EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.INST.M.E.
+      Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President,
+      National Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International Fire
+      Service Council. Author of _Fires and Public Entertainments_; &c.
+
+    Fire and Fire Extinction.
+
+E. Pr.
+    EDGAR PRESTAGE.
+      Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of
+      Manchester. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
+      Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and
+      Lisbon Geographical Society.
+
+    Falcao;
+    Ferreira.
+
+E. Re.
+    ELISÉE RECLUS.
+      See the biographical article: RECLUS, J. J. E.
+
+    Fire.
+
+E. Tn.
+    REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, (d. 1907).
+      Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of
+      the Jesuits in England_.
+
+    Feckenham;
+    Fisher, John.
+
+E. W. H.
+    ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
+      Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge.
+      Stokes Lecturer in Mathematics in the University.
+
+    Fourier's Series.
+
+F. C. C.
+    FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).
+      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
+      College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of
+      Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.
+
+    Extreme Unction.
+
+F. G. P.
+    FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
+      Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
+      Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
+      of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
+      College of Surgeons.
+
+    Eye: _Anatomy_.
+
+F. J. H.
+    FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
+      Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
+      Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of
+      the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History,
+      especially Roman Britain; &c.
+
+    Fosse.
+
+F. J. W.
+    FREDERICK JOSEPH WALL, F.C.S.
+      Secretary to the Football Association.
+
+    Football: _Association_ (_in part_).
+
+F. R. C.
+    FRANK R. CANA.
+      Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.
+
+    France: _Colonies_.
+
+F. S.
+    FRANCIS STORR, M.A.
+      Editor of the _Journal of Education_, London. Officier d'Académie,
+      Paris.
+
+    Fable.
+
+G. A. B.
+    GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.SC., PH.D., F.R.S.
+      In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of
+      Zoology, British Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society
+      of London.
+
+    Flat-fish.
+
+G. A. Be.
+    GEORGE ANDREAS BERRY, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
+      Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Formerly Senior
+      Ophthalmic Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on
+      Ophthalmology in the University of Edinburgh. Vice-President,
+      Ophthalmological Society. Author of _Diseases of the Eye_; _The
+      Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis_; _Subjective Symptoms in
+      Eye Diseases_; &c.
+
+    Eye: _Diseases_.
+
+G. B. A.
+    GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, A.M., B.D., PH.D., LITT.D.
+      Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of _American
+      Historical Review_. Author of _Civilization during the Middle
+      Ages_; _Political History of England_, 1066-1216; &c.
+
+    Feudalism.
+
+G. C. L.
+    GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
+      Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly
+      Editor and Proprietor of the _Melbourne Herald_. Secretary,
+      Colonial Committee of Royal Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900.
+      Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887. Secretary, Royal Commission,
+      Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Commissioners for
+      Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
+      and Melbourne, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1880-1881.
+
+    Exhibition.
+
+G. E.
+    REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
+      Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
+      Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign
+      Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.
+
+    Flanders.
+
+G. F. Z.
+    GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INST.C.E.
+      Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_.
+
+    Flour and Flour Manufacture.
+
+G. G. P.*
+    GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L.
+      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.
+
+    Fishery, Law of.
+
+G. P.
+    GIFFORD PINCHOT, A.M., D.SC., LL.D.
+      Professor of Forestry, Yale University. Formerly Chief Forester,
+      U.S.A. President of the National Conservation Association. Member
+      of the Society of American Foresters, Royal English Arboricultural
+      Society, &c. Author of _The White Pine_; _A Primer of Forestry_;
+      &c.
+
+    Forests and Forestry: _United States_.
+
+G. W. T.
+    REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
+      Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
+      and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
+
+    Fairuzabadi;
+    Fakhr ud-Din Razi;
+    Farabi;
+    Farazdaq.
+
+H. B. S.
+    REV. HENRY BARCLAY SWETE, M.A., D.D., LITT.D.
+      Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge University. Fellow of
+      Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College,
+      London. Fellow of British Academy. Hon. Canon of Ely Cathedral.
+      Author of _The Holy Spirit in the New Testament_; &c.
+
+    Fathers of the Church.
+
+H. Ch.
+    HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
+      Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
+      11th Edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-Editor of the
+      10th edition.
+
+    Forster.
+
+H. De.
+    HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
+      Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
+      _Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta Sanctorum_.
+
+    Fiacre, Saint;
+    Florian, Saint.
+
+H. F. G.
+    HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D.
+      Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of
+      Cambridge. Author of "Amphibia and Reptiles," in the _Cambridge
+      Natural History_.
+
+    Flamingo.
+
+H. L. S.
+    H. LAWRENCE SWINBURNE (d. 1909).
+
+    Flag.
+
+H. St.
+    HENRY STURT, M.A.
+      Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; _Personal
+      Idealism_.
+
+    Fechner;
+    Feuerbach, Ludwig A.
+
+
+H. W. C. D.
+    HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
+      Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
+      College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
+      and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.
+
+    Fitz Neal;
+    Fitz Peter, Geoffrey;
+    Fitz Stephen, William;
+    Fitz Thedmar;
+    Flambard;
+    Florence of Worcester.
+
+H. W. S.
+    H. WICKHAM STEED.
+      Correspondent of _The Times_ at Vienna. Correspondent of _The
+      Times_ at Rome, 1897-1902.
+
+    Fabrizi.
+
+I. A.
+    ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
+      Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of
+      Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author
+      of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the
+      Middle Ages_.
+
+    Exilarch;
+    Eybeschutz.
+
+J. A. C.
+    SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G.
+      See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR JOSEPH A.
+
+    Eyck, Van.
+
+J. A. H.
+    JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.
+      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
+      Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.
+
+    France: _Geology_.
+
+J. A. S.
+    JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A.
+
+    Ficino;
+    Filelfo.
+
+J. B.*
+    JOSEPH BURTON.
+      Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction,
+      Manchester.
+
+    Firebrick (_in part_).
+
+J. B. P.
+    JAMES BELL PETTIGREW, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) (1834-1908).
+      Chandos Professor of Medicine and Anatomy, University of St
+      Andrews, 1875-1908. Author of _Animal Locomotion_; &c.
+
+    Flight and Flying (_in part_).
+
+J. Bt.
+    JAMES BARTLETT.
+      Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
+      &c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects.
+      Member of Institute of Junior Engineers.
+
+    Foundations.
+
+J. C. M.
+    JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK.
+
+    Faraday.
+
+J. E. C. B.
+    JOHN EDWARD COURTENAY BODLEY, M.A.
+      Balliol College, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Institute of
+      France. Author of _France_; _The Coronation of Edward VII._; &c.
+
+    France: _History_, 1870-1910.
+
+J. E. P. W.
+    JOHN EDWARD POWER WALLIS, M.A.
+      Puisne Judge, Madras. Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Inns
+      of Court Reader in Constitutional Law, 1892-1897. Formerly Editor
+      of _State Trials_.
+
+    Extradition.
+
+J. F. St.
+    JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.
+      Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
+      Aramaic. Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
+
+    Exodus, Book of.
+
+J. G. H.
+    JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
+      Author of _Plating and Boiler Making_; _Practical Metal Turning_;
+      &c.
+
+    Forging;
+    Founding.
+
+J. G. R.
+    JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
+      Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer
+      on the English Language, Strassburg University. Author of _History
+      of German Literature_; &c.
+
+    Fouqué, Baron.
+
+J. H. P.*
+    JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. (d. 1908).
+      Formerly Professor of Fine Arts in Catholic University of Dublin.
+      Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Cantor Lecturer, Society of
+      Arts, 1885. Author of _Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork_;
+      _Ancient and Modern Gold and Silversmith's Work_; _The Trajan
+      Column_; &c.
+
+    Fan.
+
+J. Hl. R.
+    JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
+      Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
+      Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
+      Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
+      Pitt_; chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_.
+
+    Fouché.
+
+J. H. R.
+    JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
+      Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family
+      History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c.
+
+    Ferrers: _Family_;
+    Fitzgerald: _Family_.
+
+J. I.
+    JULES ISAAC.
+      Professor of History at the Lycée of Lyons.
+
+    Francis I. of France.
+
+J. K. L.
+    SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D.
+      Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of
+      the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in
+      China, 1856-1859. Mathematical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval
+      College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873; Greenwich, 1873-1885. President,
+      Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884. Honorary Fellow, Gonville
+      and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London.
+      Author of _Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing
+      Winds and Currents_; _Studies in Naval History_; _Sea Fights and
+      Adventures_; &c.
+
+    Farragut;
+    Fitzroy.
+
+J. L. B.
+    JULIAN LEVETT BAKER, F.I.C.
+      Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Examiner in Brewing to the City
+      and Guilds of London Institute, Department of Technology. Hon.
+      Secretary of the Institute of Brewing. Author of _The Brewing
+      Industry_; &c.
+
+    Fermentation.
+
+J. Ma.
+    JOHN MACDONALD.
+
+    Fair (_in part_).
+
+J. M. S.
+    JAMES MONTGOMERY STUART.
+      Author of _The History of Free Trade in Tuscany_; _Reminiscences
+      and Essays_.
+
+    Foscolo.
+
+J. Pa.
+    JAMES PATON, F.L.S.
+      Superintendent of Museums and Art Galleries of Corporation of
+      Glasgow. Assistant in Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh,
+      1861-1876. President of Museums Association of United Kingdom,
+      1896. Editor and part-author of _Scottish National Memorials_,
+      1890.
+
+    Feather (_in part_).
+
+J. P. E.
+    JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHÉMAR ESMEIN.
+      Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
+      of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours
+      élémentaire d'histoire du droit français_; &c.
+
+    France: _Law and Institutions_.
+
+J. R. C.
+    JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.
+      Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy,
+      Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's
+      _Theory of Heat_.
+
+    Fluorescence.
+
+J. R. F.*
+    JOSEPH R. FISHER.
+      Editor of the _Northern Whig_, Belfast. Author of _Finland and the
+      Tsars_; _Law of the Press_; &c.
+
+    Finland.
+
+J. R. J. J.
+    JULIAN ROBERT JOHN JOCELYN.
+      Colonel, R.A. Formerly Commandant, Ordnance College; Member of
+      Ordnance Committee; Commandant, Schools of Gunnery.
+
+    Fireworks: _History_.
+
+J. S. Bl.
+    REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
+      Assistant Editor, 9th edition, _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Joint
+      Editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. Translated Ritschl's
+      _Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and
+      Reconciliation_.
+
+    Fasting;
+    Feasts and Festivals.
+
+J. S. F.
+    JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC, F.G.S.
+      Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
+      Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
+      Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
+      of London.
+
+    Felsite;
+    Flint.
+
+J. S. K.
+    JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S.. F.S.A. (Scot.).
+      Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of
+      North Star. Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon.
+      Member, Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor
+      of _Statesman's Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_.
+
+    Finland (_in part_);
+    Flinders.
+
+J. T. Be.
+    JOHN T. BEALBY.
+      Joint Author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
+      _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
+      _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.
+
+    Fens;
+    Ferghana (_in part_).
+
+K. S.
+    KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
+      Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_.
+
+    Fiddle;
+    Fife;
+    Flageolet;
+    Flute (_in part_).
+
+L. D.*
+    LOUIS DUCHESNE.
+      See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
+
+    Formosus.
+
+L. F. S.
+    LESLIE FREDERIC SCOTT, M.A., K.C.C.
+      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
+
+    Factor.
+
+L. J.
+    LIEUT.-COLONEL LOUIS CHARLES JACKSON, R.E., C.M.G.
+      Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office.
+      Formerly Instructor in Fortification, R.M.A., Woolwich. Instructor
+      in Fortification and Military Engineering, School of Military
+      Engineering, Chatham
+
+    Fortification and Siegecraft.
+
+L. V.*
+    LUIGI VILLARI.
+      Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper
+      Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
+      Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
+      Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; _Fire and Sword in
+      the Caucasus_; &c.
+
+    Faliero;
+    Fanti, Manfredo;
+    Farini, Luigi Carlo;
+    Farnese: _Family_;
+    Ferdinand I. and IV. of Naples;
+    Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies;
+    Fiesco; Filangieri, C.;
+    Florence;
+    Foscari;
+    Fossombroni;
+    Francis II. of the Two Sicilies;
+    Francis IV. and V. of Modena.
+
+M. Ha.
+    MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.SC, F.L.S.
+      Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of
+      "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_; and papers for various
+      scientific journals.
+
+    Flagellate;
+    Foraminifera.
+
+N. W. T.
+    NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
+      Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding
+      Member of the Société d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought
+      Transference_; _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_; &c.
+
+    Faith Healing;
+    Fetishism;
+    Folklore.
+
+O. H.*
+    OTTO HEHNER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
+      Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts.
+      Vice-President of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
+      Ireland. Author of works on Butter Analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c.
+
+    Food Preservation.
+
+O. M.
+    DAVID ORME MASSON, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S.
+      Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on
+      chemistry in the transactions of various learned societies.
+
+    Fireworks: _Modern_.
+
+P. A.
+    PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDÉRY.
+      Professor of the History of Dogma, École Pratique des Hautes
+      Études, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idées morales chez les
+      hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII^e siècle_.
+
+    Flagellants.
+
+P. A. K.
+    PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
+      See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.
+
+    Ferghana (_in part_);
+    Finland (_in part_).
+
+P. C. Y.
+    PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
+      Magdalen College, Oxford.
+
+    Falkland;
+    Fanshaw;
+    Fawkes, Guy;
+    Fell, John;
+    Fortescue, Sir John.
+
+P. C. M.
+    PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.SC, LL.D.
+      Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
+      Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
+      Professor at Oxford, 1881-1891. Examiner in Zoology to the
+      University of London, 1903. Author of _Outlines of Biology_; &c.
+
+    Evolution.
+
+P. G. K.
+    PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
+      Art Critic of the _Observer_ and the _Daily Mail_. Formerly Editor
+      of _The Artist_. Author of _The Art of Walter Crane_; _Velasquez,
+      Life and Work_; &c.
+
+    Fiorenzo di Lorenzo;
+    Fragonard.
+
+P. J. H.
+    PHILIP JOSEPH HARTOG, M.A., L. ÈS SC. (Paris).
+      Academic Registrar of the University of London. Author of _The
+      Writing of English_, and articles in the Special Reports on
+      educational subjects of the Board of Education.
+
+    Examinations (_in part_).
+
+P. W.
+    PAUL WIRIATH.
+      Director of the École Supérieure Pratique de Commerce et
+      d'Industrie, Paris.
+
+    France: _History to_ 1870.
+
+R. Ad.
+    ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: ADAMSON, R.
+
+    Fichte;
+    Fourier, F. C. M.
+
+R. A. S. M.
+    ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
+      St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
+      Palestine Exploration Fund.
+
+    Font.
+
+R. H. C.
+    REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.).
+      Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford.
+      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of
+      Trinity College, Dublin. Author and Editor of _Book of Enoch_;
+      _Book of Jubilees_; _Apocalypse of Baruch_; _Assumption of Moses_;
+      _Ascension of Isaiah_; _Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs_; &c.
+
+    Ezra: _Third and Fourth Books of_.
+
+
+R. J. M.
+    RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
+      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
+      _St James's Gazette_, London.
+
+    Fenians;
+    Fitzgerald, Lord Edward;
+    Flood, Henry.
+
+R. L.*
+    RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
+      Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
+      Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in
+      British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
+      Africa_; &c.
+
+    Flying-Squirrel; Fox.
+
+R. N. B.
+    ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
+      Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
+      _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
+      1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the
+      Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.
+
+    Fersen, Counts von.
+
+R. Po.
+    RENÉ POUPARDIN, D. ÈS L.
+      Secretary of the École des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the
+      Bibliothèque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence
+      sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_;
+      &c.
+
+    Franche-Comté.
+
+R. P. S.
+    R. PHENÉ SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+      Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy,
+      London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and
+      Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the
+      Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of
+      Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c.
+
+    Flute: _Architecture_.
+
+R. S. C.
+    ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
+      Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
+      of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
+      Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
+      Author of _The Italic Dialects_.
+
+    Falisci.
+
+R. Tr.
+    ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.
+      Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and
+      Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford.
+
+    France: _Statistics_.
+
+S. A. C.
+    STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
+      Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and
+      Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
+      Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University,
+      1904-1908. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws
+      of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old
+      Testament History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.
+
+    Exodus, The;
+    Ezra and Nehemiah, Books of.
+
+S. C.
+    SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: COLVIN, S.
+
+    Fine Arts;
+    Finiguerra;
+    Flaxman.
+
+St C.
+    VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
+      See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF
+
+    Fénelon.
+
+S. E. B.
+    HON. SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D.
+      Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale
+      University. Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the
+      American Bar Association. Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut.
+      Author of _Modern Political Institutions_; _American Railroad
+      Law_; &c.
+
+    Extradition: U.S.A.
+
+S. E. S.-R.
+    STEPHEN EDWARD SPRING-RICE, M.A., C.B. (1856-1902).
+      Formerly Principal Clerk, H.M. Treasury, and Auditor of the Civil
+      List. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+    Exchequer (_in part_).
+
+T. A. I.
+    THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
+      Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+    Explosives: _Law_.
+
+T. As.
+    THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
+      Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly
+      Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897.
+      Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
+      Institute. Author of the _Classical Topography of the Roman
+      Campagna_; &c.
+
+    Faesulae;
+    Falerii;
+    Falerio;
+    Fanum Fortunae;
+    Ferentino;
+    Fermo;
+    Flaminia Via;
+    Florence: _Early History_;
+    Fondi;
+    Fonni;
+    Forum Appii.
+
+T. Ba.
+    SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
+      Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the
+      Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of
+      Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and
+      Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
+
+    Exterritoriality.
+
+T. H. H.*
+    SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.
+      Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys,
+      India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. H.M.
+      Commissioner for the Persia-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
+      Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.
+
+    Everest, Mount.
+
+T. K. C.
+    REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D.
+      See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.
+
+    Eve (_in part_).
+
+T. Se.
+    THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
+      Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
+      of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant
+      Editor of _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1901.
+      Joint-author of _The Bookman History of English Literature_.
+      Author of _The Age of Johnson_; &c.
+
+    Fawcett, Henry.
+
+T. Wo.
+    THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
+      Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
+      College, Dundee.
+
+    Flax.
+
+V. M.
+    VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON.
+      Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels.
+      Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
+
+    Flute (_in part_).
+
+W. A. B. C.
+    REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern).
+      Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
+      St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
+      Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
+      the _Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.
+
+    Feldkirch.
+
+W. A. P.
+    WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
+      Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
+      John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.
+
+    Excellency;
+    Faust;
+    Febronianism.
+
+W. B.*
+    WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
+      Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great
+      Britain. Author of _English Stoneware and Earthenware_; &c.
+
+    Firebrick (_in part_).
+
+W. Ca.
+    WALTER CAMP, A.M.
+      Member of Yale University Council. Author of _American Football_;
+      _Football Facts and Figures_; &c.
+
+    Football: _American_ (_in part_).
+
+W. Ga.
+    WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.SC.
+      Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds. Scientific
+      Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council for the
+      Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln
+      College, Oxford. Author of _The Races and Migrations of the
+      Mackerel_; _The Impoverishment of the Sea_; &c.
+
+    Fisheries.
+
+W. He.
+    WALTER HEPWORTH.
+      Formerly Commissioner of the Council of Education, Science and Art
+      Department, South Kensington.
+
+    Fool.
+
+W. M. R.
+    WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
+      See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
+
+    Ferrari, Gaudenzio;
+    Fielding, Copley;
+    Franceschi, Piero;
+    Francia.
+
+
+W. P. P.
+    WILLIAM PLANE PYCRAFT, F.Z.S.
+      Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum. Formerly
+      Assistant Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford.
+      Vice-President of the Selborne Society. Author of _A History of
+      Birds_; &c.
+
+    Feather (_in part_).
+
+W. N. S.
+    WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S.
+      Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in
+      the University of London. President of Permanent International
+      Meteorological Committee. Member of Meteorological Council,
+      1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fellow of
+      Emmanuel College, 1877-1899; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author
+      of _Text Book of Practical Physics_; &c.
+
+    Fog.
+
+W. P. R.
+    HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
+      Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High
+      Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education,
+      Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long
+      White Cloud, a History of New Zealand_; &c.
+
+    Fox, Sir William.
+
+W. R. S.
+    WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R.
+
+    Eve (_in part_).
+
+W. R. E. H.
+    WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S.
+      Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich.
+      Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich.
+      Part Author of Valentin-Hodgkinson's _Practical Chemistry_; &c.
+
+    Explosives.
+
+W. Sch.
+    SIR WILHELM SCHLICH, K.C.I.E., M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
+      Professor of Forestry at the University of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of
+      St John's College. Author of _A Manual of Forestry_; _Forestry in
+      the United Kingdom_; _The Outlook of the World's Timber Supply_;
+      &c.
+
+    Forests and Forestry.
+
+W. W. F.*
+    WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
+      Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford
+      Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of
+      the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican
+      Period_; &c.
+
+    Fortuna.
+
+W. W. R.*
+    WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC. THEOL.
+      Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
+      New York. Author of _Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von
+      Hessen_.
+
+    Ferrara-Florence, Council of.
+
+
+
+
+Principal Unsigned Articles
+
+  Evil Eye.          Fault.               Fig.         Fontenoy.
+  Excise.            Federal Government.  Filigree.    Foot and Mouth
+  Execution.         Federalist Party.    Fir.           Disease.
+  Executors and      Fehmic Courts.       Fives.       Forest Laws.
+    Administrators.  Felony.              Fleurus.     Forfarshire.
+  Exeter.            Fez.                 Florida.     Forgery.
+  Exile.             Fezzan.              Foix.        Formosa.
+  Eylau.             Fictions.            Fold.        Foundling
+  Famine.            Fife.                Fontenelle.    Hospitals.
+                                                       Fountain.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
+    the final volume.
+
+
+
+
+ENCYCLOPÆDIA BRITANNICA
+
+ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+VOLUME X
+
+
+EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE, a convention of delegates from the
+different Protestant churches of Germany. The conference originated in
+1848, when the general desire for political unity made itself felt in
+the ecclesiastical sphere as well. A preliminary meeting was held at
+Sandhof near Frankfort in June of that year, and on the 21st of
+September some five hundred delegates representing the Lutheran, the
+Reformed, the United and the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg.
+The gathering was known as _Kirchentag_ (church diet), and, while
+leaving each denomination free in respect of constitution, ritual,
+doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act unitedly in
+bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches and in defending
+the rights and liberties of the churches in the federation. The
+organization thus closely resembles that of the Free Church Federation
+in England. The movement exercised considerable influence during the
+middle of the 19th century. Though no _Kirchentag_, as such, has been
+convened since 1871, its place has been taken by the _Kongress für
+innere Mission_, which holds annual meetings in different towns. There
+is also a biennial conference of the evangelical churches held at
+Eisenach to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no
+legislative force.
+
+
+
+
+EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious denomination which originated in the
+suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816-1893), minister of a United
+Secession congregation in Kilmarnock, Scotland, for certain views
+regarding faith, the work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, and the
+extent of the atonement, which were regarded by the supreme court of his
+church as anti-Calvinistic and heretical. Morison was suspended by the
+presbytery in 1841 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession
+Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two other
+ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar opinions, the
+four met at Kilmarnock on the 16th of May 1843 (two days before the
+"Disruption" of the Free Church), and, on the basis of certain doctrinal
+principles, formed themselves into an association under the name of the
+Evangelical Union, "for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and
+otherwise aiding one another, and also for the purpose of training up
+spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and 'pleasure
+of the Lord.'" The doctrinal views of the new denomination gradually
+assumed a more decidedly anti-Calvinistic form, and they began also to
+find many sympathizers among the Congregationalists of Scotland. Nine
+students were expelled from the Congregational Academy for holding
+"Morisonian" doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from
+the Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with the
+Evangelical Union. The Union exercised no jurisdiction over the
+individual churches connected with it, and in this respect adhered to
+the Independent or Congregational form of church government; but those
+congregations which originally were Presbyterian vested their government
+in a body of elders. In 1889 the denomination numbered 93 churches; and
+in 1896, after prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was
+incorporated with the Congregational Union of Scotland.
+
+  See _The Evangelical Union Annual; History of the Evangelical Union_,
+  by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); _The Worthies of the E. U._ (1883); W.
+  Adamson, _Life of Dr James Morison_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born near
+the village of Llandyssul, Cardiganshire, on the 25th of December 1766.
+His father, a shoemaker, died early, and the boy grew up as an
+illiterate farm labourer. At the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a
+Presbyterian minister, David Davies, he was affected by a religious
+revival and learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The
+itinerant Calvinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist
+church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined the
+latter denomination. In 1789 he went into North Wales as a preacher and
+settled for two years in the desolate peninsula of Lleyn,
+Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in Anglesey. Here, on a
+stipend of £17 a year, supplemented by a little tract-selling, he built
+up a strong Baptist community, modelling his organization to some extent
+on that of the Calvinistic Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the
+money being collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South
+Wales.
+
+In 1826 Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where he remained
+for two years, removing in 1828 to Cardiff. In 1832, in response to
+urgent calls from the north, he settled in Carnarvon and again undertook
+the old work of building and collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in
+South Wales, and died at Swansea on the 19th of July 1838. In spite of
+his early disadvantages and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye
+in a youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful
+preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling he united a nimble mind
+and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple, his piety humble and
+his faith fervently evangelical. For a time he came under Sandemanian
+influence, and when the Wesleyans entered Wales he took the Calvinist
+side in the bitter controversies that were frequent from 1800 to 1810.
+His chief characteristic was a vivid and affluent imagination, which
+absorbed and controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the
+name of "the Bunyan of Wales."
+
+  His works were edited by Owen Davies in 3 vols. (Carnarvon,
+  1895-1897). See the _Lives_ by D.R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton Hood
+  (1883).
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born on
+the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near Newcastle Emlyn,
+Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something of the "Rebecca Riots," and
+went to school at the neighbouring village of Llechryd. In 1853 he went
+into business, first at Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year
+made his way to Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied
+arts and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and the
+Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened by the
+religious revival of 1858-1859. In 1862 he succeeded Thomas Jones as
+minister of the Congregational church at Morriston near Swansea. In 1865
+he became pastor of Salem church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied
+for nearly thirty years despite many invitations to English pastorates.
+In 1894 he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor. He
+died on the 30th of December 1896. He was chairman of the Welsh
+Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational Union of England
+and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest ministry, his eloquence and his
+literary work, especially in the denominational paper _Y Dysgedydd_, he
+achieved a position of great influence in his country.
+
+  See _Life_ by H. Elvet Lewis.
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787-1870), British soldier, was born at
+Moig, Limerick, in 1787. He was educated at Woolwich Academy, and
+entered the army in 1806 as a volunteer, obtaining an ensigncy in the
+22nd regiment in 1807. His early service was spent in India, but he
+exchanged into the 3rd Light Dragoons in order to take part in the
+Peninsular War, and was present in the retreat from Burgos in 1812. In
+1813 he was at Vittoria, and was afterwards employed in making a
+military survey of the passes of the Pyrenees. He took part in the
+campaign of 1814, and was present at Pampeluna, the Nive and Toulouse;
+and later in the year he served with great distinction on the staff in
+General Ross's Bladensburg campaign, and took part in the capture of
+Washington and of Baltimore and the operations before New Orleans. He
+returned to England in the spring of 1815, in time to take part in the
+Waterloo campaign as assistant quartermaster-general on Sir T. Picton's
+staff. As a member of the staff of the duke of Wellington he accompanied
+the English army to Paris, and remained there during the occupation of
+the city by the allies. He was still a substantive captain in the 5th
+West India regiment, though a lieutenant-colonel by brevet, when he went
+on half-pay in 1818. In 1830 he was elected M.P. for Rye in the Liberal
+interest; but in the election of 1832 he was an unsuccessful candidate
+both for that borough and for Westminster. For the latter constituency
+he was, however, returned in 1833, and, except in the parliament of
+1841-1846, he continued to represent it till 1865, when he retired from
+political life. His parliamentary duties did not, however, interfere
+with his career as a soldier. In 1835 he went out to Spain in command of
+the Spanish Legion, recruited in England, and 9600 strong, which served
+for two years in the Carlist War on the side of the queen of Spain. In
+spite of great difficulties the legion won great distinction on the
+battlefields of northern Spain, and Evans was able to say that no
+prisoners had been taken from it in action, that it had never lost a gun
+or an equipage, and that it had taken 27 guns and 1100 prisoners from
+the enemy. He received several Spanish orders, and on his return in 1839
+was made a colonel and K.C.B. In 1846 he became major-general; and in
+1854, on the breaking-out of the Crimean War, he was made
+lieutenant-general and appointed to command the 2nd division of the Army
+of the East. At the battle of the Alma, where he received a severe
+wound, his quick comprehension of the features of the combat largely
+contributed to the victory. On the 26th of October he defeated a large
+Russian force which attacked his position on Mount Inkerman. Illness and
+fatigue compelled him a few days after this to leave the command of his
+division in the hands of General Pennefather; but he rose from his
+sick-bed on the day of the battle of Inkerman, the 5th of November, and,
+declining to take the command of his division from Pennefather, aided
+him in the long-protracted struggle by his advice. On his return
+invalided to England in the following February, Evans received the
+thanks of the House of Commons. He was made a G.C.B., and the university
+of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1861 he was promoted
+to the full rank of general. He died in London on the 9th of January
+1870.
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908), English archaeologist and geologist, son of
+the Rev. Dr A.B. Evans, head master of Market Bosworth grammar school,
+was born at Britwell Court, Bucks, on the 17th of November 1823. He was
+for many years head of the extensive paper manufactory of Messrs John
+Dickinson at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, but was especially
+distinguished as an antiquary and numismatist. He was the author of
+three books, standard in their respective departments: _The Coins of the
+Ancient Britons_ (1864); _The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and
+Ornaments of Great Britain_ (1872, 2nd ed. 1897); and _The Ancient
+Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_
+(1881). He also wrote a number of separate papers on archaeological and
+geological subjects--notably the papers on "Flint Implements in the
+Drift" communicated in 1860 and 1862 to _Archaeologia_, the organ of the
+Society of Antiquaries. Of that society he was president from 1885 to
+1892, and he was president of the Numismatic Society from 1874 to the
+time of his death. He also presided over the Geological Society,
+1874-1876; the Anthropological Institute, 1877-1879; the Society of
+Chemical Industry, 1892-1893; the British Association, 1897-1898; and
+for twenty years (1878-1898) he was treasurer of the Royal Society. As
+president of the Society of Antiquaries he was an _ex officio_ trustee
+of the British Museum, and subsequently he became a permanent trustee.
+His academic honours included honorary degrees from several
+universities, and he was a corresponding member of the Institut de
+France. He was created a K.C.B. in 1892. He died at Berkhamsted on the
+31st of May 1908.
+
+His eldest son, ARTHUR JOHN EVANS, born in 1851, was educated at
+Brasenose College, Oxford, and Göttingen. He became fellow of Brasenose
+and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. He travelled in
+Finland and Lapland in 1873-1874, and in 1875 made a special study of
+archaeology and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his
+investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of the
+utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece and the eastern
+Mediterranean (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION AND CRETE). He is a member of all
+the chief archaeological societies in Europe, holds honorary degrees at
+Oxford, Edinburgh and Dublin, and is a fellow of the Royal Society. His
+chief publications are: _Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script_
+(1896); _Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script_ (1898); _The
+Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult_ (1901); _Scripta Minoa_ (1909 foll.);
+and reports on the excavations. He also edited with additions Freeman's
+_History of Sicily_, vol. iv.
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, OLIVER (1755-1819), American mechanician, was born at Newport,
+Delaware, in 1755. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright, and at the age
+of twenty-two he invented a machine for making the card-teeth used in
+carding wool and cotton. In 1780 he became partner with his brothers,
+who were practical millers, and soon introduced various labour-saving
+appliances which both cheapened and improved the processes of
+flour-milling. Turning his attention to the steam engine, he employed
+steam at a relatively high pressure, and the plans of his invention
+which he sent over to England in 1787 and in 1794-1795 are said to have
+been seen by R. Trevithick, whom in that case he anticipated in the
+adoption of the high-pressure principle. He made use of his engine for
+driving mill machinery; and in 1803 he constructed a steam dredging
+machine, which also propelled itself on land. In 1819 a disastrous fire
+broke out in his factory at Pittsburg, and he did not long survive it,
+dying at New York on the 21st of April 1819.
+
+
+
+
+EVANSON, EDWARD (1731-1805), English divine, was born on the 21st of
+April 1731 at Warrington, Lancashire. After graduating at Cambridge
+(Emmanuel College) and taking holy orders, he officiated for several
+years as curate at Mitcham. In 1768 he became vicar of South Mimms near
+Barnet; and in November 1769 he was presented to the rectory of
+Tewkesbury, with which he held also the vicarage of Longdon in
+Worcestershire. In the course of his studies he discovered what he
+thought important variance between the teaching of the Church of England
+and that of the Bible, and he did not conceal his convictions. In
+reading the service he altered or omitted phrases which seemed to him
+untrue, and in reading the Scriptures pointed out errors in the
+translation. A crisis was brought on by his sermon on the resurrection,
+preached at Easter 1771; and in November 1773 a prosecution was
+instituted against him in the consistory court of Gloucester. He was
+charged with "depraving the public worship of God contained in the
+liturgy of the Church of England, asserting the same to be superstitious
+and unchristian, preaching, writing and conversing against the creeds
+and the divinity of our Saviour, and assuming to himself the power of
+making arbitrary alterations in his performance of the public worship."
+A protest was at once signed and published by a large number of his
+parishioners against the prosecution. The case was dismissed on
+technical grounds, but appeals were made to the court of arches and the
+court of delegates. Meanwhile Evanson had made his views generally known
+by several publications. In 1772 appeared anonymously his _Doctrines of
+a Trinity and the Incarnation of God, examined upon the Principles of
+Reason and Common Sense_. This was followed in 1777 by _A Letter to Dr
+Hurd, Bishop of Worcester, wherein the Importance of the Prophecies of
+the New Testament and the Nature of the Grand Apostasy predicted in them
+are particularly and impartially considered_. He also wrote some papers
+on the Sabbath, which brought him into controversy with Joseph
+Priestley, who published the whole discussion (1792). In the same year
+appeared Evanson's work entitled _The Dissonance of the four generally
+received Evangelists_, to which replies were published by Priestley and
+David Simpson (1793). Evanson rejected most of the books of the New
+Testament as forgeries, and of the four gospels he accepted only that of
+St Luke. In his later years he ministered to a Unitarian congregation at
+Lympston, Devonshire. In 1802 he published _Reflections upon the State
+of Religion in Christendom_, in which he attempted to explain and
+illustrate the mysterious foreshadowings of the Apocalypse. This he
+considered the most important of his writings. Shortly before his death
+at Colford, near Crediton, Devonshire, on the 25th of September 1805, he
+completed his _Second Thoughts on the Trinity_, in reply to a work of
+the bishop of Gloucester.
+
+  His sermons (prefaced by a Life by G. Rogers) were published in two
+  volumes in 1807, and were the occasion of T. Falconer's _Bampton
+  Lectures_ in 1811. A narrative of the circumstances which led to the
+  prosecution of Evanson was published by N. Havard, the town-clerk of
+  Tewkesbury, in 1778.
+
+
+
+
+EVANSTON, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the shore of Lake
+Michigan, 12 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 19,259, of whom 4441 were
+foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 24,978. It is served by the Chicago &
+North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by two
+electric lines. The city is an important residential suburb of Chicago.
+In 1908 the Evanston public library had 41,430 volumes. In the city are
+the College of Liberal Arts (1855), the Academy (1860), and the schools
+of music (1895) and engineering (1908) of Northwestern University,
+co-educational, chartered in 1851, opened in 1855, the largest school of
+the Methodist Episcopal Church in America. In 1909-1910 it had
+productive funds amounting to about $7,500,000, and, including all the
+allied schools, a faculty of 418 instructors and 4487 students; its
+schools of medicine (1869), law (1859), pharmacy (1886), commerce (1908)
+and dentistry (1887) are in Chicago. In 1909 its library had 114,869
+volumes and 79,000 pamphlets (exclusive of the libraries of the
+professional schools in Chicago); and the Garrett Biblical Institute had
+a library of 25,671 volumes and 4500 pamphlets. The university maintains
+the Grand Prairie Seminary at Onarga, Iroquois county, and the Elgin
+Academy at Elgin, Kane county. Enjoying the privileges of the
+university, though actually independent of it, are the Garrett Biblical
+Institute (Evanston Theological Seminary), founded in 1855, situated on
+the university campus, and probably the best-endowed Methodist Episcopal
+theological seminary in the United States, and affiliated with the
+Institute, the Norwegian Danish Theological school; and the Swedish
+Theological Seminary, founded at Galesburg in 1870, removed to Evanston
+in 1882, and occupying buildings on the university campus until 1907,
+when it removed to Orrington Avenue and Noyes Street. The Cumnock School
+of Oratory, at Evanston, also co-operates with the university. By the
+charter of the university the sale of intoxicating liquors is forbidden
+within 4 m. of the university campus. The manufacturing importance of
+the city is slight, but is rapidly increasing. The principal
+manufactures are wrought iron and steel pipe, bakers' machinery and
+bricks. In 1905 the value of the factory products was $2,550,529, being
+an increase of 207.3% since 1900. In Evanston are the publishing offices
+of the National Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Evanston was
+incorporated as a town in 1863 and as a village in 1872, and was
+chartered as a city in 1892. The villages of North Evanston and South
+Evanston were annexed to Evanston in 1874 and 1892 respectively.
+
+
+
+
+EVANSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Vanderburg county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., and a port of entry, on the N. bank of the Ohio river, 200 m.
+below Louisville, Kentucky--measuring by the windings of the river,
+which double the direct distance. Pop. (1890) 50,756; (1900) 59,007;
+(1910 census) 69,647. Of the total population in 1900, 5518 were
+negroes, 5626 were foreign-born (including 4380 from Germany and 384
+from England), and 17,419 were of foreign parentage (both parents
+foreign-born), and of these 13,910 were of German parentage. Evansville
+is served by the Evansville & Terre Haute, the Evansville &
+Indianapolis, the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, the
+Louisville, Henderson & St Louis, and the Southern railways, by several
+interurban electric lines, and by river steamboats. The city is situated
+on a plateau above the river, and has a number of fine business and
+public buildings, including the court house and city hall, the Southern
+Indiana hospital for the insane, the United States marine hospital, and
+the Willard library and art gallery, containing in 1908 about 30,000
+volumes. The city's numerous railway connexions and its situation in a
+coal-producing region (there are five mines within the city limits) and
+on the Ohio river, which is navigable nearly all the year, combine to
+make it the principal commercial and manufacturing centre of Southern
+Indiana. It is in a tobacco-growing region, is one of the largest
+hardwood lumber markets in the country, and has an important shipping
+trade in pork, agricultural products, dried fruits, lime and limestone,
+flour and tobacco. Among its manufactures in 1905 were flour and grist
+mill products (value, $2,638,914), furniture ($1,655,246), lumber and
+timber products ($1,229,533), railway cars ($1,118,376), packed meats
+($998,428), woollen and cotton goods, cigars and cigarettes, malt
+liquors, carriages and wagons, leather and canned goods. The value of
+the factory products increased from $12,167,524 in 1900 to $19,201,716
+in 1905, or 57.8%, and in the latter year Evansville ranked third among
+the manufacturing cities in the state. The waterworks are owned and
+operated by the city. First settled about 1812, Evansville was laid out
+in 1817, and was named in honour of Robert Morgan Evans (1783-1844), one
+of its founders, who was an officer under General W.H. Harrison in the
+war of 1812. It soon became a thriving commercial town with an extensive
+river trade, was incorporated in 1819, and received a city charter in
+1847. The completion of the Wabash & Erie Canal, in 1853, from
+Evansville to Toledo, Ohio, a distance of 400 m., greatly accelerated
+the city's growth.
+
+
+
+
+EVARISTUS, fourth pope (c. 98-105), was the immediate successor of
+Clement.
+
+
+
+
+EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL (1818-1901), American lawyer, was born in Boston
+on the 6th of February 1818. He graduated at Yale in 1837, was admitted
+to the bar in New York in 1841, and soon took high rank in his
+profession. In 1860 he was chairman of the New York delegation to the
+Republican national convention. In 1861 he was an unsuccessful candidate
+for the United States senatorship from New York. He was chief counsel
+for President Johnson during the impeachment trial, and from July 1868
+until March 1869 he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1872
+he was counsel for the United States in the "Alabama" arbitration.
+During President Hayes's administration (1877-1881) he was secretary of
+state; and from 1885 to 1891 he was one of the senators from New York.
+As an orator Senator Evarts stood in the foremost rank, and some of his
+best speeches were published. He died in New York on the 28th of
+February 1901.
+
+
+
+
+EVE, the English transcription, through Lat. _Eva_ and Gr. [Greek: Eua],
+of the Hebrew name [Hebrew: Hava] Havvah, given by Adam to his wife
+because she was "mother of all living," or perhaps more strictly, "of
+every group of those connected by female kinship" (see W.R. Smith,
+_Kinship_, 2nd ed., p. 208), as if Eve were the personification of
+mother-kinship, just as Adam ("man") is the personification of mankind.
+
+[The abstract meaning "life" (LXX. [Greek: Zôê]), once favoured by
+Robertson Smith, is at any rate unsuitable in a popular story.
+Wellhausen and Nöldeke would compare the Ar. _hayyatun_, "serpent," and
+the former remarks that, if this is right, the Israelites received their
+first ancestress from the Hivvites (Hivites), who were originally the
+serpent-tribe (_Composition des Hexateuchs_, p. 343; cf. _Reste
+arabischen Heidentums_, 2nd ed., p. 154). Cheyne, too, assumes a common
+origin for Havvah and the Hivvites.]
+
+
+  Creation of Eve.
+
+[The account of the origin of Eve (Gen. iii. 21-23) runs thus: "And
+Yahweh-Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept.
+And he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh in its stead, and
+the rib which Yahweh-Elohim had taken from the man he built up into a
+woman, and he brought her to the man." Enchanted at the sight, the man
+now burst out into elevated, rhythmic speech: "This one," he said, "at
+length is bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh," &c.; to which the
+narrator adds the comment, "Therefore doth a man forsake his father and
+his mother, and cleave to his wife, and they become one flesh (body)."
+Whether this comment implies the existence of the custom of _beena_,
+marriage (W.R. Smith, _Kinship_, 2nd ed., p. 208), seems doubtful. It is
+at least equally possible that the expression "his wife" simply reflects
+the fact that among ordinary Israelites circumstances had quite
+naturally brought about the prevalence of monogamy.[1] What the narrator
+gives is not a doctrine of marriage, much less a precept, but an
+explanation of a simple and natural phenomenon. How is it, he asks, that
+a man is so irresistibly drawn towards a woman? And he answers: Because
+the first woman was built up out of a rib of the first man. At the same
+time it is plain that the already existing tendency towards monogamy
+must have been powerfully assisted by this presentation of Eve's story
+as well as by the prophetic descriptions of Yahweh's relation to Israel
+under the figure of a monogamous union.]
+
+
+  New Testament application.
+
+[The narrator is no rhetorician, and spares us a description of the
+ideal woman. But we know that, for Adam, his strangely produced wife was
+a "help (or helper) matching or corresponding to him"; or, as the
+Authorized Version puts it, "a help meet for him" (ii. 18b). This does
+not, of course, exclude subordination on the part of the woman; what is
+excluded is that exaggeration of natural subordination which the
+narrator may have found both in his own and in the neighbouring
+countries, and which he may have regarded as (together with the pains of
+parturition) the punishment of the woman's transgression (Gen. iii. 16).
+His own ideal of woman seems to have made its way in Palestine by slow
+degrees. An apocryphal book (Tobit viii. 6, 7) seems to contain the only
+reference to the section till we come to the time of Christ, to whom the
+comment in Gen. ii. 24 supplies the text for an authoritative
+prohibition of divorce, which presupposes and sanctifies monogamy (Matt.
+x. 7, 8; Matt. xix. 5). For other New Testament applications of the
+story of Eve see 1 Cor. xi. 8, 9 (especially); 2 Cor. xi. 3; 1 Tim. ii.
+13, 14; and in general cf. ADAM, and _Ency. Biblica_, "Adam and Eve."]
+
+
+  Imaginative or legendary developments.
+
+[The seeming omissions in the Biblical narrative have been filled up by
+imaginative Jewish writers.] The earliest source which remains to us is
+the Book of Jubilees, or Leptogenesis, a Palestinian work (referred by
+R.H. Charles to the century immediately preceding the Christian era; see
+APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). In this book, which was largely used by
+Christian writers, we find a chronology of the lives of Adam and Eve and
+the names of their daughters--Avan and Azura.[2] The Targum of Jonathan
+informs us that Eve was created from the thirteenth rib of Adam's right
+side, thus taking the view that Adam had a rib more than his
+descendants. Some of the Jewish legends show clear marks of foreign
+influence. Thus the notion that the first man was a double being,
+afterwards separated into the two persons of Adam and Eve (_Berachot_,
+61; _Erubin_, 18), may be traced back to Philo (_De mundi opif._ §53;
+cf. _Quaest. in Gen._ lib. i. §25), who borrows the idea, and almost the
+words, of the myth related by Aristophanes in the Platonic _Symposium_
+(189 D, 190 A), which, in extravagant form, explains the passion of love
+by the legend that male and female originally formed one body.
+
+[A recent critic[3] (F. Schwally) even holds that this notion was
+originally expressed in the account of the creation of man in Gen. i.
+27. This involves a textual emendation, and one must at least admit that
+the present text is not without difficulty, and that Berossus refers to
+the existence of primeval monstrous androgynous beings according to
+Babylonian mythology.] There is an analogous Iranian legend of the true
+man, which parted into man and woman in the Bundahish[4] (the Parsí
+Genesis), and an Indian legend, which, according to Spiegel, has
+presumably an Iranian source.[5]
+
+
+  Course of Jewish and Christian interpretation.
+
+[It has been remarked elsewhere (ADAM, §16) that though the later Jews
+gathered material for thought very widely, such guidance as they
+required in theological reflection was mainly derived from Greek
+culture. What, for instance, was to be made of such a story as that in
+Gen. ii.-iv.? To "minds trained under the influence of the Jewish
+Haggada, in which the whole Biblical history is freely intermixed with
+legendary and parabolic matter," the question as to the literal truth of
+that story could hardly be formulated. It is otherwise when the Greek
+leaven begins to work.]
+
+Josephus, in the prologue to his _Archaeology_, reserves the problem of
+the true meaning of the Mosaic narrative, but does not regard everything
+as strictly literal. Philo, the great representative of Alexandrian
+allegory, expressly argues that in the nature of things the trees of
+life and knowledge cannot be taken otherwise than symbolically. His
+interpretation of the creation of Eve is, as has been already observed,
+plainly suggested by a Platonic myth. The longing for reunion which love
+implants in the divided halves of the original dual man is the source of
+sensual pleasure (symbolized by the serpent), which in turn is the
+beginning of all transgression. Eve represents the sensuous or
+perceptive part of man's nature, Adam the reason. The serpent,
+therefore, does not venture to attack Adam directly. It is sense which
+yields to pleasure, and in turn enslaves the reason and destroys its
+immortal virtue. This exposition, in which the elements of the Bible
+narrative become mere symbols of the abstract notions of Greek
+philosophy, and are adapted to Greek conceptions of the origin of evil
+in the material and sensuous part of man, was adopted into Christian
+theology by Clement and Origen, notwithstanding its obvious
+inconsistency with the Pauline anthropology, and the difficulty which
+its supporters felt in reconciling it with the Christian doctrine of the
+excellence of the married state (Clemens Alex. _Stromata_, p. 174).
+These difficulties had more weight with the Western church, which, less
+devoted to speculative abstractions and more deeply influenced by the
+Pauline anthropology, refused, especially since Augustine, to reduce
+Paradise and the fall to the region of pure _intelligibilia_; though a
+spiritual sense was admitted along with the literal (Aug. _Civ. Dei_,
+xiii. 21).[6]
+
+The history of Adam and Eve became the basis of anthropological
+discussions which acquired more than speculative importance from their
+connexion with the doctrine of original sin and the meaning of the
+sacrament of baptism. One or two points in Augustinian teaching may be
+here mentioned as having to do particularly with Eve. The question
+whether the soul of Eve was derived from Adam or directly infused by the
+Creator is raised as an element in the great problem of traducianism and
+creationism (_De Gen. ad lit._ lib. x.). And it is from Augustine that
+Milton derives the idea that Adam sinned, not from desire for the
+forbidden fruit, but because love forbade him to dissociate his fate
+from Eve's (_ibid._ lib. xi. _sub fin._). Medieval discussion moved
+mainly in the lines laid down by Augustine. A sufficient sample of the
+way in which the subject was treated by the schoolmen may be found in
+the _Summa_ of Thomas, pars i. qu. xcii. _De productione mulieris_.
+
+The Reformers, always hostile to allegory, and in this matter especially
+influenced by the Augustinian anthropology, adhered strictly to the
+literal interpretation of the history of the Protoplasts, which has
+continued to be generally identified with Protestant orthodoxy. The
+disintegration of the confessional doctrine of sin in last century was
+naturally associated with new theories of the meaning of the biblical
+narrative; but neither renewed forms of the allegorical interpretation,
+in which everything is reduced to abstract ideas about reason and
+sensuality, nor the attempts of Eichhorn and others to extract a kernel
+of simple history by allowing largely for the influence of poetical form
+in so early a narrative, have found lasting acceptance. On the other
+hand, the strict historical interpretation is beset with difficulties
+which modern interpreters have felt with increasing force, and which
+there is a growing disposition to solve by adopting in one or other form
+what is called the _mythical_ theory of the narrative. But
+interpretations pass under this now popular title which have no real
+claim to be so designated. What is common to the "mythical"
+interpretations is to find the real value of the narrative, not in the
+form of the story, but in the thoughts which it embodies. But the story
+cannot be called a myth in the strict sense of the word, unless we are
+prepared to place it on one line with the myths of heathenism, produced
+by the unconscious play of plastic fancy, giving shape to the
+impressions of natural phenomena on primitive observers. Such a theory
+does no justice to a narrative which embodies profound truths peculiar
+to the religion of revelation. Other forms of the so-called mythical
+interpretation are little more than abstract allegory in a new guise,
+ignoring the fact that the biblical story does not teach general truths
+which repeat themselves in every individual, but gives a view of the
+purpose of man's creation, and of the origin of sin, in connexion with
+the divine plan of redemption. Among his other services in refutation of
+the unhistorical rationalism of last century, Kant has the merit of
+having forcibly recalled attention to the fact that the narrative of
+Genesis, even if we do not take it literally, must be regarded as
+presenting a view of the beginnings of the history of the human race
+(_Muthmasslicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte_, 1786) Those who
+recognize this fact ought not to call themselves or be called by others
+adherents of the mythical theory, although they also recognize that in
+the nature of things the divine truths brought out in the history of the
+creation and fall could not have been expressed either in the form of
+literal history or in the shape of abstract metaphysical doctrine; or
+even although they may hold--as is done by many who accept the narrative
+as a part of supernatural revelation--that the specific biblical truths
+which the narrative conveys are presented through the vehicle of a story
+which, at least in some of its parts, may possibly be shaped by the
+influence of legends common to the Hebrews with their heathen
+neighbours. (W. R. S.; [T. K. C.])
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] That polygamy had not become morally objectionable is shown by
+    the stories of Lamech, Abraham and Jacob.
+
+  [2] See West's authoritative translation in _Pahlavi Texts_ (Sacred
+    Books of the East).
+
+  [3] "Die bibl. Schöpfungsberichte" (_Archiv für
+    Religionswissenschaft_, ix. 171 ff.).
+
+  [4] Spiegel, _Erânische Alterthumskunde_, i. 511.
+
+  [5] Muir, _Sanscrit Texts_, vol. i. p. 25; cf. Spiegel, vol. i. p.
+    458.
+
+  [6] Thus in medieval theology Eve is a type of the church, and her
+    formation from the rib has a mystic reason, inasmuch as blood and
+    water (the sacraments of the church) flowed from the side of Christ
+    on the cross (Thomas, _Summa_, par. i. qu. xcii.).
+
+
+
+
+EVECTION (Latin for "carrying away"), in astronomy, the largest
+inequality produced by the action of the sun in the monthly revolution
+of the moon around the earth. The deviation expressed by it has a
+maximum amount of about 1° 15' in either direction. It may be considered
+as arising from a semi-annual variation in the eccentricity of the
+moon's orbit and the position of its perigee. It was discovered by
+Ptolemy.
+
+
+
+
+EVELETH, a city of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., about 71 m.
+N.N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2752; (1905, state census) 5332, of whom
+2975 were foreign-born (1145 Finns, 676 Austrians and 325 Swedes);
+(1910) 7036. Eveleth is served by the Duluth, Missabe & Northern and the
+Duluth & Iron Range railways. It lies in the midst of the great red and
+brown hematite iron-ore deposits of the Mesabi Range--the richest in the
+Lake Superior district--and the mining and shipping of this ore are its
+principal industries. The municipality owns and operates the
+water-works, the water being obtained from Lake Saint Mary, one of a
+chain of small lakes lying S. of the city. Eveleth was first chartered
+as a city in 1902.
+
+
+
+
+EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706), English diarist, was born at Wotton House,
+near Dorking, Surrey, on the 31st of October 1620. He was the younger
+son of Richard Evelyn, who owned large estates in the county, and was in
+1633 high sheriff of Surrey and Sussex. When John Evelyn was five years
+old he went to live with his mother's parents at Cliffe, near Lewes. He
+refused to leave his "too indulgent" grandmother for Eton, and when on
+her husband's death she married again, the boy went with her to
+Southover, where he attended the free school of the place. He was
+admitted to the Middle Temple in February 1637, and in May he became a
+fellow commoner of Balliol College, Oxford. He left the university
+without taking a degree, and in 1640 was residing in the Middle Temple.
+In that year his father died, and in July 1641 he crossed to Holland. He
+was enrolled as a volunteer in Apsley's company, then encamped before
+Genep on the Waal, but his commission was apparently complimentary, his
+military experience being limited to six days of camp life, during
+which, however, he took his turn at "trailing a pike." He returned in
+the autumn to find England on the verge of civil war. Evelyn's part in
+the conflict is best told in his own words:--
+
+  "12th November was the battle of Brentford, surprisingly fought.... I
+  came in with my horse and arms just at the retreat; but was not
+  permitted to stay longer than the 15th by reason of the army marching
+  to Gloucester; which would have left both me and my brothers exposed
+  to ruin, without any advantage to his Majesty ... and on the 10th
+  [December] returned to Wotton, nobody knowing of my having been in his
+  Majesty's army."
+
+At Wotton he employed himself in improving his brother's property,
+making a fishpond, an island and other alterations in the gardens. But
+he found it difficult to avoid taking a side; he was importuned to sign
+the Covenant, and "finding it impossible to evade doing very unhandsome
+things," he obtained leave in October 1643 from the king to travel
+abroad. From this date his _Diary_ becomes full and interesting. He
+travelled in France and visited the cities of Italy, returning in the
+autumn of 1646 to Paris, where he became intimate with Sir Richard
+Browne, the English resident at the court of France. In June of the
+following year he married Browne's daughter and heiress, Mary, then a
+child of not more than twelve years of age. Leaving his wife in the
+care of her parents, he returned to England to settle his affairs. He
+visited Charles I. at Hampton Court in 1647, and during the next two
+years maintained a cipher correspondence with his father-in-law in the
+royal interest. In 1649 he obtained a pass to return to Paris, but in
+1650 paid a short visit to England. The defeat of Charles II. at
+Worcester in 1651 convinced him that the royalist cause was hopeless,
+and he decided to return to England. He went in 1652 to Sayes Court at
+Deptford, a house which Sir Richard Browne had held on a lease from the
+crown. This had been seized by the parliament, but Evelyn was able to
+compound with the occupiers for £3500, and after the Restoration his
+possession was secured. Here his wife joined him, their eldest son,
+Richard, being born in August 1652. Under the Commonwealth Evelyn amused
+himself with his favourite occupation of gardening, and made many
+friends among the scientific inquirers of the time. He was one of the
+promoters of the scheme for the Royal Society, and in the king's charter
+in 1662 was nominated a member of its directing council. Meanwhile he
+had refused employment from the government of the Commonwealth, and had
+maintained a cipher correspondence with Charles. In 1659 he published an
+_Apology for the Royal Party_, and in December of that year he vainly
+tried to persuade Colonel Herbert Morley, then lieutenant of the Tower,
+to forestall General Monk by declaring for the king. From the
+Restoration onwards Evelyn enjoyed unbroken court favour till his death
+in 1706; but he never held any important political office, although he
+filled many useful and often laborious minor posts. He was commissioner
+for improving the streets and buildings of London, for examining into
+the affairs of charitable foundations, commissioner of the Mint, and of
+foreign plantations. In 1664 he accepted the responsibility for the care
+of the sick and wounded and the prisoners in the Dutch war. He stuck to
+his post throughout the plague year, contenting himself with sending his
+family away to Wotton. He found it impossible to secure sufficient money
+for the proper discharge of his functions, and in 1688 he was still
+petitioning for payment of his accounts in this business. Evelyn was
+secretary of the Royal Society in 1672, and as an enthusiastic promoter
+of its interests was twice (in 1682 and 1691) offered the presidency.
+Through his influence Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, was induced to
+present the Arundel marbles to the university of Oxford (1667) and the
+valuable Arundel library to Gresham College (1678). In the reign of
+James II., during the earl of Clarendon's absence in Ireland, he acted
+as one of the commissioners of the privy seal. He was seriously alarmed
+by the king's attacks on the English Church, and refused on two
+occasions to license the illegal sale of Roman Catholic literature. He
+concurred in the revolution of 1688, in 1695 was entrusted with the
+office of treasurer of Greenwich hospital for old sailors, and laid the
+first stone of the new building on the 30th of June 1696. In 1694 he
+left Sayes Court to live at Wotton with his brother, whose heir he had
+become, and whom he actually succeeded in 1699. He spent the rest of his
+life there, dying on the 27th of February 1706. Evelyn's house at Sayes
+Court had been let to Captain, afterwards Admiral John Benbow, who was
+not a "polite" tenant. He sublet it to Peter the Great, who was then
+visiting the dockyard at Deptford. The tsar did great damage to Evelyn's
+beautiful gardens, and, it is said, made it one of his amusements to
+ride in a wheelbarrow along a thick holly hedge planted especially by
+the owner. The house was subsequently used as a workhouse, and is now
+alms-houses, the grounds having been converted into public gardens by Mr
+Evelyn in 1886.
+
+It will be seen that Evelyn's politics were not of the heroic order. But
+he was honourable and consistent in his adherence to the monarchical
+principle throughout his life. With the court of Charles II. he could
+have had no sympathy, his dignified domestic life and his serious
+attention to religion standing in the strongest contrast with the
+profligacy of the royal surroundings. His _Diary_ is therefore a
+valuable chronicle of contemporary events from the standpoint of a
+moderate politician and a devout adherent of the Church of England. He
+had none of Pepys's love of gossip, and was devoid of his all-embracing
+curiosity, as of his diverting frankness of self-revelation. Both were
+admirable civil servants, and they had a mutual admiration for each
+other's sterling qualities. Evelyn's _Diary_ covers more than half a
+century (1640-1706) crowded with remarkable events, while Pepys only
+deals with a few years of Charles II.'s reign.
+
+Evelyn was a generous art patron, and Grinling Gibbons was introduced by
+him to the notice of Charles II. His domestic affections were very
+strong. He had six sons, of whom John (1655-1699), the author of some
+translations, alone reached manhood. He has left a pathetic account of
+the extraordinary accomplishments of his son Richard, who died before he
+was six years old, and of a daughter Mary, who lived to be twenty, and
+probably wrote most of her father's _Mundus muliebris_ (1690). Of his
+two other daughters, Susannah, who married William Draper of Addiscombe,
+Surrey, survived him.
+
+  Evelyn's _Diary_ remained in MS. until 1818. It is in a quarto volume
+  containing 700 pages, covering the years between 1641 and 1697, and is
+  continued in a smaller book which brings the narrative down to within
+  three weeks of its author's death. A selection from this was edited by
+  William Bray, with the permission of the Evelyn family, in 1818, under
+  the title of _Memoirs illustrative of the Life and Writings of John
+  Evelyn, comprising his Diary from 1641 to 1705/6, and a Selection of
+  his Familiar Letters_. Other editions followed, the most notable being
+  those of Mr H.B. Wheatley (1879) and Mr Austin Dobson (3 vols., 1906).
+  Evelyn's active mind produced many other works, and although these
+  have been overshadowed by the famous _Diary_ they are of considerable
+  interest. They include: _Of Liberty and Servitude_ ... (1649), a
+  translation from the French of Francois de la Mothe le Vayer, Evelyn's
+  own copy of which contains a note that he was "like to be call'd in
+  question by the Rebells for this booke"; _The State of France, as it
+  stood in the IXth year of ... Louis XIII._ (1652); _An Essay on the
+  First Book of T. Lucretius Carus de Rerum Natura_. _Interpreted and
+  made English verse by J. Evelyn_ (1656); _The Golden Book of St John
+  Chrysostom, concerning the Education of Children_. _Translated out of
+  the Greek by J.E._ (printed 1658, dated 1659); _The French Gardener:
+  instructing how to cultivate all sorts of Fruit-trees_ ... (1658),
+  translated from the French of N. de Bonnefons; _A Character of
+  England_ ... (1659), describing the customs of the country as they
+  would appear to a foreign observer, reprinted in _Somers' Tracts_ (ed.
+  Scott, 1812), and in the _Harleian Miscellany_ (ed. Park, 1813); _The
+  Late News from Brussels unmasked_ ... (1660), in answer to a libellous
+  pamphlet on Charles I. by Marchmont Needham; _Fumifugium, or the
+  inconvenience of the Aer and Smoak of London dissipated_ (1661), in
+  which he suggested that sweet-smelling trees should be planted in
+  London to purify the air; _Instructions concerning erecting of a
+  Library_ ... (1661), from the French of Gabriel Naudé; _Tyrannus or
+  the Mode, in a Discourse of Sumptuary Laws_ (1661); _Sculptura: or the
+  History and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper_ ... (1662);
+  _Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees ... to which is annexed Pomona
+  ... Also Kalendarium Hortense_ ... (1664); _A Parallel of the Ancient
+  Architecture with the Modern_ ... (1664), from the French of Roland
+  Fréart; _The History of the three late famous Imposters, viz. Padre
+  Ottomano, Mahomed Bei, and Sabatei Sevi_ ... (1669); _Navigation and
+  Commerce ... in which his Majesties title to the Dominion of the Sea
+  is asserted against the Novel and later Pretenders_ (1674), which is a
+  preface to a projected history of the Dutch wars undertaken at the
+  request of Charles II., but countermanded on the conclusion of peace;
+  _A Philosophical Discourse of Earth_ ... (1676), a treatise on
+  horticulture, better known by its later title of _Terra_; _The
+  Compleat Gardener_ ... (1693), from the French of J. de la Quintinie;
+  _Numismata_ ... (1697). Some of these were reprinted in _The
+  Miscellaneous Writings of John Evelyn_, edited (1825) by William
+  Upcott. Evelyn's friendship with Mary Blagge, afterwards Mrs
+  Godolphin, is recorded in the diary, when he says he designed "to
+  consecrate her worthy life to posterity." This he effectually did in a
+  little masterpiece of religious biography which remained in MS. in the
+  possession of the Harcourt family until it was edited by Samuel
+  Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford, as the _Life of Mrs Godolphin_ (1847),
+  reprinted in the "King's Classics" (1904). The picture of Mistress
+  Blagge's saintly life at court is heightened in interest when read in
+  connexion with the scandalous memoirs of the comte de Gramont, or
+  contemporary political satires on the court. Numerous other papers and
+  letters of Evelyn on scientific subjects and matters of public
+  interest are preserved, a collection of private and official letters
+  and papers (1642-1712) by, or addressed to, Sir Richard Browne and his
+  son-in-law being in the British Museum (_Add. MSS._ 15857 and 15858).
+
+  Next to the _Diary_ Evelyn's most valuable work is _Sylva_. By the
+  glass factories and iron furnaces the country was being rapidly
+  depleted of wood, while no attempt was being made to replace the
+  damage by planting. Evelyn put in a plea for afforestation, and
+  besides producing a valuable work on arboriculture, he was able to
+  assert in his preface to the king that he had really induced
+  landowners to plant many millions of trees.
+
+
+
+
+EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN (1621-?1675), Dutch painter and engraver, the son
+of a government clerk at Alkmaar, was born, it is said, in 1621, and
+educated, if we believe an old tradition, under Roeland Savery at
+Utrecht. He wandered in 1645 to Haarlem, where he studied under Peter de
+Molyn, and finally settled about 1657 at Amsterdam, where he remained
+till his death. It would be difficult to find a greater contrast than
+that which is presented by the works of Savery and Everdingen. Savery
+inherited the gaudy style of the Breughels, which he carried into the
+17th century; whilst Everdingen realized the large and effective system
+of coloured and powerfully shaded landscape which marks the precursors
+of Rembrandt. It is not easy on this account to believe that Savery was
+Everdingen's master, while it is quite within the range of probability
+that he acquired the elements of landscape painting from de Molyn.
+Pieter de Molyn, by birth a Londoner, lived from 1624 till 1661 in
+Haarlem. He went periodically on visits to Norway, and his works, though
+scarce, exhibit a broad and sweeping mode of execution, differing but
+slightly from that transferred at the opening of the 17th century from
+Jan van Goyen to Solomon Ruysdael. His etchings have nearly the breadth
+and effect of those of Everdingen. It is still an open question when de
+Molyn wielded influence on his clever disciple. Alkmaar, a busy trading
+place near the Texel, had little of the picturesque for an artist except
+polders and downs or waves and sky. Accordingly we find Allart at first
+a painter of coast scenery. But on one of his expeditions he is said to
+have been cast ashore in Norway, and during the repairs of his ship he
+visited the inland valleys, and thus gave a new course to his art. In
+early pieces he cleverly represents the sea in motion under varied, but
+mostly clouded, aspects of sky. Their general intonation is strong and
+brown, and effects are rendered in a powerful key, but the execution is
+much more uniform than that of Jacob Ruysdael. A dark scud lowering on a
+rolling sea near the walls of Flushing characterizes Everdingen's "Mouth
+of the Schelde" in the Hermitage at St Petersburg. Storm is the marked
+feature of sea-pieces in the Staedel or Robartes collections; and a
+strand with wreckers at the foot of a cliff in the Munich Pinakothek may
+be a reminiscence of personal adventure in Norway. But the Norwegian
+coast was studied in calms as well as in gales; and a fine canvas at
+Munich shows fishermen on a still and sunny day taking herrings to a
+smoking hut at the foot of a Norwegian crag. The earliest of
+Everdingen's sea-pieces bears the date of 1640. After 1645 we meet with
+nothing but representations of inland scenery, and particularly of
+Norwegian valleys, remarkable alike for wildness and a decisive depth of
+tone. The master's favourite theme is a fall in a glen, with mournful
+fringes of pines interspersed with birch, and log-huts at the base of
+rocks and craggy slopes. The water tumbles over the foreground, so as to
+entitle the painter to the name of "inventor of cascades." It gives
+Everdingen his character as a precursor of Jacob Ruysdael in a certain
+form of landscape composition; but though very skilful in arrangement
+and clever in effects, Everdingen remains much more simple in execution;
+he is much less subtle in feeling or varied in touch than his great and
+incomparable countryman. Five of Everdingen's cascades are in the museum
+of Copenhagen alone: of these, one is dated 1647, another 1649. In the
+Hermitage at St Petersburg is a fine example of 1647; another in the
+Pinakothek at Munich was finished in 1656. English public galleries
+ignore Everdingen; but one of his best-known masterpieces is the
+Norwegian glen belonging to Lord Listowel. Of his etchings and drawings
+there are much larger and more numerous specimens in England than
+elsewhere. Being a collector as well as an engraver and painter, he
+brought together a large number of works of all kinds and masters; and
+the sale of these by his heirs at Amsterdam on the 11th of March 1676
+gives an approximate clue to the date of the painter's death.
+
+His two brothers, Jan and Caesar, were both painters. CAESAR VAN
+EVERDINGEN (1606-1679), mainly known as a portrait painter, enjoyed some
+vogue during his life, and many of his pictures are to be seen in the
+museums and private houses of Holland. They show a certain cleverness,
+but are far from entitling him to rank as a master.
+
+
+
+
+EVEREST, SIR GEORGE (1790-1866), British surveyor and geographer, was
+the son of Tristram Everest of Gwerndale, Brecknockshire, and was born
+there on the 4th of July 1790. From school at Marlow he proceeded to the
+military academy at Woolwich, where he attracted the special notice of
+the mathematical master, and passed so well in his examinations that he
+was declared fit for a commission before attaining the necessary age.
+Having gone to India in 1806 as a cadet in the Bengal Artillery, he was
+selected by Sir Stamford Raffles to take part in the reconnaissance of
+Java (1814-1816); and after being employed in various engineering works
+throughout India, he was appointed in 1818 assistant to Colonel Lambton,
+the founder of the great trigonometrical survey of that country. In
+1823, on Colonel Lambton's death, he succeeded to the post of
+superintendent of the survey; in 1830 he was appointed by the court of
+directors of the East India Company surveyor-general of India; and from
+that date till his retirement from the service in 1843 he continued to
+discharge the laborious duties of both offices. During the rest of his
+life he resided in England, where he became fellow of the Royal Society
+and an active member of several other scientific associations. In 1861
+he was made a C.B. and received the honour of knighthood, and in 1862 he
+was chosen vice-president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died at
+Greenwich on the 1st of December 1866. The geodetical labours of Sir
+George Everest rank among the finest achievements of their kind; and
+more especially his measurement of the meridional arc of India, 11½° in
+length, is accounted as unrivalled in the annals of the science. In
+great part the Indian survey is what he made it.
+
+  His works are purely professional:--A paper in vol. i. of the _Memoirs
+  of the Royal Astronomical Society_, pointing out a mistake in La
+  Caille's measurement of an arc of the meridian which he had discovered
+  during sick-leave at the Cape of Good Hope; _An account of the
+  measurement of the arc of the meridian between the parallels of 18° 3'
+  and 24° 7', being a continuation of the Grand Meridional Arc of India,
+  as detailed by Lieut.-Col. Lambton in the volumes of the Asiatic
+  Society of Calcutta_ (London, 1830); _An account of the measurement of
+  two sections of the Meridional Arc of India bounded by the parallels
+  of 18° 3' 15", 24° 7' 11", and 20° 30' 48"_ (London, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+EVEREST, MOUNT, the highest mountain in the world. It is a peak of the
+Himalayas situated in Nepal almost precisely on the intersection of the
+meridian 87 E. long. with the parallel 28 N. lat. Its elevation as at
+present determined by trigonometrical observation is 29,002 ft., but it
+is possible that further investigation into the value of refraction at
+such altitudes will result in placing the summit even higher. It has
+been confused with a peak to the west of it called Gaurisankar (by
+Schlagintweit), which is more than 5000 ft. lower; but the observations
+of Captain Wood from peaks near Khatmandu, in Nepal, and those of the
+same officer, and of Major Ryder, from the route between Lhasa and the
+sources of the Brahmaputra in 1904, have definitely fixed the relative
+position of the two mountain masses, and conclusively proved that there
+is no higher peak than Everest in the Himalayan system. The peak
+possesses no distinctive native name and has been called Everest after
+Sir George Everest (q.v.), who completed the trigonometrical survey of
+the Himalayas in 1841 and first fixed its position and altitude.
+     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1790-1847), American author and diplomatist,
+was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 19th of March 1790. He was the
+son of Rev. Oliver Everett (1753-1802), a Congregational minister in
+Boston, and the brother of Edward Everett. He graduated at Harvard in
+1806, taking the highest honours of his year, though the youngest member
+of his class. He spent one year as a teacher in Phillips Academy,
+Exeter, New Hampshire, and then began the study of law in the office of
+John Quincy Adams. In 1809 Adams was appointed minister to Russia, and
+Everett accompanied him as his private secretary, remaining attached to
+the American legation in Russia until 1811. He was secretary of the
+American legation at The Hague in 1815-1816, and _chargé d'affaires_
+there from 1818 to 1824. From 1825 to 1829, during the presidency of
+John Quincy Adams, he was the United States minister to Spain. At that
+time Spain recognized none of the governments established by her
+revolted colonies, and Everett became the medium of all communications
+between the Spanish government and the several nations of Spanish origin
+which had been established, by successful revolutions, on the other side
+of the ocean. Everett was a member of the Massachusetts legislature in
+1830-1835, was president of Jefferson College in Louisiana in 1842-1844,
+and was appointed commissioner of the United States to China in 1845,
+but did not go to that country until the following year, and died on the
+29th of May 1847 at Canton, China. Everett, however, is known rather as
+a man of letters than as a diplomat. In addition to numerous articles,
+published chiefly in the _North American Review_, of which he was the
+editor from 1829 to 1835, he wrote: _Europe, or a General Survey of the
+Political Situation of the Principal Powers, with Conjectures on their
+Future Prospects_ (1822), which attracted considerable attention in
+Europe and was translated into German, French and Spanish; _New Ideas on
+Population_ (1822); _America, or a General Survey of the Political
+Situation of the Several Powers of the Western Continent, with
+Conjectures on their Future Prospects_ (1827), which was translated into
+several European languages; a volume of _Poems_ (1845); and _Critical
+and Miscellaneous Essays_ (first series, 1845; second series, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL (1829-1900), American divine and philosopher,
+was born on the 19th of June 1829, at Brunswick, Maine. He studied at
+Bowdoin College, where he graduated in 1850, after which he proceeded to
+Berlin. Subsequently he took a degree in divinity at the Harvard
+Divinity School. From 1859 to 1869 he was pastor of the Independent
+Congregational (Unitarian) church at Bangor, Maine. This charge he
+resigned to take the Bussey professorship of theology at Harvard
+University, and, in 1878, became dean of the faculty of theology.
+Interested in a variety of subjects, he devoted himself chiefly to the
+philosophy of religion, and published _The Science of Thought_ (Boston,
+1869; revised 1891). He also wrote _Fichte's Science of Knowledge_
+(1884); _Poetry, Comedy and Duty_ (1888); _Religions before
+Christianity_ (1883); _Ethics for Young People_ (1891); _The Gospel of
+Paul_ (1892). He died at Cambridge on the 16th of October 1900.
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, EDWARD (1794-1865), American statesman and orator, was born in
+Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 11th of April 1794. He was the son of
+Rev. Oliver Everett and the brother of Alexander Hill Everett (q.v.).
+His father died in 1802, and his mother removed to Boston with her
+family after her husband's death. At seventeen Edward Everett graduated
+from Harvard College, taking first honours in his class. While at
+college he was the chief editor of _The Lyceum_, the earliest in the
+series of college journals published at the American Cambridge. His
+earlier predilections were for the study of law, but the advice of
+Joseph Stevens Buckminster, a distinguished preacher in Boston, led him
+to prepare for the pulpit, and as a preacher he at once distinguished
+himself. He was called to the ministry of the Brattle Street church
+(Unitarian) in Boston before he was twenty years old. His sermons
+attracted wide attention in that community, and he gained a considerable
+reputation as a theologian and a controversialist by his publication in
+1814 of a volume entitled _Defence of Christianity_, written in answer
+to a work, _The Grounds of Christianity Examined_ (1813), by George
+Bethune English (1787-1828), an adventurer, who, born in Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, was in turn a student of law and of theology, an editor
+of a newspaper, and a soldier of fortune in Egypt. Everett's tastes,
+however, were then, as always, those of a scholar; and in 1815, after a
+service of little more than a year in the pulpit, he resigned his charge
+to accept a professorship of Greek literature in Harvard College.
+
+After nearly five years spent in Europe in preparation, he entered with
+enthusiasm on his duties, and, for five years more, gave a vigorous
+impulse, not only to the study of Greek, but to all the work of the
+college. In January 1820 he assumed the charge of the _North American
+Review_, which now became a quarterly; and he was indefatigable during
+the four years of his editorship in contributing on a great variety of
+subjects. From 1825 to 1835 he was a member of the National House of
+Representatives, supporting generally the administration of President
+J.Q. Adams and opposing that of Jackson, which succeeded it. He bore a
+part in almost every important debate, and was a member of the committee
+of foreign affairs during the whole time of his service in Congress.
+Everett was a member of nearly all the most important select committees,
+such as those on the Indian relations of the state of Georgia, the
+Apportionment Bill, and the Bank of the United States, and drew the
+report either of the majority or the minority. The report on the
+congress of Panama, the leading measure of the first session of the
+Nineteenth Congress, was drawn up by Everett, although he was the
+youngest member of the committee and had just entered Congress. He led
+the unsuccessful opposition to the Indian policy of General Jackson (the
+removal of the Cherokee and other Indians, without their consent, from
+lands guaranteed to them by treaty).
+
+In 1835 he was elected governor of Massachusetts. He brought to the
+duties of the office the untiring diligence which was the characteristic
+of his public life. We can only allude to a few of the measures which
+received his efficient support, e.g. the establishment of the board of
+education (the first of such boards in the United States), the
+scientific surveys of the state (the first of such public surveys), the
+criminal law commission, and the preservation of a sound currency during
+the panic of 1837.
+
+Everett filled the office of governor for four years, and was then
+defeated by a single vote, out of more than one hundred thousand. The
+election is of interest historically as being the first important
+American election where the issue turned on the question of the
+prohibition of the retail sale of intoxicating liquors. In the following
+spring he made a visit with his family to Europe. In 1841, while
+residing in Florence, he was named United States minister to Great
+Britain, and arrived in London to enter upon the duties of his mission
+at the close of that year. Great questions were at that time open
+between the two countries--the north-eastern boundary, the affair of
+M'Leod, the seizure of American vessels on the coast of Africa, in the
+course of a few months the affair of the "Creole," to which was soon
+added the Oregon question. His position was more difficult by reason of
+the frequent changes that took place in the department at home, which,
+in the course of four years, was occupied successively by Messrs
+Webster, Legaré, Upshur, Calhoun and Buchanan. From all these gentlemen
+Everett received marks of approbation and confidence.
+
+By the institution of the special mission of Lord Ashburton, however,
+the direct negotiations between the two governments were, about the time
+of Everett's arrival in London, transferred to Washington, though much
+business was transacted at the American legation in London.
+
+Immediately after the accession of Polk to the presidency Everett was
+recalled. From January 1846 to 1849, as the successor of Josiah Quincy,
+he was president of Harvard College. On the death, in October 1852, of
+his friend Daniel Webster, to whom he had always been closely attached,
+and of whom he was always a confidential adviser, he succeeded him as
+secretary of state, which post he held for the remaining months of
+Fillmore's administration, leaving it to go into the Senate in 1853, as
+one of the representatives of Massachusetts. Under the work of the long
+session of 1853-1854 his health gave way. In May 1854 he resigned his
+seat, on the orders of his physician, and retired to what was called
+private life.
+
+But, as it proved, the remaining ten years of his life most widely
+established his reputation and influence throughout America. As early as
+1820 he had established a reputation as an orator, such as few men in
+later days have enjoyed. He was frequently invited to deliver an
+"oration" on some topic of historical or other interest. With him these
+"orations," instead of being the ephemeral entertainments of an hour,
+became careful studies of some important theme. Eager to avert, if
+possible, the impending conflict of arms between the North and South,
+Everett prepared an "oration" on George Washington, which he delivered
+in every part of America. In this way, too, he raised more than one
+hundred thousand dollars, for the purchase of the old home of Washington
+at Mount Vernon. Everett also prepared for the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_ a biographical sketch of Washington, which was published
+separately in 1860. In 1860 Everett was the candidate of the short-lived
+Constitutional-Union party for the vice-presidency, on the ticket with
+John Bell (q.v.), but received only 39 electoral votes. During the Civil
+War he zealously supported the national government and was called upon
+in every quarter to speak at public meetings. He delivered the last of
+his great orations at Gettysburg, after the battle, on the consecration
+of the national cemetery there. On the 9th of January 1865 he spoke at a
+public meeting in Boston to raise funds for the southern poor in
+Savannah. At that meeting he caught cold, and the immediate result was
+his death on the 15th of January 1865.
+
+In Everett's life and career was a combination of the results of
+diligent training, unflinching industry, delicate literary tastes and
+unequalled acquaintance with modern international politics. This
+combination made him in America an entirely exceptional person. He was
+never loved by the political managers; he was always enthusiastically
+received by assemblies of the people. He would have said himself that
+the most eager wish of his life had been for the higher education of his
+countrymen. His orations have been collected in four volumes
+(1850-1859). A work on international law, on which he was engaged at his
+death, was never finished. Allibone records 84 titles of his books and
+published addresses.     (E. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., adjoining
+Chelsea and 3 m. N. of Boston, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop.
+(1880) 4159; (1890) 11,068; (1900) 24,336, of whom 6882 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 33,484. It covers an area of about 3 sq. m.
+and is served by the Boston & Maine railway and by interurban electric
+lines. Everett has the Frederick E. Parlin memorial library (1878), the
+Shute memorial library (1898), the Whidden memorial hospital and
+Woodlawn cemetery (176 acres). The principal manufactures are coke,
+chemicals and boots and shoes; among others are iron and structural
+steel. According to the U.S. Census of Manufactures (1905), "the coke
+industry in Everett is unique, inasmuch as illuminating gas is the
+primary product and coke really a by-product, while the coal used is
+brought from mines located in Nova Scotia." The value of the city's
+total factory product increased from $4,437,180 in 1900 to $6,135,650 in
+1905 or 38.3%. Everett was first settled about 1630, remaining a part of
+Malden (and being known as South Malden) until 1870, when it was
+incorporated as a township. It was chartered as a city in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, a city, a sub-port of entry, and the county-seat of Snohomish
+county, Washington, U.S.A., on Puget Sound, at the mouth of the
+Snohomish river, about 35 m. N. of Seattle. Pop. (1900) 7838; (1910 U.S.
+census) 24,814. The city is served by the Northern Pacific and the Great
+Northern railways, being the western terminus of the latter's main
+transcontinental line, by interurban electric railway, and by several
+lines of Sound and coasting freight and passenger steamboats. Everett
+has a fine harbour with several large iron piers. Among its principal
+buildings are a Carnegie library, a Y.M.C.A. building and two hospitals.
+The buildings of the Pacific College were erected here by the United
+Norwegian Lutheran Church in 1908. The city is in a rich lumbering,
+gardening, farming, and copper-, gold- and silver-mining district. There
+is a U.S. assayer's office here, and there are extensive shipyards, a
+large paper mill, iron works, and, just outside the city limits, the
+smelters of the American Smelters Securities Company, in connexion with
+which is one of the two plants in the United States for saving arsenic
+from smelter fumes. Lumber interests, however, are of most importance,
+and here are some of the largest lumber plants in the Pacific Northwest.
+Red-cedar shingles are an important product. Everett was settled in 1891
+and was incorporated in 1893. Its rapid growth is due to its favourable
+situation as a commercial port, its transportation facilities, and its
+nearness to extensive forests whence the material for its chief
+industries is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+EVERGLADES, an American lake, about 8000 sq. m. in area, in which are
+numerous half-submerged islands; situated in the southern part of
+Florida, U.S.A., in Lee, De Soto, Dade and St Lucie counties. West of it
+is the Big Cypress Swamp. The floor of the lake is a limestone basin,
+extending from Lake Okechobee in the N. to the extreme S. part of the
+state, and the lake varies in depth from 1 to 12 ft., its water being
+pure and clear. The surface is above tide level, and the lake is
+enclosed, probably on all sides, within an outcropping limestone rim,
+averaging about 10 ft. above mean low tide, and approaching much nearer
+to the Atlantic on the E. than to the gulf on the W. There are several
+small outlets, such as the Miami river and the New river on the E. and
+the Shark river on the S.W., but no streams empty into the Everglades,
+and the water-supply is furnished by springs and precipitation. There is
+a general south-easterly movement of the water. The soil of the islands
+is very fertile and is subject to frequent inundations, but gradually
+the water area is being replaced by land. The vegetation is luxuriant,
+the live oak, wild lemon, wild orange, cucumber, papaw, custard apple
+and wild rubber trees being among the indigenous species; there are,
+besides, many varieties of wild flowers, the orchids being especially
+noteworthy. The fauna is also varied; the otter, alligator and crocodile
+are found, also the deer and panther, and among the native birds are the
+ibis, egret, heron and limpkin. There are two seasons, wet and dry, but
+the climate is equable.
+
+Systematic exploration has been prevented by the dense growth of saw
+grass (_Cladium effusum_), a kind of sedge, with sharp, saw-toothed
+leaves, which grows everywhere on the muck-covered rock basin and
+extends several feet above the shallow water. The first white man to
+enter the region was Escalente de Fontenada, a Spanish captive of an
+Indian chief, who named the lake Laguno del Espiritu Santo and the
+islands Cayos del Espiritu Santo. Between 1841 and 1856 various United
+States military forces penetrated the Everglades for the purpose of
+attacking and driving out the Seminoles, who took refuge here. The most
+important explorations during the later years of the 19th century were
+those of Major Archie P. Williams in 1883, James E. Ingraham in 1892 and
+Hugh L. Willoughby in 1897. The Seminole Indians were in 1909
+practically the only inhabitants. In 1850 under the "Arkansas Bill," or
+Swamp and Overflow Act, practically all of the Everglades, which the
+state had been urging the federal government to drain and reclaim, were
+turned over to the state for that purpose, with the provision that all
+proceeds from such lands be applied to their reclamation. A board of
+trustees for the Internal Improvement Fund, created in 1855 and having
+as members _ex officio_ the governor, comptroller, treasurer,
+attorney-general and commissioner-general, sold and allowed to railway
+companies much of the grant. Between 1881 and 1896 a private company
+owning 4,000,000 acres of the Everglades attempted to dig a canal from
+Lake Okechobee through Lake Hicpochee and along the Caloosahatchee river
+to the Gulf of Mexico; the canal was closed in 1902 by overflows. Six
+canals were begun under state control in 1905 from the lake to the
+Atlantic, the northernmost at Jensen, the southernmost at Ft.
+Lauderdale; the total cost, estimated at $1,035,000 for the reclamation
+of 12,500 sq. m., is raised by a drainage tax (not to exceed 10 cents
+per acre) levied by the trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund and
+Board of Drainage commissioners. The small area reclaimed prior to that
+year (1905) was found very fertile and particularly adapted to raising
+sugar-cane, oranges and garden truck.
+
+  See Hugh L. Willoughby's _Across the Everglades_ (Philadelphia, 1898),
+  and especially an article "The Everglades of Florida" by Edwin A. Dix
+  and John M. MacGonigle, in the _Century Magazine_ for February 1905.
+
+
+
+
+EVERGREEN, a general term applied to plants which are always in leaf, as
+contrasted with deciduous trees which are bare for some part of the year
+(see HORTICULTURE). In temperate or colder zones where a season
+favourable to vegetation is succeeded by an unfavourable or winter
+season, leaves of evergreens must be protected from the frost and cold
+drying winds, and are therefore tougher or more leathery in texture than
+those of deciduous trees, and frequently, as in pines, firs and other
+conifers, are needle-like, thus exposing a much smaller surface to the
+drying action of cold winds. The number of seasons for which the leaves
+last varies in different plants; every season some of the older leaves
+fall, while new ones are regularly produced. The common English bramble
+is practically evergreen, the leaves lasting through winter and until
+the new leaves are developed next spring. In privet also the leaves fall
+after the production of new ones in the next year. In other cases the
+leaves last several years, as in conifers, and may sometimes be found on
+eleven-year-old shoots.
+
+
+
+
+EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE, a plant belonging to the division
+_Tubuliflorae_ of the natural order Compositae, known botanically as
+_Helichrysum orientale_. It is a native of North Africa, Crete, and the
+parts of Asia bordering on the Mediterranean; and it is cultivated in
+many parts of Europe. It first became known in Europe about the year
+1629, and has been cultivated since 1815. In common with several other
+plants of the same group, known as "everlastings," the immortelle plant
+possesses a large involucre of dry scale-like or scarious bracts, which
+preserve their appearance when dried, provided the plant be gathered in
+proper condition. The chief supplies of _Helichrysum orientale_ come
+from lower Provence, where it is cultivated in large quantities on the
+ground sloping to the Mediterranean, in positions well exposed to the
+sun, and usually in plots surrounded by dry stone walls. The finest
+flowers are grown on the slopes of Bandols and Ciotat, where the plant
+begins to flower in June. It requires a light sandy or stony soil, and
+is very readily injured by rain or heavy dews. It can be propagated in
+quantity by means of offsets from the older stems. The flowering stems
+are gathered in June, when the bracts are fully developed, all the
+fully-expanded and immature flowers being pulled off and rejected. A
+well-managed plantation is productive for eight or ten years. The plant
+is tufted in its growth, each plant producing 60 or 70 stems, while each
+stem produces an average of 20 flowers. About 400 such stems weigh a
+kilogramme. A hectare of ground will produce 40,000 plants, bearing from
+2,400,000 to 2,800,000 stems, and weighing from 5½ to 6½ tons, or from 2
+to 3 tons per acre. The colour of the bracts is a deep yellow. The
+natural flowers are commonly used for garlands for the dead, or plants
+dyed black are mixed with the yellow ones. The plant is also dyed green
+or orange-red, and thus employed for bouquets or other ornamental
+purposes.
+
+Other species of _Helichrysum_ and species of allied genera with
+scarious heads of flowers are also known as "everlastings." One of the
+best known is the Australian species _H. bracteatum_, with several
+varieties, including double forms, of different colours; _H. vestitum_
+(Cape of Good Hope) has white satiny heads. Others are species of
+_Helipterum_ (West Australia and South Africa), _Ammobium_ and _Waitzia_
+(Australia) and _Xeranthemum_ (south Europe). Several members of the
+natural order Amarantaceae have also "everlasting" flowers; such are
+_Gomphrena globosa_, with rounded or oval heads of white, orange, rose
+or violet, scarious bracts, and _Celosia pyramidalis_, with its elegant,
+loose, pyramidal inflorescences. Frequently these everlastings are mixed
+with bleached grasses, as _Lagurus ovatus_, _Briza maxima_, _Bromus
+brizaeformis_, or with the leaves of the Cape silver tree (_Leucadendron
+argenteum_), to form bouquets or ornamental groups.
+
+
+
+
+EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE, VISCOUNT (1794-1888), speaker of the
+British House of Commons, eldest son of Mr Charles Shaw (who assumed his
+wife's name of Lefevre in addition to his own on his marriage), was born
+in London on the 22nd of February 1794, and educated at Winchester and
+at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1819, and
+though a diligent student was also a keen sportsman. Marrying a daughter
+of Mr Samuel Whitbread, whose wife was the sister of Earl Grey,
+afterwards premier, he thus became connected with two influential
+political families, and in 1830 he entered the House of Commons as
+member for Downton, in the Liberal interest. In 1831 he was returned,
+after a severe contest, as one of the county members for Hampshire, in
+which he resided; and after the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 he was
+elected for the Northern Division of the county. For some years Mr Shaw
+Lefevre was chairman of a committee on petitions for private bills. In
+1835 he was chairman of a committee on agricultural distress, but as his
+report was not accepted by the House, he published it as a pamphlet
+addressed to his constituents. He acquired a high reputation in the
+House of Commons for his judicial fairness, combined with singular tact
+and courtesy, and when Mr James Abercromby retired in 1839, he was
+nominated as the Liberal candidate for the chair. The Conservatives put
+forward Henry Goulburn, but Mr Shaw Lefevre was elected by 317 votes to
+299. The period was one of fierce party conflict, and the debates were
+frequently very acrimonious; but the dignity, temper and firmness of the
+new speaker were never at fault. In 1857 he had served longer than any
+of his predecessors, except the celebrated Arthur Onslow (1691-1768),
+who was speaker for more than 33 years in five successive parliaments.
+Retiring on a pension, he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Eversley
+of Heckfield, in the county of Southampton. His appearances in the House
+of Lords were very infrequent, but in his own county he was active in
+the public service. From 1859 he was an ecclesiastical commissioner, and
+he was also appointed a trustee of the British Museum. He died on the
+28th of December 1888, the viscountcy becoming extinct.
+
+His younger brother, SIR JOHN GEORGE SHAW LEFEVRE (1797-1879), who was
+senior wrangler at Cambridge in 1818, had a long and distinguished
+career as a public official. He was under-secretary for the colonies,
+and had much to do with the introduction of the new poor law in 1834,
+and with the foundation of the colony of South Australia; then having
+served on several important commissions he was made clerk of the
+parliaments in 1855, and in the same year became one of the first civil
+service commissioners. He helped to found the university of London, of
+which he was vice-chancellor for twenty years, and also the Athenaeum
+Club. He died on the 20th of August 1879.
+
+The latter's son, GEORGE JOHN SHAW LEFEVRE (b. 1832), was created Baron
+Eversley in 1906, in recognition of long and prominent services to the
+Liberal party. He had filled the following offices:--civil lord of the
+admiralty, 1856; secretary to the board of trade, 1869-1871;
+under-secretary, home office, 1871; secretary to the admiralty,
+1871-1874; first commissioner of works, 1881-1883; postmaster-general,
+1883-1884; first commissioner of works, 1892-1893; president of local
+government board, 1894-1895; chairman of royal commission on
+agriculture, 1893-1896.
+
+
+
+
+EVESHAM, a market-town and municipal borough in the Evesham
+parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, 107 m. W.N.W. of
+London by the Great Western railway, and 15 m. S.E. by E. of Worcester,
+with a station on the Redditch-Ashchurch branch of the Midland railway.
+Pop. (1901) 7101. It lies on the right (north) bank of the Avon, in the
+rich and beautiful Vale of Evesham. The district is devoted to
+market-gardening and orchards, and the trade of the town is mainly
+agricultural. Evesham is a place of considerable antiquity, a
+Benedictine house having been founded here by St Egwin in the 8th
+century. It became a wealthy abbey, but was almost wholly destroyed at
+the Dissolution. The churchyard, however, is entered by a Norman
+gateway, and there survives also a magnificent isolated bell-tower
+dating from 1533, of the best ornate Perpendicular workmanship. The
+abbey walls surround the churchyard, but almost the only other remnant
+is a single Decorated arch. Close to the bell-tower, however, are the
+two parish churches of St Lawrence and of All Saints, the former of the
+16th century, the latter containing Early English work, and the ornate
+chapel of Abbot Lichfield, who erected the bell-tower. Other buildings
+include an Elizabethan town hall, the grammar school, founded by Abbot
+Lichfield, and the picturesque almonry. The borough includes the parish
+of Bengeworth St Peter, on the left bank of the river. Evesham is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2265 acres.
+
+Evesham (_Homme_, _Ethomme_) grew up around the Benedictine abbey, and
+had evidently become of some importance as a trading centre in 1055,
+when Edward the Confessor gave it a market and the privileges of a
+commercial town. It is uncertain when the town first became a borough,
+but the Domesday statement that the men paid 20s. may indicate the
+existence of a more or less organized body of tradesmen. Before 1482 the
+burgesses were holding the town at a fee farm rent of twenty marks, but
+the abbot still had practical control of the town, and his steward
+presided over the court at which the bailiffs were chosen. After the
+Dissolution the manor with the markets and fairs and other privileges
+was granted to Sir Philip Hoby, who increased his power over the town by
+persuading the burgesses to agree that, after they had nominated six
+candidates for the office of bailiff, the steward of the court
+instructed by him should indicate the two to be chosen. This privilege
+was contested by Queen Elizabeth, but when the case was taken before the
+court of the exchequer it was decided in favour of Sir Philip's heir,
+Sir Edward Hoby. In 1604 James I. granted the burgesses their first
+charter, but in the following year, by a second charter, he incorporated
+Evesham with the village of Bengeworth, and granted that the borough
+should be governed by a mayor and seven aldermen, to whom he gave the
+power of holding markets and fairs and several other privileges which
+had formerly belonged to the lord of the manor. Evesham received two
+later charters, but in 1688 that of 1605 was restored and still remains
+the governing charter of the borough. Evesham returned two members to
+parliament in 1295 and again in 1337, after which date the privilege
+lapsed until 1604. Its two members were reduced to one by the act of
+1867, and the borough was disfranchised in 1885.
+
+Evesham gave its name to the famous battle, fought on the 4th of August
+1265, between the forces of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and
+the royalist army under Prince Edward. After a masterly campaign, in
+which the prince had succeeded in defeating Leicester in the valleys of
+the Severn and Usk, and had destroyed the forces of the younger Montfort
+at Kenilworth before he could effect a junction with the main body, the
+royalist forces approached Evesham in the morning of the 4th of August
+in time to intercept Leicester's march towards Kenilworth. Caught in the
+bend of the river Avon by the converging columns, and surrounded on all
+sides, the old earl attempted to cut his way out of the town to the
+northward. At first the fury of his assault forced back the superior
+numbers of the prince; but Simon's Welsh levies melted away and his
+enemies closed the last avenue of escape. The final struggle took place
+on Green Hill, a little to the north-west of the town, where the devoted
+friends of de Montfort formed a ring round their leader, and died with
+him. The spot is marked with an obelisk.
+
+
+
+
+EVIDENCE (Lat. _evidentia_, _evideri_, to appear clearly), a term which
+may be defined briefly as denoting the facts presented to the mind of a
+person for the purpose of enabling him to decide a disputed question.
+Evidence in the widest sense includes all such facts, and reference may
+be made to the article LOGIC for the science or art of dealing with the
+proper way of drawing correct conclusions and the nature of proof. In a
+narrower sense, however, evidence includes in English law only such
+facts as are allowed to be so presented in the course of judicial
+proceedings. Thus we say that a fact is not evidence, meaning thereby
+that it is not admissible as evidence in accordance with the rules of
+English law. The law of legal evidence is part of the law of procedure.
+It determines the kinds of evidence which may be produced in judicial
+proceedings, and regulates the mode in which, and the conditions under
+which, evidence may be produced and tested.
+
+
+  History.
+
+The English law of evidence is of comparatively modern growth. It
+enshrines certain maxims, some derived from Roman law, some invented by
+Coke, who, as J.B. Thayer says, "spawned Latin maxims freely." But for
+the most part it was built up by English judges in the course of the
+18th century, and consists of this judge-made law, as modified by
+statutory enactments of the 19th century. Early Teutonic procedure knew
+nothing of evidence in the modern sense, just as it knew nothing of
+trials in the modern sense. What it knew was "proofs." There were two
+modes of proof, ordeals and oaths. Both were appeals to the
+supernatural. The judicial combat was a bilateral ordeal. Proof
+followed, instead of preceding, judgment. A judgment of the court,
+called by German writers the _Beweisurteil_, and by M.M. Bigelow the
+"medial judgment," awarded that one of the two litigants must prove his
+case, by his body in battle, or by a one-sided ordeal, or by an oath
+with oath-helpers, or by the oaths of witnesses. The court had no desire
+to hear or weigh conflicting testimony. To do so would have been to
+exercise critical faculties, which the court did not possess, and the
+exercise of which would have been foreign to the whole spirit of the
+age. The litigant upon whom the burden of furnishing proof was imposed
+had a certain task to perform. If he performed it, he won; if he failed,
+he lost. The number of oath-helpers varied in different cases, and was
+determined by the law or by the court. They were probably, at the
+outset, kinsmen, who would have had to take up the blood-feud. At a
+later stage they became witnesses to character. In the cases,
+comparatively rare, where the oaths of witnesses were admitted as proof,
+their oaths differed materially from the sworn testimony of modern
+courts. As a rule no one could testify to a fact unless, when the fact
+happened, he was solemnly "taken to witness." Then, when the witness was
+adduced, he came merely to swear to a set formula. He did not make a
+promissory oath to answer questions truly. He merely made an assertory
+oath in a prescribed form.
+
+In the course of the 12th and 13th centuries the old formal accusatory
+procedure began to break down, and to be superseded by another form of
+procedure known as _inquisitio_, inquest, or _enquête_. Its decay was
+hastened by the decree of the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, which
+forbade ecclesiastics to take part in ordeals. The Norman administrative
+system introduced into England by the Conquest was familiar with a
+method of ascertaining and determining facts by means of a verdict,
+return or finding made on oath by a body of men drawn from the locality.
+The system may be traced to Carolingian, and even earlier, sources.
+Henry II., by instituting the grand assize and the four petty assizes,
+placed at the disposal of litigants in certain actions the opportunity
+of giving proof by the verdict of a sworn inquest of neighbours, proof
+"by the country." The system was gradually extended to other cases,
+criminal as well as civil. The verdict given was that of persons having
+a general, but not necessarily a particular, acquaintance with the
+persons, places and facts to which the inquiry related. It was, in fact,
+a finding by local popular opinion. Had the finding of such an inquest
+been treated as final and conclusive in criminal cases, English criminal
+procedure might, like the continental inquisition, the French _enquête_,
+have taken the path which, in the forcible language of Fortescue (_De
+laudibus_, &c.) "leads to hell" (_semita ipsa est ad gehennam_).
+Fortunately English criminal procedure took a different course. The
+spirit of the old accusatory procedure was applied to the new procedure
+by inquest. In serious cases the words of the jurors, the accusing
+jurors, were treated not as testimony, but as accusation, the new
+indictment was treated as corresponding to the old appeal, and the
+preliminary finding by the accusing jury had to be supplemented by the
+verdict of another jury. In course of time the second jury were required
+to base their findings not on their own knowledge, but on evidence
+submitted to them. Thus the modern system of inquiry by grand jury and
+trial by petty jury was gradually developed.
+
+A few words may here be said about the parallel development of criminal
+procedure on the continent of Europe. The tendency in the 12th and 13th
+centuries to abolish the old formal methods of procedure, and to give
+the new procedure the name of inquisition or inquest, was not peculiar
+to England. Elsewhere the old procedure was breaking down at the same
+time, and for similar reasons. It was the great pope Innocent III., the
+pope of the fourth Lateran Council, who introduced the new
+inquisitorial procedure into the canon law. The procedure was applied to
+cases of heresy, and, as so applied, especially by the Dominicans,
+speedily assumed the features which made it infamous. "Every safeguard
+of innocence was abolished or disregarded; torture was freely used.
+Everything seems to have been done to secure a conviction." Yet, in
+spite of its monstrous defects, the inquisitorial procedure of the
+ecclesiastical courts, secret in its methods, unfair to the accused,
+having torture as an integral element, gradually forced its way into the
+temporal courts, and may almost be said to have been adopted by the
+common law of western Europe. In connexion with this inquisitorial
+procedure continental jurists elaborated a theory of evidence, or
+judicial proofs, which formed the subject of an extensive literature.
+Under the rules thus evolved full proof (_plena probatio_) was essential
+for conviction, in the absence of confession, and the standard of full
+proof was fixed so high that it was in most cases unattainable. It
+therefore became material to obtain confession by some means or other.
+The most effective means was torture, and thus torture became an
+essential feature in criminal procedure. The rules of evidence attempted
+to graduate the weight to be attached to different kinds of testimony
+and almost to estimate that weight in numerical terms. "Le parlement de
+Toulouse," said Voltaire, "a un usage très singulier dans les preuves
+par témoins. On admet ailleurs des demi-preuves, ... mais à Toulouse on
+admet des quarts et des huitièmes de preuves." Modern continental
+procedure, as embodied in the most recent codes, has removed the worst
+features of inquisitorial procedure, and has shaken itself free from the
+trammels imposed by the old theory and technical rules of proof. But in
+this, as in other branches of law, France seems to have paid the penalty
+for having been first in the field with codification by lagging behind
+in material reforms. The French Code of Criminal Procedure was largely
+based on Colbert's Ordonnance of 1670, and though embodying some
+reforms, and since amended on certain points, still retains some of the
+features of the unreformed procedure which was condemned in the 18th
+century by Voltaire and the _philosophes_. Military procedure is in the
+rear of civil procedure, and the trial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes in
+1899 presented some interesting archaisms. Among these were the weight
+attached to the rank and position of witnesses as compared with the
+intrinsic character of their evidence, and the extraordinary importance
+attributed to confession even when made under suspicious circumstances
+and supported by flimsy evidence.
+
+The history of criminal procedure in England has been traced by Sir
+James Stephen. The modern rules and practice as to evidence and
+witnesses in the common law courts, both in civil and in criminal cases,
+appear to have taken shape in the course of the 18th century. The first
+systematic treatise on the English law of evidence appears to have been
+written by Chief Baron Gilbert, who died in 1726, but whose _Law of
+Evidence_ was not published until 1761. In writing it he is said to have
+been much influenced by Locke.[1] It is highly praised by Blackstone as
+"a work which it is impossible to abstract or abridge without losing
+some beauty and destroying the charm of the whole"; but Bentham, who
+rarely agrees with Blackstone, speaks of it as running throughout "in
+the same strain of anility, garrulity, narrow-mindedness, absurdity,
+perpetual misrepresentation and indefatigable self-contradiction." In
+any case it remained the standard authority on the law of evidence
+throughout the remainder of the 18th century. Bentham wrote his
+_Rationale of Judicial Evidence, specially applied to English Practice_,
+at various times between the years 1802 and 1812. By this time he had
+lost the nervous and simple style of his youth, and required an editor
+to make him readable. His great interpreter, Dumont, condensed his views
+on evidence into the _Traité des preuves judiciaires_, which was
+published in 1823. The manuscript of the _Rationale_ was edited for
+English reading, and to a great extent rewritten, by J.S. Mill, and was
+published in five volumes in 1827. The book had a great effect both in
+England and on the continent. The English version, though crabbed and
+artificial in style, and unmeasured in its invective, is a storehouse of
+comments and criticisms on the principles of evidence and the practice
+of the courts, which are always shrewd and often profound. Bentham
+examined the practice of the courts by the light of practical utility.
+Starting from the principle that the object of judicial evidence is the
+discovery of truth, he condemned the rules which excluded some of the
+best sources of evidence. The most characteristic feature of the
+common-law rules of evidence was, as Bentham pointed out, and, indeed,
+still is, their exclusionary character. They excluded and prohibited the
+use of certain kinds of evidence which would be used in ordinary
+inquiries. In particular, they disqualified certain classes of witnesses
+on the ground of interest in the subject-matter of the inquiry, instead
+of treating the interest of the witness as a matter affecting his
+credibility. It was against this confusion between competency and
+credibility that Bentham directed his principal attack. He also attacked
+the system of paper evidence, evidence by means of affidavits instead of
+by oral testimony in court, which prevailed in the court of chancery,
+and in ecclesiastical courts. Subsequent legislation has endorsed his
+criticisms. The Judicature Acts have reduced the use of affidavits in
+chancery proceedings within reasonable limits. A series of acts of
+parliament have removed, step by step, almost all the disqualifications
+which formerly made certain witnesses incompetent to testify.
+
+Before Bentham's work appeared, an act of 1814 had removed the
+incompetency of ratepayers as witnesses in certain cases relating to
+parishes. The Civil Procedure Act 1833 enacted that a witness should not
+be objected to as incompetent, solely on the ground that the verdict or
+judgment would be admissible in evidence for or against him. An act of
+1840 removed some doubts as to the competency of ratepayers to give
+evidence in matters relating to their parish. The Evidence Act 1843
+enacted broadly that witnesses should not be excluded from giving
+evidence by reason of incapacity from crime or interest. The Evidence
+Act 1851 made parties to legal proceedings admissible witnesses subject
+to a proviso that "nothing herein contained shall render any person who
+in any criminal proceeding is charged with the commission of any
+indictable offence, or any offence punishable on summary conviction,
+competent or compellable to give evidence for or against himself or
+herself, or shall render any person compellable to answer any question
+tending to criminate himself or herself, or shall in any criminal
+proceeding render any husband competent or compellable to give evidence
+for or against his wife, or any wife competent or compellable to give
+evidence for or against her husband." The Evidence (Scotland) Act 1853
+made a similar provision for Scotland. The Evidence Amendment Act 1853
+made the husbands and wives of parties admissible witnesses, except that
+husbands and wives could not give evidence for or against each other in
+criminal proceedings or in proceedings for adultery, and could not be
+compelled to disclose communications made to each other during marriage.
+Under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857 the petitioner can be examined and
+cross-examined on oath at the hearing, but is not bound to answer any
+question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of adultery.
+Under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1859, on a wife's petition for
+dissolution of marriage on the ground of adultery coupled with cruelty
+or desertion, husband and wife are competent and compellable to give
+evidence as to the cruelty or desertion. The Crown Suits &c. Act 1865
+declared that revenue proceedings were not to be treated as criminal
+proceedings for the purposes of the acts of 1851 and 1853. The Evidence
+Further Amendment Act 1869 declared that parties to actions for breach
+of promise of marriage were competent to give evidence in the action,
+subject to a proviso that the plaintiff should not recover unless his or
+her testimony was corroborated by some other material evidence. It also
+made the parties to proceedings instituted in consequence of adultery,
+and their husbands and wives, competent to give evidence, but a witness
+in any such proceeding, whether a party or not, is not to be liable to
+be asked or bound to answer any question tending to show that he or she
+has been guilty of adultery, unless the witness has already given
+evidence in the same proceeding in disproof of the alleged adultery.
+There are similar provisions applying to Scotland in the Conjugal Rights
+(Scotland) Amendment Act 1861, and the Evidence Further Amendment
+(Scotland) Act 1874. The Evidence Act 1877 enacts that "on the trial of
+any indictment or other proceeding for the non-repair of any public
+highway or bridge, or for a nuisance to any public highway, river, or
+bridge, and of any other indictment or proceeding instituted for the
+purpose of trying or enforcing a civil right only, every defendant to
+such indictment or proceeding, and the wife or husband of any such
+defendant shall be admissible witnesses and compellable to give
+evidence." From 1872 onwards numerous enactments were passed making
+persons charged with particular offences, and their husbands and wives,
+competent witnesses. The language and effect of these enactments were
+not always the same, but the insertion of some provision to this effect
+in an act creating a new offence, especially if it was punishable by
+summary proceedings, gradually became almost a common form in
+legislation. In the year 1874 a bill to generalize these particular
+provisions, and to make the evidence of persons charged with criminal
+offences admissible in all cases was introduced by Mr Gladstone's
+government, and was passed by the standing committee of the House of
+Commons. During the next fourteen years bills for the same purpose were
+repeatedly introduced, either by the government of the day, or by Lord
+Bramwell as an independent member of the House of Lords. Finally the
+Criminal Evidence Act 1898, introduced by Lord Halsbury, has enacted in
+general terms that "every person charged with an offence, and the wife
+or husband, as the case may be, of the person so charged, shall be a
+competent witness for the defence at every stage of the proceedings,
+whether the person so charged is charged solely or jointly with any
+other person." But this general enactment is qualified by some special
+restrictions, the nature of which will be noticed below. The act applies
+to Scotland but not to Ireland. It was not to apply to proceedings in
+courts-martial unless so applied by general orders or rules made under
+statutory authority. The provisions of the act have been applied by
+rules to military courts-martial, but have not yet been applied to naval
+courts-martial. The removal of disqualifications for want of religious
+belief is referred to below under the head of "Witnesses."
+
+
+    Literature.
+
+  The act of 1898 finishes for the present the history of English
+  legislation on evidence. For a view of the legal literature on the
+  subject it is necessary to take a step backwards. Early in the 19th
+  century Chief Baron Gilbert was superseded as an authority on the
+  English law of evidence by the books of Phillips (1814) and Starkie
+  (1824), who were followed by Roscoe (_Nisi Prius_, 1827; Criminal
+  Cases, 1835), Greenleaf (American, 1842), Taylor (based on Greenleaf,
+  1848), and Best (1849). In 1876 Sir James FitzJames Stephen brought
+  out his _Digest of the Law of Evidence_, based upon the Indian
+  Evidence Act 1872, which he had prepared and passed as law member of
+  the council of the governor-general of India. This Digest obtained a
+  rapid and well-deserved success, and has materially influenced the
+  form of subsequent writings on the English law of evidence. It sifted
+  out what Stephen conceived to be the main rules of evidence from the
+  mass of extraneous matter in which they had been embedded. Roscoe's
+  Digests told the lawyer what things must be proved in order to sustain
+  particular actions or criminal charges, and related as much to
+  pleadings and to substantive law as to evidence proper. Taylor's two
+  large volumes were a vast storehouse of useful information, but his
+  book was one to consult, not to master. Stephen eliminated much of
+  this extraneous matter, and summed up his rules in a series of
+  succinct propositions, supplemented by apt illustrations, and couched
+  in such a form that they could be easily read and remembered. Hence
+  the English Digest, like the Indian Act, has been of much educational
+  value. Its most original feature, but unfortunately also its weakest
+  point, is its theory of relevancy. Pondering the multitude of
+  "exclusionary" rules which had been laid down by the English courts,
+  Stephen thought that he had discovered the general principle on which
+  those rules reposed, and could devise a formula by which the principle
+  could be expressed. "My study of the subject," he says, "both
+  practically and in books has convinced me that the doctrine that all
+  facts in issue and relevant to the issue, and no others, may be
+  proved, is the unexpressed principle which forms the centre of and
+  gives unity to all the express negative rules which form the great
+  mass of the law." The result was the chapter on the relevancy of facts
+  in the Indian Evidence Act, and the definition of relevancy in s. 7 of
+  that act. This definition was based on the view that a distinction
+  could be drawn between things which were and things which were not
+  causally connected with each other, and that relevancy depended on
+  causal connexion. Subsequent criticism convinced Stephen that his
+  definition was in some respects too narrow and in others too wide, and
+  eventually he adopted a definition out of which all reference to
+  causality was dropped. But even in their amended form the provisions
+  about relevancy are open to serious criticism. The doctrine of
+  relevancy, i.e. of the probative effect of facts, is a branch of
+  logic, not of law, and is out of place both in an enactment of the
+  legislature and in a compendium of legal rules. The necessity under
+  which Stephen found himself of extending the range of relevant facts
+  by making it include facts "deemed to be relevant," and then narrowing
+  it by enabling the judge to exclude evidence of facts which are
+  relevant, illustrates the difference between the rules of logic and
+  the rules of law. Relevancy is one thing; admissibility is another;
+  and the confusion between them, which is much older than Stephen, is
+  to be regretted. Rightly or wrongly English judges have, on practical
+  grounds, declared inadmissible evidence of facts, which are relevant
+  in the ordinary sense of the term, and which are so treated in
+  non-judicial inquiries. Under these circumstances the attempt so to
+  define relevancy as to make it conterminous with admissibility is
+  misleading, and most readers of Stephen's Act and Digest would find
+  them more intelligible and more useful if "admissible" were
+  substituted for "relevant" throughout. Indeed it is hardly too much to
+  say that Stephen's doctrine of relevancy is theoretically unsound and
+  practically useless. The other parts of the work contain terse and
+  vigorous statements of the law, but a Procrustean attempt to make
+  legal rules square with a preconceived theory has often made the
+  language and arrangement artificial, and the work, in spite of its
+  compression, still contains rules which, under a more scientific
+  treatment, would find their appropriate place in other branches of the
+  law. These defects are characteristic of a strong and able man, who
+  saw clearly, and expressed forcibly what he did see, but was apt to
+  ignore or to deny the existence of what he did not see, whose mind was
+  vigorous rather than subtle or accurate, and who, in spite of his
+  learning, was somewhat deficient in the historical sense. But
+  notwithstanding these defects, the conspicuous ability of the author,
+  his learning, and his practical experience, especially in criminal
+  cases, attach greater weight to FitzJames Stephen's statements than to
+  those of any other English writer on the law of evidence.
+
+
+  Rules.
+
+The object of every trial is, or may be, to determine two classes of
+questions or issues, which are usually distinguished as questions of
+law, and questions of fact, although the distinction between them is not
+so clear as might appear on a superficial view. In a trial by jury these
+two classes of questions are answered by different persons. The judge
+lays down the law. The jury, under the guidance of the judge, find the
+facts. It was with reference to trial by jury that the English rules of
+evidence were originally framed; it is by the peculiarities of this form
+of trial that many of them are to be explained; it is to this form of
+trial alone that some of the most important of them are exclusively
+applicable. The negative, exclusive, or exclusionary rules which form
+the characteristic features of the English law of evidence, are the
+rules in accordance with which the judge guides the jury. There is no
+difference of principle between the method of inquiry in judicial and in
+non-judicial proceedings. In either case a person who wishes to find out
+whether a particular event did or did not happen, tries, in the first
+place, to obtain information from persons who were present and saw what
+happened (direct evidence), and, failing this, to obtain information
+from persons who can tell him about facts from which he can draw an
+inference as to whether the event did or did not happen (indirect
+evidence). But in judicial inquiries the information given must be given
+on oath, and be liable to be tested by cross-examination. And there are
+rules of law which exclude from the consideration of the jury certain
+classes of facts which, in an ordinary inquiry, would, or might, be
+taken into consideration. Facts so excluded are said to be "not
+admissible as evidence," or "not evidence," according as the word is
+used in the wider or in the narrower sense. And the easiest way of
+determining whether a fact is or is not evidence in the narrower sense,
+is first to consider whether it has any bearing on the question to be
+tried, and, if it has, to consider whether it falls within any one or
+more of the rules of exclusion laid down by English law. These rules of
+exclusion are peculiar to English law and to systems derived from
+English law. They have been much criticized, and some of them have been
+repealed or materially modified by legislation. Most of them may be
+traced to directions given by a judge in the course of trying a
+particular case, given with special reference to the circumstances of
+that case, but expressed in general language, and, partly through the
+influence of text-writers, eventually hardened into general rules. In
+some cases their origin is only intelligible by reference to obsolete
+forms of pleading or practice. But in most cases they were originally
+rules of convenience laid down by the judge for the assistance of the
+jury. The judge is a man of trained experience, who has to arrive at a
+conclusion with the help of twelve untrained men, and who is naturally
+anxious to keep them straight, and give them every assistance in his
+power. The exclusion of certain forms of evidence assists the jury by
+concentrating their attention on the questions immediately before them,
+and by preventing them from being distracted or bewildered by facts
+which either have no bearing on the question before them, or have so
+remote a bearing on those questions as to be practically useless as
+guides to the truth. It also prevents a jury from being misled by
+statements the effect of which, through the prejudice they excite, is
+out of all proportion to their true weight. In this respect the rules of
+exclusion may be compared to blinkers, which keep a horse's eyes on the
+road before him. In criminal cases the rules of exclusion secure fair
+play to the accused, because he comes to the trial prepared to meet a
+specific charge, and ought not to be suddenly confronted by statements
+which he had no reason to expect would be made against him. They protect
+absent persons against statements affecting their character. And lastly
+they prevent the infinite waste of time which would ensue in the
+discussion of a question of fact if an inquiry were allowed to branch
+out into all the subjects with which that fact is more or less
+connected. The purely practical grounds on which the rules are based,
+according to the view of a great judge, may be illustrated by some
+remarks of Mr Justice Willes (1814-1872). In discussing the question
+whether evidence of the plaintiff's conduct on other occasions ought to
+be admitted, he said:--
+
+  "It is not easy in all cases to draw the line and to define with
+  accuracy where probability ceases and speculation begins; but we are
+  bound to lay down the rule to the best of our ability. No doubt the
+  rule as to confining the evidence to that which is relevant and
+  pertinent to the issue is one of great importance, not only as regards
+  the particular case, but also with reference to saving the time of the
+  court, and preventing the minds of the jury from being drawn away from
+  the real point they have to decide.... Now it appears to me that the
+  evidence proposed to be given in this case, if admitted, would not
+  have shown that it was more probable that the contract was subject to
+  the condition insisted upon by the defendant. The question may be put
+  thus, Does the fact of a person having once or many times in his life
+  done a particular act in a particular way make it more probable that
+  he has done the same thing in the same way upon another and different
+  occasion? To admit such speculative evidence would, I think, be
+  fraught with great danger.... If such evidence were held admissible it
+  would be difficult to say that the defendant might not in any case,
+  where the question was whether or not there had been a sale of goods
+  on credit, call witnesses to prove that the plaintiff had dealt with
+  other persons upon a certain credit; or, in an action for an assault,
+  that the plaintiff might not give evidence of former assaults
+  committed by the defendant upon other persons, or upon other persons
+  of a particular class, for the purpose of showing that he was a
+  quarrelsome individual, and therefore that it was highly probable that
+  the particular charge of assault was well founded. The extent to which
+  this sort of thing might be carried is inconceivable.... To obviate
+  the prejudices, the injustice, and the waste of time to which the
+  admission of such evidence would lead, and bearing in mind the extent
+  to which it might be carried, and that litigants are mortal, it is
+  necessary not only to adhere to the rule, but to lay it down strictly.
+  I think, therefore, the fact that the plaintiff had entered into
+  contracts of a particular kind with other persons on other occasions
+  could not be properly admitted in evidence where no custom of trade
+  to make such contracts, and no connexion between such and the one in
+  question, was shown to exist" (_Hollingham v. Head_, 1858, 4 C.B. N.S.
+  388).
+
+There is no difference between the principles of evidence in civil and
+in criminal cases, although there are a few special rules, such as those
+relating to confessions and to dying declarations, which are only
+applicable to criminal proceedings. But in civil proceedings the issues
+are narrowed by mutual admissions of the parties, more use is made of
+evidence taken out of court, such as affidavits, and, generally, the
+rules of evidence are less strictly applied. It is often impolitic to
+object to the admission of evidence, even when the objection may be
+sustained by previous rulings. The general tendency of modern procedure
+is to place a more liberal and less technical construction on rules of
+evidence, especially in civil cases. In recent volumes of law reports
+cases turning on the admissibility of evidence are conspicuous by their
+rarity. Various causes have operated in this direction. One of them has
+been the change in the system of pleading, under which each party now
+knows before the actual trial the main facts on which his opponent
+relies. Another is the interaction of chancery and common-law practice
+and traditions since the Judicature Acts. In the chancery courts the
+rules of evidence were always less carefully observed, or, as
+Westminster would have said, less understood, than in the courts of
+common law. A judge trying questions of fact alone might naturally think
+that blinkers, though useful for a jury, are unnecessary for a judge.
+And the chancery judge was apt to read his affidavits first, and to
+determine their admissibility afterwards. In the meantime they had
+affected his mind.
+
+The tendency of modern text-writers, among whom Professor J.B. Thayer
+(1831-1902), of Harvard, was perhaps the most independent, instructive
+and suggestive, is to restrict materially the field occupied by the law
+of evidence, and to relegate to other branches of the law topics
+traditionally treated under the head of evidence. Thus in every way the
+law of evidence, though still embodying some principles of great
+importance, is of less comparative importance as a branch of English law
+than it was half a century ago. Legal rules, like dogmas, have their
+growth and decay. First comes the judge who gives a ruling in a
+particular case. Then comes the text-writer who collects the scattered
+rulings, throws them into the form of general propositions, connects
+them together by some theory, sound or unsound, and often ignores or
+obscures their historical origin. After him comes the legislator who
+crystallizes the propositions into enactments, not always to the
+advantage of mankind. So also with decay. Legal rules fall into the
+background, are explained away, are ignored, are denied, are overruled.
+Much of the English law of evidence is in a stage of decay.
+
+The subject-matter of the law of evidence may be arranged differently
+according to the taste or point of view of the writer. It will be
+arranged here under the following heads:--I. Preliminary Matter; II.
+Classes of Evidence; III. Rules of Exclusion; IV. Documentary Evidence;
+V. Witnesses.
+
+
+I. PRELIMINARY MATTER
+
+Under this head may be grouped certain principles and considerations
+which limit the range of matters to which evidence relates.
+
+1. _Law and Fact._--Evidence relates only to facts. It is therefore
+necessary to touch on the distinction between law and facts. _Ad
+quaestionem facti non respondent judices; ad quaestionem juris non
+respondent juratores._ Thus Coke, attributing, after his wont, to
+Bracton a maxim which may have been invented by himself. The maxim
+became the subject of political controversy, and the two rival views are
+represented by Pulteney's lines--
+
+  "For twelve honest men have decided the cause
+   Who are judges alike of the facts and the laws,"
+
+and by Lord Mansfield's variant--
+
+  "Who are judges of facts, but not judges of laws."
+
+The particular question raised with respect to the law of libel was
+settled by Fox's Libel Act 1792. Coke's maxim describes in a broad
+general way the distinction between the functions of the judge and of
+the jury, but is only true subject to important qualifications. Judges
+in jury cases constantly decide what may be properly called questions of
+fact, though their action is often disguised by the language applied or
+the procedure employed. Juries, in giving a general verdict, often
+practically take the law into their own hands. The border-line between
+the two classes of questions is indicated by the "mixed questions of law
+and fact," to use a common phrase, which arise in such cases as those
+relating to "necessaries," "due diligence," "negligence,"
+"reasonableness," "reasonable and probable cause." In the treatment of
+these cases the line has been drawn differently at different times, and
+two conflicting tendencies are discernible. On the one hand, there is
+the natural tendency to generalize common inferences into legal rules,
+and to fix legal standards of duty. On the other hand, there is the
+sound instinct that it is a mistake to define and refine too much in
+these cases, and that the better course is to leave broadly to the jury,
+under the general guidance of the judge, the question what would be done
+by the "reasonable" or "prudent" man in particular cases. The latter
+tendency predominates in modern English law, and is reflected by the
+enactments in the recent acts codifying the law on bills of exchange and
+sale of goods, that certain questions of reasonableness are to be
+treated as questions of fact. On the same ground rests the dislike to
+limit the right of a jury to give a general verdict in criminal cases.
+Questions of custom begin by being questions of fact, but as the custom
+obtains general recognition it becomes law. Many of the rules of the
+English mercantile law were "found" as customs by Lord Mansfield's
+special juries. Generally, it must be remembered that the jury act in
+subordinate co-operation with the judge, and that the extent to which
+the judge limits or encroaches on the province of the jury is apt to
+depend on the personal idiosyncrasy of the judge.
+
+2. _Judicial Notice._--It may be doubted whether the subject of judicial
+notice belongs properly to the law of evidence, and whether it does not
+belong rather to the general topic of legal or judicial reasoning.
+Matters which are the subject of judicial notice are part of the
+equipment of the judicial mind. It would be absurd to require evidence
+of every fact; many facts must be assumed to be known. The judge, like
+the juryman, is supposed to bring with him to the consideration of the
+question which he has to try common sense, a general knowledge of human
+nature and the ways of the world, and also knowledge of things that
+"everybody is supposed to know." Of such matters judicial notice is said
+to be taken. But the range of general knowledge is indefinite, and the
+range of judicial notice has, for reasons of convenience, been fixed or
+extended, both by rulings of the judges and by numerous enactments of
+the legislature. It would be impossible to enumerate here the matters of
+which judicial notice must or may be taken. These are to be found in the
+text-books. For present purposes it must suffice to say that they
+include not only matters of fact of common and certain knowledge, but
+the law and practice of the courts, and many matters connected with the
+government of the country.
+
+3. _Presumptions._--A presumption in the ordinary sense is an inference.
+It is an argument, based on observation, that what has happened in some
+cases will probably happen in others of the like nature. The subject of
+presumptions, so far as they are mere inferences or arguments, belongs,
+not to the law of evidence, or to law at all, but to rules of reasoning.
+But a legal presumption, or, as it is sometimes called, a presumption of
+law, as distinguished from a presumption of fact, is something more. It
+may be described, in Stephen's language, as "a rule of law that courts
+and judges shall draw a particular inference from a particular fact, or
+from particular evidence, unless and until the truth" (perhaps it would
+be better to say 'soundness') "of the inference is disproved." Courts
+and legislatures have laid down such rules on grounds of public policy
+or general convenience, and the rules have then to be observed as rules
+of positive law, not merely used as part of the ordinary process of
+reasoning or argument. Some so-called presumptions are rules of
+substantive law under a disguise. To this class appear to belong
+"conclusive presumptions of law," such as the common-law presumption
+that a child under seven years of age cannot commit a felony. So again
+the presumption that every one knows the law is merely an awkward way of
+saying that ignorance of the law is not a legal excuse for breaking it.
+Of true legal presumptions, the majority may be dealt with most
+appropriately under different branches of the substantive law, such as
+the law of crime, of property, or of contract, and accordingly Stephen
+has included in his _Digest of the Law of Evidence_ only some which are
+common to more than one branch of the law. The effect of a presumption
+is to impute to certain facts or groups of facts a prima facie
+significance or operation, and thus, in legal proceedings, to throw upon
+the party against whom it works the duty of bringing forward evidence to
+meet it. Accordingly the subject of presumptions is intimately connected
+with the subject of the burden of proof, and the same legal rule may be
+expressed in different forms, either as throwing the advantage of a
+presumption on one side, or as throwing the burden of proof on the
+other. Thus the rule in Stephen's Digest, which says that the burden of
+proving that any person has been guilty of a crime or wrongful act is on
+the person who asserts it, appears in the article entitled "Presumption
+of Innocence." Among the more ordinary and more important legal
+presumptions are the presumption of regularity in proceedings, described
+generally as a presumption _omnia esse rite acta_, and including the
+presumption that the holder of a public office has been duly appointed,
+and has duly performed his official duties, the presumption of the
+legitimacy of a child born during the mother's marriage, or within the
+period of gestation after her husband's death, and the presumptions as
+to life and death. "A person shown not to have been heard of for seven
+years by those (if any) who, if he had been alive, would naturally have
+heard of him, is presumed to be dead unless the circumstances of the
+case are such as to account for his not being heard of without assuming
+his death; but there is no presumption as to the time when he died, and
+the burden of proving his death at any particular time is upon the
+person who asserts it. There is no presumption" (i.e. legal presumption)
+"as to the age at which a person died who is shown to have been alive at
+a given time, or as to the order in which two or more persons died who
+are shown to have died in the same accident, shipwreck or battle"
+(Stephen, _Dig._, art. 99). A document proved or purporting to be thirty
+years old is presumed to be genuine, and to have been properly executed
+and (if necessary) attested if produced from the proper custody. And the
+legal presumption of a "lost grant," i.e. the presumption that a right
+or alleged right which has been long enjoyed without interruption had a
+legal origin, still survives in addition to the common law and statutory
+rules of prescription.
+
+4. _Burden of Proof._--The expression _onus probandi_ has come down from
+the classical Roman law, and both it and the Roman maxims, _Agenti
+incumbit probatio_, _Necessitas probandi incumbit ei qui dicit non ei
+qui negat_, and _Reus excipiendo fit actor_, must be read with reference
+to the Roman system of actions, under which nothing was admitted, but
+the plaintiff's case was tried first; then, unless that failed, the
+defendant's on his _exceptio_; then, unless that failed, the plaintiff's
+on his _replicatio_, and so on. Under such a system the burden was
+always on the "actor." In modern law the phrase "burden of proof" may
+mean one of two things, which are often confused--the burden of
+establishing the proposition or issue on which the case depends, and the
+burden of producing evidence on any particular point either at the
+beginning or at a later stage of the case. The burden in the former
+sense ordinarily rests on the plaintiff or prosecutor. The burden in the
+latter sense, that of going forward with evidence on a particular point,
+may shift from side to side as the case proceeds. The general rule is
+that he who alleges a fact must prove it, whether the allegation is
+couched in affirmative or negative terms. But this rule is subject to
+the effect of presumptions in particular cases, to the principle that in
+considering the amount of evidence necessary to shift the burden of
+proof regard must be had to the opportunities of knowledge possessed by
+the parties respectively, and to the express provisions of statutes
+directing where the burden of proof is to lie in particular cases. Thus
+many statutes expressly direct that the proof of lawful excuse or
+authority, or the absence of fraudulent intent, is to lie on the person
+charged with an offence. And the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848 provides
+that if the information or complaint in summary proceedings negatives
+any exemption, exception, proviso, or condition in the statute on which
+it is founded, the prosecutor or complainant need not prove the
+negative, but the defendant may prove the affirmative in his defence.
+
+
+II. CLASSES OF EVIDENCE
+
+Evidence is often described as being either oral or documentary. To
+these two classes should be added a third, called by Bentham real
+evidence, and consisting of things presented immediately to the senses
+of the judge or the jury. Thus the judge or jury may go to view any
+place the sight of which may help to an understanding of the evidence,
+and may inspect anything sufficiently identified and produced in court
+as material to the decision. Weapons, clothes and things alleged to have
+been stolen or damaged are often brought into court for this purpose.
+Oral evidence consists of the statements of witnesses. Documentary
+evidence consists of documents submitted to the judge or jury by way of
+proof. The distinction between primary and secondary evidence relates
+only to documentary evidence, and will be noticed in the section under
+that head. A division of evidence from another point of view is that
+into direct and indirect, or, as it is sometimes called, circumstantial
+evidence. By direct evidence is meant the statement of a person who saw,
+or otherwise observed with his senses, the fact in question. By indirect
+or circumstantial evidence is meant evidence of facts from which the
+fact in question may be inferred. The difference between direct and
+indirect evidence is a difference of kind, not of degree, and therefore
+the rule or maxim as to "best evidence" has no application to it. Juries
+naturally attach more weight to direct evidence, and in some legal
+systems it is only this class of evidence which is allowed to have full
+probative force. In some respects indirect evidence is superior to
+direct evidence, because, as Paley puts it, "facts cannot lie," whilst
+witnesses can and do. On the other hand facts often deceive; that is to
+say, the inferences drawn from them are often erroneous. The
+circumstances in which crimes are ordinarily committed are such that
+direct evidence of their commission is usually not obtainable, and when
+criminality depends on a state of mind, such as intention, that state
+must necessarily be inferred by means of indirect evidence.
+
+
+III. RULES OF EXCLUSION
+
+It seems desirable to state the leading rules of exclusion in their
+crude form instead of obscuring their historical origin by attempting to
+force them into the shape of precise technical propositions forming
+parts of a logically connected system. The judges who laid the
+foundations of our modern law of evidence, like those who first
+discoursed on the duties of trustees, little dreamt of the elaborate and
+artificial system which was to be based upon their remarks. The rules
+will be found, as might be expected, to be vague, to overlap each other,
+to require much explanation, and to be subject to many exceptions. They
+may be stated as follows:--(1) Facts not relevant to the issue cannot be
+admitted as evidence. (2) The evidence produced must be the best
+obtainable under the circumstances. (3) Hearsay is not evidence. (4)
+Opinion is not evidence.
+
+1. _Rule of Relevancy._--The so-called rule of relevancy is sometimes
+stated by text-writers in the form in which it was laid down by Baron
+Parke in 1837 (_Wright_ v. _Doe and Tatham_, 7 A. and E. 384), when he
+described "one great principle" in the law of evidence as being that
+"all facts which are relevant to the issue may be proved." Stated in
+different forms, the rule has been made by FitzJames Stephen the central
+point of his theory of evidence. But relevancy, in the proper and
+natural sense, as we have said, is a matter not of law, but of logic. If
+Baron Parke's dictum relates to relevancy in its natural sense it is
+not true; if it relates to relevancy in a narrow and artificial sense,
+as equivalent to admissible, it is tautological. Such practical
+importance as the rule of relevancy possesses consists, not in what it
+includes, but in what it excludes, and for that reason it seems better
+to state the rule in a negative or exclusive form. But whether the rule
+is stated in a positive or in a negative form its vagueness is apparent.
+No precise line can be drawn between "relevant" and "irrelevant" facts.
+The two classes shade into each other by imperceptible degrees. The
+broad truth is that the courts have excluded from consideration certain
+matters which have some bearing on the question to be decided, and
+which, in that sense, are relevant, and that they have done so on
+grounds of policy and convenience. Among the matters so excluded are
+matters which are likely to mislead the jury, or to complicate the case
+unnecessarily, or which are of slight, remote, or merely conjectural
+importance. Instances of the classes of matters so excluded can be
+given, but it seems difficult to refer their exclusion to any more
+general principle than this. Rules as to evidence of character and
+conduct appear to fall under this principle. Evidence is not admissible
+to show that the person who is alleged to have done a thing was of a
+disposition or character which makes it probable that he would or would
+not have done it. This rule excludes the biographical accounts of the
+prisoner which are so familiar in French trials, and is an important
+principle in English trials. It is subject to three exceptions: first,
+that evidence of good character is admissible in favour of the prisoner
+in all criminal cases; secondly, that a prisoner indicted for rape is
+entitled to call evidence as to the immoral character of the
+prosecutrix; and thirdly, that a witness may be called to say that he
+would not believe a previous witness on his oath. The exception allowing
+the good character of a prisoner to influence the verdict, as
+distinguished from the sentence, is more humane than logical, and seems
+to have been at first admitted in capital cases only. The exception in
+rape cases does not allow evidence to be given of specific acts of
+immorality with persons other than the prisoner, doubtless on the ground
+that such evidence would affect the reputations of third parties. Where
+the character of a person is expressly in issue, as in actions of libel
+and slander, the rule of exclusion, as stated above, does not apply. Nor
+does it prevent evidence of bad character from being given in mitigation
+of damages, where the amount of damages virtually depends on character,
+as in cases of defamation and seduction. As to conduct there is a
+similar general rule, that evidence of the conduct of a person on other
+occasions is not to be used merely for the purpose of showing the
+likelihood of his having acted in a similar way on a particular
+occasion. Thus, on a charge of murder, the prosecutor cannot give
+evidence of the prisoner's conduct to other persons for the purpose of
+proving a bloodthirsty and murderous disposition. And in a civil case a
+defendant was not allowed to show that the plaintiff had sold goods on
+particular terms to other persons for the purpose of proving that he had
+sold similar goods on the same terms to the defendant. But this general
+rule must be carefully construed. Where several offences are so
+connected with each other as to form parts of an entire transaction,
+evidence of one is admissible as proof of another. Thus, where a
+prisoner is charged with stealing particular goods from a particular
+place, evidence may be given that other goods, taken from the same place
+at the same time, were found in his possession. And where it is proved
+or admitted that a person did a particular act, and the question is as
+to his state of mind, that is to say, whether he did the act knowingly,
+intentionally, fraudulently, or the like, evidence may be given of the
+commission by him of similar acts on other occasions for the purpose of
+proving his state of mind on the occasion. This principle is most
+commonly applied in charges for uttering false documents or base coin,
+and not uncommonly in charges for false pretences, embezzlement or
+murder. In proceedings for the receipt or possession of stolen property,
+the legislature has expressly authorized evidence to be given of the
+possession by the prisoner of other stolen property, or of his previous
+conviction of an offence involving fraud or dishonesty (Prevention of
+Crimes Act 1871). Again, where there is a question whether a person
+committed an offence, evidence may be given of any fact supplying a
+motive or constituting preparation for the offence, of any subsequent
+conduct of the person accused, which is apparently influenced by the
+commission of the offence, and of any act done by him, or by his
+authority, in consequence of the offence. Thus, evidence may be given
+that, after the commission of the alleged offence, the prisoner
+absconded, or was in possession of the property, or the proceeds of the
+property, acquired by the offence, or that he attempted to conceal
+things which were or might have been used in committing the offence, or
+as to the manner in which he conducted himself when statements were made
+in his presence and hearing. Statements made to or in the presence of a
+person charged with an offence are admitted as evidence, not of the
+facts stated, but of the conduct or demeanour of the person to whom or
+in whose presence they are made, or of the general character of the
+transaction of which they form part (under the _res gestae_ rule
+mentioned below).
+
+2. _Best Evidence Rule._--Statements to the effect of the best evidence
+rule were often made by Chief Justice Holt about the beginning of the
+18th century, and became familiar in the courts. Chief Baron Gilbert, in
+his book on evidence, which must have been written before 1726, says
+that "the first and most signal rule in relation to evidence is this,
+that a man must have the utmost evidence the nature of the fact is
+capable of." And in the great case of _Omichund_ v. _Barker_ (1744),
+Lord Hardwicke went so far as to say, "The judges and sages of the law
+have laid down that there is but one general rule of evidence, the best
+that the nature of the case will admit" (1 Atkyns 49). It is no wonder
+that a rule thus solemnly stated should have found a prominent place in
+text-books on the law of evidence. But, apart from its application to
+documentary evidence, it does not seem to be more than a useful guiding
+principle which underlies, or may be used in support of, several rules.
+
+It is to documentary evidence that the principle is usually applied, in
+the form of the narrower rule excluding, subject to exceptions,
+secondary evidence of the contents of a document where primary evidence
+is obtainable. In this form the rule is a rule of exclusion, but may be
+most conveniently dealt with in connexion with the special subject of
+documentary evidence. As noticed above, the general rule does not apply
+to the difference between direct and indirect evidence. And, doubtless
+on account of its vague character, it finds no place in Stephen's
+Digest.
+
+3. _Hearsay._--The term "hearsay" primarily applies to what a witness
+has heard another person say in respect to a fact in dispute. But it is
+extended to any statement, whether reduced to writing or not, which is
+brought before the court, not by the author of the statement, but by a
+person to whose knowledge the statement has been brought. Thus the
+hearsay rule excludes statements, oral or written, made in the first
+instance by a person who is not called as a witness in the case.
+Historically this rule may be traced to the time when the functions of
+the witnesses were first distinguished from the functions of the jury,
+and when the witnesses were required by their formula to testify _de
+visu suo et auditu_, to state what they knew about facts from the direct
+evidence of their senses, not from the information of others. The rule
+excludes statements the effect of which is liable to be altered by the
+narrator, and which purport to have been made by persons who did not
+necessarily speak under the sanction of an oath, and whose accuracy or
+veracity is not tested by cross-examination. It is therefore of
+practical utility in shutting out many loose statements and much
+irresponsible gossip. On the other hand, it excludes statements which
+are of some value as evidence, and may indeed be the only available
+evidence. Thus, a statement has been excluded as hearsay, even though it
+can be proved that the author of the statement made it on oath, or that
+it was against his interest when he made it, or that he is prevented by
+insanity or other illness from giving evidence himself, or that he has
+left the country and disappeared, or that he is dead.
+
+  Owing to the inconveniences which would be caused by a strict
+  application of the rule, it has been so much eaten into by exceptions
+  that some persons doubt whether the rule and the exceptions ought not
+  to change places. Among the exceptions the following may be noticed:
+  (a) _Certain sworn statements_.--In many cases statements made by a
+  person whose evidence is material, but who cannot come before the
+  court, or could not come before it without serious difficulty, delay
+  or expense, may be admitted as evidence under proper safeguards. Under
+  the Indictable Offences Act 1848, where a person has made a deposition
+  before a justice at a preliminary inquiry into an offence, his
+  deposition may be read in evidence on proof that the deponent is dead,
+  or too ill to travel, that the deposition was taken in the presence of
+  the accused person, and that the accused then had a full opportunity
+  of cross-examining the deponent. The deposition must appear to be
+  signed by the justice before whom it purports to have been taken.
+  Depositions taken before a coroner are admissible under the same
+  principle. And the principle probably extends to cases where the
+  deponent is insane, or kept away by the person accused. There are
+  other statutory provisions for the admission of depositions, as in the
+  Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867; the Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890;
+  and the Children Act 1908, incorporating an act of 1894. In civil
+  cases the rule excluding statements not made in court at the trial is
+  much less strictly applied. Frequent use is made of evidence taken
+  before an examiner, or under a commission. Affidavits are freely used
+  for subordinate issues or under an arrangement between the parties,
+  and leave may be given to use evidence taken in other proceedings. The
+  old chancery practice, under which evidence, both at the trial and at
+  other stages of a proceeding, was normally taken by affidavit,
+  irrespectively of consent, was altered by the Judicature Acts. Under
+  the existing rules of the supreme court evidence may be given by
+  affidavit upon any motion, petition or summons, but the court or a
+  judge may, on the application of either party, order the attendance
+  for cross-examination of the person making the affidavit. (b) _Dying
+  declarations._--In a trial for murder or manslaughter a declaration by
+  the person killed as to the cause of his death, or as to any of the
+  circumstances of the transaction which resulted in his death, is
+  admissible as evidence. But this exception is very strictly construed.
+  It must be proved that the declarant, at the time of making the
+  declaration, was in actual danger of death, and had given up all hope
+  of recovery. (c) _Statements in pedigree cases._--On a question of
+  pedigree the statement of a deceased person, whether based on his own
+  personal knowledge or on family tradition, is admissible as evidence,
+  if it is proved that the person who made the statement was related to
+  the person about whose family relations the statement was made, and
+  that the statement was made before the question with respect to which
+  the evidence is required had arisen. (d) _Statements as to matters of
+  public or general interest._--Statements by deceased persons are
+  admissible as evidence of reputation or general belief in questions
+  relating to the existence of any public or general right or custom, or
+  matter of public and general interest. Statements of this kind are
+  constantly admitted in questions relating to right of way, or rights
+  of common, or manorial or other local customs. Maps, copies of court
+  rolls, leases and other deeds, and verdicts, judgments, and orders of
+  court fall within the exception in cases of this kind. (e) _Statements
+  in course of duty or business._--A statement with respect to a
+  particular fact made by a deceased person in pursuance of his duty in
+  connexion with any office, employment or business, whether public or
+  private, is admissible as evidence of that fact, if the statement
+  appears to have been made from personal knowledge, and at or about the
+  time when the fact occurred. This exception covers entries by clerks
+  and other employees. (f) _Statements against interest._--A statement
+  made by a deceased person against his pecuniary or proprietary
+  interest is admissible as evidence, without reference to the time at
+  which it was made. Where such a statement is admissible the whole of
+  it becomes admissible, though it may contain matters not against the
+  interest of the person who made it, and though the total effect may be
+  in his favour. Thus, where there was a question whether a particular
+  sum was a gift or a loan, entries in an account book of receipt of
+  interest on the sum were admitted, and a statement in the book that
+  the alleged debtor had on a particular date acknowledged the loan was
+  also admitted. (g) _Public documents._--Under this head may be placed
+  recitals in public acts of parliament, notices in the _London_,
+  _Edinburgh_, or _Dublin Gazette_ (which are made evidence by statute
+  in a large number of cases), and entries made in the performance of
+  duty in official registers or records, such as registers of births,
+  deaths or marriages, registers of companies, records in judicial
+  proceedings, and the like. An entry in a public document may be
+  treated as a statement made in the course of duty, but it is
+  admissible whether the person who made the statement is alive or dead,
+  and without any evidence as to personal knowledge, or the time at
+  which the statement is made. (h) _Admissions._--By the term
+  "admission," as here used, is meant a statement made out of the
+  witness-box by a party to the proceedings, whether civil or criminal,
+  or by some person whose statements are binding on that party, against
+  the interest of that party. The term includes admissions made in
+  answer to interrogatories, or to a notice to admit facts, but not
+  admissions made on the pleadings. Admissions, in this sense of the
+  term, are admissible as evidence against the person by whom they are
+  made, or on whom they are binding, without reference to the life or
+  death of the person who made them. A person is bound by the statements
+  of his agent, acting within the scope of his authority, and barristers
+  and solicitors are agents for their clients in the conduct of legal
+  proceedings. Conversely, a person suing or defending on behalf of
+  another, e.g. as agent or trustee, is bound by the statements of the
+  person whom he represents. Statements respecting property made by a
+  predecessor in title bind the successor. Where a statement is put in
+  evidence as an admission by, or binding on, any person, that person is
+  entitled to have the whole statement given in evidence. The principle
+  of this rule is obviously sound, because it would be unfair to pick
+  out from a man's statement what tells against him, and to suppress
+  what is in his favour. But the application of the rule is sometimes
+  attended with difficulty. An admission will not be allowed to be used
+  as evidence if it was made under a stipulation, express or implied,
+  that it should not be so used. Such admissions are said to be made
+  "without prejudice." (i) _Confessions._--A confession is an admission
+  by a person accused of an offence that he has committed the offence of
+  which he is accused. But the rules about admitting as evidence
+  confessions in criminal proceedings are much more strict than the
+  rules about admissions in civil proceedings. The general rule is, that
+  a confession is not admissible as evidence against any person except
+  the person who makes it. But a confession made by one accomplice in
+  the presence of another is admissible against the latter to this
+  extent, that, if it implicates him, his silence under the charge may
+  be used against him, whilst on the other hand his prompt repudiation
+  of the charge might tell in his favour. In other words, the confession
+  may be used as evidence of the conduct of the person in whose presence
+  it was made. A confession cannot be admitted as evidence unless proved
+  to be voluntary. A confession is not treated as being voluntary if it
+  appears to the court to have been caused by any inducement, threat or
+  promise which proceeded from a magistrate or other person in authority
+  concerned in the charge, and which, in the opinion of the court, gave
+  the accused person reasonable ground for supposing that by making a
+  confession he would gain some advantage or avoid some evil in
+  reference to the proceedings against him. This applies to any
+  inducement, threat or promise having reference to the charge, whether
+  it is addressed directly to the accused person or is brought to his
+  knowledge indirectly. But a confession is not involuntary merely
+  because it appears to have been caused by the exhortations of a person
+  in authority to make it as a matter of religious duty, or by an
+  inducement collateral to the proceedings, or by an inducement held out
+  by a person having nothing to do with the apprehension, prosecution or
+  examination of the prisoner. Thus, a confession made to a gaol
+  chaplain in consequence of religious exhortation has been admitted as
+  evidence. So also has a confession made by a prisoner to a gaoler in
+  consequence of a promise by the gaoler, that if the prisoner confessed
+  he should be allowed to see his wife. To make a confession
+  involuntary, the inducement must have reference to the prisoner's
+  escape from the charge against him, and must be made by some person
+  having power to relieve him, wholly or partially, from the
+  consequences of the charge. A confession is treated as voluntary if,
+  in the opinion of the court, it was made after the complete removal of
+  the impression produced by any inducement, threat or promise which
+  would have made it involuntary. Where a confession was made under an
+  inducement which makes the confession involuntary, evidence may be
+  given of facts discovered in consequence of the confession, and of so
+  much of the confession as distinctly relates to those facts. Thus, A.
+  under circumstances which make the confession involuntary, tells a
+  policeman that he, A., had thrown a lantern into the pond. Evidence
+  may be given that the lantern was found in the pond, and that A. said
+  he had thrown it there. It is of course improper to try to extort a
+  confession by fraud or under the promise of secrecy. But if a
+  confession is otherwise admissible as evidence, it does not become
+  inadmissible _merely_ because it was made under a promise of secrecy,
+  or in consequence of a deception practised on the accused person for
+  the purpose of obtaining it, or when he was drunk, or because it was
+  made in answer to questions, whether put by a magistrate or by a
+  private person, or because he was not warned that he was not bound to
+  make the confession, and that it might be used against him. If a
+  confession is given in evidence, the whole of it must be given, and
+  not merely the parts disadvantageous to the accused person. Evidence
+  amounting to a confession may be used as such against the person who
+  gave it, though it was given on oath, and though the proceeding in
+  which it was given had reference to the same subject-matter as the
+  proceeding in which it is to be used, and though the witness might
+  have refused to answer the questions put to him. But if, after
+  refusing to answer such questions, the witness is improperly compelled
+  to answer, his answers are not a voluntary confession. The grave
+  jealousy and suspicion with which the English law regards confessions
+  offer a marked contrast to the importance attached to this form of
+  evidence in other systems of procedure, such as the inquisitorial
+  system which long prevailed, and still to some extent prevails, on the
+  continent. (j) _Res gestae._--Statements are often admitted as
+  evidence on the ground that they form part of what is called the
+  "transaction," or _res gestae_, the occurrence or nature of which is
+  in question. For instance, where an act may be proved, statements
+  accompanying and explaining the act made by or to the person doing it,
+  may be given in evidence. There is no difficulty in understanding the
+  principle on which this exception from the hearsay rule rests, but
+  there is often practical difficulty in applying it, and the practice
+  has varied. How long is the "transaction" to be treated as lasting?
+  What ought to be treated as "the immediate and natural effect of
+  continuing action," and, for that reason, as part of the _res gestae_?
+  When an act of violence is committed, to what extent are the terms of
+  the complaint made by the sufferer, as distinguished from the fact of
+  a complaint having been made, admissible as evidence? These are some
+  of the questions raised. The cases in which statements by a person as
+  to his bodily or mental condition may be put in evidence may perhaps
+  be treated as falling under the same principle. In the Rugeley
+  poisoning case, statements by the deceased person before his illness
+  as to his state of health, and as to his symptoms during illness, were
+  admitted as evidence for the prosecution. Under the same principle may
+  also be brought the rule as to statements in conspiracy cases. In
+  charges of conspiracy, after evidence has been given of the existence
+  of the plot, and of the connexion of the accused with it, the charge
+  against one conspirator may be supported by evidence of anything done,
+  written, or said, not only by him, but by any other of the
+  conspirators, in furtherance of the common purpose. On the other hand,
+  a statement made by one conspirator, not in execution of the common
+  purpose, but in narration of some event forming part of the
+  conspiracy, would be treated, not as part of the "transaction," but as
+  a statement excluded by the hearsay rule. Thus the admissibility of
+  writings in conspiracy cases may depend on the time when they can be
+  shown to have been in the possession of a fellow-conspirator, whether
+  before or after the prisoner's apprehension. (k) _Complaints in rape
+  cases, &c._--In trials for rape and similar offences, the fact that
+  shortly after the commission of the alleged offence a complaint was
+  made by the person against whom the offence was committed, and also
+  the terms of the complaint, have been admitted as evidence, not of the
+  facts complained of, but of the consistency of the complainant's
+  conduct with the story told by her in the witness-box, and as
+  negativing consent on her part.
+
+4. _Opinion._--The rule excluding expressions of opinion also dates from
+the first distinction between the functions of witnesses and jury. It
+was for the witnesses to state facts, for the jury to form conclusions.
+Of course every statement of fact involves inference, and implies a
+judgment on phenomena observed by the senses. And the inference is often
+erroneous, as in the answer to the question, "Was he drunk?" A prudent
+witness will often guard himself, and is allowed to guard himself, by
+answering to the best of his belief. But, for practical purposes, it is
+possible to draw a distinction between a statement of facts observed and
+an expression of opinion as to the inference to be drawn from these
+facts, and the rule telling witnesses to state facts and not express
+opinions is of great value in keeping their statements out of the region
+of argument and conjecture. The evidence of "experts," that is to say,
+of persons having a special knowledge of some particular subject, is
+generally described as constituting the chief exception to the rule. But
+perhaps it would be more accurate to say that experts are allowed a much
+wider range than ordinary witnesses in the expression of their opinions,
+and in the statement of facts on which their opinions are based. Thus,
+in a poisoning case, a doctor may be asked as an expert whether, in his
+opinion, a particular poison produces particular symptoms. And, where
+lunacy is set up as a defence, an expert may be asked whether, in his
+opinion, the symptoms exhibited by the alleged lunatic commonly show
+unsoundness of mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually
+renders persons incapable of knowing the nature of their acts, or of
+knowing that what they do is either wrong or contrary to the law.
+Similar principles are applied to the evidence of engineers, and in
+numerous other cases. In cases of disputed handwriting the evidence of
+experts in handwriting is expressly recognized by statute (Evidence and
+Practice on Criminal Trials 1865).
+
+
+IV. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
+
+Charters and other writings were exhibited to the jury at a very early
+date, and it is to writings so exhibited that the term "evidence" or
+"evidences" seems to have been originally applied _par excellence_. The
+oral evidence of witnesses came later. Where a document is to be used as
+evidence the first question is how its contents are to be proved. To
+this question the principle of "best evidence" applies, in the form of
+the rule that primary evidence must be given except in the cases where
+secondary evidence is allowed. By primary evidence is meant the document
+itself produced for inspection. By secondary evidence is meant a copy
+of the document, or verbal accounts of its contents.
+
+  The rule as to the inadmissibility of a copy of a document is applied
+  much more strictly to private than to public or official documents.
+  Secondary evidence may be given of the contents of a private document
+  in the following cases:
+
+  (a) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession of
+  the adverse party, and he, after having been served with reasonable
+  notice to produce it, does not do so.
+
+  (b) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession or
+  power of a stranger not legally bound to produce it, and he, after
+  having been served with a writ of _subpoena duces tecum_, or after
+  having been sworn as a witness and asked for the document, and having
+  admitted that it is in court, refuses to produce it.
+
+  (c) Where it is shown that proper search has been made for the
+  original, and there is reason for believing that it is destroyed or
+  lost.
+
+  (d) Where the original is of such a nature as not to be easily
+  movable, as in the case of a placard posted on a wall, or of a
+  tombstone, or is in a country from which it is not permitted to be
+  removed.
+
+  (e) Where the original is a document for the proof of which special
+  provision is made by any act of parliament, or any law in force for
+  the time being. Documents of that kind are practically treated on the
+  same footing as private documents.
+
+  (f) Where the document is an entry in a banker's book, provable
+  according to the special provisions of the Bankers' Books Evidence Act
+  1879.
+
+  Secondary evidence of a private document is usually given either by
+  producing a copy and calling a witness who can prove the copy to be
+  correct, or, when there is no copy obtainable, by calling a witness
+  who has seen the document, and can give an account of its contents. No
+  general definition of public document is possible, but the rules of
+  evidence applicable to public documents are expressly applied by
+  statute to many classes of documents. Primary evidence of any public
+  document may be given by producing the document from proper custody,
+  and by a witness identifying it as being what it professes to be.
+  Public documents may always be proved by secondary evidence, but the
+  particular kind of secondary evidence required is in many cases
+  defined by statute. Where a document is of such a public nature as to
+  be admissible in evidence on its mere production from the proper
+  custody, and no statute exists which renders its contents provable by
+  means of a copy, any copy thereof or extract therefrom is admissible
+  as proof of its contents, if it is proved to be an examined copy or
+  extract, or purports to be signed or certified as a true copy or
+  extract by the officer to whose custody the original is entrusted.
+  Many statutes provide that various certificates, official and public
+  documents, documents and proceedings of corporations and of joint
+  stock and other companies, and certified copies of documents, by-laws,
+  entries in registers and other books, shall be receivable as evidence
+  of certain particulars in courts of justice, if they are authenticated
+  in the manner prescribed by the statutes. Whenever, by virtue of any
+  such provision, any such certificate or certified copy is receivable
+  as proof of any particular in any court of justice, it is admissible
+  as evidence, if it purports to be authenticated in the manner
+  prescribed by law, without calling any witness to prove any stamp,
+  seal, or signature required for its authentication, or the official
+  character of the person who appears to have signed it. The Documentary
+  Evidence Acts 1868, 1882 and 1895, provide modes of proving the
+  contents of several classes of proclamations, orders and regulations.
+
+  If a document is of a kind which is required by law to be attested,
+  but not otherwise, an attesting witness must be called to prove its
+  due execution. But this rule is subject to the following exceptions:
+
+  (a) If it is proved that there is no attesting witness alive, and
+  capable of giving evidence, then it is sufficient to prove that the
+  attestation of at least one attesting witness is in his handwriting,
+  and that the signature of the person executing the document is in the
+  handwriting of that person.
+
+  (b) If the document is proved, or purports to be, more than thirty
+  years old, and is produced from what the court considers to be its
+  proper custody, an attesting witness need not be called, and it will
+  be presumed without evidence that the instrument was duly executed and
+  attested.
+
+Where a document embodies a judgment, a contract, a grant, or
+disposition of property, or any other legal transaction or "act in the
+law," on which rights depend, the validity of the transaction may be
+impugned on the ground of fraud, incapacity, want of consideration, or
+other legal ground. But this seems outside the law of evidence. In this
+class of cases a question often arises whether extrinsic evidence can be
+produced to vary the nature of the transaction embodied in the document.
+The answer to this question seems to depend on whether the document was
+or was not intended to be a complete and final statement of the
+transaction which it embodies. If it was, you cannot go outside the
+document for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the transaction.
+If it was not, you may. But the mere statement of this test shows the
+difficulty of formulating precise rules, and of applying them when
+formulated. FitzJames Stephen mentions, among the facts which may be
+proved in these cases, the existence of separate and consistent oral
+agreements as to matters on which the document is silent, if there is
+reason to believe that the document is not a complete and final
+statement of the transaction, and the existence of any usage or custom
+with reference to which a contract may be presumed to have been made.
+But he admits that the rules on the subject are "by no means easy to
+apply, inasmuch as from the nature of the case an enormous number of
+transactions fall close on one side or the other of most of them." The
+underlying principle appears to be a rule of substantive law rather than
+of evidence. When parties to an arrangement have reduced the terms of
+the arrangement to a definite, complete, and final written form, they
+should be bound exclusively by the terms embodied in that form. The
+question in each case is under what circumstances they ought to be
+treated as having done so.
+
+The expression "parol evidence," which includes written as well as
+verbal evidence, has often been applied to the extrinsic evidence
+produced for the purpose of varying the nature of the transaction
+embodied in a document. It is also applied to extrinsic evidence used
+for another purpose, namely, that of explaining the meaning of the terms
+used in a document. The two questions, What is the real nature of the
+transaction referred to in a document? and, What is the meaning of a
+document? are often confused, but are really distinct from each other.
+The rules bearing on the latter question are rules of construction or
+interpretation rather than of evidence, but are ordinarily treated as
+part of the law of evidence, and are for that reason included by
+FitzJames Stephen in his Digest. In stating these rules he adopts, with
+verbal modifications, the six propositions laid down by Vice-Chancellor
+Wigram in his _Examinations of the Rules of Law respecting the admission
+of Extrinsic Evidence in Aid of the Interpretation of Wills_. The
+substance of these propositions appears to be this, that wherever the
+meaning of a document cannot be satisfactorily ascertained from the
+document itself, use may be made of any other evidence for the purpose
+of elucidating the meaning, subject to one restriction, that, except in
+cases of equivocation, i.e. where a person or thing is described in
+terms applicable equally to more than one, resort cannot be had to
+extrinsic expressions of the author's intention.
+
+
+V. WITNESSES
+
+1. _Attendance._--If a witness does not attend voluntarily he can be
+required to attend by a writ of _subpoena_.
+
+2. _Competency._--As a general rule every person is a competent witness.
+Formerly persons were disqualified by crime or interest, or by being
+parties to the proceedings, but these disqualifications have now been
+removed by statute, and the circumstances which formerly created them do
+not affect the competency, though they may often affect the credibility,
+of a witness.
+
+Under the general law as it stood before the Criminal Evidence Act 1898
+came into force, a person charged with an offence was not competent to
+give evidence on his own behalf. But many exceptions had been made to
+this rule by legislation, and the rule itself was finally abolished by
+the act of 1898. Under that law a person charged is a competent witness,
+but he can only give evidence for the defence, and can only give
+evidence if he himself applies to do so. Under the law as it stood
+before 1898, persons jointly charged and being tried together were not
+competent to give evidence either for or against each other. Under the
+act of 1898 a person charged jointly with another is a competent
+witness, but only for the defence, and not for the prosecution. If,
+therefore, one of the persons charged applies to give evidence his
+cross-examination must not be conducted with a view to establish the
+guilt of the other. Consequently, if it is thought desirable to use
+against one prisoner the evidence of another who is being tried with
+him, the latter should be released, or a separate verdict of not guilty
+taken against him. A prisoner so giving evidence is popularly said to
+turn king's evidence. It follows that, subject to what has been said
+above as to persons tried together, the evidence of an accomplice is
+admissible against his principal, and _vice versa_. The evidence of an
+accomplice is, however, always received with great jealousy and caution.
+A conviction on the unsupported testimony of an accomplice may, in some
+cases, be strictly legal, but the practice is to require it to be
+confirmed by unimpeachable testimony in some material part, and more
+especially as to his identification of the person or persons against
+whom his evidence may be received. The wife of a person charged is now a
+competent witness, but, except in certain special cases, she can only
+give evidence for the defence, and can only give evidence if her husband
+applies that she should do so. The special cases in which a wife can be
+called as a witness either for the prosecution or for the defence, and
+without the consent of the person charged, are cases arising under
+particular enactments scheduled to the act of 1898, and relating mainly
+to offences against wives and children, and cases in which the wife is
+by common law a competent witness against her husband, i.e. where the
+proceeding is against the husband for bodily injury or violence
+inflicted on his wife. The rule of exclusion extends only to a lawful
+wife. There is no ground for supposing that the wife of a prosecutor is
+an incompetent witness. A witness is incompetent if, in the opinion of
+the court, he is prevented by extreme youth, disease affecting his mind,
+or any other cause of the same kind, from recollecting the matter on
+which he is to testify, from understanding the questions put to him,
+from giving rational answers to those questions, or from knowing that he
+ought to speak the truth. A witness unable to speak or hear is not
+incompetent, but may give his evidence by writing or by signs, or in any
+other manner in which he can make it intelligible. The particular form
+of the religious belief of a witness, or his want of religious belief,
+does not affect his competency. This ground of incompetency has now been
+finally removed by the Oaths Act 1888. It will be seen that the effect
+of the successive enactments which have gradually removed the
+disqualifications attaching to various classes of witnesses has been to
+draw a distinction between the _competency_ of a witness and his
+_credibility_. No person is disqualified on moral or religious grounds,
+but his character may be such as to throw grave doubts on the value of
+his evidence. No relationship, except to a limited extent that of
+husband and wife, excludes from giving evidence. The parent may be
+examined on the trial of the child, the child on that of the parent,
+master for or against servant, and servant for or against master. The
+relationship of the witness to the prosecutor or the prisoner in such
+cases may affect the credibility of the witness, but does not exclude
+his evidence.
+
+3. _Privilege._--It does not follow that, because a person is
+_competent_ to give evidence, he can therefore be compelled to do so.
+
+No one, except a person charged with an offence when giving evidence on
+his own application, and as to the offence wherewith he is charged, is
+bound to answer a question if the answer would, in the opinion of the
+court, have a tendency to expose the witness, or the wife or husband of
+the witness, to any criminal charge, penalty, or forfeiture, which the
+court regards as reasonably likely to be preferred or sued for.
+Accordingly, an accomplice cannot be examined without his consent, but
+if an accomplice who has come forward to give evidence on a promise of
+pardon, or favourable consideration, refuses to give full and fair
+information, he renders himself liable to be convicted on his own
+confession. However, even accomplices in such circumstances are not
+required to answer on their cross-examination as to other offences.
+Where, under the new law, a person charged with an offence offers
+himself as a witness, he may be asked any question in cross-examination,
+notwithstanding that it would tend to criminate him as to the offence
+charged. But he may not be asked, and if he is asked must not be
+required to answer, any question tending to show that he has committed,
+or been convicted of, or been charged with, any other offence, or is of
+bad character, unless:--
+
+  (i.) The proof that he has committed, or been convicted of, the other
+  offence is admissible evidence to show that he is guilty of the
+  offence with which he is then charged; or,
+
+  (ii.) He has personally, or by his advocate, asked questions of the
+  witnesses for the prosecution, with a view to establish his own good
+  character, or has given evidence of his good character, or the nature
+  or conduct of the defence is such as to involve imputations on the
+  character of the prosecutor or the witnesses for the prosecution; or,
+
+  (iii.) He has given evidence against any other person charged with the
+  same offence.
+
+He may not be asked questions tending to criminate his wife.
+
+The privilege as to criminating answers does not cover answers merely
+tending to establish a civil liability. No one is excused from answering
+a question or producing a document only because the answer or document
+may establish or tend to establish that he owes a debt, or is otherwise
+liable to any civil proceeding. It is a privilege for the protection of
+the witness, and therefore may be waived by him. But there are other
+privileges which cannot be so waived. Thus, on grounds of public policy,
+no one can be compelled, or is allowed, to give evidence relating to any
+affairs of state, or as to official communications between public
+officers upon public affairs, except with the consent of the head of the
+department concerned, and this consent is refused if the production of
+the information asked for is considered detrimental to the public
+service.
+
+Again, in cases in which the government is immediately concerned, no
+witness can be compelled to answer any question the answer to which
+would tend to discover the names of persons by or to whom information
+was given as to the commission of offences. It is, as a rule, for the
+court to decide whether the permission of any such question would or
+would not, under the circumstances of the particular case, be injurious
+to the administration of justice.
+
+A husband is not compellable to disclose any communication made to him
+by his wife during the marriage; and a wife is not compellable to
+disclose any communication made to her by her husband during the
+marriage.
+
+A legal adviser is not permitted, whether during or after the
+termination of his employment as such, unless with his client's express
+consent, to disclose any communication, oral or documentary, made to him
+_as such legal adviser_, by or on behalf of his client, during, in the
+course of, and for the purpose of his employment, or to disclose any
+advice given by him to his client during, in the course of, and for the
+purpose of such employment. But this protection does not extend to--
+
+(a) Any such communication if made in furtherance of any criminal
+purpose; nor
+
+(b) Any fact observed by a legal adviser in the course of his employment
+as such, showing that any crime or fraud has been committed since the
+commencement of his employment, whether his attention was directed to
+such fact by or on behalf of his client or not; nor
+
+(c) Any fact with which the legal adviser became acquainted otherwise
+than in his character as such.
+
+Medical men and clergymen are not privileged from the disclosure of
+communications made to them in professional confidence, but it is not
+usual to press for the disclosures of communications made to clergymen.
+
+4. _Oaths._--A witness must give his evidence under the sanction of an
+oath, or of what is equivalent to an oath, that is to say, of a solemn
+promise to speak the truth. The ordinary form of oath is adapted to
+Christians, but a person belonging to a non-Christian religion may be
+sworn in any form prescribed or recognized by the custom of his
+religion. (See the article OATH.)
+
+5. _Publicity._--The evidence of a witness at a trial must, as a general
+rule, be given in open court in the course of the trial. The secrecy
+which was such a characteristic feature of the "inquisition" procedure
+is abhorrent to English law, and, even where publicity conflicts with
+decency, English courts are very reluctant to dispense with or relax the
+safeguards for justice which publicity involves.
+
+6. _Examination._--The normal course of procedure is this. The party who
+begins, i.e. ordinarily the plaintiff or prosecutor, calls his witnesses
+in order. Each witness is first examined on behalf of the party for whom
+he is called. This is called the examination in chief. Then he is liable
+to be cross-examined on behalf of the other side. And, finally, he may
+be re-examined on behalf of his own side. After the case for the other
+side has been opened, the same procedure is adopted with the witnesses
+for that side. In some cases the party who began is allowed to adduce
+further evidence in reply to his opponent's evidence. The examination is
+conducted, not by the court, but by or on behalf of the contending
+parties. It will be seen that the principle underlying this procedure is
+that of the duel, or conflict between two contending parties, each
+relying on and using his own evidence, and trying to break down the
+evidence of his opponent. It differs from the principle of the
+"inquisition" procedure, in which the court takes a more active part,
+and in which the cases for the two sides are not so sharply
+distinguished. In a continental trial it is often difficult to determine
+whether the case for the prosecution or the case for the defence is
+proceeding. Conflicting witnesses stand up together and are "confronted"
+with each other. In the examination in chief questions must be confined
+to matters bearing on the main question at issue, and a witness must not
+be asked leading questions, i.e. questions suggesting the answer which
+the person putting the question wishes or expects to receive, or
+suggesting disputed facts about which the witness is to testify. But the
+rule about leading questions is not applied where the questions asked
+are simply introductory, and form no part of the real substance of the
+inquiry, or where they relate to matters which, though material, are not
+disputed. And if the witness called by a person appears to be directly
+hostile to him, or interested on the other side, or unwilling to reply,
+the reason for the rules applying to examination in chief breaks down,
+and the witness may be asked leading questions and cross-examined, and
+treated in every respect as though he was a witness called on the other
+side, except that a party producing a witness must not impeach his
+credit by general evidence of bad character (Evidence and Practice on
+Criminal Trials Act 1865). In cross-examination questions not bearing on
+the main issue and leading questions may be put and (subject to the
+rules as to privilege) must be answered, as the cross-examiner is
+entitled to test the examination in chief by every means in his power.
+Questions not bearing on the main issue are often asked in
+cross-examination merely for the purpose of putting off his guard a
+witness who is supposed to have learnt up his story. In
+cross-examination questions may also be asked which tend either to test
+the accuracy or credibility of the witness, or to shake his credit by
+impeaching his motives or injuring his character. The licence allowed in
+cross-examination has often been seriously abused, and the power of the
+court to check it is recognized by one of the rules of the supreme court
+(R.S.C. xxxvi. 39, added in 1883). It is considered wrong to put
+questions which assume that facts have been proved which have not been
+proved, or that answers have been given contrary to the fact. A witness
+ought not to be pressed in cross-examination as to any facts which, if
+admitted, would not affect the question at issue or the credibility of
+the witness. If the cross-examiner intends to adduce evidence contrary
+to the evidence given by the witness, he ought to put to the witness in
+cross-examination the substance of the evidence which he proposes to
+adduce, in order to give the witness an opportunity of retracting or
+explaining. Where a witness has answered a question which only tends to
+affect his credibility by injuring his character, it is only in a
+limited number of cases that evidence can be given to contradict his
+answer. Where he is asked whether he has ever been convicted of any
+felony or misdemeanour, and denies or refuses to answer, proof may be
+given of the truth of the facts suggested (28 & 29 Vict. c. 15, s. 6).
+The same rule is observed where he is asked a question tending to show
+that he is not impartial. Where a witness has previously made a
+statement inconsistent with his evidence, proof may be given that he did
+in fact make it. But before such proof is given the circumstances of the
+alleged statement, sufficient to designate the particular occasion,
+must be mentioned to the witness, and he must be asked whether he did or
+did not make the statement. And if the statement was made in, or has
+been reduced to, writing, the attention of the witness must, before the
+writing is used against him, be called to those parts of the writing
+which are to be used for the purpose of contradicting him (Evidence and
+Practice on Criminal Trials Act 1865, ss. 4, 5). The credibility of a
+witness may be impeached by the evidence of persons who swear that they,
+from their knowledge of the witness, believe him to be unworthy of
+credit on his oath. These persons may not on their examination in chief
+give reasons for their belief, but they may be asked their reasons in
+cross-examination, and their answers cannot be contradicted. When the
+credit of a witness is so impeached, the party who called the witness
+may give evidence in reply to show that the witness is worthy of credit.
+Re-examination must be directed exclusively to the explanation of
+matters referred to in cross-examination, and if new matter is, by the
+permission of the court, introduced in re-examination, the other side
+may further cross-examine upon it. A witness under examination may
+refresh his memory by referring to any writing made by himself at or
+about the time of the occurrence to which the writing relates, or made
+by any other person, and read and found accurate by the witness at or
+about the time. An expert may refresh his memory by reference to
+professional treatises.
+
+  For the history of the English law of evidence, see Brunner,
+  _Entstehung der Schwurgerichte_; Bigelow, _History of Procedure in
+  England_; Stephen (Sir J.F.), _History of the Criminal Law of
+  England_; Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, bk. ii. ch.
+  ix.; Thayer, Preliminary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law. The
+  principal text-books now in use are--Roscoe, _Digest of the Law of
+  Evidence on the Trial of Actions at Nisi Prius_ (18th ed., 1907);
+  Roscoe, _Digest of the Law of Evidence in Criminal Cases_ (13th ed.,
+  1908); Taylor, _Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., 1906);
+  Best, _Principles of the Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., 1906); Powell,
+  _Principles and Practice of the Law of Evidence_ (8th ed., 1904);
+  Stephen, _Digest of the Law of Evidence_ (8th ed., 1907); Wills,
+  _Theory and Practice of the Law of Evidence_ (1907). For the history
+  of the law of criminal evidence in France, see Esmein, _Hist. de la
+  procédure criminelle en France_. For Germany, see Holtzendorff,
+  _Encyclopädie der Rechtswissenschaft_ (passages indexed under head
+  "Beweis"); Holtzendorff, _Rechtslexikon_ ("Beweis").     (C. P. I.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Reference may be made to a well-known passage in the _Essay
+    concerning Human Understanding_ (Book iv. ch. xv.): "The grounds of
+    probability are--First, the conformity of anything with our own
+    knowledge, observation and experience. Second, the testimony of
+    others touching their observation and experience. In the testimony of
+    others is to be considered (1) the number, (2) the integrity, (3) the
+    skill of the witnesses. (4) The design of the author, where it is a
+    testimony out of a book cited. (5) The consistency of the parts and
+    circumstances of the relation. (6) Contrary testimonies."
+
+
+
+
+EVIL EYE. The terror of the arts of "fascination," i.e. that certain
+persons can bewitch, injure and even kill with a glance, has been and is
+still very widely spread. The power was not thought to be always
+maliciously cultivated. It was as often supposed to be involuntary (cf.
+Deuteronomy xxviii. 54); and a story is told of a Slav who, afflicted
+with the evil eye, at last blinded himself in order that he might not be
+the means of injuring his children (Woyciki, _Polish Folklore_, trans.
+by Lewenstein, p. 25). Few of the old classic writers fail to refer to
+the dread power. In Rome the "evil eye" was so well recognized that
+Pliny states that special laws were enacted against injury to crops by
+incantation, excantation or fascination. The power was styled [Greek:
+baskania] by the Greeks and _fascinatio_ by the Latins. Children and
+young animals of all kinds were thought to be specially susceptible.
+Charms were worn against the evil eye both by man and beast, and in
+Judges viii. 21 it is thought there is a reference to this custom in the
+allusion to the "ornaments" on the necks of camels. In classic times the
+wearing of amulets was universal. They were of three classes: (1) those
+the intention of which was to attract on to themselves, as the
+lightning-rod the lightning, the malignant glance; (2) charms hidden in
+the bosom of the dress; (3) written words from sacred writings. Of these
+three types the first was most numerous. They were oftenest of a
+grotesque and generally grossly obscene nature. They were also made in
+the form of frogs, beetles and so on. But the ancients did not wholly
+rely on amulets. Spitting was among the Greeks and Romans a most common
+antidote to the poison of the evil eye. According to Theocritus it is
+necessary to spit three times into the breast of the person who fears
+fascination. Gestures, too, often intentionally obscene, were regarded
+as prophylactics on meeting the dreaded individual. The evil eye was
+believed to have its impulse in envy, and thus it came to be regarded
+as unlucky to have any of your possessions praised. Among the Romans,
+therefore, it was customary when praising anything to add _Praefiscini
+dixerim_ (Fain Evil! I should say). This custom survives in modern
+Italy, where in like circumstances is said _Si mal occhio non ci fosse_
+(May the evil eye not strike it). The object of these conventional
+phrases was to prove that the speaker was sincere and had no evil
+designs in his praise. Though there is no set formula, traces of the
+custom are found in English rural sayings, e.g. the Somersetshire "I
+don't wish ee no harm, so I on't zay no more." This is what the Scots
+call "fore-speaking," when praise beyond measure is likely to be
+followed by disease or accident. A Manxman will never say he is very
+well: he usually admits that he is "middling," or qualifies his
+admission of good health by adding "now" or "just now." The belief led
+in many countries to the saying, when one heard anybody or anything
+praised superabundantly, "God preserve him or it." So in Ireland, to
+avoid being suspected of having the evil eye, it is advisable when
+looking at a child to say "God bless it"; and when passing a farm-yard
+where cows are collected at milking time it is usual for the peasant to
+say, "The blessing of God be on you and all your labour." Bacon writes:
+"It seems some have been so curious as to note that the times when the
+stroke ... of an envious eye does most hurt are particularly when the
+party envied is beheld in glory and triumph."
+
+The powers of the evil eye seem indeed to have been most feared by the
+prosperous. Its powers are often quoted as almost limitless. Thus one
+record solemnly declares that in a town of Africa a fascinator called
+Elzanar killed by his evil art no less than 80 people in two years (W.W.
+Story, _Castle St Angelo_, 1877, p. 149). The belief as affecting cattle
+was universal in the Scottish Highlands as late as the 18th century and
+still lingers. Thus if a stranger looks admiringly on a cow the peasants
+still think she will waste away, and they offer the visitor some of her
+milk to drink in the belief that in this manner the spell is broken. The
+modern Turks and Arabs also think that their horses and camels are
+subject to the evil eye. But the people of Italy, especially the
+Neapolitans, are the best modern instances of implicit believers. The
+_jettatore_, as the owner of the evil eye is called, is so feared that
+at his approach it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that a street will
+clear: everybody will rush into doorways or up alleys to avoid the
+dreaded glance. The _jettatore di bambini_ (fascinator of children) is
+the most dreaded of all. The evil eye is still much feared for horses in
+India, China, Turkey, Greece and almost everywhere where horses are
+found. In rural England the pig is of all animals oftenest "overlooked."
+While the Italians are perhaps the greatest believers in the evil eye as
+affecting persons, the superstition is rife in the East. In India the
+belief is universal. In Bombay the blast of the evil eye is supposed to
+be a form of spirit-possession. In western India all witches and wizards
+are said to be evil-eyed. Modern Egyptian mothers thus account for the
+sickly appearance of their babies. In Turkey passages from the Koran are
+painted on the outside of houses to save the inmates, and texts as
+amulets are worn upon the person, or hung upon camels and horses by
+Arabs, Abyssinians and other peoples. The superstition is universal
+among savage races.
+
+  For a full discussion see _Evil Eye_ by F.T. Elworthy (London, 1895);
+  also W.W. Story, _Castle St Angelo and the Evil Eye_ (1877); E.N.
+  Rolfe and H. Ingleby, _Naples in 1888_ (1888); Johannes Christian
+  Frommann, _Tractatus de fascinatione novus et singularis_, &c., &c.
+  (Nuremburg, 1675); R.C. Maclagan, _Evil Eye in the Western Highlands_
+  (1902).
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION. The modern doctrine of evolution or "evolving," as opposed to
+that of simple creation, has been defined by Prof. James Sully in the
+9th edition of this encyclopaedia as a "natural history of the cosmos
+including organic beings, expressed in physical terms as a mechanical
+process." The following exposition of the historical development of the
+doctrine is taken from Sully's article, and for the most part is in his
+own words.
+
+In the modern doctrine of evolution the cosmic system appears as a
+natural product of elementary matter and its laws. The various grades of
+life on our planet are the natural consequences of certain physical
+processes involved in the gradual transformations of the earth.
+Conscious life is viewed as conditioned by physical (organic and more
+especially nervous) processes, and as evolving itself in close
+correlation with organic evolution. Finally, human development, as
+exhibited in historical and prehistorical records, is regarded as the
+highest and most complex result of organic and physical evolution. This
+modern doctrine of evolution is but an expansion and completion of those
+physical theories (see below) which opened the history of speculation.
+It differs from them in being grounded on exact and verified research.
+As such, moreover, it is a much more limited theory of evolution than
+the ancient. It does not necessarily concern itself about the question
+of the infinitude of worlds in space and in time. It is content to
+explain the origin and course of development of the world, the solar or,
+at most, the sidereal system which falls under our own observation. It
+would be difficult to say what branches of science had done most towards
+the establishment of this doctrine. We must content ourselves by
+referring to the progress of physical (including chemical) theory, which
+has led to the great generalization of the conservation of energy; to
+the discovery of the fundamental chemical identity of the matter of our
+planet and of other celestial bodies, and of the chemical relations of
+organic and inorganic bodies; to the advance of astronomical speculation
+respecting the origin of the solar system, &c.; to the growth of the
+science of geology which has necessitated the conception of vast and
+unimaginable periods of time in the past history of our globe, and to
+the rapid march of the biological sciences which has made us familiar
+with the simplest types and elements of organism; finally, to the
+development of the science of anthropology (including comparative
+psychology, philology, &c.), and to the vast extension and improvement
+of all branches of historical study.
+
+_History of the Idea of Evolution._--The doctrine of evolution in its
+finished and definite form is a modern product. It required for its
+formation an amount of scientific knowledge which could only be very
+gradually acquired. It is vain, therefore, to look for clearly defined
+and systematic presentations of the idea among ancient writers. On the
+other hand, nearly all systems of philosophy have discussed the
+underlying problems. Such questions as the origin of the cosmos as a
+whole, the production of organic beings and of conscious minds, and the
+meaning of the observable grades of creation, have from the dawn of
+speculation occupied men's minds; and the answers to these questions
+often imply a vague recognition of the idea of a gradual evolution of
+things. Accordingly, in tracing the antecedents of the modern
+philosophic doctrine we shall have to glance at most of the principal
+systems of cosmology, ancient and modern. Yet since in these systems
+inquiries into the _esse_ and _fieri_ of the world are rarely
+distinguished with any precision, it will be necessary to indicate very
+briefly the general outlines of the system so far as they are necessary
+for understanding their bearing on the problems of evolution.
+
+_Mythological Interpretation._--The problem of the origin of the world
+was the first to engage man's speculative activity. Nor was this line of
+inquiry pursued simply as a step in the more practical problem of man's
+final destiny. The order of ideas observable in children suggests the
+reflection that man began to discuss the "whence" of existence before
+the "whither." At first, as in the case of the child, the problem of the
+genesis of things was conceived anthropomorphically: the question "How
+did the world arise?" first shaped itself to the human mind under the
+form "Who made the world?" As long as the problem was conceived in this
+simple manner there was, of course, no room for the idea of a necessary
+self-conditioned evolution. Yet the first indistinct germ of such an
+idea appears to emerge in combination with that of creation in some of
+the ancient systems of theogony. Thus, for example, in the myth of the
+ancient Parsees, the gods Ormuzd and Ahriman are said to evolve
+themselves out of a primordial matter. It may be supposed that these
+crude fancies embody a dim recognition of the physical forces and
+objects personified under the forms of deities, and a rude attempt to
+account for their genesis as a natural process. These first
+unscientific ideas of a genesis of the permanent objects of nature took
+as their pattern the process of organic reproduction and development,
+and this, not only because these objects were regarded as personalities,
+but also because this particular mode of becoming would most impress
+these early observers. This same way of looking at the origin of the
+material world is illustrated in the Egyptian notion of a cosmic egg out
+of which issues the god (Phta) who creates the world.
+
+_Indian Philosophy._--Passing from mythology to speculation properly so
+called, we find in the early systems of philosophy of India theories of
+emanation which approach in some respects the idea of evolution. Brahma
+is conceived as the eternal self-existent being, which on its material
+side unfolds itself to the world by gradually condensing itself to
+material objects through the gradations of ether, fire, water, earth and
+the elements. At the same time this eternal being is conceived as the
+all-embracing world-soul from which emanates the hierarchy of individual
+souls. In the later system of emanation of Sankhya there is a more
+marked approach to a materialistic doctrine of evolution. If, we are
+told, we follow the chain of causes far enough back we reach unlimited
+eternal creative nature or matter. Out of this "principal thing" or
+"original nature" all material and spiritual existence issues, and into
+it will return. Yet this primordial creative nature is endowed with
+volition with regard to its own development. Its first emanation as
+plastic nature contains the original soul or deity out of which all
+individual souls issue.
+
+_Early Greek Physicists._--Passing by Buddhism, which, though teaching
+the periodic destruction of our world by fire, &c., does not seek to
+determine the ultimate origin of the cosmos, we come to those early
+Greek physical philosophers who distinctly set themselves to eliminate
+the idea of divine interference with the world by representing its
+origin and changes as a natural process. The early Ionian physicists,
+including Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes, seek to explain the world
+as generated out of a primordial matter (Gr. [Greek: hylê]; hence the
+name "Hylozoists"), which is at the same time the universal support of
+things. This substance is endowed with a generative or transmutative
+force by virtue of which it passes into a succession of forms. They thus
+resemble modern evolutionists, since they regard the world with its
+infinite variety of forms as issuing from a simple mode of matter. More
+especially the cosmology of Anaximander resembles the modern doctrine of
+evolution in its conception of the indeterminate ([Greek: to apeiron])
+out of which the particular forms of the cosmos are differentiated.
+Again, Anaximander may be said to prepare the way for more modern
+conceptions of material evolution by regarding his primordial substance
+as eternal, and by looking on all generation as alternating with
+destruction, each step of the process being of course simply a
+transformation of the indestructible substance. Once more, the notion
+that this indeterminate body contains potentially in itself the
+fundamental contraries--hot, cold, &c.--by the excretion or evolution of
+which definite substances were generated, is clearly a forecasting of
+that antithesis of potentiality and actuality which from Aristotle
+downwards has been made the basis of so many theories of development. In
+conclusion, it is noteworthy that though resorting to utterly fanciful
+hypotheses respecting the order of the development of the world,
+Anaximander agrees with modern evolutionists in conceiving the heavenly
+bodies as arising out of an aggregation of diffused matter, and in
+assigning to organic life an origin in the inorganic materials of the
+primitive earth (pristine mud). The doctrine of Anaximenes, who unites
+the conceptions of a determinate and indeterminate original substance
+adopted by Thales and Anaximander in the hypothesis of a primordial and
+all-generating air, is a clear advance on these theories, inasmuch as it
+introduces the scientific idea of condensation and rarefaction as the
+great generating or transforming agencies. For the rest, his theory is
+chiefly important as emphasizing the vital character of the original
+substance. The primordial air is conceived as animated. Anaximenes seems
+to have inclined to a view of cosmic evolution as throughout involving
+a quasi-spiritual factor. This idea of the air as the original principle
+and source of life and intelligence is much more clearly expressed by a
+later writer, Diogenes of Apollonia. Diogenes made this conception of a
+vital and intelligent air the ground of a teleological view of climatic
+and atmospheric phenomena. It is noteworthy that he sought to establish
+the identity of organic and inorganic matter by help of the facts of
+vegetal and animal nutrition. Diogenes distinctly taught that the world
+is of finite duration, and will be renewed out of the primitive
+substance.
+
+Heraclitus again deserves a prominent place in a history of the idea of
+evolution. Heraclitus conceives of the incessant process of flux in
+which all things are involved as consisting of two sides or
+moments--generation and decay--which are regarded as a confluence of
+opposite streams. In thus making transition or change, viewed as the
+identity of existence and non-existence, the leading idea of his system,
+Heraclitus anticipated in some measure Hegel's peculiar doctrine of
+evolution as a dialectic process.[1] At the same time we may find
+expressed in figurative language the germs of thoughts which enter into
+still newer doctrines of evolution. For example, the notion of conflict
+([Greek: polemos]) as the father of all things and of harmony as arising
+out of a union of discords, and again of an endeavour by individual
+things to maintain themselves in permanence against the universal
+process of destruction and renovation, cannot but remind one of certain
+fundamental ideas in Darwin's theory of evolution.
+
+_Empedocles._--Empedocles took an important step in the direction of
+modern conceptions of physical evolution by teaching that all things
+arise, not by transformations of some primitive form of matter, but by
+various combinations of a number of permanent elements. Further, by
+maintaining that the elements are continually being combined and
+separated by the two forces love and hatred, which appear to represent
+in a figurative way the physical forces of attraction and repulsion,
+Empedocles may be said to have made a considerable advance in the
+construction of the idea of evolution as a strictly mechanical process.
+It may be observed, too, that the hypothesis of a primitive compact mass
+(_sphaerus_), in which love (attraction) is supreme, has some curious
+points of similarity to, and contrast with, that notion of a primitive
+nebulous matter with which the modern doctrine of cosmic evolution
+usually sets out. Empedocles tries to explain the genesis of organic
+beings, and, according to Lange, anticipates the idea of Darwin that
+adaptations abound, because it is their nature to perpetuate themselves.
+He further recognizes a progress in the production of vegetable and
+animal forms, though this part of his theory is essentially crude and
+unscientific. More important in relation to the modern problems of
+evolution is his thoroughly materialistic way of explaining the origin
+of sensation and knowledge by help of his peculiar hypothesis of
+effluvia and pores. The supposition that sensation thus rests on a
+material process of absorption from external bodies naturally led up to
+the idea that plants and even inorganic substances are precipient, and
+so to an indistinct recognition of organic life as a scale of
+intelligence.
+
+_Atomists._--In the theory of Atomism taught by Leucippus and Democritus
+we have the basis of the modern mechanical conceptions of cosmic
+evolution. Here the endless harmonious diversity of our cosmos, as well
+as of other worlds supposed to coexist with our own, is said to arise
+through the various combination of indivisible material elements
+differing in figure and magnitude only. The force which brings the atoms
+together in the forms of objects is inherent in the elements, and all
+their motions are necessary. The origin of things, which is also their
+substance, is thus laid in the simplest and most homogeneous elements or
+principles. The real world thus arising consists only of diverse
+combinations of atoms, having the properties of magnitude, figure,
+weight and hardness, all other qualities being relative only to the
+sentient organism. The problem of the genesis of mind is practically
+solved by identifying the soul, or vital principle, with heat or fire
+which pervades in unequal proportions, not only man and animals, but
+plants and nature as a whole, and through the agitation of which by
+incoming effluvia all sensation arises.
+
+_Aristotle._--Aristotle is much nearer a conception of evolution than
+his master Plato. It is true he sets out with a transcendent Deity, and
+follows Plato in viewing the creation of the cosmos as a process of
+descent from the more to the less perfect according to the distance from
+the original self-moving agency. Yet on the whole Aristotle leans to a
+teleological theory of evolution, which he interprets dualistually by
+means of certain metaphysical distinctions. Thus even his idea of the
+relation of the divine activity to the world shows a tendency to a
+pantheistic notion of a divine thought which gradually realizes itself
+in the process of becoming. Aristotle's distinction of form and matter,
+and his conception of becoming as a transition from actuality to
+potentiality, provides a new ontological way of conceiving the process
+of material and organic evolution.[2] To Aristotle the whole of nature
+is instinct with a vital impulse towards some higher manifestation.
+Organic life presents itself to him as a progressive scale of complexity
+determined by its final end, namely, man.[3] In some respects Aristotle
+approaches the modern view of evolution. Thus, though he looked on
+species as fixed, being the realization of an unchanging formative
+principle ([Greek: physis]), he seems, as Ueberweg observes, to have
+inclined to entertain the possibility of a spontaneous generation in the
+case of the lowest organisms. Aristotle's teleological conception of
+organic evolution often approaches modern mechanical conceptions. Thus
+he says that nature fashions organs in the order of their necessity, the
+first being those essential to life. So, too, in his psychology he
+speaks of the several degrees of mind as arising according to a
+progressive necessity.[4] In his view of touch and taste, as the two
+fundamental and essential senses, he may remind one of Herbert Spencer's
+doctrine. At the same time Aristotle precludes the idea of a natural
+development of the mental series by the supposition that man contains,
+over and above a natural finite soul inseparable from the body, a
+substantial and eternal principle ([Greek: nous]) which enters into the
+individual from without. Aristotle's brief suggestions respecting the
+origin of society and governments in the _Politics_ show a leaning to a
+naturalistic interpretation of human history as a development
+conditioned by growing necessities.
+
+_Strato._--Of Aristotle's immediate successors one deserves to be
+noticed here, namely, Strato of Lampsacus, who developed his master's
+cosmology into a system of naturalism. Strato appears to reject
+Aristotle's idea of an original source of movement and life extraneous
+to the world in favour of an immanent principle. All parts of matter
+have an inward plastic life whereby they can fashion themselves to the
+best advantage, according to their capability, though not with
+consciousness.
+
+_The Stoics._--In the cosmology of the Stoics we have the germ of a
+monistic and pantheistic conception of evolution. All things are said to
+be developed out of an original being, which is at once material (fire)
+and spiritual (the Deity), and in turn they will dissolve back into this
+primordial source. At the same time the world as a developed whole is
+regarded as an organism which is permeated with the divine Spirit, and
+so we may say that the world-process is a self-realization of the divine
+Being. The formative principle or force of the world is said to contain
+the several rational germinal forms of things. Individual things are
+supposed to arise out of the original being, as animals and plants out
+of seeds. Individual souls are an efflux from the all-compassing
+world-soul. The necessity in the world's order is regarded by the Stoics
+as identical with the divine reason, and this idea is used as the basis
+of a teleological and optimistic view of nature. Very curious, in
+relation to modern evolutional ideas, is the Stoical doctrine that our
+world is but one of a series of exactly identical ones, all of which
+are destined to be burnt up and destroyed.
+
+_The Epicureans--Lucretius._--The Epicureans differed from the Stoics by
+adopting a purely mechanical view of the world-process. Their
+fundamental conception is that of Democritus; they seek to account for
+the formation of the cosmos, with its order and regularity, by setting
+out with the idea of an original (vertical) motion of the atoms, which
+somehow or other results in movements towards and from one another. Our
+world is but one of an infinite number of others, and all the harmonies
+and adaptations of the universe are regarded as a special case of the
+infinite possibilities of mechanical events. Lucretius regards the
+primitive atoms (first beginnings or first bodies) as seeds out of which
+individual things are developed. All living and sentient things are
+formed out of insentient atoms (e.g. worms spring out of dung). The
+peculiarity of organic and sentient bodies is due to the minuteness and
+shape of their particles, and to their special motions and combinations.
+So, too, mind consists but of extremely fine particles of matter, and
+dissolves into air when the body dies. Lucretius traces, in the fifth
+book of his poem, the progressive genesis of vegetal and animal forms
+out of the mother-earth. He vaguely anticipates the modern idea of the
+world as a survival of the fittest when he says that many races may have
+lived and died out, and that those which still exist have been protected
+either by craft, courage or speed. Lucretius touches on the development
+of man out of a primitive, hardy, beast-like condition. Pregnant hints
+are given respecting a natural development of language which has its
+germs in sounds of quadrupeds and birds, of religious ideas out of
+dreams and waking hallucinations, and of the art of music by help of the
+suggestion of natural sounds. Lucretius thus recognizes the whole range
+of existence to which the doctrine of evolution may be applied.
+
+_Neoplatonists._--In the doctrines of the Neoplatonists, of whom
+Plotinus is the most important, we have the world-process represented
+after the example of Plato as a series of descending steps, each being
+less perfect than its predecessors, since it is further removed from the
+first cause.[5] The system of Plotinus, Zellar remarks, is not strictly
+speaking one of emanation, since there is no communication of the divine
+essence to the created world; yet it resembles emanation inasmuch as the
+genesis of the world is conceived as a necessary physical effect, and
+not as the result of volition. In Proclus we find this conception of an
+emanation of the world out of the Deity, or the absolute, made more
+exact, the process being regarded as threefold--(1) persistence of cause
+in effect, (2) the departure of effect from cause, and (3) the tendency
+of effect to revert to its cause.
+
+_The Fathers._--The speculations of the fathers respecting the origin
+and course of the world seek to combine Christian ideas of the Deity
+with doctrines of Greek philosophy. The common idea of the origin of
+things is that of an absolute creation of matter and mind alike. The
+course of human history is regarded by those writers who are most
+concerned to refute Judaism as a progressive divine education. Among the
+Gnostics we meet with the hypothesis of emanation, as, for example, in
+the curious cosmic theory of Valentinus.
+
+_Middle Ages--Early Schoolmen._--In the speculative writings of the
+middle ages, including those of the schoolmen, we find no progress
+towards a more accurate and scientific view of nature. The cosmology of
+this period consists for the most part of the Aristotelian teleological
+view of nature combined with the Christian idea of the Deity and His
+relation to the world. In certain writers, however, there appears a more
+elaborate transformation of the doctrine of creation into a system of
+emanation. According to John Scotus Erigena, the nothing out of which
+the world is created is the divine essence. Creation is the act by which
+God passes through the primordial causes, or universal ideas, into the
+region of particular things (_processio_), in order finally to return to
+himself (_reversio_). The transition from the universal to the
+particular is of course conceived as a descent or degradation. A similar
+doctrine of emanation is to be found in the writings of Bernhard of
+Chartres, who conceives the process of the unfolding of the world as a
+movement in a circle from the most general to the individual, and from
+this back to the most general. This movement is said to go forth from
+God to the animated heaven, stars, visible world and man, which
+represent decreasing degrees of cognition.
+
+_Arab Philosophers._--Elaborate doctrines of emanation, largely based on
+Neoplatonic ideas, are also propounded by some of the Arabic
+philosophers, as by Farabi and Avicenna. The leading thought is that of
+a descending series of intelligences, each emanating from its
+predecessor, and having its appropriate region in the universe.
+
+_Jewish Philosophy._--In the Jewish speculations of the middle ages may
+be found curious forms of the doctrine of emanations uniting the
+Biblical idea of creation with elements drawn from the Persians and the
+Greeks. In the later and developed form of the Kabbala, the origin of
+the world is represented as a gradually descending emanation of the
+lower out of the higher. Among the philosophic Jews, the Spanish
+Avicebron, in his _Fons Vitae_, expounds a curious doctrine of
+emanation. Here the divine will is viewed as an efflux from the divine
+wisdom, as the intermediate link between God, the first substance, and
+all things, and as the fountain out of which all forms emanate. At the
+same time all forms, including the higher intelligible ones, are said to
+have their existence only in matter. Matter is the one universal
+substance, body and mind being merely specifications of this. Thus
+Avicebron approaches, as Salomon Munk observes,[6] a pantheistic
+conception of the world, though he distinctly denies both matter and
+form to God.
+
+_Later Scholastics._--Passing now to the later schoolmen, a bare mention
+must be made of Thomas Aquinas, who elaborately argues for the absolute
+creation of the world out of nothing, and of Albertus Magnus, who
+reasons against the Aristotelian idea of the past eternity of the world.
+More importance attaches to Duns Scotus, who brings prominently forward
+the idea of a progressive development in nature by means of a process of
+determination. The original substance of the world is the _materia
+primo-prima_, which is the immediate creation of the Deity. This serves
+Duns Scotus as the most universal basis of existence, all angels having
+material bodies. This matter is differentiated into particular things
+(which are not privations but perfections) through the addition of an
+individualizing principle (_haecceitas_) to the universal (_quidditas_).
+The whole world is represented by the figure of a tree, of which the
+seeds and roots are the first indeterminate matter, the leaves the
+accidents, the twigs and branches corruptible creatures, the blossoms
+the rational soul, and the fruit pure spirits or angels. It is also
+described as a bifurcation of two twigs, mental and bodily creation out
+of a common root. One might almost say that Duns Scotus recognizes the
+principle of a gradual physical evolution, only that he chooses to
+represent the mechanism by which the process is brought about by means
+of quaint scholastic fictions.
+
+_Revival of Learning._--The period of the revival of learning, which was
+also that of a renewed study of nature, is marked by a considerable
+amount of speculation respecting the origin of the universe. In some of
+these we see a return to Greek theories, though the influence of
+physical discoveries, more especially those of Copernicus, Kepler and
+Galileo, is distinctly traceable.
+
+_Telesio._--An example of a return to early Greek speculation is to be
+met with in Bernardino Telesio. By this writer the world is explained as
+a product of three principles--dead matter, and two active forces, heat
+and cold. Terrestrial things arise through a confluence of heat, which
+issues from the heavens, and cold, which comes from the earth. Both
+principles have sensibility, and thus all products of their collision
+are sentient, that is, feel pleasure and pain. The superiority of
+animals to plants and metals in the possession of special organs of
+sense is connected with the greater complexity and heterogeneity of
+their structure.
+
+_Giordano Bruno._--In the system of Giordano Bruno, who sought to
+construct a philosophy of nature on the basis of new scientific ideas,
+more particularly the doctrine of Copernicus, we find the outlines of a
+theory of cosmic evolution conceived as an essentially vital process.
+Matter and form are here identified, and the evolution of the world is
+presented as the unfolding of the world-spirit to its perfect forms
+according to the plastic substratum (matter) which is but one of its
+sides. This process of change is conceived as a transformation, in
+appearance only, of the real unchanging substance (matter and form). All
+parts of matter are capable of developing into all forms; thus the
+materials of the table and chair may under proper circumstances be
+developed to the life of the plant or of the animal. The elementary
+parts of existence are the _minima_, or monads, which are at once
+material and mental. On their material side they are not absolutely
+unextended, but spherical. Bruno looked on our solar system as but one
+out of an infinite number of worlds. His theory of evolution is
+essentially pantheistic, and he does not employ his hypothesis of monads
+in order to work out a more mechanical conception.
+
+_Campanella._--A word must be given to one of Bruno's contemporary
+compatriots, namely Campanella, who gave poetic expression to that
+system of universal vitalism which Bruno developed. He argues, from the
+principle _quicquid est in effectibus esse et in causis_, that the
+elements and the whole world have sensation, and thus he appears to
+derive the organic part of nature out of the so-called "inorganic."
+
+_Boehme._--Another writer of this transition period deserves a passing
+reference here, namely, Jacob Boehme the mystic, who by his conception
+of a process of inner diremption as the essential character of all mind,
+and so of God, prepared the way for later German theories of the origin
+of the world as the self-differentiation and self-externalization of the
+absolute spirit.
+
+_Hobbes and Gassendi._--The influence of an advancing study of nature,
+which was stimulated if not guided by Bacon's writings, is seen in the
+more careful doctrines of materialism worked out almost simultaneously
+by Hobbes and Gassendi. These theories, however, contain little that
+bears directly on the hypothesis of a natural evolution of things. In
+the view of Hobbes, the difficulty of the genesis of conscious minds is
+solved by saying that sensation and thought are part of the reaction of
+the organism on external movement. Yet Hobbes appears (as Clarke points
+out) to have vaguely felt the difficulty; and in a passage of his
+_Physics_ (chap. 25, sect. 5) he says that the universal existence of
+sensation in matter cannot be disproved, though he shows that when there
+are no organic arrangements the mental side of the movement
+(_phantasma_) is evanescent. The theory of the origin of society put
+forth by Hobbes, though directly opposed in most respects to modern
+ideas of social evolution, deserves mention here by reason of its
+enforcing that principle of struggle (_bellum omnium contra omnes_)
+which has played so conspicuous a part in the modern doctrine of
+evolution. Gassendi, with some deviations, follows Epicurus in his
+theory of the formation of the world. The world consists of a finite
+number of atoms, which have in their own nature a self-moving force or
+principle. These atoms, which are the seeds of all things, are, however,
+not eternal but created by God. Gassendi distinctly argues against the
+existence of a world-soul or a principle of life in nature.
+
+_Descartes._--In the philosophy of Descartes we meet with a dualism of
+mind and matter which does not easily lend itself to the conception of
+evolution. His doctrine that consciousness is confined to man, the lower
+animals being unconscious machines (_automata_), excludes all idea of a
+progressive development of mind. Yet Descartes, in his _Principia
+Philosophiae_, laid the foundation of the modern mechanical conception
+of nature and of physical evolution. In the third part of this work he
+inclines to a thoroughly natural hypothesis respecting the genesis of
+the physical world, and adds in the fourth part that the same kind of
+explanation might be applied to the nature and formation of plants and
+animals. He is indeed careful to keep right with the orthodox doctrine
+of creation by saying that he does not believe the world actually arose
+in this mechanical way out of the three kinds of elements which he here
+supposes, but that he simply puts out his hypothesis as a mode of
+conceiving how it might have arisen. Descartes's account of the mind and
+its passions is thoroughly materialistic, and to this extent he works in
+the direction of a materialistic explanation of the origin of mental
+life.
+
+_Spinoza._--In Spinoza's pantheistic theory of the world, which regards
+thought and extension as but two sides of one substance, the problem of
+becoming is submerged in that of being. Although Spinoza's theory
+attributes a mental side to all physical events, he rejects all
+teleological conceptions and explains the order of things as the result
+of an inherent necessity. He recognizes gradations of things according
+to the degree of complexity of their movements and that of their
+conceptions. To Spinoza (as Kuno Fischer observes) man differs from the
+rest of nature in the degree only and not in the kind of his powers. So
+far Spinoza approaches the conception of evolution. He may be said to
+furnish a further contribution to a metaphysical conception of evolution
+in his view of all finite individual things as the infinite variety to
+which the unlimited productive power of the universal substance gives
+birth. Sir F. Pollock has taken pains to show how nearly Spinoza
+approaches certain ideas contained in the modern doctrine of evolution,
+as for example that of self-preservation as the determining force in
+things.
+
+_Locke._--In Locke we find, with a retention of certain
+anti-evolutionist ideas, a marked tendency to this mode of viewing the
+world. To Locke the universe is the result of a direct act of creation,
+even matter being limited in duration and created. Even if matter were
+eternal it would, he thinks, be incapable of producing motion; and if
+motion is itself conceived as eternal, thought can never begin to be.
+The first eternal being is thus spiritual or "cogitative," and contains
+in itself all the perfections that can ever after exist. He repeatedly
+insists on the impossibility of senseless matter putting on sense.[7]
+Yet while thus placing himself at a point of view opposed to that of a
+gradual evolution of the organic world, Locke prepared the way for this
+doctrine in more ways than one. First of all, his genetic method as
+applied to the mind's ideas--which laid the foundations of English
+analytical psychology--was a step in the direction of a conception of
+mental life as a gradual evolution. Again he works towards the same end
+in his celebrated refutation of the scholastic theory of real specific
+essences. In this argument he emphasizes the vagueness of the boundaries
+which mark off organic species with a view to show that these do not
+correspond to absolutely fixed divisions in the objective world, that
+they are made by the mind, not by nature.[8] This idea of the continuity
+of species is developed more fully in a remarkable passage (_Essay_, bk.
+iii. ch. vi. § 12), where he is arguing in favour of the hypothesis,
+afterwards elaborated by Leibnitz, of a graduated series of minds
+(species of spirits) from the Deity down to the lowest animal
+intelligence. He here observes that "all quite down from us the descent
+is by easy steps, and a continued series of things, that in each remove
+differ very little from one another." Thus man approaches the beasts,
+and the animal kingdom is nearly joined with the vegetable, and so on
+down to the lowest and "most inorganical parts of matter." Finally, it
+is to be observed that Locke had a singularly clear view of organic
+arrangements (which of course he explained according to a theistic
+teleology) as an adaptation to the circumstances of the environment or
+to "the neighbourhood of the bodies that surround us." Thus he suggests
+that man has not eyes of a microscopic delicacy, because he would
+receive no great advantage from such acute organs, since though adding
+indefinitely to his speculative knowledge of the physical world they
+would not practically benefit their possessor (e.g. by enabling him to
+avoid things at a convenient distance).[9]
+
+_Idea of Progress in History._--Before leaving the 17th century we must
+just refer to the writers who laid the foundations of the essentially
+modern conception of human history as a gradual upward progress.
+According to Flint,[10] there were four men who in this and the
+preceding century seized and made prominent this idea, namely, Bodin,
+Bacon, Descartes and Pascal. The former distinctly argues against the
+idea of a deterioration of man in the past. In this way we see that just
+as advancing natural science was preparing the way for a doctrine of
+physical evolution, so advancing historical research was leading to the
+application of a similar idea to the collective human life.
+
+_English Writers of the 18th Century--Hume._--The theological
+discussions which make up so large a part of the English speculation of
+the 18th century cannot detain us here. There is, however, one writer
+who sets forth so clearly the alternative suppositions respecting the
+origin of the world that he claims a brief notice. We refer to David
+Hume. In his _Dialogues concerning Natural Religion_ he puts forward
+tentatively, in the person of one of his interlocutors, the ancient
+hypothesis that since the world resembles an animal or vegetal organism
+rather than a machine, it might more easily be accounted for by a
+process of generation than by an act of creation. Later on he develops
+the materialistic view of Epicurus, only modifying it so far as to
+conceive of matter as finite. Since a finite number of particles is only
+susceptible of finite transpositions, it must happen (he says), in an
+eternal duration that every possible order or position will be tried an
+infinite number of times, and hence this world is to be regarded (as the
+Stoics maintained) as an exact reproduction of previous worlds. The
+speaker seeks to make intelligible the appearance of art and contrivance
+in the world as a result of a natural settlement of the universe (which
+passes through a succession of chaotic conditions) into a stable
+condition, having a constancy in its forms, yet without its several
+parts losing their motion and fluctuation.
+
+_French Writers of the 18th Century._--Let us now pass to the French
+writers of the 18th century. Here we are first struck by the results of
+advancing physical speculation in their bearing on the conception of the
+world. Careful attempts, based on new scientific truths, are made to
+explain the genesis of the world as a natural process. Maupertuis, who,
+together with Voltaire, introduced the new idea of the universe as based
+on Newton's discoveries, sought to account for the origin of organic
+things by the hypothesis of sentient atoms. Buffon the naturalist
+speculated, not only on the structure and genesis of organic beings, but
+also on the course of formation of the earth and solar system, which he
+conceived after the analogy of the development of organic beings out of
+seed. Diderot, too, in his varied intellectual activity, found time to
+speculate on the genesis of sensation and thought out of a combination
+of matter endowed with an elementary kind of sentience. De la Mettrie
+worked out a materialistic doctrine of the origin of things, according
+to which sensation and consciousness are nothing but a development out
+of matter. He sought (_L'Homme-machine_) to connect man in his original
+condition with the lower animals, and emphasized (_L'Homme-plante_) the
+essential unity of plan of all living things. Helvétius, in his work on
+man, referred all differences between our species and the lower animals
+to certain peculiarities of organization, and so prepared the way for a
+conception of human development out of lower forms as a process of
+physical evolution. Charles Bonnet met the difficulty of the origin of
+conscious beings much in the same way as Leibnitz, by the supposition of
+eternal minute organic bodies to which are attached immortal souls. Yet
+though in this way opposing himself to the method of the modern doctrine
+of evolution, he aided the development of this doctrine by his view of
+the organic world as an ascending scale from the simple to the complex.
+Robinet, in his treatise _De la nature_, worked out the same conception
+of a gradation in organic existence, connecting this with a general view
+of nature as a progress from the lowest inorganic forms of matter up to
+man. The process is conceived as an infinite series of variations or
+specifications of one primitive and common type. Man is the
+_chef-d'oeuvre_ of nature, which the gradual progression of beings was
+to have as its last term, and all lower creations are regarded as
+pre-conditions of man's existence, since nature "could only realize the
+human form by combining in all imaginable ways each of the traits which
+was to enter into it." The formative force in this process of evolution
+(or "metamorphosis") is conceived as an intellectual principle (_idée
+génératrice_). Robinet thus laid the foundation of that view of the
+world as wholly vital, and as a progressive unfolding of a spiritual
+formative principle, which was afterwards worked out by Schelling. It is
+to be added that Robinet adopted a thorough-going materialistic view of
+the dependence of mind on body, going even to the length of assigning
+special nerve-fibres to the moral sense. The system of Holbach seeks to
+provide a consistent materialistic view of the world and its processes.
+Mental operations are identified with physical movements, the three
+conditions of physical movement, inertia, attraction and repulsion,
+being in the moral world self-love, love and hate. He left open the
+question whether the capability of sensation belongs to all matter, or
+is confined to the combinations of certain materials. He looked on the
+actions of the individual organism and of society as determined by the
+needs of self-preservation. He conceived of man as a product of nature
+that had gradually developed itself from a low condition, though he
+relinquished the problem of the exact mode of his first genesis and
+advance as not soluble by data of experience. Holbach thus worked out
+the basis of a rigorously materialistic conception of evolution.
+
+The question of human development which Holbach touched on was one which
+occupied many minds both in and out of France during the 18th century,
+and more especially towards its close. The foundations of this theory of
+history as an upward progress of man out of a barbaric and animal
+condition were laid by Vico in his celebrated work _Principii di scienza
+nuova_. In France the doctrine was represented by Turgot and Condorcet.
+
+_German Writers of the 18th Century--Leibnitz._--In Leibnitz we find, if
+not a doctrine of evolution in the strict sense, a theory of the world
+which is curiously related to the modern doctrine. The chief aim of
+Leibnitz is no doubt to account for the world in its static aspect as a
+co-existent whole, to conceive the ultimate reality of things in such a
+way as to solve the mystery of mind and matter. Yet by his very mode of
+solving the problem he is led on to consider the nature of the
+world-process. By placing substantial reality in an infinite number of
+monads whose essential nature is force or activity, which is conceived
+as mental (representation), Leibnitz was carried on to the explanation
+of the successive order of the world. He prepares the way, too, for a
+doctrine of evolution by his monistic idea of the substantial similarity
+of all things, inorganic and organic, bodily and spiritual, and still
+more by his conception of a perfect gradation of existence from the
+lowest "inanimate" objects, whose essential activity is confused
+representation, up to the highest organized being--man--with his clear
+intelligence.[11] Turning now to Leibnitz's conception of the world as a
+process, we see first that he supplies, in his notion of the underlying
+reality as force which is represented as spiritual (_quelque chose
+d'analogique au sentiment et à l'appétit_), both a mechanical and a
+teleological explanation of its order. More than this, Leibnitz supposes
+that the activity of the monads takes the form of a self-evolution. It
+is the following out of an inherent tendency or impulse to a series of
+changes, all of which were virtually pre-existent, and this process
+cannot be interfered with from without. As the individual monad, so the
+whole system which makes up the world is a gradual development. In this
+case, however, we cannot say that each step goes out of the other as in
+that of individual development. Each monad is an original independent
+being, and is determined to take this particular point in the universe,
+this place in the scale of beings. We see how different this
+metaphysical conception is from that scientific notion of cosmic
+evolution in which the lower stages are the antecedents and conditions
+of the higher. It is probable that Leibnitz's notion of time and space,
+which approaches Kant's theory, led him to attach but little importance
+to the successive order of the world. Leibnitz, in fact, presents to us
+an infinite system of perfectly distinct though parallel developments,
+which on their mental side assume the aspect of a scale, not through any
+mutual action, but solely through the determination of the Deity. Even
+this idea, however, is incomplete, for Leibnitz fails to explain the
+physical aspect of development. Thus he does not account for the fact
+that organic beings--which have always existed as preformations (in the
+case of animals as _animaux spermatiques_)--come to be developed under
+given conditions. Yet Leibnitz prepared the way for a new conception of
+organic evolution. The modern monistic doctrine, that all material
+things consist of sentient elements, and that consciousness arises
+through a combination of these, was a natural transformation of
+Leibnitz's theory.[12]
+
+_Lessing._--Of Leibnitz's immediate followers we may mention Lessing,
+who in his _Education of the Human Race_ brought out the truth of the
+process of gradual development underlying human history, even though he
+expressed this in a form inconsistent with the idea of a spontaneous
+evolution.
+
+_Herder._--Herder, on the other hand, Lessing's contemporary, treated
+the subject of man's development in a thoroughly naturalistic spirit. In
+his I_deen zur Philosophie der Geschichte_, Herder adopts Leibnitz's
+idea of a graduated scale of beings, at the same time conceiving of the
+lower stages as the conditions of the higher. Thus man is said to be the
+highest product of nature, and as such to be dependent on all lower
+products. All material things are assimilated to one another as organic,
+the vitalizing principle being inherent in all matter. The development
+of man is explained in connexion with that of the earth, and in relation
+to climatic variations, &c. Man's mental faculties are viewed as related
+to his organization, and as developed under the pressure of the
+necessities of life.[13]
+
+_Kant._--Kant's relation to the doctrine of evolution is a many-sided
+one. In the first place, his peculiar system of subjective idealism,
+involving the idea that time is but a mental form to which there
+corresponds nothing in the sphere of noümenal reality, serves to give a
+peculiar philosophical interpretation to every doctrine of cosmic
+evolution. Kant, like Leibnitz, seeks to reconcile the mechanical and
+teleological views of nature, only he assigns to these different
+spheres. The order of the inorganic world is explained by properly
+physical causes. In his _Naturgeschichte des Himmels_, in which he
+anticipated the nebular theory afterwards more fully developed by
+Laplace, Kant sought to explain the genesis of the cosmos as a product
+of physical forces and laws. The worlds, or systems of worlds, which
+fill infinite space are continually being formed and destroyed. Chaos
+passes by a process of evolution into a cosmos, and this again into
+chaos. So far as the evolution of the solar system is concerned, Kant
+held these mechanical causes as adequate. For the world as a whole,
+however, he postulated a beginning in time (whence his use of the word
+creation), and further supposed that the impulse of organization which
+was conveyed to chaotic matter by the Creator issued from a central
+point in the infinite space spreading gradually outwards.[14] While in
+his cosmology Kant thus relies on mechanical conceptions, in his
+treatment of organic life his mind is, on the contrary, dominated by
+teleological ideas. An organism was to him something controlled by a
+formative organizing principle. It was natural, therefore, that he
+rejected the idea of a spontaneous generation of organisms (which was
+just then being advocated by his friend Forster), not only as
+unsupported by experience but as an inadequate hypothesis. Experience
+forbids our excluding organic activity from natural causes, also our
+excluding intelligence from purposeful (_zwecktätigen_) causes; hence
+experience forbids our defining the fundamental force or first cause out
+of which living creatures arose.[15] Just as Kant thus sharply marks off
+the regions of the inorganic and the organic, so he sets man in strong
+opposition to the lower animals. His ascription to man of a unique
+faculty, free-will, forbade his conceiving our species as a link in a
+graduated series of organic developments. In his doctrine of human
+development he does indeed recognize an early stage of existence in
+which our species was dominated by sensuous enjoyment and instinct. He
+further conceives of this stage as itself a process of (natural)
+development, namely, of the natural disposition of the species to vary
+in the greatest possible manner so as to preserve its unity through a
+process of self-adaptation (_Anarten_) to climate. This, he says, must
+not be conceived as resulting from the action of external causes, but is
+due to a natural disposition (_Anlage_). From this capability of natural
+development (which already involves a teleological idea) Kant
+distinguishes the power of moral self-development or self-liberation
+from the dominion of nature, the gradual realization of which
+constitutes human history or progress. This moral development is
+regarded as a gradual approach to that rational, social and political
+state in which will be realized the greatest possible quantity of
+liberty. Thus Kant, though he appropriated and gave new form to the idea
+of human progress, conceived of this as wholly distinct from a natural
+(mechanical) process. In this particular, as in his view of organic
+actions, Kant distinctly opposed the idea of evolution as one universal
+process swaying alike the physical and the moral world.
+
+_Schelling._--In the earlier writings of Schelling, containing the
+philosophy of identity, existence is represented as a becoming, or
+process of evolution. Nature and mind (which are the two sides, or polar
+directions, of the one absolute) are each viewed as an activity
+advancing by an uninterrupted succession of stages. The side of this
+process which Schelling worked out most completely is the negative side,
+that is, nature. Nature is essentially a process of organic
+self-evolution. It can only be understood by subordinating the
+mechanical conception to the vital, by conceiving the world as one
+organism animated by a spiritual principle or intelligence
+(_Weltseele_). From this point of view the processes of nature from the
+inorganic up to the most complex of the organic become stages in the
+self-realization of nature. All organic forms are at bottom but one
+organization, and the inorganic world shows the same formative activity
+in various degrees or potences. Schelling conceives of the gradual
+self-evolution of nature in a succession of higher and higher forms as
+brought about by a limitation of her infinite productivity, showing
+itself in a series of points of arrest. The detailed exhibition of the
+organizing activity of nature in the several processes of the organic
+and inorganic world rests on a number of fanciful and unscientific
+ideas. Schelling's theory is a bold attempt to revitalize nature in the
+light of growing physical and physiological science, and by so doing to
+comprehend the unity of the world under the idea of one principle of
+organic development. His highly figurative language might leave us in
+doubt how far he conceived the higher stages of this evolution of nature
+as following the lower in time. In the introduction to his work _Von der
+Weltseele_, however, he argues in favour of the possibility of a
+transmutation of species in periods incommensurable with ours. The
+evolution of mind (the positive pole) proceeds by way of three
+stages--theoretic, practical and aesthetical activity. Schelling's later
+theosophic speculations do not specially concern us here.
+
+_Followers of Schelling._--Of the followers of Schelling a word or two
+must be said. Heinrich Steffens, in his _Anthropologie_, seeks to trace
+out the origin and history of man in connexion with a general theory of
+the development of the earth, and this again as related to the formation
+of the solar system. All these processes are regarded as a series of
+manifestations of a vital principle in higher and higher forms. Oken,
+again, who carries Schelling's ideas into the region of biological
+science, seeks to reconstruct the gradual evolution of the material
+world out of original matter, which is the first immediate appearance of
+God, or the absolute. This process is an upward one, through the
+formation of the solar system and of our earth with its inorganic
+bodies, up to the production of man. The process is essentially a polar
+linear action, or differentiation from a common centre. By means of this
+process the bodies of the solar system separate themselves, and the
+order of cosmic evolution is repeated in that of terrestrial evolution.
+The organic world (like the world as a whole) arises out of a primitive
+chaos, namely, the infusorial slime. A somewhat similar working out of
+Schelling's idea is to be found in H.C. Oersted's work entitled _The
+Soul in Nature_ (Eng. trans.). Of later works based on Schelling's
+doctrine of evolution mention may be made of the volume entitled _Natur
+und Idee_, by G.F. Carus. According to this writer, existence is nothing
+but a becoming, and matter is simply the momentary product of the
+process of becoming, while force is this process constantly revealing
+itself in these products.
+
+_Hegel._--Like Schelling, Hegel conceives the problem of existence as
+one of becoming. He differs from him with respect to the ultimate motive
+of that process of gradual evolution which reveals itself alike in
+nature and in mind. With Hegel the absolute is itself a dialectic
+process which contains within itself a principle of progress from
+difference to difference and from unity to unity. "This process (W.
+Wallace remarks) knows nothing of the distinctions between past and
+future, because it implies an eternal present." This conception of an
+immanent spontaneous evolution is applied alike both to nature and to
+mind and history. Nature to Hegel is the idea in the form of hetereity;
+and finding itself here it has to remove this exteriority in a
+progressive evolution towards an existence for itself in life and mind.
+Nature (says Zeller) is to Hegel a system of gradations, of which one
+arises necessarily out of the other, and is the proximate truth of that
+out of which it results. There are three stadia, or moments, in this
+process of nature--(1) the mechanical moment, or matter devoid of
+individuality; (2) the physical moment, or matter which has
+particularized itself in bodies--the solar system; and (3) the organic
+moment, or organic beings, beginning with the geological organism--or
+the mineral kingdom, plants and animals. Yet this process of development
+is not to be conceived as if one stage is naturally produced out of the
+other, and not even as if the one followed the other in time. Only
+spirit has a history; in nature all forms are contemporaneous.[16]
+Hegel's interpretation of mind and history as a process of evolution has
+more scientific interest than his conception of nature. His theory of
+the development of free-will (the objective spirit), which takes its
+start from Kant's conception of history, with its three stages of legal
+right, morality as determined by motive and instinctive goodness
+(_Sittlichkeit_), might almost as well be expressed in terms of a
+thoroughly naturalistic doctrine of human development. So, too, some of
+his conceptions respecting the development of art and religion (the
+absolute spirit) lend themselves to a similar interpretation. Yet while,
+in its application to history, Hegel's theory of evolution has points of
+resemblance with those doctrines which seek to explain the world-process
+as one unbroken progress occurring in time, it constitutes on the whole
+a theory apart and _sui generis_. It does not conceive of the organic as
+succeeding on the inorganic, or of conscious life as conditioned in
+time by lower forms. In this respect it resembles Leibnitz's idea of the
+world as a development; the idea of evolution is in each case a
+metaphysical as distinguished from a scientific one. Hegel gives a place
+in his metaphysical system to the mechanical and the teleological views;
+yet in his treatment of the world as an evolution the idea of end or
+purpose is the predominant one.
+
+Of the followers of Hegel who have worked out his peculiar idea of
+evolution it is hardly necessary to speak. A bare reference may be made
+to J.K. F. Rosenkranz, who in his work _Hegel's Naturphilosophie_ seeks
+to develop Hegel's idea of an earth-organism in the light of modern
+science, recognizing in crystallization the morphological element.
+
+_Schopenhauer._--Of the other German philosophers immediately following
+Kant, there is only one who calls for notice here, namely, Arthur
+Schopenhauer. This writer, by his conception of the world as will which
+objectifies itself in a series of gradations from the lowest
+manifestations of matter up to conscious man, gives a slightly new shape
+to the evolutional view of Schelling, though he deprives this view of
+its optimistic character by denying any co-operation of intelligence in
+the world-process. In truth, Schopenhauer's conception of the world as
+the activity of a blind force is at bottom a materialistic and
+mechanical rather than a spiritualistic and teleological theory.
+Moreover, Schopenhauer's subjective idealism, and his view of time as
+something illusory, hindered him from viewing this process as a sequence
+of events in time. Thus he ascribes eternity of existence to species
+under the form of the "Platonic ideas." As Ludwig Noiré observes,
+Schopenhauer has no feeling for the problem of the origin of organic
+beings. He says Lamarck's original animal is something metaphysical, not
+physical, namely, the will to live. "Every species (according to
+Schopenhauer) has of its own will, and according to the circumstances
+under which it would live, determined its form and organization,--yet
+not as something physical in time, but as something metaphysical out of
+time."
+
+_Von Baer._--Before leaving the German speculation of the first half of
+the century, a word must be said of von Baer, to whose biological
+contributions we shall refer later in this article, who recognized in
+the law of development the law of the universe as a whole. In his
+_Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere_ (p. 264) he distinctly tells us
+that the law of growing individuality is "the fundamental thought which
+goes through all forms and degrees of animal development and all single
+relations. It is the same thought which collected in the cosmic space
+the divided masses into spheres, and combined these to solar systems;
+the same which caused the weather-beaten dust on the surface of our
+metallic planet to spring forth into living forms." Von Baer thus
+prepared the way for Herbert Spencer's generalization of the law of
+organic evolution as the law of all evolution.
+
+_Comte._--As we arrive at the 19th century, though yet before the days
+of Darwin, biology is already beginning to affect the general aspect of
+thought. It might suffice to single out the influence of Auguste Comte,
+as the last great thinker who wrote before Darwinism began to permeate
+philosophic speculation. Though Comte did not actually contribute to a
+theory of cosmic organic evolution, he helped to lay the foundations of
+a scientific conception of human history as a natural process of
+development determined by general laws of human nature together with the
+accumulating influences of the past. Comte does not recognize that this
+process is aided by any increase of innate capacity; on the contrary,
+progress is to him the unfolding of fundamental faculties of human
+nature which always pre-existed in a latent condition; yet he may
+perhaps be said to have prepared the way for the new conception of human
+progress by his inclusion of mental laws under biology.
+
+_Development of the Biological Doctrine._--In the 19th century the
+doctrine of evolution received new biological contents and became
+transformed from a vague, partly metaphysical theory to the dominant
+modern conception. At this point it is convenient to leave the guidance
+of Professor J. Sully and to follow closely T.H. Huxley, who in the 9th
+edition of this encyclopaedia traced the history of the growth of the
+biological idea of evolution from its philosophical beginnings to its
+efflorescence in Charles Darwin.
+
+In the earlier half of the 18th century the term "evolution" was
+introduced into biological writings in order to denote the mode in which
+some of the most eminent physiologists of that time conceived that the
+generation of living things took place; in opposition to the hypothesis
+advocated, in the preceding century, by W. Harvey in that remarkable
+work[17] which would give him a claim to rank among the founders of
+biological science, even had he not been the discoverer of the
+circulation of the blood.
+
+One of Harvey's prime objects is to defend and establish, on the basis
+of direct observation, the opinion already held by Aristotle, that, in
+the higher animals at any rate, the formation of the new organism by the
+process of generation takes place, not suddenly, by simultaneous
+accretion of rudiments of all or the most important of the organs of the
+adult, nor by sudden metamorphosis of a formative substance into a
+miniature of the whole, which subsequently grows, but by _epigenesis_,
+or successive differentiation of a relatively homogeneous rudiment into
+the parts and structures which are characteristic of the adult.
+
+  "Et primo, quidem, quoniam per _epigenesin_ sive partium
+  superexorientium additamentum pullum fabricari certum est: quaenam
+  pars ante alias omnes exstruatur, et quid de illa ejusque generandi
+  modo observandum veniat, dispiciemus. Ratum sane est et in ovo
+  manifeste apparet quod _Aristoteles_ de perfectorum animalium
+  generatione enuntiat: nimirum, non omnes partes simul fieri, sed
+  ordine aliam post aliam; primumque existere particulam genitalem,
+  cujus virtute postea (tanquam ex principio quodam) reliquae omnes
+  partes prosiliant. Qualem in plantarum seminibus (fabis, puta, aut
+  glandibus) gemmam sive apicem protuberantem cernimus, totius futurae
+  arboris principium. _Estque haec particula velut filius emancipatus
+  seorsumque collocatus, et principium per se vivens; unde postea
+  membrorum ordo describitur; et quaecunque ad absolvendum animal
+  pertinent, disponuntur._[18] Quoniam enim _nulla pars se ipsam
+  generat; sed postquam generata est, se ipsam jam auget; ideo eam
+  primum oriri necesse est, quae principium augendi contineat_ (_sive
+  enim planta, sive animal est, aeque omnibus inest quod vim habeat
+  vegetandi, sive nutriendi_),[19] simulque reliquas omnes partes suo
+  quamque ordine distinguat et formet; proindeque in eadem primogenita
+  particula anima primario inest, sensus, motusque, et totius vitae
+  auctor et principium." (_Exercitatio_ 51.)
+
+Harvey proceeds to contrast this view with that of the "Medici," or
+followers of Hippocrates and Galen, who, "badly philosophizing,"
+imagined that the brain, the heart, and the liver were simultaneously
+first generated in the form of vesicles; and, at the same time, while
+expressing his agreement with Aristotle in the principle of epigenesis,
+he maintains that it is the blood which is the primal generative part,
+and not, as Aristotle thought, the heart.
+
+In the latter part of the 17th century the doctrine of epigenesis thus
+advocated by Harvey was controverted on the ground of direct observation
+by M. Malpighi, who affirmed that the body of the chick is to be seen in
+the egg before the _punctum sanguineum_ makes it appearance. But from
+this perfectly correct observation a conclusion which is by no means
+warranted was drawn, namely, that the chick as a whole really exists in
+the egg antecedently to incubation; and that what happens in the course
+of the latter process is no addition of new parts, "alias post alias
+natas," as Harvey puts it, but a simple expansion or unfolding of the
+organs which already exist, though they are too small and inconspicuous
+to be discovered. The weight of Malpighi's observations therefore fell
+into the scale of that doctrine which Harvey terms metamorphosis, in
+contradistinction to epigenesis.
+
+The views of Malpighi were warmly welcomed on philosophical grounds by
+Leibnitz,[20] who found in them a support to his hypothesis of monads,
+and by Nicholas Malebranche;[21] while, in the middle of the 18th
+century, not only speculative considerations, but a great number of new
+and interesting observations on the phenomena of generation, led the
+ingenious Charles Bonnet and A. von Haller, the first physiologist of
+the age, to adopt, advocate and extend them.
+
+Bonnet affirms that, before fecundation, the hen's egg contains an
+excessively minute but complete chick; and that fecundation and
+incubation simply cause this germ to absorb nutritious matters, which
+are deposited in the interstices of the elementary structures of which
+the miniature chick, or germ, is made up. The consequence of this
+intussusceptive growth is the "development" or "evolution" of the germ
+into the visible bird. Thus an organized individual (_tout organisé_)
+"is a composite body consisting of the original, or _elementary_, parts
+and of the matters which have been associated with them by the aid of
+nutrition"; so that, if these matters could be extracted from the
+individual (_tout_), it would, so to speak, become concentrated in a
+point, and would thus be restored to its primitive condition of a
+_germ_; "just as, by extracting from a bone the calcareous substance
+which is the source of its hardness, it is reduced to its primitive
+state of gristle or membrane."[22]
+
+"Evolution" and "development" are, for Bonnet, synonymous terms; and
+since by "evolution" he means simply the expansion of that which was
+invisible into visibility, he was naturally led to the conclusion, at
+which Leibnitz had arrived by a different line of reasoning, that no
+such thing as generation, in the proper sense of the word exists in
+nature. The growth of an organic being is simply a process of
+enlargement, as a particle of dry gelatine may be swelled up by the
+intussusception of water; its death is a shrinkage, such as the swelled
+jelly might undergo on desiccation. Nothing really new is produced in
+the living world, but the germs which develop have existed since the
+beginning of things; and nothing really dies, but, when what we call
+death takes place, the living thing shrinks back into its germ
+state.[23]
+
+The two parts of Bonnet's hypothesis, namely, the doctrine that all
+living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that these contain,
+one enclosed within the other, the germs of all future living things,
+which is the hypothesis of "emboîtement," and the doctrine that every
+germ contains in miniature all the organs of the adult, which is the
+hypothesis of evolution or development, in the primary senses of these
+words, must be carefully distinguished. In fact, while holding firmly by
+the former, Bonnet more or less modified the latter in his later
+writings, and, at length, he admits that a "germ" need not be an actual
+miniature of the organism, but that it may be merely an "original
+preformation" capable of producing the latter.[24]
+
+But, thus defined, the germ is neither more nor less than the "particula
+genitalis" of Aristotle, or the "primordium vegetale" or "ovum" of
+Harvey; and the "evolution" of such a germ would not be distinguishable
+from "epigenesis."
+
+Supported by the great authority of Haller, the doctrine of evolution,
+or development, prevailed throughout the whole of the 18th century, and
+Cuvier appears to have substantially adopted Bonnet's later views,
+though probably he would not have gone all lengths in the direction of
+"emboîtement." In a well-known note to Charles Leopold Laurillard's
+_Éloge_, prefixed to the last edition of the _Ossemens fossiles_, the
+"radical de l'être" is much the same thing as Aristotle's "particula
+genitalis" and Harvey's "ovum."[25]
+
+Bonnet's eminent contemporary, Buffon, held nearly the same views with
+respect to the nature of the germ, and expresses them even more
+confidently.
+
+  "Ceux qui ont cru que le coeur étoit le premier formé, se sont
+  trompés; ceux qui disent que c'est le sang se trompent aussi: tout est
+  formé en même temps. Si l'on ne consulte que l'observation, le poulet
+  se voit dans l'oeuf avant qu'il ait été couvé."[26]
+
+  "J'ai ouvert une grande quantité d'oeufs à differens temps avant et
+  après l'incubation, et je me suis convaincu par mes yeux que le poulet
+  existe en entier dans le milieu de la cicatrule au moment qu'il sort
+  du corps de la poule."[27]
+
+The "moule intérieur" of Buffon is the aggregate of elementary parts
+which constitute the individual, and is thus the equivalent of Bonnet's
+germ,[28] as defined in the passage cited above. But Buffon further
+imagined that innumerable "molécules organiques" are dispersed
+throughout the world, and that alimentation consists in the
+appropriation by the parts of an organism of those molecules which are
+analogous to them. Growth, therefore, was, on this hypothesis, partly a
+process of simple evolution, and partly of what has been termed
+syngenesis. Buffon's opinion is, in fact, a sort of combination of
+views, essentially similar to those of Bonnet, with others, somewhat
+similar to those of the "Medici" whom Harvey condemns. The "molécules
+organiques" are physical equivalents of Leibnitz's "monads."
+
+It is a striking example of the difficulty of getting people to use
+their own powers of investigation accurately, that this form of the
+doctrine of evolution should have held its ground so long; for it was
+thoroughly and completely exploded, not long after its enunciation, by
+Caspar Frederick Wolff, who in his _Theoria generatìonis_, published in
+1759, placed the opposite theory of epigenesis upon the secure
+foundation of fact, from which it has never been displaced. But Wolff
+had no immediate successors. The school of Cuvier was lamentably
+deficient in embryologists; and it was only in the course of the first
+thirty years of the 19th century that Prévost and Dumas in France, and,
+later on, Döllinger, Pander, von Bär, Rathke, and Remak in Germany,
+founded modern embryology; and, at the same time, proved the utter
+incompatibility of the hypothesis of evolution as formulated by Bonnet
+and Haller with easily demonstrable facts.
+
+Nevertheless, though the conceptions originally denoted by "evolution"
+and "development" were shown to be untenable, the words retained their
+application to the process by which the embryos of living beings
+gradually make their appearance; and the terms "development,"
+"Entwickelung," and "evolutio" are now indiscriminately used for the
+series of genetic changes exhibited by living beings, by writers who
+would emphatically deny that "development" or "Entwickelung" or
+"evolutio," in the sense in which these words were usually employed by
+Bonnet or Haller, ever occurs.
+
+Evolution, or development, is, in fact, at present employed in biology
+as a general name for the history of the steps by which any living being
+has acquired the morphological and the physiological characters which
+distinguish it. As civil history may be divided into biography, which is
+the history of individuals, and universal history, which is the history
+of the human race, so evolution falls naturally into two categories--the
+evolution of the individual (see EMBRYOLOGY) and the evolution of the
+sum of living beings.
+
+_The Evolution of the Sum of Living Beings._--The notion that all the
+kinds of animals and plants may have come into existence by the growth
+and modification of primordial germs is as old as speculative thought;
+but the modern scientific form of the doctrine can be traced
+historically to the influence of several converging lines of
+philosophical speculation and of physical observation, none of which go
+further back than the 17th century. These are:--
+
+1. The enunciation by Descartes of the conception that the physical
+universe, whether living or not living, is a mechanism, and that, as
+such, it is explicable on physical principles.
+
+2. The observation of the gradations of structure, from extreme
+simplicity to very great complexity, presented by living things, and of
+the relation of these graduated forms to one another.
+
+3. The observation of the existence of an analogy between the series of
+gradations presented by the species which compose any great group of
+animals or plants, and the series of embryonic conditions of the highest
+members of that group.
+
+4. The observation that large groups of species of widely different
+habits present the same fundamental plan of structure; and that parts of
+the same animal or plant, the functions of which are very different,
+likewise exhibit modifications of a common plan.
+
+5. The observation of the existence of structures, in a rudimentary and
+apparently useless condition, in one species of a group, which are fully
+developed and have definite functions in other species of the same
+group.
+
+6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in modifying
+living organisms.
+
+7. The observation of the facts of geographical distribution.
+
+8. The observation of the facts of the geological succession of the
+forms of life.
+
+1. Notwithstanding the elaborate disguise which fear of the powers that
+were led Descartes to throw over his real opinions, it is impossible to
+read the _Principes de la philosophie_ without acquiring the conviction
+that this great philosopher held that the physical world and all things
+in it, whether living or not living, have originated by a process of
+evolution, due to the continuous operation of purely physical causes,
+out of a primitive relatively formless matter.[29]
+
+The following passage is especially instructive:--
+
+  "Et tant s'en faut que je veuille que l'on croie toutes les choses que
+  j'écrirai, que même je prétends en proposer ici quelques-unes que je
+  crois absolument être fausses; à savoir, je ne doute point que le
+  monde n'ait été créé au commencement avec autant de perfection qu'il
+  en a; en sorte que le soleil, la terre, la lune, et les étoiles ont
+  été dès lors; et que la terre n'a pas eu seulement en soi les semences
+  des plantes, mais que les plantes même en ont couvert une partie; et
+  qu'Adam et Ève n'ont pas été créés enfans mais en âge d'hommes
+  parfaits. La religion chrétienne veut que nous le croyons ainsi, et la
+  raison naturelle nous persuade entièrement cette vérité; car si nous
+  considérons la toute puissance de Dieu, nous devons juger que tout ce
+  qu'il a fait a eu dès le commencement toute la perfection qu'il devoit
+  avoir. Mais néanmoins, comme on connoîtroit beaucoup mieux quelle a
+  été la nature d'Adam et celle des arbres de Paradis si on avoit
+  examiné comment les enfants se forment peu à peu dans le ventre de
+  leurs mères et comment les plantes sortent de leurs semences, que si
+  on avoit seulement considéré quels ils ont été quand Dieu les a créés:
+  tout de même, nous ferons mieux entendre quelle est généralement la
+  nature de toutes les choses qui sont au monde si nous pouvons imaginer
+  quelques principes qui soient fort intelligibles et fort simples,
+  desquels nous puissions voir clairement que les astres et la terre et
+  enfin tout ce monde visible auroit pu être produit ainsi que de
+  quelques semences (bien que nous sachions qu'il n'a pas été produit en
+  cette façon) que si nous la décrivions seulement comme il est, ou bien
+  comme nous croyons qu'il a été créé. Et parceque je pense avoir trouvé
+  des principes qui sont tels, je tâcherai ici de les expliquer."[30]
+
+If we read between the lines of this singular exhibition of force of one
+kind and weakness of another, it is clear that Descartes believed that
+he had divined the mode in which the physical universe had been evolved;
+and the _Traité de l'homme_ and the essay _Sur les passions_ afford
+abundant additional evidence that he sought for, and thought he had
+found, an explanation of the phenomena of physical life by deduction
+from purely physical laws.
+
+Spinoza abounds in the same sense, and is as usual perfectly candid--
+
+  "Naturae leges et regulae, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis formis
+  in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem."[31]
+
+Leibnitz's doctrine of continuity necessarily led him in the same
+direction; and, of the infinite multitude of monads with which he
+peopled the world, each is supposed to be the focus of an endless
+process of evolution and involution. In the _Protogaea_, xxvi., Leibnitz
+distinctly suggests the mutability of species--
+
+  "Alii mirantur in saxis passim species videri quas vel in orbe
+  cognito, vel saltem in vicinis locis frustra quaeras. Ita _Cornua
+  Ammonis_, quae ex nautilorum numero habeantur, passim et forma et
+  magnitudine (nam et pedali diametro aliquando reperiuntur) ab omnibus
+  illis naturis discrepare dicunt, quas praebet mare. Sed quis
+  absconditos ejus recessus aut subterraneas abyssos pervestigavit? quam
+  multa nobis animalia antea ignota offert novus orbis? Et credibile est
+  per magnas illas conversiones etiam animalium species plurimum
+  immutatas."
+
+Thus in the end of the 17th century the seed was sown which has at
+intervals brought forth recurrent crops of evolutional hypotheses,
+based, more or less completely, on general reasonings.
+
+Among the earliest of these speculations is that put forward by Benoît
+de Maillet in his _Telliamed_, which, though printed in 1735, was not
+published until twenty-three years later. Considering that this book was
+written before the time of Haller, or Bonnet, or Linnaeus, or Hutton, it
+surely deserves more respectful consideration than it usually receives.
+For De Maillet not only has a definite conception of the plasticity of
+living things, and of the production of existing species by the
+modification of their predecessors, but he clearly apprehends the
+cardinal maxim of modern geological science, that the explanation of the
+structure of the globe is to be sought in the deductive application to
+geological phenomena of the principles established inductively by the
+study of the present course of nature. Somewhat later, P.L.M. de
+Maupertuis[32] suggested a curious hypothesis as to the causes of
+variation, which he thinks may be sufficient to account for the origin
+of all animals from a single pair. Jean Baptiste René Robinet[33]
+followed out much the same line of thought as De Maillet, but less
+soberly; and Bonnet's speculations in the _Palingénésie_, which appeared
+in 1769, have already been mentioned. Buffon (1753-1778), at first a
+partisan of the absolute immutability of species, subsequently appears
+to have believed that larger or smaller groups of species have been
+produced by the modification of a primitive stock; but he contributed
+nothing to the general doctrine of evolution.
+
+Erasmus Darwin (_Zoonomia_, 1794), though a zealous evolutionist, can
+hardly be said to have made any real advance on his predecessors; and,
+notwithstanding the fact that Goethe had the advantage of a wide
+knowledge of morphological facts, and a true insight into their
+signification, while he threw all the power of a great poet into the
+expression of his conceptions, it may be questioned whether he supplied
+the doctrine of evolution with a firmer scientific basis than it already
+possessed. Moreover, whatever the value of Goethe's labours in that
+field, they were not published before 1820, long after evolutionism had
+taken a new departure from the works of Treviranus and Lamarck--the
+first of its advocates who were equipped for their task with the needful
+large and accurate knowledge of the phenomena of life as a whole. It is
+remarkable that each of these writers seems to have been led,
+independently and contemporaneously, to invent the same name of
+"biology" for the science of the phenomena of life; and thus, following
+Buffon, to have recognized the essential unity of these phenomena, and
+their contradistinction from those of inanimate nature. And it is hard
+to say whether Lamarck or Treviranus has the priority in propounding the
+main thesis of the doctrine of evolution; for though the first volume of
+Treviranus's _Biologie_ appeared only in 1802, he says, in the preface
+to his later work, the _Erscheinungen und Gesetze des organischen
+Lebens_, dated 1831, that he wrote the first volume of the _Biologie_
+"nearly five-and-thirty years ago," or about 1796.
+
+Now, in 1794, there is evidence that Lamarck held doctrines which
+present a striking contrast to those which are to be found in the
+_Philosophie zoologique_, as the following passages show:--
+
+  "685. Quoique mon unique objet dans cet article n'ait été que de
+  traiter de la cause physique de l'entretien de la vie des êtres
+  organiques, malgré cela j'ai osé avancer en débutant, que l'existence
+  de ces êtres étonnants n'appartiennent nullement à la nature; que tout
+  ce qu'on peut entendre par le mot _nature_, ne pouvoit donner la vie,
+  c'est-à-dire, que toutes les qualités de la matière, jointes à toutes
+  les circonstances possibles, et même à l'activité répandue dans
+  l'univers, ne pouvaient point produire un être muni du mouvement
+  organique, capable de reproduire son semblable, et sujet à la mort.
+
+  "686. Tous les individus de cette nature, qui existent, proviennent
+  d'individus semblables qui tous ensemble constituent l'espèce entière.
+  Or, je crois qu'il est aussi impossible à l'homme de connoître la
+  cause physique du premier individu de chaque espèce, que d'assigner
+  aussi physiquement la cause de l'existence de la matière ou de
+  l'univers entier. C'est au moins ce que le résultat de mes
+  connaissances et de mes réflexions me portent à penser. S'il existe
+  beaucoup de variétés produites par l'effet des circonstances, ces
+  variétés ne dénaturent point les espèces; mais on se trompe, sans
+  doute souvent, en indiquant comme espèce, ce qui n'est que variété; et
+  alors je sens que cette erreur peut tirer à conséquence dans les
+  raisonnements que l'on fait sur cette matière."[34]
+
+The first three volumes of Treviranus's Biologie, which contains his
+general views of evolution, appeared between 1802 and 1805. The
+_Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants_, which sketches out
+Lamarck's doctrines, was published in 1802; but the full development of
+his views in the _Philosophie zoologique_ did not take place until
+1809.
+
+The _Biologie_ and the _Philosophie zoologique_ are both very remarkable
+productions, and are still worthy of attentive study, but they fell upon
+evil times. The vast authority of Cuvier was employed in support of the
+traditionally respectable hypotheses of special creation and of
+catastrophism; and the wild speculations of the _Discours sur les
+révolutions de la surface du globe_ were held to be models of sound
+scientific thinking, while the really much more sober and philosophical
+hypotheses of the _Hydrogéologie_ were scouted. For many years it was
+the fashion to speak of Lamarck with ridicule, while Treviranus was
+altogether ignored.
+
+Nevertheless, the work had been done. The conception of evolution was
+henceforward irrepressible, and it incessantly reappears, in one shape
+or another,[35] up to the year 1858, when Charles Darwin and A.R.
+Wallace published their _Theory of Natural Selection_. The _Origin of
+Species_ appeared in 1859; and thenceforward the doctrine of evolution
+assumed a position and acquired an importance which it never before
+possessed. In the _Origin of Species_, and in his other numerous and
+important contributions to the solution of the problem of biological
+evolution, Darwin confined himself to the discussion of the causes which
+have brought about the present condition of living matter, assuming such
+matter to have once come into existence. On the other hand, Spencer[36]
+and E. Haeckel[37] dealt with the whole problem of evolution. The
+profound and vigorous writings of Spencer embody the spirit of Descartes
+in the knowledge of our own day, and may be regarded as the _Principes
+de la philosophie_ of the 19th century; while, whatever hesitation may
+not unfrequently be felt by less daring minds in following Haeckel in
+many of his speculations, his attempt to systematize the doctrine of
+evolution and to exhibit its influence as the central thought of modern
+biology, cannot fail to have a far-reaching influence on the progress of
+science.
+
+If we seek for the reason of the difference between the scientific
+position of the doctrine of evolution in the days of Lamarck and that
+which it occupies now, we shall find it in the great accumulation of
+facts, the several classes of which have been enumerated above, under
+the second to the eighth heads. For those which are grouped under the
+second to the seventh of these classes, respectively, have a clear
+significance on the hypothesis of evolution, while they are
+unintelligible if that hypothesis be denied. And those of the eighth
+group are not only unintelligible without the assumption of evolution,
+but can be proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in
+some cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires. The
+demonstration of these assertions would require a volume, but the
+general nature of the evidence on which they rest may be briefly
+indicated.
+
+2. The accurate investigation of the lowest forms of animal life,
+commenced by Leeuwenhoek and Swammerdam, and continued by the remarkable
+labours of Réaumur, Abraham Trembley, Bonnet, and a host of other
+observers in the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th
+centuries, drew the attention of biologists to the gradation in the
+complexity of organization which is presented by living beings, and
+culminated in the doctrine of the _échelle des êtres_, so powerfully and
+clearly stated by Bonnet, and, before him, adumbrated by Locke and by
+Leibnitz. In the then state of knowledge, it appeared that all the
+species of animals and plants could be arranged in one series, in such a
+manner that, by insensible gradations, the mineral passed into the
+plant, the plant into the polype, the polype into the worm, and so,
+through gradually higher forms of life, to man, at the summit of the
+animated world.
+
+But, as knowledge advanced, this conception ceased to be tenable in the
+crude form in which it was first put forward. Taking into account
+existing animals and plants alone, it became obvious that they fell into
+groups which were more or less sharply separated from one another; and,
+moreover, that even the species of a genus can hardly ever be arranged
+in linear series. Their natural resemblances and differences are only to
+be expressed by disposing them as if they were branches springing from a
+common hypothetical centre.
+
+Lamarck, while affirming the verbal proposition that animals form a
+single series, was forced by his vast acquaintance with the details of
+zoology to limit the assertion to such a series as may be formed out of
+the abstractions constituted by the common characters of each group.[38]
+
+Cuvier on anatomical, and Von Baer on embryological grounds, made the
+further step of proving that, even in this limited sense, animals cannot
+be arranged in a single series, but that there are several distinct
+plans of organization to be observed among them, no one of which, in its
+highest and most complicated modification, leads to any of the others.
+
+The conclusions enunciated by Cuvier and Von Baer have been confirmed in
+principle by all subsequent research into the structure of animals and
+plants. But the effect of the adoption of these conclusions has been
+rather to substitute a new metaphor for that of Bonnet than to abolish
+the conception expressed by it. Instead of regarding living things as
+capable of arrangement in one series like the steps of a ladder, the
+results of modern investigation compel us to dispose them as if they
+were the twigs and branches of a tree. The ends of the twigs represent
+individuals, the smallest groups of twigs species, larger groups genera,
+and so on, until we arrive at the source of all these ramifications of
+the main branch, which is represented by a common plan of structure. At
+the present moment it is impossible to draw up any definition, based on
+broad anatomical or developmental characters, by which any one of
+Cuvier's great groups shall be separated from all the rest. On the
+contrary, the lower members of each tend to converge towards the lower
+members of all the others. The same may be said of the vegetable world.
+The apparently clear distinction between flowering and flowerless plants
+has been broken down by the series of gradations between the two
+exhibited by the _Lycopodiaceae_, _Rhizocarpeae_, and _Gymnospermeae_.
+The groups of _Fungi_, _Licheneae_ and _Algae_ have completely run into
+one another, and, when the lowest forms of each are alone considered,
+even the animal and vegetable kingdoms cease to have a definite
+frontier.
+
+If it is permissible to speak of the relations of living forms to one
+another metaphorically, the similitude chosen must undoubtedly be that
+of a common root, whence two main trunks, one representing the vegetable
+and one the animal world, spring; and, each dividing into a few main
+branches, these subdivide into multitudes of branchlets and these into
+smaller groups of twigs.
+
+As Lamarck has well said:--[39]
+
+  "Il n'y a que ceux qui se sont longtemps et fortement occupés de la
+  détermination des espèces, et qui ont consulté de riches collections,
+  qui peuvent savoir jusqu'à quel point les _espèces_, parmi les corps
+  vivants, se fondent les unes dans les autres, et qui ont pu se
+  convaincre que, dans les parties où nous voyons des _espèces_ isolées,
+  cela n'est ainsi que parcequ'il nous en manque d'autres qui en sont
+  plus voisines et que nous n'avons pas encore recueillies.
+
+  "Je ne veux pas dire pour cela que les animaux qui existent forment
+  une série très-simple et partout également nuancée; mais je dis qu'ils
+  forment une série rameuse, irrégulièrement graduée et qui n'a point de
+  discontinuité dans ses parties, ou qui, du moins, n'en a toujours pas
+  eu, s'il est vrai que, par suite de quelques espèces perdues, il s'en
+  trouve quelque part. Il en résulte que les _espèces_ qui terminent
+  chaque rameau de la série générale tiennent, au moins d'un côté, à
+  d'autres espèces voisines qui se nuancent avec elles. Voilà ce que
+  l'état bien connu des choses me met maintenant à portée de démontrer.
+  Je n'ai besoin d'aucune hypothèse ni d'aucune supposition pour cela:
+  j'en atteste tous les naturalistes observateurs."
+
+3. In a remarkable essay[40] Meckel remarks:--
+
+"There is no good physiologist who has not been struck by the
+observation that the original form of all organisms is one and the
+same, and that out of this one form, all, the lowest as well as the
+highest, are developed in such a manner that the latter pass through the
+permanent forms of the former as transitory stages. Aristotle, Haller,
+Harvey, Kielmeyer, Autenrieth, and many others have either made this
+observation incidentally, or, especially the latter, have drawn
+particular attention to it, and drawn therefrom results of permanent
+importance for physiology."
+
+Meckel proceeds to exemplify the thesis, that the lower forms of animals
+represent stages in the course of the development of the higher, with a
+large series of illustrations.
+
+After comparing the salamanders and the perenni-branchiate _Urodela_
+with the tadpoles and the frogs, and enunciating the law that the more
+highly any animal is organized the more quickly does it pass through the
+lower stages, Meckel goes on to say:--
+
+  "From these lowest Vertebrata to the highest, and to the highest forms
+  among these, the comparison between the embryonic conditions of the
+  higher animals and the adult states of the lower can be more
+  completely and thoroughly instituted than if the survey is extended to
+  the Invertebrata, inasmuch as the latter are in many respects
+  constructed upon an altogether too dissimilar type; indeed they often
+  differ from one another far more than the lowest vertebrate does from
+  the highest mammal; yet the following pages will show that the
+  comparison may be also extended to them with interest. In fact, there
+  is a period when, as Aristotle long ago said, the embryo of the
+  highest animal has the form of a mere worm, and, devoid of internal
+  and external organization, is merely an almost structureless lump of
+  polype-substance. Notwithstanding the origin of organs, it still for a
+  certain time, by reason of its want of an internal bony skeleton,
+  remains worm and mollusk, and only later enters into the series of the
+  Vertebrata, although traces of the vertebral column even in the
+  earliest periods testify its claim to a place in that series."--Op.
+  cit. pp. 4, 5.
+
+If Meckel's proposition is so far qualified, that the comparison of
+adult with embryonic forms is restricted within the limits of one type
+of organization; and if it is further recollected, that the resemblance
+between the permanent lower form and the embryonic stage of a higher
+form is not special but general, it is in entire accordance with modern
+embryology; although there is no branch of biology which has grown so
+largely, and improved its methods so much since Meckel's time, as this.
+In its original form, the doctrine of "arrest of development," as
+advocated by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Serres, was no doubt an
+over-statement of the case. It is not true, for example, that a fish is
+a reptile arrested in its development, or that a reptile was ever a
+fish; but it is true that the reptile embryo, at one stage of its
+development, is an organism which, if it had an independent existence,
+must be classified among fishes; and all the organs of the reptile pass,
+in the course of their development, through conditions which are closely
+analogous to those which are permanent in some fishes.
+
+4. That branch of biology which is termed morphology is a commentary
+upon, and expansion of, the proposition that widely different animals or
+plants, and widely different parts of animals or plants, are constructed
+upon the same plan. From the rough comparison of the skeleton of a bird
+with that of a man by Pierre Delon, in the 16th century (to go no
+further back), down to the theory of the limbs and the theory of the
+skull at the present day; or, from the first demonstration of the
+homologies of the parts of a flower by C.F. Wolff, to the present
+elaborate analysis of the floral organs, morphology exhibits a continual
+advance towards the demonstration of a fundamental unity among the
+seeming diversities of living structures. And this demonstration has
+been completed by the final establishment of the cell theory (see
+CYTOLOGY), which involves the admission of a primitive conformity, not
+only of all the elementary structures in animals and plants
+respectively, but of those in the one of these great divisions of living
+things with those in the other. No _a priori_ difficulty can be said to
+stand in the way of evolution, when it can be shown that all animals and
+all plants proceed by modes of development, which are similar in
+principle, from a fundamental protoplasmic material.
+
+5. The innumerable cases of structures, which are rudimentary and
+apparently useless, in species, the close allies of which possess
+well-developed and functionally important homologous structures, are
+readily intelligible on the theory of evolution, while it is hard to
+conceive their _raison d'être_ on any other hypothesis. However, a
+cautious reasoner will probably rather explain such cases deductively
+from the doctrine of evolution than endeavour to support the doctrine of
+evolution by them. For it is almost impossible to prove that any
+structure, however rudimentary, is useless--that is to say, that it
+plays no part whatever in the economy; and, if it is in the slightest
+degree useful, there is no reason why, on the hypothesis of direct
+creation, it should not have been created. Nevertheless; double-edged as
+is the argument from rudimentary organs, there is probably none which
+has produced a greater effect in promoting the general acceptance of the
+theory of evolution.
+
+6. The older advocates of evolution sought for the causes of the process
+exclusively in the influence of varying conditions, such as climate and
+station, or hybridization, upon living forms. Even Treviranus has got no
+further than this point. Lamarck introduced the conception of the action
+of an animal on itself as a factor in producing modification. Starting
+from the well-known fact that the habitual use of a limb tends to
+develop the muscles of the limb, and to produce a greater and greater
+facility in using it, he made the general assumption that the effort of
+an animal to exert an organ in a given direction tends to develop the
+organ in that direction. But a little consideration showed that, though
+Lamarck had seized what, as far as it goes, is a true cause of
+modification, it is a cause the actual effects of which are wholly
+inadequate to account for any considerable modification in animals, and
+which can have no influence at all in the vegetable world; and probably
+nothing contributed so much to discredit evolution, in the early part of
+the 19th century, as the floods of easy ridicule which were poured upon
+this part of Lamarck's speculation. The theory of natural selection, or
+survival of the fittest, was suggested by William Charles Wells in 1813,
+and further elaborated by Patrick Matthew in 1831. But the pregnant
+suggestions of these writers remained practically unnoticed and
+forgotten, until the theory was independently devised and promulgated by
+Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace in 1858, and the effect
+of its publication was immediate and profound.
+
+Those who were unwilling to accept evolution, without better grounds
+than such as are offered by Lamarck, and who therefore preferred to
+suspend their judgment on the question, found in the principle of
+selective breeding, pursued in all its applications with marvellous
+knowledge and skill by Darwin, a valid explanation of the occurrence of
+varieties and races; and they saw clearly that, if the explanation would
+apply to species, it would not only solve the problem of their
+evolution, but that it would account for the facts of teleology, as well
+as for those of morphology; and for the persistence of some forms of
+life unchanged through long epochs of time, while others undergo
+comparatively rapid metamorphosis.
+
+How far "natural selection" suffices for the production of species
+remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the whole cause, it is a
+very important factor in that operation; and that it must play a great
+part in the sorting out of varieties into those which are transitory and
+those which are permanent.
+
+But the causes and conditions of variation have yet to be thoroughly
+explored; and the importance of natural selection will not be impaired,
+even if further inquiries should prove that variability is definite, and
+is determined in certain directions rather than in others, by conditions
+inherent in that which varies. It is quite conceivable that every
+species tends to produce varieties of a limited number and kind, and
+that the effect of natural selection is to favour the development of
+some of these, while it opposes the development of others along their
+predetermined lines of modification.
+
+7. No truths brought to light by biological investigation were better
+calculated to inspire distrust of the dogmas intruded upon science in
+the name of theology than those which relate to the distribution of
+animals and plants on the surface of the earth. Very skilful
+accommodation was needful, if the limitation of sloths to South America,
+and of the _Ornithorhynchus_ to Australia, was to be reconciled with
+the literal interpretation of the history of the Deluge; and, with the
+establishment of the existence of distinct provinces of distribution,
+any serious belief in the peopling of the world by migration from Mount
+Ararat came to an end.
+
+Under these circumstances, only one alternative was left for those who
+denied the occurrence of evolution; namely, the supposition that the
+characteristic animals and plants of each great province were created,
+as such, within the limits in which, we find them. And as the hypothesis
+of "specific centres," thus formulated, was heterodox from the
+theological point of view, and unintelligible under its scientific
+aspect, it may be passed over without further notice, as a phase of
+transition from the creational to the evolutional hypothesis.
+
+8. In fact, the strongest and most conclusive arguments in favour of
+evolution are those which are based upon the facts of geographical,
+taken in conjunction with those of geological, distribution.
+
+Both Darwin and Wallace lay great stress on the close relation which
+obtains between the existing fauna of any region and that of the
+immediately antecedent geological epoch in the same region; and rightly,
+for it is in truth inconceivable that there should be no genetic
+connexion between the two. It is possible to put into words the
+proposition, that all the animals and plants of each geological epoch
+were annihilated, and that a new set of very similar forms was created
+for the next epoch, but it may be doubted if any one who ever tried to
+form a distinct mental image of this process of spontaneous generation
+on the grandest scale ever really succeeded in realizing it.
+
+In later years the attention of the best palaeontologists has been
+withdrawn from the hodman's work of making "new species" of fossils, to
+the scientific task of completing our knowledge of individual species,
+and tracing out the succession of the forms presented by any given type
+in time.
+
+_Evolution at the Beginning of the 20th century._--Since Huxley and
+Sully wrote their masterly essays in the 9th edition of this
+encyclopaedia, the doctrine of evolution has outgrown the trammels of
+controversy and has been accepted as a fundamental principle. Writers on
+biological subjects no longer have to waste space in weighing evolution
+against this or that philosophical theory or religious tradition;
+philosophical writers have frankly accepted it, and the supporters of
+religious tradition have made broad their phylacteries to write on them
+the new words. A closer scrutiny of the writers of all ages who preceded
+Charles Darwin, and, in particular, the light thrown back from Darwin on
+the earlier writings of Herbert Spencer, have made plain that without
+Darwin the world by this time might have come to a general acceptance of
+evolution; but it seems established as a historical fact that the world
+has come to accept evolution, first, because of Darwin's theory of
+natural selection, and second, because of Darwin's exposition of the
+evidence for the actual occurrence of organic evolution. The evidence as
+set out by Darwin has been added to enormously; new knowledge has in
+many cases altered our conceptions of the mode of the actual process of
+evolution, and from time to time a varying stress has been laid on what
+are known as the purely Darwinian factors in the theory. The balance of
+these tendencies has been against the attachment of great importance to
+sexual selection, and in favour of attaching a great importance to
+natural selection; but the dominant feature in the recent history of the
+theory has been its universal acceptance and the recognition that this
+general acceptance has come from the stimulus given by Darwin.
+
+
+  Ontogeny.
+
+A change has taken place in the use of the word evolution. Huxley,
+following historical custom, devoted one section of his article to the
+"Evolution of the Individual." The facts and theories respecting this
+are now discussed under such headings as EMBRYOLOGY; HEREDITY; VARIATION
+AND SELECTION; under these headings must be sought information on the
+important recent modifications with regard to the theory of the relation
+between the development of the individual and the development of the
+race, the part played by the environment on the individual, and the
+modern developments of the old quarrel between evolution and
+epigenesis. The most striking general change has been against seeing in
+the facts of ontogeny any direct evidence as to phylogeny. The general
+proposition as to a parallelism between individual and ancestral
+development is no doubt indisputable, but extended knowledge of the very
+different ontogenetic histories of closely allied forms has led us to a
+much fuller conception of the mode in which stages in embryonic and
+larval history have been modified in relation to their surroundings, and
+to a consequent reluctance to attach detailed importance to the
+embryological argument for evolution.
+
+
+  Phylogeny.
+
+The vast bulk of botanical and zoological work on living and extinct
+forms published during the last quarter of the 19th century increased
+almost beyond all expectation the evidence for the fact of evolution.
+The discovery of a single fossil creature in a geological stratum of a
+wrong period, the detection of a single anatomical or physiological fact
+irreconcilable with origin by descent with modification, would have been
+destructive of the theory and would have made the reputation of the
+observer. But in the prodigious number of supporting discoveries that
+have been made no single negative factor has appeared, and the evolution
+from their predecessors of the forms of life existing now or at any
+other period must be taken as proved. It is necessary to notice,
+however, that although the general course of the stream of life is
+certain, there is not the same certainty as to the actual individual
+pedigrees of the existing forms. In the attempts to place existing
+creatures in approximately phylogenetic order, a striking change, due to
+a more logical consideration of the process of evolution, has become
+established and is already resolving many of the earlier difficulties
+and banishing from the more recent tables the numerous hypothetical
+intermediate forms so familiar in the older phylogenetic trees. The
+older method was to attempt the comparison between the highest member of
+a lower group and the lowest member of a higher group--to suppose, for
+example, that the gorilla and the chimpanzee, the highest members of the
+apes, were the existing representatives of the ancestors of man and to
+compare these forms with the lowest members of the human race. Such a
+comparison is necessarily illogical, as the existing apes are separated
+from the common ancestor by at least as large a number of generations as
+separate it from any of the forms of existing man. In the natural
+process of growth, the gap must necessarily be wider between the summits
+of the twigs than lower down, and, instead of imagining "missing links,"
+it is necessary to trace each separate branch as low down as possible,
+and to institute the comparisons between the lowest points that can be
+reached. The method is simply the logical result of the fact that every
+existing form of life stands at the summit of a long branch of the whole
+tree of life. A due consideration of it leads to the curious paradox
+that if any two animals be compared, the zoologically lower will be
+separated from the common ancestor by a larger number of generations,
+since, on the average, sexual maturity is reached more quickly by the
+lower form. Naturally very many other factors have to be considered, but
+this alone is a sufficient reason to restrain attempts to place existing
+forms in linear phylogenetic series. In embryology the method finds its
+expression in the limitation of comparisons to the corresponding stages
+of low and high forms and the exclusion of the comparisons between the
+adult stages of low forms and the embryonic stages of higher forms.
+Another expression of the same method, due to Cope, and specially
+valuable to the taxonomist, is that when the relationship between orders
+is being considered, characters of subordinal rank must be neglected. It
+must not be supposed that earlier writers all neglected this method, or
+still less that all writers now employ it, but merely that formerly it
+was frequently overlooked by the best writers, and now is neglected only
+by the worst. The result is, on the one hand, a clearing away of much
+fantastic phylogeny, on the other, an enormous reduction of the supposed
+gaps between groups.
+
+
+  Comparative anatomy.
+
+There has been a renewed activity in the study of existing forms from
+the point of view of obtaining evidence as to the nature and origin of
+species. Comparative anatomists have been learning to refrain from
+basing the diagnosis of a species, or the description of the condition
+of an organ, on the evidence of a single specimen. Naturalists who deal
+specially with museum collections have been compelled, it is true, for
+other reasons to attach an increasing importance to what is called the
+type specimen, but they find that this insistence on the individual,
+although invaluable from the point of view of recording species, is
+unsatisfactory from the point of view of scientific zoology; and
+propositions for the amelioration of this condition of affairs range
+from a refusal of Linnaean nomenclature in such cases, to the
+institution of a division between _master species_ for such species as
+have been properly revised by the comparative morphologist, and
+_provisional species_ for such species as have been provisionally
+registered by those working at collections. Those who work with living
+forms of which it is possible to obtain a large number of specimens, and
+those who make revisions of the provisional species of palaeontologists,
+are slowly coming to some such conception as that a species is the
+abstract central point around which a group of variations oscillate, and
+that the peripheral oscillations of one species may even overlap those
+of an allied species. It is plain that we have moved far from the
+connotation and denotation of the word _species_ at the time when Darwin
+began to discuss the origin of species, and that the movement, on the
+one hand, tends to simplify the problem philosophically, and, on the
+other, to make it difficult for the amateur theorist.
+
+The conception of evolution is being applied more rigidly to the
+comparative anatomy of organs and systems of organs. When a series of
+the modifications of an anatomical structure has been sufficiently
+examined, it is frequently possible to decide that one particular
+condition is primitive, ancestral or central, and that the other
+conditions have been derived from it. Such a condition has been termed,
+with regard to the group of animals or plants the organs of which are
+being studied, _archecentric_. The possession of the character in the
+archecentric condition in (say) two of the members of the group does not
+indicate that these two members are more nearly related to one another
+than they are to other members of the group; the archecentric condition
+is part of the common heritage of all the members of the group, and may
+be retained by any. On the other hand, when the ancestral condition is
+modified, it may be regarded as having moved outwards along some radius
+from the archecentric condition. Such modified conditions have been
+termed _apocentric_. It is obvious that the mere apocentricity of a
+character can be no guide to the affinities of its possessor. It is
+necessary to determine if the modification be a simple change that might
+have occurred in independent cases, in fact if it be a multiradial
+apocentricity, or if it involved intricate and precisely combined
+anatomical changes that we could not expect to occur twice
+independently; that is to say, if it be a uniradial apocentricity.
+Multiradial apocentricities lie at the root of many of the phenomena
+that have been grouped under the designation _convergence_. Especially
+in the case of manifest adaptations, organs possessed by creatures far
+apart genealogically may be moulded into conditions that are extremely
+alike. Sir E. Ray Lankester's term, _homoplasy_, has passed into
+currency as designating such cases where different genetic material has
+been pressed by similar conditions into similar moulds. These may be
+called heterogeneous homoplasies, but it is necessary to recognize the
+existence of homogeneous homoplasies, here called multiradial
+apocentricities. A complex apocentric modification of a kind which we
+cannot imagine to have been repeated independently, and which is to be
+designated as uniradial, frequently forms a new centre around which new
+diverging modifications are produced. With reference to any particular
+group of forms such a new centre of modification may be termed a
+_metacentre_, and it is plain that the archecentre of the whole group is
+a metacentre of the larger group of which the group under consideration
+is a branch. Thus, for instance, the archecentric condition of any Avian
+structure is a metacentre of the Sauropsidan stem. A form of
+apocentricity extremely common and often perplexing may be termed
+_pseudocentric_; in such a condition there is an apparent simplicity
+that reveals its secondary nature by some small and apparently
+meaningless complexity.
+
+
+  Bionomics.
+
+Another group of investigations that seems to play an important part in
+the future development of the theory of evolution relates to the study
+of what is known as organic symmetry. The differentiations of structure
+that characterize animals and plants are being shown to be orderly and
+definite in many respects; the relations of the various parts to one
+another and to the whole, the modes of repetition of parts, and the
+series of changes that occur in groups of repeated parts appear to be to
+a certain extent inevitable, to depend on the nature of the living
+material itself and on the necessary conditions of its growth. Closely
+allied to the study of symmetry is the study of the direct effect of the
+circumambient media on embryonic young and adult stages of living beings
+(see EMBRYOLOGY: _Physiology_; HEREDITY; and VARIATION AND SELECTION),
+and a still larger number of observers have added to our knowledge of
+these. It is impossible here to give even a list of the names of the
+many observers who in recent times have made empirical study of the
+effects of growth-forces and of the symmetrical limitations and
+definitions of growth. It is to be noticed, however, that, even after
+such phenomena have been properly grouped and designated under Greek
+names as laws of organic growth, they have not become explanations of
+the series of facts they correlate. Their importance in the theory of
+evolution is none the less very great. In the first place, they lessen
+the number of separate facts to be explained; in the second, they limit
+the field within which explanation must be sought, since, for instance,
+if a particular mode of repetition of parts occur in mosses, in
+flowering-plants, in beetles and in elephants, the seeker of ultimate
+explanations may exclude from the field of his inquiry all the
+conditions individual to these different organic forms, and confine
+himself only to what is common to all of them; that is to say,
+practically only the living material and its environment. The
+prosecution of such inquiries is beginning to make unnecessary much
+ingenious speculation of a kind that was prominent from 1880 to 1900;
+much futile effort has been wasted in the endeavour to find on Darwinian
+principles special "selection-values" for phenomena the universality of
+which places them outside the possibility of having relations with the
+particular conditions of particular organisms. On the other hand, many
+of those who have been specially successful in grouping diverse
+phenomena under empirical generalizations have erred logically in posing
+their generalizations against such a _vera causa_ as the preservation of
+favoured individuals and races. The thirty years which followed the
+publication of the _Origin of Species_ were characterized chiefly by
+anatomical and embryological work; since then there has been no
+diminution in anatomical and embryological enthusiasm, but many of the
+continually increasing body of investigators have turned again to
+bionomical work. Inasmuch as Lamarck attempted to frame a theory of
+evolution in which the principle of natural selection had no part, the
+interpretation placed on their work by many bionomical investigators
+recalls the theories of Lamarck, and the name _Neo-Lamarckism_ has been
+used of such a school of biologists, particularly active in America. The
+weakness of the Neo-Lamarckian view lies in its interpretation of
+heredity; its strength lies in its zealous study of the living world and
+the detection therein of proximate empirical laws, a strength shared by
+very many bionomical investigations, the authors of which would prefer
+to call themselves Darwinians, or to leave themselves without sectarian
+designation.
+
+
+  Biometrics.
+
+Statistical inquiry into the facts of life has long been employed, and
+in particular Francis Galton, within the Darwinian period, has advocated
+its employment and developed its methods. Within quite recent years,
+however, a special school has arisen with the main object of treating
+the processes of evolution quantitatively. Here it is right to speak of
+Karl Pearson as a pioneer of notable importance. It has been the habit
+of biologists to use the terms variation, selection, elimination,
+correlation and so forth, vaguely; the new school, which has been
+strongly reinforced from the side of physical science, insists on
+quantitative measurements of the terms. When the anatomist says that one
+race is characterized by long heads, another by round heads, the
+biometricist demands numbers and percentages. When an organ is stated to
+be variable, the biometricist demands statistics to show the range of
+the variations and the mode of their distribution. When a character is
+said to be favoured by natural selection, the biometricist demands
+investigation of the death-rate of individuals with or without the
+character. When a character is said to be transmitted, or to be
+correlated with another character, the biometricist declares the
+statement valueless without numerical estimations of the inheritance or
+correlation. The subject is still so new, and its technical methods (see
+VARIATION AND SELECTION) have as yet spread so little beyond the group
+which is formulating and defining them, that it is difficult to do more
+than guess at the importance of the results likely to be gained. Enough,
+however, has already been done to show the vast importance of the method
+in grouping and codifying the empirical facts of life, and in so
+preparing the way for the investigation of ultimate "causes." The chief
+pitfall appears to be the tendency to attach more meaning to the results
+than from their nature they can bear. The ultimate value of numerical
+inquiries must depend on the equivalence of the units on which they are
+based. Many of the characters that up to the present have been dealt
+with by biometrical inquiry are obviously composite. The height or
+length of the arm of a human being, for instance, is the result of many
+factors, some inherent, some due to environment, and until these have
+been sifted out, numerical laws of inheritance or of correlation can
+have no more than an empirical value. The analysis of composite
+characters into their indivisible units and statistical inquiry into the
+behaviour of the units would seem to be a necessary part of biometric
+investigation, and one to which much further attention will have to be
+paid.
+
+
+  Segregation.
+
+It is well known that Darwin was deeply impressed by differences in
+flora and fauna, which seemed to be functions of locality, and not the
+result of obvious dissimilarities of environment. A.R. Wallace's studies
+of island life, and the work of many different observers on local races
+of animals and plants, marine, fluviatile and terrestrial, have brought
+about a conception of segregation as apart from differences of
+environment as being one of the factors in the differentiation of living
+forms. The segregation may be geographical, or may be the result of
+preferential mating, or of seasonal mating, and its effects plainly can
+be made no more of than proximate or empirical laws of differentiation,
+of great importance in codifying and simplifying the facts to be
+explained. The minute attention paid by modern systematists to the exact
+localities of subspecies and races is bringing together a vast store of
+facts which will throw further light on the problem of segregation, but
+the difficulty of utilizing these facts is increased by an unfortunate
+tendency to make locality itself one of the diagnostic characters.
+
+
+  Bathmism.
+
+Consideration of phylogenetic series, especially from the
+palaeontological side, has led many writers to the conception that there
+is something of the nature of a growth-force inherent in organisms and
+tending inevitably towards divergent evolution. It is suggested that
+even in the absence of modification produced by any possible Darwinian
+or Lamarckian factors, that even in a neutral environment, divergent
+evolution of some kind would have occurred. The conception is
+necessarily somewhat hazy, but the words _bathmism_ and _bathmic
+Evolution_ have been employed by a number of writers for some such
+conception. Closely connected with it, and probably underlying many of
+the facts which have led to it, is a more definite group of ideas that
+may be brought together under the phrase "phylogenetic limitation of
+variation." In its simplest form, this phrase implies such an obvious
+fact as that whatever be the future development of, say, existing
+cockroaches, it will be on lines determined by the present structure of
+these creatures. In a more general way, the phrase implies that at each
+successive branching of the tree of life, the branches become more
+specialized, more defined, and, in a sense, more limited. The full
+implications of the group of ideas require, and are likely to receive,
+much attention in the immediate future of biological investigation, but
+it is enough at present to point out that until the more obvious lines
+of inquiry have been opened out much more fully, we cannot be in a
+position to guess at the existence of a residuum, for which such a
+metaphysical conception as bathmism would serve even as a convenient
+disguise for ignorance.
+
+Almost every side of zoology has contributed to the theory of evolution,
+but of special importance are the facts and theories associated with the
+names of Gregor Mendel, A. Weismann and Hugo de Vries. These are
+discussed under the headings HEREDITY; MENDELISM; and VARIATION AND
+SELECTION. It has been a feature of great promise in recent
+contributions to the theory of evolution, that such contributions have
+received attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of
+observation and the new series of facts with which they have come. Those
+have found little favour who brought to the debate only formal
+criticisms or amplifications of the Darwinian arguments, or
+re-marshallings of the Darwinian facts, however ably conducted. The time
+has not yet come for the attempt to synthesize the results of the many
+different and often apparently antagonistic groups of workers. The great
+work that is going on is the simplification of the facts to be explained
+by grouping them under empirical laws; and the most general statement
+relating to these that can yet be made is that no single one of these
+laws has as yet shown signs of taking rank as a _vera causa_ comparable
+with the Darwinian principle of natural selection.
+
+  For evolution in relation to society see SOCIOLOGY.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Practically, every botanical and zoological publication
+  of recent date has its bearing on evolution. The following are a few
+  of the more general works: Bateson, _Materials for the Study of
+  Variation_; Bunge, _Vitalismus und Mechanismus_; Cope, _Origin of the
+  Fittest_, _Primary Factors of Organic Evolution_, _Darwin's Life and
+  Letters_; H. de Vries, _Species and Varieties and their Origin by
+  Mutation_; Eimer, _Organic Evolution_; Gulick, "Divergent Evolution
+  through Cumulative Segregation," _Jour. Linn. Soc._ xx.; Haacke,
+  _Schöpfung des Menschen_; Mitchell, "Valuation of Zoological
+  Characters," _Trans. Linn. Soc._ viii. pt. 7; Pearson, _Grammar of
+  Science_; Romanes, _Darwin and after Darwin_; Sedgwick, Presidential
+  Address to Section Zoology, _Brit. Ass. Rep. 1899_; Wallace,
+  _Darwinism_; Weismann, _The Germ-Plasm_. Further references of great
+  value will be found in the works of Bateson and Pearson referred to
+  above, and in the annual volumes of the _Zoological Record_,
+  particularly under the head "General Subject."     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This is brought out by F. Lassalle, _Die Philosophie
+    Herakleitos_, p. 126.
+
+  [2] Zeller says that through this distinction Aristotle first made
+    possible the idea of development.
+
+  [3] See this well brought out in G.H. Lewes's _Aristotle_, p. 187.
+
+  [4] Grote calls attention to the contrast between Plato's and
+    Aristotle's way of conceiving the gradations of mind (_Aristotle_,
+    ii. 171).
+
+  [5] Zeller observes that this scale of decreasing perfection is a
+    necessary consequence of the idea of a transcendent deity.
+
+  [6] Mélanges de philosophie juive et arabe, p. 225.
+
+  [7] Yet he leaves open the question whether the Deity has annexed
+    thought to matter as a faculty, or whether it rests on a distinct
+    spiritual principle.
+
+  [8] Locke half playfully touches on certain monsters, with respect to
+    which it is difficult to determine whether they ought to be called
+    men. (_Essay_, book iii. ch. vi. sect. 26, 27.)
+
+  [9] A similar coincidence between the teleological and the modern
+    evolutional way of viewing things is to be met with in Locke's
+    account of the use of pain in relation to the preservation of our
+    being (bk. ii. ch. vii. sect. 4).
+
+  [10] _Philosophy of History_ (1893), p. 103, where an interesting
+    sketch of the growth of the idea of progress is to be found.
+
+  [11] G.H. Lewes points out that Leibnitz is inconsistent in his
+    account of the intelligence of man in relation to that of lower
+    animals, since when answering Locke he no longer regards these as
+    differing in degree only.
+
+  [12] Both Lewes and du Bois Reymond have brought out the points of
+    contact between Leibnitz's theory of monads and modern biological
+    speculations (_Hist. of Phil._ ii. 287, and _Leibnitzsche Gedanken in
+    der modernen Naturwissenschaft_, p. 23 seq.).
+
+  [13] For Herder's position in relation to the modern doctrine of
+    evolution see F. von Bärenbach's _Herder als Vorgänger Darwins_, a
+    work which tends to exaggerate the proximity of the two writers.
+
+  [14] Kant held it probable that other planets besides our earth are
+    inhabited, and that their inhabitants form a scale of beings, their
+    perfection increasing with the distance of the planet which they
+    inhabit from the sun.
+
+  [15] Kant calls the doctrine of the transmutation of species "a
+    hazardous fancy of the reason." Yet, as Strauss and others have
+    shown, Kant's mind betrayed a decided leaning at times to a more
+    mechanical conception of organic forms as related by descent.
+
+  [16] Hegel somewhere says that the question of the eternal duration
+    of the world is unanswerable: time as well as space can be predicated
+    of finitudes only.
+
+  [17] _The Exercitationes de generatione animalium_, which Dr George
+    Ent extracted from him and published in 1651.
+
+  [18] _De generatione animalium_, lib. ii. cap. x.
+
+  [19] _De generatione animalium_, lib. ii. cap. iv.
+
+  [20] "Cependant, pour revenir aux formes ordinaires ou aux âmes
+    matérielles, cette durée qu'il leur faut attribuer, à la place de
+    celle qu'on avoit attribuée aux atomes pourroit faire douter si elles
+    ne vont pas de corps en corps; ce qui seroit la métempsychose, à peu
+    près comme quelques philosophes ont cru la transmission du mouvement
+    et celle des espèces. Mais cette imagination est bien éloignée de la
+    nature des choses. Il n'y a point de tel passage; et c'est ici où les
+    transformations de Messieurs Swammerdam, Malpighi, et Leewenhoek, qui
+    sont des plus excellens observateurs de notre tems, sont venues à mon
+    secours et m'ont fait admettre plus aisément, que l'animal, et toute
+    autre substance organisée ne commence point lorsque nous le croyons,
+    et que sa génération apparente n'est qu'un développement et une
+    espèce d'augmentation. Aussi ai-je remarqué que l'auteur de la
+    _Recherche de la vérité_, M. Regis, M. Hartsoeker, et d'autres
+    habiles hommes n'ont pas été fort éloignés de ce sentiment."
+    Leibnitz, _Système nouveau de la nature_ (1695). The doctrine of
+    "Emboîtement" is contained in the _Considérations sur le principe de
+    vie_ (1705); the preface to the _Théodicée_ (1710); and the
+    _Principes de la nature et de la grâce_ (§ 6) (1718).
+
+  [21] "Il est vrai que la pensée la plus raisonnable et la plus
+    conforme à l'expérience sur cette question très difficile de la
+    formation du foetus; c'est que les enfans sont déjà presque tout
+    formés avant même l'action par laquelle ils sont conçus; et que leurs
+    mères ne font que leur donner l'accroissement ordinaire dans le temps
+    de la grossesse." _De la recherche de la vérité_, livre ii. chap.
+    vii. p. 334 (7th ed., 1721).
+
+  [22] _Considérations sur les corps organisés_, chap. x.
+
+  [23] Bonnet had the courage of his opinions, and in the _Palingénésie
+    philosophique_, part vi. chap, iv., he develops a hypothesis which he
+    terms "évolution naturelle"; and which, making allowance for his
+    peculiar views of the nature of generation, bears no small
+    resemblance to what is understood by "evolution" at the present
+    day:--
+
+    "Si la volonté divine a créé par un seul Acte l'Universalité des
+    êtres, d'où venoient ces plantes et ces animaux dont Moyse nous
+    décrit la Production au troisième et au cinquième jour du
+    renouvellement de notre monde?
+
+    "Abuserois-je de la liberté de conjectures si je disois, que les
+    Plantes et les Animaux qui existent aujourd'hui sont parvenus par une
+    sorte d'évolution naturelle des Êtres organisés qui peuplaient ce
+    premier Monde, sorti immédiatement des MAINS du CRÉATEUR?...
+
+    "Ne supposons que trois révolutions. La Terre vient de sortir des
+    MAINS du CRÉATEUR. Des causes préparées par sa Sagesse font
+    développer de toutes parts les Germes. Les Êtres organisés commencent
+    à jouir de l'existence. Ils étoient probablement alors bien différens
+    de ce qu'ils sont aujourd'hui. Ils l'étoient autant que ce premier
+    Monde différoit de celui que nous habitons. Nous manquons de moyens
+    pour juger de ces dissemblances, et peut-être que le plus habile
+    Naturaliste qui auroit été placé dans ce premier Monde y auroit
+    entièrement méconnu nos Plantes et nos Animaux."
+
+  [24] "Ce mot (germe) ne désignera pas seulement un corps organisé
+    _réduit en petit_; il désignera encore toute espèce de _préformation
+    originelle dont un Tout organique peut résulter comme de son principe
+    immédiat."--Palingénésie philosophique_, part. x. chap. ii.
+
+  [25] "M. Cuvier considérant que tous les êtres organisés sont dérivés
+    de parens, et ne voyant dans la nature aucune force capable de
+    produire l'organisation, croyait à la pré-existence des germes; non
+    pas à la pré-existence d'un être tout formé, puisqu'il est bien
+    évident que ce n'est que par des développemens successifs que l'être
+    acquiert sa forme; mais, si l'on peut s'exprimer ainsi, à la
+    pré-existence du radical de l'être, radical qui existe avant que la
+    série des évolutions ne commence, et qui remonte certainement,
+    suivant la belle observation de Bonnet, à plusieurs
+    générations."--Laurillard, _Éloge de Cuvier_, note 12.
+
+  [26] _Histoire naturelle_, tom. ii. ed. ii. (1750), p. 350.
+
+  [27] _Ibid._ p. 351.
+
+  [28] See particularly Buffon, l.c. p. 41.
+
+  [29] As Buffon has well said:--"L'idée de ramener l'explication de
+    tous les phénomènes à des principes mécaniques est assurément grande
+    et belle, ce pas est le plus hardi qu'on peut faire en philosophie,
+    et c'est Descartes qui l'a fait."--l.c. p. 50.
+
+  [30] _Principes de la philosophie_, Troisième partie, § 45.
+
+  [31] _Ethices_, Pars tertia, Praefatio.
+
+  [32] _Système de la Nature. Essai sur la formation des corps
+    organisés_, 1751, xiv.
+
+  [33] _Considérations philosophiques sur la gradation naturelle des
+    formes de l'être; ou les essais de la nature qui apprend à faire
+    l'homme_ (1768).
+
+  [34] _Recherches sur les causes des principaux faits physiques_, par
+    J.B. Lamarck. Paris. Seconde année de la République. In the preface,
+    Lamarck says that the work was written in 1776, and presented to the
+    Academy in 1780; but it was not published before 1794, and at that
+    time it presumably expressed Lamarck's mature views. It would be
+    interesting to know what brought about the change of opinion
+    manifested in the _Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants_,
+    published only seven years later.
+
+  [35] See the "Historical Sketch" prefixed to the last edition of the
+    _Origin of Species_.
+
+  [36] _First Principles and Principles of Biology_ (1860-1864).
+
+  [37] _Generelle Morphologie_ (1866).
+
+  [38] "Il s'agit donc de prouver que la série qui constitute l'échelle
+    animale réside essentiellement dans la distribution des masses
+    principals qui la composent et non dans celle des espèces ni même
+    toujours dans celle des genres."--_Phil. zoologique_, chap. v.
+
+  [39] _Philosophie zoologique_, première partie, chap. iii.
+
+  [40] "Entwurf einer Darstellung der zwischen dem Embryozustände der
+    höheren Thiere und dem per manenten der niederen stattfindenden
+    Parallele," _Beyträge zur vergleichenden Anatomie_, Bd. ii. 1811.
+
+
+
+
+EVORA, the capital of an administrative district in the province of
+Alemtejo, Portugal; 72 m. E. by S. of Lisbon, on the Casa
+Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1900) 16,020. Evora occupies a fertile
+valley enclosed by low hills. It is surrounded by ramparts flanked with
+towers, and is further defended by two forts; but the neglected
+condition of these, combined with the narrow arcaded streets and
+crumbling walls of Roman or Moorish masonry, gives the city an
+appearance corresponding with its real antiquity. Evora is the see of an
+archbishop, and has several churches, convents and hospitals, barracks,
+a diocesan school and a museum. A university, founded in 1550, was
+abolished on the expulsion of the Jesuits in the 18th century. The
+cathedral, originally a Romanesque building erected 1186-1204, was
+restored in Gothic style about 1400; its richly decorated chancel was
+added in 1761. The church of São Francisco (1507-1525) is a good example
+of the blended Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoellian. The
+art gallery, formerly the archbishop's palace, contains a collection of
+Portuguese and early Flemish paintings. An ancient tower, and the
+so-called aqueduct of Sertorius, 9 m. long, have been partly demolished
+to make room for the market-square, in which one of the largest fairs in
+Portugal is held at midsummer. Both tower and aqueduct were long
+believed to have been of Roman origin, but are now known to have been
+constructed about 1540-1555 in the reign of John III., at the instance
+of an antiquary named Resende. The aqueduct was probably constructed on
+the site of the old Roman one. A small Roman temple is used as a public
+library; it is usually known as the temple of Diana, a name for which no
+valid authority exists. Evora is of little commercial importance,
+except as an agricultural centre, but its neighbourhood is famous for
+its mules and abounds in cork-woods; there are also mines of iron,
+copper, and asbestos and marble quarries.
+
+Under its original name of _Ebora_, the city was from 80 to 72 B.C. the
+headquarters of Sertorius, and it long remained an important Roman
+military station. It was called _Liberalitas Juliae_ on account of
+certain municipal privileges bestowed on it by Julius Caesar (c. 100-44
+B.C.). Its bishopric, founded in the 5th century, was raised to an
+archbishopric in the 16th. In 712 Evora was conquered by the Moors, who
+named it _Jabura_; and it was only retaken in 1166. From 1663 to 1665 it
+was held by the Spaniards. In 1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom
+Pedro, took refuge in Evora; and here was signed the convention of
+Evora, by which he was banished. (See PORTUGAL.)
+
+The administrative district of Evora coincides with the central part of
+Alemtejo (q.v.); pop. (1900) 128,062; area, 2856 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+ÉVREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of
+Eure, 67 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop.
+(1906) town, 13,773; commune, 18,971. Situated in the pleasant valley of
+the Iton, arms of which traverse it, the town, on the south, slopes up
+toward the public gardens and the railway station. It is the seat of a
+bishop, and its cathedral is one of the largest and finest in France.
+Part of the lower portion of the nave dates from the 11th century; the
+west façade with its two ungainly towers is, for the most part, the work
+of the late Renaissance, and various styles of the intervening period
+are represented in the rest of the church. A thorough restoration was
+completed in 1896. The elaborate north transept and portal are in the
+flamboyant Gothic; the choir, the finest part of the interior, is in an
+earlier Gothic style. Cardinal de la Balue, bishop of Évreux in the
+latter half of the 15th century, constructed the octagonal central
+tower, with its elegant spire; to him is also due the Lady chapel, which
+is remarkable for some finely preserved stained glass. Two rose windows
+in the transepts and the carved wooden screens of the side chapels are
+masterpieces of 16th-century workmanship. The episcopal palace, a
+building of the 15th century, adjoins the south side of the cathedral.
+An interesting belfry, facing the handsome modern town hall, dates from
+the 15th century. The church of St Taurin, in part Romanesque, has a
+choir of the 14th century and other portions of later date; it contains
+the shrine of St Taurin, a work of the 13th century. At Vieil Évreux, 3½
+m. south-east of the town, the remains of a Roman theatre, a palace,
+baths and an aqueduct have been discovered, as well as various relics
+which are now deposited in the museum of Évreux. Évreux is the seat of a
+prefect, a court of assizes, of tribunals of first instance and
+commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of trade arbitrators, and
+has a branch of the Bank of France, a lycée and training colleges for
+teachers. The making of ticking, boots and shoes, agricultural
+implements and gas motors, and metal-founding and bleaching are carried
+on.
+
+Vieil-Évreux (_Mediolanum Aulercorum_) was the capital of the Gallic
+tribe of the _Aulerci Eburovices_ and a flourishing city during the
+Gallo-Roman period. Its bishopric dates from the 4th century.
+
+The first family of the counts of Évreux which is known was descended
+from an illegitimate son of Richard I., duke of Normandy, and became
+extinct in the male line with the death of Count William in 1118. The
+countship passed in right of Agnes, William's sister, wife of Simon de
+Montfort-l'Amaury (d. 1087) to the house of the lords of
+Montfort-l'Amaury. Amaury III. of Montfort ceded it in 1200 to King
+Philip Augustus. Philip the Fair presented it (1307) to his brother
+Louis, for whose benefit Philip the Long raised the countship of Évreux
+into a peerage of France (1317). Philip of Évreux, son of Louis, became
+king of Navarre by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of Louis the
+Headstrong (Hutin), and their son Charles the Bad and their grandson
+Charles the Noble were also kings of Navarre. The latter ceded his
+countships of Évreux, Champagne and Brie to King Charles VI. (1404). In
+1427 the countship of Évreux was bestowed by King Charles VII. on Sir
+John Stuart of Darnley (c. 1365-1429), the commander of his Scottish
+bodyguard, who in 1423 had received the seigniory of Aubigny and in
+February 1427/8 was granted the right to quarter the royal arms of
+France for his victories over the English (see Lady Elizabeth Cust,
+_Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny in France, 1422-1672_, 1891). On
+Stuart's death (before Orleans during an attack on an English convoy)
+the countship reverted to the crown. It was again temporarily alienated
+(1569-1584) as an appanage for Francis, duke of Anjou, and in 1651 was
+finally made over to Frédéric Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke of
+Bouillon, in exchange for the principality of Sedan.
+
+
+
+
+EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON (1803-1875), German Orientalist and
+theologian, was born on the 16th of November 1803 at Göttingen, where
+his father was a linen-weaver. In 1815 he was sent to the gymnasium, and
+in 1820 he entered the university of his native town, where under J.G.
+Eichhorn and T.C. Tychsen he devoted himself specially to the study of
+Oriental languages. At the close of his academical career in 1823 he was
+appointed to a mastership in the gymnasium at Wolfenbüttel, and made a
+study of the Oriental manuscripts in the Wolfenbüttel library. But in
+the spring of 1824 he was recalled to Göttingen as _repetent_, or
+theological tutor, and in 1827 (the year of Eichhorn's death) he became
+professor _extraordinarius_ in philosophy and lecturer in Old Testament
+exegesis. In 1831 he was promoted to the position of professor
+_ordinarius_ in philosophy; in 1833 he became a member of the Royal
+Scientific Society, and in 1835, after Tychsen's death, he entered the
+faculty of theology, taking the chair of Oriental languages.
+
+Two years later occurred the first important episode in his studious
+life. In 1837, on the 18th of November, along with six of his colleagues
+he signed a formal protest against the action of King Ernst August (duke
+of Cumberland) in abolishing the liberal constitution of 1833, which had
+been granted to the Hanoverians by his predecessor William IV. This bold
+procedure of the seven professors led to their speedy expulsion from the
+university (14th December). Early in 1838 Ewald received a call to
+Tübingen, and there for upwards of ten years he held a chair as
+professor _ordinarius_, first in philosophy and afterwards, from 1841,
+in theology. To this period belong some of his most important works, and
+also the commencement of his bitter feud with F.C. Baur and the Tübingen
+school. In 1847, "the great shipwreck-year in Germany," as he has called
+it, he was invited back to Göttingen on honourable terms--the liberal
+constitution having been restored. He gladly accepted the invitation. In
+1862-1863 he took an active part in a movement for reform within the
+Hanoverian Church, and he was a member of the synod which passed the new
+constitution. He had an important share also in the formation of the
+Protestantenverein, or Protestant association, in September 1863. But
+the chief crisis in his life arose out of the political events of 1866.
+His loyalty to King George (son of Ernst August) would not permit him to
+take the oath of allegiance to the victorious king of Prussia, and he
+was therefore placed on the retired list, though with the full amount of
+his salary as pension. Perhaps even this degree of severity might have
+been held by the Prussian authorities to be unnecessary, had Ewald been
+less exasperating in his language. The violent tone of some of his
+printed manifestoes about this time, especially of his _Lob des Königs
+u. des Volkes_, led to his being deprived of the _venia legendi_ (1868)
+and also to a criminal process, which, however, resulted in his
+acquittal (May 1869). Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was
+returned by the city of Hanover as a member of the North German and
+German parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on
+Prince Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick II. in "his
+unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion and
+morality," to Napoleon III. in his way of "picking out the best time
+possible for robbery and plunder." For this offence he was sentenced to
+undergo three weeks' imprisonment. He died in his 72nd year of heart
+disease on the 4th of May 1875.
+
+Ewald was no common man. In his public life he displayed many noble
+characteristics,--perfect simplicity and sincerity, intense moral
+earnestness, sturdy independence, absolute fearlessness. As a teacher
+he had a remarkable power of kindling enthusiasm; and he sent out many
+distinguished pupils, among whom may be mentioned Hitzig, Schrader,
+Nöldeke, Diestel and Dillmann. His disciples were not all of one school,
+but many eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by his
+influence have in fact developed some of the many ideas which he
+suggested. His numerous writings, from 1823 onwards, were the reservoirs
+in which the entire energy of a life was stored. His _Hebrew Grammar_
+inaugurated a new era in biblical philology. All subsequent works in
+that department have been avowedly based on his, and to him will always
+belong the honour of having been, as Hitzig has called him, "the second
+founder of the science of the Hebrew language." As an exegete and
+biblical critic no less than as a grammarian he has left his abiding
+mark. His _Geschichte des Volkes Israël_, the result of thirty years'
+labour, was epoch-making in that branch of research. While in every line
+it bears the marks of intense individuality, it is at the same time a
+product highly characteristic of the age, and even of the decade, in
+which it appeared. If it is obviously the outcome of immense learning on
+the part of its author, it is no less manifestly the result of the
+speculations and researches of many laborious predecessors in all
+departments of history, theology and philosophy. Taking up the idea of a
+divine education of the human race, which Lessing and Herder had made so
+familiar to the modern mind, and firmly believing that to each of the
+leading nations of antiquity a special task had been providentially
+assigned, Ewald felt no difficulty about Israel's place in universal
+history, or about the problem which that race had been called upon to
+solve. The history of Israel, according to him, is simply the history of
+the manner in which the one true religion really and truly came into the
+possession of mankind. Other nations, indeed, had attempted the highest
+problems in religion; but Israel alone, in the providence of God, had
+succeeded, for Israel alone had been inspired. Such is the supreme
+meaning of that national history which began with the exodus and
+culminated (at the same time virtually terminating) in the appearing of
+Christ. The historical interval that separated these two events is
+treated as naturally dividing itself into three great periods,--those of
+Moses, David and Ezra. The periods are externally indicated by the
+successive names by which the chosen people were called--Hebrews,
+Israelites, Jews. The events prior to the exodus are relegated by Ewald
+to a preliminary chapter of primitive history; and the events of the
+apostolic and post-apostolic age are treated as a kind of appendix. The
+entire construction of the history is based, as has already been said,
+on a critical examination and chronological arrangement of the available
+documents. So far as the results of criticism are still uncertain with
+regard to the age and authorship of any of these, Ewald's conclusions
+must of course be regarded as unsatisfactory. But his work remains a
+storehouse of learning and is increasingly recognized as a work of rare
+genius.
+
+  Of his works the more important are:--_Die Composition der Genesis
+  kritisch untersucht_ (1823), an acute and able attempt to account for
+  the use of the two names of God without recourse to the
+  document-hypothesis; he was not himself, however, permanently
+  convinced by it; _De metris carminum Arabicorum_ (1825); _Das Hohelied
+  Salomo's übersetzt u. erklärt_ (1826; 3rd ed., 1866); _Kritische
+  Grammatik der hebr. Sprache_ (1827)--this afterwards became the
+  _Ausführliches Lehrbuch der hebr. Sprache_ (8th ed., 1870); and it was
+  followed by the _Hebr. Sprachlehre für Anfänger_ (4th ed., 1874);
+  _Über einige ältere Sanskritmetra_ (1827); _Liber Vakedii de
+  Mesopotamiae expugnatae historia_ (1827); _Commentarius in Apocalypsin
+  Johannis_ (1828); _Abhandlungen zur biblischen u. orientalischen
+  Literatur_ (1832); _Grammatica critica linguae Arabicae_ (1831-1833);
+  _Die poetischen Bücher des alten Bundes_ (1835-1837, 3rd ed.,
+  1866-1867); _Die Propheten des alten Bundes_ (1840-1841, 2nd ed.,
+  1867-1868); _Geschichte des Volkes Israël_ (1843-1859, 3rd ed.,
+  1864-1868); _Alterthümer Israels_ (1848); _Die drei ersten Evangelien
+  übersetzt u. erklärt_ (1850); _Über das äthiopische Buch Henoch_
+  (1854); _Die Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus übersetzt u. erklärt_
+  (1857); _Die Johanneischen Schriften übersetzt u. erklärt_
+  (1861-1862); _Über das vierte Esrabuch_ (1863); _Sieben Sendschreiben
+  des neuen Bundes_ (1870); _Das Sendschreiben an die Hebräer u.
+  Jakobos' Rundschreiben_ (1870); _Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, oder
+  Theologie des alten u. neuen Bundes_ (1871-1875). The _Jahrbücher der
+  biblischen Wissenschaft_ (1849-1865) were edited, and for the most
+  part written, by him. He was the chief promoter of the _Zeitschrift
+  für die Kunde des Morgenlandes_, begun in 1837; and he frequently
+  contributed on various subjects to the _Götting. gelehrte Anzeigen_.
+  He was also the author of many pamphlets of an occasional character.
+
+  The following have been translated into English:--_Hebrew Grammar_, by
+  John Nicholson (from 2nd German edition) (London 1836); _Introductory
+  Hebrew Grammar_ (from 3rd German edition) (London, 1870); _History of
+  Israel_, 5 vols. (corresponding to vols. i.-iv. of the German), by
+  Russell Martineau and J. Estlin Carpenter (London, 1867-1874);
+  _Antiquities of Israel_, by H.S. Solly (London, 1876); _Commentary on
+  the Prophets of the Old Testament_, by J. Frederick Smith (2 vols.,
+  London, 1876-1877); _Isaiah the Prophet_, chaps. i.-xxxiii., by O.
+  Glover (London, 1869); _Life of Jesus Christ_, also by O. Glover
+  (London, 1865).
+
+  See the article in Herzog-Hauck; T. Witton Davies, _Heinrich Ewald_
+  (1903); and cf. T.K. Cheyne, _Founders of Old Testament Criticism_
+  (1893); F. Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the
+  Nineteenth Century_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+EWALD, JOHANNES (1743-1781), the greatest lyrical poet of Denmark, was
+the son of a melancholy and sickly chaplain at Copenhagen, where he was
+born on the 18th of November 1743. At the age of eleven he was sent to
+school at Schleswig, his father's birthplace, and returned to the
+capital only to enter the university in 1758. His father was by that
+time dead, and in his mother, a frivolous and foolish woman, he found
+neither sympathy nor moral support. At fifteen he fell passionately in
+love with Arense Hulegaard, a girl whose father afterwards married the
+poet's mother; and the romantic boy resolved on various modes of making
+himself admired by the young lady. He began to learn Abyssinian, for the
+purpose of going out as a missionary to Africa, but this scheme was soon
+given up, and he persuaded a brother, four years older than himself, to
+run away that they might enlist as hussars in the Prussian army. They
+managed to reach Hamburg just when the Seven Years' War was commencing
+and were allowed to enter a regiment. But the elder brother soon got
+tired and ran away, while the poet, after a series of extraordinary
+adventures, deserted to the Austrian army, where from being drummer he
+rose to being sergeant, and was only not made an officer because he was
+a Protestant. In 1760 he was weary of a soldier's life and deserted
+again, getting safe back to Denmark. For the next two years he worked
+with great diligence at the university, but the Arense for whom he had
+gone through so much hardship and taken so much pains married another
+man almost immediately after Ewald's final and very successful
+examination. The disappointment was one from which he never recovered,
+but his own weakness of will was largely to blame for it. He plunged
+into dissipation of every kind, and gave his serious thoughts only to
+poetry.
+
+In 1763 his first work, a perfunctory dissertation, _De pyrologia
+sacra_, first saw the light. In 1764 he made a considerable success with
+a short prose story in the popular manner of Sneedorf, _Lykkens Tempel_
+(The Temple of Fortune), which was translated into German and Icelandic.
+On the death of Frederick V., however, Ewald first appeared prominently
+as a poet; he published in 1766 three _Elegies_ over the dead king,
+which were received with universal acclamation, and of which one, at
+least, is a veritable masterpiece. But his dramatic poem _Adam og Eva_
+(Adam and Eve), by far the finest imaginative work produced in Denmark
+up to that time, was rejected by the Society of Arts in 1767 and was not
+published until 1769. At the latter date, however, its merits were
+perceived. In 1770 Ewald attained success with _Philet_, a narrative and
+lyrical poem, and still more with his splendid _Rolf Krage_, the first
+original Danish tragedy. For the next ten years Ewald was occupied in
+producing one brilliant poetical work after another, in rapid
+succession. In 1771 he published _De brutale Klappers_ (The Brutal
+Clappers), a tragi-comedy or parody satirizing the dispute then raging
+between the critics and the manager of the Royal Theatre; in 1772 he
+translated from the German the lyrical drama of _Philemon and Baucis_,
+and brought out his versified comedy of _Harlequin Patriot_, a satire on
+the passion for political scribbling created by Struensee's introduction
+of the liberty of the press. In 1773 he published _Pebersvendene_ (Old
+Bachelors), a prose comedy. In 1771 he had already collected some of his
+lyrical poems under the title of _Adskilligt af Johannes Ewald_
+(Miscellanies). In 1774 appeared the heroic opera of _Balder's Död_
+(Balder's Death), and in 1779 the finest of his works, the lyrical drama
+_Fiskerne_ (The Fishers), which contains the Danish National Song, "King
+Christian stood by the high Mast," his most famous lyric. In the two
+poems last mentioned, however, Ewald passed beyond contemporary taste,
+and these great works, the pride of Danish literature, were coldly
+received. But while the new poetry was slowly winning its way into
+popular esteem, the poet did not lack admirers, and at the head of these
+he founded in 1775 the Danish Literary Society, a body which became
+influential, and which made the study of Ewald a cultus. But the poet's
+health had broken; when he was writing _Rolf Krage_ he was already an
+inmate of the consumptive hospital, and when he seemed to be recovering,
+his health was shattered again by a night spent in the frosty streets.
+He embittered his existence by the recklessness of his private life, and
+finally, through a fall from a horse, he ended by becoming a complete
+invalid. His last ten years were full of acute suffering; his mother
+treated him with cruelty, his family with neglect, and but few even of
+his friends showed any manliness or generosity towards him. In 1774 he
+was placed in the house of an inspector of fisheries at Rungsted, where
+Anna Hedevig Jacobsen, the daughter of the house, tended the wasted poet
+with infinite tenderness and skill. He stayed in this house for three
+years, and wrote there some of his finest later lyrics. Meanwhile he had
+fallen deeply in love with the charming solace of his sufferings and won
+her consent to a marriage. This step, however, was prevented by his
+family, who roughly removed him to their own keeping near Kronborg. Here
+he was treated so infamously that he insisted on being taken back to
+Copenhagen in 1777, where he found an older, but no less tender nurse,
+in Ane Kirstine Skou. Here he wrote _Fiskerne_ with his imagination full
+of the familiar shore at Hornbaek, near Rungsted. In 1780 he was a
+little better, and managed to be present at the theatre at the first
+performance of his poem. But this excitement hastened his end, and after
+months of extreme agony he died on the 17th of March 1781, and was
+carried to the grave by a large assembly of his admirers, since he was
+now just recognized by the public for the first time as the greatest
+national poet. Among his papers were found fragments of three dramas,
+two on old Scandinavian subjects, entitled _Frode_ and _Helgo_, and the
+third a tragedy on the story of _Hamlet_, which he meant to treat in a
+way wholly distinct from Shakespeare's.
+
+Ewald belongs to the race of poetical reformers who appeared in all
+countries of Europe at the end of the 18th century; but it is
+interesting to observe that in point of time he preceded all of them. He
+was born six years earlier than Goethe and Alfieri, sixteen years before
+Schiller, nine years before André Chénier, and twenty-seven years
+earlier than Wordsworth, but he did for Denmark what each of these poets
+did for his own country. Ewald found Danish literature given over to
+tasteless rhetoric, and without art or vigour. He introduced vivacity of
+style, freshness and brevity of form, and an imaginative study of nature
+which was then unprecedented. But perhaps his greatest claim to notice
+is the fact that he was the first person to call the attention of the
+Scandinavian peoples to the treasuries of their ancient history and
+mythology, and to suggest the use of these in imaginative writing. With
+a colouring more distinctly modern than that of Collins and Gray, his
+lyrics yet resemble the odes of these his English contemporaries more
+closely than those of any continental poet; from another point of view
+his ballads remind us of those of Schiller, which they preceded. His
+dramas, which had an immense influence on the Danish stage, are now
+chiefly of antiquarian interest, with the exception of "The Fishers," a
+work that must always live as a great national poem. In personal
+character and in fate Ewald seems to have been not unlike Heinrich
+Heine.
+
+  The first collected edition of Ewald's works began to appear in his
+  lifetime. It is in four volumes, 1780-1784. His works have constantly
+  been reprinted, but the standard edition is that by Liebenberg, in 8
+  vols., 1850-1855. The best biographies of him are those by C. Molbech
+  (1831), Hammerich (1860) and Andreas Dolleris (1900).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EWART, WILLIAM (1798-1869), English politician, was born in Liverpool on
+the 1st of May 1798. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
+gaining the Newdigate prize for English verse. He was called to the bar
+at the Middle Temple in 1827, and the next year entered parliament for
+the borough of Bletchingley in Surrey. He subsequently sat for Liverpool
+from 1830 to 1837, for Wigan in 1839, and for Dumfries Burghs from 1841
+until his retirement from public life in 1868. He died at Broadleas,
+near Devizes, on the 23rd of January 1869, Ewart, who was an advanced
+liberal in politics, was responsible during his long political career
+for many useful measures. In 1834 he carried a bill for the abolition of
+hanging in chains, and in 1837 he was successful in getting an act
+passed for abolishing capital punishment for cattle-stealing and other
+offences. In 1850 he carried a bill for establishing free libraries
+supported out of the rates, and in 1864 he was instrumental in getting
+an act passed for legalizing the use of the metric system of weights and
+measures. He was always a strong advocate for the abolition of capital
+punishment, and on his motion in 1864 a select committee was appointed
+to consider the subject. Other reforms which he advocated and which have
+since been carried out were an annual statement on education, and the
+examination of candidates for the civil service and army.
+
+
+
+
+EWE, a group of Negro peoples of the Slave Coast, West Africa. By the
+natives their country is called _Ewe-me_, "Land of the Ewe." The Ewe
+family forms five linguistic groups: the Anlo or Anglawa on the Gold
+Coast frontier, the Krepi of Anfueh speech, the Jeji, the Dahomeyans and
+the Mahi.
+
+  See further Dahomey, and A.B. Ellis, _The Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the
+  Slave Coast_ ... (London, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT (1817-1872), American soldier,
+lieutenant-general in the Confederate army, was born in Georgetown, now
+a part of Washington, D.C., on the 2nd of February 1817, and graduated
+at West Point in 1840. As a cavalry officer he saw much active service
+in the Mexican War and later in Indian warfare in New Mexico. He
+resigned his commission at the outbreak of the Civil War, and entered
+the Confederate service. He commanded a brigade in the first Bull Run
+campaign, and a division in the famous Valley Campaign of "Stonewall"
+Jackson, to whom he was next in rank. At Cross Keys he was in command of
+the forces which defeated General Frémont. Ewell's division served with
+Jackson in the Seven Days and in the campaign of Second Bull Run. At the
+action of Groveton Ewell lost a leg, but did not on that account retire
+from active service, though other generals led his men in the sanguinary
+battles of Antietam (where they lost 47% of their numbers) and
+Fredericksburg. After the death of "Stonewall" Jackson, Ewell was
+promoted lieutenant-general and appointed to command the 2nd Corps, with
+which he had served from the beginning of the Valley Campaign. His
+promotion set aside General J.E.B. Stuart, the temporary commander of
+Jackson's corps; that Ewell, crippled as he was, was preferred to the
+brilliant cavalry leader was a marked testimony to his sterling
+qualities as a soldier. The invasion of Pennsylvania soon followed,
+Ewell's corps leading the advance of Lee's army. A federal force was
+skilfully cut off and destroyed near Winchester, Va., and Ewell's corps
+then raided Maryland and southern Pennsylvania unchecked. At the battle
+of Gettysburg, the 2nd Corps decided the fighting of the first day in
+favour of the Confederates, driving the enemy before them; on the second
+day it fought a desperate action on Lee's left wing. Ewell took part in
+the closing operations of 1863 and in all the battles of the Wilderness
+and Petersburg campaigns. In the final campaign of 1865 he and the
+remnant of his corps were cut off and forced to surrender at Sailor's
+Creek, a few days before his chief capitulated to Grant at Appomattox.
+After the war General Ewell lived in retirement. He died near Spring
+Hill, Maury County, Tennessee, on the 25th of January 1872.
+
+
+
+
+EWING, ALEXANDER (1814-1873), Scottish divine, was born of an old
+Highland family in Aberdeen on the 25th of March 1814. In October 1838
+he was admitted to deacon's orders, and after his return from Italy he
+took charge of the episcopal congregation at Forres, and was ordained a
+presbyter in the autumn of 1841. In 1846 he was elected first bishop of
+the newly restored diocese of Argyll and the Isles, the duties of which
+position he discharged till his death on the 22nd of May 1873. In 1851
+he received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. Though
+hampered by a delicate bodily constitution, he worked in a spirit of
+buoyant cheerfulness. By the charm of his personal manner and his
+catholic sympathies he gradually attained a prominent position. In
+theological discussion he contended for the exercise of a wide
+tolerance, and attached little importance to ecclesiastical authority
+and organization. His own theological position had close affinity with
+that of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Frederick Denison Maurice; but
+his opinions were the fruit of his own meditation, and were coloured by
+his own individuality. The trend of his teaching is only to be gathered
+from fragmentary publications--letters to the newspapers, pamphlets,
+special sermons, essays contributed to the series of _Present Day
+Papers_, of which he was the editor, and a volume of sermons entitled
+_Revelation considered as Light_.
+
+  Besides his strictly theological writings, Ewing was the author of the
+  _Cathedral or Abbey Church of Iona_ (1865), the first part of which
+  contains drawings and descriptive letterpress of the ruins, and the
+  second a history of the early Celtic church and the mission of St
+  Columba. See _Memoir of Alexander Ewing, D.C.L._, by A.J. Ross (1877).
+
+
+
+
+EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR (1841-1885), English writer of books for
+children, daughter of the Rev. Alfred Gatty and of Margaret Gatty
+(q.v.), was born at Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, in 1841. One of a large
+family, she was accustomed to act as nursery story-teller to her
+brothers and sisters, and her brother Alfred Scott Gatty provided music
+to accompany her plays. She was well educated in classics and modern
+languages, and at an early age began to publish verses, being a
+contributor to _Aunt Judy's Magazine_, which her mother started in 1866.
+_The Land of Lost Toys_ and many other of Juliana's stories appeared in
+this magazine. In 1867 she married Major Alexander Ewing, himself an
+author, and the composer of the well-known hymn "Jerusalem the Golden."
+From this time until her death (13th May 1885), previously to which she
+had been a constant invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming
+children's stories. The best of these are: _The Brownies_ (1870), _A
+Flat-Iron for a Farthing_ (1873), _Lob-lie-by the Fire_ (1874), _The
+Story of a Short Life_ (1885) and _Jackanapes_ (1884), the two
+last-named, in particular, obtaining great success; among others may be
+mentioned _Mrs Over-the-Way's Remembrances_ (1869), _Six to Sixteen, Jan
+of the Windmill_ (1876), _A Great Emergency_ (1877), _We and the World_
+(1881), _Old-Fashioned Fairy Tales, Brothers of Pity_ (1882), _The
+Doll's Wash_, _Master Fritz_, _Our Garden_, _A Soldier's Children_,
+_Three Little Nest-Birds_, _A Week Spent in a Glass-House_, _A Sweet
+Little Dear_, and _Blue-Red_ (1883). Many of these were published by the
+S.P.C.K. Simple and unaffected in style, and sound and wholesome in
+matter, with quiet touches of humour and bright sketches of scenery and
+character, Mrs Ewing's best stories have never been surpassed in the
+style of literature to which they belong.
+
+
+
+
+EWING, THOMAS (1789-1871), American lawyer and statesman, was born near
+the present West Liberty, West Virginia, on the 28th of December 1789.
+His father, George Ewing, settled at Lancaster, Fairfield county, Ohio,
+in 1792. Thomas graduated at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, in 1815, and
+in August 1816 was admitted to the bar at Lancaster, where he won high
+rank as an advocate. He was a Whig member of the United States senate in
+1831-1837, and as such took a prominent part in the legislative struggle
+over the United States Bank, whose rechartering he favoured and which he
+resolutely defended against President Jackson's attack, opposing in able
+speeches the withdrawal of deposits and Secretary Woodbury's "Specie
+Circular" of 1836. In March 1841 he became secretary of the treasury in
+President W.H. Harrison's cabinet. When, however, after President
+Tyler's accession, the relations between the President and the Whig
+Party became strained, he retired (September 1841) and was succeeded by
+Walter Forward (1786-1852). Subsequently from March 1849 to July 1850
+he was a member of President Taylor's cabinet as the first secretary of
+the newly established department of the interior. He thoroughly
+organized the department, and in his able annual report advocated the
+construction by government aid of a railroad to the Pacific Coast. In
+1850-1851 he filled the unexpired term of Thomas Corwin in the U.S.
+Senate, strenuously opposing Clay's compromise measures and advocating
+the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. He was
+subsequently a delegate to the Peace Congress in 1861, and was a loyal
+supporter of President Lincoln's war policy. He died at Lancaster, Ohio,
+on the 26th of October 1871.
+
+His daughter was the wife of General William T. Sherman. His son, Hugh
+Boyle Ewing (1826-1905), served throughout the Civil War in the Federal
+armies, rising from the rank of colonel (1861) to that of
+brigadier-general (1862) and brevet major-general (1865), and commanding
+brigades at Antietam and Vicksburg and a division at Chickamauga; and
+was minister of the United States to the Netherlands in 1866-1870.
+Another son, Thomas Ewing (1829-1896), studied at Brown University in
+1852-1854 (in 1894, by a special vote, he was placed on the list of
+graduates in the class of 1856); he was a lawyer and a free-state
+politician in Kansas in 1857-1861, and was the first chief-justice of
+the Kansas supreme court (1861-1862). In the Civil War he attained the
+rank of brigadier-general (March 1863) and received the brevet of
+major-general (1865). He was subsequently a representative in Congress
+from Ohio in 1877-1881; and from 1882 to 1896 practised law in New York
+City, where he was long one of the recognized leaders of the bar.
+
+
+
+
+EXAMINATIONS. The term "examination" (i.e. inspecting, weighing and
+testing; from Lat. _examen_, the tongue of a balance) is used in the
+following article to denote a systematic test of knowledge, and of
+either special or general capacity or fitness, carried out under the
+authority of some public body.
+
+1. _History._--The oldest known system of examinations in history is
+that used in China for the selection of officers for the public service
+(c. 1115 B.C.), and the periodic tests which they undergo after entry
+(c. 2200 B.C.). See CHINA; also W.A.P. Martin, _The Lore of Cathay_
+(1901), p. 311 et seq.; T.L. Bullock, "Competitive Examinations in
+China" (_Nineteenth Century_, July 1894); and Étienne Zi, _Pratique des
+examens littéraires en Chine_ (Shanghai, 1894). The abolition of this
+system was announced in 1906, and, as a partial substitute, it was
+decided to hold an annual examination in Peking of Chinese graduates
+educated abroad (_Times_, 22nd of October 1906).
+
+The majority of examinations in western countries are derived from the
+university examinations of the middle ages. The first universities of
+Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and of students analogous
+to the trade gilds and merchant gilds of the time. In the trade gilds
+there were apprentices, companions, and masters. No one was admitted to
+mastership until he had served his apprenticeship (q.v.), nor, as a
+rule, until he had shown that he could accomplish a piece of work to the
+satisfaction of the gild.
+
+The object of the universities was to teach; and to the three classes
+established by the gild correspond roughly the _scholar_, the _bachelor_
+or pupil-teacher (see Rashdall i. 209, note 2, and 221, note 5), and the
+_master_ or _doctor_ (two terms at first equivalent) who, having served
+his apprenticeship and passed a definite technical test, had received
+permission to teach. The early universities of Europe, being under the
+same religious authority and animated by the same philosophy, resembled
+each other very closely in curriculum and general organization and
+examinations, and by the authority of the emperor, or of the pope in
+most cases, the permission to teach granted by one university was valid
+in all (_jus ubicunque docendi_).
+
+The earliest university examinations of which a description is available
+are those in civil and in canon law held at Bologna at a period
+subsequent to 1219. The student was admitted without examination as
+bachelor after from four to six years' study, and after from six to
+eight years' study became qualified as a candidate for the doctorate. He
+might obtain the doctorate in both branches of law in ten years
+(Rashdall i. 221-222).
+
+The doctoral examination at Bologna in the 13th-14th centuries consisted
+of two parts--a private examination which was the real test, and a
+public one of a ceremonial character (_conventus_). The candidate first
+took an "oath that he had complied with all the statutable conditions,
+that he would give no more than the statutable fees or entertainments to
+the rector himself, the doctor or his fellow-students, and that he would
+obey the rector." He was then presented to the archdeacon of Bologna by
+one or more doctors, who were required to have satisfied themselves of
+his fitness by private examination. On the morning of the examination,
+after attending mass, he was assigned by one of the doctors of the
+assembled college two passages (_puncta_) in the civil or canon law,
+which he retired to his house to study, possibly with the assistance of
+the presenting doctor. Later in the day he gave a lecture on, or
+exposition of, the prepared passages, and was examined on them by two of
+the doctors appointed by the college. Other doctors might then put
+supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages, or might
+suggest objections to his answers. The vote of the doctors present was
+taken by ballot, and the fate of the candidate was determined by the
+majority. The successful candidate, who received the title of
+licentiate, was, on payment of a heavy fee and other expenses, permitted
+to proceed to the _conventus_ or final public examination. This
+consisted in the delivery of a speech and the defence of a thesis on
+some point of law, selected by the candidate, against opponents selected
+from among the students. The successful candidate received from the
+archdeacon the formal "licence to teach" by the authority of the pope in
+the name of the Trinity, and was invested with the insignia of office.
+At Bologna, though not at Paris, the "permission to teach" soon became
+fictitious, only a small number of doctors being allowed to exercise the
+right of teaching in that university (Rashdall).
+
+In the faculty of arts of Paris, towards the end of the 13th century,
+the system was already more complicated than at Bologna. The
+baccalaureate, licentiateship, and mastership formed three distinct
+degrees. For admission to the baccalaureate a preliminary test or
+"Responsions" was first required, at which the candidate had to dispute
+in grammar or logic with a master. The examiners then inspected the
+certificates (_schedulae_) of residence and of having attended lectures
+in the prescribed subjects, and examined him in the contents of his
+books. The successful candidate was admitted to maintain a thesis
+against an opponent, a process called "determination" (see Rashdall i.
+443 et seq.), and as bachelor was then permitted to give "cursory"
+lectures. After five or six years from the date of beginning his studies
+(matriculation) and being twenty years of age (these conditions varied
+at different periods), a bachelor was permitted to present himself for
+the examination for the licentiateship, which was divided into two
+parts. The first part was conducted in private by the chancellor and
+four examiners (_temptatores in cameris_), and included an inquiry into
+the candidate's residence, attendance at lectures, and performance of
+exercises, as well as examination in prescribed books; those candidates
+adjudged worthy were admitted to the more important examination before
+the faculty, and the names of successful candidates were sent to the
+chancellor in batches of eight or more at a time, arranged in order of
+merit. (The order of merit at the examination for the licentiateship
+existed in Paris till quite recently.) Each successful candidate was
+then required to maintain a thesis chosen by himself (_quodlibetica_) in
+St Julian's church, and was finally submitted to a purely formal public
+examination (_collatio_) at either the episcopal palace or the abbey of
+Ste Geneviève, before receiving from the chancellor, in the name of the
+Trinity, the licence to incept or begin to teach in the faculty of arts.
+After some six months more the licentiate took part "in a peculiarly
+solemn disputation known as his 'Vespers,'" then gave his formal
+inaugural lecture or disputation before the faculty, and was received
+into the faculty as master. This last process was called "inception."
+
+In discussing the value of medieval examinations of the kind described,
+Paulsen (_The German Universities_ (1906), p. 25) asserts that they were
+well adapted to increase a student's alertness, his power of
+comprehending new ideas, and his ability quickly and surely to
+assimilate them to his own, and that "they did more to enable [students]
+to grasp a subject than the mute and solitary reviewing and cramming of
+our modern examinations can possibly do." At their best they fulfilled
+precisely the technical purpose for which they were intended; they fully
+tested the capacity of the candidate to teach the subjects which he was
+required to teach in accordance with the methods which he was required
+to use. The limitations of the test were the limitations of the
+educational and philosophic ideals of the time, in which a dogmatic
+basis was presupposed to all knowledge and criticism was limited to the
+superstructure. At their worst, even with venal examiners (and
+additional fees were often offered as a bribe), Rashdall regards these
+examinations (at the end of the 13th century) as probably "less of a
+farce than the pass examinations of Oxford and Cambridge almost within
+the memory of persons now living." It is, however, to be pointed out
+that the standard in Paris and elsewhere at a later date became
+scandalously low in some cases. In some universities the sons of nobles
+were regularly excused certain examinations. At Cambridge in 1774 Fellow
+Commoners were examined with such precipitation to fulfil the formal
+requirements of the statutes that the ceremony was termed "huddling for
+a degree" (Jebb, _Remarks upon the Present Mode of Education in the
+University of Cambridge_, 4th ed., 1774, p. 32). The last privileges of
+this kind were abolished at Cambridge by a grace passed on the 20th of
+March 1884.
+
+In the medieval examinations described above we find most of the
+elements of our present examinations: certificates of previous study and
+good conduct, preparation of set-books, questioning on subjects not
+specially prepared, division of examinations into various parts,
+classification in order of merit, payment of fees, the presentation of a
+dissertation, and the defence and publication of a thesis (a term of
+which the meaning has now become extended).
+
+The requirement to write answers to questions written or dictated, to
+satisfy a practical test (other than in teaching), and a clinical test
+in medicine, appear to be of later date.[1] The medieval candidate for
+the doctorate in medicine, although required to have attended practice
+before presenting himself, discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical
+question, often semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme
+example may be quoted "whether Adam had a navel."
+
+The competitive system was developed considerably at Louvain, and in the
+15th century the candidates for the mastership of arts were divided into
+three classes (_rigorosi_, honour-men; _transibiles_, pass-men;
+_gratiosi_, charity-passes), while a fourth, which was not published,
+contained the names of those who failed. In the 17th century the first
+class comprised the names of twelve, and the second, of twenty-four,
+candidates, who were divided on the report of their teachers into
+classes before the examination, and finally arranged in order of merit
+by the examiners (Vernulaeus, quoted by Sir W. Hamilton, _Discussions_,
+1852; p. 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii. 262). At the Cambridge tripos (as
+described by Jebb in 1774, _Remarks_, &c., pp. 20-31) the first
+twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test; they
+were then divided further into "wranglers" (the disputants, _par
+excellence_) and _Senior Optimes_, the next twelve on the list being
+called the _Junior Optimes_. These names have in the mathematics tripos
+survived the procedure. (The name _Tripos_ is derived from the
+three-legged stool on which "an old bachilour," selected for the
+purpose, sat during his disputation with the senior bachelor of the
+year, who was required to propound two questions to him.)
+
+The subjects in which the medieval universities examined were (i.) those
+of the trivium and quadrivium in the faculty of arts; (ii.) theology;
+(iii.) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon law. The number of subjects
+in which examinations are held has since grown immensely. We can only
+sketch in outline the transformations of certain typical university
+systems of examinations.
+
+At Oxford there is no record of a process of formal examination on books
+similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii. 442 et seq.), disputations being
+apparently the only test applied in its early history. Examinations were
+definitely introduced for the B.A. and M.A. degrees by Laud in 1636-1638
+(Brodrick, _History of Oxford_, p. 114), but the standard prescribed was
+so much beyond the actual requirements of later times that it may be
+doubted if it was enforced. The studies fell in the 18th century into an
+"abject state," from which they were first raised by a statute passed in
+1800 (_Report of Oxford University Commission of 1850-1852_, p. 60 et
+seq.), under which distinctions were first allotted to the ablest
+candidates for the bachelor's degree. Further changes were made in 1807
+and 1825; and in 1830 a distinction was made between honours
+examinations of a more difficult character, at which successful
+candidates were divided into four classes, and pass examinations of an
+easier character. By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate
+"Moderations" examination was instituted between the preliminary
+examination called "Responsions" and the final examination. Since 1850,
+although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced, no
+considerable change of system has been made.
+
+The bachelor's degree at Oxford tended from an early period to be
+postponed to an advanced stage of studies, while the requirements for
+the master's degree diminished until, in 1807, the examination for the
+M.A. was abolished. It is now awarded to bachelors of three years'
+standing on payment of a fee.
+
+Cambridge in early times followed the example of Oxford, and here also
+the bachelor's degree became more and more important (Bass Mullinger,
+_History of the University of Cambridge from 1535_..., p. 414), and the
+M.A. has been finally reduced to a mere formality, awarded on terms
+similar to those of the sister university. The standard of examinations
+was raised in Cambridge at an earlier date than at Oxford, and in the
+18th century the tripos "established the reputation of Cambridge as a
+School of Mathematical Science." The school, however, produced few, if
+any, great mathematicians between Newton and George Green. It was only
+between 1830 and 1840 that the standard of the tripos became a high one.
+At Cambridge there is no intermediate examination between the "Previous
+Examination" (commonly called "Little-go"), which corresponds to Oxford
+"Responsions" or "Smalls" and the triposes and examinations for the
+"Poll" degree, which correspond to the Oxford final honours and pass
+examinations respectively. But most of the triposes have been divided
+into two parts, of which the second is not obligatory in order to obtain
+a degree. The "senior wrangler" was the first candidate in order of
+merit in the first part of the mathematical tripos. The abolition of
+order of merit at this examination was decided on in 1906, and names of
+candidates appeared in this order for the last time in 1909.
+
+At the Scottish universities the B.A. degree has become extinct, and the
+M.A., awarded on the results of examination, is the first degree in the
+faculty of arts.
+
+The incorporation of the university of London in 1836 marks an era in
+the history of examinations; the teaching and examining functions of a
+university were dissociated for the first time. Until 1858 the London
+examinations were open only to students in affiliated colleges, and the
+teachers had no share in the appointment of the examiners or in
+determining the curricula for examinations; in 1858 the examinations
+were thrown open to all comers, and no requirements were insisted on
+with regard to courses of study except for degrees in the faculty of
+medicine. The sole function of the university was to examine, and its
+examinations for matriculation and for degrees in arts and science were
+carried on by means of written papers not only in London but in many
+centres in the United Kingdom and the colonies. From the first the
+degrees were (unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge until 1871) open to
+all male persons without religious distinctions; and in 1878 they were
+opened to women. (Tripos examinations were thrown open to women at
+Cambridge by the grace of 24th Feb. 1881, and at Oxford women were
+admitted to examinations for honours by statute of 29th April 1884.
+Proposals to admit women to university degrees were rejected by Oxford
+and Cambridge in 1896 and 1897 respectively.)
+
+The standard of difficulty set by the university of London was a high
+one, very much higher for its pass degrees than the corresponding
+standards at Oxford and Cambridge, while the standard for honours was
+equally high. In medicine the examinations were made both wider in range
+and more searching than those of any other examining body. But, for
+reasons dealt with below, great discontent was roused by the new system.
+In 1880 the Victoria University, Manchester, was established, in which
+teaching and examining were again united; and in the universities since
+established, with the exception of the Royal University of Ireland
+(which was created in 1880 as an examining body on the model of London,
+but which was dissolved under the Irish Universities Act 1908, and
+replaced by the National University of Ireland and the Queen's
+University of Belfast), the precedent of Victoria has been followed. By
+an act passed in 1898, of which the provisions came into force in 1900,
+the university of London was reconstituted as a teaching university,
+although provision was made for the continuance of the system of
+examinations by "external examiners" for "external students," together
+with "internal examinations" for "internal students," in which the
+teachers and the external examiners of the university are associated.
+The examinations in music and the final examinations in law and medicine
+are carried on [1910] both for "internal" and "external" students by
+"external" examiners only, who are, however, appointed on the
+recommendation of boards of studies consisting mainly of London
+teachers.
+
+At the university of Dublin, examinations have been maintained both for
+the B.A. and M.A. degrees, and students may be admitted to the
+examinations in subjects other than divinity, law, medicine, and
+engineering without attendance at university courses.
+
+The examinations of the newer universities, the Victoria University of
+Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield and Wales, are open
+only to students at these universities, and are conducted by the
+teachers in association with one or more external examiners for each
+subject. In some universities, e.g. Manchester, the M.A. degree is given
+after examination to students who have taken a pass, and without
+examination to those who have taken an honours degree.
+
+The universities which have departed furthest from the medieval system
+of examinations, at any rate in appearance, are those of Germany. The
+baccalaureate has disappeared, but students cannot be matriculated
+without having passed the _Abiturienten-examen_ (see below), probably
+the most severe of all entrance examinations (foreign students may be
+exempted under certain conditions). The student desiring to proceed to
+the doctorate is free from examinations thereafter until he presents his
+thesis for the doctor's degree,[2] when, if it is accepted, he is
+submitted to a public oral examination not only in his principal subject
+(_Hauptfach_), but also as a rule in two or more collateral subjects
+(_Nebenfächer_). The doctor's degree does not give the right to teach in
+a faculty (_venia legendi_). To acquire this a doctor must present a
+further thesis (_Habilitationsschrift_), and must deliver two lectures,
+one before the faculty, followed by a discussion (_colloquium_), the
+other in public; but these lectures "seem to be merely secondary and are
+tending to become so more and more"; "scientific productiveness is so
+sharply emphasized among the conditions for admission that it
+overshadows all the rest" (Paulsen, loc. cit. p. 165).
+
+In France the examination for the baccalaureate, though conducted in
+part by university examiners, has become a school-leaving examination
+(see below). The licentiateship has been preserved in the faculties of
+arts, science and laws, and is in point of difficulty about equal to the
+pass degree examinations of the university of London, though differing
+in the nature of the tests. In the faculty of sciences, the three
+subjects of examination selected may, under a recent regulation, be
+taken separately. Until a few years ago the successful candidates at the
+licentiateship were arranged in order of merit. For the doctorate in the
+faculty of letters two theses must be submitted, of which the subject
+and plan must be approved by the faculty (until recently one of them was
+required to be written in Latin). Permission to print the theses is
+given by the rector or vice-rector after report from one or more
+professors, and they are then discussed publicly by the faculty and the
+candidate (_soutenance de thèse_). In this public discussion the
+"disputation" of the middle ages survives in its least changed form. The
+literary theses required by French universities are, as a rule, volumes
+of several hundred pages, and more important in character even than the
+German _Habilitationsschrift_. The possession of the doctorate is a
+_sine qua non_ for eligibility to a university chair, and to a
+lectureship in the university of Paris.
+
+In the faculty of sciences a candidate for the doctorate may submit two
+theses, or else submit one thesis and undergo an oral examination.
+
+For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are
+required.
+
+In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for the
+doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis submitted.
+
+There is also a special doctorate, the "_doctorat d'Université_,"
+awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are diplomas
+(_Diplômes d'Études supérieures_) awarded on dissertations and
+examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and geography, classics
+or modern languages, selected mainly by the candidate and approved by
+the faculty.
+
+2. _Professional Examinations._ (a) _Teaching._--University examinations
+for degrees having ceased to be used as technical tests of teaching
+capacity, new examinations have been devised for this purpose. The test
+for German university teachers has been described above. For secondary
+teachers, W. von Humboldt instituted a special examination in 1810
+(Paulsen, _Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts_, ii. pp. 283 and 393), and
+an examination for primary teachers was instituted in Prussia in 1794.
+
+In France there is a competitive examination for secondary teachers, the
+_agrégation_, originally established in 1766. _Agrégés_ have a right to
+state employment and they alone can occupy the highest teaching post
+(_chaire de professeur_) in a state secondary school, other posts being
+open to licentiates. There are also examinations for primary teachers.
+The tests for teachers are different for the two sexes.
+
+In England there is no obligatory test for secondary teachers. The
+universities and the College of Preceptors conduct examinations for
+teaching diplomas. The Board of Education holds special examinations
+(Preliminary Certificate examination and Certificate examination, &c.)
+for primary teachers.
+
+(b) _Medicine._--See MEDICAL EDUCATION.
+
+(c) _Other Professions._--A system of professional examinations carried
+on by professional bodies, in some cases with legal sanction, was
+developed in England during the 19th century. Those in the following
+subjects are the most important: Accountancy (Institute of Chartered
+Accountants and Society of Accountants and Auditors), actuarial work
+(Institute of Actuaries), music (Royal Academy of Music, Royal College
+of Music, Trinity College of Music, Royal College of Organists, and the
+Incorporated Society of Musicians), pharmacy (Pharmaceutical Society),
+plumbing (the Plumbers' Company), surveying (Surveyors' Institution),
+veterinary medicine (Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons), technical
+subjects, e.g. cotton-spinning, dyeing, motor-manufacture (City & Guilds
+of London Institute), architecture (Royal Institute of British
+Architects), commercial subjects, shorthand (the Society of Arts and
+London Chamber of Commerce), engineering (Institutions of Civil
+Engineers, of Mechanical Engineers, and of Electrical Engineers).
+
+3. _School-leaving Examinations._--The faculty of arts in medieval
+universities covered secondary as well as higher education in the
+subjects concerned. The division in arts subjects between secondary and
+university education has been drawn at different levels in different
+countries. Thus the first two years of the arts curriculum in English
+and American universities correspond, roughly speaking, to the last two
+years spent in a secondary school of Germany or France, and the
+continental "school-leaving examinations" correspond to the intermediate
+examinations of the newer English universities and to the pass
+examinations for the degree at Oxford and Cambridge (Mark Pattison,
+_Suggestions on Academical Organization_, 1868, p. 238, and Matthew
+Arnold, _Higher Schools and Universities in Germany_, 1892, p. 209).
+
+A tabular summary is given (see Tables I., II., III., IV.) of the
+requirements of the secondary school-leaving examinations of France,
+Prussia (for the nine-year secondary schools) and Scotland, and of the
+university of London.
+
+There are in England a number of school examinations which, under
+prescribed conditions, also serve as school-leaving examinations, and
+give entrance to certain universities, especially the Oxford and
+Cambridge local examinations (both established in 1858), and the
+examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge "Joint Board." A movement to
+reduce the number of entrance examinations and to secure uniformity in
+their standard was set on foot in 1901. In that year the General Medical
+Council communicated to the Board of Education a memorial on the subject
+from the Headmasters' Conference. The memorial was further communicated
+to various professional bodies concerned. Conferences were held by the
+consultative committee of the Board of Education in 1903, with
+representatives of the universities, the Headmasters' Conference, the
+Association of Head-Masters, the Association of Head-Mistresses, the
+College of Preceptors, the Private Schools' Association, and with
+representatives of professional bodies. The committee were of opinion
+that a central board, consisting of representatives of the Board of
+Education and the different examining bodies, should be established, to
+co-ordinate and control the standards of the examinations, and to secure
+interchangeability of certificates, &c., as soon as a sufficient number
+of such bodies signified their willingness to be represented on the
+board. They recommended that the examination should be conducted by
+external and internal examiners, representing in each case the examining
+body and the school staff respectively, and that reports on the school
+work of candidates should be available for reference by the examiners
+(circular of the Board of Education of 12th of July 1904).
+
+The "accrediting" system in the United States was started by the
+university of Michigan in 1871. A school desiring to be accredited is
+submitted to inspection without previous notice. If the inspection is
+satisfactory, the school is accredited by a university for from one to
+three years, and upon the favourable report of its principal any of its
+students are admitted to the university by which it has been accredited
+without any entrance examination. In practice it is found that many
+students whom their teachers refuse to certify are able to pass the
+university entrance examination. The statistics of nine years show that
+the standard of the certified students is higher than that of
+non-certified students. Two hundred and fifty schools are accredited by
+the university of Michigan. In 1904 it was stated that the system was
+gaining favour in the east,[3] and that it had been adopted more or less
+by all the eastern colleges and universities with the exception of
+Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Columbia.
+
+4. _Methods of Examination._--Examinations may test (i.) knowledge, or,
+more exactly, the power of restating facts and arguments of a kind that
+may be learnt by rote; (ii.) the power of doing something, e.g. of
+making a _précis_ of a written document, of writing a letter or a report
+on a particular subject with a particular object in view, of translating
+from or into a foreign language, of solving a mathematical problem, of
+criticizing a passage from a literary work, of writing an essay on an
+historical or literary subject with the aid of books in a library, of
+diagnosing the malady of a patient, of analysing a chemical mixture or
+compound; and (the highest form under the rubric) of making an original
+contribution to learning or science as the result of personal
+investigation or experiment. Examinations are carried out at present by
+means of (1) written papers; (2) oral examinations; (3) practical,
+including in medicine clinical, tests; (4) theses; or a combination of
+these.
+
+
+  Written.
+
+In written examinations the candidates are, as a rule, supplied with a
+number of printed questions, of which they must answer all, or a certain
+proportion, within a given time, varying, as a rule, from 1½ to 3 hours,
+the latter being the duration most generally adopted for higher
+examinations in England. Whereas in France and Germany the questions are
+generally few in number and require long answers, showing constructive
+skill and mastery of the mother-tongue on the part of the candidates,
+such "essay-papers" are comparatively rare in England. In many subjects,
+the written examinations test memory rather than capacity. It has been
+suggested that sets of questions to be answered in writing should as a
+rule be divided into two parts: (i.) a number of questions requiring
+short answers and intended to test the range of the candidate's
+knowledge; (ii.) questions requiring long answers, intended to test its
+depth, and the candidate's powers of co-ordination and reflection. A
+necessary condition for the application of the second kind of test is
+that time should be given for reflection and for rewriting, say
+one-third or one-quarter of the whole time allowed. A further
+distinction is important, especially in such subjects as mathematics or
+foreign languages, in which it is legitimate to ask what precise power
+on the part of a candidate the passing of an examination shall signify.
+Owing to a prevailing confusion between tests of memory and tests of
+capacity, the allowance for chance fairly applied to the former is apt
+to be unduly extended to the latter. In applying tests of memory, it may
+be legitimate to allow a candidate to pass who answers correctly from 30
+to 50% of the questions; such an allowance if applied to a test of
+capacity, such as the performance of a sum in addition, the solution of
+triangles by means of trigonometrical tables, or the translation of an
+easy passage from a foreign language, appears to be irrational. A
+candidate who obtains only 50% of the marks in performing such
+operations cannot be regarded as being able to perform them; and, if the
+examination is to be treated as a test of his capacity to perform them,
+he should be rejected unless he obtains full marks, less a certain
+allowance (say 10, or at most 20%) in view of the more or less
+artificial conditions inherent in all examinations.
+
+
+  Oral.
+
+The oral examination is better suited than the written to discover the
+range of a candidate's knowledge; it also serves as a test of his powers
+of expression in his mother-tongue, or in a foreign language, and may be
+used (as in the examination for entrance to the Osborne Naval College)
+to test the important qualities (hardly tested in any other examinations
+at present), readiness of wit, common-sense and nerve. It may be
+objected that candidates are heavily handicapped by nervousness in oral
+examinations, but this objection does not afford sufficient ground for
+rejecting the test, provided that it is supplemented by others. Oral
+tests are used almost invariably in medical examinations; and there is a
+growing tendency to make them compulsory in dealing with modern
+languages. Oral examinations are much more used abroad than in England,
+where the pupils during their school years receive but little exercise
+in the art of consecutive speaking.
+
+
+TABLE I.--PRUSSIA: ABITURIENTEN EXAMEN
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    _Abiturienten Examen_ (established in 1788).
+
+  II. Minimum Age for Entry.
+
+    Age only limited by condition of length of school course. The usual
+    age is 17-18.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    9 years.
+
+    Candidates who have not attended the 9 years' school course may be
+    admitted to the examination on special application.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    In _Gymnasium_.
+
+            Written.                        Oral.
+      German essay.                   Latin.
+      Mathematics.                    Greek.
+      Translation into Latin.         English or French.
+      Translation from Greek into     Religion.
+        German.                       History.
+                                      Mathematics.
+
+    In _Real-Gymnasium_.
+
+            Written.                        Oral.
+      German essay.                   Latin.
+      Mathematics.                    English.
+      Translation from Latin.         French.
+      Translation from German into    Physics or Chemistry.
+        or essay in English or        Religion.
+        French.                       History.
+      Physics.                        Mathematics.
+
+    In _Ober-Realschule_.
+
+            Written.                        Oral.
+      German essay.                   English.
+      Mathematics.                    French.
+      An exercise in French and in    Physics.
+        English (an essay in one      Chemistry.
+        language and a translation    Religion.
+        from the other into German).  History.
+      Physics or Chemistry.           Mathematics.
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    The object of the examination is defined as being a test of whether
+    the candidate has fulfilled the aims laid down in the curricula,
+    &c., prescribed for a _Gymnasium_, _Real-gymnasium_, or
+    _Ober-realschule_, as the case may be, and the subjects of
+    examination are those prescribed in the curricula for the kind of
+    school concerned.
+
+    The report on the school work of each candidate in his various
+    subjects is laid before the Examining Board before the beginning of
+    the examination.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The Examining Board consists of a government inspector (_der
+    Königliche Kommissar_) acting as chairman, the headmaster of the
+    school, and the teachers of the highest classes in the school. The
+    inspector may nominate a deputy, who is as a rule, the headmaster of
+    the school.
+
+    Each teacher concerned selects for the written examination three
+    alternative subjects in his branch, from which, after receiving a
+    report thereon from the headmaster, the inspector makes a final
+    choice.
+
+    The papers are marked by the teachers concerned and circulated the
+    the whole Board of Examiners, who then decide whether individual
+    candidates shall be (i.) rejected, (ii.) admitted with (ii.)
+    admitted with oral examination, or (iii.) submitted to the oral
+    examination.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The written examination extends over four or five days. Only one
+    paper is given each day, for which 3 to 5½ hours are allowed (5½
+    hours for the German essay). For essays in foreign languages
+    dictionaries may be used.
+
+
+TABLE II.--FRANCE: BACCALAURÉAT
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    _Baccalauréat de l'enseignement secondaire._
+
+    This examination has been carried on under different forms since
+    1808. The regulations summarized here date from 1902, when the
+    _baccalauréat_ described replaced the _baccalauréat-ès-lettres,
+    baccalauréat-ès-sciences_, and _baccalauréat de l'enseignement
+    moderne._
+
+  II. Minimum Age for Entry.
+
+    Part I., 16, or, with special permission, 15.
+
+    Part II. may not be taken within an academic year after passing Part
+    I.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    There is no requirement of attendance. Part I. of the examination
+    corresponds exactly to the subjects taken in the "second cycle" of
+    secondary education, and Part II. to the _classe de philosophie_ and
+    _classe de mathématiques._
+
+    See also under V.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    Part I. is divided into four Branches, viz.:--
+
+      (1) Latin-Greek.
+      (2) Latin-modern languages.
+      (3) Latin-science.
+      (4) Science-modern languages.
+
+    In each Branch the examination is divided into two parts, viz.,
+    written and oral. The nature of the examination may be indicated by
+    the following requirements in Branch (1):--
+
+                     Written
+         (i.) French composition.
+        (ii.) Translation from Latin.
+       (iii.) Translation from Greek.
+
+                     Oral
+         (i.) Explanation of a Greek text.
+        (ii.) Explanation of a Latin text.
+       (iii.) Explanation of a French text.
+        (iv.) Text in a modern foreign language.
+         (v.) Interrogation on ancient history.
+        (vi.) Interrogation on modern history.
+       (vii.) Interrogation on geography.
+      (viii.) Interrogation on mathematics.
+        (ix.) Interrogation on physics.
+
+    Part II. is divided into two Branches, viz.:--
+
+      (1) Philosophy.
+      (2) Mathematics.
+
+    The nature of the examination may be indicated by the following
+    requirements in Branch (I):--
+
+                     Written
+         (i.) An essay in French on a philosophical subject.
+        (ii.) An examination in physical and natural science.
+
+                     Oral
+         (i.) Interrogation on philosophy and philosophical writers.
+        (ii.) Interrogation on contemporary history.
+       (iii.) Interrogation on physical science.
+        (iv.) Interrogation on natural science.
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    The syllabus of the examination is that prescribed for the higher
+    classes in the Government secondary schools.
+
+    The candidate may submit his _livret scolaire_, or school record,
+    which will be taken into account.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The Board of Examiners (or "jury") consists of (i.) University
+    examiners being members of a faculty of letters or faculty of
+    sciences; (ii.) secondary teachers, active or retired, selected by
+    the minister of public instruction. The Board consists of from four
+    to six examiners, of whom, when the number is even, half are chosen
+    from either category.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The written portion of Part I. extends over from 9 to 10 hours in
+    all (not on a single day), in periods of 3 or 4 hours each; the
+    written portion of Part II. extends over from 6 to 9 hours. The oral
+    examination for each part lasts ¾ hour on the average, and is
+    public.
+
+
+TABLE III.--SCOTLAND: SCHOOL-LEAVING EXAMINATION
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    Scottish school-leaving examination (established 1888). (See
+    pamphlet on the "Leaving Certificate Examination" issued by the
+    Scottish Education Department, 1908.)
+
+  II. Minimum Age for Entry.
+
+    17 on 1st of January following the year in which the candidate
+    passes the last of the written examinations.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    4 years.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    Candidates must pass in four subjects on the higher grade standard,
+    or in three subjects on the higher grade standard and two on the
+    lower. A pass in drawing is accepted in lieu of one of the two lower
+    grade passes. A pass in Gaelic is reckoned as a pass on lower grade.
+    All candidates must have passed in higher English and in either
+    higher or lower grade mathematics. The remaining subjects may be
+    either science with one or more languages (Latin Greek, French,
+    German, Spanish, or Italian), or languages only. But where two or
+    more languages other than English are taken, the candidate's group
+    must include either higher or lower grade Latin. A pass in Spanish,
+    Italian, or science (in which subjects there is only one
+    examination) is reckoned as a pass on the higher grade standard.
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    Schools are inspected, and the course of instruction must be
+    approved by the Scottish Education Department, but the examinations
+    are conducted by external examiners with whom teachers are not
+    associated.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The examiners are appointed by the Scottish Education Department.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The examination consists of a written examination and an oral
+    examination, on which stress is laid. The length of the examination
+    varies with the subjects selected. The periods of examination vary
+    from 1 to 2½ hours. If the candidate selects on the higher grade,
+    English, Latin, mathematics, and French, the examination extends
+    over 19½ hours.
+
+
+TABLE IV.--UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SCHOOL EXAMINATION, MATRICULATION STANDARD
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    School examination, matriculation standard (established in 1902).
+
+    _Note_--A higher school-leaving certificate is awarded to pupils who
+    (i.) have pursued an approved course of study for a period of years
+    at a school or schools under inspection approved by the University;
+    and (ii.) being matriculated students, have passed the "higher
+    school examination" in at least three subjects at one and the same
+    examination.
+
+  II. Minimum Age For Entry.
+
+    The minimum age of entry is 15, but if the candidate is under 16 he
+    must remain at school until he is 16 years of age in order to be
+    qualified for the school-leaving certificate, and cannot be
+    registered as a student of the University until he has reached that
+    age.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    The curriculum of each school is considered on its own merits.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    Pupils must satisfy the examiners in not less than five subjects, as
+    follows:--
+
+    (1) English.
+
+    (2) Elementary mathematics.
+
+    (3) Latin, or elementary mechanics, or elementary physics--heat,
+    light and sound, or elementary chemistry, or elementary botany, or
+    general elementary science.
+
+    (4) and (5) Two of the following subjects, neither of which has
+    already been taken under section (3). If Latin be not taken, one of
+    the other subjects selected must be another language, either ancient
+    or modern, from the list, and languages other than those included in
+    the list may be taken if approved by the University, provided that
+    the language is included in the regular curriculum:--Latin, Greek,
+    French, German, ancient history, modern history, history and
+    geography, physical and general geography, logic, geometrical and
+    mechanical drawing, mathematics (more advanced), elementary
+    mechanics, elementary chemistry, elementary physics--heat, light and
+    sound, elementary physics--electricity and magnetism, elementary
+    biology--botany, elementary biology--zoology, general elementary
+    science (chemistry and physics).
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    Schools under approved inspection, and course of instruction
+    approved by the University.
+
+    The papers are ordinarily set on the matriculation syllabus, but
+    papers may be specially set more closely in accordance with the
+    school curriculum provided that the syllabus proposed is approved by
+    the University as at least equivalent to that for which it is
+    substituted.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The examiners are ordinarily those appointed by the University for
+    the ordinary matriculation examination.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The examination extends over at least 18 hours, and includes an oral
+    examination in modern languages.
+
+
+  Practical.
+
+The laboratory examination may be used in subjects like physics,
+chemistry, geology, zoology, botany, anatomy, physiology, to test powers
+of manipulation and knowledge of experimental methods. In some cases
+(e.g. in certain honours examinations) the examination may be prolonged
+over one or more days, and may test higher powers of investigation. But
+such powers can only be fully tested by the performance of original
+work, under conditions difficult to fulfil in the examination room or
+laboratory. At the French examinations for the _prix de Rome_ the
+candidates are required to execute a painting in a given number of days,
+under strict supervision (_en loge_).
+
+In medicine the clinical examination of a patient is a test carried out
+under conditions more nearly approaching those of actual work than any
+other; and distinction in medical examinations is probably more often
+followed by distinction in after life than is the case in other
+examinations.
+
+
+  Thesis.
+
+For the doctor's degree (where this is not an honorary distinction) a
+thesis or dissertation is generally, though not invariably, required in
+England. Of recent years the thesis has been introduced into lower
+examinations; it is required for the master's degree at London in the
+case of internal students, in subjects other than mathematics (1910);
+both at Oxford and London, the B.Sc. degree, and at Cambridge the B.A.
+degree, may be given for research, although the number of students
+proceeding to a degree in this way is at present relatively small. In
+certain of the honours B.A. and B.Sc. examinations at Manchester and
+Liverpool, candidates may take the written portion of the examination at
+the end of the second year's course of study and submit a dissertation
+at the end of the third year. Theses are generally examined by two or
+more specialists.
+
+5. _Competitive Examinations._--The arrangement of students in order of
+merit led naturally to the use of examinations not only as a qualifying
+but also as a selective test, and to the offering of money prizes
+(including exhibitions, scholarships and fellowships) on the results. In
+1854 selection by examination as a method of appointment to posts in the
+English public service was first substituted for the patronage system,
+which had caused grave dissatisfaction (see Macaulay's speech on the
+subject, _The Times_ of the 25th of June 1853). The first public
+competitive examination for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, took
+place in 1855, and in 1870 the principle of open competition for the
+civil service was adopted as a general rule. (For further details see
+CIVIL SERVICE.)
+
+In the Württemberg civil service candidates are admitted to a year's
+probation after passing a theoretical examination, at the conclusion of
+which they must pass an examination of a more practical character (A.
+Herbert, _Sacrifice of Education_ ..., 1889, p. 111).
+
+In the award of scholarships, &c., it should be definitely decided
+whether the scholarship is to be awarded (1) for attainment, in which
+case the examination-test pure and simple may suffice, or (2) for
+promise, in which case personal information and a _curriculum vitae_ are
+necessary. To take a simple instance: a candidate partly educated in
+Germany may obtain more marks in German at a scholarship examination
+than another who is more gifted, but whose opportunities have been less;
+the question at once arises, are the examiners to take the circumstances
+of the candidate into account or not? It is understood that at the
+colleges of the older universities such circumstances are considered. It
+must again be decided whether the financial circumstances of candidates
+are to be taken into account; are scholarships intended as prizes, or as
+a means of enabling poor students to obtain a university education? In
+some cases wealthy students have been known to return the emoluments of
+scholarships. In many universities of the United States there is a
+definite understanding that emoluments shall only be accepted by those
+needing them. It would not be difficult to ask candidates to make a
+confidential declaration on this subject on entrance and to establish in
+Great Britain a tradition similar to that of the United States, and
+steps in this direction have been taken both at Oxford and Cambridge
+(Lord Curzon of Kedleston, _University Reform_, p. 86).
+
+A special allowance may be made for age. In certain scholarship
+examinations held formerly by the London County Council a percentage was
+added to the marks of each candidate proportionate to the number of
+months by which his age fell short of the maximum age for entry. The
+whole subject of entrance scholarships at English schools and
+universities, and especially their tendency to produce premature
+specialization, has recently been much discussed.
+
+6. _The Organization and Conduct of Examinations._--The organization and
+conduct of examinations, in such a way that each candidate shall be
+treated in precisely the same way as every other candidate, is a complex
+matter, especially where several thousand candidates are concerned. The
+greatest precautions must be taken to ensure the secrecy of the
+examination papers before the examination, and the effective isolation
+of individual candidates during the examination. The supervision should
+be adequate to remove all temptation to copying. The hygienic conditions
+should be such as to reduce the strain to a minimum. The question of the
+mental fatigue produced by examinations has been studied by certain
+German observers, but has not yet been fully investigated.
+
+7. _Marking, Classification and Errors of Detail._--In applying a single
+test in a qualifying examination it would be sufficient to mark
+candidates as passing or failing. But examinations consist as a rule of
+a number of tests, each one of which is complex; and a mark is recorded
+in respect of each test or portion of a test in order to enable the
+examining body to estimate the performance, considered as a whole, of
+the candidate. At Oxford the marks are not numerical, but the papers are
+judged as of this or that supposed "class," and various degrees of merit
+are indicated by the symbols [alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta], to which
+the signs + or -may be prefixed, according as they are above or below a
+certain standard within each class. At Cambridge, numerical marks are
+used. The advantage of numerical marks is that they are more easily
+manipulated than symbols; the disadvantage, that they produce the false
+impression that merit can be estimated with mathematical accuracy.
+Professor F.Y. Edgeworth, in two papers on "The Statistics of
+Examinations" and the "Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations"
+(_Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, 1888 and 1890), has dealt
+with the subject, although on somewhat limited lines. His
+investigations show clearly that with candidates near the border-line of
+failure, which must necessarily be fixed at a given point (subject to
+certain allowances, where more than one subject is considered), the
+element of chance necessarily enters largely into the question of pass
+and failure. The fact may be stated in this way:--the general efficiency
+of the test being granted, it is true to say that the large majority of
+those who pass an examination will be superior in efficiency to those
+who fail; but a few of those who fail may be superior to a few of those
+who pass. These errors are not peculiar to the examination system, they
+are inherent in all human judgments. It is necessary to allow for them
+in considering the failure of an individual candidate as an index of
+inefficiency.
+
+The element of chance, which prevails in the region on either side of
+the border between pass and failure, obviously prevails equally on
+either side of the border between "classes," where candidates are
+classified; it has been suggested by Dr Schuster that numerical order
+should accompany classification so as to avoid the creation of an
+artificial gap between the last candidate in one class and the highest
+in the next. Edgeworth's objection to such an argument is that the
+number of uncertainties is far less when candidates are classed than
+when they are placed in ostensible order of merit.
+
+The difficulties of comparison of marks are further complicated when
+students take different subjects and it is necessary to compare their
+merit by means of marks allotted by different examiners and added
+together. In a pass examination the question has to be considered how
+far, if at all, excellence in one subject shall compensate for
+deficiency in another, a question which is indeterminate until the
+precise object of the whole examination is formulated. In the
+competitive examination for the Indian civil service, places are
+allotted on the aggregate of marks obtained in a number of subjects
+selected by the candidate from a list of thirty-two. The successful
+candidates are compared a year later on the results of another
+examination in which there is again a choice, though a much more limited
+one. The order of merit in the two examinations is, as a rule, very
+different.
+
+Two further points may be noted. An examiner may have underestimated the
+time required to answer the questions which he has set; this will be
+obvious if with a large number of candidates (say 300 or 400) none
+approaches the maximum mark. In this case the maximum should be reduced.
+Again, it is generally recognized to be undesirable to give marks for a
+smattering. In order to avoid this various devices are adopted. The
+simplest is to award a proportion of marks (say 10 to 15, or even 20%)
+for "general impression." In some examinations, unless say 20% or more
+marks are obtained for a particular subject, no credit is given for the
+paper in that subject. Latham (_The Action of Examinations_, 1877, p.
+490) describes other numerical adjustments used to meet this difficulty,
+especially that used in English civil service examinations. The
+numerical results of the civil service examinations are reduced so as to
+conform to a certain symmetrical "frequency-curve," of which the
+abscissae represent percentages of marks between definite limits and the
+ordinates the number of candidates obtaining marks between those limits.
+C.E. Fawsitt (_The Education of the Examiner_, Royal Philosophical
+Society of Glasgow, 1905) shows that frequency-curves deduced from
+actual investigation of class-marks are not symmetrical, but have two
+maxima corresponding to the performance of "non-workers" and of
+"workers." In pass examinations of a well-known character there is a
+maximum just beyond the pass mark, this being the point of efficiency at
+which many students aim.
+
+8. _The Object and Efficiency of Examinations, and their Indirect
+Effects._--In order to estimate the efficiency of an examination as a
+test, the precise question should be asked in each case--what is it
+intended to test? Much of the evil attributed to, and resulting from,
+examinations is due to the fact that this question has not been
+definitely put, and that a test legitimate for certain purposes has been
+used for others to which it is unsuited. Examinations are suited in the
+first instance for the purpose for which they were originally designed
+in medieval universities--the test of technical and professional
+capacity; it has never been proposed to abolish qualifying examinations
+for doctors, pharmaceutical chemists, &c.; the tests applied are (or
+should be) direct tests of capacity carried out under conditions as
+nearly as possible like those of actual practice. If a student can
+auscultate correctly, or make up a prescription, at an examination, he
+will in all probability be able to do so in other circumstances.
+
+Examinations as tests of the knowledge of isolated facts are necessarily
+of relatively small value, because the memory of such facts is
+transient; and memorization of a large number of facts for examination
+purposes is generally admitted to be specially transient; the
+"knowledge-test," considered apart from a test of capacity, is in fact
+not a test of permanent knowledge, but of the power of retaining facts
+for a length of time which it is impossible to estimate and which with
+some candidates extends over a few weeks only. When used as tests of
+"general culture," examinations, in the view of Paulsen, based on a
+study of German education, not only fail in their purpose, but tend to
+destroy the faculties which it is desired to develop (_Geschichte des
+gelehrten Unterrichts_, ii. 684 et seq.); to prepare ready answers to
+the numberless questions which an examiner may ask on a large variety of
+subjects is to paralyse the natural and free activity of the mind (cf.
+A.C. Benson on the results of English secondary classical education,
+_From a College Window_, 3rd ed., 1906, pp. 154-177). If pushed to its
+logical conclusion the view of Paulsen must, it is submitted, lead to
+the complete abandonment at examinations of tests of "knowledge" as
+distinguished from direct tests of capacity. Thus isolated questions on
+details of grammar would disappear from papers on the mother-tongue and
+on foreign languages, in which the test would consist mainly or entirely
+of composition and translation. Erudition would be tested by the power
+of writing, at leisure, a dissertation on some subject selected by the
+examiners or the candidate or, in the case of a teacher, by the delivery
+of a lecture on the subject. At the French _agrégation_ candidates are
+given twenty-four hours for the preparation of a lecture of this kind.
+Such examinations would test the "skill in the manipulation of facts
+which is the true sign of a trained intelligence" (cf. K. Pearson, "The
+Function of Science in the Modern State," _Ency. Brit._ 10th ed. xxxii.
+Prefatory essay). They might possibly be supplemented by easy oral
+examinations to test both range of knowledge and readiness of mind. But
+in the case of a pupil who had passed through a good secondary school it
+would be as safe to rely for supplementary information under this head
+on the testimony of his teachers, as it is to rely on their evidence
+with regard to the fundamental and all-important element on which no
+examination supplies direct information--personal character.
+
+The main arguments of those opposed to the examination system may be
+summarized as follows: (i.) Examinations tend to destroy natural
+interests and exclude from the attention of the pupil all matters
+outside the purview of the examination (they would not do so if
+examinations were so limited in character that preparation therefor
+could absorb only a fraction of the pupil's time); (ii.) they tend to
+cultivate a personal judgment where no personal basis of judgment is
+possible (this argument, directed mainly against the Oxford essay
+system, applies not to examinations in general, but to the character of
+the subjects set for essays); (iii.) competitive examinations on the
+home and Indian civil services scheme tend to diffuse mental energy over
+too many subjects (but see (xviii.) below); (iv.) examinations,
+especially competitive examinations, tend to become more and more
+difficult, difficulty being confused with efficiency--this has shown
+itself with the Cambridge mathematical tripos, in which for years
+questions of increasing difficulty were set on relatively unimportant
+subjects, until the examination was reformed (reply: all examinations
+should be overhauled periodically); (v.) they tend to paralyse the
+powers of exposition, all statements of knowledge being thrown into a
+form suitable, not for an uninstructed person, but for one who already
+possesses it, the examiner (this tendency should be counteracted by
+definite training in composition); (vi.) the sample of knowledge and
+capacity yielded at an examination is frequently not a fair sample; it
+is liable to extreme variations in a favourable sense, if the candidate
+happens to have prepared the precise questions asked; in an unfavourable
+sense, if the candidate is suffering from misfortune or from accidental
+ill-health, the latter, owing to the periodic function, occurring much
+more frequently in the case of women than of men--[the reform of
+examination methods may remove to a great extent the element of chance
+in questions set; in a competitive examination it is impossible to allow
+for ill-health; in a qualifying examination it is difficult to make any
+allowance unless the examination is definitely conducted in whole or in
+part by the teachers, and the past record of the candidate is taken into
+account (cf. Paulsen, _The German Universities_, pp. 344-345)]; (vii.)
+examinations of several hundred candidates at a time cannot be
+rationally conducted so as to be equally fair to the individuality of
+all candidates; the individual test is the only complete one (it is
+admitted that examinations on a large scale necessarily involve a margin
+of error; but this error may be reduced to a minimum, especially by a
+combination of oral and practical with written work); (viii.) the
+multiplicity of school examinations required for different reasons
+produces confusion in our secondary education (there is a growing
+tendency to admit equivalence of "school-leaving" and entrance
+examinations; thus entrance examinations of Oxford, Cambridge and
+London, and the Northern Universities Joint Board are interchangeable
+under certain conditions); (ix.) the multiplicity of examinations tends
+to "underselling" (the success of the London examinations in medicine
+proves that a high standard attracts candidates as well as a low one;
+possibly intermediate standards may be killed in the competition; it is
+by no means obvious that a uniform system of examinations would conduce
+to efficiency); (x.) examinations produce physical damage to health,
+especially in the case of women-students (on this point more statistical
+evidence is needed; see, however, Engelmann quoted by G. Stanley Hall,
+_Adolescence_, 1905, ii. 588 et seq.); (xi.) examinations have in
+England mechanically cast the education of women into the same mould as
+that of men, without reference to the different social functions of the
+two sexes (the remedy is obvious); (xii.) it is unjustifiable to give a
+man a university position on the results of his performance in the
+examination room, a practice common in England though almost unknown on
+the continent; a just estimate of a man's powers in research or for
+teaching can only be properly based on his performance. The present
+system merely leads to the transmission of the sterile art of passing
+examinations. (At Oxford and Cambridge many fellowships are now awarded
+on the results of examination; it is sometimes stated, in defence of
+this system, that young men cannot be expected to carry out research in
+classics or philosophy.)
+
+On the other hand, the defenders of examinations reply that (xiii.)
+examinations are necessary in order to test the efficiency of schools to
+which grants of public money are given (this argument has become
+somewhat out of date owing to the recent substitution of "inspection"
+for examination as a test of the efficiency of schools; a combination of
+inspection and examination is also sometimes used); (xiv.) they serve as
+a necessary incentive to steady and concentrated work[4] (the reply made
+to this is that the incentive is a bad one, and that with efficient
+teachers it is unnecessary); (xv.) they show both student and teacher
+where they have failed (unnecessary for efficient teachers); (xvi.)
+though possibly harmful to the highest class of men, they are good for
+the mass (reply: no system which damages the highest class of men is
+tolerable); (xvii.) they are indispensable as an impartial means of
+selecting men for the civil service; (xviii.) in a difficult examination
+like the first class civil service examination the qualities of
+quickness of comprehension, industry, concentration, power of rapidly
+passing from one subject to another, good health, are necessary for
+success, though not tested directly, and these qualities are valuable in
+any kind of work (this appears to be incontrovertible); (xix.)
+examination records show that success in examinations is generally
+followed by success in after-life, and the test is therefore efficient
+(it does not follow that certain rejected candidates may not be
+extremely efficient); (xx.) as a plea for purely "external
+examinations," teachers cannot be trusted to be impartial and it is
+better for a boy to "cram" than to curry favour with his teacher
+(Latham).
+
+The brief comments in brackets, appended above to the arguments, merely
+indicate what has been said or can be said on the other side. It can
+scarcely be doubted that in spite of the powerful objections that have
+been advanced against examinations, they are, in the view of the
+majority of English people, an indispensable element in the social
+organization of a highly specialized democratic state, which prefers to
+trust nearly all decisions to committees rather than to individuals. But
+in view of the extreme importance of the matter, and especially of the
+evidence that, for some cause or other (which may or may not be the
+examination system), intellectual interest and initiative seem to
+diminish in many cases very markedly during school and college life in
+England, the whole subject seems to call for a searching and impartial
+inquiry.
+
+  SOURCES OF INFORMATION.--The works mentioned above, and T.D. Acland,
+  _Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the New Oxford Examinations
+  for the Title of Associate in Arts_ (London, 1858); Matthew Arnold,
+  _Higher Schools and Universities in Germany_ (1874); Graham Balfour,
+  _The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2nd ed.,
+  Oxford, 1903); W.W. Rouse Ball, _Origin and History of the
+  Mathematical Tripos_ (Cambridge, 1880); Adolf Beier, _Die höheren
+  Schulen in Preussen und ihre Lehrer_ (1902-1906) (in progress);
+  Cloudesley Brereton, "A New Method of awarding Scholarships," _School
+  World_, 1907, p. 409; G.C. Brodrick, _A History of the University of
+  Oxford_ (London, 1886); F. Buisson, _Dictionnaire de pédagogie_
+  (1880-1887); Lord Curzon of Kedleston, _Principles and Methods of
+  University Reform_ (1909); J. Demogeot and H. Montucci, _De
+  l'enseignement supérieur en Angleterre et en Écosse_ (1870); H.
+  Denifle, _Die Universitäten des Mittelalters bis 1400_ (Berlin, 1885);
+  F.Y. Edgeworth, "The Statistics of Examinations," and "The Element of
+  Chance in Competitive Examinations," _Journal of the Statistical
+  Society_, 1888 and 1890 respectively; H.W. Eve, Lecture "On Marking,"
+  in _The Practice of Education_ (Cambridge, 1883); Charles E. Fawsitt,
+  _The Education of the Examiner_ (Royal Philosophical Society of
+  Glasgow) (Glasgow, 1905); J.G. Fitch, "The Proposed Admission of Girls
+  to the University Local Examination," _Education Miscellanies_ (1865),
+  vol. x.; W. Garnett, "The Representation of certain Examination
+  Results," _Journ. Statist. Soc._ (Jan. 1910); G. Stanley Hall,
+  _Adolescence_ (London, 1905); Sir W. Hamilton, _Discussions on
+  Philosophy_ (London, 1853); P.J. Hartog, "Universities, Schools and
+  Examinations" in the _University Review_ (July 1905); P.J. Hartog and
+  Mrs A.H. Langdon, _The Writing of English_ (1907); Auberon Herbert
+  (edited by), _The Sacrifice of Education to Examination_, Letters from
+  "All Sorts and Conditions of Men" (1889); _Influence of Examinations_,
+  Report by a Committee, British Association Reports for 1903, p. 434.
+  and for 1904, p. 360; John Jebb, _Remarks upon the Present Mode of
+  Education in the University of Cambridge_ (4th ed., 1774); Henry
+  Latham, _On the Action of Examinations_ (Cambridge, 1877); H.C.
+  Maxwell Lyte, _A History of the University of Oxford to the Year 1530_
+  (London, 1886); W.A.P. Martin, _The Lore of Cathay_ (Edinburgh and
+  London, 1901); J.B. Mullinger, _The University of Cambridge_
+  (Cambridge, 1873); _How to pass Examinations successfully_, by an
+  Oxford Coach; Mark Pattison, _Suggestions on Academical Organization_
+  (Edinburgh, 1868); Friedrich Paulsen, _The German Universities and
+  University Study_ (London, 1906) and _Geschichte des gelehrten
+  Unterrichts_ (Leipzig, 1896); George Peacock, _Observations on the
+  Statutes of the University of Cambridge_ (1841); _Programme des
+  examens du nouveau baccalauréat de l'enseignement secondaire_,
+  Delalain frères, Paris; Hastings Rashdall, _The Universities of Europe
+  in the Middle Ages_ (Oxford, 1895); Rein's _Encyklopädisches Handbuch
+  der Pädagogik_ (2nd ed., 1902, &c.), articles "Prüfungen" (by F.
+  Paulsen), &c.; Third Report of the Royal Commissioners on Scientific
+  Instructions, 1873; J.E. Thorold Rogers, _Education in Oxford_ (1861);
+  M.E. Sadler, "Memorandum on the Leaving Examinations ... in the
+  Secondary Schools of Prussia," in Report of Royal Commission on
+  Secondary Education, vol. v. p. 27 (1895); C.A. Schmid, _Geschichte
+  der Erziehung_ (Stuttgart, 1884, &c.), and _Encyklopädie des gesammten
+  Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens_ (2nd ed., 1876-87), articles
+  "Prüfung," "Schulprüfungen," "Versetzungsprüfungen," &c.;
+  Scholarships, various papers on, by H.B. Baker, A.A. David, H.A.
+  Miers, M.E. Sadler and H. Bompas Smith, and others, British
+  Association Report, 1907, pp. 707-718; Arthur Schuster, article on
+  "Universities and Examinations" in the University Review (May 1905);
+  W.H. Sharp, _The Educational System of Japan_ (Office of the
+  Director-General of Education in India) (Bombay, 1906); Special
+  Educational Reports, issued by the Board of Education, _passim_;
+  A.M.M. Stedman, _Oxford: its Life and Schools_ (London, 1887); I.
+  Todhunter, _Conflict of Studies_ (1873); William Whewell, _Of a
+  Liberal Education_ (London, 1845); Christopher Wordsworth, _Scholae
+  academicae_ (Cambridge, 1877); Étienne Zi (or Siu or Seu), _Pratique
+  des examens littéraires en Chine_ (Shanghai, 1894). Private
+  information from Professor M.E. Sadler and Mr A.E. Twentyman.
+       (P. J. H.; A. Wn.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] W.W. Rouse Ball in his _History of the Study of Mathematics at
+    Cambridge_ (1889), p. 193, states that he can find no record of any
+    European examinations by means of written papers earlier than those
+    introduced by R. Bentley at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1702.
+
+  [2] It should be mentioned that the professors of chemistry of a
+    number of German, Austrian and Swiss universities, have, by
+    agreement, instituted an intermediate examination in that subject
+    which students are required to pass before beginning work on the
+    doctoral thesis. The examination of the students is conducted by the
+    teachers concerned.
+
+  [3] See E.E. Brown in _Monographs on Education in the United States_
+    (ed. by N.M. Butler, 1900, i. 164), and T. Gregory Foster and H.R.
+    Reichel, _Report of Mosely Educational Commission_ (1904), pp.
+    117-119 and 288-289.
+
+  [4] The Oxford commissioners of 1852 reported that "the examinations
+    have become the chief instruments not only for testing the
+    proficiency of the students but also for stimulating and directing
+    the studies of the place" (_Report_, p. 61).
+
+
+
+
+EXARCH ([Greek: exarchos], a chief person or leader), a title that has
+been conferred at different periods on certain chief officers or
+governors, both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Of these, the
+most important were the exarchs of Ravenna (q.v.). In the ecclesiastical
+organization the exarch of a _diocese_ (the word being here used of the
+political division) was in the 4th and 5th centuries the same as
+primate. This dignity was intermediate between the patriarchal and the
+metropolitan, the name patriarch being restricted after A.D. 451 to the
+chief bishops of the most important cities (see PATRIARCH). The title of
+Exarch was also formerly given in the Eastern Church to a general or
+superior over several monasteries, and to certain ecclesiastics deputed
+by the patriarch of Constantinople to collect the tribute payable by the
+Church to the Turkish government. In the modern Greek Church an exarch
+is a deputy, or legate _a latere_, of the patriarch, whose office it is
+to visit the clergy and churches in the provinces allotted to him. The
+title of exarch has been borne by the head of the Bulgarian Church (see
+BULGARIA), since in 1872 it repudiated the jurisdiction of the Greek
+patriarch of Constantinople. Hence the names of the politico-religious
+parties in the recent history of the Near East: "Exarchists" and
+"Patriarchists."
+
+
+
+
+EXCAMBION (a word connected with a large class of Low Latin and Romance
+forms, such as _cambium_, _concambium_, _scambium_, from Lat. _cambire_,
+Gr. [Greek: kambein] or [Greek: kamptein], to bend, turn or fold), in
+Scots law, the exchange (q.v.) of one heritable subject for another. The
+modern Scottish excambion may consist in the exchange of any heritable
+subjects whatever, e.g. a patronage or, what often occurs, a portion of
+a glebe for servitude. Writing is not, by the law of Scotland, essential
+to an excambion. Chiefly in favour of the class of cottars and small
+feuars, and for convenience in straightening marches, the law will
+consider the most informal memoranda, and even a verbal agreement, if
+supported by the subsequent possession. The power to excamb was
+gradually conferred on entailed proprietors. The Montgomery Act, which
+was passed in 1770, to facilitate agricultural improvements, permitted
+50 acres arable and 100 acres not fit for the plough to be excambed.
+This was enlarged by the Rosebery Act in 1836, under which one-fourth of
+an entailed estate, not including the mansion-house, home farm and
+policies, might be excambed, provided the heirs took no higher grassum
+(O.E. _gersum_, fine) than £200. The power was applied to the whole
+estate by the Rutherford Act of 1848, and the necessary consents of
+substitute heirs are now regulated by the Entail (Scotland) Act 1882.
+
+
+
+
+EXCELLENCY (Lat. _excellentia_, excellence), a title or predicate of
+honour. The earliest records of its use are associated with the Frank
+and Lombard kings; e.g. Anastasius Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886) in his
+life of Pope Honorius refers to Charlemagne as "his excellency" (_ejus
+excellentia_); and during the middle ages it was freely applied to or
+assumed by emperors, kings and sovereign princes generally, though
+rather as a rhetorical flourish than as a part of their formal style.
+Its use is well illustrated in the various charters in the Red Book of
+the exchequer, where the addresses to the king vary between "your
+excellency," "your dignity" (_vestra dignitas_), "your sublimity"
+(_vestra sublimitas_) and the like, according to the taste and
+inventiveness of the writers. Du Cange also gives examples of the style
+_excellentia_ being applied to the pope and even to a bishop (in a
+charter of 1182). With the gradual stereotyping of titles of honour that
+of "excellency" was definitively superseded in the case of sovereigns of
+the highest rank, about the beginning of the 15th century, by those of
+"highness" and "grace," and later by "majesty," first assumed in England
+by King Henry VIII. Dukes and counts of the Empire and the Italian
+reigning princes continued, however, to be "excellencies" for a while
+longer. In 1593 the bestowal of the title of _excellence_ by Henry IV.
+of France on the duc de Nevers, his ambassador at Rome, set a precedent
+that was universally followed from the time of the treaty of Westphalia
+(1648). This, together with the reservation in 1640 of the title
+"eminence" (q.v.) to the cardinals, led the Italian princes to adopt the
+style of "highness" (_altezza_) instead of "excellency." In France, from
+1654 onwards, the title of _excellence_ was given to all high civil and
+military officials, and this example was followed in Germany in the 18th
+century.
+
+The subsequent fate of the title varies very greatly in different
+countries. In Great Britain it is borne by the viceroy of India, the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, all governors of colonies and ambassadors. In
+the United States it is part of the official style of the governors of
+states, but not of that of the president; though diplomatic usage varies
+in this respect, some states (e.g. France) conceding to him the style of
+"excellency," others (e.g. Belgium) refusing it. The custom of other
+republics differs: in France the president is addressed as _excellence_
+by courtesy; in Switzerland the title is omitted; in the South American
+republics it is part of the official style (Pradier-Fodéré, _Cours de
+droit diplom._ i. 89). In Spain the title of _excelencia_ properly
+belonged to the grandees and to those who had the right to be covered in
+the royal presence, but it was extended also to high officials, viceroys,
+ministers, captains-general, lieutenants-general, ambassadors and knights
+of the Golden Fleece. In Austria the title _Exzellenz_ belongs properly
+to privy councillors. It has, however, gradually been extended by custom
+to all the higher military commands from lieutenant-field-marshal
+upwards. Ministers, even when not privy councillors, are styled
+_Exzellenz_. In Germany the title is borne by the imperial chancellor,
+the principal secretaries of state, ministers and _Oberpräsidenten_ in
+Prussia, by generals from the rank of lieutenant-general upwards, by the
+chief court officials, and it is also sometimes bestowed as a title of
+honour in cases where it is not attached to the office held by its
+recipient. In Russia the title is very common, being borne by all
+officers from major-general upwards and by all officials above the rank
+of acting privy councillor. Officers and officials of the highest rank
+have the title of "high excellency." Finally, in Italy, the title
+_eccelenza_, which had come to be used in the republics of Venice and
+Genoa as the usual form of address to nobles, has become as meaningless
+as the English title of "esquire" or the address of "sir," being,
+especially in the south, the usual form of address to any stranger.
+
+In the diplomatic service the title of excellency is technically
+reserved to ambassadors, but in addressing envoys also this form is
+commonly used by courtesy.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+EXCHANGE, in general, the action of mutual giving and receiving objects,
+interests, benefits, rights, &c. The word comes through the French from
+the Late Lat. _excambium_ (see EXCAMBION). The present article deals
+with the theory and practice of exchange in monetary transactions, but
+this may conveniently be prefaced by a brief statement as to the law
+relating to the exchange of property and other matters. In English law
+exchange is defined as the mutual grant of equal interests, the one in
+consideration of the other. The ancient common law conveyance had
+certain restrictions, e.g. identity in quantity of interest, fee-simple
+for fee-simple, &c., entry to perfect the conveyance, and an implied
+warranty of title and right of entry by either party in case of
+eviction. Such exchanges are now effected by mutual conveyances with the
+usual covenants for title. Exchanges are also frequently made by order
+of the Board of Agriculture under the Inclosure Acts, and there are also
+statutes enabling ecclesiastical corporations to exchange benefices with
+the approval of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The international
+exchange of territories is effected by treaties. The exchange of
+prisoners of war is regulated by documents called "cartels" (Med. Lat.
+_cartellus_, diminutive of _carta_, paper, bill), which specify a
+certain agreed-on value for each rank of prisoners. The practice
+superseded the older one of ransom at the end of a war. By the
+Regimental Exchanges Act 1875 the sovereign may by regulation authorize
+exchanges by officers from one regiment to another. (For "labour
+exchanges" see UNEMPLOYMENT.)
+
+Exchange in relation to money affairs denotes a species of barter not of
+goods but of the value of goods, a payment in one place being exchanged
+for a payment in another place. The popular statement of the theory of
+exchange represents four principals involved in two transactions. A and
+B are two persons residing in one place different from the domicile of C
+and D; A sells goods to C; B buys goods from D; A sells his claim on C
+to B, who remits it to D in satisfaction of his debt, and D receives the
+cash from C, so that, assuming the two transactions to be of equal
+value, one piece of paper satisfies the four parties to these two
+transactions, and the trouble, expense and risk of sending money from
+both places are avoided. The piece of paper which performs the service
+may be a telegraphic order, cheque or bill of exchange. In this
+elementary proposition there would be no difficulty of exchange, as the
+full value of A's claim on C would be paid for by B, who is under the
+necessity of sending in exactly similar amount of money to D; but it can
+be seen that in actual practice the claims of one place on another place
+would not be exactly balanced by the necessities of the one place to
+meet obligations in the other place; thus arises the complication of
+exchange, which may best be described as the price of monetary claims on
+distant debtors.
+
+Supposing, for example, that A in London had a claim on C in Edinburgh
+amounting to £100, and that B in London did not require to remit more
+than £90 to D in Edinburgh, it is evident that B in London must be
+offered some inducement to take over the whole of A's claim. B might
+give A £99:19:0, and could then, after satisfying his debt to D, have
+£10 to his credit in Edinburgh, which he could retain there at interest
+until he had incurred further liability to D, or he could have the
+balance of £10 returned him in coin at an expense, say, of sixpence;
+this would leave B with a profit of sixpence on the transaction, and,
+assuming that these figures are reasonable, exchange on Edinburgh in
+London would be one shilling discount per £100. Supposing the
+necessities of B induced him to offer A only £99:14:0 for his £100
+claim, A would then prefer that C remitted him £100 in coin, which, on
+the above scale of expenses would cost 5s. and A would receive £99:15:0
+net. On these premises, exchange on Edinburgh in London cannot fall
+below ¼% discount, and the same circumstances prevent it from rising
+above ¼% premium, for B, in no case, would pay more for A's claim than
+£100 plus the cost of sending coin to Scotland. If this basis is
+appreciated, all exchange problems between different countries can be
+mastered, and the quotations in the daily papers of cable payments,
+sight drafts (cheques) and long bills are then understood and supply an
+interesting indication of the state of international financial
+relations. As shown above, the balance of indebtedness must eventually
+be remitted by coin, and consequently when exchange in any city is
+quoted at one or other of the limit points given in our example as ¼%
+discount or ¼% premium, this exchange immediately acquires a very
+serious importance, because with the development of modern monetary
+systems under which enormous trade is carried on with a most moderate
+foundation of actual coin the weakening or strengthening of that
+foundation is a very vital matter.
+
+While the understanding of the theory is essential for any facile
+interpretation of an exchange, there are of course innumerable details
+of practice which require to be known to identify the limit points of
+exchange in any particular city. The limit points can only be taken
+advantage of by banking experts, and, although we assume a trader
+remitting his indebtedness in coin when he is asked to pay too high a
+price for his bill of exchange, in actual affairs the banker will supply
+the cheque or bill and himself will do the professional business of
+sending away bullion. Similarly, we have represented one trader drawing
+on another trader and selling his draft to a third trader who remits the
+draft to a fourth. In actual practice, however, No. 1 draws on No. 2 and
+disposes of his draft to a banker; No. 4 draws on No. 3 and sells his
+draft to a banker; because, speaking generally, whenever goods are
+shipped, the shipper immediately requires his money; he draws a bill
+against the goods, and it is the function of a banker to help, as a sort
+of debt-collecting agency, by buying these drafts; and the bank, being a
+mart for all forms of remittance, gets an immense variety of demand for
+cable payments, cheques and bills on all centres. This does not affect
+the theory, for it must be remembered that the banker is a necessary
+link between the buyer and seller of exchange, because the seller can
+only sell what he has and the buyer must have exactly what he wants.
+
+To return to the question of limit points: if a universal currency
+system existed, with the same monetary standard that is used in England,
+and the coinage kept in a proper condition of weight and fineness, and
+the coin readily supplied to meet every reasonable claim--if, in fact,
+the pound sterling were the prevalent coin and the English banking
+system obtained everywhere, then we should find all exchange quotations
+as simple as our case of London and Edinburgh, that is to say, all
+exchanges would be quoted at par or a premium or a discount. The limit
+points in any place of the exchange on London would represent simply and
+obviously the cost of the transmission of the coin. These limit points
+would vary at each place according to the distance from London, the cost
+of freight, the risk involved in the transmission and the local rate of
+interest. On the continent of Europe some advance has been made in the
+direction of a universal coinage. Countries subscribing to the Latin
+Union have agreed on the franc as a common unit, and Belgium,
+Switzerland, France and Italy quote exchange between themselves at a
+premium or discount. Greece, Spain and other countries are also parties
+to the arrangement, but their currencies are in a bad state, and the
+exchange quotations involve a considerable element of speculation. We
+have, however, to deal with another factor in international finance,
+namely, the enormous variety of currency systems; and we have then to
+discover, in each case, the exchange which represents par and
+corresponds to our £100 for £100 in the London-Edinburgh example. The
+United States furnishes perhaps the easiest problem, and we must find
+out how many dollars in gold contain exactly the same amount of the
+precious metal as is contained in one hundred sovereigns. The answer is
+486-5/8, and the arithmetic is a question of the mint laws of the two
+countries. Gold coin in the United States contains one-tenth alloy and
+in England one-twelfth alloy. Ten dollars contain 258 grains of gold,
+nine-tenths fine. One pound contains 123.274 grains of gold,
+eleven-twelfths fine, consequently £100 is worth $486-5/8, or, to be
+exact, $486-2/3, and when cable payments between London and New York are
+quoted at 4.86-5/8 for the £1 sterling, exchange is about par. As a
+cable payment is an immediate transfer from one city to another, no
+question of interest or other charge is involved. Owing to the cost of
+sending gold as detailed above, the New York cable exchange varies from
+about 4.84 to 4.89½; at the former point gold leaves London for New
+York, and at the latter point gold comes to England. Besides insurance,
+freight, packing, commission and interest, there must also be considered
+the circumstance that coin taken in bulk is always a little worn and
+under full weight, and in the process of turning sovereigns into
+dollars, the result would not bear out the calculation based on the mint
+regulations: consequently, when taking gold from London, the demand
+would first fall on the raw metal as received from South Africa or
+Australia to be minted in the United States, then on any stock of
+American coin the Bank of England might have and be willing to sell by
+weight (which would be accounted by tale in New York), and lastly the
+demand would be satisfied by sovereigns taken by tale from the Bank of
+England and converted by weight in America.
+
+The instance of the American quotation may be further taken to explain
+some of the numerous points which the study of the exchange involves. In
+the first place, it will be noted that we have quoted the price in
+dollars. In London, business in bills, &c., on New York is quoted either
+in pence or in dollars, that is to say, payments are negotiated for so
+many dollars either at 49-3/16 pence per dollar, or at the equivalent
+rate $4.88 for the pound. In practice it is much more convenient to
+quote in London in the money of the foreign country, as it makes
+comparison with the foreign rate on London very simple. Some foreign
+countries quote exchange on London in pence, and then, of course, in
+relation to those countries the same practice will obtain in England,
+but the majority of the exchange quotations on London are in francs,
+marks, gulden, lire, kronen or other foreign money. Another point which
+must be explained is the reason why exchange varies between what we have
+called the limit points; why there is sometimes so much demand for bills
+on London and why at other times so many bills are being offered.
+Similar causes operate on other exchanges, and if we develop the New
+York case we shall provide explanations for exchange movements in other
+countries.
+
+At one time the financial relations between England and America were as
+follows. England was the principal creditor of the United States, and
+the latter country had to remit continually very large amounts in
+payment of interest on English money and profits on English investments,
+in payment for shipping freights, for banking commissions, insurance
+premiums and an immense variety of services, besides paying for the
+large imports which crossed the Atlantic from English ports. In the fall
+of the year these payments would be more than offset by the enormous
+exports of food-stuffs, cotton, tobacco, &c., so that during the first
+half of the year exchange would be at or about the limit of 4.89½ and
+gold would have to be sent from New York to supplement the deficient
+quantity of bills. In the autumn the produce bills would flood the
+exchange market and gold would be sent from London as exchange got to
+the other limit point of 4.84. These conditions are still very potent,
+but latterly another element has entered into the position, and the new
+development is so powerful as to reverse sometimes what we may call the
+natural and legitimate movement in the exchange. This new element is the
+more intimate banking and financial relationship which has been
+established between the two countries. As American conditions have
+become more stable, with better security for capital and an assured
+feeling about the currency of the United States, bankers in London have
+gladly allowed their banking friends in New York and other large cities
+to draw bills on London whenever there was a good demand for sterling
+remittances. We have, therefore, to consider a fresh type of bill of
+which the drawer has no claim on the drawee, but, on the other hand,
+incurs a debt to the drawee. To take a very usual method, a banker in
+Wall Street, New York, will advance money to stockbrokers, investors and
+speculators against bonds and shares with a 20% margin. He deposits this
+security with a trust company in New York which acts both for the
+American and English banker. The Wall Street banker then draws a bill at
+60 days' sight or 90 days' sight on the banker in Lombard Street and
+sells this draft to supply the money he lends the stockbroker. Two or
+three months hence the New York banker must send money to London with
+which to meet the bill, so that, whereas, in the case of a commercial
+bill, the produce is despatched and in due course the consignee must
+find the money for the bill, in the case of a finance bill, as it is
+called, the bill is drawn and in due course the drawer must send the
+value with which it is to be honoured. In any event the acceptor, the
+London banker, has to pay the bill, so that it will be easily understood
+that relations of the greatest confidence are necessary between the
+drawer and drawee before finance bills of this class can be created.
+
+The profit arising from the transaction we have sketched is realized by
+the separate parties in this way. The New York banker lends money for
+three months, say, at 5% per annum, he pays a commission of 1/32% to the
+trust company which has custody of the security, a charge equivalent to
+1/8% interest per annum. He draws on London at 90 days' sight and sells
+the bill at 4.83-5/8, the cable rate being 4.87¾, the buyer of a three
+months' bill making the allowance for the English bill stamp of ½ per
+mille and the London discount rate of 3%. The drawer of the bill must
+also pay a commission of 3/16% to the London banker who accepts the
+draft; this is equivalent to another ¾% per annum in the rate of
+discount, so that money raised in this way costs 1/8% for the trust
+company, 3% the London discount rate, about ¼% for bill stamps, and ¾%
+for London commission--altogether, 4-1/8%; and, as the money is loaned
+at 5%, there appears to be 7/8% profit to the drawer of the bill. This,
+however, is on the assumption that the cable rate is still 4.87¾ when
+the bill falls due for payment and that the drawer would have to pay
+that price to telegraph the money to meet the draft. But exchange on
+London can go up or down between 4.84 and 4.89½, and if at the end of
+the three months the cable rate is 4.84 the New York banker will be able
+to cover his bill at almost the same rate at which he sold it and will
+only be out of pocket to the extent of the commissions and stamps, so
+that the accommodation will only cost him 1½% and his profit will be
+3½%. If he has to pay more than 4.87¾ for his cable at the maturity of
+the bill his profit will be less than 7/8%, and he may even be a loser
+on the transaction.
+
+It is obvious, then, that a high rate of interest in New York, with a
+high rate of exchange on London and a low rate of discount in England,
+would induce the creation of these finance bills. The supply of these
+bills would prevent New York exchange reaching the limit point at which
+gold leaves the United States, and the maturity of these bills in the
+autumn would ensure a demand for the produce bills and possibly prevent
+exchange from falling to the other limit point at which London has to
+send gold to New York.
+
+We have pointed out the essential difference between these finance bills
+and what we have called produce bills, but there is another very
+striking difference, that of the question of supply. These finance bills
+are obviously very difficult to limit in their amounts; produce bills
+are, of course, limited by the extent of the surplus crops of the United
+States and by the demand for the produce in Europe, but so long as it is
+mutually satisfactory to the big finance houses in both countries to
+draw on credit granted in London, so long may these accommodation bills
+be created, and the pressure of the bills in New York may depress
+exchange so much that gold leaves London at a time when it is required
+in other directions. In such a case the embarrassment caused by this
+artificial drain of the gold reserve would much more than offset the
+amount of the commission earned by the accepting houses. The Bank of
+England may have to raise its rate of discount at the expense of the
+entire home trade; probably, also, with the rise in the value of money,
+consequent on the diminished resources, all investment securities fall
+in value and more onerous terms must be submitted to by the government,
+corporations and colonies, in the issue of any loans they may require.
+It will, therefore, be appreciated that, although these finance bills
+may be perfectly safe, their excessive creation is viewed with great
+disfavour, and considerable apprehension is felt when the adventures of
+speculators in New York make great demands for loans against stocks and
+shares, and, through the instrumentality of these finance bills, shift
+the burden on to the shoulders of the London discount market. The effect
+of this is to level money rates as between New York and London, and in
+the process the pressure falls on London and the relief goes to America.
+Eventually, of course, the bills must be met and funds sent for that
+purpose from across the Atlantic, but in the meanwhile the disturbance
+of the gold supply is an inconvenience.
+
+We have explained the process of employing credits granted in London to
+finance Wall Street; there are, also, many other types of bill to which
+the acceptor lends his name on the assurance that he will in due course
+be supplied with the funds required to meet the acceptance. In the case
+of the produce bills, a London banker will accept the bills in order
+that they may be more easily marketable than if they were drawn direct
+on the actual consignee of the cotton, tobacco or wheat. The consignees
+in Liverpool, &c., pay a commission for this assistance and reimburse
+the London bank as the produce is gradually disposed of. The transaction
+appears slightly more complicated when English bankers accept bills for
+produce shipped from the United States to merchants living in Hamburg,
+Genoa, Singapore and all other great ports, but the principle is the
+same, and the influence of such business on the exchange affects, in the
+first instance, the quotation between America and London, but
+afterwards, when money must be sent to London with which to honour the
+bills, the exchanges with Germany, Italy or the Straits Settlements bear
+their share in the eventual adjustment, the spinners, tobacco
+manufacturers and corn factors requiring drafts on London where so much
+of the trade of the world is financed.
+
+We shall have to consider later the reasons which ensure to London this
+peculiar and predominant position. We have so far used the American
+exchange as an example to explain causes which produce fluctuations in
+all the principal exchanges on London and to show the points between
+which fluctuations are limited. The fact that America is still
+developing at a much greater rate than the Old World makes an important
+distinction between the financial position in New York and the financial
+position of the big capitals in Europe. There is not in America the huge
+accumulation of savings and investment money which the Old World has
+collected, so that whereas Europe helps to finance the United States,
+the latter country has so many home enterprises that she can spare none
+of her funds to assist Europe. It would not be possible for London to
+draw on New York such bills as we have described as finance bills, for
+they could never be discounted there except on the most onerous terms,
+and there is nothing in America which corresponds to the London money
+market.
+
+We have to deal with dollars and cents in America, with francs in
+France, with marks in Germany, and different money units in nearly every
+country; but, given the mint regulations, the theoretical par of
+exchange and the theoretical limit points are arrived at by simple
+arithmetic. An exhaustive statement with reference to every country
+would involve an amount of tedious repetition, so that for the purposes
+of this article it is more instructive to consider the essential
+differences between the important exchanges than to go into the details
+of coinage, which would appeal rather to the numismatist than to the
+exchange expert.
+
+The United States, offering as it does a vast field for profitable
+investment, must annually remit huge amounts for interest on bonds and
+shares held by Europeans; coupons and dividend warrants payable in
+America are offered for sale daily in London, and at the end of the
+quarters the amount of these claims, coupons and drawn bonds is very
+large, and a considerable set off to the indebtedness of Europe for
+American produce. It is often asserted that the United States is rapidly
+getting sufficiently wealthy to repurchase all these bonds and shares;
+but whenever trade conditions are exceptionally good in the States,
+fresh evidence is forthcoming that assistance from London and Europe is
+essential to finance the commercial development of the United States.
+This illustrates a feature common to all new countries, and the effect
+is that they make annual payments to the older countries and especially
+to England.
+
+A government loan or other large borrowing arranged abroad will
+immediately move the exchange in favour of the borrowing country. A
+tendency adverse to the United States results from the drafts and
+letters of credit of the large number of holiday makers who cross the
+Atlantic and spend so much money in Europe. When remittance is made of
+the incomes of Americans who have taken up their residence in the Old
+World the exchange is affected in a similar manner.
+
+In one respect the United States stands far superior to most of the
+older countries. There are no restrictions on the free export of gold
+when exchange reaches the limit point showing that the demand for bills
+on London exceeds the supply. New York (with London and India) is a free
+gold market, and this is undoubtedly one of the reasons why money is so
+readily advanced to the United States, and the finance bills, to which
+we referred above, would not be allowed to the same extent were it not
+for the fact that New York will remit gold when other forms of
+remittance are insufficient to satisfy foreign creditors. When exchange
+between Paris and London reaches the theoretical limit point of 25.32
+(25 francs 32 centimes for the £1 sterling), gold does not leave Paris
+for London unless the Bank of France is willing to allow it. By law,
+silver is also legal tender in France, and if the State Bank is pressed
+for gold a premium will be charged for it if it is supplied. Gold may be
+collected on cheaper terms in small amounts from the great trading
+corporations or from the offices of the railways, but a large shipment
+can only be made by special arrangement with the Bank of France.
+Similarly, in Germany, where a gold standard is supposed to obtain, if a
+banker requires a large amount of gold from the Reichsbank he is warned
+that he had better not take it, and if he persists he incurs the
+displeasure of the government institution to the prejudice of his
+business, so that the theoretical limit point of 20 marks 52 pf. to the
+pound sterling has no practical significance, and gold cannot be secured
+from Berlin when exchange is against that city, and Germany has, when
+put to the test, an inconvertible and sometimes a debased currency.
+There is no state bank in the United States, and no government
+interference with the natural course of paying debts. On the other hand,
+when monetary conditions in New York indicate a great shortage of funds,
+and rates of interest are uncomfortably high, the United States treasury
+has sometimes parted with some of its revenue accumulations to the
+principal New York bankers on condition that they at once engage a
+similar amount of gold for import from abroad, which shall be turned
+over to the treasury on arrival. As these advances are made free of
+interest the effect is to adjust the limit point of 484 to about 485,
+and the United States treasury seems to have taken a leaf out of the
+book of the German Reichsbank, which frequently offers similar
+facilities to gold importers and creates an artificial limit point in
+the Berlin Exchange. The Reichsbank gives credit in Berlin for gold that
+has only got as far as Hamburg, and sometimes gives so many days' credit
+that the agent in London of German banking houses can afford an
+extravagant price for bar gold and even risk the loss in weight on a
+withdrawal of sovereigns, although the exchange may not have fallen to
+the other limit point of 20.32. In England the only effort that is made
+to attract gold is some action by the Bank of England in the direction
+of raising discount rates; occasionally, also, the bank outbids other
+purchasers for the arrivals of raw gold from South Africa, Australia and
+other mining countries. Quite exceptionally, for instance during the
+Boer War, the Bank of England allowed advances free of interest against
+gold shipped to London.
+
+Many of the principal banking houses in all the important capitals
+receive continually throughout the day telegraphic information of the
+tendency and movement of all the exchanges, and on the smallest margin
+of profit a large business is done in what is called arbitrage (q.v.).
+For instance, cheques or bills on London will be bought by X in Paris
+and remitted to Y in London. X will recoup himself by selling a cable
+payment on Z in New York. Z will put himself in funds to meet the cable
+payment by selling 60 days' sight drafts on Y, who pays the 60 days'
+drafts at maturity out of the proceeds of the cheques or bills received
+from Paris, and this complicated transaction, involving no outlay of
+capital, must show some minute profit after all expense of bill stamps,
+discount, cables and commissions has been allowed for. Such business is
+very difficult and very technical. The arbitrageur must be in
+first-class credit, must make the most exact calculation, and be prompt
+to take advantage of the small differences in exchange, differences
+which can be only temporary, as these operations soon bring about an
+adjustment.
+
+The European exchanges with which London is chiefly concerned are Paris
+and Berlin, through which centres most of the financial business of the
+rest of Europe is conducted; for example, Scandinavia, Russia and
+Austria bank more largely with Berlin than elsewhere. Italy,
+Switzerland, Belgium and Spain bank chiefly in Paris. European claims on
+London or debts to London are settled mostly through Germany or France,
+and consequently the German and French rates of exchange are affected by
+the relation of England with the rest of the Continent. The exchanges on
+Paris and Berlin are therefore most carefully watched by all those big
+interests which are concerned with the rate of discount and the value of
+money in London.
+
+If the Paris cheque falls to 25.12, gold arrivals in the London bullion
+market will be taken by French bankers unless the profit shown by the
+exchange on some other country enables other buyers to pay more for the
+gold than Paris can afford. If the Paris cheque falls still further, it
+would pay to take sovereigns from the Bank of England for export, and so
+much would be taken as would satisfy the demand to send money to France,
+or until the consequent scarcity of money in London made rates of
+interest so high in England that French bankers would prefer to leave
+money and perhaps increase their balances. As between London and Paris
+and Berlin the greatest factor operating the exchanges is the relative
+value of money in the three centres. There is no great excess of trade
+balance at any season in favour of Germany or France and against
+England. On the other hand the banking relations between those countries
+are very intimate, and if funds can be very profitably employed in one
+of these places, there will be a good demand for remittance, and
+exchange will move in favour of that place, that is to say, exchange
+will go towards that limit point at which gold will be sent. The great
+pastoral and agricultural countries like South America, Egypt and India
+are in a position to draw very largely on London when their crops or
+other products are ready for shipment. In the early months of the year
+gold goes freely to South America to pay for the cereals, hides and
+meat, and in the autumn Egypt and India send such quantities of cotton
+and wheat that exchange moves heavily in favour of those countries, and
+gold must go to adjust the trade balance. During the rest of the year
+the gold tends to return as these countries always require bills on
+London or some form of payment to meet interest and dividends on
+European money invested in their government debts, railways and trading
+enterprises, and to pay for the European manufactures which they import.
+Exchange then moves in favour of England, and the Bank of England can
+replenish its reserve. Over the greater part of the world the rate of
+exchange on London is an indication simply of the trade balance. The
+greater part of the world receives payment for food stuffs, and has to
+pay for European manufactures, shipping freights, banking services and
+professional commissions.
+
+The greatest complication in exchange questions arises when we have to
+deal with a country employing a silver standard, and, fortunately for
+the development of trade, this problem has disappeared of late years in
+the case of India, Ceylon, Japan, Mexico and the Straits Settlements,
+and now the only important country using silver as a standard is China.
+When the monetary standard in one country is only a commodity in another
+country we are as far removed from the ideal of an international
+currency as can be imagined. We can fix no limit points to the exchange
+and we cannot settle any theoretical par of exchange. The price of
+silver in the gold-using country may vary as much as the price of copper
+or tin, and in the silver-using country gold is dealt in just as any
+other metal. In both cases the only metal of constant price is the metal
+which is used as the money standard. The easiest method of explaining
+the position is to consider that any one in a gold-using country having
+a claim in currency on a silver-using country has to offer for sale so
+many ounces of silver, and vice versa the exporter in a silver-using
+country sending produce to London has to offer a draft representing so
+many ounces of gold. This introduces a very unsatisfactory element. To
+take a practical example:--a tea-grower in China has raised his crop in
+spite of the usual experience of weather and labour difficulties and the
+endless risks that a planter must face; the tea is then sent to London
+to take its chance of good or bad prices, and at the same time the
+planter has a draft to sell representing locally a certain weight of
+gold; now, in addition to all the risks of weather and trading
+conditions, and the chances of the fluctuations in the tea market, he is
+compelled to gamble in the metal market on the price of gold. Some years
+ago when a large number of important countries employed a silver
+standard it was seriously suggested that a fixed ratio should be agreed
+internationally at which gold and silver should be exchanged. This
+advocacy of bimetallism (q.v.) was especially persistent at a time when
+silver had suffered a very great fall in price and the prominent
+exponents could generally be identified either as extremely practical
+men who were interested in the price of silver, or as very inexperienced
+theorists. The difficulty of the two standards was successfully solved
+by discarding the use of silver, and the chief silver-using countries
+adopted a gold standard which has given greater security for the
+investment of foreign capital, has simplified business and brought about
+a large increase of trade.
+
+In the case of a country of which the government has been subject to
+great financial difficulties, gold has been shipped to satisfy foreign
+creditors so long as the supply held out, and the exchange with such a
+country will continue to move adversely with every fresh political
+embarrassment and any other economic cause reflecting on the national
+credit. With the collapse of the monarchy in Brazil the value of the
+milreis fell from 27d. to 5d., and all the Spanish-American countries
+have from time to time afforded most distressing examples of the
+demoralizing effects on the currency of unstable and reckless
+administration. In Europe similar results have been shown by the
+mistrust inspired by the governments of Spain, Greece, Italy and some
+other states. The raising of revenue by the use of the printing press
+creates an inconvertible and depreciating paper currency which frightens
+foreign capital and severely taxes the unfortunate country which must
+make payment abroad for the service of debt and other obligations. With
+the tardy appreciation of the old proverb that "honesty is the best
+policy" nearly every country of importance has made strenuous efforts to
+improve the integrity of its money.
+
+Exchange quotations are not published from many of the British colonies,
+as their financial business is in the hands of a comparatively few
+excellently managed banks, which establish, by agreement, conventional
+exchanges fixed for a considerable period, notably in the case of
+Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The Scottish and Irish banks
+supply similar examples of a monopoly in exchange.
+
+The following table taken from the money article of a London daily paper
+indicates the exchanges which are of most interest to England:--
+
+  _Foreign Exchanges._
+
+  +-----------------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------+
+  |                       |     June 14.    |    June 15.   |    June 16.   |
+  +-----------------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------+
+  | Paris, cheques        |   25 f. 18 c.   |  25 f. 18 c.  |  25 f. 18 c.  |
+  |   "    Mkt. discount  |   2½-5/8 p.c.   |  2½-5/8 p.c.  |  2½-5/8 p.c.  |
+  | Brussels, cheques     |  25 f. 23 c.    |  25 f. 23½ c. |      ..       |
+  | Berlin, sight         |  20 m. 48¾ pf.  | 20 m. 48¾ pf. | 20 m. 48 pf.  |
+  |   "     8 days        |  20 m. 46½ pf.  | 20 m. 46¼ pf. | 20 m. 45½ pf. |
+  |   "     Mkt. discount |    3-7/8 p.c.   |   3-7/8 p.c.  |   3-7/8 p.c.  |
+  | Vienna, sight         |     Holiday     | 24 kr. 02¼ h. | 24 kr. 02¾ h. |
+  | Amsterdam, sight      | 12 fl. 13-1/8 c.| 12 fl. 13¼ c. |      ..       |
+  | Italy, sight          |     Holiday     | 25 lire 15 c. |      ..       |
+  | Madrid, sight         |        "        |   27 ps. 68   |      ..       |
+  | Lisbon, sight         |        "        |      ..       |      ..       |
+  | St Petersburg, 3 ms.  |    94 r. 10     |   94 r. 10    |      ..       |
+  | Bombay, T.T.          |     1s. 4d.     |    1s. 4d.    |    1s. 4d.    |
+  | Calcutta, T.T.        |     1s. 4d.     |    1s. 4d.    |    1s. 4d.    |
+  | Hong-Kong, T.T.       |   2s. 1-1/16d.  |  2s. 1-1/16d. |  2s. 1-1/16d. |
+  | Shanghai, T.T.        |    2s. 10¾d.    |  2s. 10-5/8d. |  2s. 10-5/8d. |
+  | Singapore, T.T.       |   2s. 4-1/16d.  |  2s. 4-1/16d. |  2s. 4-1/16d. |
+  | Yokohama, T.T.        |   2s. 0-3/8d.   |  2s. 0-3/8d.  |  2s. 0-3/8d.  |
+  |*Rio de Jan'ro, 90 days|    16-9/16d.    |   16-9/16d.   |   16-17/32d.  |
+  |*Valparaiso, 90 days   |                 |               |               |
+  |   Coml.               |     14-3/8d.    |   14-3/8d.    |     14¼d.     |
+  |*B. Ayres, 90 days     |     48-1/8d.    |      48d.     |      48d.     |
+  +-----------------------+-----------------+---------------+---------------+
+    * These rates are telegraphed on the day preceding their receipt.
+
+In the case of Paris and Berlin it will be noticed that the local rate
+of discount is also given, as the value of money in these centres, in
+relation to the value of money in London, is the most important factor
+in a movement of the exchange. Vienna has become important owing to the
+improvement in the financial position of Austria, and still greater
+improvement is shown in the case of Italy, whose currency stands in the
+above list better even than that of France. Spain, which should stand at
+about the same rate, still has a depreciated paper currency. Lisbon
+stands also at a discount, as the milreis should be worth 53¼ pence.
+
+In Russia the exchange showing 94.10 roubles to £10 is carefully and
+cleverly controlled in spite of the bad internal position. The India
+exchanges move slightly, as the currency is firmly established at the
+rate of 15 rupees to the £1. Hong-Kong quotes for the old Mexican dollar
+and a British trade dollar; Shanghai for the tael containing on an
+average 517½ grains of fine silver. The Straits Settlements have fixed
+their money on a gold basis at 2s. 4d. per dollar, on the lines of the
+arrangement made in India. In Japan there is a gold standard, and par of
+exchange is 2s. 0½d. for the yen. Brazil, Chile and Argentina have a
+depreciated paper currency, and the last quotation of 48d. is for the
+gold dollar equal to five francs, but there is a premium on gold in the
+River Plate of 127.27½% and for the present a gold standard is
+re-established on this basis. The letters T.T. with the eastern
+exchanges signify telegraphic transfer or the rate for payments made by
+cable. The very important New York rates are always given in another
+part of the daily paper with other details of American commercial
+interest.
+
+These rates are all quotations for payments in England, and all over the
+world the exchange on London is the exchange of the greatest importance.
+This unique position was gained originally, probably, through the
+geographical position of the United Kingdom, and has been maintained
+owing to several reasons which secure to London a peculiar position by
+comparison with any other capital. Britain's colossal trade ensures a
+supply of and a demand for English remittances. Even when goods or
+produce are dealt in between foreign countries a credit is opened in
+London, so that the shipper of the produce can offer in the local market
+a bill of exchange which is readily saleable. With the highly developed
+banking system a large amount of deposits is collected in London, and
+the result is that bills of any usance up to six months can be
+immediately discounted, and the proceeds, if required, can be handed
+over in gold. There are in London a great number of wealthy banks and
+banking houses whose reputation and solidity allow any one of them to
+accept bills for amounts varying from one to ten millions sterling,
+whereby large commissions are earned.
+
+These four advantages, namely, a free gold market, a huge trade, an
+enormous accumulation of wealth, and a discount market such as exists
+nowhere else, have made London an unrivalled financial centre, and
+consequently bills on London are an international money and the best
+medium of exchange.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_A B C of the Foreign Exchanges_, by George Clare;
+  _Foreign Exchanges_, by Goschen; _Arbitrage_, by Deutsch; _Arbitrages
+  et Parités_, by Ottomar Haupt; Swoboda, _Arbitrage_ (12th edition), by
+  Max Fuerst.     (E. M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+EXCHEQUER. The word "exchequer" is the English form of the Fr.
+_échiquier_, low Lat. _scaccarium_, and its primary meaning is a
+chess-board (see CHESS). As the name of a government department dealing
+with accounts it is derived from the exchequer or the "abacus" by means
+of which such accounts were kept, such a contrivance being almost
+universally in use before the introduction of the Arabic notation. In
+England the department or court of accounts was named originally "the
+tallies" from the notched sticks or tallies which constituted the
+primitive means of account-keeping (which were only abolished in 1826),
+and was only subsequently, probably in the reign of Henry I., named the
+exchequer from the use of the abacus. Both the name and the general
+features of the institution may reasonably be attributed to Norman
+influence, since we find both in Normandy and in the Norman kingdom of
+Sicily, as well as in Scotland and Ireland; the two latter cases being
+directly due to English example. As a court of law the exchequer owed
+its existence in England, as elsewhere, to the necessity of deciding
+legal questions arising from matters of account, and its secondary
+activities soon overshadowed its original functions.
+
+We cannot say whether the exchequer, as known in England, is older than
+the beginning of the 12th century. The treasury, which may be regarded
+as one of its constituents, dates from before the conquest, and the
+officers of the exchequer who were drawn from the treasury staff can be
+traced back to Domesday. But our earliest information about the
+exchequer itself, apart from that afforded by the pipe rolls (see
+RECORD), rests on a treatise (_Dialogus de Scaccario_) written about
+A.D. 1179 by Richard, bishop of London and treasurer of England. His
+father, Nigel, bishop of Ely, had been treasurer of Henry I., and nephew
+to that king's great financial minister Roger, bishop of Salisbury.
+Nigel is said to have reconstituted the exchequer after the troubles of
+Stephen's reign upon the model which he inherited from his uncle. The
+Angevin, or rather the Norman, exchequer cannot be regarded in
+strictness as a permanent department. It consisted of two parts: the
+lower exchequer, which was closely connected with the permanent treasury
+and was an office for the receipt and payment of money; and the upper
+exchequer, which was a court sitting twice a year to settle accounts and
+thus nearly related to the Curia Regis (q.v.). We dare hardly say that
+either exchequer existed in vacation; indeed the word (like the word
+"diet") seems to have been limited at first to the actual sitting of the
+king's court for financial purposes. The Michaelmas and Easter
+exchequers were the sessions of this court "at the exchequer" or
+chess-board as it had previously sat "at the tallies." The constitution
+of the court was that of the normal Frankish curia. The king was the
+nominal president, and the court consisted of his great officers of
+state and his barons, or tenants-in-chief, and it is doubtless due to
+the fact that the exchequer was originally the curia itself sitting for
+a special purpose that its unofficial judges retained the name of
+"barons" until recent times. Of the great officers we may probably find
+the steward in the person of the justiciar, the normal president of the
+court. He sat at the head of the exchequer table. The butler was not
+represented. The chancellor sat on the justiciar's left; he was
+custodian _ex officio_ of the seal of the court, and thus responsible
+for the issue of all writs and summonses, and moreover for the keeping
+of a duplicate roll of accounts embodying the judgments of the court. On
+the left of the chancellor, and thus clear of the table, since their
+services might be required elsewhere at any moment, sat the constable,
+the two chamberlains and the marshal. The constable was the chief of the
+outdoor service of the court, and was responsible for everything
+connected with the army, or with hunting and hawking. The two
+chamberlains were the lay colleagues of the treasurer, and shared with
+him the duty of receiving and paying money, and keeping safe the seal of
+the court, and all the records and other contents of the treasury. The
+marshal, who was subordinate to the constable, shared his duties, and
+was specially responsible for the custody of prisoners and of the
+vouchers produced by accountants. At the head of the table on the
+justiciar's right sat, in Henry II.'s time, an extraordinary member of
+the court, the bishop of Winchester. The treasurer, like the chancellor
+a clerk, sat at the head of the right-hand side of the table. He charged
+the accountants with their fixed debts, and dictated the contents of the
+great roll of accounts (or pipe roll) which embodied the decisions of
+the court as to the indebtedness of the sheriffs and other accountants.
+These persons with certain subordinates constituted the court of
+accounts, or upper exchequer, whereas the lower exchequer, or exchequer
+of receipt, consisted almost exclusively of the subordinates of the
+treasurer and chamberlains. In the upper exchequer the justiciar
+appointed the calculator, who exhibited the state of each account by
+means of counters on the exchequer table, so that the proceedings of the
+court might be clear to the presumably illiterate sheriff. The
+calculator sat in the centre of the side of the table on the president's
+left. The chancellor's staff consisted of the _Magister Scriptorii_
+(probably the ancestor of the modern master of the rolls), whose duties
+are not stated; a clerk (the modern chancellor of the exchequer) who
+settled the form of all writs and summonses, charged the sheriff with
+all fines and amercements, and acted as a check on the treasurer in the
+composition of the great roll; and a scribe (afterwards the comptroller
+of the pipe), who wrote out the writs and summonses and kept a duplicate
+of the great roll, known as the chancellor's roll. The constable's
+subordinates were the marshal and a clerk, who, besides the duty of
+paying outdoor servants of the crown, had the special task of producing
+duplicates of all writs issued by the Curia Regis. The treasurer and
+chamberlains, being colleagues, had a joint staff, the clerical or
+literate members of which were servants of the treasurer, while the lay
+or illiterate members depended on the chamberlains. Hence while the
+treasurer and his clerks kept their accounts by means of rolls, the
+chamberlains and their serjeants duplicated them so far as possible by
+means of tallies. Thus the great roll was written by the treasurer's
+scribe (the engrosser, afterwards the clerk of the pipe), while the
+payments on account and other allowances to be credited to the sheriff
+were registered by the tally cutter of the chamberlains.
+
+In the exchequer of receipt the staff was similarly divided between the
+treasurer and chamberlains; the treasurer having a clerk who kept the
+issue and receipt rolls (the later clerk of the pells) and four tellers,
+while each of the chamberlains was represented by a knight (afterwards
+the deputy chamberlains), who controlled the clerk's account by means of
+tallies, and held their lands by this serjeanty; these three had joint
+control of the treasury, and could not act independently. The other
+serjeants were the knight or "pesour" who weighed the money, the melter
+who assayed it, and the ushers of the two exchequers. It should be noted
+that all the lay offices of the treasury in both exchequers were
+hereditary. Henry II. had also a personal clerk who supervised the
+proceedings personally in the upper, and by deputy in the lower,
+exchequer.
+
+The business of the ancient exchequer was primarily financial, although
+we know that some judicial business was done there and that the court of
+common pleas was derived from it rather than from the curia proper. The
+principal accountants were the sheriffs, who were bound, as the king's
+principal financial agents in each county, to give an account of their
+stewardship twice a year, at the exchequers of Easter and Michaelmas.
+Half the annual revenue was payable at Easter, and at Michaelmas the
+balance was exacted, and the accounts made up for the year, and formally
+enrolled on the pipe roll. The fixed revenue consisted of the farms of
+the king's demesne lands within the counties, of the county mints, and
+of certain boroughs (see BOROUGH) which paid annual sums as the price of
+their liberties. Danegeld was also regarded as fixed revenue, though
+after the accession of Henry II. it was not frequently levied. There
+were also rents of assarts and purprestures and mining and other
+royalties. The casual revenue consisted of the profits of the feudal
+incidents (escheat, wardship and marriage), of the profits of justice
+(amercements, and goods of felons and outlaws), and of fines, or
+payments made by the king's subjects to secure grants of land, wardships
+or marriages, and of immunities, as well as for the hastening and
+sometimes the delaying of justice. Besides this, there were the revenues
+arising from aids and scutages of the king's military tenants, tallages
+of the crown lands, customs of ports, and special "gifts," or general
+assessments made on particular occasions. For the collection of all
+these the sheriff was primarily responsible, though in some cases the
+accountants dealt directly with the exchequer, and were bound to make
+their appearance in person on the day when the sheriff accounted.
+
+We gather both from tradition and from the example of the Scottish
+exchequer that the farms of demesne lands were originally paid in kind,
+by way of purveyance for the royal household, and although such farms
+are expressed even in Domesday Book in terms of money, the tradition
+that there was a system of customary valuation is a sufficient
+explanation, and not of itself incredible. At some date, possibly under
+the administration of Roger of Salisbury, the inconvenience of this
+arrangement led to the substitution of money payments at the exchequer.
+The rapid deterioration of a small silver coinage led to successive
+efforts to maintain the value of these payments, first by a "scale"
+deduction of 6d. in the £ for wear, then by the substitution of payment
+by weight for payment by tale, and finally by the reduction of most of
+such payments to their pure silver value by means of an assay, a process
+originally confined to payments from particular manors. Only the farms
+of counties, however, were so treated, and not all of those. The amount
+to be deducted in these cases was settled by the weighing and assaying
+of a specimen pound of silver in the presence of the sheriff by the
+pesour and the melter in the lower exchequer. The casual revenue was
+paid by tale, and for the determination of its amount it was necessary
+to have copies of all grants made in the chancery on which rents were
+reserved, or fines payable. These were known first as _contrabrevia_ and
+later as _originalia_; the profits of justice were settled by the
+delivery of "estreats" from the justices, while for certain minor
+casualties the oath of the sheriff was at first the only security. At a
+later date many of them were determined by copies of inquisitions sent
+in from the chancery. All this business might be transacted anywhere in
+England, and though convenience placed the exchequer first at Winchester
+(where the treasury was), and afterwards usually at Westminster, it held
+occasional sessions at other towns even in the 14th century.
+
+The Angevin exchequer, described by Richard the Treasurer, remained the
+ideal of the institution throughout its history, and the lineaments of
+the original exemplar were never completely effaced; but the rapid
+increase both of financial and judicial business led to a multiplication
+of machinery and a growing complexity of constitution. Even in the time
+of Henry II. we gather that the great officers of state, except the
+treasurer and chancellor, commonly attended by deputy. In the reign of
+Henry III. the chancellor had also ceased to attend, and his clerk
+acquired the title of chancellor of the exchequer. To the same period
+belongs the institution of the king's and lord treasurer's
+remembrancers. These at first had common duties and kept duplicate
+rolls, but by the ordinance of 1323 their functions were differentiated.
+Henceforward the king's remembrancer was more particularly concerned
+with the casual, and the lord treasurer's remembrancer with the fixed
+revenue. The former put all debts in charge, while the latter saw to
+their recovery when they had found their way on to the great roll. Hence
+the preliminary stages of each account, the receiving and registering of
+the king's writs to the treasurer and barons, and the drawing up of all
+particulars of account, lay with the king's remembrancer, and he
+retained the corresponding vouchers. The lord treasurer's remembrancer
+exacted the "remanets" of such accounts as had been enrolled, as well as
+reserved rents and fixed revenue, and so became closely connected with
+the clerk of the pipe. Before the end of the 14th century these three
+offices had already crystallized into separate departments.
+
+In the meantime the increasing length and variety of accounts, as well
+as the growth of judicial business, had led to various efforts at
+reform. As early as 22 Henry II. it became necessary to remove from the
+great roll the debts which it seemed hopeless to levy, and further
+ordinances to the same end were made by statute in 54 Henry III. and in
+12 Edward I. By this last a special "exannual roll" was established in
+which the "desperate debts" were recorded, in order that the sheriff
+might be reminded of them yearly without their overloading the great
+roll. But the largest accession of financial business arose from the
+"foreign accounts," that is to say, the accounts of national services,
+which did not naturally form part of the account of any county. These
+did not in the reign of Henry II. form a part of the exchequer business.
+Such expenses as appear on the pipe roll were paid by the sheriffs, or
+by the bailiffs of "honours"; payments out of the treasury itself would
+only appear on the receipt and issue rolls, and the "spending
+departments" probably drew their supplies from the camera curie, and not
+directly from the exchequer. In the course of the 13th century the
+exchequer gradually acquired partial control of these national accounts.
+Even in 18 Henry II. there is an account for the forests of England, and
+soon the mint, the wardrobe and the escheators followed. The undated
+statute of the exchequer (probably about 1276) provides for escheators,
+the earldom of Chester, the Channel Islands, the customs and the
+wardrobe. During the reign of Edward I., the wardrobe account became
+unmanageable, since it not only financed the household, army, navy and
+diplomatic service, but raised money on the customs independently of the
+exchequer. The reform of 1323-1326, due to Walter de Stapledon, in
+remedying this state of things, greatly increased the number of "foreign
+accounts" by making the great wardrobe (the storekeeping department),
+the butler, purveyors, keepers of horses or of the stud, the clerk of
+the "hamper" of the chancery (who took the fees for the great seal), and
+the various ambassadors, directly accountable to the exchequer. At the
+same time the sheriffs' accounts were expedited by the further
+simplification of the great roll, and by appointing a special officer,
+the "foreign apposer," to take the account of the "green wax," or
+estreats, so that two accounts could go on at once. Another baron (the
+5th or cursitor baron) was appointed, and the whole business of foreign
+accounts was transferred to a separate building where one baron and
+certain auditors spent their whole time in settling the balances due on
+the accounts already mentioned, as well as those of castles, &c., not
+let to farm, Wales, Gascony, Ireland, aids (clerical and lay),
+temporalities of vacant bishoprics, abbeys, priories and dignities,
+mines of silver and tin, ulnage and so forth. These balances were
+accounted for in the exchequer itself, and entered on the pipe roll, but
+the preliminary accounts were filed by the king's remembrancer, and
+enrolled separately by the treasurer's remembrancer as a supplement to
+the pipe roll.
+
+The next important change, about the end of the 15th century, was the
+gradual substitution of special auditors appointed by the crown, known
+as the auditors of the prests (the predecessors of the commissioners for
+auditing public accounts), for the auditors of the exchequer. Accounts
+when passed by them were presented in duplicate and "declared" before
+the treasurer, under-treasurer and chancellor. Of the two copies, one,
+on paper, was retained by the auditors, the other, on parchment, was
+successively enrolled by the king's and lord treasurer's remembrancers,
+and finally by the clerk of the pipe, to secure the levying of any
+"remanets" or "supers" by process of the exchequer.
+
+Besides the two great difficulties of the postponement of financial to
+legal business, and of preventing the sheriffs from exacting the same
+debt twice, the exchequer was, as has been seen, hampered in its
+functions by the interference of other departments in financial matters.
+Its own branches even acquired a certain independence. The exchequer of
+the Jews, which came to an end in 18 Edward I., was such a branch. In 27
+Henry VIII. the court of augmentations was established to deal with
+forfeited lands of monasteries. This was followed in 32 & 33 Henry VIII.
+by the courts of first-fruits and tenths and of general surveyors. These
+were reabsorbed by the exchequer in 1 Mary, but remained as separate
+departments within it. But the development of the treasury, which
+succeeded to the functions of the camera curie or the king's chamber,
+ultimately reduced the administrative functions of the exchequer to
+unimportance, and the audit office took over its duties with regard to
+public accounts. So that when the statute of 3 & 4 William IV. cap. 99,
+removed the sheriff's accounts also from its competence, and brought to
+an end the series of pipe rolls which begins in 1130, the ancient
+exchequer may be said to have come to an end. (C. J.)
+
+In 1834 an act was passed abolishing the old offices of the exchequer,
+and creating a new exchequer under a comptroller-general, the detailed
+business of payments formerly made at the exchequer being transferred to
+the paymaster-general, whose office was further enlarged in 1836 and
+1848. And in 1866, as the result of a select committee reporting
+unfavourably on the system of exchequer control as established in 1834,
+the exchequer was abolished altogether as a distinct department of
+state, and a new exchequer and audit department established.
+
+The ancient term exchequer now survives mainly as the official title of
+the national banking account of the United Kingdom. This central account
+is commonly called the exchequer, and its statutory title is "His
+Majesty's Exchequer." It may also be described with statutory authority
+as "The Account of the Consolidated Fund of Great Britain and Ireland."
+This account is, in fact, divided between the Banks of England and
+Ireland. At the head office of each of these institutions receipts are
+accepted and payments made on account of the exchequer; but in published
+documents the two accounts are consolidated into one, the balances only
+at the two banks being shown separately.
+
+Operations affecting the exchequer are regulated by the Exchequer and
+Audit Departments Act 1866. Section 10 prescribes that the gross revenue
+of the United Kingdom (less drawbacks and repayments, which are not
+really revenue) is payable, and must sooner or later be paid into the
+exchequer. Section 11 directs that payments should be made from the fund
+so formed to meet the current requirements of spending departments.
+Sections 13, 14, 15 lay down the conditions under which money can be
+drawn from the exchequer. Drafts on the exchequer require the approval
+of an officer independent of the executive government, the comptroller
+and auditor-general. But the description of the formal procedure
+required by statute cannot adequately express the actual working of the
+system, or the part it plays in the national finance. The simplicity of
+the system laid down by the act of 1866 has been disturbed by the
+diversion of certain branches or portions of revenue from the exchequer
+to "Local Taxation Accounts," under a system initiated by the Local
+Government Act 1888, and much extended since.
+
+While the exchequer is, as already stated, the central account, it is
+not directly in contact with the details of either revenue or
+expenditure. As regards revenue, the produce of taxes and other sources
+of income passes, in the first instance, into the separate accounts of
+the respective receiving departments--mainly, of course, those of the
+customs, inland revenue and post office. A not inconsiderable portion is
+received in the provinces, and remitted to London or Dublin by bills or
+otherwise, and the ultimate transfers to the exchequer are made (in
+round sums) from the accounts of the receiving departments in London or
+in Dublin. Thus, there are always considerable sums due to the exchequer
+by the revenue departments; on the other hand, as floating balances are
+(for the sake of economy) used temporarily for current expenses, there
+are generally amounts due by the exchequer to the receiving departments;
+such cross claims are adjusted periodically, generally once a month. The
+finance accounts of the United Kingdom show the gross amounts due to the
+exchequer from the departments, and likewise the amounts payable out of
+the gross revenue in priority to the claim of the exchequer. On the
+expenditure side a similar system prevails. No detailed payments are
+made direct from the exchequer, but round sums are issued from it to
+subsidiary accounts, from which the actual drafts for the public
+services are met. For instance, the interest on the national debt is
+paid by the Bank of England from a separate account fed by transfers of
+round sums from the exchequer as required. Similarly, payments for army,
+navy and most civil services are met by the paymaster-general out of an
+account of his own, fed by daily transfers from the exchequer.
+
+This system has two noticeable effects. Firstly, it secures the
+simplicity and finality of the exchequer accounts, and therefore of all
+ordinary statements of national finance. Every evening the chancellor of
+the exchequer can tell his position so far as the exchequer is
+concerned; on the first day of every quarter the press is able to
+comment on the national income and expenditure up to the evening before.
+The annual account is closed on the evening of the 31st of March, and
+there can be no reopening of the budget of a past year such as may occur
+under other financial systems. The second effect of the system is to
+introduce a certain artificiality into the financial statements. Actual
+facts cannot be reduced to the simplicity of exchequer figures; there is
+always (as already explained) revenue received by government which has
+not yet reached the exchequer; and there must always be a considerable
+outstanding liability in the form of cheques issued but not yet cashed.
+The suggested criticism is, however, met if it can be shown that, on the
+whole, the differences between the true revenue and the exchequer
+receipts, or between the true (or audited) expenditure and the exchequer
+issues, are not, taking one year with another, relatively considerable.
+The following figures (000's omitted) illustrate this point:--
+
+  _Expenditure._
+
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------
+  |   Year.   |Exchequer |   Audited    | Difference.|
+  |           |  Issues. | Expenditure. |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | 1888-1889 | £85,674  |   £86,070    |   £+396    |
+  | 1889-1890 |  86,083  |    86,033    |    - 50    |
+  | 1890-1891 |  87,732  |    87,638    |    - 94    |
+  | 1891-1892 |  89,928  |    90,125    |    +197    |
+  | 1892-1893 |  90,375  |    90,164    |    -211    |
+  | 1893-1894 |  91,303  |    91,530    |    +227    |
+  | 1894-1895 |  93,919  |    93,818    |    -101    |
+  | 1895-1896 |  97,764  |    97,667    |    - 97    |
+  | 1896-1897 | 101,477  |   101,543    |    + 66    |
+  | 1897-1898 | 102,936  |   103,010    |    + 74    |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | Total for |£927,191  |  £927,598    |   £+407    |
+  | 10 years  |          |              |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+
+  _Revenue._
+
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  |   Year.   |Exchequer |   Actual     | Difference.|
+  |           |Receipts. |  Revenue.    |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | 1888-1889 |  £88,473 |   £88,038    |   £-435    |
+  | 1889-1890 |   89,304 |    89,416    |    +112    |
+  | 1890-1891 |   89,489 |    89,282    |    -207    |
+  | 1891-1892 |   90,995 |    91,428    |    +433    |
+  | 1892-1893 |   90,395 |    90,181    |    -214    |
+  | 1893-1894 |   91,133 |    91,265    |    +132    |
+  | 1894-1895 |   94,684 |    94,873    |    +189    |
+  | 1895-1896 |  101,974 |   102,031    |    + 57    |
+  | 1896-1897 |  103,960 |   104,089    |    +129    |
+  | 1897-1898 |  106,614 |   106,691    |    + 77    |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | Total for | £947,011 |  £947,294    |   £+273    |
+  | 10 years  |          |              |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+
+  _Surplus._
+
+  +-----------+----------=--------------+------------+
+  |           |Exchequer |Diff. between |            |
+  |   Year.   | Accounts.|  Actual Rev. | Difference.|
+  |           |          | and Aud. Exp.|            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | 1888-1889 |  £2,799  |   £1,968     |   £-831    |
+  | 1889-1890 |   3,221  |    3,383     |    +162    |
+  | 1890-1891 |   1,757  |    1,644     |    -113    |
+  | 1891-1892 |   1,067  |    1,303     |    +236    |
+  | 1892-1893 |      20  |       17     |    -  3    |
+  | 1893-1894 |   -_170_ |    -_265_    |    - 95    |
+  | 1894-1895 |     765  |    1,055     |    +290    |
+  | 1895-1896 |    4,210 |    4,364     |    +154    |
+  | 1896-1897 |    2,473 |    2,546     |    + 73    |
+  | 1897-1898 |    3,678 |    3,681     |    +  3    |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | Total for |  £19,820 |  £19,696     |   £-124    |
+  | 10 years  |          |              |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+
+The third column in the above shows the price which has to be paid (in
+the form of discrepancies between facts and figures) for the simplicity
+secured to statements and records of the national finance by the present
+system embodied in the term exchequer. Probably few will think the price
+too high in consideration of the advantages secured.
+
+The principal official who derives a title from the exchequer in its
+living sense is, of course, the chancellor of the exchequer. He is the
+person named second in the patent appointing commissions for executing
+the office of lord high treasurer of Great Britain and Ireland; but he
+is appointed chancellor of the exchequer for Great Britain and
+chancellor of the exchequer for Ireland by two additional patents.
+Although, in fact, the finance minister of the United Kingdom, he has no
+_statutory_ power over the exchequer apart from his position as second
+commissioner of the treasury; but in virtue of his office he is by
+statute master of the mint, senior commissioner for the reduction of the
+national debt, a trustee of the British Museum, an ecclesiastical
+commissioner, a member of the board of agriculture, a commissioner of
+public works and buildings, local government, and education, a
+commissioner for regulating the offices of the House of Commons, and has
+certain functions connected with the office of the secretary of state
+for India. The only other exchequer officer requiring mention is the
+comptroller and auditor-general, whose functions as comptroller-general
+of the exchequer have been already described.
+
+The ancient name of the national banking account has been attached to
+two of the forms of unfunded national debt. Exchequer bills, which date
+from the reign of William and Mary (they took the place of the tallies,
+previously used for the same purpose), became extinct in 1897, but
+exchequer bonds (first issued by Mr Gladstone in 1853) still possess a
+practical importance. An exchequer bond is a promise by government to
+pay a specified sum after a specified period, generally three or five
+years, and meanwhile to pay interest half-yearly at a specified rate on
+that sum. Government possesses no general power to issue exchequer
+bonds; such power is only conferred by a special act, and for specified
+purposes; but when the power has been created, exchequer bonds issued in
+pursuance of it are governed by general statutory provisions contained
+in the Exchequer Bills and Bonds Act 1866, and amending acts. These acts
+create machinery for the issue of exchequer bonds and for the payment of
+interest thereon, and protect them against forgery.
+
+Some traces may be mentioned of the ancient uses of the name exchequer
+which still remain. The chancellor of the exchequer still presides at
+the ceremony of "pricking the list of sheriffs," which is a
+quasi-judicial function; and on that occasion he wears a robe of black
+silk with gold embroidery, which suggests a judicial costume. In England
+the last judge who was styled baron of the exchequer (Baron Pollock)
+died in 1897. In Scotland the jurisdiction of the barons of the
+exchequer was transferred to the court of session in 1856, but the same
+act requires the appointment of one of the judges as "lord ordinary in
+exchequer causes," which office still exists. In Ireland Lord Chief
+Baron Palles was the last to retain the old title. A street near Dublin
+Castle is called Exchequer Street, recalling the separate Irish
+exchequer, which ceased in 1817. The old term also survives in the full
+title of the treasury representative in Scotland, which is "The King's
+and the Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer in Exchequer," while his office in
+the historic Parliament Square is styled "Exchequer Chambers."
+     (S. E. S.-R.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the early exchequer Thomas Madox's _History and
+  Antiquities of the Exchequer_ (London, 1711) remains the standard
+  authority, and in it the _Dialogus de Scaccario_ of Richard the
+  Treasurer (1179) was first printed (edited since by A. Hughes, C.G.
+  Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). The publications of the Pipe Roll
+  Society (London, 1884 et seq.), the Pipe Rolls and Chancellor's Roll,
+  printed by the Record Commission (London, 1833 and 1844), and H.
+  Hall's edition of the _Receipt Roll of the Exchequer 31 Henry II._
+  (London, 1899) should also be consulted. A popular account is in H.
+  Hall's _Court Life under the Plantagenets_ (London, 1901), and a
+  careful study in Dr Parow's thesis, _Compotus Vicecomitis_ (Berlin,
+  1906). For the 13th and 14th centuries H. Hall's edition of the _Red
+  Book of the Exchequer_ (London, Rolls Series, 1896) is essential, as
+  also the Public Record Office _List of Foreign Accounts_ (London,
+  1900). Later practice may be gathered from the similar _List and Index
+  of Declared Accounts_ (London, 1893), and from such books as Sir T.
+  Fanshawe's _Practice of the Exchequer Court_, written about A.D. 1600
+  (London, 1658); Christopher Vernon's _The Exchequer Opened_ (London,
+  1661), or Sir Geoffrey Gilbert's _Treatise on the Court of Exchequer_
+  (London, 1758), as well as from the statutes abolishing various
+  offices in the exchequer. H. Hall's _Antiquities of the Exchequer_
+  (London, 1891) gives many interesting details of various dates. For
+  the Scottish exchequer _The Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
+  1878 et seq.) should be consulted, while Gilbert's book noted above
+  gives some details on that of Ireland. See also Appendix 13 to the
+  great account of _Public Income and Expenditure from 1688 to 1869_, in
+  three volumes, prepared for parliament by H.W. Chisholm (1869); and
+  for sidelights on the working of the office from 1825 to 1866 the
+  reminiscences of the same author (the last chief clerk of the
+  exchequer) in _Temple Bar_ (January to April 1891).
+
+
+
+
+EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, _excijs_ or _accijs_, possibly from
+Late Lat. _accensare_,--ad, to, and census, tax; the word owes something
+to a confusion with _excisum_, cut out), a term now well known in public
+finance, signifying a duty charged on home goods, either in the process
+of their manufacture, or before their sale to the home consumers. This
+form of taxation implies a commonwealth somewhat advanced in
+manufactures, markets and general riches; and it interferes so directly
+with the industry and liberty of the subject that it has seldom been
+introduced save in some supreme financial exigency, and has as seldom
+been borne, even after long usage, with less than the ordinary
+impatience of taxation. Yet excise duties can boast a respectable
+antiquity, having a distinct parallel in the _vectigal rerum venalium_
+(or toll levied on all commodities sold by auction, or in public market)
+of the Romans. But the Roman excise was mild compared with that of
+modern nations, having never been more than _centesima_, or 1%, of the
+value; and it was much shorter lived than the modern examples, having
+been first imposed by Augustus, reduced for a time one-half by Tiberius,
+and finally abolished by Caligula, A.D. 38, so that the Roman excise
+cannot have had a duration of much more than half a century. Its
+remission must have been deemed a great boon in the marts of Rome, since
+it was commemorated by the issue of small brass coins with the legend
+_Remissis Centesimis_, specimens of which are still to be found in
+collections.
+
+The history of this branch of revenue in the United Kingdom dates from
+the period of the civil wars, when the republican government, following
+the example of Holland, established, as a means of defraying the heavy
+expenditure of the time, various duties of excise, which the royalists
+when restored to power found too convenient or too necessary to be
+abandoned, notwithstanding their origin and their general unpopularity.
+On the contrary, they were destined to be steadily increased both in
+number and in amount. It is curious that the first commodities selected
+for excise were those on which this branch of taxation, after great
+extension, had again in the period of reform and free trade been in a
+manner permanently reduced, viz. malt liquors, and such kindred
+beverages as cider perry and spruce beer. The other excise duties
+remaining are chiefly in the form of licences, such as to kill game and
+to use and carry guns, to sell gold and silver plate, to pursue the
+business of appraisers or auctioneers, hawkers or pedlars, pawnbrokers
+or patent-medicine vendors, to manufacture tobacco or snuff, to deal in
+sweets or in foreign wines, to make vinegar, to roast malt, or to use a
+still in chemistry or otherwise. It may be presumed that the policy of
+the licence duties was at first not so much to collect revenue, though
+in the aggregate they yielded a large sum, as to guard the main sources
+of excise, and to place certain classes of dealers, by registration and
+an annual payment to the exchequer, under a direct legal responsibility.
+The excise system of the United Kingdom as now pruned and reformed,
+however, while still the most prolific of all the sources of revenue, is
+simple in process, and is contentedly borne as compared with what was
+the case in the 18th, and the beginning of the 19th century. The wars
+with Bonaparte strained the government resources to the uttermost, and
+excise duties were multiplied and increased in every practicable form.
+Bricks, candles, calico prints, glass, hides and skins, leather, paper,
+salt, soap, and other commodities of home manufacture and consumption
+were placed, with their respective industries, under excise surveillance
+and fine. When the duties could no longer be increased in number, they
+were raised in rate. The duty on British spirits, which had begun at a
+few pence per gallon in 1660, rose step by step to 11s. 8¼d. per gallon
+in 1820; and the duty on salt was augmented to three or fourfold its
+value.
+
+The old unpopularity of excise, though now somewhat out of date, must
+have had real enough grounds. It breaks out in English literature, from
+songs and pasquinades to grave political essays and legal commentaries.
+Blackstone, in quoting the declaration of parliament in 1649 that
+"excise is the most easy and indifferent levy that can be laid upon the
+people," adds on his own authority that "from its first original to the
+present time its very name has been odious to the people of England"
+(book i. cap. 8, tenth edition, 1786); while the definition of "excise"
+gravely inserted by Dr Johnson in the _Dictionary_, at the imminent risk
+of subjecting the eminent author to a prosecution for libel--viz. "a
+hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not by the common
+judges of property, but wretches hired by those to whom excise is
+paid"--can hardly be ever forgotten.
+
+The duties of excise in the United Kingdom were, until the passing of
+the Finance Act 1908, under the control of the commissioners of inland
+revenue; they are now under the control of the commissioners of customs;
+the amount raised, apart from changes in the rate, shows a fairly
+constant tendency to increase, and is usually regarded as one of the
+best tests of the prosperity of the working classes.
+
+The _spirit duty_ is levied according to the quantity of "proof spirit"
+contained in the product of distillation, and the charge is taken at
+three different points in the process of manufacture, the trader being
+liable for the result of the highest of the three calculations. What is
+known as "proof spirit" is obtained by mixing nearly equal weights of
+pure alcohol and water, the quantity of pure alcohol being in bulk about
+57% of the whole. Owing to the high rate of duty as compared with the
+volume and intrinsic value of the spirits, the whole process of
+manufacture is carried on under the close supervision of revenue
+officials. All the vessels used are measured by them and are secured
+with revenue locks; the premises are under constant survey; and notice
+has to be given by the distiller of the materials used and of the
+several stages of his operations. Though the charge for duty is raised
+at the time when the process of distillation is completed, the duty is
+not actually paid until the spirits are required for consumption. In the
+meanwhile they may be retained in an approved "warehouse," which is also
+subject to close supervision.
+
+The _beer duty_ dates from 1880, in which year it was substituted for
+the duty on malt. The specific gravity of the worts depends chiefly on
+the amount of sugar which they contain, and is ascertained by the
+saccharometer.
+
+Excise _licences_ may be divided into--(a) licences for the sale or
+manufacture of excisable liquors, (b) licences for other trades, such as
+tobacco dealers or manufacturers, auctioneers, pawnbrokers, &c., (c)
+licences for male servants, carriages, motors and armorial bearings, and
+(d) gun, game and dog licences. Nearly the whole of the licence duties
+is paid over to the local taxation account.
+
+The _railway passenger duty_, which was made an excise duty by the
+Railway Passenger Duty Act 1847, applies only to Great Britain. It is
+levied on all passenger fares exceeding 1d. per mile, the rate being 2%
+on urban and 5% on other traffic.
+
+The other items which go to make up the excise revenue are the charges
+on deliveries from bonded warehouses, and the duties on coffee mixture
+labels and on chicory.
+
+  For more detailed information reference should be made to Highmore's
+  _Excise Laws_, and the annual reports of the commissioners of inland
+  revenue, especially those issued in 1870 and 1885. See also TAXATION;
+  ENGLISH FINANCE.
+
+
+
+
+EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. _ex_, out of, away from; _communis_, common), the
+judicial exclusion of offenders from the rights and privileges of the
+religious community to which they belong. The history of the practice of
+excommunication may be traced through (1) pagan analogues, (2) Hebrew
+custom, (3) primitive Christian practice, (4) medieval and monastic
+usage, (5) modern survivals in existing Christian churches.
+
+1. Among pagan analogues are the Gr. [Greek: chernibôn eirgesthai]
+(Demosth. 505, 14), the exclusion of an offender from purification with
+holy water. This exclusion was enforced in the case of persons whose
+hands were defiled with bloodshed. Its consequences are described Aesch.
+_Choëph._ 283, _Eum._ 625 f., Soph. _Oed. Tyr._ 236 ff. The Roman
+_exsecratio_ and diris _devotio_ was a solemn pronouncement of a
+religious curse by priests, intended to call down the divine wrath upon
+enemies, and to devote them to destruction by powers human and divine.
+The Druids claimed the dread power of excluding offenders from sacrifice
+(Caes. _B.G._ vi. 13). Primitive Semitic customs recognize that when
+persons are laid under a ban or taboo (_herem_) restrictions are imposed
+on contact with them, and that the breach of these involves supernatural
+dangers. Impious sinners, or enemies of the community and its god, might
+be devoted to utter destruction.
+
+2. _Hebrew Custom._--In a theocracy excommunication is necessarily both
+a civil and a religious penalty. The word used in the New Testament to
+describe an excommunicated person, [Greek: anathema](1 Cor. xvi. 22,
+Gal. i. 8-9, Rom. ix. 3), is the Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew
+_herem_. The word means "set apart" (cf. HAREM), and does not
+distinguish originally between things set apart because devoted to God
+and things devoted to destruction. Lev. xxvii. 16-34 defines the law for
+dealing with "devoted" things; according to v. 28 "No devoted thing that
+a man shall devote unto the Lord, of all that he hath, whether of man or
+beast, or of the field of his possession, shall be sold or redeemed.
+None devoted shall be ransomed, he shall surely be put to death." As in
+Greece and Rome whole cities or nations might be devoted to destruction
+by pronouncement of a ban (Numbers xxi. 2, 3, Deut. ii. 34, iii. 6, vii.
+2). Occasionally Israelites as well as aliens fall under the curse
+(Judg. xxi. 5, 11). A milder form of penalty was the temporary
+separation or seclusion (_niddah_) prescribed for ceremonial
+uncleanness. This was the ordinary form of religious discipline. In the
+time of Ezra the Jewish "magistrates and judges" among their
+ecclesiastico-civil functions have the right of pronouncing sentence
+whether it be unto death, or to "rooting out," or to confiscation of
+goods, or to imprisonment (Ezra vii. 26). There is also a lighter form
+of excommunication which "devotes" the goods of an offender, but only
+separates him from the congregation. Both major and minor kinds of
+excommunication are recognized by the Talmud. The lesser (_niddah_)
+involved exclusion from the synagogue for thirty days, and other
+penalties, and might be renewed if the offender remained impenitent. The
+major excommunication (_herem_) excluded from the Temple as well as the
+synagogue and from all association with the faithful. Spinoza was
+excommunicated (July 16, 1656) for contempt of the law. Seldon (_De jure
+nat. et gen._, iv. 7) gives the text of the curse pronounced on the
+culprit. The _Exemplar Humanae Vitae_ of Uriel d'Acosta also deserves
+reference. The practice of the Jewish courts in New Testament times may
+be inferred from certain passages in the Gospels. Luke vi. 22, John ix.
+22, xii. 42 indicate that exclusion from the synagogue was a recognized
+penalty, and that it was probably inflicted on those who confessed Jesus
+as the Christ. John xvi. 2 ("Whosoever killeth you," &c.) may point to
+the power of inflicting the major penalty. The Talmud itself says that
+the judgment of capital cases was taken away from Israel forty years
+before the destruction of the Temple. "Forty" is probably a round number
+without historical value, but the circumstance recorded by this
+tradition and confirmed by the evangelist's account of the trial of
+Jesus is historical, and is to be regarded as one of several
+restrictions imposed on the Jewish courts in the time of the Roman
+procurators.
+
+3. _Primitive Christian Practice._--The use of excommunication as a form
+of Christian discipline is based on the precept of Christ and on
+apostolic practice. The general principles which govern the exclusion of
+members from a religious community may be gathered from the New
+Testament writings. Matt. xviii. 15-17 prescribes a threefold
+admonition, first privately, then in the presence of witnesses (cf.
+Titus iii. 10), then before the church. This is a graded procedure as in
+the Jewish synagogue and makes exclusion a last resort. Nothing is said
+as to the nature and effects of excommunication. The tone of the passage
+when compared with the disciplinary methods of the synagogue indicates
+that its purpose was to introduce elements of reason and moral suasion
+in place of sterner methods. Its object is rather the protection of the
+church than the punishment of the sinner. The offender is only treated
+as a heathen and publican when the purity and safety of the church
+demand it. In the _locus classicus_ on this subject (1 Cor. v. 5) Paul
+refers to a formal meeting of the Corinthian church at which the
+incestuous person is "delivered unto Satan for the destruction of the
+flesh that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." These
+are mysterious words implying (1) a formal ecclesiastical censure, (2) a
+physical penalty, (3) the hope of a spiritual result. The form of
+penalty which would meet these conditions is not explained. There is a
+reference in 2 Cor. ii. 6-11 to a case of discipline which may or may
+not be the same. If it be the same it indicates that the excommunication
+had not been final; the offender had been received back. If it be not
+the same it shows the Corinthian church exercising discipline
+independently of apostolic advice. Up to this point there is no
+established formal practice. 1 Tim. i. 20 ("Hymenaeus and Alexander whom
+I delivered unto Satan that they might be taught not to blaspheme")
+seems to refer to an excommunication, but it does not appear whether the
+apostle had acted as representing a church, nor is there anything to
+explain the exact consequences or limits of the deliverance to Satan. 1
+Cor. xvi. 22, Gal. i. 8, 9, Rom. ix. 3 refer to the practice of
+regarding a person as anathema. Taking these passages as a whole they
+seem to point to an exclusion from church fellowship rather than to a
+final cutting off from the hope of salvation. In the pastoral letters
+there is already a formal and recognized method of procedure in cases of
+church discipline. 1 Tim. v. 19, 20 requires two or three witnesses in
+the case of an accusation against an elder, and a public reproof. Tit.
+iii. 20 recognizes a factious spirit as a reason for excommunication
+after two admonitions (cf. Tim. vi. and 2 John v. 10). In 3 John v. 9-10
+Diotrephes appears to have secured an excommunication by the action of a
+party in the church. It is clear from these illustrations that within
+the New Testament there is development from spontaneous towards strictly
+regulated methods; also that the use of excommunication is chiefly for
+disciplinary and protective rather than punitive purposes. A process
+which is intended to produce penitence and ultimate restoration cannot
+at the same time contemplate handing the offender over to eternal
+punishment.
+
+4. _Medieval and Monastic Usage._--The writings of the church Fathers
+give sufficient evidence that two degrees of excommunication, the
+[Greek: aphorismos] and the [Greek: aphorismos pantelês], as they were
+generally called, were in use during, or at least soon after, the
+apostolic age. The former, which involved exclusion from participation
+in the eucharistic service and from the eucharist itself, though not
+from the so-called "service of the catechumens," was the usual
+punishment of comparatively light offences; the latter, which was the
+penalty for graver scandals, involved "exclusion from all church
+privileges,"--a vague expression which has sometimes been interpreted as
+meaning total exclusion from the very precincts of the church building
+(_inter hiemantes orare_) and from the favour of God (Bingham,
+_Antiquities of Christian Church_, xvi. 2. 16). For some sins, such as
+adultery, the sentence of excommunication was in the 2nd century
+regarded as [Greek: pantelês] in the sense of being irrevocable.
+Difference of opinion as to the absolutely "irremissible" character of
+mortal sins led to the important controversy associated with the names
+of Zephyrinus, Tertullian, Calistus, Hippolytus, Cyprian and Novatian,
+in which the stricter and more montanistic party held that for those who
+had been guilty of such sins as theft, fraud, denial of the faith, there
+should be no restoration to church fellowship even in the hour of death.
+On this point the provincial synods of Illiberis (Elvira) in 305 and of
+Ancyra in 315 subsequently came to conflicting decisions, the council of
+Elvira forbidding the reception of offenders into communion during life,
+and the council of Ancyra fixing a limit to the penalty in the same
+cases. But the excommunication was on all hands regarded as being
+"medicinal" in its character. It is noteworthy that the word [Greek:
+anathema] had fallen into disuse about the beginning of the 4th century,
+and that, throughout the same period, no instance of the judicial use of
+the phrase [Greek: paradounai tô Satana] can be found.
+
+A new chapter in the history of the church censure may be said to have
+begun with the publication of those imperial edicts against heresy, the
+first of which, _De summa trinitate et fide catholica_, dates from 380.
+Till then exclusion from church privileges had been a spiritual
+discipline merely; thenceforward it was to expose a man to serious
+temporal risks. Excommunication still continued to be occasionally used
+in the spirit of genuine Christian fidelity, as by Ambrose in the case
+of Theodosius himself (390); but the temptation to wield it as an
+instrument of secular tyranny too often proved to be irresistible. The
+church fell back on carnal weapons in her warfare and invoked the
+secular powers to uphold the ecclesiastical. In the formula used by
+Synesius (410) which is to be found in Bingham's _Antiquities_, we
+already find the attention of magistrates specially called to the
+censured person. The history of the next thousand years shows that the
+magistrates were seldom slow to respond to the appeal. Even the hastiest
+survey of that long and interesting period enables the student to notice
+a marked development in the theory and practice of excommunication. One
+or two points may be specially noted. (1) When the Empire became
+nominally Christian and the quality of the church life was sacrificed to
+the quantity of its adherents, the original character of excommunication
+was lost. The power of excommunication was transferred from the
+community to the bishop, and was liable to abuse from personal motives:
+Gregory the Great rebukes a bishop for using for private ends power
+conferred for the public good (_Epist._ ii. 34). Excommunication became
+a common penalty applied in numberless cases (see the _Penitential_ of
+Archbishop Theodosius: Haddan and Stubbs, _Councils and Documents_, iii.
+1737), and was invested with superstitious terrors. (2) While it had
+been held as an undoubted principle by the ancient church that this
+sentence could only be passed on living individuals whose fault had been
+distinctly stated and fully proved, we find the medieval church on the
+one hand sanctioning the practice of excommunication of the dead
+(Morinus, _De poenit._ x. c. 9), and, on the other hand, by means of the
+papal interdict, excluding whole countries and kingdoms at once from the
+means of grace. The earliest well-authenticated instance of such an
+interdict is that which was passed (998) by Pope Gregory V. on France,
+in consequence of the contumacy of King Robert the Wise. Other instances
+are those laid respectively on Germany in 1102 by Gregory VII.
+(Hildebrand), on England in 1208 by Innocent III., on Rome itself in
+1155 by Adrian IV. (3) While in the ancient church the language used in
+excommunicating had been carefully measured, we find an amazing
+recklessness in the phraseology employed by the medieval clergy. The
+curse of Ernulphus or Arnulphus of Rochester (c. 1100), often quoted by
+students of English literature, is a very fair specimen of that class of
+composition. With it may be compared the formula transcribed by Dr
+Burton in his _History of Scotland_ (iii. 317 ff.). To the spoken word
+was added the language of symbol. By means of lighted candles violently
+dashed to the ground and extinguished the faithful were graphically
+taught the meaning of the greater excommunication--though in a somewhat
+misleading way, for it is a fundamental principle of the canon law that
+_disciplina est excommunicatio, non eradicatio_. The first instance,
+however, of excommunication by "bell, book and candle" is comparatively
+late (c. 1190).
+
+5. _Modem Survivals in Existing Christian Churches._--At the Reformation
+the necessity for church discipline did not cease to be recognized; but
+the administration of it in many Reformed churches has passed through a
+period of some confusion. In some instances the old episcopal power
+passed more or less into the hands of the civil magistrate (a state of
+matters which was highly approved by Erastus and his followers), in
+other cases it was conceded to the presbyterial courts. In the Anglican
+Church the bishops (subject to appeal to the sovereign) have the right
+of excommunicating, and their sentence, if sustained, may in certain
+cases carry with it civil consequences. But this right is in practice
+never exercised. In the law of England sentence of excommunication, upon
+being properly certified by the bishop, was followed by the writ _de
+excommunicato capiendo_ for the arrest of the offender. The statute 5
+Eliz. c. 23 provided for the better execution of this writ. By the 53
+Geo. III. c. 127 (which does not, however, extend to Ireland) it was
+enacted that "excommunication, together with all proceedings following
+thereupon, shall in all cases, save those hereafter to be specified, be
+discontinued." Disobedience to or contempt of the ecclesiastical courts
+is to be punished by a new writ, _de contumace capiendo_, to follow on
+the certificate of the judge that the defender is contumacious and in
+contempt. Sect. 2 provides that nothing shall prevent "any
+ecclesiastical court from pronouncing or declaring persons to be
+excommunicate on definite sentences pronounced as spiritual censures for
+offences of ecclesiastical cognizance." No persons so excommunicated
+shall incur any civil penalty or incapacity whatever, save such
+sentence of imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the court shall
+direct and certify to the king in chancery.
+
+In the churches which consciously shaped their polity at or after the
+Reformation the principle of excommunication is preserved in the
+practice of church discipline. Calvin devotes a chapter in the
+_Institutes_ (bk. iv. chap. xii.) to the "Discipline of the Church; its
+Principal Use in Censure and Excommunication." The three ends proposed
+by the church in such discipline are there stated to be, (1) that those
+who lead scandalous lives may not to the dishonour of God be numbered
+among Christians, seeing that the church is the body of Christ; (2) that
+the good may not be corrupted by constant association with the wicked;
+(3) that those who are censured or excommunicated, confounded with
+shame, may be led to repentance. He differentiates decisively between
+excommunication and anathema. "When Christ promises that what his
+ministers bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, he limits the power of
+binding to the censure of the church; by which those who are
+excommunicated are not cast into eternal ruin and condemnation, but by
+having their life and conduct condemned are also certified of their
+final condemnation unless they repent. For excommunication differs from
+anathema: anathema which ought to be very rarely, or never, resorted to,
+in precluding all pardon, execrates a person, and devotes him to eternal
+perdition: whereas excommunication rather censures and punishes his
+conduct. Yet in such a manner by warning him of his future condemnation
+it recalls him to salvation" (_Inst._ bk. iv. chap. xii. 10). The
+Reformed churches in England and America accepted the distinction
+between public and private offences. The usual provision is that private
+offences are to be dealt with according to the rule in Matt. v. 23-24,
+xviii. 15-17; public offences are to be dealt with according to the rule
+in 1 Cor. v. 3-5, 13. The public expulsion or suspension of the offender
+is necessary for the good repute of the church, and its influence over
+the faithful members. The expelled member may be readmitted on showing
+the fruits of repentance.
+
+In Scotland three degrees of church censure are recognized--admonition,
+suspension from sealing ordinances (which may be called temporary
+excommunication), and excommunication properly so-called. Intimation of
+the last-named censure may occasionally (but very rarely) be given by
+authority of a presbytery in a public and solemn manner, according to
+the following formula:--"Whereas thou N. hast been by sufficient proof
+convicted (here mention the sin) and after due admonition and prayer
+remainest obstinate without any evidence or sign of true repentance:
+Therefore in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and before this
+congregation, I pronounce and declare thee N. excommunicated, shut out
+from the communion of the faithful, debar thee from privileges, and
+deliver thee unto Satan for the destruction of thy flesh, that thy
+spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." This is called the
+greater excommunication. The congregation are thereafter warned to shun
+all unnecessary converse with the excommunicate (see _Form of Process_,
+c. 8). Formerly excommunicated persons were deprived of feudal rights in
+Scotland; but in 1690 all acts enjoining civil pains upon sentences of
+excommunication were finally repealed (Burton's _History_, vii. 435).
+
+The question whether the power of excommunication rests in the church or
+in the clergy has been an important one in the history of English and
+American churches. Hooker lays down (_Survey_, pt. 3, pp. 33-46) four
+necessary conditions for the execution of a sentence involving church
+discipline. "(1) The cause exactly recorded is fully and nakedly to be
+presented to the consideration of the congregation. (2) The elders are
+to go before the congregation in laying open the rule so far as reacheth
+any particular now to be considered, and to express their judgment and
+determination thereof, so far as appertains to themselves. (3) Unless
+the people be able to convince them of errors and mistakes in their
+sentence, they are bound to joyn their judgment with theirs to the
+compleating of the sentence. (4) The sentence thus compleatly issued is
+to be solemnly passed and pronounced upon the delinquent by the ruling
+Elder whether it be of censure or excommunication." In this passage it
+is clear that the effective power of discipline is regarded as being
+wholly in the power of the individual church or congregation. Hooker
+expressly denies the power of synods to excommunicate: "that there
+should be Synods, which have _potestatem juridicam_ is nowhere proved in
+Scripture because it is not a truth" (_Survey_, pt. 4, pp. 48, 49).
+
+The confession of faith issued by the London-Amsterdam church (the
+original of the Pilgrim Fathers' churches) in 1596 declares that the
+Christian congregation having power to elect its minister has also power
+to excommunicate him if the case so require (Walker, _Creeds and
+Platforms of Congregationalism_, p. 66). In 1603 the document known as
+"Points of Difference" (i.e. from the established Anglicanism) submitted
+to James I. sets forth: "That all particular Churches ought to be so
+constituted as, having their owne peculiar Officers, the whole body of
+every Church may meet together in one place, and jointly performe their
+duties to God and one towards another. And that the censures of
+admonition and excommunication be in due manner executed, for sinne,
+convicted, and obstinately stood in. This power also to be in the body
+of the Church whereof the partyes so offending and persisting are
+members." The _Cambridge Platform_ of 1648 by which the New England
+churches defined their practice, devotes ch. xiv. to "excommunication
+and other censures." It follows in the main the line of Hooker and
+Calvin, but adds (§ 6) an important definition: "Excommunication being a
+spirituall punishment it doth not prejudice the excommunicate in, nor
+deprive him of his _civil_ rights, therfore toucheth not princes, or
+other magistrates, in point of their civil dignity or authority. And,
+the excommunicate being but as a publican and a heathen, heathen being
+lawfully permitted to come to hear the word in church assemblyes; wee
+acknowledg therfore the like liberty of hearing the word, may be
+permitted to persons excommunicate, that is permitted unto heathen. And
+because wee are not without hope of his recovery, wee are not to account
+him as an enemy but to admonish him as a brother." The Savoy Declaration
+of 1658 defines the theory and practice of the older English
+Nonconformist churches in the section on the "Institution of Churches
+and the Order appointed in them by Jesus Christ" (xix.). The important
+article is as follows:--"The Censures so appointed by Christ, are
+Admonition and Excommunication; and whereas some offences are or may be
+known onely to some, it is appointed by Christ, that those to whom they
+are so known, do first admonish the offender in private: in publique
+offences where any sin, before all; or in case of non-amendment upon
+private admonition, the offence being related to the Church, and the
+offender not manifesting his repentance, he is to be duely admonished in
+the Name of Christ by the whole Church, by the Ministery of the Elders
+of the Church, and if this Censure prevail not for his repentance, then
+he is to be cast out by Excommunication with the consent of the Church."
+
+In contemporary English Free Churches the purity of the church is
+commonly secured by the removal of persons unsuitable for membership
+from the church books by a vote of the responsible authority.
+     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+EXCRETION (Lat. _ex_, out of, _cernere_, _cretum_, to separate), in
+plant and animal physiology, the separation from an organ of some
+substance, also the substance separated. The term usually refers to the
+separation of waste or harmful products, as distinguished from
+"secretion," which refers to products that play a useful or necessary
+part in the functions of the organism.
+
+
+
+
+EXECUTION (from Lat. _ex-sequor_, _exsecutus_, follow or carry out), the
+carrying into effect of anything, whether a rite, a piece of music, an
+office, &c.; and so sometimes involving a notion of skill in the
+performance. Technically, the word is used in law in the _execution_ of
+a deed (its formal signing and sealing), an _execution_ (see below) by
+the sheriff's officers under a "writ of execution" (the enforcement of a
+judgment on a debtor's goods); and _execution of death_ has been
+shortened to the one word to denote CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (q.v.).
+
+_Civil Execution_ may be defined as the process by which the judgments
+or orders of courts of law are made effectual. In Roman law the earliest
+mode of execution was the seizure, legalized by the _actio per manus
+injectionem_, of the debtor as a slave of the creditor. During the later
+Republic, imprisonment took the place of slavery. Under the régime of
+the _actio per manus injectionem_, the debtor might dispute the
+debt--the issue being raised by his finding a substitute (_vindex_) to
+conduct the case for him. By the time of Gaius (iv. 25) the _actio per
+manus injectionem_ had been superseded by the _actio judicati_, the
+object of which was to enable the creditor to take payment of the debt
+or compel the debtor to find security (_pignus in causa judicati captum:
+Cautio judicatum solvi_), and in A.D. 320 Constantine abolished
+imprisonment for debt, unless the debtor were contumacious. The time
+allowed for payment of a judgment debt was by the XII. Tables 30 days;
+it was afterwards extended to two months, and ultimately, by Justinian,
+to four months. The next stage in the Roman law of execution was the
+recognition of bankruptcy either against the will of the bankrupt
+(_missio in bona_) or on the application of the bankrupt (_cessio
+bonorum_; and see BANKRUPTCY). Lastly, in the time of Antoninus Pius,
+judgment debts were directly enforced by the seizure and sale of the
+debtor's property. Slaves, oxen and implements of husbandry were
+privileged; and movable property was to be exhausted before recourse was
+had to land (see Hunter, _Roman Law_, 4th ed. pp. 1029 et seq., Sohm,
+_Inst. Rom. Law_, 2nd ed. pp. 302-305).
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN.--The English law of execution is very complicated, and
+  only a statement of the principal processes can here be attempted.
+
+  _High Court.--Fieri Facias._ A judgment for the recovery of money or
+  costs is enforced, as a rule, by writ of _fieri facias_ addressed to
+  the sheriff, and directing him to cause to be made (_fieri facias_) of
+  the goods and chattels of the debtor a levy of a sum sufficient to
+  satisfy the judgment and costs, which carry interest at 4% per annum.
+  The seizure effected by the sheriff or his officer, under this writ,
+  of the property of the debtor, is what is popularly known as "the
+  putting-in" of an execution. The seizure should be carried out with
+  all possible despatch. The sheriff or his officer must not break open
+  the debtor's house in effecting a seizure, for "a man's house is his
+  castle" (_Semayne's Case_ [1604], 5 Coke Rep. 91); but this principle
+  applies only to a dwelling-house, and a barn or outhouse unconnected
+  with the dwelling-house may be broken into. The sheriff on receipt of
+  the writ endorses on it the day, hour, month and year when he received
+  it; and the writ binds the debtor's goods as at the date of its
+  delivery, except as regards goods sold before seizure in market overt,
+  or purchased for value, without notice before actual seizure (Sale of
+  Goods Act 1893, s. 26, which supersedes s. 16 of the Statute of Frauds
+  and s. 1 of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856). This rule is
+  limited to goods, and does not apply to the money or bank notes of the
+  debtor which are not bound by the writ till seized under it (_Johnson_
+  v. _Pickering_, Oct. 14, 1907, C.A.). The mere seizure of the goods,
+  however, although, subject to such exceptions as those just stated, it
+  binds the interest of the debtor, and gives the sheriff such an
+  interest in the goods as will enable him to sue for the recovery of
+  their possession, does not pass the property in the goods to the
+  sheriff. The goods are in the custody of the law. But the property
+  remains in the debtor who may get rid of the execution on payment of
+  the claim and fees of the sheriff [as to which see Sheriffs Act 1887,
+  s. 20, and order of 21st of August 1888, _Annual Practice_ (1908),
+  vol. ii. p. 278]. The wearing apparel, bedding, tools, &c., of the
+  debtor to the value of £5 are protected. Competing claims as to the
+  ownership of the goods seized are brought before the courts by the
+  procedure of "interpleader." After seizure, the sheriff must retain
+  possession, and, in default of payment by the execution debtor,
+  proceed to sell. Where the judgment debt, including legal expenses,
+  exceeds £20, the sale must be by public auction, unless the Court
+  otherwise orders, and must be publicly advertised. The proceeds of
+  sale, after deduction of the sheriff's fees and expenses, become the
+  property of the execution creditor to the extent of his claim. The
+  Bankruptcy Act 1890 (53 & 54 Vict. c. 71, s. 11 [2]) requires the
+  sheriff in case of sale under a judgment for a sum exceeding £20 to
+  hold the proceeds for 14 days in case notice of bankruptcy proceedings
+  should be served upon him (see BANKRUPTCY). The form of the writ of
+  _fieri facias_ requires the sheriff to make a return to the writ. In
+  practice this is seldom done unless the execution has been ineffective
+  or there has been delay in the execution of the writ; but the judgment
+  creditor may obtain an order calling on the sheriff to make a return.
+  A sheriff or his officer, who is guilty of extortion in the execution
+  of the writ, is liable to committal for contempt, and to forfeit £200
+  and pay all damages suffered by the person aggrieved (Sheriffs Act
+  1887 [50 & 51 Vict. c. 55], s. 29 [2]), besides being civilly liable
+  to such person. Imprisonment for debt in execution of civil judgments
+  is now abolished except in cases of default in the nature of
+  contempt, unsatisfied judgments for penalties, defaults by persons in
+  a fiduciary character, and defaults by judgment debtors (Debtors Act
+  1869 [32 & 33 Vict. c. 62]; Bankruptcy Act 1883 [46 & 47 Vict. c. 52],
+  ss. 53, 103). Imprisonment for debt has been abolished within similar
+  limits in Scotland (Debtors [Scotland] Act 1880 [43 & 44 Vict. c. 34]
+  and Ireland, Debtors [Ireland] Act 1872, 35 & 36 Vict. c. 57). There
+  may still be imprisonment in England, under the writ--rarely used in
+  practice--_ne exeat regno_, which issues to prevent a debtor from
+  leaving the kingdom.
+
+  _Writ of Elegit._--The writ of _elegit_ is a process enabling the
+  creditor to satisfy his judgment debt out of the lands of the debtor.
+  It derives its name from the election of the creditor in favour of
+  this mode of recovery. It is founded on the Statute of Westminster
+  (1285, 13 Ed. I. c. 18), under which the sheriff was required to
+  deliver to the creditor all the chattels (except oxen and beasts of
+  the plough) and _half_ the lands of the debtor until the debt was
+  satisfied. By the Judgments Act 1838 the remedy was extended to _all_
+  the debtor's lands, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 the writ no longer
+  extends to the debtor's goods. The writ is enforceable against legal
+  interests whether in possession or remainder (_Hood-Barrs_ v.
+  _Cathcart_, 1895, 2 Ch. 411), but not against equitable interests in
+  land (_Earl of Jersey_ v. _Uxbridge Rural Sanitary Authority_, 1891, 3
+  Ch. 183). When the debtor's interest is equitable, recourse is had to
+  equitable execution by the appointment of a receiver or to bankruptcy
+  proceedings.
+
+  The writ is directed to the sheriff, who, after marking on it the date
+  of its receipt, at once in pursuance of its directions holds an
+  inquiry with a jury as to the nature and value of the interest of the
+  debtor in the lands extended under the writ, and delivers to the
+  creditor at a reasonable price and extent in accordance with the writ,
+  the lands of which the debtor was possessed in the bailiwick. When the
+  sheriff has returned and filed a record (in the central office of the
+  High Court) of the writ and the execution thereof, the execution
+  creditor becomes "tenant to the elegit." Where the land is freehold
+  the creditor acquires only a chattel interest in it; where the land is
+  leasehold he acquires the whole of the debtor's interest (_Johns_ v.
+  _Pink_, 1900, 1 Ch. 296). The creditor is entitled to hold the land
+  till his debt is satisfied, or enough to satisfy it is tendered to
+  him, and under the Judgments Act 1864 the creditor may obtain an order
+  for sale. Until the land is delivered on execution and the writs which
+  have effected the delivery are registered in the Land Registry, the
+  judgment does not create any charge on the land so as to fetter the
+  debtor's power of dealing with it. Land Charges Registration Acts 1888
+  and 1900. (See R.S.C., O. xliii.)
+
+  _Writs of Possession and Delivery._--Judgments for the recovery or for
+  the delivery of the possession of land are enforceable by writ of
+  possession. The recovery of specific chattels is obtained by writ of
+  delivery (R.S.C., O. xlvii., xlviii.).
+
+  _Writ of Sequestration._--Where a judgment directing the payment of
+  money into court, or the performance by the defendant of any act
+  within a limited time, has not been complied with, or where a
+  corporation has wilfully disobeyed a judgment, a writ of sequestration
+  is issued, to not less than four sequestrators, ordering them to enter
+  upon the real estate of the party in default, and "sequester" the
+  rents and profits until the judgment has been obeyed (R.S.C., O.
+  xliii. r. 6).
+
+  _Equitable Execution._--Where a judgment creditor is otherwise unable
+  to reach the property of his debtor he may obtain equitable execution,
+  usually by the appointment of a receiver, who collects the rents and
+  profits of the debtor's land for the benefit of the creditor (R.S.C.,
+  O. l. rr. 15A-22). But receivers may be appointed of interests in
+  personal property belonging to the debtor by virtue of the Judicature
+  Act 1873, s. 25 (8).
+
+  _Attachment._--A judgment creditor may "attach" debts due by third
+  parties to his debtor by what are known as garnishee proceedings.
+  Stock and shares belonging to a judgment debtor may be charged by a
+  charging order, so as, in the first instance, to prevent transfer of
+  the stock or payment of the dividends, and ultimately to enable the
+  judgment creditor to realise his charge. A writ of attachment of the
+  person of a defaulting debtor or party may be obtained in a variety of
+  cases akin to contempt (e.g. against a person failing to comply with
+  an order to answer interrogatories, or against a solicitor not
+  entering an appearance in an action, in breach of his written
+  undertaking to do so), and in the cases where imprisonment for debt is
+  still preserved by the Debtors Act 1869 (R.S.C., O. xliv.). CONTEMPT
+  OF COURT (q.v.) in its ordinary forms is also punishable by summary
+  committal.
+
+  _County Courts._--In the county courts the chief modes of execution
+  are "warrant of execution in the nature of a writ of _fieri facias_";
+  garnishee proceedings; equitable execution; warrants of possession and
+  delivery, corresponding to the writs of possession and delivery above
+  mentioned; committal, where a judgment debtor has, or, since the date
+  of the judgment has had, means to pay his debt; and attachment of the
+  person for contempt of court. If the judgment debtor assaults the
+  bailiff or his officer or rescues the goods, he is liable to a fine
+  not exceeding £5.
+
+  SCOTLAND.--The principal modes of execution or "diligence" in Scots
+  law are (i.) Arrestment and furthcoming, which corresponds to the
+  English garnishee proceedings; (ii.) arrestment _jurisdictionis
+  fundandae causa_, i.e. the seizure of movables within the jurisdiction
+  to found jurisdiction against their owner, being a foreigner; this
+  precedure, which is not, however, strictly a "diligence," as it does
+  not bind the goods, is analogous to the French _saisie-arrêt_, and to
+  the obsolete practice in the mayor's court of London known as "foreign
+  attachment" (see Glyn and Jackson, _Mayor's Court Practice_, 2nd ed.,
+  vii. 260); (iii.) arrestment under _meditatione fugae_ warrant,
+  corresponding to the old English writ of _ne exeat regno_, and
+  applicable in the case of a debtor who intends to leave Scotland to
+  evade an action; (iv.) arrestment on dependence, i.e. of funds in
+  security; (v.) poinding, i.e. valuation and sale of the debtor's
+  goods; (vi.) sequestration, e.g. of tenant's effects under a
+  landlord's hypothec for rent; (vii.) action of adjudication, by which
+  a debtor's "heritable" (i.e. real) estate is transferred to his
+  judgment creditor in satisfaction of his debt or security therefor. In
+  Scots law "multiplepoinding" is the equivalent of "interpleader."
+
+  IRELAND.--The law of execution in Ireland (see R.S.C., 1905, Orders
+  xli.-xlviii.) is practically the same as in England.
+
+  BRITISH POSSESSIONS.--The Judicature Acts of most of the Colonies
+  have also adopted English Law. Parts of the French _Code de procédure
+  civile_ are still in force in Mauritius. But its provisions have been
+  modified by local enactment (No. 19 of 1868) as regards realty, and
+  the rules of the Supreme Court 1903 have introduced the English forms
+  of writs. Quebec and St Lucia, where French law formerly prevailed,
+  have now their own codes of Civil Procedure. The law of execution
+  under the Quebec Code resembles the French, that under the St Lucia
+  Code the English system. In British Guiana and Ceylon, in which Roman
+  Dutch law in one form or another prevailed, the English law of
+  execution has now in substance been adopted (British Guiana Rules of
+  Court, 1900, Order xxxvi.)., Ceylon (Code of Civil Procedure, No. 2 of
+  1889); the modes of execution in the South African Colonies are also
+  the subject of local enactment, largely influenced by English law (cf.
+  the Sheriffs' Ordinance, 1902, No. 9 of 1902), (Orange River Colony)
+  and (Proclamation 17 of 1902), Transvaal (Nathan, _Common Law of South
+  Africa_, vol. iv. p. 2206); and generally, Van Zyl, _Judicial Practice
+  of South Africa_, pp. 198 et seq.
+
+  UNITED STATES.--Execution in the United States is founded upon English
+  law, which it closely resembles. Substantially the same forms of
+  execution are in force. The provisions of the Statute of Frauds making
+  the lien of execution attach only on delivery to the sheriff were
+  generally adopted in America, and are still law in many of the states.
+  The law as to the rights and duties of sheriffs is substantially the
+  same as in England. The "homestead laws" (q.v.) which are in force in
+  nearly all the American States exempt a certain amount or value of
+  real estate occupied by a debtor as his homestead from a forced sale
+  for the payment of his debts. This homestead legislation has been
+  copied in some British colonies, e.g. Western Australia (No. 37 of
+  1898, Pt. viii.), Quebec (Rev. Stats., ss. 1743-1748), Manitoba (Rev.
+  Stats., 1902, c. 58, s. 29, c. 21, s. 9), Ontario (Rev. Stats., 1897,
+  c. 29), British Columbia (Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 93), New South Wales
+  (Crown Lands Act 1895, Pt. iii.), New Zealand (Family Homes Protection
+  Act 1895, No. 20 of 1895).
+
+  FRANCE.--Provisional execution (_saisie-arrêt_) with a view to obtain
+  security has been already mentioned. Execution against personalty
+  (_saisie-exécution_) is preceded by a _commandement_ or summons,
+  personally served upon, or left at the domicile of the debtor calling
+  on him to pay. The necessary bedding of debtors and of their children
+  residing with them, and the clothes worn by them, cannot be seized in
+  execution under any circumstances. Objects declared by law to be
+  immovable by destination (_immeubles par destination_), such as beasts
+  of burden and agricultural implements, books relating to the debtor's
+  profession, to the value of 300 francs, workmen's tools, military
+  equipments, provisions and certain cattle cannot be seized, even for a
+  debt due to Government, unless in respect of provisions furnished to
+  the debtor, or amounts due to the manufacturers or vendors of
+  protected articles or to parties who advanced moneys to purchase,
+  manufacture or repair them. Growing fruits cannot be seized except
+  during the six weeks preceding the ordinary period when they become
+  ripe. Execution against immovable property (_la saisie immobilière_)
+  is preceded also by a summons to pay, and execution cannot issue until
+  the expiry of 30 days after service of such summons (see further Code
+  Proc. Civ., Arts. 673-689). Imprisonment for debt was abolished in all
+  civil and commercial matters by the law of 22nd of July 1867, which
+  extends to foreigners. It still subsists in favour of the State for
+  non-payment of fines, &c. The French system is in substance in force
+  in Belgium (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 51 et seq.), the Netherlands (Code
+  Civ. Proc., Arts. 430 et seq.), Italy (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 553 et
+  seq., 659 et seq.), and Spain.
+
+  GERMANY.--Under the German Code of Civil Procedure (Arts. 796 et
+  seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer adequate
+  security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the process is
+  called _arrest_) as a guarantee of payment. The debtor's goods cannot
+  be sold except in pursuance of a judgment notified to the debtor
+  either before or within a prescribed period after the execution (Art.
+  809 [3], and law of 30th of April 1886). Imprisonment for debt in
+  civil and commercial matters has been abolished or limited on the
+  lines of the French law of 1867 in many countries (e.g. Italy, law of
+  the 6th of December 1877; Belgium, law of the 27th of July 1871;
+  Greece, law of the 9th of March 1900; Russia, decree of the 7th of
+  March 1879).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Anderson, _Execution_ (London, 1889); _Annual Practice_
+  (London, 1908); Johnston Edwards, _Execution_ (London, 1888); Mather,
+  _Sheriff Law_ (London, 1903). As to Scots law, Mackay, _Manual of
+  Practice_ (Edinburgh, 1893). As to American law, Bingham, _Judgments
+  and Executions_ (Philadelphia, 1836); A.C. Freeman, _Law of
+  Execution_, Civil Cases (3rd ed., San Francisco, 1900); H.M. Herman,
+  _Law of Executions_ (New York, 1875); American Notes to _tit._
+  "Execution," in _Ruling Cases_ (London and Boston, 1897); Bouvier,
+  _Law Dict._, ed. Rawle (1897), s.v. "Execution."
+
+
+
+
+EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS, in English law, those persons upon whom
+the property of a deceased person both real and personal devolves
+according as he has or has not left a will. Executors differ from
+administrators both in the mode of their creation and in the date at
+which their estate vests. An executor can only be appointed by the will
+of his testator; such appointment may be express or implied, and in the
+latter case he is said to be an executor "according to the tenor." The
+estate of an executor vests in him from the date of the testator's
+death. An administrator on the other hand is appointed by the probate
+division of the High Court, and his estate does not vest till such
+appointment, the title to the property being vested till then in the
+judge of the probate division. As to whom the court will appoint
+administrators and the various kinds of administrators see under
+ADMINISTRATION. Apart from these two points the rights and liabilities
+of executors and administrators are the same, and they may be
+indifferently referred to as the representative of the deceased. As to
+their appointment before the establishment of the court of probate see
+articles WILL and INTESTACY. Before the Land Transfer Act 1897, the real
+estate of the deceased did not devolve upon the representative but
+vested directly in the devisee or heir-at-law, but by that act it was
+provided that the personal representative should be also the real
+representative, and therefore it may now be said broadly that the
+representative takes the whole estate of the deceased. There are,
+however, a few minor exceptions to this rule, of which the most
+important are lands held in joint tenancy and copyhold lands. As the
+representative stands in the shoes of the deceased he is entitled to sue
+upon any contract or for any debt which the deceased might have sued in
+his lifetime.
+
+  The duties of a representative are as follows: 1. To bury the deceased
+  in a manner suitable to the estate he leaves behind him; and the
+  expenses of such funeral take precedence of any duty or debt whatever;
+  but extravagant expenses will not be allowed. No rule can be laid down
+  as to what is a reasonable allowance for this purpose, as it is
+  impossible to know at the time of the funeral what the estate of the
+  deceased may amount to. The broad rule is that the representative must
+  allow such sum as seems reasonable, having regard to all the
+  circumstances of the case and the conditions in life of the deceased,
+  remembering that if he should exceed this he will be personally liable
+  for such excess in the event of the estate proving insolvent.
+
+  2. He must obtain probate or letters of administration to the deceased
+  within six months of the death, or, if such grant be disputed, within
+  two months of the determination of such suit. The penalty for not
+  doing so is fixed by the Stamp Act 1815, § 37, at £100, and an
+  additional stamp duty at the rate of 10%. As to the formalities of
+  PROBATE see that article.
+
+  3. Strictly speaking, he must compile an inventory of all the estate
+  of the deceased, whether in possession or outstanding, and he is to
+  deliver it to the court on oath. He is to collect all the goods so
+  inventoried and to commence actions to get in all those outstanding,
+  and he is responsible to creditors for the whole of such estate,
+  whether in possession or in action. This duty is thrown upon the
+  representative by an act of 1529, but it is not the modern practice to
+  exhibit such inventory unless he be cited for it in the spiritual
+  court at the instance of a party interested. It is, however, necessary
+  to file an affidavit setting out the value of the estate of the
+  deceased upon applying for a grant of probate or letters of
+  administration.
+
+  4. The representative must pay the debts of the deceased according to
+  their priority. Next to the legitimate funeral expenses come the costs
+  of proving and administering the estate; in the event, however, of the
+  funeral and testamentary expenses being charged by the will upon any
+  particular fund, they will be primarily payable out of that fund. The
+  representative must be careful to pay the debts according to the rules
+  of priority, otherwise he will become personally liable to the
+  creditors of one degree if he has exhausted the estate in paying
+  creditors of a lesser degree. First of all, a solicitor has a lien for
+  his costs upon any fund or duty which he has recovered for the
+  deceased; next in order come debts due to the crown by record or
+  speciality; then debts given a priority by statute, as, for example,
+  by the Poor Relief Act 1743, money due by an overseer of the poor to
+  his parish. Next, debts of record, i.e. judgment recovered against
+  the deceased in any court of record; all such debts are equal among
+  themselves, but a judgment creditor who has sued out execution is
+  preferred to one who has not; another class of debts of record are
+  statutes merchant and staple, or recognizances in the nature of
+  statute staple, i.e. bonds of record acknowledged before the lord
+  mayor of London or the mayor of the staple. Last in the order of debts
+  come specialty and simple contract debts, which by Hinde Palmer's Act
+  (the Executors Act 1869) are of equal degree, though as between
+  specialty debts bonds given for value rank before voluntary bonds
+  unless assigned for value, and as between simple contract debts those
+  due to the crown have priority. Though the creditors can if necessary
+  take all the estate of the deceased to satisfy their claims, yet as
+  between the various classes of assets the representative must pay the
+  debts out of assets in the following order: (i.) General personal
+  estate not specifically bequeathed nor exempted from payment of debts;
+  (ii.) real estate appropriated to debts; (iii.) real estate descended;
+  (iv.) real estate devised charged with payment of debts; (v.) general
+  pecuniary legacies _pro rata_; (vi.) specific legacies and devises;
+  (vii.) real estate over which a general power of appointment has been
+  exercised by will; (viii.) the widow's paraphernalia.
+
+  5. The debts of the deceased being satisfied, the representative must
+  next proceed to satisfy the legacies and devises left by the testator.
+  In order to enable him to do this with safety to himself, it is
+  provided that he cannot be compelled to divide the estate among the
+  legatees or next of kin until twelve months from the death of the
+  deceased (this is commonly known as "the executor's year"), though if
+  there is no doubt as to the solvency of the estate he may do so at
+  once. As a further protection the representative may give notice by
+  advertisement for creditors to send in their claims against the
+  estate, and on expiration of the notices he may proceed to divide the
+  estate, though even then the creditor may follow the assets to the
+  person who has received them and recover for his debt. As between
+  legatees the following priorities must be observed: (1) Specific
+  legatees and devisees, (2) demonstrative legatees, and (3) general
+  legatees; and as to this last class the testator can give priority to
+  one over another. If there are not sufficient assets to pay the
+  general legatees they must abate rateably. Legacies were not payable
+  out of the real estate prior to the Land Transfer Act 1897, unless the
+  testator charged the realty with them. Even then unless the testator
+  exonerates his personalty from payment of the legacies the personalty
+  will be the first fund chargeable. It has been suggested that the
+  effect of the act is to make the realty chargeable _pro rata_ with the
+  personalty, but this is doubtful.
+
+  6. The residue, after all legacies and devises are satisfied, must, if
+  there be a will, be paid to the residuary legatee therein named, and
+  if there be no will the real estate will go to the heir (see
+  INHERITANCE) and the personalty to the next of kin (see INTESTACY). It
+  was held at one time that in default of a residuary legatee the
+  residue fell to the executor himself, but now nothing less than the
+  expressed intention of the testator can give it to him.
+
+  The liabilities of the representative may be shortly stated. He is
+  liable in his representative capacity in all cases where the deceased
+  would be liable were he alive. To this general rule there are some
+  exceptions. The representative cannot be sued for breach of a contract
+  for personal services which can be performed only in the lifetime of
+  the person contracting, nor again can he be sued in a case where
+  unliquidated damages only could have been recovered against the
+  deceased. He is liable in his personal capacity in the following
+  cases: if he contracts to pay a debt due by the deceased, or if having
+  admitted that he had assets in his hands sufficient to pay a debt or
+  legacy he has misapplied such assets so that he cannot satisfy them;
+  or lastly, if by mismanaging the estate and effects of the deceased he
+  has made himself liable for a _devastavit_. Shortly stated, a
+  representative is bound to exercise the ordinary care of a business
+  man in administering the estate of the deceased, and he will be liable
+  for the loss to the estate caused by his own negligence, or by the
+  negligence of a co-representative which his act or neglect has
+  rendered possible. Though the general rule of _delegatus non potest
+  delegari_ holds good of a representative, yet in certain cases he may
+  "rely upon skilled persons in matters in which he cannot be expected
+  to be experienced," e.g. he must employ solicitors to conduct a
+  lawsuit.
+
+  The privileges of the representative are these: he may prefer one
+  creditor to another of equal degree; he may retain a debt owing to him
+  from the deceased as against other creditors of equal degree (see
+  RETAINER); he may reimburse himself out of the estate all expenses
+  incurred in the execution of his trust.
+
+  An executor _de son tort_ is one who, without any title to do so,
+  wrongfully intermeddles with the assets of the deceased, dealing with
+  them in such a way as to hold himself out as executor. In such a case
+  he is subject to all the liabilities of an executor, and can claim
+  none of the privileges. He may be treated by the creditor as the
+  executor, and, if he is really assuming to act as executor, creditors
+  and legatees will get a good title from him, but he is liable to be
+  sued by the rightful representative for damages for interfering with
+  the property of the deceased.
+
+  _Scotland._--Executor in Scots law is a more extensive term than in
+  English. He is either nominative or dative, the latter appointed by
+  the court and corresponding in most respects to the English
+  administrator. Caution is required from the latter, not from the
+  former. By the common law doctrine of passive representation the heir
+  or executor was liable to be sued for implement of the deceased's
+  obligations. The Roman principle of _beneficium inventarii_ was first
+  introduced by an act of 1695. As the law at present stands, the heir
+  or executor is liable only to the value of the succession, except
+  where there has been vitious intromission in movables, and in _gestio
+  pro haerede_ (behaviour as heir) and other cases in heritables. The
+  present inventory duty on succession to movables and heritables
+  depends on the Finance Acts 1894-1909 (see ESTATE DUTY). In England
+  the executor is bound to pay the debts of the deceased in a certain
+  order, but in Scotland they all rank _pari passu_ except privileged
+  debts (see PRIVILEGE).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R.L. Vaughan Williams, _The Law of Executors and
+  Administrators_; W.G. Walker, _Compendium on the Law of Executors and
+  Administrators_; James Schouler, _Law of Executors and Administrators_
+  (3rd ed., Boston, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+EXEDRA, or EXHEDRA (from Gr. [Greek: ex], out, and [Greek: hedra], a
+seat), an architectural term originally applied to a seat or recess out
+of doors, intended for conversation. Such recesses were generally
+semicircular, as in the important example built by Herodes Atticus at
+Olympia. In the great Roman thermae (baths) they were of large size, and
+like apses were covered with a hemispherical vault. An example of these
+exists at Pompeii in the Street of the Tombs. From Vitruvius we learn
+that they were often covered over, and they are described by him (v. 11)
+as places leading out of porticoes, where philosophers and rhetoricians
+could debate or harangue.
+
+
+
+
+EXELMANS, RENÉ JOSEPH ISIDORE, COUNT (1775-1852), marshal of France, was
+born at Bar-le-Duc on the 13th of November 1775. He volunteered into the
+3rd battalion of the Meuse in 1791, became a lieutenant in 1797, and in
+1798 was aide-de-camp to General Éblé, and in the following year to
+General Broussier. In his first campaign in Italy he greatly
+distinguished himself; and in April 1799 he was rewarded for his
+services by the grade of captain of dragoons. In the same year he took
+part with honour in the conquest of Naples and was again promoted, and
+in 1801 he became aide-de-camp to General Murat. He accompanied Murat in
+the Austrian, Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1805, 1806 and 1807. At
+the passage of the Danube, and in the action of Wertingen, he specially
+distinguished himself; he was made colonel for the valour which he
+displayed at Austerlitz, and general of brigade for his conduct at Eylau
+in 1807. In 1808 he accompanied Murat to Spain, but was there made
+prisoner and conveyed to England. On regaining his liberty in 1811 he
+went to Naples, where King Joachim Murat appointed him grand-master of
+horse. Exelmans, however, rejoined the French army on the eve of the
+Russian campaign, and on the field of Borodino won the rank of general
+of division. In the retreat from Moscow his steadfast courage was
+conspicuously manifested on several occasions. In 1813 he was made, for
+services in the campaign of Saxony and Silesia, grand-officer of the
+Legion of Honour, and in 1814 he reaped additional glory by his
+intrepidity and skill in the campaign of France. When the Bourbons were
+restored, Exelmans retained his position in the army. In January 1815 he
+was tried on an accusation of having treasonable relations with Murat,
+but was acquitted. Napoleon on his return from Elba made Exelmans a peer
+of France and placed him in command of the II. cavalry corps, which he
+commanded in the Waterloo campaign, the battle of Ligny and Grouchy's
+march on Wavre. In the closing operations round Paris Exelmans won great
+distinction. After the second Restoration he denounced, in the House of
+Peers, the execution of Marshal Ney as an "abominable assassination";
+thereafter he lived in exile in Belgium and Nassau for some years, till
+1819, when he was recalled to France. In 1828 he was appointed
+inspector-general of cavalry; and after the July revolution of 1830 he
+received from Louis Philippe the grand cross of the Legion of Honour,
+and was reinstated as a peer of France. At the revolution of 1848
+Exelmans was one of the adherents of Louis Napoleon; and in 1851 he was,
+in recognition of his long and brilliant military career, raised to the
+dignity of a marshal of France. His death, which took place on the 10th
+of July 1852, was the result of a fall from his horse.
+
+
+
+
+EXEQUATUR, the letter patent, issued by a foreign office and signed by a
+sovereign, which guarantees to a foreign consul the rights and
+privileges of his office, and ensures his recognition in the state in
+which he is appointed to exercise them. If a consul is not appointed by
+commission he receives no exequatur; and a notice in the _Gazette_ in
+this case has to suffice. The exequatur may be withdrawn, but in
+practice, where a consul is obnoxious, an opportunity is afforded to his
+government to recall him.
+
+
+
+
+EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF. These English titles have been borne
+at different times by members of the families of Holand or Holland,
+Beaufort, Courtenay and Cecil. The earls of Devon of the family of de
+Redvers were sometimes called earls of Exeter; but the 1st duke of
+Exeter was John (c. 1355-1400), a younger son of Thomas Holand, earl of
+Kent (d. 1360). John's mother, Joan (d. 1385), a descendant of Edward
+I., married for her third husband Edward the Black Prince, by whom she
+was the mother of Richard II., and her son John was thus the king's
+half-brother, a relationship to which he owed his high station at the
+English court. He married Elizabeth (d. 1426), a daughter of John of
+Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and was constantly in Richard's train until
+1385, when his murder of Ralph Stafford disturbed these friendly
+relations. John then went to Spain as constable of the English army
+under John of Gaunt; but after his return to England in 1387 he was
+created earl of Huntingdon, was made admiral of the fleet and
+chamberlain of England, and was again high in the king's favour. He was
+Richard's chief helper in the proceedings against the lords appellant in
+1397, was created duke of Exeter in September of this year, and went
+with the king to Ireland in 1399. After the accession of his
+brother-in-law, Henry IV., Holand was tried for his share in the events
+of 1397, and was reduced to his earlier rank of earl of Huntingdon. He
+was soon plotting against Henry's life, and after the projected rising
+in 1400 had failed he was captured and was probably beheaded at Pleshey
+in Essex on the 16th of January 1400.[1] He was afterwards attainted and
+his titles and lands were forfeited.
+
+In 1416 THOMAS BEAUFORT, earl of Dorset, was created duke of Exeter; but
+this dignity was only granted for his life, and consequently it expired
+on his death in 1426.
+
+In 1416 JOHN (1395-1447), son of John Holand, the former duke of Exeter,
+was allowed to take his father's earldom of Huntingdon. This nobleman
+rendered great assistance to Henry V. in his conquest of France,
+fighting both on sea and on land. He was marshal of England, admiral of
+England and governor of Aquitaine under Henry VI.; was one of the king's
+representatives at the conference of Arras in 1435; and in 1443 was
+created duke of Exeter. When he died on the 5th of August 1447 his
+titles passed to his son HENRY (1430-1473), who, although married to
+Anne (d. 1476), daughter of Richard, duke of York, fought for Henry VI.
+during the Wars of the Roses. After having been imprisoned by York at
+Pontefract, he was present at the battle of Towton, sailed with Henry's
+queen, Margaret of Anjou, to Flanders in 1463, and was wounded at Barnet
+in 1471. In 1461 he had been attainted and his dukedom declared
+forfeited, and he died without sons, probably in 1473.
+
+Coming to the family of Courtenay the title of marquess of Exeter was
+borne by HENRY COURTENAY (c. 1496-1538), earl of Devon, who was made a
+marquess in 1525. A grandson of Edward IV., Courtenay was a prominent
+figure at the court of Henry VIII. until Thomas Cromwell rose to power,
+when his high birth, his great wealth and his independent position made
+him an object of suspicion. Some slight discontent in the west of
+England gave the occasion for his arrest, and he was tried and beheaded
+on the 9th of December 1538. A few days later he was declared a traitor
+and his titles were forfeited; although his only son, EDWARD (c.
+1526-1556), who was restored to the earldom of Devon in 1553 and was a
+suitor for the hand of Queen Mary, is sometimes called marquess of
+Exeter.
+
+The title of earl of Exeter was first bestowed upon the Cecils (see
+CECIL: _Family_) in 1605 when THOMAS, 2nd Lord Burghley (1542-1623), the
+eldest son of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, was made earl of Exeter by
+James I. Thomas had been a member of parliament during the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth, who knighted him in 1575, and had fought under the earl
+of Leicester in the Netherlands. After his father's death in 1598 he
+became president of the Council of the North and was made a knight of
+the Garter. He died on the 7th or 8th of February 1623. His direct
+descendants continued to bear the title of earl of Exeter, and in 1801
+HENRY (1754-1804), the 10th earl, was advanced to the dignity of
+marquess of Exeter, the present marquess being his lineal descendant. It
+may be noted that the 1st marquess is Tennyson's "lord of Burghley."
+
+  See G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There is some difference of opinion about the place and manner of
+    the earl's death, and this question has an important bearing upon the
+    privilege of trial by peers of the realm. See L.W. Vernon-Harcourt,
+    _His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+EXETER, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough, and the county town of Devonshire, England, 172 m. W.S.W. of
+London, on the London & South Western and the Great Western railways.
+Pop. (1901) 47,185. The ancient city occupies a broad ridge of land,
+which rises steeply from the left bank of the Exe. At the head of the
+ridge is the castle, on the site of a great British earthwork. The High
+Street and its continuation, called Fore Street, are narrow, but very
+picturesque, with many houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. There is a
+maze of lesser streets within the ancient walls, the line of which may
+be traced. All the gates have disappeared. The suburbs, which have
+greatly extended since the beginning of the 19th century, contain many
+good streets, terraces and detached villas. The surrounding country is
+rich, fertile and of great beauty. Extensive views are commanded in the
+direction of Haldon, a stretch of high moorland which may be regarded as
+an outlier of Dartmoor. The lofty mound of the castle is laid out as a
+promenade, with fine trees and broad walks.
+
+The cathedral, although not one of the largest in England, is
+unsurpassed in the beauty of its architecture and the richness of its
+details. With the exception of the Norman transeptal towers, the general
+character is Decorated, ranging from about 1280 to 1369. Transeptal
+towers occur elsewhere in England only in the collegiate church of
+Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire, for which Exeter cathedral served as a
+model. The west front is of later date than the rest (probably
+1369-1394), and the porch is wholly covered with statues. Within, the
+most noteworthy features are the long unbroken roof, extending
+throughout nave and choir, with no central tower or lantern; the
+beautiful sculpture of bosses and corbels; the minstrel's gallery,
+projecting from the north triforium of the nave; and the remarkable
+manner in which the several parts of the church are made to correspond.
+The window tracery is much varied; but each window answers to that on
+the opposite side of nave or choir; pier answers to pier, aisle to
+aisle, and chapel to chapel, while the transeptal towers complete the
+balance of parts. A complete restoration under Sir G.G. Scott was
+carried out between 1870 and 1877. The modern stall work, the reredos,
+the choir pavement of tiles, rich marbles and porphyries, the stained
+glass and the sculptured pulpits in choir and nave are meritorious. The
+episcopal throne, a sheaf of tabernacle work in wood, was erected by
+Bishop Stapeldon about 1320, and in the north transept is an ancient
+clock. The most interesting monuments are those of bishops of the 12th
+and 13th centuries, in the choir and lady chapel. Some important MSS.,
+including the famous book of Saxon poetry given by Leofric to his
+cathedral, are preserved in the chapter-house. The united sees of
+Devonshire and Cornwall were fixed at Exeter from the installation there
+of Leofric (1050) by the Confessor, until the re-erection of the Cornish
+see in 1876. The bishop's palace embodies Early English portions. The
+diocese covers the greater part of Devonshire, with a very small part of
+Dorsetshire.
+
+The guildhall in the High Street is a picturesque Elizabethan building,
+which contains some interesting portraits; among them being one of
+General Monk, who was a native of Devon, and another of Henrietta,
+duchess of Orleans, given by her brother Charles II. Both are by Sir
+Peter Lely. The assize hall and sessions house dates from 1774. The
+Albert Memorial Museum contains a school of art, an excellent free
+library, a reading-room, and a museum of natural history and
+antiquities. There is a good collection of local birds, and some
+remarkable pottery and bronze relics extracted from barrows near Honiton
+or found in various parts of Devonshire. Of the castle, called
+Rougemont, the chief architectural remnant is a portion of a gateway
+tower which may be late Norman. Traces are also seen of the surrounding
+earthworks, which may have belonged to the original British stronghold.
+Beneath the castle wall is the pleasant promenade of Northernhay. The
+churches of Exeter are of little importance, being mostly small, and
+closely beset with buildings, but the modern church of St Michael (1860)
+deserves notice. The Devon and Exeter Institution, founded in 1813,
+contains a large and valuable library, and among educational
+establishments may be noticed the technical and university extension
+college, the diocesan training college and school; and the grammar
+school, which was founded under a scheme of Walter de Stapeldon, bishop
+of Exeter and founder of Exeter College, Oxford, in 1332, and refounded
+in 1629, but occupies modern buildings (1886) outside the city. It is
+endowed with a large number of leaving exhibitions, and about 150 boys
+are educated. There are two market-houses in the city, many hospitals
+and many charitable institutions, including the picturesque hospital or
+almshouse of William Wynard, recorder of Exeter (1439).
+
+Exeter is one of the principal railway centres in the south-west, and it
+also has some shipping trade, communicating with the sea by way of the
+Exeter ship-canal, originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth (1564), and
+enlarged in 1675 and 1827. This canal is an interesting work, being the
+first canal carried out in the United Kingdom for the purpose of
+enabling sea-going vessels to pass to an inland port. The river Exe was
+very early utilized by small craft trading to Exeter, parliament having
+granted powers for the improvement of the navigation by the construction
+of a canal 3 m. long from Exeter to the river; at a later date this
+canal was extended lower down to the tidal estuary of the Exe. Previous
+to the year 1820 it was only available for vessels of a draft not
+exceeding 9 ft., but by deepening it, raising the banks, and
+constructing new locks, vessels drawing 14 ft. of water were enabled to
+pass up to a basin and wharves at Exeter. These works were carried out
+under the advice of Thomas Telford. A floating basin is accessible to
+vessels of 350 tons. Larger vessels lie at Topsham, at the junction of
+the canal with the estuary of the Exe; while at the mouth of the estuary
+is the port of Exmouth. Imports are miscellaneous, while paper, grain,
+cider and other goods are exported. Brewing, paper-making and
+iron-founding are carried on, and the city is an important centre of
+agricultural trade. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
+city is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3158
+acres. The eastern suburb of Heavitree, where is the Exeter city asylum,
+is an urban district with a population (1901) of 7529.
+
+Exeter was the Romano-British country town of _Isca Damnoniorum_--the
+most westerly town in the south-west of Roman Britain. Mosaic pavements,
+potsherds, coins and other relics have been found, and probably traces
+of the Roman walls survive here and there in the medieval walls. It is
+said to be the _Caer Isce_ of the Britons, and its importance as a
+British stronghold is shown by the great earthwork which the Britons
+threw up to defend it, on the site of which the castle was afterwards
+built, and by the number of roads which branch from it. Exeter is famous
+for the number of sieges which it sustained as the chief town in the
+south-west of England. In 1001 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the
+Danes, but in the following year was given by King Æthelred to Queen
+Emma, who appointed as reeve, Hugh, a Frenchman, owing to whose
+treachery it was taken and destroyed by Sweyn in 1003. By 1050, however,
+it had recovered, and was chosen by Leofric as the new seat of the
+bishops of Devon. In 1068, after a siege of eighteen days, Exeter
+surrendered to the Conqueror, who threw up a castle which was called
+Rougemont, from the colour of the rock on which it stood. Again in 1137
+the town was held for Matilda by Baldwin de Redvers for three months and
+surrendered, at last, owing to lack of water. Three times subsequently
+Exeter held out successfully for the king--in 1467 against the Yorkists,
+in 1497 against Perkin Warbeck, and in 1549 against the men of Cornwall
+and Devon, who rose in defence of the old religion. During the civil
+wars the city declared for parliament, but was in 1643 taken by the
+royalists, who held it until 1646. The only other historical event of
+importance is the entry of William, prince of Orange, in 1688, shortly
+after his arrival in England. Exeter was evidently a borough by
+prescription some time before the Conquest, since the burgesses are
+mentioned in the Domesday Survey. Its first charter granted by Henry I.
+gave the burgesses all the free customs which the citizens of London
+enjoyed, and was confirmed and enlarged by most of the succeeding kings.
+By 1227 government by a reeve had given place to that by a mayor and
+four bailiffs, which continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835.
+Numerous trade gilds were incorporated in Exeter, one of the first being
+the tailors' gild, incorporated in 1466. This by 1482 had become so
+powerful that it interfered with the government of the town, and was
+dissolved on the petition of the burgesses. Another powerful gild was
+that of the merchant adventurers, incorporated in 1559, which is said to
+have dictated laws to which the mayor and bailiffs submitted. From 1295
+to 1885 Exeter was represented in parliament by two members, but in the
+latter year the number of representatives was reduced to one. Exeter was
+formerly noted for the manufacture of woollen goods, introduced in
+Elizabeth's reign, and the value of its exports at one time exceeded
+half a million sterling yearly. The trade declined partly owing to the
+stringent laws of the trade gilds, and by the beginning of the 19th
+century had entirely disappeared, although at the time of its greatest
+prosperity it had been surpassed in value and importance only by that of
+Leeds.
+
+  See _Victoria County History_, _Devon_; Richard Izacke, _Antiquities
+  of the City of Exeter_ (1677); George Oliver, _The History of the City
+  of Exeter_ (1861); and E.A. Freeman, _Exeter_ ("Historic Towns"
+  series) (London, 1887), in the preface to which the names of earlier
+  historians of the city are given.
+
+
+
+
+EXETER, a town and one of the county-seats of Rockingham county, New
+Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Squamscott river, about 12 m. S.W. of
+Portsmouth and about 51 m. N. by E. of Boston, Mass. Pop. (1890) 4284;
+(1900) 4922 (1066 foreign-born); (1910) 4897; area, about 17 sq. m. It
+is served by the Western Division of the Boston & Maine railway. The
+town has a public library and some old houses built in the colonial
+period, and is the seat of Phillips Exeter Academy (incorporated in 1781
+and opened in 1783). In its charter this institution is described as "an
+academy for the purpose of promoting piety and virtue, and for the
+education of youth in the English, Latin and Greek languages, in
+writing, arithmetic, music and the art of speaking, practical geometry,
+logic and geography, and such other of the liberal arts and sciences or
+languages, as opportunity may hereafter permit." It was founded by Dr
+John Phillips (1719-1795), a graduate of Harvard College, who acquired
+considerable wealth as a merchant at Exeter and gave nearly all of it to
+the cause of education. The academy is one of the foremost secondary
+schools in the country, and among its _alumni_ have been Daniel Webster,
+Edward Everett, Lewis Cass (born in Exeter in a house still standing),
+John Parker Hale, George Bancroft, Jared Sparks, John Gorham Palfrey,
+Richard Hildreth and Francis Bowen. The government of the academy is
+vested in a board of six trustees, regarding whom the founder provided
+that a majority should be laymen and not inhabitants of Exeter. In
+1909-1910 the institution had 20 buildings, 32 acres of recreation
+grounds, 16 instructors and 488 students, representing 38 states and
+territories of the United States and 4 foreign countries. At Exeter also
+is the Robinson female seminary (1867), with 14 instructors and 272
+students in 1906-1907. The river furnishes water-power, and among the
+manufactures of the town are shoes, machinery, cottons, brass, &c. The
+town is one of the oldest in the state; it was founded in 1638 by Rev.
+John Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who with a number of followers
+settled here after his banishment from Massachusetts. For their
+government the settlers adopted (1639) a plantation covenant. There was
+disagreement from the first, however, with regard to the measure of
+loyalty to the king, and in 1643, when Massachusetts had asserted her
+claim to this region and the other three New Hampshire towns had
+submitted to her jurisdiction, the majority of the inhabitants of Exeter
+also yielded, while the minority, including the founder, removed from
+the town. In 1680 the town became a part of the newly created province
+of New Hampshire. During the French and Indian wars it was usually
+protected by a garrison, and some of the garrison houses are still
+standing. From 1776 to 1784 the state legislature usually met at Exeter.
+
+  See C.H. Bell, _History of the Town of Exeter_ (Exeter, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+EXETER BOOK [_Codex Exoniensis_], an anthology of Anglo-Saxon poetry
+presented to Exeter cathedral by Leofric,[1] bishop of Exeter, England,
+from 1050 to 1071, and still in the possession of the dean and chapter.
+It contains some legal documents, the poems entitled _Crist_, _Guthlac_,
+_Phoenix_, _Juliana_, _The Wanderer_ and others, and concludes with
+between eighty and ninety riddles. It was first described in Humphrey
+Wanley's _Catalogus_ ... (1705) in detail but with many inaccuracies;
+subsequently by J.J. Conybeare, _Account of a Saxon Manuscript_ (a paper
+read in 1812; printed with some extracts from the MS. in _Archaeologia_,
+vol. xvii. pp. 180-197, 1814). A complete transcript made (1831) by
+Robert Chambers is in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 9067). It was first
+printed in 1842 by Benjamin Thorpe for the Soc. of Antiq., London, as
+_Codex Exoniensis ... with an English Translation, Notes and Indexes_.
+More recent editions, chiefly based on Thorpe's text, are:--in Chr.
+Grein's _Bibliothek der A.S. Poesie_ (vol. iii. part 1, ed. R. Wülker,
+Leipzig, 1897, with a bibliography), J. Schipper in Pfeiffer's
+_Germania_, vol. xix. pp. 327-339, and Israel Gollancz, _The Exeter
+Book_, pt. i. (1895), with English translation, for the Early English
+Text Society.
+
+  A detailed account, with bibliographies of the separate poems, is
+  given by R. Wülker, in _Grundriss ... der A.S. Literatur_, pp. 218-236
+  (Leipzig, 1885); see also the introduction to _The Crist of Cynewulf_
+  ..., edited by Prof. A.S. Cook, with introduction, notes and a
+  glossary (Boston, U.S.A., 1900). For the poems contained in the MS.
+  see also CYNEWULF and RIDDLES.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Leofric, see F.E. Warren, _The Leofric Missal_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+EXHIBITION, a term, meaning in general a public display,[1] which has a
+special modern sense as applied to public shows of goods for the
+promotion of trade (Fr. _exposition_). The first exhibition in this
+sense of which there is any account, in either sacred or profane
+history, was that held by King Ahasuerus, who, according to the Book of
+Esther, showed in the third year of his reign "the riches of his
+glorious kingdom, and the honour of his excellent majesty, many days,
+even a hundred and fourscore days." The locale of this function was
+Shushan, the palace and the exhibits consisted of "white, green and blue
+hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings
+and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement
+of red, and blue, and white and black marble. And they gave them drink
+in vessels of gold, the vessels being diverse one from another." The
+first exhibition since the Christian era was at Venice during the
+dogeship of Lorenzo Tiepolo, in 1268. On that occasion there was a grand
+display, consisting of a water fête, a procession of the trades and an
+industrial exhibition. The various gilds of the Queen City of the Seas
+marched through the narrow streets to the great square of St Mark, and
+their leaders asked the dogaressa to inspect the products of their
+industry. Other medieval exhibitions were the fairs held at Leipzig and
+Nizhni Novgorod in Europe, at Tanta in Egypt, and in 1689 that by the
+Dutch at Leiden.
+
+The first modern exhibition was held at London in 1756 by the Society of
+Arts, which offered prizes for improvements in the manufacture of
+tapestry, carpets and porcelain, the exhibits being placed side by side.
+Five years afterwards, in 1761, the same society gave an exhibition of
+agricultural machinery. In 1797 a collective display of the art
+factories of France, including those of Sèvres, the Gobelins and the
+Savonnerie, was made in the palace of St Cloud, and the exhibition was
+repeated during the following year in the rue de Varennes, Paris. This
+experiment was so successful that in the last three days of the same
+year an exhibition under official auspices, at which private exhibitors
+were allowed to compete, was held in the Champ de Mars. Four years
+later, in 1801, there was a second official exhibition in the grand
+court of the Louvre. Upon that occasion juries of practical men examined
+the objects shown, and the winners of a gold medal were invited to dine
+with Napoleon, who was at that time First Consul. In the report of the
+jury the following remarkable sentence appeared:--"There is not an
+artist or inventor who, once obtaining thus a public recognition of his
+ability, has not found his reputation and his business largely
+increased." The third Paris Exhibition, held in 1802, was the first to
+publish an official catalogue. There were 540 exhibitors, including J.E.
+Montgolfier, the first aëronaut, and J.M. Jacquard, the inventor of the
+loom which bears his name. The fourth exhibition was held in 1806 in the
+esplanade in front of the Hôtel des Invalides, and attracted 1422
+exhibitors. There were no more exhibitions till after the fall of the
+empire, but in 1819 the fifth was held during the reign of Louis XVIII.,
+with 1622 exhibitors. Others were held at Paris at various intervals,
+that in 1849 having 4500 exhibitors.
+
+Other exhibitions, though on a smaller scale, were held in Dublin,
+London, and in various parts of Germany and Austria during the first
+half of the 19th century--that in 1844, held at Berlin, having 3040
+exhibitors. Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Russia, Poland,
+Italy, Spain and Portugal all held exhibitions, and there was a Free
+Trade Bazaar of British Manufactures at Covent Garden theatre in 1845,
+which at the time created a great deal of interest. But all these
+exhibitions were confined to the products of the country in which they
+took place, and the first great International Exhibition was held in
+London in 1851 by the Society of Arts, under the presidency of the
+prince consort. All nations were invited to compete; a site was obtained
+in Hyde Park, and a building 20 acres in extent was erected, after the
+design of Sir Joseph Paxton, at a cost of £193,168. The exhibition was
+open for five months and fifteen days. The receipts amounted to
+£506,100, and the surplus was £186,000. The number of visitors was
+6,039,195, and the money taken at the doors was £423,792. The total,
+number of exhibitors was 13,937, of which Great Britain contributed
+6861, the British colonies 520 and foreign countries 6556. The
+International Exhibition of 1851 was followed by those of New York and
+Dublin in 1853, Melbourne and Munich in 1854, and Paris in 1855--this
+latter was held in the Palais d'Industrie, which remained in existence
+until pulled down to make room for the two Palais des Beaux Arts, which
+formed one of the attractions of the 1900 exhibition. The exhibitors
+numbered 20,839 and the visitors 5,162,330. There were national
+exhibitions during the following years in several European countries,
+but the next great world's fair was held at London in 1862. The total
+space roofed in amounted to 988,000 sq. ft., 22.65 acres, the number of
+visitors was 6,211,103, and the amount received at the doors £408,530.
+The death of the prince consort had a depressing effect upon the
+enterprise. In 1865 an exhibition was held at Dublin, the greater
+proportion of the funds being supplied by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness. The
+number of attendances during six months was 900,000, and the exhibition
+was opened at night. An Italian exhibition was held at Rome in 1862.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1867 was upon a far larger scale than that of
+1855. It was held, like those that preceded and succeeded it, at the
+Champ de Mars, and covered 41 acres. The building resembled an
+exaggerated gasometer. The external ring was devoted to machinery, the
+internal to the gradual development of civilization, commencing with the
+stone age and continuing to the present era. A great feature of the
+exhibition was the park, which was studded with specimens of every style
+of modern architecture--Turkish mosques, Swedish cottages, English
+lighthouses, Egyptian palaces and Swiss châlets. The number of
+attendances was 6,805,969. The exhibitors numbered 43,217, and the total
+amount received for entrances, concessions, &c., was £420,735. This was
+the first exhibition at which there were international restaurants. The
+cost of the exhibition was defrayed partly by the state and partly by
+private subscriptions.
+
+Small exhibitions were held in various parts of Europe between 1867 and
+1870, and in the latter year a series of international exhibitions,
+confined to one or two special descriptions of produce or manufactures,
+was inaugurated in London at South Kensington. These continued till
+1874, but they failed to attract any very large attendance of the public
+and were abandoned. A medal was given to each exhibitor, and reports on
+the various exhibits were published, but there was no examination of the
+exhibits by jurors. In 1873 there was an International Exhibition at
+Vienna. The main building, a rotunda, was erected in the beautiful park
+of the Austrian capital. There were halls for machinery and agricultural
+products, and hundreds of buildings, erected by different nations, were
+scattered amongst the woodlands of the Prater. Unfortunately, an
+outbreak of cholera diminished the attendance of visitors, and the
+receipts were only £206,477, although the visitors were said to have
+reached 6,740,500, and the number of exhibitors was 25,760.
+
+None of the International Exhibitions held between 1857 and 1873 had
+attracted as many as 7,000,000 visitors, but the gradual extension of
+education amongst the masses, and the greater facilities for locomotion,
+brought about by the growth of the railway system in all portions of the
+civilized world, largely increased the attendances at subsequent World's
+Fairs. The Centennial Exhibition of 1876, to celebrate the one-hundredth
+anniversary of American Independence, was held at Fairmount Park,
+Philadelphia. The funds were raised partly by private subscriptions, and
+partly by donations from the city of Philadelphia, from Pennsylvania and
+some of the neighbouring states. The central government at Washington
+made a large loan, which was subsequently repaid. The principal
+buildings, five in number, occupied an area of 48½ acres, and there were
+several smaller structures, which in the aggregate must have filled half
+as much space more, the largest being that devoted to the exhibits of
+the various departments of the United States government, which covered 7
+acres. Several novelties in exhibition management were introduced at
+Philadelphia. Instead of gold, silver and bronze medals, only one
+description, bronze, was issued, the difference between the merits of
+the different exhibits being shown by the reports. Season tickets were
+not issued, and the price of admission, the same on all occasions, was
+half a dollar, or about 2s. 1d. The exhibition was not open at night or
+on Sundays, thus following the British, and not the continental,
+precedent. The number of visitors was 9,892,625, of whom 8,004,214 paid
+for admission, the balance being exhibitors, officials and attendants.
+The total receipts amounted to £763,899. Upon one occasion, the
+Pennsylvania day, 274,919 persons--the largest number that had visited
+any exhibition up to that date--passed through the turnstiles. The
+display of machinery was the finest ever made, that of the United States
+occupying 480,000 sq. ft. The motive-power was obtained from a Corliss
+engine of 1600 horse-power. At this exhibition the United Kingdom and
+the British Colonies of Canada, Victoria, New South Wales, New Zealand,
+Cape Colony and Tasmania made a very fine display, which was only
+excelled by that of the United States.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was upon a far larger scale in every
+respect than any which had been previously held in any part of the
+world. The total area covered not less than 66 acres, the main building
+in the Champ de Mars occupying 54 acres. The French exhibits filled
+one-half the entire space, the remaining moiety being occupied by the
+other nations of the world. The United Kingdom, British India, Canada,
+Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Cape Colony and
+some of the British crown colonies occupied nearly one-third of the
+space set aside for nations outside France. Germany was the only great
+country which was not represented, but there were a few German
+paintings. The display of fine arts and machinery was upon a very large
+and comprehensive scale, and the Avenue des Nations, a street 2400 ft.
+in length, was devoted to specimens of the domestic architecture of
+nearly every country in Europe, and of several in Asia, Africa and
+America. The palace of the Trocadero, on the northern bank of the Seine,
+was erected for the exhibition. It was a handsome structure, with towers
+250 ft. in height and flanked by two galleries. The rules for admission
+were the same as those at Philadelphia, and every person--exhibitor,
+journalist or official--who had the right of entrance was compelled to
+forward two copies of his or her photograph, one of which was attached
+to the card of entry. The ordinary tickets were not sold at the doors,
+but were obtainable at various government offices and shops, and from
+numerous pedlars in all parts of the city and suburbs. The buildings
+were somewhat unfinished upon the opening day, political complications
+having prevented the French government and the French people from paying
+much attention to the exhibition till about six months before it was
+opened; but the efforts made in April were prodigious, and by June 1st,
+a month after the opening, the exhibition was complete, and afforded an
+object-lesson of the recovery of France from the calamities of
+1870-1871. The decisions arrived at by the international juries were
+accompanied by medals of gold, silver and bronze. The expenditure by the
+United Kingdom was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue, each
+British colony defraying its own expenses. The display of the United
+Kingdom was under the control of a royal commission, of which the prince
+of Wales was president. The number of paying visitors to the exhibition
+was 13,000,000, and the cost of the enterprise to the French government,
+which supplied all the funds, was a little less than a million sterling,
+after allowing for the value of the permanent buildings and the
+Trocadero Palace, which were sold to the city of Paris. The total number
+of persons who visited Paris during the time the exhibition was open was
+571,702, or 308,974 more than came to the French metropolis during the
+year 1877, and 46,021 in excess of the visitors during the previous
+exhibition of 1867. It was stated at the time that, in addition to the
+impetus given to the trade of France, the revenue of the Republic and of
+the city of Paris from customs and octroi duties was increased by nearly
+three millions sterling as compared with the previous year.
+
+Exhibitions on a scale of considerable magnitude were held at Sydney and
+Melbourne in 1879 and 1880, and many continental and American
+manufacturers took advantage of them in order to bring the products of
+their industry directly under the notice of Australian consumers, who
+had previously purchased their supplies through the instrumentality of
+British merchants. The United Kingdom and India made an excellent
+display at both cities, but the effect of the two great Australian
+exhibitions was to give a decided impetus to German, American, French
+and Belgian trade. One of the immediate results was that lines of
+steamers to Melbourne and Sydney commenced to run from Marseilles and
+Bremen; another, that for the first time in the history of the
+Australian colonies, branches of French banks were opened in the two
+principal cities. The whole cost of these exhibitions was defrayed by
+the local governments.
+
+Exhibitions were held at Turin and Brussels during 1880, and smaller
+ones at Newcastle, Milan, Lahore, Adelaide, Perth, Moscow, Ghent and
+Lille during 1881 and 1882, and at Zürich, Bordeaux and Caraccas in
+Venezuela during 1883. The next of any importance was held at Amsterdam
+in the latter year. On that occasion a new departure in exhibition
+management was made. The government of the Netherlands was to a certain
+extent responsible for the administration of the exhibition, but the
+funds were obtained from private sources, and a charge was made to each
+nation represented for the space it occupied. The United Kingdom, India,
+Victoria and New South Wales took part in the exhibition, but there was
+no official representation of the mother country. Exhibitions on
+somewhat similar lines were held at Nice and Calcutta in the winter of
+1883 and 1884, and at Antwerp in 1895.
+
+A series of exhibitions, under the presidency of the then prince of
+Wales, and managed by Sir Cunliffe Owen, was commenced at South
+Kensington in 1883. The first was devoted to a display of the various
+industries connected with fishing; the second, in 1884, to objects
+connected with hygiene; the third, in 1885, to inventions; and the
+fourth, in 1886, to the British Colonies and India. These exhibitions
+attracted a large number of visitors and realized a substantial profit.
+They might have been continued indefinitely if it had not been that the
+buildings in which they were held had become very dilapidated, and that
+the ground covered by them was required for other purposes. There was no
+examination of the exhibits by juries, but a tolerably liberal supply of
+instrumental music was supplied by military and civil bands. The Crystal
+Palace held a successful International Exhibition in 1884, and there was
+an Italian Exhibition at Turin, and a Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh,
+during the same year. A World's Industrial Fair was held at New Orleans
+in 1884-1885, and there were universal Exhibitions at Montenegro and
+Antwerp in 1885, at Edinburgh in 1886, Liverpool, Adelaide, Newcastle
+and Manchester in 1887, and at Glasgow, Barcelona and Brussels in 1888.
+Melbourne held an International Exhibition in 1888-1889 to celebrate the
+Centenary of Australia. Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria and the
+United States were officially represented, and an expenditure of
+£237,784 was incurred by the local government.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1889 marked an important change in the policy
+which had previously characterized the management of these gatherings.
+The funds were contributed partly by the state, which voted 17,000,000
+francs, and by the municipality of Paris, which gave 8,000,000. A
+guarantee fund amounting to 23,124,000 francs was raised, and on this
+security a sum of 18,000,000 francs was obtained and paid into the
+coffers of the administration. The bankers who advanced this sum
+recouped themselves by the issue of 1,200,000 "bons," each of 25 francs,
+Every bon contained 25 admissions, valued at 1 franc, and certain
+privileges in the shape of participation in a lottery, the grand prix
+being £20,000. The calculations of the promoters were tolerably
+accurate. The attendances reached the then unprecedented number of
+32,350,297, of whom 25,398,609 paid in entrance tickets and 2,723,366
+entered by season tickets. A sum of 2,307,999 francs was obtained by
+concessions for restaurants and "side-shows," upon which the
+administration relied for much of the attractiveness of the exhibition.
+The total expenditure was 44,000,000 francs, and there was a small
+surplus. The space covered in the Champ de Mars, the Trocadero, the
+Palais d'Industrie, the Invalides and the Quai d'Orsay was 72 acres, as
+compared with 66 acres in 1878 and 41 acres in 1867. Amongst the
+novelties was the Eiffel Tower, 1000 ft. in height, and a faithful
+reproduction of a street in Cairo. The system of international juries
+was continued, but instead of gold, silver and copper medals, diplomas
+of various merits were granted, each entitling the holder to a uniform
+medal of bronze. Some of the "side-shows," although perhaps pecuniary
+successes, did not add to the dignity of the exhibition. The date at
+which it was held, the Centenary of the French Revolution, did not
+commend it to several European governments. Austria, Hungary, Belgium,
+China, Egypt, Spain, Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Holland, Peru,
+Portugal, Rumania and Russia took part, but not officially, while
+Germany, Sweden, Turkey and Montenegro were conspicuous by their
+absence. On the other hand, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the United
+States, Greece, Guatemala, Morocco, Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, Paraguay,
+Salvador, the South African Republic, Switzerland, Uruguay and Venezuela
+sent commissioners, who were accredited to the government of the French
+Republic. The total number of exhibitors was 61,722, of which France
+contributed 33,937, and the rest of the world 27,785. The British and
+colonial section was under the management of the Society of Arts, which
+obtained a guarantee fund of £16,800, and, in order to recoup itself
+for its expenditure, made a charge to exhibitors of 5s. per sq. ft. for
+the space occupied. There were altogether 1149 British exhibitors, of
+whom 429 were in the Fine Arts section. One of the features of the
+exhibition was the number of congresses and conferences held in
+connexion with it.
+
+During the year 1890 there was a Mining Exhibition at the Crystal
+Palace, and a Military Exhibition in the grounds of Chelsea Hospital; in
+1891 a Naval Exhibition at Chelsea and an International at Jamaica. In
+1891-1892 there were exhibitions at Palermo and at Launceston in
+Tasmania; in 1892, a Naval Exhibition at Liverpool, and one of
+Electrical Appliances at the Crystal Palace. A series of small national
+exhibitions under private management was held at Earl's Court between
+1887 and 1891. The first of the series was that of the United
+States--Italy followed in 1888, Spain in 1889, France in 1890 and
+Germany in 1891.
+
+The next exhibition of the first order of magnitude was at Chicago in
+1893, and was held in celebration of the 400th anniversary of the
+discovery of America by Columbus. The financial arrangements were
+undertaken by a company, with a capital of £2,000,000. The central
+government at Washington allotted £20,000 for the purposes of foreign
+exhibits, and £300,000 for the erection and administration of a building
+for exhibits from the various government departments. The exhibition was
+held at Jackson Park, a place for public recreation, 580 acres in
+extent, situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, on the southern side of
+the city, with which it was connected by railways and tramways. Special
+provision was made for locomotion in the grounds themselves by a
+continuous travelling platform and an elevated electric railway. The
+proximity of the lake, and of some artificial canals which had been
+constructed, rendered possible the service of electric and steam
+launches; The exhibition remained open from the 1st of May to the 30th
+of October, and was visited by 21,477,212 persons, each of whom paid
+half a dollar (about 2s. 1d.) for admission. The largest number of
+visitors on any one day was 716,881. In addition to its direct vote of
+£320,000, Congress granted £500,000 to the exhibition in a special
+coinage, which sold at an enhanced price. The receipts from admissions
+were £2,120,000; from concessions, £750,000; and the miscellaneous
+receipts, £159,000: total, £3,029,000. The total expenses were
+£5,222,000. Of the sums raised by the Company, £400,000 was returned to
+the subscribers. Speaking roughly, it may be said that the total outlay
+on the Chicago Exhibition was six millions sterling, of which three
+millions were earned by the Fair, two millions subscribed by Chicago and
+a million provided by the United States government. The sums expended by
+the participating foreign governments were estimated at £1,440,000. The
+total area occupied by buildings at Chicago was as nearly as possible
+200 acres, the largest building, that devoted to manufactures, being
+1687 ft. by 787, and 30.5 acres. The funds for the British commission,
+which was under the control of the Society of Arts, were provided by the
+imperial government, which granted £60,000. The number of British
+exhibitors was 2236, of whom 597 were Industrial, 501 Fine Arts and 1138
+Women's work. In this total were included 18 Indian exhibitors. The
+space occupied by Great Britain was 306,285 sq. ft.; and, in addition,
+separate buildings were erected in the grounds. These were Victoria
+House, the headquarters of the British commission; the Indian Pavilion,
+erected by the Indian Tea Association; the Kiosk of the White Star
+Steamship Company; and the structure set up by the Maxim-Nordenfelt
+Company. Canada and New South Wales had separate buildings, which
+covered 100,140 and 50,951 sq. ft. respectively; and Cape Colony
+occupied 5250, Ceylon 27,574, British Guiana 3367, Jamaica 4250,
+Trinidad 3400 and India 3584, sq. ft. in the several buildings. The
+total space occupied by the British Colonies was therefore 193,660 sq.
+ft. The system of awards was considered extremely unsatisfactory.
+Instead of international juries, a single judge was appointed for each
+class, and the recompenses were all of one grade, a bronze medal and a
+diploma, on which was stated the reasons which induced the judge to
+make his decision. Some judges took a high standard, and refused to make
+awards except to a small proportion of selected exhibits; others took a
+low one, and gave awards indiscriminately. About 1183 awards were made
+to British exhibitors. The French refused to accept any awards. The
+value of the British goods exhibited was estimated, exclusive of Fine
+Arts, at £430,000, and the expenses of showing them at £200,000. A large
+expenditure was incurred in the erection of buildings, which were more
+remarkable for their beauty and grandeur than for their suitableness to
+the purposes for which they were intended. Considerable areas were
+devoted to "side-shows," and the Midway Plaisance, as it was termed,
+resembled a gigantic fair. Every country in the world contributed
+something. There were sights and shows of every sort from everywhere.
+The foreign countries represented were Argentina, Austria, Belgium,
+Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçoa,
+Denmark, Danish West Indies, Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece,
+Guatemala, Honduras, Hayti, Japan, Johore, Korea, Liberia, Mexico,
+Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Persia,
+Portugal, Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom and
+Colonies, Uruguay and Venezuela.
+
+Exhibitions were held at Antwerp, Madrid and Bucharest in 1894; Hobart
+in 1894-1895; Bordeaux, 1895; Nizhni Novgorod, Berlin and Buda-Pest in
+1896; Brussels and Brisbane in 1897. A series of exhibitions, under the
+management of the London Exhibitions Company, commenced at Earl's Court
+in 1895 and continued in successive years.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1900 was larger than any which had been
+previously held in Europe. The buildings did not cover so much ground as
+those at Chicago, but many of those at Paris had two or more floors. In
+addition to the localities occupied in 1889, additional space was
+obtained at the Champs Elysées, the park of Vincennes, on the north bank
+of the Seine between the Place de la Concorde, and at the Trocadero. The
+total superficial area occupied was as follows: Champ de Mars, 124
+acres; Esplanade des Invalides, 30 acres; Trocadero Gardens, 40 acres;
+Champs Elysées, 37 acres; quays on left bank of Seine, 23 acres; quays
+on right bank of Seine, 23 acres; park at Vincennes, 270 acres: total,
+549 acres. The space occupied by buildings and covered in amounted to
+4,865,328 sq. ft., 111½ acres. The French section covered 2,691,000 sq.
+ft., the foreign 1,829,880, and those at the park of Vincennes 344,448
+sq. ft. About one hundred French and seventy-five foreign pavilions and
+detached buildings were erected in the grounds in addition to the
+thirty-six official pavilions, which were for the most part along the
+Quai d'Orsay. Funds were raised upon the same system as that adopted in
+1889. The French government granted £800,000, and a similar sum was
+contributed by the municipality of Paris. £2,400,000 was raised by the
+issue of 3,250,000 "bons," each of the value of 20 francs, and
+containing 20 tickets of admission to the exhibition of the face value
+of one franc each, and a document which gave its holder a right either
+to a reduced rate for admission to the different "side-shows" or else to
+a diminution in the railway fare to and from Paris, together with a
+participation in the prizes, amounting to six million francs, drawn at a
+series of lotteries. Permission to erect restaurants, and to open places
+of amusement in buildings erected for that purpose, were sold at high
+prices, and for these privileges, which only realised 2,307,999 francs
+in 1889, the concessionaires agreed to pay 8,864,442 francs in 1900. The
+results did not justify the expectations which had been formed, and the
+administration finally consented to receive a much smaller sum. The
+administration calculated that they would have 65,000,000 paying
+visitors, though there were only 13,000,000 in 1878 and 25,398,609 in
+1889. A very few weeks after the opening day, April 15th, it became
+evident that the estimated figures would not be reached, since a large
+number of holders of "bons" threw them on the market, and the selling
+price of an admission ticket declined from the par value of one franc to
+less than half that amount, or from 30 to 50 centimes. The proprietors
+of the restaurants and "side-shows" discovered that they had paid too
+much for their concessions, that the buildings they had erected were far
+too handsome and costly to be profitable, and that the public preferred
+the exhibition itself to the so-called attractions. The exhibition was
+largely visited by foreigners, but various causes kept away many persons
+of wealth and position. Although many speculators were ruined, the
+exhibition itself was successful. The attendance was unprecedentedly
+large, and during the seven months the exhibition was open, 39,000,000
+persons paid for admission with 47,000,000 tickets, since from two to
+five tickets were demanded at certain times of the day and on certain
+occasions. The entries of exhibitors, attendants and officials totalled
+9,000,000. The receipts were 114,456,213 francs (£4,578,249), and the
+expenditure 116,500,000 (£4,660,000), leaving a deficiency of rather
+more than two millions of francs (£80,000). It was calculated that the
+expenditure of the foreign nations which took part in the exhibition was
+six millions sterling, and of the French exhibitors and concessionaires
+three millions sterling.
+
+A new plan of classifying exhibits was adopted at Paris, all being
+displayed according to their nature, and not according to their country
+of origin, as had been the system at previous exhibitions. One-half the
+space in each group was allotted to France, so that the exhibitors of
+that nation were enabled to overwhelm their rivals by the number and
+magnitude of the objects displayed by them. All the agricultural
+implements, whatever their nationality, were in one place, all the
+ceramics in another, so that there was no exclusively British and no
+exclusively German court. The only exception to this rule was in the
+Trocadero, where the French, British, Dutch, and Portuguese Colonies,
+Algeria, Tunis, Siberia, the South African Republic, China and Japan
+were allowed to erect at their own cost separate pavilions. The greater
+number of the nationalities represented had palaces of their own in the
+rue des Nations along the Quai d'Orsay, in which thoroughfare were to be
+seen the buildings erected by Italy, Turkey, the United States, Denmark,
+Portugal, Austria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Peru, Hungary, the United
+Kingdom, Persia, Belgium, Norway, Luxemburg, Finland, Germany, Spain,
+Bulgaria, Monaco, Sweden, Rumania, Greece, Servia and Mexico. Scattered
+about the grounds, in addition to those in the Trocadero, were the
+buildings of San Marino, Morocco, Ecuador and Korea. Nearly every
+civilized country in the world was represented at the exhibition, the
+most conspicuous absentees being Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and some
+other South and Central American Republics, and a number of the British
+colonies. The most noteworthy attractions of the exhibition were the
+magnificent effects produced by electricity in the palace devoted to it
+in the Chateau d'Eau and in the Hall of Illusions, the two palaces of
+the Fine Arts in the Champs Elysées, and the Bridge over the Seine
+dedicated to the memory of Alexander II. These permanent Fine Art
+palaces were devoted, the one to modern painting and sculpture, the
+other to the works of French artists and art workmen who flourished from
+the dawn of French art up to the end of the 18th century.
+
+The United Kingdom was well but not largely represented both in Fine
+Arts and Manufactures, the administration of the section being in the
+hands of a royal commission, presided over by the prince of Wales. The
+British pavilion contained an important collection of paintings of the
+British school, chiefly by Reynolds, Gainsborough and their
+contemporaries, and by Turner and Burne-Jones. Special buildings had
+been erected by the British colonies and by British India. Canada, West
+Australia and Mauritius occupied the former, India and Ceylon the
+latter. For the first time since the war of 1870 Germany took part in a
+French International Exhibition, and the exhibits showed the great
+industrial progress which had been made since the foundation of the
+empire in 1870. The United States made a fine display, and fairly
+divided the honours with Germany. Remarkable progress was manifested in
+the exhibits of Canada and Hungary. France maintained her superiority in
+all the objects in which good taste was the first consideration, but the
+more utilitarian exhibits were more remarkable for their number than
+their quality, except those connected with electrical work and display,
+automobiles and iron-work. The number of exhibitors in the industrial
+section from the British empire, including India and the colonies, was
+1250, who obtained 1647 awards, as many persons exhibited in several
+classes. There were, in addition, 465 awards for "collaborateurs," that
+is, assistants, engineers, foremen, craftsmen and workmen who had
+co-operated in the production of the exhibits. In the British Fine Arts
+section there were 429 exhibits by 282 exhibitors and 175 awards.
+
+In later years, important international exhibitions have been held at
+Glasgow, and at Buffalo, New York, in 1901, at St Louis (commemorating
+the Louisiana purchase) in 1904, at Liége in 1905, at Milan in 1906, at
+Dublin in 1907, and in London (Franco-British), 1908. In the artistic
+taste and magnificence of their buildings and the interest of their
+exhibits these took their cue from the great Paris Exhibition, and even
+in some cases went beyond it, notably at Buffalo (q.v.), St Louis (q.v.)
+and London. And it might well be thought that the evolution of this type
+of public show had reached its limits.     (G. C. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] An "exhibition," in the sense of a minor scholarship, or annual
+    payment to a student from the funds of a school or college, is a
+    modern survival from the obsolete meaning of "maintenance" or
+    "endowment" (cf. Late Lat. _exhibitio et tegumentum_, i.e. food and
+    raiment).
+
+
+
+
+EXHUMATION (from Med. Lat. _exhumare_; _ex_, out of, and _humus_,
+ground), the act of digging up and removing an object from the ground.
+The word is particularly applied to the removal of a dead body from its
+place of burial. For the offence of exhuming a body without legal
+authority, and the process of obtaining such authority, see BURIAL AND
+BURIAL ACTS.
+
+
+
+
+EXILARCH, in Jewish history, "Chief or Prince of the Captivity." The
+Jews of Babylonia, after the fall of the first temple, were termed by
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel the people of the "Exile." Hence the head of the
+Babylonian Jews was the exilarch (in Aramaic _Resh Galutha_). The office
+was hereditary and carried with it considerable power. Some traditions
+regarded the last king of Davidic descent (Jehoiachin) as the first
+exilarch, and all the later holders of the dignity claimed to be scions
+of the royal house of Judah. Under the Arsacids and Sassanids the office
+continued. In the 6th century an attempt was made to secure by force
+political autonomy for the Jews, but the exilarch who led the movement
+(Mar Zutra) was executed. For some time thereafter the office was in
+abeyance, but under Arabic rule there was a considerable revival of its
+dignity. From the middle of the 7th till the 11th centuries the
+exilarchs were all descendants of Bostanai, through whom "the splendour
+of the office was renewed and its political position made secure"
+(Bacher). The last exilarch of importance was David, son of Zakkai,
+whose contest with Seadiah (q.v.) had momentous consequences. Hezekiah
+(c. 1040) was the last Babylonian exilarch, though the title left its
+traces in later ages. Benjamin of Tudela (_Itinerary_, p. 61) names an
+exilarch Daniel b. Hisdai in the 12th century. Petahiah (_Travels_, p.
+17) records that this Daniel's nephew succeeded to the office jointly
+with a R. Samuel. The latter, according to Petahiah, had a learned
+daughter who "gave instruction, through a window, remaining in the house
+while the disciples were below, unable to see her."
+
+Our chief knowledge of the position and function of the exilarch
+concerns the period beginning with the Arabic rule in Persia. In the age
+succeeding the Mahommedan conquest the exilarch was noted for the
+stately retinue that accompanied him, the luxurious banquets given at
+his abode, and the courtly etiquette that prevailed there. A brilliant
+account has come down of the ceremonies at the installation of a new
+exilarch. Homage was paid to him by the rabbinical heads of the colleges
+(each of whom was called Gaon, q.v.); rich gifts were presented; he
+visited the synagogue in state, where a costly canopy had been erected
+over his seat. The exilarch then delivered a discourse, and in the
+benediction or doxology (_Qaddish_) his name was inserted. Thereafter he
+never left his house except in a carriage of state and in the company of
+a large retinue. He would frequently have audiences of the king, by whom
+he was graciously received. He derived a revenue from taxes which he was
+empowered to exact. The exilarch could excommunicate, and no doubt had
+considerable jurisdiction over the Jews. A spirited description of the
+glories of the exilarch is given in D'Israeli's novel _Alroy_.
+
+  See Neubauer, _Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles_, ii. 68 seq.; Zacuto,
+  _Yuhasin_; Graetz, _Geschichte_, vols. iv.-vi.; Benjamin of Tudela,
+  _Itinerary_, ed. Adler, pp. 39 seq.; Bacher, _Jewish Encyclopaedia_,
+  vol. v. 288.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+EXILE (Lat. _exsilium_ or _exilium_, from _exsul_ or exul, which is
+derived from _ex_, out of, and the root _sal_, to go, seen in _salire_,
+to leap, _consul_, &c.; the connexion with _solum_, soil, country is now
+generally considered wrong), banishment from one's native country by the
+compulsion of authority. In a general sense exile is applied to
+prolonged absence from one's country either through force of
+circumstances or when undergone voluntarily. Among the Greeks, in the
+Homeric age, banishment ([Greek: phugê]) was sometimes inflicted as a
+punishment by the authorities for crimes affecting the general
+interests, but is chiefly known in connexion with cases of homicide.
+With these the state had nothing to do; the punishment of the murderer
+was the duty and privilege of the relatives of the murdered man. Unless
+the relatives could be induced to accept a money payment by way of
+compensation ([Greek: poinê], weregeld; see especially Homer, _Iliad_,
+xviii. 497), in which case the murderer was allowed to remain in the
+country, his only means of escaping punishment was flight to a foreign
+land. If, during his self-imposed exile, the relatives expressed their
+willingness to accept the indemnity, he was at liberty to return and
+resume his position in society.
+
+In later times banishment is (1) a legal punishment for particular
+offences; (2) voluntary.
+
+1. Banishment for life with confiscation of property was inflicted upon
+those who destroyed or uprooted the sacred olives at Athens; upon those
+who remained neutral during a sedition (by a law of Solon, which
+subsequently fell into abeyance); upon those who gave refuge to or
+received on board ship a man who had fled to avoid punishment; upon
+those who wounded with intent to kill and those who prompted them to
+such an act (it is uncertain whether in this case exile was for life or
+temporary); upon any one who wilfully murdered an alien; for impiety.
+Certain political crimes were also similarly punished--treason,
+laconism, sycophancy (see SYCOPHANT), attempts to subvert existing
+decrees. For the peculiar form of banishment called OSTRACISM, see
+separate article.
+
+In cases of voluntary homicide the punishment was death; but (except in
+cases of parricide) the murderer could leave the country unmolested
+after the first day of the trial. He was bound to remain outside Attica,
+and when on foreign soil was not allowed to appear at the public games,
+to enter the temples or take part in sacrifices; but provided that he
+adhered to the prescribed regulations, he was accorded a certain amount
+of protection. Even when a general amnesty was proclaimed, he was not
+allowed to return; if he did so, he might at once be put to death.
+
+Temporary exile (the period of which is uncertain) without confiscation,
+was the punishment for involuntary homicide. As soon as the relatives of
+the deceased became reconciled to the man who had slain him, the latter
+was permitted to return; further, since banishment was only temporary,
+it is reasonable to suppose that the law insisted upon such
+reconciliation.
+
+2. Citizens sometimes voluntarily left the country for other reasons
+(debt, inability to pay a fine). Since extradition was only demanded in
+cases of high treason or other serious offences against the state, the
+fugitive was not interfered with. He was at liberty to return after a
+certain time had elapsed.
+
+Little is known about exile as it affected Sparta and other Greek towns,
+but it is probable that the same conditions prevailed as at Athens.
+
+At Rome, in early times, exile was not a punishment, but rather a means
+of escaping punishment. Before judgment had been finally pronounced it
+was open to any Roman citizen condemned to death to escape the penalty
+by voluntary exile (_solum vertere exsilii causa_). To prevent his
+return, he was interdicted from the use of fire and water; if he broke
+the interdict and returned, any one had the right to put him to death.
+The _aquae et ignis_ (to which _et tecti_ "shelter" is sometimes added)
+_interdictio_ is variously explained as exclusion from the necessaries
+of life, from the symbols of civic communion, or from "the marks of a
+pure society, which the criminal would defile by his further use of
+them." Subsequently (probably at the time of the Gracchi) it became a
+recognized legal penalty, practically equivalent to "exile," taking the
+place of capital punishment. The criminal was permitted to withdraw from
+the city _after_ sentence was pronounced; but in order that this
+withdrawal might as far as possible bear the character of a punishment,
+his departure was sanctioned by a decree of the people which declared
+his exile permanent. Authorities are not agreed whether this exile by
+interdiction entailed loss of _civitas_; according to some this did not
+ensue until (as in earlier times) the criminal had assumed the
+citizenship of the state in which he had taken refuge and thereby lost
+his rights as a citizen of Rome, while others hold that it was not until
+the time of Tiberius (A.D. 23) that _capitis deminutio media_ became the
+direct consequence of trial and conviction. _Interdictio_ was the
+punishment for treason, murder, arson and other serious offences which
+came under the cognizance of the _quaestiones perpetuae_ (permanent
+judicial commissions for certain offences); confiscation of property was
+only inflicted in extreme cases.
+
+Under the Empire _interdictio_ gradually fell into disuse and a new form
+of banishment, introduced by Augustus, called _deportatio_, generally
+_in insulam_, took its place. For some time the two probably existed
+side by side. _Deportatio_ consisted in transportation for life to an
+island (or some place prescribed on the mainland, not of Italy),
+accompanied by loss of _civitas_ and all civil rights, and confiscation
+of property. The most dreaded places of exile were the islands of
+Gyarus, Sardinia, an oasis in the desert (_quasi in insulam_) of Libya;
+Crete, Cyprus and Rhodes were considered more tolerable. Large bodies of
+persons were also transported in this manner; thus Tiberius sent 4000
+freedmen to Sardinia for Jewish or Egyptian superstitious practices.
+_Deportatio_ was originally inflicted upon political criminals, but in
+course of time became more particularly a means of removing those whose
+wealth and popularity rendered them objects of suspicion. It was also a
+punishment for the following offences: adultery, murder, poisoning,
+forgery, embezzlement, sacrilege and certain cases of immorality.
+
+_Relegatio_ was a milder form of _deportatio_. It either excluded the
+person banished from one specified district only, with permission to
+choose a residence elsewhere, or the place of exile was fixed.
+_Relegatio_ could be either temporary or for life, but it did not in
+either case carry with it loss of _civitas_ or property, nor was the
+exile under military surveillance, as in the case of _deportatio_. Thus,
+Ovid, when in exile at Tomi, says (_Tristia_, v. ii): "he (i.e. the
+emperor) has not deprived me of life, nor of wealth, nor of the rights
+of a citizen ... he has simply ordered me to leave my home." He calls
+himself _relegatus_, not _exsul_.
+
+In later writers the word _exsilium_ is used in the sense of all its
+three forms--_aquae et ignis interdictio_, _deportatio_ and _relegatio_.
+
+In England the first enactment legalizing banishment dates from the
+reign of Elizabeth (39 Eliz. c. 4), which gave power to banish from the
+realm "such rogues as are dangerous to the inferior people." A statute
+of Charles II. (18 Car. II. c. 3) gave power to execute or to transport
+to America for life the mosstroopers of Cumberland and Northumberland.
+Banishment or transportation for criminal offences was regulated by an
+act of 1824 (5 Geo. IV. s. 84) and finally abolished by the Penal
+Servitude Acts 1853 and 1857 (see further DEPORTATION). The word exile
+has sometimes, though wrongly, been applied to the sending away from a
+country of those who are not natives of it, but who may be temporary or
+even permanent residents in it (see ALIEN; EXPATRIATION; EXPULSION).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.J. Thonissen, _Le Droit pénal de la république
+  athénienne_ (Brussels, 1875); G.F. Schömann, _Griechische Altertümer_
+  (4th ed., 1897), p. 46; T. Mommsen, _Rönmisches Strafrecht_ (1899),
+  pp. 68, 964, and _Römisches Staatsrecht_ (1887), iii. p. 48; L.M.
+  Hartmann, _De exilio apud Rumanos_ (Berlin, 1887); F. von
+  Holtzendorff-Vietmansdorf, _Die Deportationsstrafe im römischen
+  Alterthum_ (Leipzig, 1859); articles in Smith's _Dict. of Greek and
+  Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890) and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dict.
+  des antiquités_ (C. Lécrivain and G. Humbert).
+
+
+
+
+
+EXILI, an Italian chemist and poisoner in the 17th century. His real
+name was probably Nicolo Egidi or Eggidio. Few authentic details of his
+life exist. Tradition, however, credits him with having been originally
+the salaried poisoner at Rome of Olympia Maidalchina, the mistress of
+Pope Innocent X. Subsequently he became a gentleman in waiting to Queen
+Christina of Sweden, whose taste for chemistry may have influenced this
+appointment. In 1663 his presence in France aroused the suspicions of
+the French government, and he was imprisoned in the Bastille. Here he is
+said to have made the acquaintance of Godin de Sainte-Croix, the lover
+of the marquise de Brin-villiers (q.v.). After three months'
+imprisonment, powerful influences secured Exili's release, and he left
+France for England. In 1681 he was again in Italy, where he married the
+countess Fantaguzzi, second cousin of Duke Francis of Modena.
+
+
+
+
+EXMOOR FOREST, a high moorland in Somersetshire and Devonshire, England.
+The uplands of this district are bounded by the low alluvial plain of
+Sedgemoor on the east, by the lower basin of the Exe on the south, by
+the basin of the Taw (in part) on the west, and by the Bristol Channel
+on the north. The area thus defined, however, includes not only Exmoor
+but the Brendon and Quantock Hills east of it. Excluding these, the
+total area in the district lying at an elevation exceeding 1000 ft. is
+about 120 sq. m. The geological formation is Devonian. The ancient
+forest had an area of about 20,000 acres, and was enclosed in 1815.
+Large tracts are still uncultivated; and the wild red deer and native
+Exmoor pony are characteristic of the district. The highest point is
+Dunkery Beacon in the east (1707 ft.), but Span Head in the south-west
+is 1618 ft., and a height of 1500 ft. is exceeded at several points. The
+Exe, Barle, Lyn and other streams, traversing deep picturesque valleys
+except in their uppermost courses, are in favour with trout fishermen.
+The few villages, such as Exford, Withypool and Simonsbath, with Lynton
+and Lynmouth on the coast, afford centres for tourists and sportsmen.
+Exmoor is noted for its stag hunting. The district has a further fame
+through Richard Blackmore's novel, _Lorna Doone_.
+
+
+
+
+EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW, 1ST VISCOUNT (1757-1833), English admiral, was
+descended from a family which came originally from Normandy, but had for
+many centuries been settled in the west of Cornwall. He was born at
+Dover, on the 19th of April 1757. At the age of thirteen he entered the
+navy, and even then his smartness and activity, his feats of daring, and
+his spirit of resolute independence awakened remark, and pointed him out
+as one specially fitted to distinguish himself in his profession. He had,
+however, no opportunity of active service till 1776, when, at the battle
+of Lake Champlain, his gallantry, promptitude and skill, not only saved
+the "Carleton"--whose command had devolved upon him during the progress
+of the battle--from imminent danger, but enabled her to take a prominent
+part in sinking two of the enemy's ships. For his services on this
+occasion he obtained a lieutenant's commission, and the command of the
+schooner in which he had so bravely done his duty. The following year, in
+command of a brigade of seamen, he shared in the hardships and perils of
+the American campaign of General Burgoyne. In 1782, in command of the
+"Pelican," he attacked three French privateers inside the Île de Batz,
+and compelled them to run themselves on shore--a feat for which he was
+rewarded by the rank of post-captain. On the outbreak of the French War
+in 1793, he was appointed to the "Nymphe," a frigate of 36 guns; and,
+notwithstanding that for the sake of expedition she was manned chiefly by
+Cornish miners, he captured, after a desperate conflict, the French
+frigate "La Cléopâtre," a vessel of equal strength. For this act he
+obtained the honour of knighthood. In 1794 he received the command of the
+"Arethusa" (38), and in a fight with the French frigate squadron off the
+Île de Batz he compelled the "Pomona" (44) to surrender. The same year
+the western squadron was increased and its command divided, the second
+squadron being given to Sir Edward Pellew in the "Indefatigable" (44).
+While in command of this squadron he, on several occasions, performed
+acts of great personal daring; and for his bravery in boarding the
+wrecked transport "Dutton," and his promptitude and resolution in
+adopting measures so as to save the lives of all on board, he was in 1796
+created a baronet. In 1798 he joined the channel fleet, and in command of
+the "Impétueux" (74) took part in several actions with great distinction.
+In 1802 Sir Edward Pellew was elected member of parliament for Dunstable,
+and during the time that he sat in the Commons he was a strenuous
+supporter of Pitt. In 1804 he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and
+appointed commander-in-chief in India, where, by his vigilance and
+rapidity of movement, he entirely cleared the seas of French cruisers,
+and secured complete protection to English commerce. He returned to
+England in 1809, and in 1810 was appointed commander-in-chief in the
+North Sea, and in 1811 commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. In 1814
+he was created Baron Exmouth of Canonteign, and in the following year was
+made K.C.B., and a little later G.C.B. When the dey of Algiers, in 1816,
+violated the treaty for the abolition of slavery, Exmouth was directed to
+attack the town. Accordingly, on the 26th of August, he engaged the
+Algerine battery and fleet, and after a severe action of nine hours'
+duration, he set on fire the arsenal and every vessel of the enemy's
+fleet, and shattered the sea defences into ruins. At the close of the
+action the dey apologized for his conduct, and agreed to a renewal of the
+treaty, at the same time delivering up over three thousand persons of
+various nationalities who had been Algerine slaves. For this splendid
+victory Exmouth was advanced to the dignity of viscount. Shortly before
+his death, which took place on the 23rd of January 1833, he was made
+vice-admiral.
+
+He had married Susan (d. 1837), daughter of James Frowde of Knoyle,
+Wiltshire, who bore him four sons and two daughters. His eldest son,
+Pownoll Bastard Pellew (1786-1833), became 2nd Viscount Exmouth, and his
+descendant, Edward Addington Hargreaves Pellew (b. 1890), became the 5th
+viscount in 1899.
+
+Exmouth's second son, Sir Fleetwood Broughton Reynolds Pellew
+(1789-1861), was like his father an admiral. The third son was George
+Pellew (1793-1866), author and divine, who married Frances (d. 1870),
+daughter of the prime minister, Lord Sidmouth, and wrote his
+father-in-law's life (_The Life and Correspondence of Henry Addington,
+1st Viscount Sidmouth_, 1847).
+
+Exmouth had a brother, Sir Israel Pellew (1758-1832), also an admiral,
+who was present at the battle of Trafalgar.
+
+  A _Life_ of the 1st viscount, by Edward Osler, was published in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+EXMOUTH, a market-town, seaport and watering-place in the Honiton
+parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, at the mouth of the river
+Exe, 10½ m. S.E. by S. of Exeter by the London & South-Western railway.
+Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,485. In the 18th century it consisted
+of a primitive fishing village at the base of Beacon Hill, a height
+commanding fine views over the estuary and the English Channel. After
+its more modern terraces were built up the hillside, Exmouth became the
+first seaside resort in Devon. Its excellent bathing and the beauty of
+its coast and moorland scenery attract many visitors in summer, while it
+is frequented in winter by sufferers from pulmonary disease. The climate
+is unusually mild, as a range of hills shelters the town on the east. A
+promenade runs along the sea wall; there are golf links and public
+gardens, and the port is a favourite yachting centre, a regatta being
+held annually. Near the town is a natural harbour called the Bight. The
+local industries include fishing, brick-making and the manufacture of
+Honiton lace. Exmouth was early a place of importance, and in 1347
+contributed 10 vessels to the fleet sent to attack Calais. It once
+possessed a fort or "castelet," designed to command the estuary of the
+Exe. This fort, which was garrisoned for the king during the Civil War,
+was blockaded and captured by Colonel Shapcoate in 1646.
+
+
+
+
+EXODUS, BOOK OF, in the Bible, a book of the Old Testament which derives
+its name, through the Greek, from the event which forms the most
+prominent feature of the history it narrates, viz. the deliverance of
+Israel from Egypt. Strictly speaking, however, this title is applicable
+to the first half only, the historical portion of the book, and takes no
+account of those chapters which describe the giving of the Law on Mt.
+Sinai, nor of those which deal with the Tabernacle and its furniture. By
+the Jews it is usually styled after its opening words [Hebrew: We'eleh
+Shemoth] (_We'eleh Shemoth_) or, more briefly, [Hebrew: Shemoth]
+(_Shemoth_).
+
+In its present form the book sets forth (a) the oppression of the
+Israelites in Egypt (ch. i.), (b) the birth and education of Moses, and
+his flight to the land of Midian (ch. ii.), (c) the theophany at Mt.
+Horeb (the Burning Bush), and the subsequent commission of Moses and
+Aaron (iii. 1-iv. 17), (d) the return of Moses to Egypt, and his appeal
+to Pharaoh which results in the further oppression of Israel (iv.
+18-vii. 7), (e) the plagues of Egypt (vii. 8-xi. 10), (f) the
+institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the
+last plague, and Israel's departure from Egypt (xii. 1-xiii. 16), (g)
+the crossing of the Red Sea and the discomfiture of the Egyptians, the
+Song of Triumph, the sending of the manna and other incidents of the
+journeying through the wilderness (xiii. 17-xviii. 27), (h) the giving
+of the Law, including the Decalogue and the so-called Book of the
+Covenant, on Sinai-Horeb (xix.-xxiv.), (i) directions for the building
+of the Tabernacle and for the consecration of the priests (xxv.-xxxi.),
+(j) the sin of the Golden Calf, and another earlier version of the first
+legislation (xxxii.-xxxiv.), (k) the construction of the Tabernacle and
+its erection (xxxv.-xl.). The book of Exodus, however, like the other
+books of the Hexateuch, is a composite work which has passed, so to
+speak, through many editions; hence the order of events given above
+cannot lay claim to any higher authority than that of the latest editor.
+Moreover, the documents from which the book has been compiled belong to
+different periods in the history of Israel, and each of them,
+admittedly, reflects the standpoint of the age in which it was written.
+Hence it follows that the contents of the book are not of equal
+historical value; and though the claim of a passage to be considered
+historical is not necessarily determined by the age of the source from
+which it is derived, yet, in view of the known practice of Hebrew
+writers, greater weight naturally attaches to the earlier documents in
+those cases in which the sources are at variance with one another. Any
+attempt, therefore, at restoring the actual course of history must be
+preceded by an inquiry into the source of the various contents of the
+book.
+
+The sources from which the book of Exodus has been compiled are the same
+as those which form the basis of the book of Genesis, while the method
+of composition is very similar. Here, too, the strongly marked
+characteristics of P, or the Priestly Document, as opposed to JE, enable
+us to determine the extent of that document with comparative ease; but
+the absence, in some cases, of conclusive criteria prevents any final
+judgment as to the exact limits of the two strands which have been
+united in the composite JE. The latter statement applies especially to
+the legislative portions of the book: in the historical sections the
+separation of the two sources gives rise to fewer difficulties. It does
+not, however, lie within the scope of the present article to examine the
+various sources underlying the narrative with any minuteness, but rather
+to sum up those results of modern criticism which have been generally
+accepted by Old Testament scholars. To this end it will be convenient to
+treat the subject-matter of the book under three main heads: (a) the
+historical portion (ch. i.-xviii.), (b) the sections dealing with the
+giving of the Law (xix.-xxiv., xxxii.-xxxiv.), and (c) the construction
+of the Tabernacle and its furniture (xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl.).
+
+  (a) _Israel in Egypt and the Exodus_ (ch. i.-xviii.). (1) i. 1-vii.
+  13.--The analysis of these chapters shows that the history, in the
+  main, has been derived from the two sources J and E, chiefly the
+  former, and that a later editor has included certain passages from P,
+  besides introducing a slight alteration of the original order and
+  other redactional changes. The combined narrative of JE sets forth the
+  rise of a new king in Egypt, who endeavoured to check the growing
+  strength of the children of Israel; it thus prepares the way for the
+  birth of Moses, his early life in Egypt, his flight to Midian and
+  marriage with Zipporah, the theophany at Mt. Horeb, and his divine
+  commission to deliver Israel from Egypt.
+
+  At the very outset the two sources betray their divergent origin and
+  point of view. According to J (i. 6, 8-12, 20b) the Israelites dwell
+  apart in the province of Goshen, and their numbers become so great as
+  to call for severe measures of repression, the method employed being
+  that of forced labour. E, on the other hand (i. 15-20a, 21, 22),
+  represents them as living among the Egyptians, and so few in number
+  that two midwives satisfy their requirements. It is to this latter
+  source that we owe the account of the birth of Moses and of his
+  education at the court of Pharaoh (ii. 1-10). On reaching manhood
+  Moses openly displays his sympathy with his brethren by slaying an
+  Egyptian, and has, in consequence, to flee to Midian, where he marries
+  Zipporah, the daughter of the priest of Midian (ii. 11-22). In this
+  section the editor has undoubtedly made use of the parallel narrative
+  of J, though it is impossible to determine the exact point at which
+  J's account is introduced: certainly ii. 15b-22 belong to that
+  source.[1] The narrative of the call of Moses is by no means uniform,
+  and shows obvious traces of twofold origin (J iii. 2-4a, 5, 7, 8,
+  16-18; iv. 1-12 (13-16), 29-31; E iii. 1, 4b, 6, 9-14, 21, 22; iv. 17,
+  18, 20b, 27, 28). These two sources present striking points of
+  difference, which reappear in the subsequent narrative. According to
+  E, Moses with Aaron is to demand from Pharaoh the release of Israel,
+  which will be effected in spite of his opposition; in assurance
+  thereof the promise is given that they shall serve God upon this
+  mountain; moreover, the people on their departure are to borrow
+  raiment and jewels from their Egyptian neighbours. According to J, on
+  the other hand, the spokesmen are to be Moses and the elders; and
+  their request is for a temporary departure only, viz. "three days'
+  journey into the wilderness"; their departure from Egypt is a hurried
+  one. Yet another difficulty, which disappears as soon as the composite
+  character of the narrative is recognized, is that of the signs. In J
+  three signs are given for the purpose of reassuring Moses, only one of
+  which is wrought with the rod (iv. 1-9), but in iv. 17 (E) the
+  reference is clearly to entirely different signs, probably the plagues
+  of Egypt, which according to E were invariably wrought by "the rod of
+  God." Further, it is questionable if the passage iv. 13-16 really
+  forms part of the original narrative of J, and is not rather to be
+  ascribed to the redactor of JE. The name of Aaron has certainly been
+  introduced by a later hand in J's account of the plague of frogs
+  (viii. 12), and the only passage in J in which Aaron is represented as
+  taking an active part is iv. 29-31, where the mention of his name
+  causes no little difficulty.[2] In E, on the other hand, Aaron is sent
+  by God to meet Moses at Mt. Horeb, after the latter had taken leave of
+  Jethro, and, later on, accompanies him into the presence of Pharaoh.
+  The succeeding narrative (v. 1-vi. 1) is mainly taken from J, though
+  E's account of the first interview with Pharaoh has been partially
+  retained in v. 1, 2, 4. Moses and the elders ask leave to go three
+  days' journey into the wilderness to sacrifice to Yahweh, a request
+  which is met by an increase of the burdensome work of brick-making:
+  henceforward the Israelites have to provide their own straw. The
+  people complain bitterly to Moses, who appeals to Yahweh and is
+  assured by him of the future deliverance of Israel "by a strong hand."
+
+  With the exception of the genealogical list (i. 1-5) and the brief
+  notices of the increase of Israel (i. 7) and of its oppression at the
+  hands of the Egyptians (i. 13, 14; ii. 23b-25), the narrative so far
+  exhibits no traces of P[3]. But in vi. 2-vii. 13 we are confronted
+  with a narrative which carries us back to ii. 23b-25 and gives
+  practically a parallel account to that of JE in ch. iii.-v. Thus the
+  revelation of the divine name, vi. 2f., finds its counterpart in iii.
+  10f., the message to be delivered to Israel (vi. 6f.) is very similar
+  to that of ch. iii. 16f., while the demand which is to be addressed to
+  Pharaoh is identical with that which had been already refused in ch.
+  v. No allusion, however, is made by Moses to this previous demand; he
+  merely urges the same objection as that put forward in iv. 10f. With
+  the resumption[4] of the story in vi. 28f. Moses reiterates his
+  objection, and is told that Aaron shall be his "prophet" and speak for
+  him, and shall also perform the sign of the rod (cf. iv. 2-4). The
+  sign, however, has no effect on Pharaoh (vii. 13), and we thus reach
+  the same point in the narrative as at vi. 1. Apart from the literary
+  characteristics which clearly differentiate this narrative from the
+  preceding accounts of J and E, the following points of variation are
+  worthy of consideration: (1) The people refuse to listen to Moses; (2)
+  Aaron is appointed to be Moses' spokesman, not with the _people_, but
+  with Pharaoh; (3) _one_ sign is given (not _three_) and performed
+  before Pharaoh; (4) the rod is turned into a reptile (_tannin_), not a
+  serpent (_nahash_).
+
+  (2) vii. 14-xi. 10. _The First Plagues of Egypt._--In this section the
+  analysis again reveals three main sources, which are clearly marked
+  off from one another both by their linguistic features and by their
+  difference of representation. The principal source is J, from which
+  are derived six plagues, viz. killing of the fish in the river (vii.
+  14, 16, 17a, 18, 21a, 24, 25), frogs (viii. 1-4, 8-150), insects
+  (viii. 20-32), murrain (ix. 1-7), hail (ix. 13-18, 23b, 24b, 25b-34),
+  locusts (x. 1a, 3-11, 13b, 14b, 15a, c-19, 24-26, 28, 29), the threat
+  to slay all the first-born (xi. 4-8). The most striking characteristic
+  of this narrative is that the plagues are represented as mainly due to
+  natural causes and follow a natural sequence. Thus Yahweh smites the
+  river so that the fish die and render the water undrinkable. This is
+  succeeded by a plague of frogs. The swarms of flies and insects, which
+  next appear, are the natural outcome of the decaying masses of frogs,
+  and these, in turn, would form a natural medium for the spread of
+  cattle disease. Destructive hailstorms, again, though rare, are not
+  unknown in Egypt, while the locusts are definitely stated to have been
+  brought by a strong east wind. Other distinctive features of J's
+  narrative are: (1) Moses alone is bidden to interview Pharaoh (vii. 14
+  f.; viii. 1 f., 20 f.; ix. 1 f., 13 f.; x. 1 f.); (2) on each occasion
+  he makes a formal demand; (3) on Pharaoh's refusal the plague is
+  announced, and takes place at a fixed time without any human
+  intervention; (4) when the plague is sent, Pharaoh sends for Moses and
+  entreats his intercession, promising in most cases to accede in part
+  to his request; when the plague is removed, however, the promise is
+  left unfulfilled, the standing phrase being "and Pharaoh's heart was
+  heavy ([Hebrew: kaved])," or "and Pharaoh made heavy ([Hebrew:
+  hihbid]) his heart"; (5) the plagues do not affect the children of
+  Israel in Goshen. E's account (water turned into blood, vii. 15, 17b,
+  20b, 23; hail, ix. 22, 23a, 24a, 25a, 35; locusts, x. 12, 13a, 14a,
+  15b) is more fragmentary, having been doubtless superseded in most
+  cases by the fuller and more graphic narrative of J, but the plague of
+  darkness (x. 20-23, 27) is found only in this source. As contrasted
+  with J the narrative emphasizes the miraculous character of the
+  plagues. They are brought about by "the rod of God," which Moses
+  wields, the effect being instantaneous and all-embracing. The
+  Israelites are represented as living among the Egyptians, and enjoy no
+  immunity from the plagues, except that of darkness. Their departure
+  from Egypt is deliberate; the people have time to borrow raiment and
+  jewels from their neighbours. E regularly uses the phrase "and
+  Pharaoh's heart was strong ([Hebrew: hazak])," or "and Yahweh made
+  strong ([Hebrew: hizek]) Pharaoh's heart" and "he would not let the
+  children of Israel (or, them) go." In the priestly narrative (P) the
+  plagues assume the form of a trial of skill between Aaron, who acts at
+  Moses' command, and the Egyptian magicians, and thus connect with vii.
+  8-13. The magicians succeed in turning the Nile water into blood (vii.
+  19, 20a, 21b, 22), and in bringing up frogs (viii. 5-7), but they fail
+  to bring forth lice (viii. 15b-19), and are themselves smitten with
+  boils (ix. 8-12): the two last-named plagues have no parallel either
+  in J or E. Throughout the P sections Aaron is associated with Moses,
+  and the regular command given to the latter is "Say unto Aaron": no
+  demand is ever made to Pharaoh, and the description of the plague is
+  quite short. The formula employed by P is "and Pharaoh's heart was
+  strong ([Hebrew: hazak])," or, "and Pharaoh made strong ([Hebrew:
+  hizek]) his heart," as in E, but it is distinguished from E's phrase
+  by the addition of "and he hearkened not unto them as Yahweh had
+  spoken."
+
+  (3) xii. i-xiii. 16. _The Last Plague, the Deliverance from Egypt, the
+  Institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the
+  Consecration of the First-born._--This section presents the usual
+  phenomena of a composite narrative, viz. repetitions and
+  inconsistencies. Thus J's regulations for the Passover (xii. 21-23,
+  27b) seem at first sight simply to repeat the commands given to Moses
+  and Aaron in xii. 1-13 (P), but in reality they are a parallel and
+  divergent account. In vv. 1-13 the choice of the lamb and the manner
+  in which it is to be eaten constitute the essential feature, the
+  smearing with the blood being quite secondary; in vv. 21 f. the latter
+  point is all-important, and no regulations are given for the paschal
+  meal (which, possibly, formed no part of J's original account).
+  Similarly the institution of the Feast of _Mazzoth_, or Unleavened
+  Cakes (xiii. 3-10J), does not form the sequel to the regulations laid
+  down in xii. 14-20 (P), but is independent of them: it omits all
+  reference to the "holy convocations" and to the abstinence from
+  labour, and is obviously simpler and more primitive. J's account,
+  again, makes important exceptions (xiii. 11-13) to the severe
+  enactment of P with reference to the first-born (xiii. 1). The
+  description of the smiting of the first-born of Egypt is derived from
+  J (xii. 29-34, 37-39), who clearly sees in the Feast of _Mazzoth_ a
+  perpetual reminder of the haste with which the Israelites fled from
+  Egypt; the editor of JE, however, has included some extracts from E
+  (xii. 31, 35, 36), which point to a more deliberate departure. The
+  section has been worked over by a Deuteronomistic editor, whose hand
+  can be clearly traced in the additions xii. 24-27a; xiii. 3b, 5, 8, 9,
+  14-16.
+
+  (4) xiii. 17-xv. 21. _The Crossing of the Red Sea._--According to J
+  the children of Israel departed from Egypt under the guidance of
+  Yahweh, who leads them by day in a pillar of cloud and by night in a
+  pillar of fire (xiii. 21, 22). On hearing of their flight Pharaoh at
+  once starts in pursuit. The Israelites, terrified by the approach of
+  the Egyptians, upbraid Moses, who promises them deliverance by the
+  hand of Yahweh (xiv. 5, 6,-7b, 10a, 11-14, 19b). Yahweh then causes a
+  strong east wind to blow all that night, which drives back the waters
+  from the shallows, and so renders it possible for the host of Israel
+  to cross over. The Egyptians follow, but the progress of their
+  chariots is hindered by the soft sand, and in the morning they are
+  caught by the returning waters (xiv. 21b, 24, 25, 27b, 28b, 30). The
+  story, however, has been combined with the somewhat different account
+  of E, which doubtless covered the same ground, and also with that of
+  P. According to the former, Elohim did not permit the Israelites to
+  take the shorter route to Canaan by the Mediterranean coast, for fear
+  of the Philistines, but led them southwards to the Red Sea, whither
+  they were pursued by the Egyptians (xiii. 17-19). The remainder of E's
+  account has only been preserved in a fragmentary form (xiv. 7aa, 10b,
+  15a, 19a, 20a), from which it may be gathered that Moses divided the
+  waters by stretching out his rod, thus presupposing that the crossing
+  took place by day, and that the dark cloud which divided the two hosts
+  was miraculously caused by the angel of God. P also represents the sea
+  as divided by means of Moses' rod, but heightens the effect by
+  describing the crossing as taking place between walls of water (xiii.
+  20; xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 15b, 16b-18, 21a, c, 22, 23, 26, 27a, 28a, 29).
+
+  J's version of the Song of Moses probably does not extend beyond xv.
+  1, and has its counterpart in the very similar song of Miriam (E), in
+  vv. 20, 21. The rest of the song (vv. 2-18) is probably the work of a
+  later writer; for these verses set forth not only the deliverance from
+  Egypt, but also the entrance of Israel into Canaan (vv. 13-17), and
+  further presuppose the existence of the temple (vv. 13b, 17b). These
+  phenomena have been explained as due to later expansion, but the poem
+  has all the appearance of being a unity, and the language, style and
+  rhythm all point to a later age. Verse 19 is probably the work of the
+  redactor (R^P) who inserted the song.
+
+  (5) xv. 22-xviii. 27. _Incidents in the Wilderness._--The narrative of
+  the first journeying in the wilderness (xv. 22-xvii. 7) presents a
+  series of difficulties which probably owe their origin to the
+  editorial activity of R^P, who appears to have transferred to the
+  beginning of the wanderings a number of incidents which rightly belong
+  to the end. The concluding verses of ch. xv. contain J's account of
+  the sweetening of the waters of Marah, with which has been
+  incorporated a fragment of E's story of Massah (xv. 25b) and a
+  Deuteronomic expansion in v. 26. Then follows (ch. xvi.) P's version
+  of the sending of the manna and quails. In its present form, this
+  narrative contains a number of conflicting elements, which can only be
+  the result of editorial activity. Thus vv. 6, 7 must originally have
+  preceded vv. 11, 12, though the redactor has attempted to evade the
+  difficulty by inserting v. 8. Again, the account of the quails, which
+  is obviously incomplete, is undoubtedly derived from Num. xi.; but the
+  latter account, which admittedly belongs to JE, places the incident at
+  the end of the wanderings. Closer examination also of P's narrative of
+  the manna shows that its true-position is _after_ the departure from
+  Mt. Sinai; cf. the expressions used in vv. 9, 10, 33, 34, implying the
+  existence of the ark and the tabernacle. P's account of the manna,
+  however, can hardly have stood originally in close juxtaposition with
+  his account of the quails (cf. Num. xi. 6), but the two narratives
+  were probably combined by R^P before they were transferred to their
+  present position. The same redactor doubtless added v. 8 (and possibly
+  vv. 17, 18) by way of explanation, and vv. 5 and 22-30, which imply
+  that the law of the Sabbath was already known, and introduce a fresh
+  element into the story. A plausible explanation of R^P's action is
+  supplied by the theory that an earlier account of the giving of the
+  manna already existed at this point of the narrative. We know from
+  Deuteronomy viii. 2 f., 16 that JE contained an account of the manna,
+  which included the explanation of Ex. xvi. 15, and also emphasized, as
+  the motive for the gift, Yahweh's desire "to prove thee (i.e. test thy
+  disposition) ... whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or no."
+  Fragments of this early story of Massah (testing) were incorporated by
+  R^P in his story of the manna and the quails, viz. xv. 25b; xvi. 4,
+  15, 16a, 19b-21. These verses must be assigned to E, for in xvii. 3,
+  2c (wherefore do ye tempt the Lord?), 7a (to _Massah_), c (because
+  they tempted ..., &c.), we find yet another version (J) of the same
+  incident, according to which the people tempted (tested) Yahweh. It
+  was owing to the combination of this latter account with E's further
+  description of the striving of the people for water at Meribah that
+  the double name Massah-Meribah arose, xvii. 1b-7 (1a belongs to P),
+  though Deut. xxxiii. 8 makes it clear that Massah and Meribah were
+  separate localities (cf. Deut. ix. 22, 2 f., 16, where Massah occurs
+  alone): P's version of striving at Meribah, in which traces of J's
+  account have been preserved, is given at Num. xx. 1-13.
+
+  xvii. 8-16. _The Battle with Amalek at Rephidim._--This incident is
+  derived from E, but is clearly out of place in its present context.
+  Its close connexion with the end of the wanderings is shown by (a) the
+  description of Moses as an infirm old man; (b) the rôle played by
+  Joshua in contrast with xxiv. 13, xxxiii. 11, where he is introduced
+  as a young man and Moses' minister; and (c) the references elsewhere
+  to the home of the Amalekites: according to Num. xiii. 29, xiv. 25,
+  xliii. 45, they dwelt in the S. or S.W. of Judah near Kadesh (cf. 1
+  Sam. xv. 6 f., 30; Gen. xiv. 7; xxxvi. 12).
+
+  Ch. xviii. _The visit of Jethro to Moses and the appointment of
+  judges._--This story, like the preceding one, is mainly derived from E
+  and is also out of place. Allusions in the chapter itself point
+  unmistakably to a time just before the departure from Sinai-Horeb, and
+  this date is confirmed both by Deut. i. 9-16 and by the parallel
+  account of J in Num. x. 29-32. The narrative, however, displays signs
+  of compilation, and it is not improbable that R^JE has incorporated in
+  vv. 7-11 part of J's account of the visit of Moses' father-in-law (cf.
+  the use of Yahweh).
+
+  (b) Ch. xix.-xxiv., xxxii., xxxiv.--The contents of these chapters,
+  which, owing to their contents, form the most important section in the
+  book of Exodus, may be briefly analysed as follows. In ch. xix. we
+  have a twofold description of the theophany on Mt. Sinai (or Horeb),
+  followed by the Decalogue in xx. 1-17. Alongside of this code we find
+  another, dealing in part with the civil and social (xxi. 2-xxii. 17),
+  in part with the religious life of Israel, the so-called Book of the
+  Covenant, xx. 22-xxiii. 19. Ch. xxiv. contains a composite narrative
+  of the ratification of the covenant. In chs. xxxii. and xxxiii. we
+  have again two narratives of the sin of the people and of Moses'
+  intercession, while in ch. xxxiv. we are confronted with yet another
+  early code, which is practically identical with the religious
+  enactments of xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii. 10-19.
+
+  With but few exceptions the _provenance_ of the individual sections
+  may be said to have been finally determined by the labours of the
+  critics, but even a cursory examination of their contents makes it
+  evident that the sequence of events, which they now present, cannot be
+  original, but is rather the outcome of a long process of revision,
+  during which the text has suffered considerably from alterations,
+  omissions, dislocations and additions. Yet owing to the method of
+  composition employed by Hebrew editors, or revisers, it is possible in
+  this case, as in others, not only to determine the source of each
+  individual passage, but also to trace with considerable confidence the
+  various stages in the process by which it reached its final form and
+  position. It must, however, be admitted that the evidence at our
+  disposal is, in some cases, capable of more than one interpretation.
+  Hence a final conclusion can hardly be expected, but with certain
+  modifications in detail the following solution of the problem may be
+  accepted as representing the point of view of recent criticism.
+
+  Ch. xix. contains two parallel accounts of the theophany on
+  Horeb-Sinai, from E and J respectively, which differ materially from
+  one another. According to the former, Moses is instructed by God
+  (Elohim) to sanctify the _people_ against the third day (vv. 9a, 10,
+  11a). This is done and the people are brought by Moses to the foot of
+  the mountain (Horeb), where they hear the divine voice (14-17, 19). A
+  noticeable feature of this narrative, of which xx. 18-21 forms a
+  natural continuation, is the fact that the theophany is addressed to
+  the _people_, who are too frightened to remain near the mountain
+  itself. In J, on the other hand, it is the _priests_ who are
+  sanctified, and great care must be taken to prevent the people from
+  "breaking through to gaze" (20-22). In this account the mountain is
+  called "Sinai" throughout, and "Yahweh" appears instead of "Elohim"
+  (11b, 18, 20 f.). Moreover, Moses and Aaron and the priests are
+  summoned to the top of the mount (in v. 24b render "thou and Aaron
+  with thee, and the priests: but let not the people," &c.). Vv. 3b-8,
+  which have been expanded by a Deuteronomic editor, have been
+  transferred from their original context after xx. 21; the introductory
+  verses 1, 2a form part of P's itinerary.
+
+  Of the succeeding legislation in xx.-xxiii., xxxii.-xxxiv.,
+  undoubtedly the earlier sections are xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii.
+  10-19, and xxxiv. 10-26, which contain regulations with regard to
+  worship and religious festivals, and form the basis of the covenant
+  made by Yahweh with Israel on Sinai-Horeb, as recorded by E and J
+  respectively. The narrative which introduces the covenant laws of J
+  has been preserved partly in its present context, ch. xxxiv., partly
+  in xxiv. 1, 2, 9-11; the narrative of E, on the other hand, has in
+  part disappeared owing to the interpolation of later material, in part
+  has been retained in xxiv. 3-8. J's narrative xxiv. 1 f., 9-11 clearly
+  forms the continuation of xix. 20 f., 11b, 13, 25, but the
+  introductory words of v. 1, "and unto Moses he said," point to some
+  omission. Originally, no doubt, it included the recital of the divine
+  instructions to the people in accordance with xix. 21 f., 11b-13, the
+  statement that Yahweh came down on the third day, and that a long
+  blast was blown on the trumpet (or ram's horn [[Hebrew: yovel], as
+  opposed to [Hebrew: shofar] E]). From xxiv. 1 f. we learn that Moses
+  and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and seventy of the elders were summoned to
+  the top of the mountain, but that Moses alone was permitted to
+  approach Yahweh. Then followed the theophany, and, as the text stands,
+  the sacrificial meal (9-11).[5] The conclusion of J's narrative is
+  given in ch. xxxiv.,[6] which describes how Moses hewed two tables of
+  stone at Yahweh's command, and went up to the top of the mountain,
+  where he received the words of the covenant and wrote them on the
+  tables. As it stands, however, this chapter represents the legislation
+  which it contains as a renewal of a former covenant, also written on
+  tables of stone, which had been broken (1b, 4a). But the document from
+  which the chapter, as a whole, is derived, is certainly J, while the
+  previous references to tables of stone and to Moses' breaking them
+  belong to the parallel narrative of E. Moreover, the covenant here set
+  forth (v. 10 f.) is clearly a new one, and contains no hint of any
+  previous legislation, nor of any breach of it by the people. In view
+  of these facts we are forced to conclude that 1b ("like unto the first
+  ... brakest"), 4a ("and he hewed ... the first") and v. 28 ("the ten
+  words") formed no part of the original narrative,[7] but were inserted
+  by a later Deuteronomic redactor. In the view of this editor the
+  Decalogue alone formed the basis of the covenant at Sinai-Horeb, and
+  in order to retain J's version, he represented it as a renewal of the
+  tables of stone which Moses had broken.[8]
+
+  The legislation contained in xxxiv. 10-26, which may be described as
+  the oldest legal code of the Hexateuch, is almost entirely religious.
+  It prohibits the making of molten images (v. 17), the use of leaven in
+  sacrifices (25a), the retention of the sacrifice until the morning
+  (25b),[9] and the seething of a kid in its mother's milk (26b); and
+  enjoins the observance of the three annual feasts and the Sabbath
+  (18a, 21-23), and the dedication of the first-born (19, 20, derived
+  from xiii. 11-13) and of the first-fruits (26a).
+
+  The parallel collection of E is preserved in xx. 24-26, xxiii. 10-19,
+  to which we should probably add xxii. 29-31 (for which xxiii. 19a was
+  afterwards substituted). The two collections resemble one another so
+  closely, both in form and extent, that they can only be regarded as
+  two versions of the same code. E has, however, preserved certain
+  additional regulations with regard to the building of altars (xx.
+  24-26) and the observance of the seventh year (xxiii. 10, 11), and
+  omits the prohibition of molten images (xx. 22, 23, appear to be the
+  work of a redactor); xxiii. 20-33, the promises attached to the
+  observance of the covenant, probably formed no part of the original
+  code, but were added by the Deuteronomic redactor; cf. especially vv.
+  23-25a, 27, 28, 31b-33. The narrative of E relative to the delivery of
+  these laws has disappeared,[10] but xxiv. 3-8 (which manifestly have
+  no connexion with their immediate context) clearly point back to some
+  such narrative. These verses describe how Moses wrote all the words of
+  the Lord in a book and recited them to the _people_ (v. 7) as the
+  basis of a covenant, which was solemnly ratified by the sprinkling of
+  the blood of the accompanying sacrifices.
+
+  In the existing text the covenant laws of E (xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31,
+  xxiii. 10-19) are combined with a mass of civil and other legislation;
+  hence the title "Book of the Covenant" (referred to above, xxiv. 7)
+  has usually been applied to the whole section, xx. 22-xxiii. 33. But
+  this section includes three distinct elements: (a) the "words"
+  ([Hebrew: hadvarim]) found in xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31, xxiii. 1-10; (b)
+  the "judgments" ([Hebrew: hamishpatim]), xxi. 2-xxii. 17; and (c) a
+  group of moral and ethical enactments, xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9; and an
+  examination of their contents makes it evident that, though the last
+  two groups are unmistakably derived from E, they cannot have formed
+  part of the original "Book of the Covenant"; for the "judgments,"
+  which are expressed in a hypothetical form, consist of a number of
+  legal decisions on points of civil law. The cases dealt with fall into
+  five divisions: (1) The rights of slaves, xxi. 2-11; (2) capital
+  offences, xxi. 12-16 (v. 17 has probably been added later); (3)
+  injuries inflicted by man or beast, xxi. 18-32; (4) losses incurred by
+  culpable negligence or theft, xxi. 33-xxii. 6; (5) cases arising out
+  of deposits, loans, seduction, xxii. 7-17. It is obvious, from their
+  very nature, that these legal precedents could not have been included
+  in the covenant which the _people_ (xxiv. 3) promised to observe, and
+  it is now generally admitted that the words "and the judgments"
+  (which are missing in c. 1 b) have been inserted in xxiv. 3a by the
+  redactor to whom the present position of the "judgments" is due.[11]
+  The majority of critics, therefore, adopt Kuenen's conjecture that the
+  "judgments" were originally delivered by Moses on the borders of Moab,
+  and that when D's revised version of Ex. xxi.-xxiii. was combined with
+  JE, the older code was placed alongside of E's other legislation at
+  Horeb. The third group of laws (xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9) appears to
+  have been added somewhat later than the bulk of xxi.-xxiii. Some of
+  the regulations are couched in hypothetical form, but their contents
+  are of a different character to the "judgments," e.g. xxii. 25 f.,
+  xxiii. 4 f.; others, again, are of a similar nature, but differ in
+  form, e.g. xxii. 18 f. Lastly, xxii. 20-24, xxiii. 1-3 set forth a
+  number of moral injunctions affecting the individual, which cannot
+  have found place in a civil code. At the same time, these additions
+  must for the most part be prior to D, since many of them are included
+  in Deut. xii.-xxvi., though there are traces of Deuteronomic revision.
+
+  Now it is obvious that the results obtained by the foregoing analysis
+  of J and E have an important bearing on the history of the remaining
+  section of E's legislation, viz. the Decalogue (q.v.), Ex. xx. 1-17 (=
+  Deut. v. 6-21). At present the "Ten Words" stand in the forefront of
+  E's collection of laws, and it is evident that they were already found
+  in that position by the author of Deuteronomy, who treated them as the
+  sole basis of the covenant at Horeb. The evidence, however, afforded
+  (a) by the parallel version of Deuteronomy and (b) by the literary
+  analysis of J and E not only fails to support this tradition, but
+  excites the gravest suspicions as to the originality both of the
+  _form_ and of the _position_ in which the Decalogue now appears. For
+  when compared with Ex. xx. 1-17 the parallel version of Deut. v. 6 ff.
+  is found to exhibit a number of variations, and, in particular,
+  assigns an entirely different reason for the observance of the
+  Sabbath. But these variations are practically limited to the
+  explanatory comments attached to the 2nd, 4th, 5th and 10th
+  commandments; and the majority of critics are now agreed that these
+  comments were added at a later date, and that all the commandments,
+  like the 1st and the 6th to the 9th, were originally expressed in the
+  form of a single short sentence. This view is confirmed by the fact
+  that the additions, or comments, bear, for the most part, a close
+  resemblance to the style of D. They can scarcely, however, have been
+  transferred from Deuteronomy to Exodus (or vice versa), owing to the
+  variations between the two versions: we must rather regard them as the
+  work of a Deuteronomic redactor. But the expansion and revision of the
+  Decalogue were not limited to the Deuteronomic school. Literary traces
+  of J and E in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 10th commandments point to earlier
+  activity on the part of R^JE, while the addition of v. 11, which bases
+  the observance of the Sabbath on P 's narrative of the Creation (Gen.
+  ii. 1-3), can only be ascribed to a priestly writer: its absence from
+  Deut. v. 6 ff. is otherwise inexplicable. Thus the Decalogue, as given
+  in Exodus, would seem to have passed through at least three stages
+  before it assumed its present form. But even in its original form it
+  could hardly have formed part of E's Horeb legislation; for (a) both J
+  and E have preserved a different collection of laws (or "words")
+  inscribed by Moses, which are definitely set forth as the basis of the
+  covenant at Sinai-Horeb (Ex. xxxiv. 10, xxiv. 3 f.), and (b) the
+  further legislation of E in ch. xx.-xxiii. affords close parallels to
+  all the commandments (except the 7th and the 10th), and a comparison
+  of the two leaves no doubt as to which is the more primitive. Hence we
+  can only conclude that the Decalogue, in its original short form, came
+  into existence during the period after the completion of E, but before
+  the promulgation of Deuteronomy. Its present position is, doubtless,
+  to be ascribed to a redactor who was influenced by the same conception
+  as the author of Deuteronomy. This redactor, however, did not limit
+  the Horeb covenant to the Decalogue, but retained E's legislation
+  alongside of it. The insertion of the Decalogue, or rather the point
+  of view which prompted its insertion, naturally involved certain
+  consequential changes of the existing text. The most important of
+  these, viz. the harmonistic additions to ch. xxxiv., by means of which
+  J's version of the covenant was represented as a renewal of the
+  Decalogue, has already been discussed; other passages which show
+  traces of similar revision are xxiv. 12-15a, 18b, and xxxiv. 1-6.
+
+  The confusion introduced into the legislation by later additions, with
+  the consequent displacement of earlier material, has not been without
+  effect on the narratives belonging to the different sources. Hence the
+  sequence of events after the completion of the covenant on Sinai-Horeb
+  is not always easy to trace, though indications are not wanting in
+  both J and E of the probable course of the history. The two main
+  incidents that precede the departure of the children of Israel from
+  the mountain (Num. x. 29 ff.) are (1) the sin of the people, and (2)
+  the intercession of Moses, of both of which a double account has been
+  preserved.
+
+  (1) _The Sin of the People._--According to J (xxxii. 25-29) the
+  people, during the absence of Moses, "break loose," i.e. mutiny. Their
+  behaviour excites the anger of Moses on his return, and in response to
+  his appeal the sons of Levi arm themselves and slay a large number of
+  the people: as a reward for their services they are bidden to
+  consecrate themselves to Yahweh. The fragmentary form of the
+  narrative--we miss especially a fuller account of the "breaking
+  loose"--is doubtless due to the latter editor, who substituted the
+  story of the golden calf (xxxii. 1-6, 15-24, 35), according to which
+  the sin of the people consisted in direct violation of the 2nd
+  commandment. At the instigation of the people Aaron makes a molten
+  calf out of the golden ornaments brought from Egypt; Moses and Joshua,
+  on their return to the camp, find the people holding festival in
+  honour of the occasion; Moses in his anger breaks the tables of the
+  covenant which he is carrying: he then demolishes the golden calf, and
+  administers a severe rebuke to Aaron. The punishment of the people is
+  briefly recorded in v. 35. This latter narrative, which is obviously
+  inconsistent with the story of J, shows unmistakable traces of E. In
+  its present form, however, it can hardly be original, but must have
+  been revised in accordance with the later Deuteronomic conception
+  which represented the sin committed by the people as a breach of the
+  2nd commandment. Possibly vv. 7-14 are also to be treated as a
+  Deuteronomic expansion (cf. Deut. ix. 12-14). Though they show clear
+  traces of J, it is extremely difficult to fit them into that narrative
+  in view of Moses' action in vv. 25-29 and of his intercession in ch.
+  xxxiii.; in any case, vv. 8 and 13 must be regarded as redactional.
+
+  (2) _Moses' Intercession._--The time for departure from the Sacred
+  Mount had now arrived, and Moses is accordingly bidden to lead the
+  people to the promised land. Yahweh himself refuses to accompany
+  Israel owing to their disobedience, but in response to Moses'
+  passionate appeal finally consents to let his presence go with them.
+  The account of Moses' intercession has been preserved in J, though the
+  narrative has undergone considerable dislocation. The true sequence of
+  the narrative appears to be as follows: Moses is commanded to lead the
+  people to Canaan (xxxiii. 1-3); he pleads that he is unequal to the
+  task (Num. xi. 10c, 11, 12, 14, 15), and, presumably, asks for
+  assistance, which is promised (omitted). Moses then asks for a fuller
+  knowledge of Yahweh and his ways (xxxiii. 12, 13): this request also
+  is granted (v. 17), and he is emboldened to pray that he may see the
+  glory of Yahweh; Yahweh replies that his prayer can only be granted in
+  part, for "man shall not see me and live"; a partial revelation is
+  then vouchsafed to Moses (xxxiii. 18-23, xxxiv. 6-8): finally, Moses
+  beseeches Yahweh to go in the midst of his people, and is assured that
+  Yahweh's presence shall accompany them (xxxiv. 9, xxxiii. 14-16). The
+  passage from Numbers xi., which is here included, is obviously out of
+  place in its present context (the story of the quails), and supplies
+  in part the necessary antecedent to Ex. xxxiii. 12, 13; the passage is
+  now separated from Ex. xxxiii. by Ex. xxxiv. (J), which has been
+  wrongly transferred to the close of the Horeb-Sinai incidents (see
+  above), and by the priestly legislation of Ex. xxxv.-xl., Leviticus
+  and Num. i.-x.; but originally it must have stood in close connexion
+  with that chapter. A similar displacement has taken place with regard
+  to Ex. xxxiv. 6-9, which clearly forms the sequel to xxxiii. 17-23.
+  The latter passage, however, can hardly represent the conclusion of
+  the interview, which is found more naturally in xxxiii. 14-16. E's
+  account of Moses' intercession seems to have been retained, in part,
+  in xxxii. 30-34, but the passage has probably been revised by a later
+  hand; in any case its position _before_ instead of _after_ the
+  dismissal would seem to be redactional.
+
+  It is a plausible conjecture that the original narratives of J and E
+  also contained directions for the construction of an ark,[12] as a
+  substitute for the personal presence of Yahweh, and also for the
+  erection of a "tent of meeting" outside the camp, and that these
+  commands were omitted by R^P in favour of the more elaborate
+  instructions given in ch. xxv.-xxix. (P). The subsequent narrative of
+  J (Num. x. 33-36, xiv. 44) implies an account of the making of the
+  ark, while the remarkable description in Ex. xxxiii. 7-11 (E) of
+  Moses' practice in regard to the "tent of meeting" points no less
+  clearly to some earlier statement as to the making of this tent.
+
+  The history of Exodus in its original form doubtless concluded with
+  the visit of Moses' father-in-law and the appointment of judges (ch.
+  xviii.), the departure from the mountain and the battle with Amalek
+  (xvii. 8-16).
+
+  (c) _The Construction of the Tabernacle and its Furniture_ (ch.
+  xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl.).--It has long been recognized that the
+  elaborate description of the Tabernacle and its furniture, and the
+  accompanying directions for the dress and consecration of the priests,
+  contained in ch. xxv.-xxxi., have no claim to be regarded as an
+  historical presentment of the Mosaic Tabernacle and its service. The
+  language, style and contents of this section point unmistakably to the
+  hand of P; and it is now generally admitted that these chapters form
+  part of an ideal representation of the post-exilic ritual system,
+  which has been transferred to the Mosaic age. According to this
+  representation, Moses, on the seventh day after the conclusion of the
+  covenant, was summoned to the top of the mountain, and there received
+  instructions with regard to (a) the furniture of the sanctuary, viz.
+  the ark, the table and the lamp-stand (ch. xxv.); (b) the Tabernacle
+  (ch. xxvi.); (c) the court of the Tabernacle and the altar of
+  burnt-offering (ch. xxvii.); (d) the dress of the priests (ch.
+  xxviii.); (e) the consecration of Aaron and his sons (xxix. 1-37); and
+  (f) the daily burnt-offering (xxix. 38-42): the section ends with a
+  formal conclusion (xxix. 43-46). The two following chapters contain
+  further instructions relative to the altar of incense (xxx. 1-10), the
+  payment of the half-shekel (11-16), the brazen laver (17-21), the
+  anointing oil (22-33), the incense (34-38), the appointment of
+  Bezaleel and Oholiab (xxxi. 1-11) and the observance of the Sabbath
+  (12-17). It is hardly doubtful, however, that these two chapters
+  formed no part of P's original legislation, but were added by a later
+  hand.[13] For (1) the altar of incense is here mentioned for the first
+  time, and was apparently unknown to the author of ch. xxv.-xxix. Had
+  he known of its existence, he could hardly have failed to include it
+  with the rest of the Tabernacle furniture in ch. xxvi., and must have
+  mentioned it at xxvi. 34 f., where the relative positions of the
+  contents of the Tabernacle are defined: further, the ritual of the Day
+  of Atonement (Lev. xvi. referred to in xxx. 10) ignores this altar,
+  and mentions only _one_ altar (cf. "_the_ altar," xxvii. 1), viz. that
+  of burnt-offering; (2) the command as to the half-shekel presupposes
+  the census of Num. i., and appears to have been unknown in the time of
+  Nehemiah (Neh. x. 32) (Heb. 33); (3) the instructions as to the brazen
+  laver would naturally be expected alongside of those for the altar of
+  burnt-offering in ch. xxvii.; (4) the following section relating to
+  the anointing oil presupposes the altar of incense (v. 28), and
+  further extends the ceremony of anointing to Aaron's sons, though,
+  elsewhere, the ceremony is confined to Aaron (xxix. 7, Lev. viii. 12),
+  cf. the title "anointed priest" applied to the high priest (Lev. iv.
+  3, &c.); (5) the directions for compounding the incense connect
+  naturally with xxx. 1-10, while (6) the appointment of Bezaleel and
+  Oholiah cannot be separated from the rest of ch. xxx.-xxxi. The
+  concluding section on the Sabbath (xxxi. 12-17) shows marks of
+  resemblance to H (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), especially in vv. 12-14a, which
+  appear to have been expanded, very possibly by the editor who inserted
+  the passage. The continuation of P's narrative is given in xxxiv.
+  29-35, which describe Moses' return from the mount. The subsequent
+  chapters (xxxv.-xl.), however, can hardly belong to the original
+  stratum of P, if only because they presuppose ch. xxx., xxxi., and
+  were probably added at a later stage than the latter chapters. They
+  narrate how the commands of ch. xxv.-xxxi. were carried out, and
+  practically repeat the earlier chapters _verbatim_, merely the tenses
+  being changed, the most noticeable omissions being xxvii. 20 f. (oil
+  for the lamps), xxviii. 30 (Urim and Thummim), xxix. 1-37 (the
+  consecration of the priests, which recurs in Lev. viii.) and xxix.
+  38-42 (the daily burnt-offering). Apart from the omissions the most
+  striking difference between the two sections is the variation in
+  order, the different sections of ch. xxv.-xxxi. being here set forth
+  in their natural sequence. The secondary character of these concluding
+  chapters receives considerable confirmation from a comparison of the
+  Septuagint text. For this version exhibits numerous cases of
+  variation, both as regards _order_ and _contents_, from the Hebrew
+  text; moreover the translation, more particularly of many technical
+  terms, differs from that of ch. xxv.-xxxi., and seems to be the work
+  of different translators. Hence it is by no means improbable that the
+  final recension of these chapters had not been completed when the
+  Alexandrine version was made.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the various English and German
+  commentaries on Exodus included under the head of the Pentateuch, the
+  following English works are especially worthy of mention: S.R. Driver,
+  _Introd. to the Literature of the O.T._, and "Exodus" in the _Camb.
+  Bible_; B.W. Bacon, _The Triple Tradition of the Exodus_ (Hartford,
+  U.S.A., 1894), and A.H. McNeile, _The Book of Exodus_ (Westminster
+  Commentaries) (1908); also the articles on "Exodus" by G.
+  Harford-Battersby (Hastings, _Dict. Bib._ vol. i.) and by G.F. Moore,
+  _Ency. Biblica_, vol. ii.     (J. F. St.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The fact that the father-in-law of Moses is called Reuel in v.
+    18, as contrasted with the name Jethro, which occurs in iii. 1 f. and
+    in all subsequent passages from E, cannot be taken as conclusive on
+    this point, since critics are agreed that "Reuel" in this verse is a
+    later addition: had it been original we should have expected the name
+    to be given at v. 16 rather than at v. 18. But, if no argument can be
+    based on the discrepancy between the two names, we may at least
+    assume that the namelessness of the priest in v. 16 f. points to a
+    different source for those verses from that of iii. 1 f. Elsewhere J
+    speaks of "Hobab, the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses'
+    father-in-law" (Num. x. 29); the addition, "the priest of Midian,"
+    only occurs in the (secondary) passages iii. 1, xviii. 1 (E).
+    Probably RJE omitted the name in ii. 16 and added "the priest of
+    Midian" in iii. 1, xviii 1, from harmonizing motives. Further, vv.
+    15^B-22 speak of _one_ son being born to Moses at this period, a
+    statement which is borne out by iv. 20, 25 ("sons" in iv. 20 is
+    obviously a correction), whereas ch. xviii. (E) mentions _two_ sons.
+
+    The original order of events in J seems to have been as follows:
+    after the death of Pharaoh (ii. 23a; the Septuagint repeats this
+    notice before iv. 19) Moses returns to Egypt with his wife and son
+    (iv. 19, 20) in obedience to Yahweh's command. On the way he is
+    seized with a sudden illness, which Zipporah attributes to the fact
+    that he has not been circumcised and seeks to avert by circumcising
+    her son (iv. 24-26). The scene of the theophany, therefore, according
+    to J, is to be placed on the way from Midian to Goshen. Probably the
+    displacement of iv. 19, 20, 24-26 is due to the editor of JE, who was
+    thus enabled to combine the two narratives of the theophany.
+
+  [2] Cf. iv. 30; Aaron had received no command to do the signs, and
+    the words "and he did the signs" are most naturally referred to
+    Moses.
+
+  [3] The expansion in iii. 8c, 15, 17b; iv. 22, 23, are probably the
+    work of a Deuteronomistic redactor.
+
+  [4] The genealogy of Moses and Aaron (vv. 14-27) appears to be a
+    later addition.
+
+  [5] Unless we follow Riedel and read simply "and worshipped"
+    ([Hebrew: vaishtahavu]) instead of "and drank" ([Hebrew: vaishtu]),
+    treating "and ate" ([Hebrew: vaiohlu]) as a later addition; cf. HDB,
+    extra vol. p. 631 note.
+
+  [6] Vv. 6-9 are out of place here: they belong to the story of Moses'
+    intercession in ch. xxxiii.
+
+  [7] This view is confirmed by (a) a comparison of v. lb ("and I will
+    write") with vv. 27, 28; according to the latter, _Moses_ wrote the
+    words of the covenant; and (b) the tardy mention of Moses in 4b; the
+    name would naturally be given at the beginning of the verse.
+
+  [8] Others suppose that the present position of ch. xxxiv. is due, in
+    the first instance, to RJE, but in view of the other Deuteronomic
+    expansions in vv. 10b-16, 23, 24, it is more probable that J's
+    version was discarded by RJE in favour of E's, and was afterwards
+    restored by RD.
+
+  [9] Reading "the sacrifice of my feasts" for "the sacrifice of the
+    feast of the Passover."
+
+  [10] Unless, with Bacon, we are to regard xxiv. 12-14, 18b as
+    original. More probably a later editor has worked up old material of
+    E (of which there are unmistakable traces) in order to include the
+    whole of xx.-xxiii. in the covenant: xxiv. 15-18a are an addition
+    from P.
+
+  [11] The present text of xxiv. 12 also has probably been transposed
+    in accordance with the view that the "judgment" formed part of the
+    covenant, cf. Deut. v. 31. Originally the latter part of the verse
+    must have run, "That I may give thee the tables of stone which I have
+    written, and may teach thee the law and the commandment." For further
+    details see Bacon, _Triple Tradition of Exodus_, pp. 111 f., 132 f.
+
+  [12] According to Deut. x. 1 f., which is in the main a _verbal_
+    excerpt from Ex. xxxiv. 1 f., Yahweh ordered Moses to make an ark of
+    acacia wood _before_ he ascended the mountain.
+
+  [13] To the same hand are to be ascribed also xxvii. 6, 20, 21;
+    xxviii. 41; xxix. 21, 38-41.
+
+
+
+
+EXODUS, THE, the name given to the journey (Gr. [Greek: exodos]) of the
+Israelites from Egypt into Palestine, under the leadership of Moses and
+Aaron, as described in the books of the Bible from Exodus to Joshua.
+These books contain the great national epic of Judaism relating the
+deliverance of the people from bondage in Egypt, the overthrow of the
+pursuing Pharaoh and his army, the divinely guided wanderings through
+the wilderness and the final entry into the promised land. Careful
+criticism of the narratives[3] has resulted in the separation of later
+accretions from the earliest records, and the tracing of the elaboration
+of older traditions under the influence of developing religious and
+social institutions. In the story of the Exodus there have been
+incorporated codes of laws and institutions which were to be observed by
+the descendants of the Israelites in their future home, and these,
+really of later origin, have thus been thrown back to the earlier period
+in order to give them the stamp of authority. So, although a certain
+amount of the narrative _could_ date from the days of Moses, the Exodus
+story has been made the vehicle for the aims and ideals of subsequent
+ages, and has been adapted from time to time to the requirements of
+later stages of thought. The work of criticism has brought to light
+important examples of fluctuating tradition, singular lacunae in some
+places and unusual wealth of tradition in others, and has demonstrated
+that much of that which had long been felt to be impossible and
+incredible was due to writers of the post-exilic age many centuries
+after the presumed date of the events.
+
+The book of Genesis closes with the migration of Jacob's family into
+Egypt to escape the famine in Canaan. Jacob died and was buried in
+Canaan by his sons, who, however, returned again to the pastures which
+the Egyptian king had granted them in Goshen. Their brother Joseph on
+his death-bed promised that God would bring them to the land promised to
+their forefathers and solemnly adjured them to carry up his bones (Gen.
+1.). In the book of Exodus the family has become a people.[2] The
+Pharaoh is hostile, and Yahweh, the Israelite deity, is moved to send a
+deliverer; on the events that followed see EXODUS, BOOK OF; MOSES. It
+has been thought that dynastic changes occasioned the change in Egyptian
+policy (e.g. the expulsion of the Hyksos), but if the Israelites built
+Rameses and Pithom (Ex. i. 11), cities which, as excavation has shown,
+belong to the time of Rameses II. (13th century B.C.), earlier dates are
+inadmissible. On these grounds the Exodus may have taken place under one
+of his successors, and since Mineptah or Merneptah (son of Rameses), in
+relating his successes in Palestine, boasts that _Ysiraal_ is desolated,
+it would seem that the Israelites had already returned. On the other
+hand, it has been suggested that when Jacob and his family entered
+Egypt, some Israelite tribes had remained behind and that it is to these
+that Mineptah's inscription refers. The problem is complicated by the
+fact that, from the Egyptian evidence, not only was there at this time
+no remarkable emigration of oppressed Hebrews, but Bedouin tribes were
+then receiving permission to enter Egypt and to feed their flocks upon
+Egyptian soil. It might be assumed that the Israelites (or at least
+those who had not remained behind in Palestine) effected their departure
+at a somewhat later date, and in the time of Mineptah's successor, Seti
+II., there is an Egyptian report of the pursuit of some fugitive slaves
+over the eastern frontier. The value of all such evidence will naturally
+depend largely upon the estimate formed of the biblical narratives, but
+it is necessary to observe that these have not yet found Egyptian
+testimony to support them. Although the information which has been
+brought to bear upon Egyptian life and customs substantiates the general
+accuracy of the local colouring in some of the biblical narratives, the
+latter contain several inherent improbabilities, and whatever future
+research may yield, no definite trace of Egyptian influence has so far
+been found in Israelite institutions.
+
+  No allusions to Israelites in Egypt have yet been found on the
+  monuments; against the view that the Aperiu (or Apury) of the
+  inscriptions were Hebrews, see S.R. Driver in D.G. Hogarth, _Authority
+  and Archaeology_, pp. 56 sqq.; H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1310. The
+  plagues of Egypt have been shown to be those to which the land is
+  naturally subject (R. Thomson, _Plagues of Egypt_), but the
+  description of the relations of Moses and Aaron to the court raises
+  many difficult questions (H.P. Smith, _O.T. Hist._ pp. 57-60). Those
+  who reject Ex. i. 11 and hold that 480 years elapsed between the
+  Exodus and the foundation of the temple (I Kings vi. 1, see BIBLE:
+  Chronology) place the former about the time of Tethmosis (Thothmes)
+  III., and suppose that the hostile Habiri (Khabiri) who troubled
+  Palestine in the 15th century are no other than Hebrews (the equation
+  is philologically sound), i.e. the invading Israelites.[3] But
+  although the evidence of the Amarna tablets might thus support the
+  biblical tradition in its barest outlines, the view in question, if
+  correct, would necessitate the rejection of a great mass of the
+  biblical narratives as a whole.
+
+In the absence of external evidence the study of the Exodus of the
+Israelites must be based upon the Israelite records, and divergent or
+contradictory views must be carefully noticed. Regarded simply as a
+journey from Egypt into Palestine it is the most probable of
+occurrences: the difficulty arises from the actual narratives. The first
+stage is the escape from the land of Goshen (q.v.), the district
+allotted to the family of Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 28-34, xlvii. 1, 4, 6).[4]
+As to the route taken across the Red Sea (_Yam Suph_) scholars are not
+agreed (see W.M. Müller, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1436 sqq.); it depends upon
+the view held regarding the second stage of the journey, the road to the
+mountain of Sinai or Horeb and thence to Kadesh. The last-mentioned
+place is identified with Ain Kadis, about 50 m. south of Beersheba; but
+the identification of the mountain is uncertain, and it is possible that
+tradition confused two distinct places. According to one favourite view,
+the journey was taken across the Sinaitic peninsula to Midian, the home
+of Jethro. Others plead strongly for the traditional site Jebel Musa or
+Serbal in the south of the peninsula (see J.R. Harris, _Dict. Bible_,
+iv. pp. 536 sqq.; H. Winckler, _Ency. Bib._ col. 4641). The latter view
+implies that the oppressed Israelites left Egypt for one of its
+dependencies, and both theories find only conjectural identifications in
+the various stations recorded in Num. xxxiii. But this list of forty
+names, corresponding to the years of wandering, is from a post-exilic
+source, and may be based merely upon a knowledge of caravan-routes; even
+if it be of older origin, it is of secondary value since it represents a
+tradition differing notably from that in the earlier narratives
+themselves, and these on inspection confirm Judg. xi. 16 seq., where the
+Israelites proceed immediately to Kadesh.
+
+  Ex. xvi.-xviii. presuppose a settled encampment and a law-giving, and
+  thus belong to a stage _after_ Sinai had been reached (Ex. xix. sqq.).
+  They are closely related, as regards subject matter, &c., to the
+  narratives in Num. x. 29-xi., xx. 1-13 (Sinai to Kadesh), and the
+  initial step is the recognition that the latter is their original
+  context (see G.F. Moore, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1443 v). Further, internal
+  peculiarities associating events now at Sinai-Horeb with those at
+  Kadesh support the view that Kadesh was their true scene, and it is to
+  be noticed that in Ex. xv. 22 seq. the Israelites already reach the
+  wilderness of Shur and accomplish the three days' journey which had
+  been their original aim (cf. Ex. iii. 18, v. 3, viii. 27). The
+  wilderness of Shur (Gen. xvi. 7, xx. 1; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8) is the
+  natural scene of conflicts with Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8 sqq.), and its
+  sanctuary of Kadesh or En Mishpat ("well of judgment," Gen. xiv. 7)
+  was doubtless associated with traditions of the giving of statutes and
+  ordinances. The détour to Sinai-Horeb appears to belong to a later
+  stage of the tradition, and is connected with the introduction of laws
+  and institutions of relatively later form. It is foreshadowed by the
+  injunction to avoid the direct way into Palestine (see Ex. xiii.
+  17-19), since on reaching Kadesh the Israelites would be within reach
+  of hostile tribes, and the conflicts which it was proposed to avoid
+  actually ensued.[5] The forty years of wandering in the wilderness is
+  characteristic of the Deuteronomic and post-exilic narratives; in the
+  earlier sources the fruitful oasis of Kadesh is the centre, and even
+  after the tradition of a détour to Sinai-Horeb was developed, only a
+  brief period is spent at the holy mountain.
+
+From Kadesh spies were sent into Palestine, and when the people were
+dismayed at their tidings and incurred the wrath of Yahweh, the penalty
+of the forty years' delay was pronounced (Num. xiii. seq.). Originally
+Caleb alone was exempt and for his faith received a blessing; later
+tradition adds Joshua and in Deut. i. 37 seq. alludes to some unknown
+offence of Moses. According to Num. xxi. 1-3 the Israelites (a
+generalizing amplification) captured Hormah, on the way to Beersheba,
+and subsequently the clan Caleb and the Kenites (the clan of Moses'
+father-in-law) are found in Judah (Judg. i. 16). Although the traditions
+regard their efforts as part of a common movement (from Gilgal, see
+below), it is more probable that these (notably Caleb) escaped the
+punishment which befell the rest of the Israelites, and made their way
+direct from Kadesh into the south of Palestine.[6] On the other hand,
+according to the prevailing tradition, the attempt to break northwards
+was frustrated by a defeat at Hormah (Num. xiv. 40-45), an endeavour to
+pass Edom failed, and the people turned back to the _Yam Suph_ (here at
+the head of the Gulf of Akabah) and proceeded up to the east of Edom and
+Moab. Conflicting views are represented (on which see MOAB), but at
+length Shittim was reached and preparations were made to cross the
+Jordan into the promised land. This having been effected, Gilgal became
+the base for a series of operations in which the united tribes took
+part. But again the representations disagree, and to the overwhelming
+campaigns depicted in the book of Joshua most critics prefer the account
+of the more gradual process as related in the opening chapter of the
+book of Judges (see JEWS: _History_, § 8).
+
+Thus, whatever evidence may be supplied by archaeological research, the
+problem of the Exodus must always be studied in the light of the
+biblical narratives. That the religious life of Israel as portrayed
+therein dates from this remote period cannot be maintained against the
+results of excavation or against the later history, nor can we picture a
+united people in the desert when subsequent vicissitudes represent the
+union as the work of many years, and show that it lasted for a short
+time only under David and Solomon. During the centuries in which the
+narratives were taking shape many profound changes occurred to affect
+the traditions. Developments associated with the Deuteronomic reform and
+the reorganization of Judaism in post-exilic days can be unmistakably
+recognized, and it would be unsafe to assume that other vicissitudes
+have not also left their mark. Allowance must be made for the shifting
+of boundaries or of spheres of influence (Egypt, Edom, Moab), for the
+incorporation of tribes and of their own tribal traditions, and in
+particular for other movements (e.g. from Arabia).[7] If certain clans
+moved direct from Kadesh into Judah, it is improbable that others made
+the lengthy détour from Kadesh by the Gulf of Akabah, but this may well
+be an attempt to fuse the traditions of two distinct migrations. Among
+the Joseph-tribes (Ephraim and Manasseh), the most important of
+Israelite divisions, the traditions of an ancestor who had lived and
+died in Egypt would be a cherished possession, but although most writers
+agree that not all the tribes were in Egypt, it is impossible to
+determine their number with any certainty. At certain periods,
+intercourse with Egypt was especially intimate, and there is much in
+favour of the view that the name Mizraim (Egypt) extended beyond the
+borders of Egypt proper. Reference has already been made to other cases
+of geographical vagueness, and one must recognize that in a body of
+traditions such as this there was room for the inclusion of the most
+diverse elements which it is almost hopeless to separate, in view of the
+scantiness of relevant evidence from other sources, and the literary
+intricacy of the extant narratives. That many different beliefs have
+influenced the tradition is apparent from what has been said above, and
+is especially noticeable from a study of the general features. Thus,
+although the Israelites possessed cattle (Ex. xvii. 3, xix. 13, xxiv. 5,
+xxxii. 6, xxxiv. 3; Num. xx. 19), allusion is made to their lack of meat
+in order to magnify the wonders of the journey, and among divinely sent
+aids to guide and direct the people upon the march not only does Moses
+require the assistance of a _human_ helper (Jethro or Hobab), but the
+angel, the ark, the pillar of cloud and of fire and the mysterious
+hornet are also provided.
+
+  In addition to the references already given, see J.W. Colenso,
+  _Pentateuch and Book of Joshua_ (on internal difficulties); A.
+  Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. alt. Orients_[2] (pp. 402 sqq., on
+  later references in Manetho, &c., with which cf. also R.H. Charles,
+  _Jubilees_, p. 245 seq.); art. "Exodus" in _Ency. Bib._; Ed. Meyer,
+  _Israëliten_ (_passim_); Bönhoff, _Theolog. Stud. u. Krit._ (1907),
+  pp. 159-217; the histories of Israel and commentaries on the book of
+  Exodus. Among the numerous special works, mention may be made of G.
+  Ebers, _Durch Gosen zum Sinai_; E.H. Palmer, _Desert of the Exodus_;
+  O.A. Toffteen, _The Historic Exodus_; fuller information is given in
+  L.B. Paton, _Hist. of Syria and Palestine_, p. 34 (also ch. viii.);
+  and C.F. Kent, _Beginnings of Heb. Hist._ p. 355 seq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the articles on the books in question.
+
+  [2] There is a lacuna between the oldest traditions in Genesis and
+    those in Exodus: the latter beginning simply "and there arose a new
+    king over Egypt which knew not Joseph." The interval between Jacob's
+    arrival in Egypt and the Exodus is given varyingly as 400 or 430
+    years (Gen. xv. 13, Ex. xii. 40 seq., Acts vii. 6); but the Samaritan
+    and Septuagint versions allow only 215 years (Ex. loc. cit.), and a
+    period of only four generations is presupposed in Gen. xv. 16 (cf.
+    the length of the genealogies between the contemporaries of Joseph
+    and those of Moses in Ex. vi. 16-20).
+
+  [3] Sec, e.g., J. Orr, _Problem of the O.T._ pp. 422 sqq.; Ed. Meyer,
+    _Die Israëliten_, pp. 222 sqq. Some, too, find in the Amarna tablets
+    the historical background for Joseph's high position at the Egyptian
+    court (see Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ art. "Joseph").
+
+  [4] For the varying traditions regarding the number of the people and
+    their residence (whether settled apart, cf., e.g., Gen. xlvi. 34, Ex.
+    viii. 22, ix. 26, x. 23, or in the midst of the Egyptians) see the
+    recent commentaries.
+
+  [5] See further J. Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, pp. 342 sqq.; G.F.
+    Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 1443; S.A. Cook, _Jew. Quart. Rev._ (1906),
+    pp. 741 sqq. (1907), p. 122, and art. MOSES. Ex. xiii. 17-19 forbids
+    the compromise which would place Sinai-Horeb in the neighbourhood of
+    Kadesh (A.E. Haynes, _Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statem._ (1896), pp.
+    175 sqq.; C.F. Kent [see _Lit._ below], p. 381).
+
+  [6] So B. Stade, Steuernagel, Guthe, G.F. Moore, H.P. Smith, C.F.
+    Kent, &c. See CALEB; JERAHMEEL; JUDAH; KENITES; LEVITES; and JEWS:
+    _History_, §§ 5, 20 (end).
+
+  [7] An instructive parallel to the last-mentioned is afforded by
+    Dissard's account of the migration of Arab tribes into Palestine in
+    the 18th century A.D. (_Revue biblique_, July 1905).
+
+
+
+
+EXOGAMY (Gr. [Greek: exô], outside; and [Greek: gamos], marriage), the
+term proposed by J.F. McLennan for the custom compelling marriage "out
+of the tribe" (or rather "out of the totem"); its converse is endogamy
+(q.v.). McLennan would find an explanation of exogamy in the prevalence
+of female infanticide, which, "rendering women scarce, led at once to
+polyandry within the tribe, and the capturing of women from without."
+Infanticide of girls is, and no doubt ever has been, a very common
+practice among savages, and for obvious reasons. Among tribes in a
+primitive stage of social organization girl-children must always have
+been a hindrance and a source of weakness. They had to be fed and yet
+they could not take part in the hunt for food, and they offered a
+temptation to neighbouring tribes. Infanticide, however, is not proved
+to have been so universal as McLennan suggests, and it is more probable
+that the reason of exogamy is really to be found in that primitive
+social system which made the "captured" woman the only wife in the
+modern sense of the term. In the beginnings of human society children
+were related only to their mother; and the women of a tribe were common
+property. Thus no man might appropriate any female or attempt to
+maintain proprietary rights over her. With women of other tribes it
+would be different, and a warrior who captured a woman would doubtless
+pass unchallenged in his claim to possess her absolutely. Infanticide,
+the evil physical effects of "in-and-in" breeding, the natural strength
+of the impulse to possess on the man's part, and the greater feeling of
+security and a tendency to family life and affections on the woman's,
+would combine to make exogamy increase and marriages within the tribe
+decrease. A natural impulse would in a few generations tend to become a
+law or a custom, the violation of which would be looked on with horror.
+Physical capture, too, as soon as increasing civilization and tribal
+intercommunication removed the necessity for violence, became symbolic
+of the more permanent and individual relations of the sexes. An
+additional explanation of the prevalence of exogamy may be found in the
+natural tendency of exogamous tribes to increase in numbers and strength
+at the expense of those communities which moved towards decadence by
+in-breeding. Thus tradition would harden into a prejudice, strong as a
+principle of religion, and exogamy would become the inviolable custom it
+is found to be among many races. In Australia, Sir G. Grey writes: "One
+of the most remarkable facts connected with the natives is that they are
+divided into certain great families, all the members of which bear the
+same name ... these family names are common over a great portion of the
+continent and a man cannot marry a woman of his own family name." In
+eastern Africa, Sir R. Burton says: "The Somal will not marry one of the
+same, or even of a consanguineous family," and the Bakalahari have the
+same rule. Paul B. du Chaillu found exogamy the rule and blood marriages
+regarded as an abomination throughout western Equatorial Africa. In
+India the Khasias, Juangs, Waralis, Otaons, Hos and other tribes are
+strictly exogamous. The Kalmucks are divided into hordes, and no man may
+marry a woman of the same horde. Circassians and Samoyedes have similar
+rules. The Ostiaks regard endogamy (marriage within the clan) as a
+crime, as do the Yakuts of Siberia. Among the Indians of America severe
+rules prescribing exogamy prevail. The Tsimsheean Indians of British
+Columbia are divided into tribes and totems, or "crests which are
+common to all the tribes," says one writer. "The crests are the whale,
+the porpoise, the eagle, the coon, the wolf and the frog.... The
+relationship existing between persons of the same crest is nearer than
+that between members of the same tribe.... Members of the same tribe may
+marry, but those of the same crest are not allowed to under any
+circumstances; that is, a whale may not marry a whale, but a whale may
+marry a frog, &c." The Thlinkeets, the Mayas of Yucatan and the Indians
+of Guiana are exogamous, observing a custom which is thus seen to exist
+throughout Africa, in Siberia, China, India, Polynesia and the Americas.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.F. McLennan, _Primitive Marriage_ (1865), and _Studies
+  in Anc. Hist._ (1896); Lord Avebury, _Origin of Civilization_ (1902);
+  Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_ (1894); A. Lang, _Social
+  Origins_ (1903); L.H. Morgan, _Ancient Society_ (1877); J.G. Frazer,
+  _Totemism and Exogamy_ (1910); see also TOTEM.
+
+
+
+
+EXORCISM (Gr. [Greek: exorkizein], to conjure out), the expulsion of
+evil spirits from persons or places by incantations, magical rites or
+other means. As a corollary of the animistic theory of diseases and of
+belief in Possession (q.v.), we find widely spread customs whose object
+is to get rid of the evil influences. These customs may take the form of
+a general expulsion of evils, either once a year or at irregular
+intervals; the evils, which are often regarded as spirits, sometimes as
+the souls of the dead, may be expelled, according to primitive
+philosophy, either immediately by spells, purifications or some form of
+coercion; or they may be put on the back of a scapegoat or other
+material vehicle. Among the means of compelling the evil spirits are
+assaults with warlike weapons or sticks, the noise of musical
+instruments or of the human voice, the use of masks, the invocation of
+more powerful good spirits, &c.; both fire and water are used to drive
+them out, and the use of iron is a common means of holding them at bay.
+
+The term exorcism is applied more especially to the freeing of an
+individual from a possessing or disease-causing spirit; the means
+adopted are frequently the same as those mentioned above; in the East
+Indies the sufferer sometimes dances round a small ship, into which the
+spirit passes and is then set adrift. The patient may be beaten or means
+may be employed whose efficiency depends largely on their suggestive
+nature. Among the Dakota Indians the medicine-man chants _hi-le-li-lah!_
+at the bed of the sick man and accompanies his chant with the rattle; he
+then sucks at the affected part till the possessing spirit is supposed
+to come out and take its flight, when men fire guns at it from the door
+of the tent. The Zulus believe that they can get rid of the souls of the
+dead, which cause diseases, by sacrifices of cattle, or by expostulating
+with the spirits; so too the _shaman_ or magician in other parts of the
+world offers the possessing spirit objects or animals.
+
+The professional exorcist was known among the Jews; in Greece the art
+was practised by women, and it is recorded that the mothers of Epicurus
+and Aeschines belonged to this class; both were bitterly reproached, the
+one by the Stoics, the other by Demosthenes, with having taken part in
+the practices in question. The prominence of exorcism in the early ages
+of the Christian church appears from its frequent mention in the
+writings of the fathers, and by the 3rd century there was an order of
+exorcists (see EXORCIST). The ancient rite of exorcism in connexion with
+baptism is still retained in the Roman ritual, as is also a form of
+service for the exorcising of possessed persons. The exorcist signs the
+possessed person with the figure of the cross, desires him to kneel, and
+sprinkles him with holy water; after which the exorcist asks the devil
+his name, and abjures him by the holy mysteries of the Christian
+religion not to afflict the person possessed any more. Then, laying his
+right hand on the demoniac's head, he repeats the form of exorcism as
+follows: "I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ;
+tremble, O Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast
+brought death into the world, who hast deprived men of life, and hast
+rebelled against justice, thou seducer of mankind, thou root of evil,
+thou source of avarice, discord and envy." Houses and other places
+supposed to be haunted by unclean spirits are likewise to be exorcised
+with similar rites, and in general exorcism has a place in all the
+ceremonies for consecrating and blessing persons or things (see
+BENEDICTION).
+
+  See Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 427 seq.;
+  Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. 189; Krafft, _Ausführliche Historie
+  von Exorcismus_; Koldeweg, _Der Exorcismus im Herzogthum
+  Braunschweig_; Brecher, _Das Transcendentale, Magie, etc. im Talmud_,
+  pp. 195-203: _Zeitschr. für Assyriologie_ (Dec. 1893, April 1894);
+  Herzog, _Realencykl., s.v._ "Exorcismus"; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_,
+  p. 64; L.W. King, _Babylonian Magic_; Maury, _La Magie_; R.C.
+  Thompson, _Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_.
+
+
+
+
+EXORCIST (Lat. _exorcista_, Gr. [Greek: exorkistês]), in the Roman
+Catholic church, the third grade in the minor orders of the clergy,
+between those of acolyte and reader. The office, which involves the
+right of ceremonially exorcising devils (see Exorcism), is actually no
+more than a preliminary stage of the priesthood. The earliest record of
+the special ordination of exorcists is the 7th canon of the council of
+Carthage (A.D. 256). "When they are ordained," it runs, "they receive
+from the hand of the bishop a little book in which the exorcisms are
+written, receiving power to lay hands on the _energumeni_, whether
+baptized or catechumens." Whatever its present position, the office of
+exorcist was, until comparatively recent times, by no means considered a
+sinecure. "The exorcist a terror to demons" (Paulinus, _Epist._ 24)
+survived the Reformation among Protestants, with the belief, expressed
+by Firmilianus in his epistle to St Cyprian, that "through the
+exorcists, by the voice of man and the power of God, the devil may be
+whipped, and burnt and tortured."
+
+
+
+
+EXOTIC (Gr. [Greek: exôtikos], foreign, from [Greek: exô], outside), of
+foreign origin, or belonging to another country. The term is now used in
+the restricted sense of something not indigenous or native, and is
+mostly applied to plants introduced from foreign countries, which have
+not become acclimatized. Figuratively, "exotic" is used to convey the
+sense of something rare, delicate or extravagant.
+
+
+
+
+EXPATRIATION (from Late Lat. _expatriare_, to exile, and _patria_,
+native land), a term used in a general sense for the banishment of a
+person from his own country. In international law expatriation is the
+renunciation or change of allegiance to one's native or adopted country.
+It may take place either by a voluntary act or by operation of law. Some
+countries, as France and England, disclaim their subjects if they become
+naturalized in another country, others, again, passively permit
+expatriation whether a new nationality has been acquired or not; others,
+as Germany, make expatriation the consequence of continued absence from
+their territory. (See ALIEN; ALLEGIANCE; NATURALIZATION.)
+
+
+
+
+EXPERT (Lat. _expertus_, from _experiri_, to try), strictly, skilled, or
+one who has special knowledge; as used in law, an expert is a person,
+selected by a court, or adduced by a party to a cause, to give his
+opinion on some point in issue with which he is peculiarly conversant.
+In Roman law questions of disputed handwriting were referred to experts;
+and in France, whenever the court considers that a report by experts is
+necessary, it is ordered by a judgment clearly setting forth the objects
+of the _expertise_ (Code Proc. Civ. art. 302). Three experts are then to
+be appointed, unless the parties agree upon one only (art. 303). The
+experts are required to take an oath (art. 305), but in practice this
+requirement is frequently dispensed with. They may be challenged on the
+same grounds as witnesses (art. 310). The necessary documentary and
+other evidence is laid before them (art. 317), and they make a single
+report to the court, even if they express different opinions: in that
+case the grounds only of the different opinions are to be stated, and
+not the personal opinion of each of the experts (art. 318). If the court
+is not satisfied with the report, new experts may be appointed (art.
+322); the judges are not bound to adopt the opinion of the experts (art.
+323). "This procedure in regard to experts is common to both the civil
+and commercial courts, but it is much more frequently resorted to in the
+commercial court than in the civil court, and the investigation is
+usually conducted by special experts officially attached to each of
+these courts" (Bodington, _French Law of Evidence_, London, 1904, p.
+102). A similar system is to be found in force in many other European
+countries; see e.g. Codes of Civil Procedure of Holland, arts. 222 et
+seq.; Belgium, arts. 302 et seq.; Italy, arts. 252 et seq.; as well as
+in those colonies where French law has been followed (Codes of Civil
+Procedure of Quebec, arts. 392 et seq.; St Lucia, arts. 286 et seq.). In
+Mauritius the articles of the French law, summarized above, are still
+nominally in force; but in practice each side calls its own expert
+evidence, as in England.
+
+There is some evidence that in England the courts were in early times in
+the habit of summoning to their assistance, apparently as assessors,
+persons specially qualified to advise upon any scientific or technical
+question that required to be determined. Thus "in an appeal of maihem
+(i.e. wounding) ... the court did not know how to adjudge because the
+wound was new, and then the defendant took issue and prayed the court
+that the maihem might be examined, on which a writ was sent to the
+sheriff to cause to come _medicos chirurgieos de melioribus London, ad
+informandum dominum regem el curiam de his quae eis ex parte domini
+regis injungerentur_" (Year Book, 21 Hen. VII. pl. 30, p. 33). The
+practice of calling in expert assistance in judicial inquiries was not
+confined to medico-legal cases. "If matters arise," said Justice
+Saunders in _Buckley_ v. _Rice Thomas_ (1554, Plowden, 124 a), "which
+concern other faculties, we commonly apply for the aid of that science
+or faculty which it concerns." English procedure, however, being
+_litigious_, and not, like continental European procedure,
+_inquisitorial_, in its character, the expert soon became, and still is,
+simply a witness to speak to matters of opinion.
+
+There is a considerable body of law in England as to expert evidence.
+Only a few points can be touched upon here. (1) An expert is permitted
+to refresh his memory in regard to any fact by referring to anything
+written by himself or under his direction at the time when the fact
+occurred or at a time when it was fresh in his memory. This is also law
+generally in the United States (see e.g. New York Civil Code, s. 1843).
+In Scotland, medical and other scientific reports are lodged in process
+before the trial, and the witness reads them as part of his evidence and
+is liable to be examined or cross-examined on their contents. (2) In
+strictness, an expert will not be allowed, in cases of alleged insanity,
+to say that a litigating or incriminated party is insane or the reverse,
+and so to usurp the prerogative of the court or jury. But he may be
+asked whether certain facts or symptoms, _assuming them to be proved_,
+are or are not indicative of insanity. But in practice this rule is
+relaxed both in England and in Scotland, and (where it exists) to a
+still greater extent in America. (3) Foreign law can only be proved in
+English courts--and the same rule applies in Scotland--(a) by obtaining
+an opinion on the subject from a superior court of the country whose
+laws are in dispute under the Foreign Law Ascertainment Act 1861 or the
+British Law Ascertainment Act 1859, or (b) by the evidence of a lawyer
+of the country whose law is in question, or who has studied it _in that
+country_, or of an official whose position requires, and therefore
+presumes, a sufficient knowledge of that law. (4) The weight of
+authority both in England and in America supports the view that an
+expert is not bound to give evidence as to matters of opinion unless
+upon an undertaking by the party calling him to pay a reasonable
+remuneration for his evidence.
+
+Statutory provision has been made in England for the summoning of expert
+assistance by the legal tribunals in various cases. In the county courts
+the judge may, if he thinks fit, on the application of either party,
+call in as assessor one or more persons of skill and experience as to
+the matters in dispute (County Courts Act 1888, s. 103), and special
+provision is made for calling in an assessor in employers' liability
+cases (act of 1880, s. 6) and admiralty matters (see County Courts
+Admiralty Jurisdiction Acts of 1868 and 1869). In the High Court and
+court of appeal one or more specially qualified assessors may be called
+in to assist in the hearing of any cause or matter except a criminal
+proceeding by the crown (Judicature Acts 1873, s. 56), and a like power
+is given to both these courts and the judicial committee of the privy
+council in patent cases (Patents, &c., Act 1883., s. 28). Maritime
+causes, whether original or on appeal from county courts, are usually
+taken in the presence of Elder Brethren of the Trinity House, who advise
+the judge without having any right to control or any responsibility for
+his decision (see the "Beryl," 1884, 9 P.D. 1), and on appeal in
+maritime causes nautical assessories are usually called in by the court
+of appeal, and may be called in by the House of Lords (Judicature Act
+1891, s. 3); a like provision is made as to maritime causes in Scottish
+courts (Nautical Assessors [Scotland] Act 1894). The judicial committee
+of the privy council, besides its power to call in assessors in patent
+cases, is authorized to call them in in ecclesiastical causes (Appellate
+Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14).
+
+  In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Taylor, _Law of
+  Evidence_ (9th ed., London, 1895); J.D. Lawson, _Law of Expert and
+  Opinion Evidence_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+EXPLOSIVES, a general term for substances which by certain treatment
+"explode," i.e. decompose or change in a violent manner so as to
+generate force. From the manner and degree of violence of the
+decomposition they are classified into "propellants" and "detonators,"
+but this classification is not capable of sharp delimitation. In some
+cases the same substance may be employed for either purpose under
+altered external conditions; but there are some substances which could
+not possibly be employed as propellants, and others which can scarcely
+be induced to explode in the manner known as "detonation." A propellant
+may be considered as a substance that on explosion produces such a
+disturbance that neighbouring substances are thrown to some distance; a
+detonator or disruptor may produce an extremely violent disturbance
+within a limited area without projecting substances to any great
+distance. Time is an important, perhaps the most important, factor in
+this action. A propellant generally acts by _burning_ in a more or less
+rapid and regular manner, producing from a comparatively small volume a
+large volume of gases; during this action heat is also developed, which,
+being expended mostly on the gaseous products, causes a further
+expansion. The noise accompanying an explosion is due to an air wave,
+and is markedly different in the case of a detonator from a real
+propellant. Some cases of ordinary combustion can be accelerated into
+explosions by increasing the area of contact between the combustible and
+the oxygen supplier, for instance, ordinary gas or dust explosions.
+Neither temperature nor quantity of heat energy necessarily gives an
+explosive action. Some metals, e.g. aluminium and magnesium, will, in
+oxidizing, produce a great thermal effect, but unless there be some
+gaseous products no real explosive action.
+
+Explosives may be mechanical mixtures of substances capable of chemical
+interaction with the production of large volumes of gases, or definite
+chemical compounds of a peculiar class known as "endothermic," the
+decomposition of which is also attended with the evolution of gases in
+large quantity.
+
+  All chemical compounds are either "endothermic" or "exothermic." In
+  endothermic compounds energy, in some form, has been taken up in the
+  act of formation of the compound. Some of this energy has become
+  potential, or rather the compound formed has been raised to a higher
+  potential. This case occurs when two elements can be united only under
+  some compulsion such as a very high temperature, by the aid of an
+  electric current, or spark, or as a secondary product whilst some
+  other reactions are proceeding. For example, oxygen and nitrogen
+  combine only under the influence of an electric spark, and carbon and
+  calcium in the electric furnace. The formation of chlorates by the
+  action of chlorine on boiling potash is a good instance of a complex
+  compound (potassium chlorate), being formed in small quantity as a
+  secondary product whilst a large quantity of primary and simpler
+  products (potassium chloride and water) is forming. In chlorate
+  formation the greater part of the reaction represents a running down
+  of energy and formation of exothermic compounds, with only a small
+  yield of an endothermic substance. Another idea of the meaning of
+  endothermic is obtained from acetylene. When 26 parts by weight of
+  this substance are burnt, the heat produced will warm up 310,450 parts
+  of water 1° C. Acetylene consists of 24 parts of carbon and 2 of
+  hydrogen by weight. The 24 parts of carbon will, if in the form of
+  pure charcoal, heat 192,000 parts of water 1°, and the 2 parts of
+  hydrogen will heat 68,000 parts of water 1°, the total heat production
+  being 260,000 heat units. Thus 26 grams of acetylene give an excess of
+  50,450 units over the amount given by the constituents. This excess of
+  heat energy[1] is due to some form of potential energy in the
+  compound which becomes actual heat energy at the moment of dissolution
+  of the chemical union. The manner in which a substance is endothermic
+  is of importance as regards the practical employment of explosives.
+  Some particular endothermic state or form results from the mode of
+  formation and the consequent internal structure of the molecule.
+  Physical structure alone can be the cause of a relative endothermic
+  state, as in the glass bulbs known as Rupert's drops, &c., or even in
+  chilled steel. Rupert's drops fly in pieces on being scratched or cut
+  to a certain depth. The cause is undoubtedly to be ascribed to the
+  molecular state of the glass brought about by chilling from the melted
+  state. The molecules have not had time to separate or arrange
+  themselves in easy positions. In steel when melted the carbide of iron
+  is no doubt diffused equally throughout the liquid. When cooled slowly
+  some carbide separates out more or less, and the steel is soft or
+  annealed. When chilled the carbides are retained in solid solution.
+  The volume of chilled glass or steel differs slightly from that in the
+  annealed state.
+
+  Superfused substances are probably in a similar state of physical
+  potential or strain. Many metallic salts, and organic compounds
+  especially, will exhibit this state when completely melted and then
+  allowed to cool in a clean atmosphere. On touching with a little of
+  the same substance in a solid state the liquids will begin to
+  crystallize, at the same time becoming heated almost up to their
+  melting-points. The metal gallium shows this excellently well, keeping
+  liquid for years until touched with the solid metal, when there is a
+  considerable rise of temperature as solidification takes place.
+
+  All carbon compounds, excepting carbon dioxide, and many if not all
+  compounds of nitrogen, are endothermic. Most of the explosives in
+  common use contain nitrogen in some form.
+
+  Exothermic compounds are in a certain sense the reverse of
+  endothermic; they are relatively inert and react but slowly or not at
+  all, unless energy be expended upon them from outside. Water, carbon
+  dioxide and most of the common minerals belong to this class.
+
+The explosives actually employed at the present time include mixtures,
+such as gunpowders and some chlorate compositions, the ingredients of
+which separately may be non-explosive; compounds used singly, as
+guncotton, nitroglycerin (in the form of dynamite), picric acid (as
+lyddite or melinite), trinitrotoluene, nitrocresols, mercury fulminate,
+&c.; combinations of some explosive compounds, such as cordite and the
+smokeless propellants in general use for military purposes; and,
+finally, blasting and detonating or igniting compositions, some of which
+contain inert diluting materials as well as one or more high explosives.
+Many igniting compositions are examples of the last type, consisting of
+a high explosive diluted with a neutral substance, and frequently
+containing in addition a composition which is inflamed by the explosion
+of the diluted high explosive, the flame in turn igniting the actual
+propellant.
+
+_Explosive Mixtures._--The explosive mixture longest known is
+undoubtedly gunpowder (q.v.) in some form--that is, a mixture of
+charcoal with sulphur and nitre, the last being the oxygen provider.
+Besides the nitrates of metals and ammonium nitrate, there is a limited
+number of other substances capable of serving in a sufficiently
+energetic manner as oxygen providers. A few chlorates, perchlorates,
+permanganates and chromates almost complete the list. Of these the
+sodium, potassium and barium chlorates are best known and have been
+actually tried, in admixture with some combustible substances, as
+practical explosives. Most other metallic chlorates are barred from
+practical employment owing to instability, deliquescence or other
+property.
+
+Of the chlorates those of potassium and sodium are the most stable, and
+mixtures of either of these salts with sulphur or sulphides, phosphorus,
+charcoal, sugar, starch, finely-ground cellulose, coal or almost any
+kind of organic, i.e. carbon, compound, in certain proportions, yield an
+explosive mixture. In many cases these mixtures are not only fired or
+exploded by heating to a certain temperature, but also by quite moderate
+friction or percussion. Consequently there is much danger in manufacture
+and storage, and however these mixtures have been made up, they are
+quite out of the question as propellants on account of their great
+tendency to explode in the manner of a detonator. In addition they are
+not smokeless, and leave a considerable residue which in a gun would
+produce serious fouling.
+
+Mixtures of chlorates with aromatic compounds such as the nitro- or
+dinitro-benzenes or even naphthalene make very powerful blasting agents.
+The violent action of a chlorate mixture is due first to the rapid
+evolution of oxygen, and also to the fact that a chlorate can be
+detonated when alone. A drop of sulphuric acid will start the combustion
+of a chlorate mixture. In admixture with sulphur, sulphides and
+especially phosphorus, chlorates give extremely sensitive compositions,
+some of which form the basis of friction tube and firing mixtures.
+
+Potassium and sodium perchlorates and permanganates make similar but
+slightly less sensitive explosive mixtures with the above-mentioned
+substances. Finely divided metals such as aluminium or magnesium give
+also with permanganates, chlorates or perchlorates sensitive and
+powerful explosives. Bichromates, although containing much available
+oxygen, form but feeble explosive mixtures, but some compounds of
+chromic acid with diazo compounds and some acetylides are extremely
+powerful as well as sensitive. Ammonium bichromate is a self-combustible
+after the type of ammonium nitrate, but scarcely an explosive.
+
+_Explosive Compounds._--Nearly all the explosive compounds in actual use
+either for blasting purposes or as propellants are nitrogen compounds,
+and are obtained more or less directly from nitric acid. Most of the
+propellants at present employed consist essentially of nitrates of some
+organic compound, and may be viewed theoretically as nitric acid, the
+hydrogen of which has been replaced by a carbon complex; such compounds
+are expressed by M·O·NO2, which indicates that the carbon group is in
+some manner united by means of oxygen to the nitrogen group. Guncotton
+and nitroglycerin are of this class. Another large class of explosives
+is formed by a more direct attachment of nitrogen to the carbon complex,
+as represented by M·NO2. A number of explosives of the detonating type
+are of this class. They contain the same proportions of oxygen and
+nitrogen as nitrites, but are not nitrites. They have been termed
+nitro-derivatives for distinction. One of the simplest and longest-known
+members of this group is nitrobenzene, C6H5NO2, which is employed to
+some extent as an explosive, being one ingredient in rack-a-rock and
+other blasting compositions. The dinitro-benzenes, C6H4(NO2)2, made from
+it are solids which are somewhat extensively employed as constituents of
+some sporting powders, and in admixture with ammonium nitrate form a
+blasting powder of a "flameless" variety which is comparatively safe in
+dusty or "gassy" coal seams.
+
+Picric acid or trinitrophenol, C6H2·OH·(NO2)3 is employed as a high
+explosive for shell, &c. It requires, however, either to be enclosed and
+heated, or to be started by a powerful detonator to develop its full
+effect. Its compounds with metals, such as the potassium salt,
+C6H2·OK·(NO2)3, are when dry very easily detonated by friction or
+percussion and _always_ on heating, whereas picric acid itself will burn
+very quietly when set fire to under ordinary conditions.
+Trinitrotoluene, C6H2·CH3·(NO2)3, is a high explosive resembling picric
+acid in the manner of its explosion (to which in fact it is a rival),
+but differs therefrom in not forming salts with metals. The
+nitronaphthols, C10H6·OH·NO2, and higher nitration products may be
+counted in the list. Their salts with metals behave much like the
+picrates.
+
+All these nitro compounds can be reduced by the action of nascent
+hydrogen to substances called amines (q.v.), which are not always
+explosive in themselves, but in some cases can form nitrates of a
+self-combustible nature. Aminoacetic acid, for instance, will form a
+nitrate which burns rapidly but quietly, and might be employed as an
+explosive. By the action of nitrous acid at low temperatures on aromatic
+amines, e.g. aniline, C6H5NH2, diazo compounds are produced. These are
+all highly explosive, and when in a dry state are for the most part also
+extremely sensitive to friction, percussion or heat. As many of these
+diazo compounds contain no oxygen their explosive nature must be
+ascribed to the peculiar state of union of the nitrogen. This state is
+attempted to be shown by the formulae such as, for instance, C6H5·N :
+N·X, which maybe some compound of diazobenzene. Probably the most
+vigorous high explosive at present known is the substance called
+hydrazoic acid or azoimide (q.v.). It forms salts with metals such as
+AgN3, which explode in a peculiar manner. The ammonium compound, NH4N3,
+may become a practical explosive of great value.
+
+Mercuric fulminate, HgC2N2O2, is one of the most useful high explosives
+known. It is formed by the action of a solution of mercurous nitrate,
+containing some nitrous acid, on alcohol. It is a white crystalline
+substance almost insoluble in cold water and requiring 130 times its
+weight of boiling water for solution. It may be heated to 180° C. before
+exploding, and the explosion so brought about is much milder than that
+produced by percussion. It forms the principal ingredient in cap
+compositions, in many fuses and in detonators. In many of these
+compositions the fulminate is diluted by mixture with certain quantities
+of inert powders so that its sensitiveness to friction or percussion is
+just so much lowered, or slowed down, that it will fire another mixture
+capable of burning with a hot flame. For detonating dynamite, guncotton,
+&c., it is generally employed without admixture of a diluent.
+
+_Smokeless Propellants._--Gunpowders and all other explosive mixtures or
+compounds containing metallic salts must form smoke on combustion. The
+solids produced by the resolution of the compounds are in an extremely
+finely-divided state, and on being ejected into the atmosphere become
+more or less attached to water vapour, which is so precipitated, and
+consequently adds to the smoke. The simplest examples of propellants of
+the smokeless class are compressed gases. Compressed air was the
+propellant for the Zalinski dynamite gun. Liquefied carbon dioxide has
+also been proposed and used to a slight extent with the same idea. It is
+scarcely practical, however, because when a quantity of a gas liquefied
+by pressure passes back again into the gaseous state, there is a great
+absorption of heat, and any remaining liquid, and the containing vessel,
+are considerably cooled. Steam guns were tried in the American Civil War
+in 1864; but a steam gun is not smokeless, for the steam escaping from
+the long tube or gun immediately condenses on expansion, forming white
+mist or smoke.
+
+At the earliest stage of the development of guncotton the advantage of
+its smokeless combustion was fully appreciated (see GUNCOTTON). That it
+did not at once take its position as _the_ smokeless propellant, was
+simply due to its physical state--a fibrous porous mass--which burnt too
+quickly or even detonated under the pressure required in fire-arms of
+any kind. In the early eighties of the 19th century it was found that
+several substances would partly dissolve or at least gelatinize
+guncotton, and the moment when guncotton proper was obtained as a
+colloid or jelly was the real start in the matter of smokeless
+propellants.
+
+Guncotton is converted into a gelatinous form by several substances,
+such as esters, e.g. ethyl acetate or benzoate, acetone and other
+ketones, and many benzene compounds, most of which are volatile liquids.
+On contact with the guncotton a jelly is formed which stiffens as the
+evaporation of the gelatinizing agent proceeds, and finally hardens when
+the evaporation is complete. Whilst in a stiff pasty state it may be
+cut, moulded or pressed into any desired shape without any danger of
+ignition. In fact guncotton in the colloid state may be hammered on an
+anvil, and, as a rule, only the portion struck will detonate or fire.
+Guncotton alone makes a very hard and somewhat brittle mass after
+treatment with the gelatinizing agent and complete drying, and small
+quantities of camphor, vaseline, castor oil and other substances are
+incorporated with the gelatinous guncotton to moderate this hard and
+brittle state.
+
+All the smokeless powders, of which gelatinized guncottons or nitrated
+celluloses are the base, are moulded into some conveniently shaped
+grain, e.g. tubes, cords, rods, disks or tablets, so that the rate of
+burning may be controlled as desired. The Vieille powder, invented in
+1887 and adopted in France for a magazine rifle, consisted of
+gelatinized guncotton with a little picric acid. Later a mixture of two
+varieties of guncotton gelatinized together was used. In addition to
+guncottons other explosive or non-explosive substances are contained in
+some of these powders. Guncotton alone in the colloid state burns very
+slowly if in moderate-sized pieces, and when subdivided or made into
+thin rods or strips it is still very mild as an explosive, partly from a
+chemical reason, viz. there is not sufficient oxygen in it to burn the
+carbon to dioxide. Many mixtures are consequently in use, and many more
+have been proposed, which contain some metallic salt capable of
+supplying oxygen, such as barium or ammonium nitrate, &c., the idea
+being to accelerate the rate of burning of the guncotton and if possible
+avoid the production of smoke.
+
+The discovery by A. Nobel that nitroglycerin could be incorporated with
+collodion cotton to form blasting gelatin (see DYNAMITE) led more or
+less directly to the invention of ballistite, which differs from
+blasting gelatin only in the relative amounts of collodion, or soluble
+nitrated cotton, and nitroglycerin. Ballistite was adopted by the
+Italian government in 1890 as a military powder. Very many substances
+and mixtures have been proposed for smokeless powder, but the two
+substances, guncotton and nitroglycerin, have for the most part kept the
+field against all other combinations, and for several reasons.
+Nitroglycerin contains a slight excess of oxygen over that necessary to
+convert the whole of the carbon into carbon dioxide; it burns in a more
+energetic manner than guncotton; the two can be incorporated together in
+any proportion whilst the guncotton is in the gelatinous state; also all
+the liquids which gelatinize guncotton dissolve nitroglycerin, and, as
+these gelatinizing liquids evaporate, the nitroglycerin is left
+entangled in the guncotton jelly, and then shares more or less its
+colloidal character. In burning the nitroglycerin is protected from
+detonation by the gelatinous state of the guncotton, but still adds to
+the rate of burning and produces a higher temperature.
+
+  _Desirable Qualities._--Smokelessness is one only of the desirable
+  properties of a propellant. All the present so-called smokeless
+  powders produce a little fume or haze, mainly due to the condensation
+  of the steam which forms one of the combustion products. There is
+  often also a little vapour from the substances, such as oils, mineral
+  jelly, vaseline or other hydrocarbon added for lubrication or to
+  render the finished material pliable, &c. The gases produced should
+  neither be very poisonous nor exert a corrosive action on metals, &c.
+  The powder itself should have good keeping qualities, that is, not be
+  liable to chemical changes within ordinary ranges of temperature or in
+  different climates when stored for a few years. In these powders
+  slight chemical changes are generally followed by noticeable ballistic
+  changes. All the smokeless powders of the present day produce some
+  oxide of nitrogen, traces of which hang about the gun after firing and
+  change rapidly into nitrous and nitric acids. Nitrous acid is
+  particularly objectionable in connexion with metals, as it acts as a
+  carrier of oxygen. The fouling from modern smokeless powders is a
+  slight deposit of acid grease, and the remedy consists in washing out
+  the bore of the piece with an alkaline liquid. The castor oil, mineral
+  jelly or camphor, and similar substances added to smokeless powders
+  are supposed to act as lubricants to some extent. They are not as
+  effective in this respect as mineral salts, and the rifling of both
+  small-arms and ordnance using smokeless powders is severely gripped by
+  the metal of the projectile. The alkaline fouling produced by the
+  black and brown powders acted as a preventive of rusting to some
+  extent, as well as a lubricant in the bore.
+
+  _Danger in Manufacture._--In the case of the old gunpowders, the most
+  dangerous manufacturing operation was incorporation. With the modern
+  colloid propellants the most dangerous operations are the chemical
+  processes in the preparation of nitroglycerin, the drying of
+  guncotton, &c. After once the gelatinizing solvent has been added, all
+  the mechanical operations can be conducted, practically, with perfect
+  safety. This statement appears to be correct for all kinds of nitrated
+  cellulose powders, whether mixed with nitroglycerin or other
+  substances. Should they become ignited, which is possible by a rise of
+  temperature (to say 180°) or contact with a flame, the mixture burns
+  quickly, but does not detonate.
+
+  As a rule naval and military smokeless powders are shaped into flakes,
+  cubes, cords or cylinders, with or without longitudinal perforations.
+  All the modifications in shape and size are intended to regulate the
+  rate of burning. Sporting powders are often coloured for trade
+  distinction. Some powders are blackleaded by glazing with pure
+  graphite, as is done with black powders. One object of this glazing is
+  to prevent the grains or pieces becoming joined by pressure; for rods
+  or pieces of some smokeless powders might possibly unite under
+  considerable pressure, producing larger pieces and thus altering the
+  rate of burning. Most smokeless powders are fairly insensitive to
+  shock. All these gelatinized powders are a little less easily ignited
+  than black powders. A slightly different cap composition is required
+  for small-arm cartridges, and cannon cartridges generally require a
+  small primer or starter of powdered black gunpowder.
+
+  It is desired that a propellant shall produce the maximum velocity
+  with the minimum pressure. The pressure should start gently so that
+  the inertia of the projectile is overcome without any undue local
+  strain on the breech near the powder chamber, and more especially that
+  as more and more space is given to the gases by the movement of the
+  projectile up the gun to the muzzle, gas should be produced with
+  sufficient rapidity to keep the pressure nearly uniform or slightly
+  increasing along the bore. The leading idea for improvements in
+  relation to propellants is to obtain the greatest possible pressure
+  regularly developed, and at the same time the lowest temperatures.
+       (W. R. E. H.)
+
+_Law._--In 1860 an act was passed in England "to amend the law
+concerning the making, keeping and carriage of gunpowder and
+compositions of an explosive nature, and concerning the manufacture and
+use of fireworks" (23 & 24 Vict. c. 139), whereby previous acts on the
+same subject were repealed, and minute and stringent regulations
+introduced. Amending acts were passed in 1861 and 1862. In 1875 was
+passed the Explosives Act (38 & 39 Vict. c. 17), which repealed the
+former acts, and dealt with the whole subject in a more comprehensive
+manner. This act, containing 122 sections, and applying to Scotland and
+Ireland, as well as to England, constitutes, with various orders in
+council and home office orders, a complete code. The act of 1875 was
+based on the report of a committee of the House of Commons, public
+opinion having been greatly excited on the subject by a terrible
+explosion on the Regent's Canal in 1874. Explosives are thus defined:
+(1) Gunpowder, nitroglycerin, dynamite, guncotton, blasting powders,
+fulminate of mercury or of other metals, coloured fires, and every other
+substance, whether similar to those above-mentioned or not, used or
+manufactured with a view to produce a practical effect by explosion or a
+pyrotechnic effect, and including (2) fog-signals, fireworks, fuses,
+rockets, percussion caps, detonators, cartridges, ammunition of all
+descriptions, and every adaptation or preparation of an explosive as
+above defined. Part i. deals with gunpowder, providing that it shall be
+manufactured only at factories lawfully existing or licensed under the
+act; that it shall be kept (except for private use) only in existing or
+new magazines or stores, or in registered premises, licensed under the
+act. Private persons may keep gunpowder for their own use to the amount
+of thirty pounds. The act also prescribes rules for the proper keeping
+of gunpowder on registered premises. Part ii. deals with nitroglycerin
+and other explosives; part iii. with inspection, accidents, search, &c.;
+part iv. contains various supplementary provisions. By order in council
+the term "explosive" may be extended to any substance which appears to
+be specially dangerous to life or property by reason of its explosive
+properties, or to any process liable to explosion in the manufacture
+thereof, and the provisions of the act then extend to such substance
+just as if it were included in the term "explosive" in the act. The act
+lays down minute and stringent regulations for the sale of gunpowder,
+restricting the sale thereof in public thoroughfares or places, or to
+any child apparently under the age of thirteen; requiring the sale of
+gunpowder to be in closed packages labelled; it also lays down general
+rules for conveyance, &c. The act also gives power by order in council
+to define, from time to time, the composition, quality and character of
+any explosive, and to classify explosives, and such orders in council
+are frequently made including new substances; those in force will be
+found in the _Statutory Rules and Orders_, tit. "explosive substance."
+The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 imposes restrictions on the carriage of
+dangerous goods in a British or foreign vessel, "dangerous goods"
+meaning aquafortis, vitriol, naphtha, benzine, gunpowder, lucifer
+matches, nitroglycerin, petroleum and any explosive within the meaning
+of the Explosives Act 1875. The act is administered by the home office,
+and an annual report is published containing the proceedings of the
+inspectors of explosives and an account of the working of the act. Each
+annual report gives a list of explosives at the time authorized for
+manufacture or importation, and appendices containing information as to
+accidents, experiments, &c.
+
+Practically every European country has legislated on the lines of the
+English act of 1875, Austria taking the lead, in 1877, with an
+explosives ordinance almost identical with the English act. The United
+States and the various English colonies also have explosives acts
+regulating the manufacture, storage and importation of explosives. (See
+also PETROLEUM.)     (T. A. I.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. Berthelot, _Sur la force des matières explosives_
+  (Paris, 1883); P.F. Chalon, _Les Explosifs modernes_ (Paris, 1886);
+  W.H. Wardell, _Handbook of Gunpowder and Guncotton_ (London, 1888);
+  J.P. Cundill, _A Dictionary of Explosives_ (London, 1889 and 1897); M.
+  Eissler, _A Handbook of Modern Explosives_ (London, 1896, new ed.
+  1903); J.A. Longridge, _Smokeless Powder and its Influence on Gun
+  Construction_ (London, 1890); C. Napier Hake and W. Macnab,
+  _Explosives and their Power_ (London, 1892); G. Coralys, _Les
+  Explosifs_ (Paris, 1893); A. Ponteaux, _La Poudre sans fumée et les
+  poudres anciennes_ (Paris, 1893); F. Salvati, _Vocabolario di polveri
+  ed explosivi_ (Rome, 1893); C. Guttmann, _The Manufacture of
+  Explosives_ (London, 1895 and later); S.J. von Romocki, _Geschichte
+  der Sprengstoffchemie, der Sprengtechnik und des Torpedowesens bis zum
+  Beginn der neusten Zeit_ (Berlin, 1895); _Geschichte der
+  Explosivstoffe, die rauchschwachen Pulver_ (Berlin, 1896); P.G.
+  Sanford, _Nitro-explosives_ (London, 1896); L. Gody, _Traité théorique
+  et pratique des matières explosives_ (Namur, 1896); R. Wille, _Der
+  Plastomerite_ (Berlin, 1898); E. Sarrau, _Introduction à la théorie
+  des explosifs_ (1893); _Théorie des explosifs_ (1896); O. Guttmann,
+  _Manufacture of Explosives_ (London, 1895); E.M. Weaver, _Notes on
+  Military Explosives_ (New York, 1906); M. Eissler, _The Modern High
+  Explosives_ (New York, 1906); _Treatise on Service Explosives_,
+  published by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907).
+  Most of the literature on modern explosives, e.g. dynamite, &c., is to
+  be found in papers contributed to scientific journals and societies.
+  An index to those which have appeared in the _Journal of the Society
+  of Chemical Industry_ is to be found in the decennial index (1908)
+  compiled by F.W. Renant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Not necessarily heat energy entirely. A number of
+    substances--acetylides and some nitrogen compounds, such as nitrogen
+    chloride--decompose with extreme violence, but _little heat_ is
+    produced.
+
+
+
+
+EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat.
+_exprimere_, to press out, by transference used of representing objects
+in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words), a word
+signifying that which is clearly and definitely set forth or
+represented, explicit, and thus used of a meaning, a law, a contract and
+the like, being specially contrasted with "implied." Thus in law,
+malice, for which there is actual evidence, as apart from that which may
+be inferred from the acts of the person charged, is known as "express."
+The word is most frequently used with the idea of something done with a
+definite purpose; the term "express train," now meaning one that travels
+at a high speed over long distances with few intermediate stoppages,
+was, in the early days of railways, applied to what is now usually
+called a "special," i.e. a train not running according to the ordinary
+time-tables of the railway company, but for some specific purpose, or
+engaged by a private person. About 1845 this term became used for a
+train running to a particular place without stopping. Similarly in the
+British postal service, express delivery is a special and immediate
+delivery of a letter, parcel, &c., by an express messenger at a
+particular increased rate. The system was adopted in 1891.
+
+In the United States of America, express companies for the rapid
+transmission of parcels and luggage and light goods generally perform
+the function of the post office or the railways in the United Kingdom
+and the continent of Europe. Not only do they deliver goods, but by the
+cash on delivery system (see CASH) the express companies act as agents
+both for the purchaser and seller of goods. They also serve as a most
+efficient agency for the transmission of money, the express money order
+being much more easily convertible than the postal money orders, as the
+latter can only be redeemed at offices in large and important towns. The
+system dates back to 1839, when one William Frederick Harnden
+(1813-1845), a conductor on the Boston and Worcester railway, undertook
+on his own account the carrying of small parcels and the performance of
+small commissions. Obliged to leave the company's service or abandon his
+enterprise, he started an "express" service between Boston and New York,
+carrying parcels, executing commissions and collecting drafts and bills.
+Alvin Adams followed in 1840, also between Boston and New York. From
+1840 to 1845 the system was adopted by many others between the more
+important towns throughout the States. The attempt to carry letters
+also was stopped by the government as interfering with the post office.
+In 1854 began the amalgamation of many of the companies. Thus under the
+name of the Adams Express Company the services started by Harnden and
+Adams were consolidated. The lines connecting the west and east by
+Albany, Buffalo and the lakes were consolidated in the American Express
+Company, under the direction of William G. Fargo (q.v.), Henry Wells and
+Johnston Livingston, while another company, Wells, Fargo & Co., operated
+on the Pacific coast. The celebrated "Pony Express" was started in 1860
+between San Francisco and St Joseph, Missouri, the time scheduled being
+eight days. The service was carried on by relays of horses, with
+stations 25 m. apart. The charge made for the service was $2.50 per ½
+oz. The completion of the Pacific Telegraph Company line in 1861 was
+followed by the discontinuance of the regular service.
+
+The name "express" is applied to a rifle having high velocity, flat
+trajectory and long fixed-sight ranges; and an "express-bullet" is a
+light bullet with a heavy charge of powder used in such a rifle (see
+RIFLE).
+
+
+
+
+EXPROPRIATION, the taking away or depriving of property (Late Lat.
+_expropriare_, to take away, _proprium_, i.e. that which is one's own).
+The term is particularly applied to the compulsory acquisition of
+private property by the state or other public authority.
+
+
+
+
+EXPULSION (Lat. _expulsio_, from _expellere_), the act of driving out,
+or of removing a person from the membership of a body or the holding of
+an office, or of depriving him of the right of attending a meeting, &c.
+In the United Kingdom the House of Commons can by resolution expel a
+member. Such resolution cannot be questioned by any court of law. But
+expulsion is only resorted to in cases where members are guilty of
+offences rendering them unfit for a seat in the House, such as being in
+open rebellion, being guilty of forgery, perjury, fraud or breach of
+trust, misappropriation of public money, corruption, conduct unbecoming
+the character of an officer and a gentleman, &c. It is customary to
+order the member, if absent, to attend in his place, before an order is
+made for his expulsion (see May, _Parliamentary Practice_, 1906, p. 56
+seq.). Municipal corporations or other local government bodies have no
+express power to expel a member, except in such cases where the law
+declares the member to have vacated his seat, or where power is given by
+statute to declare the member's seat vacant. In the cases of officers
+and servants of the crown, tenure varies with the nature of the office.
+Some officials hold their offices _ad vitam aut culpam or dum bene se
+gesserunt_, others can be dismissed at any time and without reason
+assigned and without compensation. In the case of membership of a
+voluntary association (club, &c.) the right of expulsion depends upon
+the rules, and must be exercised in good faith. Courts of justice have
+jurisdiction to prevent the improper expulsion of the member of a
+voluntary association where that member has a right of property in the
+association. In the case of meetings, where the meeting is one of a
+public body, any person not a member of the body is entitled to be
+present only on sufferance, and may be expelled on a resolution of the
+body. In the case of ordinary public meetings those who convene the
+meeting stand in the position of licensors to those attending and may
+revoke the licence and expel any person who creates disorder or makes
+himself otherwise objectionable.
+
+_Expulsion of Aliens._--Under the Naturalization Act of 1870, the last
+of the civil disqualifications affecting aliens in England was removed.
+The political disqualifications which remained only applied to electoral
+rights. In the very exceptional cases in which it was retained in the
+statute book, expulsion was considered to have fallen into desuetude,
+but it has been revived by the Aliens Act of 1905 (5 Edw. VII. c. 13).
+Under this act powers are given to the secretary of state to make an
+order requiring an alien to leave the United Kingdom within a time fixed
+by the order and thereafter to remain outside the United Kingdom,
+subject to certain conditions, provided it is certified to him that the
+alien has been convicted of any felony or misdemeanour or other offence
+for which the court has power to impose imprisonment without the option
+of a fine, &c., or that he has been sentenced in a foreign country with
+which there is an extradition treaty, for a crime not being an offence
+of a political character. There are also provisions applicable within
+one year, after the alien has entered the United Kingdom in the case of
+pauper aliens. Precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, any
+abuse of the power of expulsion. Under the French law of expulsion
+(December 3, 1849) there are no such precautions, the minister of the
+interior having an absolute discretion to order any foreigner as a
+measure of public policy to leave French territory and in fact to have
+him taken immediately to the frontier.
+
+
+
+
+EXTENSION (Lat. _ex_, out; _tendere_, to stretch), in general, the
+action of straining or stretching out. It is usually employed
+metaphorically (cf. the phrase an "extension of time," a period allowed
+in excess of what has been agreed upon). It is used as a technical term
+in logic to describe the total number of objects to which a given term
+may be applied; thus the meaning of the term "King" in "extension" means
+the kings of England, Italy, Spain, &c. (cf. DENOTATION), while in
+"intension" it means the attributes which taken together make up the
+idea of kinghood (see CONNOTATION). In psychology the literal sense of
+extension is retained, i.e. "spread-outness." The perception of space by
+the senses of sight and touch, as opposed to semi-spatial perceptions by
+smell and hearing, is that of "continuous expanse composed of positions
+separated and connected by distances" (Stout); to this the term
+"extension" is applied. The perception of separate objects involves
+position and distance, but these taken together are not extension, which
+necessarily implies continuity. To move one's finger along the keys of a
+piano gives both the position and the distance of the keys; to move it
+along the frame gives the idea of extension. By expanding this idea we
+obtain the conception of all space as an extended whole. To this
+perception are necessary both form and material. It should be observed
+the actual quality of a stimulus (rough, smooth, dry, &c.) has nothing
+to do with the spatial perception as such, which is concerned purely
+with what is known as "local signature." The elementary undifferentiated
+sensation excited by the stimuli exerted by a continuous whole is known
+as its "extensive quantity" or "extensity." The term has to do not with
+the kind of object which excites the sensation, but simply with the
+vague massiveness of the latter. As such it is distinguishable in
+thought from extension, though it is not easy to say whether and if so
+how far the quantitative aspect of space can exist apart from spatial
+order. Extensity as an element in the complex of extension must be
+carefully distinguished from intensity. Mere increase of pressure
+implies increase of intensity of sensation; to increase the extensity
+the _area_, so to speak, of the exciting stimulus must be increased.
+Thus the extensity (also called "voluminousness," or "massiveness") of
+the sensation produced by a roll of thunder is greater than that
+produced by a whistle or the bark of a dog. It should be observed that
+this application of the idea of extensity to sensation in general,
+rather than to the matter which is the exciting stimulus, is only an
+analogy, an attempt to explain a common psychic phenomenon by
+terminology which is intrinsically suitable to the physical. As a
+natural consequence the term represents different shades of meaning in
+different treatises, verging sometimes towards the physical, sometimes
+towards the psychic, meaning.
+
+In connexion with extension elaborate psycho-physical experiments have
+been devised,.e.g. with the object of comparing the accuracy of tactual
+and visual perception and discovering what are the least differences
+which each can observe. At a distance two lights appear as one, just as
+two stars distinguishable through a telescope are one to the naked eye
+(see VISION): again if the points of a compass are brought close
+together and pressed lightly on the skin the sensation, though vague and
+diffused, is a single one.
+
+  See PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted; also SPACE AND TIME.
+
+
+
+
+EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES. This expression is used in law with reference
+to crimes, to describe cases in which, though an offence has been
+committed without legal justification or excuse, its gravity, from the
+point of view of punishment or moral opprobrium, is mitigated or reduced
+by reason of the facts leading up to or attending the commission of the
+offence. According to English procedure, the jury has no power to
+determine the punishment to be awarded for an offence. The sentence,
+with certain exceptions in capital cases, is within the sole discretion
+of the judge, subject to the statutory prescriptions as to the kind and
+maximum of punishment. It is common practice for juries to add to their
+verdict, guilty or not guilty, a rider recommending the accused to mercy
+on the ground of grave provocation received, or other circumstances
+which in their view should mitigate the penalty. This form of rider is
+often added on a verdict of guilty of wilful murder, a crime as to which
+the judge has no discretion as to punishment, but the recommendation is
+sent to the Home Office for consideration in advising as to exercise of
+the prerogative of mercy. Quite independently of any recommendation by
+the jury, the judge is entitled to take into account matters proved
+during the trial, or laid before him after verdict, as a guide to him in
+determining the quantum of punishment.
+
+Under the French law (_Code d'instruction criminelle_, art. 345), it is
+the sole right and the duty of a jury in a criminal case to pronounce
+whether or not the commission of the offence was attended by extenuating
+circumstances (_circonstances atténuantes_). They are not bound to say
+anything about the matter, but the whole or the majority may qualify the
+verdict by finding extenuation, and if they do, the powers of the court
+to impose the maximum punishment are taken away and the sentence to be
+pronounced is reduced in accordance with the scale laid down in art. 463
+of the _Code pénal_. The most important result of this rule is to enable
+a jury to prevent the infliction of capital punishment for murder. In
+cases of what is termed "crime passionel," French juries, when they do
+not acquit, almost invariably find extenuation; and a like verdict has
+become common even in the case of cold-blooded and sordid murders, owing
+to objections to capital punishment.
+
+
+
+
+EXTERRITORIALITY, a term of international law, used to denominate
+certain immunities from the application of the rule that every person is
+subject for all acts done within the boundaries of a state to its local
+laws. It is also employed to describe the quasi-extraterritorial
+position, to borrow the phrase of Grotius, of the dwelling-place of an
+accredited diplomatic agent, and of the public ships of one state while
+in the waters of another. Latterly its sense has been extended to all
+cases in which states refrain from enforcing their laws within their
+territorial jurisdiction. The cases recognized by the law of nations
+relate to: (1) the persons and belongings of foreign sovereigns, whether
+incognito or not; (2) the persons and belongings of ambassadors,
+ministers plenipotentiary, and other accredited diplomatic agents and
+their suites (but not consuls, except in some non-Christian countries,
+in which they sometimes have a diplomatic character); (3) public ships
+in foreign waters. Exterritoriality has also been granted by treaty to
+the subjects and citizens of contracting Christian states resident
+within the territory of certain non-Christian states. Lastly, it is held
+that when armies or regiments are allowed by a foreign state to cross
+its territory, they necessarily have exterritorial rights. "The ground
+upon which the immunity of sovereign rulers from process in our courts,"
+said Mr Justice Wills in the case of _Mighell_ v. _Sultan of Johore_,
+1804, "is recognized by our law, is that it would be absolutely
+inconsistent with the status of an independent sovereign that he should
+be subject to the process of a foreign tribunal," unless he deliberately
+submits to its jurisdiction. It has, however, been held where the
+foreign sovereign was also a British subject (_Duke of Brunswick_ v.
+_King of Hanover_, 1844), that he is amenable to the jurisdiction of the
+English Courts in respect of transactions done by him in his capacity as
+a subject. A "foreign sovereign" may be taken to include the president
+of a republic, and even a potentate whose independence is not complete.
+Thus in the case, cited above, of _Mighell_ v. _Sultan of Johore_, the
+sultan was ascertained to have abandoned all right to contract with
+foreign states, and to have placed his territory under British
+protection. The court held that he was, nevertheless, a foreign
+sovereign in so far as immunity from British jurisdiction was concerned.
+The immunity of a foreign diplomatic agent, as the direct representative
+of a foreign sovereign (or state), is based on the same grounds as that
+of the sovereign authority itself. The international practice in the
+case of Great Britain was confirmed by an act of parliament of the reign
+of Queen Anne, which is still in force. The preamble to this act states
+that "turbulent and disorderly persons in a most outrageous manner had
+insulted the person of the then ambassador of his Czarish Majesty,
+emperor of Great Russia," by arresting and detaining him in custody for
+several hours, "in contempt to the protection granted by Her Majesty,
+contrary to the law of nations, and in prejudice of the rights and
+privileges which ambassadors and other public ministers, authorized and
+received as such, have at all times been thereby possessed of, and ought
+to be kept sacred and inviolable." This preamble has been repeatedly
+held by our courts to be declaratory of the English common law. The act
+provides that all suits, writs, processes, against any accredited
+ambassador or public minister or his domestic servant, and all
+proceedings and judgments had thereupon, are "utterly null and void,"
+and that any person violating these provisions shall be punished for a
+breach of the public peace. Thus a foreign diplomatic agent cannot, like
+the sovereign he represents, waive his immunity by submitting to the
+British jurisdiction. The diplomatic immunity necessarily covers the
+residence of the diplomatic agent, which some writers describe as
+assimilated to territory of the state represented by the agent; but
+there is no consideration which can justify any extension of the
+immunity beyond the needs of the diplomatic mission resident within it.
+It is different with public ships in foreign waters. In their case the
+exterritoriality attaches to the vessel. Beyond its bulwarks captain and
+crew are subject to the ordinary jurisdiction of the state upon whose
+territory they happen to be. By a foreign public ship is now understood
+any ship in the service of a foreign state. It was even held in the case
+of the "Parlement Belge" (1880), a packet belonging to the Belgian
+government, that the character of the vessel as a public ship was not
+affected by its carrying passengers and merchandise for hire. In a more
+recent case an action brought by the owners of a Greek vessel against a
+vessel belonging to the state of Rumania was dismissed, though the
+agents of the Rumanian government had entered an appearance
+unconditionally and had obtained the release of the vessel on bail, on
+the ground that the Rumanian government had not authorized acceptance of
+the British jurisdiction (The "Jassy," 1906, 75 L.J.P. 93).
+
+Writers frequently describe the exterritoriality of both embassies and
+ships as absolute. There is, however, this difference, that the
+exterritoriality of the latter not being, like that of embassies, a
+derived one, there seems to be no ground for limitation of it. It was,
+nevertheless, laid down by the arbitrators in the "Alabama" case
+(Cockburn dissenting), that the privilege of exterritoriality accorded
+to vessels had not been admitted into the law of nations as an absolute
+right, but solely as a proceeding founded on the principle of courtesy
+and mutual deference between different nations, and that it could
+therefore "never be appealed to for the protection of acts done in
+violation of neutrality."
+
+The exterritorial settlements in the Far East, the privileges of
+Christians under the arrangements made with the Ottoman Porte, and other
+exceptions from local jurisdictions, are subject to the conditions laid
+down in the treaties by which they have been created. There are also
+cases in which British communities have grown up in barbarous countries
+without the consent of any local authority. All these are regulated by
+orders in council, issued now in virtue of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act
+1890, an act enabling the crown to exercise any jurisdiction it may have
+"within a foreign country" in as ample a manner as if it had been
+acquired "by cession or conquest of territory." A very exceptional case
+of exterritoriality is that granted to the pope under a special Italian
+enactment.     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+EXTORTION (Lat. _extorsio_, from _extorquere_, to twist out, to take
+away by force), in English law the term applied to the exaction by
+public officers of money or money's worth not due at all, or in excess
+of what is due, or before it is due. Such exaction, unless made in good
+faith (i.e. in honest mistake as to the sum properly payable), is a
+misdemeanour by the common law and is punishable by fine and (or)
+imprisonment. Besides the punishment above stated, an action for twice
+the value of the thing extorted lies against officers of the king (1275,
+3 Edw. I. c. 26). There are numerous provisions for the punishment of
+particular officers who make illegal exactions or take illegal fees:
+e.g. sheriffs and their officers (Sheriffs Act 1887), county court
+bailiffs (County Courts Act 1888), clerks of courts of justice, and
+gaolers who exact fees from prisoners. A gaoler is also punishable for
+detaining the corpse of a prisoner as security for debt. The term
+"public officer" is not limited to offices under the crown; and there
+are old precedents of criminal proceedings for extortion against
+churchwardens, and against millers and ferrymen who demand tolls in
+excess of what is customary under their franchise.
+
+The term extortion is also applied to the exaction of money or money's
+worth by menaces of personal violence or by threats to accuse of crime
+or to publish defamatory matter about another person. These offences
+fall partly under the head of robbery and partly under blackmail, or
+what in French is termed _chantage_.
+
+  See _Russell on Crimes_ (6th ed., vol. i. p. 423; vol. iii. p. 348).
+
+
+
+
+EXTRACT (from Lat. _extrahere_, to draw out), in pharmacy, the name
+given to preparations formed by evaporating or concentrating solutions
+of active principles; _tinctures_ are solutions which have not been
+subjected to any evaporation. "Liquid extracts" are those of a syrupy
+consistency, and are generally prepared by treating the drug with the
+solvent (water, alcohol, &c.) and concentrating the solution until it
+attains the desired consistency. "Ordinary extracts" are thick,
+tenacious and sometimes even dry preparations; they are obtained by
+evaporating solutions as obtained above, or the juices expressed from
+the plants.
+
+Extraction, in chemical technology, is a process for separating one
+substance from another by taking advantage of the varying solubility of
+the components in some chosen solvent. The term "lixiviation" is used
+when water is the solvent. In laboratory practice all the common
+solvents are employed. With small quantities it may suffice to shake the
+substance with the solvent, the mixture being heated if necessary,
+filter and distil or otherwise remove the solvent from the distillate.
+For larger quantities continuous extraction is advisable. This may be
+carried out in many forms of apparatus; one of the most convenient is
+the Soxhlet extractor, in which the extract siphons into the flask
+containing the solvent, and so maintains the quantity of available
+solvent practically constant. Continuous extraction is generally the
+practice in technology. One of the most important applications is in the
+fat and gelatine industries.
+
+
+
+
+EXTRADITION (Lat. _ex_, out, and _traditio_, handing over), the
+surrender of an alleged criminal for trial by a foreign state where he
+has taken refuge, to the state against which the alleged offence has
+been committed. When a person who has committed an offence in one
+country escapes to another, what is the duty of the latter with regard
+to him? Should the country of refuge try him in its own courts according
+to its own laws, or deliver him up to the country whose laws he has
+broken? To the general question international law gives no certain
+answer. Some jurists, Grotius among them, incline to hold that a state
+is bound to give up fugitive criminals, but the majority appear to deny
+the obligation as a matter of right, and prefer to put it on the ground
+of comity. And the universal practice of nations is to surrender
+criminals only in consequence of some special treaty with the country
+which demands them.
+
+There are two practical difficulties about extradition which have
+probably prevented the growth of any uniform rule on the subject. One is
+the variation in the definitions of crime adopted by different
+countries. The second is the possibility of the process of extradition
+being employed to get hold of a person who is wanted by his country, not
+really for a criminal, but for a political offence. In modern states,
+and more particularly in England, offences of a political character have
+always been carefully excluded from the operation of the law of
+extradition.
+
+1. UNITED KINGDOM.--The Extradition Acts 1870-1873 (33 & 34 Vict. cc.
+62, and 36 & 37 Vict. c. 60) and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (44 &
+45 Vict. c. 69) deal with different branches of the same subject, the
+recovery and surrender of fugitive criminals. The Extradition Acts apply
+in the case of countries with which Great Britain has extradition
+treaties. The Fugitive Offenders Act applies--(1) as between the United
+Kingdom and any British possession, (2) as between any two British
+possessions, and (3) as between the United Kingdom or a British
+possession and certain foreign countries, such as Turkey and China, in
+which the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction.
+
+_Conditions of Surrender._--In spite of some earlier authorities it has
+long been settled that in English law there is no power to surrender
+fugitive criminals to a foreign country without express statutory
+authority. Such authority is now given by the Extradition Acts
+1870-1873, but only in the case of the offences therein specified, and
+with regard to countries with which an arrangement has been entered
+into, and to which the acts have been applied by order in council. The
+acts are further to be applied, subject to such "conditions, exceptions
+and qualifications as may be deemed expedient" (s. 2); and these
+conditions, &c., are invariably to be found in the extradition treaty
+which is set out in the order in council applying the Extradition Acts
+to a particular country. To support a demand for extradition from Great
+Britain it is therefore necessary to show that the offence is one of
+those enumerated in the Extradition Acts, and also in the particular
+treaty, and that the acts charged amount to the offence according to the
+laws both of Great Britain and of the state demanding the surrender.
+
+_Surrender of Subjects._--A further question arises where a state is
+called on to surrender one of its own subjects. Some of the treaties,
+such as those with France and Germany, stipulate that neither
+contracting party shall surrender its own subjects, and in such cases a
+British subject cannot be surrendered by his own country. The treaties
+with Spain, Switzerland and Luxemburg provide for the surrender by Great
+Britain of her own subjects, but there is no reciprocity. Other
+treaties, such as those with Austria, Belgium, Russia and the
+Netherlands, give each party the option of surrendering or refusing to
+surrender its own subjects in each particular case. Under such treaties
+British subjects are surrendered unless the secretary of state
+intervenes to forbid it. Lastly, some treaties, such as that with the
+United States, contain no restriction of this kind, and the subjects of
+each power are freely surrendered to the other. Surrender by Great
+Britain is also subject to the following restrictions contained in s. 3
+of the Extradition Act 1870:--(1) that the offence is not of a political
+character, and the requisition has not been made with a view to try and
+punish for an offence of a political character; (2) that the prisoner
+shall not be liable to be tried for any but the specified extradition
+offences; (3) that he shall not be surrendered until he has been tried
+and served his sentence for offences committed in Great Britain; and (4)
+that he shall not be actually given up until fifteen days after his
+committal for extradition, so as to allow of an application to the
+courts.
+
+_Political Offences._--The question as to what constitutes a political
+offence is one of some nicety. It was discussed in _In re Castioni_
+(1890, 1 Q.B. 149), where it was held, following the opinion of Mr
+Justice Stephen in his _History of the Criminal Law_, that to give an
+offence a political character it must be "incidental to and form part of
+political disturbances." Extradition was accordingly refused for
+homicide committed in the course of an armed rising against the
+constituted authorities. In the more recent case of _In re Meunier_
+(1894, 2 Q.B. 415), an Anarchist was charged with causing two explosions
+in Paris--one at the Café Véry resulting in the death of two persons,
+and the other at certain barracks. It was not contended that the outrage
+at the cafe was a political crime, but it was argued that the explosion
+at the barracks came within the description. The court, however, held
+that to constitute a political offence there must be two or more parties
+in the state, each seeking to impose a government of its own choice on
+the other, which was not the case with regard to Anarchist crimes. The
+party of anarchy was the enemy of all governments, and its effects were
+directed primarily against the general body of citizens. The test
+applied in the earlier case is perhaps the more satisfactory of the two.
+
+With regard to the provision that surrender shall not be granted if the
+requisition has in fact been made with a view to try and punish for an
+offence of a political character, it, was decided in the case of _Arton_
+(1896, 1 Q.B. 108) that a mere suggestion, that after his surrender for
+a non-political crime, the prisoner would be interrogated on political
+matters (his alleged complicity in the Panama scandal), and punished for
+his refusal to answer, was not enough to bring him within the provision.
+The court also held that it had no jurisdiction to entertain a
+suggestion that the request of the French government for his extradition
+was not made in good faith and in the interests of justice.
+
+_Extradition Offences._--The following is a list of crimes in respect of
+which extradition may be provided for under the Extradition Acts
+1870-1873, and the Slave Trade Act 1873. _Extradition Act_ 1870:--(1)
+Murder; (2) Attempt to murder; (3) Conspiracy to murder; (4)
+Manslaughter; (5) Counterfeiting and altering money, uttering
+counterfeit or altered money; (6) Forgery, counterfeiting, and altering
+and uttering what is forged or counterfeited or altered; (7)
+Embezzlement and larceny; (8) Obtaining money or goods by false
+pretences; (9) Crimes by bankrupts against bankruptcy law; (10) Fraud by
+a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trustee or director, or member or
+public officer of any company made criminal by any law for the time
+being in force; (11) Rape; (12) Abduction; (13) Child-stealing; (14)
+Burglary and housebreaking; (15) Arson; (16) Robbery with violence; (17)
+Threats by letter or otherwise with intent to extort; (18) Crimes
+committed at sea: (a) Piracy by the law of nations; (b) Sinking or
+destroying a vessel at sea, or attempting or conspiring to do so; (c)
+Assault on a ship on the high seas, with intent to destroy life or to do
+grievous bodily harm; (d) Revolt, or conspiring to revolt, by two or
+more persons on board a ship on the high seas against the authority of
+the master; (19) Bribery. _Extradition Act_ 1873:-(20) Kidnapping and
+false imprisonment; (21) Perjury and subornation of perjury. This act
+also extends to indictable offences under 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97, 98,
+99, 100, and amending and substituted acts. Among such offences included
+in various extradition treaties are the following:--(22) Obtaining
+valuable securities by false pretences; (23) Receiving any money,
+valuable security or other property, knowing the same to have been
+stolen or unlawfully obtained; (24) Falsification of accounts (see _In
+re Arton_, 1896, 1 Q.B. 509); (25) Malicious injury to property, if such
+offence be indictable;. (26) Knowingly making, without lawful authority,
+any instrument, tool or engine adapted and intended for the
+counterfeiting of coin of the realm; (27) Abandoning children; exposing
+or unlawfully detaining them; (28) Any malicious act done with intent to
+endanger the safety of any person in a railway train; (29) Wounding or
+inflicting grievous bodily harm; (30) Assault occasioning actual bodily
+harm; (31) Assaulting a magistrate or peace or public officer; (32)
+Indecent assault; (33) Unlawful carnal knowledge, or any attempt to have
+unlawful carnal knowledge, of a girl under age; (34) Bigamy; (35)
+Administering drugs or using instruments with intent to procure the
+miscarriage of women; (36) Any indictable offence under the laws for the
+time being in force in relation to bankruptcy. _Slave Trade Act_ 1873
+(36 & 37 Vict. c. 88, s. 27):--(37) Dealing in slaves in such manner as
+to constitute a criminal offence against the laws of both states.
+
+The United Kingdom has extradition treaties with practically all
+civilized foreign countries; and though it is not practicable to state
+which of the statutory extradition offences are included in each, it may
+be said generally that crimes 1 to 17 inclusive are covered in all,
+though Rumania has reserved the right to refuse, and Portugal does
+refuse, to surrender for a crime punishable with death.
+
+The act of 1873 provides for the surrender of accessories before and
+after the fact to extradition crimes, and most of the treaties contain a
+clause by which extradition is to be granted for participation in any of
+the crimes specified in the treaty, provided that such participation is
+punishable by the laws of both countries. Several of the treaties also
+contain clauses, providing for optional surrender in respect of any
+crime not expressly mentioned for which extradition can be granted by
+the laws of both countries.
+
+It is further to be noted that the restrictions on surrender in the
+Extradition Acts apply only to surrenders by Great Britain. Foreign
+countries may surrender fugitives to Great Britain without any treaty,
+if they are willing to do so and their law allows of it, and such
+surrenders have not infrequently been made. But when surrendered for an
+extradition crime, the prisoner cannot be tried in England for any other
+crime committed before such surrender, until he has been restored, or
+has had an opportunity of returning, to the foreign state from which he
+was extradited.
+
+_Procedure._--To obtain from a foreign country the extradition of a
+fugitive from the United Kingdom, it is necessary to procure a warrant
+for his arrest, and to send it, or a certified copy, to the home
+secretary together with such further evidence as is required by the
+treaty with the country in question. In most, cases an information or
+deposition containing evidence which would justify a committal for trial
+in Great Britain will be required. The home secretary will then
+communicate through the foreign secretary and the proper diplomatic
+channels with the foreign authorities, and in case of urgency will ask
+them by telegraph for a provisional arrest. For the arrest in the United
+Kingdom of fugitive criminals whose extradition is requested by a
+foreign state, two procedures are provided in ss. 7 and 8 of the act of
+1870:--(1) On a diplomatic requisition supported by the warrant of
+arrest and documentary evidence, the home secretary, if he thinks the
+crime is not of a political character, will order the chief magistrate
+at Bow Street to proceed; and such magistrate will then issue a warrant
+of arrest on such evidence as would be required if the offence had been
+committed in the United Kingdom. (2) More summarily, any magistrate or
+justice of the peace may issue a provisional warrant of arrest on
+evidence which would support such a warrant if the crime had been
+committed within his jurisdiction. In practice a sworn information is
+required, but this may be based on a telegram from the foreign
+authorities. The magistrate or justice must then report the issue of the
+warrant to the home secretary, who may cancel it and discharge the
+prisoner. When arrested on the provisional warrant, the prisoner will be
+brought up before a magistrate and remanded to Bow Street, and will then
+be further remanded until the magistrate at Bow Street is notified that
+a formal requisition for surrender has been made; and unless such
+requisition is made in reasonable time the prisoner is entitled to be
+discharged. The examination of the prisoner prior to his committal for
+extradition ordinarily takes place at Bow Street. The magistrate is
+required to hear evidence that the alleged offence is of a political
+character or is not an extradition crime. If satisfied in these
+respects, and if the foreign warrant of arrest is duly authenticated,
+and evidence is given which according to English law would justify a
+committal for trial, if the prisoner has not yet been tried, or would
+prove a conviction if he has already been convicted, the magistrate will
+commit him for extradition. Under the Extradition Act, 1895 the home
+secretary, if of opinion that removal to Bow Street would be dangerous
+to the prisoner's life, or prejudicial to his health, may order the case
+to be taken by a magistrate at the place where the prisoner was
+apprehended, or then is, and the magistrate may order the prisoner to
+be detained in such place. After committal for extradition, every
+prisoner has fifteen days in which to apply for _habeas corpus_, and
+after such period, or at the close of the _habeas corpus_ proceedings if
+they are unsuccessful, the home secretary issues his warrant for
+surrender, and the prisoner is handed over to the officers of the
+foreign government.
+
+The Extradition Acts apply to the British colonies, the governor being
+substituted for the secretary of state. Their operation may, however, be
+suspended by order in council, as in the case of Canada, where the
+colony has passed an Extradition Act of its own (see Statutory Rules and
+Orders).
+
+_Fugitive Offenders Act._--There are no extradition treaties with
+certain countries in which the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction,
+such as Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, China, Japan, Corea, Zanzibar, Morocco,
+Siam, Persia, Somali, &c. In these countries the Fugitive Offenders Act
+1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 69) has been applied, pursuant to s. 36 of that
+statute, and the measures for obtaining surrender of a fugitive criminal
+are the same as in a British colony. The act, however, only applies to
+persons over whom the crown has jurisdiction in these territories, and
+generally is expressly restricted to British subjects.
+
+Under this act a fugitive from one part of the king's dominions to
+another, or to a country where the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction,
+may be brought back by a procedure analogous to extradition, but
+applicable only to treason, piracy and offences punishable with twelve
+months' imprisonment with hard labour or more. The original warrant of
+arrest must be endorsed by one of several authorities where the
+offenders happen to be,--in practice by the home secretary in the United
+Kingdom and by the governor in a colony. Pending the arrival of the
+original warrant a provisional arrest may be made, as under the
+Extradition Acts. The fugitive must then be brought up for examination
+before a local magistrate, who, if the endorsed warrant is duly
+authenticated, and evidence is produced "which, according to the law
+administered by the magistrate, raises a strong or probable presumption
+that the offender committed the offence, and that the act applies to
+it," may commit him for return. An interval of fifteen days is allowed
+for _habeas corpus_ proceedings, and (s. 10) the court has a large
+discretion to discharge the prisoner, or impose terms, if it thinks the
+case frivolous, or that the return would be unjust or oppressive, or too
+severe a punishment. The next step is for the home secretary in the
+United Kingdom, and the governor in a colony, to issue a warrant for the
+return of the prisoner. He must be removed within a month, in the
+absence of reasonable cause to the contrary. If not prosecuted within
+six months after arrival, or if acquitted, he is entitled to be sent
+back free of cost.
+
+In the case of fugitive offenders from one part of the United Kingdom to
+another, it is enough to get the warrant of arrest backed by a
+magistrate having jurisdiction in that part of the United Kingdom where
+the offender happens to be. A warrant issued by a metropolitan police
+magistrate may be executed, without backing, by a metropolitan police
+officer anywhere, and there are certain other exceptions, but as a rule
+a warrant cannot be executed without being backed by a local magistrate.
+     (J. E. P. W.)
+
+2. UNITED STATES.--Foreign extradition is purely an affair of the United
+States, and not for the individual states themselves. Upon a demand upon
+the United States for extradition, there is a preliminary examination
+before a commissioner or judge before there can be a surrender to the
+foreign government (Revised Statutes, Title LXVI.; 22 Statutes at Large,
+215). It is enough to show probable guilt (_Ornelas_ v. _Ruiz_, 161
+United States Reports, 502). An extradition treaty covers crimes
+previously committed. If a Power, with which the United States have such
+a treaty, surrenders a fugitive charged with a crime not included in the
+treaty, he may be tried in the United States for such crime. Inter-state
+extradition is regulated by act of Congress under the Constitution of
+the United States (Article IV. s. 2; United States Revised Statutes, s.
+5278). A surrender may be demanded of one properly charged with an act
+which constitutes a crime under the laws of the demanding state,
+although it be no crime in the other state. A party improperly
+surrendered may be released by writ of _habeas corpus_, either from a
+state or United States court (_Robb_ v. _Conolly_, 111 U.S. Reports,
+624). On his return to the state from which he fled, he is subject to
+prosecution for any crime, though on a foreign extradition the law is
+otherwise (_Lascelles_ v. _Georgia_, 148 U.S. Reports, 537).
+     (S. E. B.).
+
+  See Sir E. Clarke, _Treatise upon the Law of Extradition_ (4th ed.,
+  1904); Biron and Chalmers, _Law and Practice of Extradition_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+EXTRADOS (_extra_, outside, Fr. _dos_, back), the architectural term for
+the outer boundary of the voussoirs of an arch (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+EXTREME UNCTION, a sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church. In James v.
+14 it is ordained that, if any believer is sick, he shall call for the
+elders of the church; and they shall pray over him, anointing him with
+oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith shall save him that
+is sick, and the Lord shall raise him up; and if he have committed sins,
+it shall be forgiven him.
+
+Origen reprobated medical art on the ground that the prescription here
+cited is enough; modern faith-healers and Peculiar People have followed
+in his wake. The Catholic Church has more wisely left physicians in
+possession, and elevated the anointing of the sick into a sacrament to
+be used only in cases of mortal sickness, and even then not to the
+exclusion of the healing art.
+
+It has been general since the 9th century. The council of Florence A.D.
+1439 thus defined it:--
+
+  "The fifth sacrament is extreme unction. Its matter is olive oil,
+  blessed by a bishop. It shall not be given except to a sick person
+  whose death is apprehended. He shall be anointed in the following
+  places: the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, feet, reins. The form
+  of the sacrament, is this: Through this anointing of thee and through
+  its most pious mercy, be forgiven all thy sins of sight, &c. ... and
+  so in respect of the other organs. A priest can administer this
+  sacrament. But its effect is to make whole the mind, and, so far as it
+  is expedient, the body as well."
+
+This sacrament supplements that of penance (viz. remission of
+post-baptismal sin) in the sense that any guilt unconfessed or left over
+after normal penances imposed by confessors is purged thereby. It was
+discussed in the 12th century whether this sacrament is indelible like
+baptism, or whether it can be repeated; and the latter view, that of
+Peter Lombard, prevailed.
+
+It was a popular opinion in the middle ages that extreme unction
+extinguishes all ties and links with this world, so that he who has
+received it must, if he recovers, renounce the eating of flesh and
+matrimonial relations. A few peasants of Lombardy still believe that one
+who has received extreme unction ought to be left to die, and that sick
+people may be starved to death through the withholding of food on
+superstitious grounds. Such opinions, combated by bishops and councils,
+were due to the influence of the _consolamentum_ of the Cathars (q.v.).
+In both sacraments the death-bed baptism of an earlier age seems to
+survive, and they both fulfil a deep-seated need of the human spirit.
+
+Some Gnostics sprinkled the heads of the dying with oil and water to
+render them invisible to the powers of darkness; but in the East
+generally, where the need to compete with the Cathar sacrament of
+_Consolatio_ was less acutely felt, extreme unction is unknown. The
+Latinizing Armenians adopted it from Rome in the crusading epoch. At an
+earlier date, however, it was usual to anoint the dead.
+
+In the Roman Church the bishop blesses the oil of the sick used in
+extreme unctions on Holy Thursday at the Chrismal Mass,[1] using the
+following prayer of the sacramentaries of Gelasius and Hadrian:--
+
+  "Send forth, we pray Thee, O Lord, Thy holy spirit, the Paraclete from
+  Heaven, into this fatness of oil, which Thou hast deigned to produce
+  from the green wood for refreshment of mind and body; and through Thy
+  holy benediction may it be for all that anoint, taste, touch, a
+  protection of mind and body, of soul and spirit, unto the easing away
+  of all pain, all weakness, all sickness of mind and body; wherefore
+  Thou hast anointed priest, kings and prophets and martyrs with thy
+  chrism, perfected by Thee, O Lord, blessed and abiding in our bowels
+  in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."
+
+  See L. Duchesne, _Origines du Culte Chrétien_ (Paris, 1898).
+       (F. C. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The oil left over from the year before is burnt.
+
+
+
+
+EYBESCHÜTZ, JONATHAN (1690-1764), German rabbi, was from 1750 rabbi in
+Altona. He was a man of erudition, but he owed his fame chiefly to his
+personality. Few men of the period so profoundly impressed their mark on
+Jewish life. He became specially notorious because of a curious
+controversy that arose concerning the amulets which Eybeschütz was
+suspected of issuing. These amulets recognized the Messianic claims of
+Sabbatai Sebi (q.v.), and a famous rabbinic contemporary of Eybeschütz,
+Jacob Emden, boldly accused him of heresy. The controversy was a
+momentous incident in the Jewish life of the period, and though there is
+insufficient evidence against Eybeschütz, Emden may be credited with
+having crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some
+orthodox circles.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+EYCK, VAN, the name of a family of Flemish painters in whose works the
+rise and mature development of art in western Flanders are represented.
+Though bred in the valley of the Meuse, they finally established their
+professional domicile in Ghent and in Bruges; and there, by skill and
+inventive genius, they changed the traditional habits of the earlier
+schools, remodelled the primitive forms of Flemish design, and
+introduced a complete revolution into the technical methods of execution
+familiar to their countrymen.
+
+1. HUBERT (Huybrecht) VAN EYCK (? 1366-1426) was the oldest and most
+remarkable of this race of artists. The date of his birth and the
+records of his progress are lost amidst the ruins of the earlier
+civilization of the valley of the Meuse. He was born about 1366, at
+Maeseyck, under the shelter or protection of a Benedictine convent, in
+which art and letters had been cultivated from the beginning of the 8th
+century. But after a long series of wars--when the country became
+insecure, and the schools which had flourished in the towns decayed--he
+wandered to Flanders, and there for the first time gained a name. As
+court painter to the hereditary prince of Burgundy, and as client to one
+of the richest of the Ghent patricians, Hubert is celebrated. Here, in
+middle age, between 1410 and 1420, he signalized himself as the inventor
+of a new method of painting. Here he lived in the pay of Philip of
+Charolais till 1421. Here he painted pictures for the corporation, whose
+chief magistrates honoured him with a state visit in 1424. His principal
+masterpiece, the "Worship of the Lamb," commissioned by Jodocus Vijdts,
+lord of Pamele, is the noblest creation of the Flemish school, a piece
+of which we possess all the parts dispersed from St Bavon in Ghent to
+the galleries of Brussels and Berlin,--one upon which Hubert laboured
+till he died, leaving it to be completed by his brother. Almost unique
+as an illustration of contemporary feeling for Christian art, this great
+composition can only be matched by the "Fount of Salvation," in the
+museum of Madrid. It represents, on numerous panels, Christ on the
+judgment seat, with the Virgin and St John the Baptist at His sides,
+hearing the songs of the angels, and contemplated by Adam and Eve, and,
+beneath him, the Lamb shedding His blood in the presence of angels,
+apostles, prophets, martyrs, knights and hermits. On the outer sides of
+the panels are the Virgin and the angel annunciate, the sibyls and
+prophets who foretold the coming of the Lord, and the donors in prayer
+at the feet of the Baptist and Evangelist. After this great work was
+finished it was placed, in 1432, on an altar in St Bavon of Ghent, with
+an inscription on the framework describing Hubert as "maior quo nemo
+repertus," and setting forth, in colours as imperishable as the picture
+itself, that Hubert began and John afterwards brought it to perfection.
+John van Eyck certainly wished to guard against an error which
+ill-informed posterity showed itself but too prone to foster, the error
+that he alone had composed and carried out an altarpiece executed
+jointly by Hubert and himself. His contemporaries may be credited with
+full knowledge of the truth in this respect, and the facts were equally
+well known to the duke of Burgundy or the chiefs of the corporation of
+Bruges, who visited the painter's house in state in 1432, and the
+members of the chamber of rhetoric at Ghent, who reproduced the Agnus
+Dei as a _tableau vivant_ in 1456. Yet a later generation of Flemings
+forgot the claims of Hubert, and gave the honours that were his due to
+his brother John exclusively.
+
+The solemn grandeur of church art in the 15th century never found, out
+of Italy, a nobler exponent than Hubert van Eyck. His representation of
+Christ as the judge, between the Virgin and St John, affords a fine
+display of realistic truth, combined with pure drawing and gorgeous
+colour, and a happy union of earnestness and simplicity with the deepest
+religious feeling. In contrast with earlier productions of the Flemish
+school, it shows a singular depth of tone and great richness of detail.
+Finished with surprising skill, it is executed with the new oil medium,
+of which Hubert shared the invention with his brother, but of which no
+rival artists at the time possessed the secret,--a medium which consists
+of subtle mixtures of oil and varnish applied to the moistening of
+pigments after a fashion, only kept secret for a time from gildsmen of
+neighbouring cities, but unrevealed to the Italians till near the close
+of the 15th century. When Hubert died on the 18th of September 1426 he
+was buried in the chapel on the altar of which his masterpiece was
+placed. According to a tradition as old as the 16th century, his arm was
+preserved as a relic in a casket above the portal of St Bavon of Ghent.
+During a life of much apparent activity and surprising successes he
+taught the elements of his art to his brother John, who survived him.
+
+2. JOHN (Jan) VAN EYCK (? 1385-1440). The date of his birth is not more
+accurately known than that of his elder brother, but he was born much
+later than Hubert, who took charge of him and made him his "disciple."
+Under this tuition John learnt to draw and paint, and mastered the
+properties of colours from Pliny. Later on, Hubert admitted him into
+partnership, and both were made court painters to Philip of Charolais.
+After the breaking up of the prince's household in 1421, John became his
+own master, left the workshop of Hubert, and took an engagement as
+painter to John of Bavaria, at that time resident at the Hague as count
+of Holland. From the Hague he returned in 1424 to take service with
+Philip, now duke of Burgundy, at a salary of 100 livres per annum, and
+from that time till his death John van Eyck remained the faithful
+servant of his prince, who never treated him otherwise than graciously.
+He was frequently employed in missions of trust; and following the
+fortunes of a chief who was always in the saddle, he appears for a time
+to have been in ceaseless motion, receiving extra pay for secret
+services at Leiden, drawing his salary at Bruges, yet settled in a fixed
+abode at Lille. In 1428 he joined the embassy sent by Philip the Good to
+Lisbon to beg the hand of Isabella of Portugal. His portrait of the
+bride fixed the duke's choice. After his return he settled finally at
+Bruges, where he married, and his wife bore him a daughter, known in
+after years as a nun in the convent of Maeseyck. At the christening of
+this child the duke was sponsor, and this was but one, of many
+distinctions by which Philip the Good rewarded his painter's merits.
+Numerous altarpieces and portraits now give proof of van Eyck's
+extensive practice. As finished works of art and models of conscientious
+labour they are all worthy of the name they bear, though not of equal
+excellence, none being better than those which were completed about
+1432. Of an earlier period, a "Consecration of Thomas à Becket" has been
+preserved, and may now be seen at Chatsworth, bearing the date of 1421;
+no doubt this picture would give a fair representation of van Eyck's
+talents at the moment when he started as an independent master, but that
+time and accidents of omission and commission have altered its state to
+such an extent that no conclusive opinion can be formed respecting it.
+The panels of the "Worship of the Lamb" were completed nine years later.
+They show that John van Eyck was quite able to work in the spirit of his
+brother. He had not only the lines of Hubert's compositions to guide
+him, he had also those parts to look at and to study which Hubert had
+finished. He continued the work with almost as much vigour as his
+master. His own experience had been increased by travel, and he had seen
+the finest varieties of landscape in Portugal and the Spanish provinces.
+This enabled him to transfer to his pictures the charming scenery of
+lands more sunny than those of Flanders, and this he did with accuracy
+and not without poetic feeling. We may ascribe much of the success which
+attended his efforts to complete the altarpiece of Ghent to the
+cleverness with which he [reproduced the varied aspect of changing
+scenery, reminiscent here of the orange groves of Cintra, there of the
+bluffs and crags of his native valley. In all these backgrounds, though
+we miss the scientific rules of perspective with which the van Eycks
+were not familiar, we find such delicate perceptions of gradations in
+tone, such atmosphere, yet such minuteness and perfection of finish,
+that our admiration never flags. Nor is the colour less brilliant or the
+touch less firm than in Hubert's panels. John only differs from his
+brother in being less masculine and less sternly religious. He excels in
+two splendid likenesses of Jodocus Vijdts and his wife Catherine
+Burluuts. The same vigorous style and coloured key of harmony
+characterizes the small "Virgin and Child" of 1432 at Ince, and the
+"Madonna," probably of the same date, at the Louvre, executed for
+Rollin, chancellor of Burgundy. Contemporary with these, the male
+portraits in the National Gallery, and the "Man with the Pinks," in the
+Berlin Museum (1432-1434), show no relaxation of power; but later
+creations display no further progress, unless we accept as progress a
+more searching delicacy of finish, counterbalanced by an excessive
+softness of rounding in flesh contours. An unfaltering minuteness of
+hand and great tenderness of treatment may be found, combined with
+angularity of drapery and some awkwardness of attitude in the full
+length portrait couple (John Arnolfini and his wife) at the National
+Gallery (1434), in which a rare insight into the detail of animal nature
+is revealed in a study of a terrier dog. A "Madonna with Saints," at
+Dresden, equally soft and minute, charms us by the mastery with which an
+architectural background is put in. The bold and energetic striving of
+earlier days, the strong bright tone, are not equalled by the soft
+blending and tender tints of the later ones. Sometimes a crude ruddiness
+in flesh strikes us as a growing defect, an instance of which is the
+picture in the museum of Bruges, in which Canon van der Paelen is
+represented kneeling before the Virgin under the protection of St George
+(1434). From first to last van Eyck retains his ability in portraiture.
+Fine specimens are the two male likenesses in the gallery of Vienna
+(1436), and a female, the master's wife, in the gallery of Bruges
+(1439). His death in 1440/41 at Bruges is authentically recorded. He was
+buried in St Donat. Like many great artists he formed but few pupils.
+Hubert's disciple, Jodocus of Ghent, hardly does honour to his master's
+teaching, and only acquires importance after he has thrown off some of
+the peculiarities of Flemish teaching. Petrus Cristus, who was taught by
+John, remains immeasurably behind him in everything that relates to art.
+But if the personal influence of the van Eycks was small, that of their
+works was immense, and it is not too much to say that their example,
+taken in conjunction with that of van der Weyden, determined the current
+and practice of painting throughout the whole of Europe north of the
+Alps for nearly a century.
+
+  See also Waagen, _Hubert and Johann van Eyck_ (1822); Voll, _Werke des
+  Jan van Eyck_ (1900); L. Kämmerer on the two families in Knackfuss's
+  _Künstler-Monographien_ (1898).     (J. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EYE, a market-town and municipal borough in the Eye parliamentary
+division of Suffolk; England; 94½ m. N.E. from London by the Great
+Eastern railway, the terminus of a branch from the Ipswich-Norwich line.
+Pop. (1901) 2004. The church of St Peter and St Paul is mainly of
+Perpendicular flint work, with Early English portions and a fine
+Perpendicular rood screen. It was formerly attached to a Benedictine
+priory. Slight fragments of a Norman castle crown a mound of probably
+earlier construction. There are a town hall, corn exchange, and grammar
+school founded in 1566. Brewing is the chief industry. The town is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4410 acres.
+
+Eye (_Heya_, _Aye_) was once surrounded by a stream, from which it is
+said to have derived its name. Leland says it was situated in a marsh
+and had formerly been accessible by river vessels from Cromer, though
+the river was then only navigable to Burston, 12 m. from Eye. From the
+discovery of numerous bones and Roman urns and coins it has been thought
+that the place was once the cemetery of a Roman camp. William I. gave
+the lordship of Eye to Robert Malet, a Norman, who built a castle and a
+Benedictine monastery which was at first subordinate to the abbey of
+Bernay in Normandy. Eye is a borough by prescription. In 1205 King John
+granted to the townsmen a charter freeing them from various tolls and
+customs and from the jurisdiction of the shire and hundred courts. Later
+charters were granted by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1574, by James I. in
+1604, and by William III. in 1697. In 1574 the borough was newly
+incorporated under two bailiffs, ten chief and twenty-four inferior
+burgesses, and an annual fair on Whit-Monday and a market on Saturday
+were granted. Two members were returned to each parliament from 1571
+till 1832, when the Reform Act reduced the membership to one. By the
+Redistribution Act of 1885 the representation was merged in the Eye
+division of the county. The making of pillow-lace was formerly carried
+on extensively, but practically ceased with the introduction of
+machinery.
+
+
+
+
+EYE (O. Eng. _eáge_, Ger. _Auge_); derived from an Indo-European root
+also seen in Lat. _oc-ulus_, the organ of vision (q.v.).
+
+ANATOMY.--The eye consists of the eyeball, which is the true organ of
+sight, as well as of certain muscles which move it, and of the lachrymal
+apparatus which keeps the front of it in a moist condition. The
+_eyeball_ is contained in the front of the orbit and is a sphere of
+about an inch (24 mm.) in diameter. From the front of this a segment of
+a lesser sphere projects slightly and forms the _cornea_ (fig. 1, co).
+There are three coats to the eyeball, an external (protective), a middle
+(vascular), and an internal (sensory). There are also three refracting
+media, the aqueous humour, the lens and the vitreous humour or body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagrammatic Section through the Eyeball.
+
+  cj, Conjunctiva.             L, Lens.
+  co, Cornea.                  V, Vitreous body.
+  Sc, Sclerotic.               Z, Zonule of Zinn, the ciliary
+  ch, Choroid.                      process being removed to
+  pc, Ciliary processes.            show it.
+  mc, Ciliary muscle.          p, Canal of Petit.
+  O,  Optic nerve.             m, Yellow spot.
+  R,  Retina                        The dotted line behind the
+  I,  Iris.                         cornea represents its posterior
+  aq, Anterior chamber of           epithelium.]
+        aqueous humour.
+
+The protective coat consists of the _sclerotic_ in the posterior
+five-sixths and the cornea in the anterior sixth. The sclerotic (fig. 1,
+Sc) is a firm fibrous coat, forming the "white of the eye," which
+posteriorly is pierced by the optic nerve and blends with the sheath of
+that nerve, while anteriorly it is continued into the cornea at the
+_corneo-scleral junction_. At this point a small canal, known as the
+_canal of Schlemm_, runs round the margin of the cornea in the substance
+of the sclerotic (see fig. 1). Between the sclerotic and the subjacent
+choroid coat is a lymph space traversed by some loose pigmented
+connective tissue,--the _lamina fusca_. The cornea is quite continuous
+with the sclerotic but has a greater convexity. Under the microscope it
+is seen to consist of five layers. Most anteriorly there is a layer of
+stratified epithelium, then an anterior elastic layer, then the
+_substantia propria_ of the cornea which is fibrous with spaces in which
+the stellate _corneal corpuscles_ lie, while behind this is the
+posterior elastic layer and then a delicate layer of endothelium. The
+transparency of the cornea is due to the fact that all these structures
+have the same refractive index.
+
+The middle or vascular coat of the eye consists of the _choroid_, the
+_ciliary processes_ and the _iris_. The choroid (fig. 1, ch) does not
+come quite as far forward as the corneo-scleral junction: it is composed
+of numerous blood-vessels and pigment cells bound together by connective
+tissue and, superficially, is lined by a delicate layer of pigmented
+connective tissue called the _lamina suprachoroidea_ in contact with the
+already-mentioned perichoroidal lymph space. On the deep surface of the
+choroid is a structureless basal lamina.
+
+The _ciliary processes_ are some seventy triangular ridges, radially
+arranged, with their apices pointing backward (fig. 1, pc), while their
+bases are level with the corneo-scleral junction. They are as vascular
+as the rest of the choroid, and contain in their interior the _ciliary
+muscle_, which consists of radiating and circular fibres. The radiating
+fibres (fig. 1, mc) rise, close to the canal of Schlemm, from the margin
+of the posterior elastic lamina of the cornea, and pass backward and
+outward into the ciliary processes and anterior part of the choroid,
+which they pull forward when they contract. The circular fibres lie just
+internal to these and are few or wanting in short-sighted people.
+
+The _iris_ (fig. 1, I) is the coloured diaphragm of the eye, the centre
+of which is pierced to form the pupil; it is composed of a connective
+tissue stroma containing blood-vessels, pigment cells and muscle fibres.
+In front of it is a reflection of the same layer of endothelium which
+lines the back of the cornea, while behind both it and the ciliary
+processes is a double layer of epithelium, deeply pigmented, which
+really belongs to the retina. The pigment in the substance of the iris
+is variously coloured in different individuals, and is often deposited
+after birth, so that, in newly-born European children, the colour of the
+eyes is often slate-blue owing to the black pigment at the back of the
+iris showing through. White, yellow or reddish-brown pigment is
+deposited later in the substance of the iris, causing the appearance,
+with the black pigment behind, of grey, hazel or brown eyes. In
+blue-eyed people very little interstitial pigment is formed, while in
+Albinos the posterior pigment is also absent and the blood vessels give
+the pink coloration. The muscle fibres of the iris are described as
+circular and radiating, though it is still uncertain whether the latter
+are really muscular rather than elastic. On to the front of the iris, at
+its margin, the posterior layer of the posterior elastic lamina is
+continued as a series of ridges called the _ligamentum pectinatum
+iridis_, while between these ridges are depressions known as the _spaces
+of Fontana_.
+
+The inner or sensory layer of the wall of the eyeball is the _retina_;
+it is a delicate transparent membrane which becomes thinner as the front
+of the eye is approached. A short distance behind the ciliary processes
+the nervous part of it stops and forms a scalloped border called the
+_ora serrata_, but the pigmented layer is continued on behind the
+ciliary processes and iris, as has been mentioned, and is known as the
+_pars ciliaris retinae_ and _pars iridica retinae_. Under the microscope
+the posterior part of the retina is seen to consist of eight layers. In
+its passage from the lens and vitreous the light reaches these layers in
+the following order:--(1) Layer of nerve fibres; (2) Layer of ganglion
+cells; (3) Inner molecular layer; (4) Inner nuclear layer; (5) Outer
+molecular layer; (6) Outer nuclear layer; (7) Layer of rods and cones;
+(8) Pigmented layer.
+
+  The layer of nerve fibres (fig. 2, 2) is composed of the
+  axis-cylinders only of the fibres of the optic nerve which pierce the
+  sclerotic, choroid and all the succeeding layers of the retina to
+  radiate over its surface.
+
+  The ganglionic layer (fig. 2, 3) consists of a single stratum of large
+  ganglion cells, each of which is continuous with a fibre of the
+  preceding layer which forms its axon. Each also gives off a number of
+  finer processes (dendrites) which arborize in the next layer.
+
+  The inner molecular layer (fig. 2, 4) is formed by the interlacement
+  of the dendrites of the last layer with those of the cells of the
+  inner nuclear layer which comes next.
+
+  The inner nuclear layer (fig. 2, 5) contains three different kinds of
+  cells, but the most important and numerous are large bipolar cells,
+  which send one process into the inner molecular layer, as has just
+  been mentioned, and the other into the outer molecular layer, where
+  they arborize with the ends of the rod and cone fibres.
+
+  The outer molecular layer (fig. 2, 6) is very narrow and is formed by
+  the arborizations just described. The outer nuclear layer (fig. 2, 7),
+  like the inner, consists of oval cells, which are of two kinds. The
+  rod granules are transversely striped, and are connected externally
+  with the rods, while internally processes pass into the outer
+  molecular layer to end in a knob around which the arborizations of the
+  inner nuclear cells lie. The cone granules are situated more
+  externally, and are in close contact with the cones; internally their
+  processes form a foot-plate in the outer molecular layer from which
+  arborizations extend.
+
+  The layer of rods and cones (fig. 2, 9) contains these structures, the
+  rods being more numerous than the cones. The rods are spindle-shaped
+  bodies, of which the inner segment is thicker than the outer. The
+  cones are thicker and shorter than the rods, and resemble Indian
+  clubs, the handles of which are directed outward and are transversely
+  striped. In the outer part of the rods the visual purple or rhodopsin
+  is found.
+
+  The pigmented layer consists of a single layer of hexagonal cells
+  containing pigment, which is capable of moving towards the rods and
+  cones when the eye is exposed to light and away from them in the dark.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagrammatic section through the retina to show
+the several layers, which are numbered as in the text. Ct, The radial
+fibres of the supporting connective tissue.]
+
+Supporting the delicate nervous structures of the retina are a series of
+connective tissue rods known as the _fibres of Müller_ (fig. 2, Ct);
+these run through the thickness of the retina at right angles to its
+surface, and are joined together on the inner side of the layer of nerve
+fibres to form the _inner limiting membrane_. More externally, at the
+bases of the rods and cones, they unite again to form the outer limiting
+membrane.
+
+When the retina is looked at with the naked eye from in front two small
+marks are seen on it. One of these is an oval depression about 3 mm.
+across, which, owing to the presence of pigment, is of a yellow colour
+and is known as the yellow spot (_macula lutea_); it is situated
+directly in the antero-posterior axis of the eyeball, and at its margin
+the nerve fibre layer is thinned and the ganglionic layer thickened. At
+its centre, however, both these layers are wanting, and in the layer of
+rods and cones only the cones are present. This central part is called
+the _fovea centralis_ and is the point of acutest vision. The second
+mark is situated a little below and to the inner side of the yellow
+spot; it is a circular disk with raised margins and a depressed centre
+and is called the _optic disk_; in structure it is a complete contrast
+to the yellow spot, for all the layers except that of the nerve fibres
+are wanting, and consequently, as light cannot be appreciated here, it
+is known as the "blind spot." It marks the point of entry of the optic
+nerve, and at its centre the retinal artery appears and divides into
+branches. An appreciation of the condition of the optic disk is one of
+the chief objects of the ophthalmoscope.
+
+The _crystalline lens_ (fig. 1, L) with its ligament separates the
+aqueous from the vitreous chamber of the eye; it is a biconvex lens the
+posterior surface of which is more curved than the anterior. Radiating
+from the anterior and posterior poles are three faint lines forming a Y,
+the posterior Y being erect and the anterior inverted. Running from
+these figures are a series of lamellae, like the layers of an onion,
+each of which is made up of a number of fibrils called the lens fibres.
+On the anterior surface of the lens is a layer of epithelial cells,
+which, towards the margin or equator, gradually elongate into lens
+fibres. The whole lens is enclosed in an elastic structureless membrane,
+and, like the cornea, its transparency is due to the fact that all its
+constituents have the same refractive index.
+
+The ligament of the lens is the thickened anterior part of the hyaloid
+membrane which surrounds the vitreous body; it is closely connected to
+the iris at the ora serrata, and then splits into two layers, of which
+the anterior is the thicker and blends with the anterior part of the
+elastic capsule of the lens, so that, when its attachment to the ora
+serrata is drawn forward by the ciliary muscle, the lens, by its own
+elasticity, increases its convexity. Between the anterior and posterior
+splitting of the hyaloid membrane is a circular lymph space surrounding
+the margin of the lens known as the _canal of Petit_ (fig. 1, p).
+
+The _aqueous humour_ (fig. 1, aq) is contained between the lens and its
+ligament posteriorly and the cornea anteriorly. It is practically a very
+weak solution of common salt (chloride of sodium 1.4%). The space
+containing it is imperfectly divided into a large anterior and a small
+posterior chamber by a perforated diaphragm--the iris.
+
+The _vitreous body_ or _humour_ is a jelly which fills all the contents
+of the eyeball behind the lens. It is surrounded by the hyaloid
+membrane, already noticed, and anteriorly is concave for the reception
+of the lens.
+
+From the centre of the optic disk to the posterior pole of the lens a
+lymph canal formed by a tube of the hyaloid membrane stretches through
+the centre of the vitreous body; this is the _canal of Stilling_, which
+in the embryo transmitted the hyaloid artery to the lens. The
+composition of the vitreous is practically the same as that of the
+aqueous humour.
+
+The _arteries of the eyeball_ are all derived from the ophthalmic branch
+of the internal carotid, and consist of the retinal which enters the
+optic nerve far back in the orbit, the two long ciliaries, which run
+forward in the choroid and join the anterior ciliaries, from muscular
+branches of the ophthalmic, in the circulus iridis major round the
+margin of the iris, and the six to twelve short ciliaries which pierce
+the sclerotic round the optic nerve and supply the choroid and ciliary
+processes.
+
+The _veins of the eyeball_ emerge as four or five trunks rather behind
+the equator; these are called from their appearance _venae vorticosae_,
+and open into the superior ophthalmic vein. In addition to these there
+is a retinal vein which accompanies its artery.
+
+_Accessory Structures of the Eye._--The _eyelids_ are composed of the
+following structures from in front backward: (1) Skin; (2) Superficial
+fascia; (3) Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle; (4) _Tarsal plates_ of
+fibrous tissue attached to the orbital margin by the superior and
+inferior _palpebral ligaments_, and, at the junction of the eyelids, by
+the external and internal _tarsal ligaments_ of which the latter is also
+known as the _tendo oculi_; (5) _Meibomian glands_, which are large
+modified sebaceous glands lubricating the edges of the lids and
+preventing them adhering, and _Glands of Moll_, large sweat glands
+which, when inflamed, cause a "sty"; (6) the _conjunctiva_, a layer of
+mucous membrane which lines the back of the eyelids and is reflected on
+to the front of the globe, the reflection forming the fornix: on the
+front of the cornea the conjunctiva is continuous with the layer of
+epithelial cells already mentioned.
+
+The _lachrymal_ gland is found in the upper and outer part of the front
+of the orbit. It is about the size of an almond and has an upper
+(orbital) and a lower (palpebral) part. Its six to twelve ducts open on
+to the superior fornix of the conjunctiva.
+
+The _lachrymal canals_ (canaliculi) (see fig. 3, 2 and 3) are superior
+and inferior, and open by minute orifices (puncta) on to the free
+margins of the two eyelids near their inner point of junction. They
+collect the tears, secreted by the lachrymal gland, which thus pass
+right across the front of the eyeball, continually moistening the
+conjunctiva. The two ducts are bent round a small pink tubercle called
+the _caruncula lachrymalis_ (fig. 3, 4) at the inner angle of the
+eyelids, and open into the _lachrymal sac_ (fig. 3, 5), which lies in a
+groove in the lachrymal bone. The sac is continued down into the _nasal
+duct_ (fig. 3, 6), which is about ¾ inch long and opens into the
+inferior meatus of the nose, its opening being guarded by a valve.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lachrymal Canals and Duct.
+
+  1, Orbicular muscle.    5, Lachrymal sac.
+  2, Lachrymal canal.     6, Lachrymal duct.
+  3, Punctum.             7, Angular artery.
+  4, Caruncula.]
+
+The orbit contains seven muscles, six of which rise close to the optic
+foramen. The _levator palpebrae superioris_ is the highest, and passes
+forward to the superior tarsal plate and fornix of the conjunctiva. The
+_superior_ and _inferior recti_ are inserted into the upper and lower
+surfaces of the eyeball respectively; they make the eye look inward as
+well as up or down. The external and internal recti are inserted into
+the sides of the eyeball and make it look outward or inward. The
+superior oblique runs forward to a pulley in the inner and front part of
+the roof of the orbit, round which it turns to be inserted into the
+outer and back part of the eyeball. It turns the glance downward and
+outward. The inferior oblique rises from the inner and front part of the
+floor of the orbit, and is also inserted into the outer and back part of
+the eyeball. It directs the glance upward and outward. Of all these
+muscles the superior oblique is supplied by the fourth cranial nerve,
+the external rectus by the sixth and the rest by the third.
+
+The posterior part of the eyeball and the anterior parts of the muscles
+are enveloped in a lymph space, known as the _capsule of Tenon_, which
+assists their movements.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    FIG. 4.                         FIG. 5.
+
+  Diagram of Developing           Diagram of Developing
+    Eye (1st stage).                Eye (2nd stage).
+  [alpha], Forebrain.             [beta], Optic cup.
+  [beta], Optic vesicle.          [delta], Invagination of lens.
+  [gamma], Superficial ectoderm.    Other letters as in fig. 4.]
+  [delta], Thickening for lens.
+
+EMBRYOLOGY.--As is pointed out in the article BRAIN, the _optic
+vesicles_ grow out from the fore-brain, and the part nearest the brain
+becomes constricted and elongated to form the optic stalk (see figs. 4
+and 5, [beta]). At the same time the ectoderm covering the side of the
+head thickens and becomes invaginated to form the lens vesicle (see
+figs. 4 and 5, [delta]), which later loses its connexion with the
+surface and approaches the optic vesicle, causing that structure to
+become cupped for its reception, so that what was the optic vesicle
+becomes the optic cup and consists of an external and an internal layer
+of cells (fig. 6 [beta] and [delta]). Of these the outer cells become
+the retinal pigment, while the inner form the other layers of the
+retina. The invagination of the optic cup extends, as the _choroidal
+fissure_ (not shown in the diagrams), along the lower and back part of
+the optic stalk, and into this slit sinks some of the surrounding
+mesoderm to form the vitreous body and the hyaloid arteries, one of
+which persists.[1] When this has happened the fissure closes up. The
+anterior epithelium of the lens vesicle remains, but from the posterior
+the lens fibres are developed and these gradually fill up the cavity.
+The superficial layer of head ectoderm, from which the lens has been
+invaginated and separated, becomes the anterior epithelium of the
+cornea (fig. 6, [epsilon]), and between it and the lens the mesoderm
+sinks in to form the cornea, iris and anterior chamber of the eye, while
+surrounding the optic cup the mesoderm forms the sclerotic and choroid
+coats (fig. 7, [eta] and [zeta]). Up to the seventh month the pupil is
+closed by the _membrana pupillaris_, derived from the capsule of the
+lens which is part of the mesodermal ingrowth through the choroidal
+fissure already mentioned. The hyaloid artery remains, as a prolongation
+of the retinal artery to the lens, until just before birth, but after
+that its sheath forms the canal of Stilling. Most of the fibres of the
+optic nerve are centripetal and begin as the axons of the ganglionic
+cells of the retina; a few, however, are centrifugal and come from the
+nerve cells in the brain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.
+
+  Diagram of Developing Eye (3rd stage).
+
+  [delta], Solid lens.
+  [epsilon], Corneal epithelium.
+  Other letters as in figs. 4 and 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+
+  Diagram of Developing Eye (4th stage). The mesodermal tissues are
+  dotted.
+
+  [zeta], Choroid and Iris.
+  [eta], Sclerotic and Cornea.
+  [theta], Vitreous.
+  [epsilon], Aqueous.
+  [kappa], Eyelids.]
+
+The eyelids are developed as ectodermal folds, which blend with one
+another about the third month and separate again before birth in Man
+(fig. 7, [Greek: kappa]). The lachrymal sac and duct are formed from
+solid ectodermal thickenings which later become canalized.
+
+It will thus be seen that the optic nerve and retina are formed from the
+brain ectoderm; the lens, anterior epithelium of the cornea, skin of the
+eyelids, conjunctiva and lachrymal apparatus from the superficial
+ectoderm; while the sclerotic, choroid, vitreous and aqueous humours as
+well as the iris and cornea are derived from the mesoderm.
+
+  See _Human Embryology_, by C.S. Minot (New York); Quain's _Anatomy_,
+  vol. i. (1908); "Entwickelung des Auges der Wirbeltiere," by A.
+  Froriep, in _Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen
+  Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (O. Hertwig, Jena, 1905).
+
+COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.--The Acrania, as represented by Amphioxus (the
+lancelet), have a patch of pigment in the fore part of the brain which
+is regarded as the remains of a degenerated eye. In the Cyclostomata the
+hag (Myxine) and larval lamprey (Ammocoetes) have ill-developed eyes
+lying beneath the skin and devoid of lens, iris, cornea and sclerotic as
+well as eye muscles. In the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) these structures
+are developed at the metamorphosis, and the skin becomes transparent,
+rendering sight possible. Ocular muscles are developed, but, unlike most
+vertebrates, the inferior rectus is supplied by the sixth nerve while
+all the others are supplied by the third. In all vertebrates the retina
+consists of a layer of senso-neural cells, the rods and cones, separated
+from the light by the other layers which together represent the optic
+ganglia of the invertebrates; in the latter animals, however, the
+senso-neural cells are nearer the light than the ganglia.
+
+In fishes the eyeball is flattened in front, but the flat cornea is
+compensated by a spherical lens, which, unlike that of other
+vertebrates, is adapted for near vision when at rest. The iris in some
+bony fishes (Teleostei) is not contractile. In the Teleostei, too, there
+is a process of the choroid which projects into the vitreous chamber and
+runs forward to the lens; it is known as the _processus falciformis_,
+and, besides nourishing the lens, is concerned in accommodation. This
+specialized group of fishes is also remarkable for the possession of a
+so-called _choroid gland_, which is really a _rete mirabile_ (see
+ARTERIES) between the choroid and sclerotic. The sclerotic in fishes is
+usually chondrified and sometimes calcified or ossified. In the retina
+the rods and cones are about equal in number, and the cones are very
+large. In the cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchs) there is a silvery
+layer, called the _tapetum lucidum_, on the retinal surface of the
+choroid.
+
+In the Amphibia the cornea is more convex than in the fish, but the lens
+is circular and the sclerotic often chondrified. There is no processus
+falciformis or tapetum lucidum, but the class is interesting in that it
+shows the first rudiments of the ciliary muscle, although accommodation
+is brought about by shifting the lens. In the retina the rods outnumber
+the cones and these latter are smaller than in any other animals. In
+some Amphibians coloured oil globules are found in connexion with the
+cones, and sometimes two cones are joined, forming double or twin cones.
+
+In Reptilia the eye is spherical and its anterior part is often
+protected by bony plates in the sclerotic (Lacertilia and Chelonia). The
+ciliary muscle is striated, and in most reptiles accommodation is
+effected by relaxing the ciliary ligament as in higher vertebrates,
+though in the snakes (Ophidia) the lens is shifted as it is in the lower
+forms. Many lizards have a vascular projection of the choroid into the
+vitreous, foreshadowing the pecten of birds and homologous with the
+processus falciformis of fishes. In the retina the rods are scarce or
+absent.
+
+In birds the eye is tubular, especially in nocturnal and raptorial
+forms: this is due to a lengthening of the ciliary region, which is
+always protected by bony plates in the sclerotic. The pecten, already
+mentioned in lizards, is a pleated vascular projection from the optic
+disk towards the lens which in some cases it reaches. In Apteryx this
+structure disappears. In the retina the cones outnumber the rods, but
+are not as numerous as in the reptiles. The ciliary muscle is of the
+striped variety.
+
+In the Mammalia the eye is largely enclosed in the orbit, and bony
+plates in the sclerotic are only found in the monotremes. The cornea is
+convex except in aquatic mammals, in which it is flattened. The lens is
+biconvex in diurnal mammals, but in nocturnal and aquatic it is
+spherical. There is no pecten, but the numerous hyaloid arteries which
+are found in the embryo represent it. The iris usually has a circular
+pupil, but in some ungulates and kangaroos it is a transverse slit. In
+the Cetacea this transverse opening is kidney-shaped, the hilum of the
+kidney being above. In many carnivores, especially nocturnal ones, the
+slit is vertical, and this form of opening seems adapted to a feeble
+light, for it is found in the owl, among birds. The tapetum lucidum is
+found in Ungulata, Cetacea and Carnivora. The ciliary muscle is
+unstriped. In the retina the rods are more numerous than the cones,
+while the macula lutea only appears in the Primates in connexion with
+binocular vision.
+
+Among the accessory structures of the eye the retractor bulbi muscle is
+found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and many mammals; its nerve supply
+shows that it is probably a derivative of the external or posterior
+rectus. The nictitating membrane or third eyelid is well-developed in
+amphibians, reptiles, birds and some few sharks; it is less marked in
+mammals, and in Man is only represented by the little _plica
+semilunaris_. When functional it is drawn across the eye by special
+muscles derived from the retractor bulbi, called the _bursalis_ and
+_pyramidalis_. In connexion with the nictitating membrane the Harderian
+gland is developed, while the lachrymal gland secretes fluid for the
+other eyelids to spread over the conjunctiva. These two glands are
+specialized parts of a row of glands which in the Urodela (tailed
+amphibians) are situated along the lower eyelid; the outer or posterior
+part of this row becomes the lachrymal gland, which in higher
+vertebrates shifts from the lower to the upper eyelid, while the inner
+or anterior part becomes the Harderian gland. Below the amphibians
+glands are not necessary, as the water keeps the eye moist.
+
+The lachrymal duct first appears in the tailed amphibians; in snakes and
+gecko lizards, however, it opens into the mouth.
+
+  For literature up to 1900 see R. Wiedersheim's _Vergleichende Anatomie
+  der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902). Later literature is noticed in the
+  catalogue of the Physiological Series of the R. College of Surgeons of
+  England Museum, vol. iii. (London, 1906).     (F. G. P.)
+
+
+EYE DISEASES.--The specially important diseases of the eye are those
+which temporarily or permanently interfere with sight. In considering
+the pathology of the eye it may be remembered that (1) it is a double
+organ, while (2) either eye may have its own trouble.
+
+1. The two eyes act together, under normal conditions, for all practical
+purposes exactly as if there were but one eye placed in the middle of
+the face. All impressions made upon either retina, to the one side of a
+vertical line through the centre, the _fovea centralis_, before giving
+rise to conscious perception cause a stimulation of the same area in the
+brain. Impressions formed simultaneously, for instance, on the right
+side of the right retina and on corresponding areas of the right side of
+the left retina, are conveyed to the same spots in the right occipital
+lobe of the brain. Pathological processes, therefore, which are
+localized in the right or left occipital lobes, or along any part of the
+course of the fibres which pass from the right or left optic tracts to
+these "visual centres," cause defects in function of the right or left
+halves of the two retinae. _Hemianopia_, or half-blindness, arising from
+these pathological changes, is of very varying degrees of severity,
+according to the nature and extent of the particular lesion. The blind
+areas in the two fields of vision, corresponding to the outward
+projection of the paralysed retinal areas, are always symmetrical both
+in shape and degree. The central lesion may for instance be very small,
+but at the same time destructive to the nerve tissue. This will be
+revealed as a sector-shaped or insular symmetrical complete blindness in
+the fields of vision to the opposite side. Or a large central area, or
+an area comprising many or all of the nerve fibres which pass to the
+visual centre on one side, may be involved in a lesion which causes
+impairment of function, but no actual destruction of the nerve tissue.
+There is thus caused a symmetrical weakening of vision (_amblyopia_) in
+the opposite fields. In such cases the colour vision is so much more
+evidently affected than the sense of form that the condition has been
+called _hemiachromatopsia_ or half-colour blindness. Hemianopia may be
+caused by haemorrhage, by embolism, by tumour growth which either
+directly involves the visual nerve elements or affects them by
+compression and by inflammation. Transitory hemianopia is rare and is no
+doubt most frequently of toxic origin.
+
+The two eyes also act as if they were one in accommodating. It is
+impossible for the two eyes to accommodate simultaneously to different
+extents, so that where there is, as occasionally happens, a difference
+in focus between them, this difference remains the same for all
+distances for which they are adapted. In such cases, therefore, both
+eyes cannot ever be accurately adapted at the same time, though either
+may be alone. It often happens as a consequence that the one eye is used
+to receive the sharpest images of distant, and the other of near
+objects. Any pathological change which leads to an interference in the
+accommodating power of one eye alone must have its origin in a lesion
+which lies peripherally to the nucleus of the third cranial nerve. Such
+a lesion is usually one of the third nerve itself. Consequently, a
+unilateral accommodation paresis is almost invariably associated with
+pareses of some of the oculo-motor muscles. A bilateral accommodation
+paresis is not uncommon. It is due to a nuclear or more central cerebral
+disturbance. Unlike a hemianopia, which is mostly permanent, a double
+accommodation paresis is frequently transitory. It is often a
+post-diphtheritic condition, appearing alone or associated with other
+paresis.
+
+Both eyes are also normally intimately associated in their movements.
+They move in response to a stimulus or a combination of stimuli,
+emanating from different centres of the brain, but one which is always
+equally distributed to the corresponding muscles in both eyes, so that
+the two lines of fixation meet at the succession of points on which
+attention is directed. The movements are thus associated in the same
+direction, to the right or left, upwards or downwards, &c. In addition,
+owing to the space which separates the two eyes, convergent movements,
+caused by stimuli equally distributed between the two internal recti,
+are required for the fixation of nearer and nearer-lying objects. These
+movements would not be necessary in the case of a single eye. It would
+merely have to accommodate. The converging movements of the double eye
+occur in association with accommodation, and thus a close connexion
+becomes established between the stimuli to accommodation and
+convergence. All combinations of convergent and associated movements are
+constantly taking place normally, just as if a single centrally-placed
+eye were moved in all directions and altered its accommodation according
+to the distance, in any direction, of the object which is fixed.
+
+Associated and convergent movements may be interfered with
+pathologically in different ways. Cerebral lesions may lead to their
+impairment or complete abolition, or they may give rise to involuntary
+spasmodic action, as the result of paralysing or irritating the centres
+from which the various co-ordinated impulses are controlled or emanate.
+Lesions which do not involve the centres may prevent the response to
+associated impulses in one eye alone by interfering with the functional
+activity of one or more of the nerves along which the stimuli are
+conveyed. Paralysis of oculo-motor nerves is thus a common cause of
+defects of association in the movements of the double eye. The great
+advantage of simultaneous binocular vision--viz. the appreciation of
+depth, or stereoscopic vision--is thus lost for some, or it may be all
+directions of fixation. Instead of seeing singly with two eyes, there is
+then double-vision (_diplopia_). This persists so long as the defect of
+association continues, or so long as the habit of mentally suppressing
+the image of the faultily-directed eye is not acquired.
+
+In the absence of any nerve lesions, central or other, interfering with
+their associated movements, the eyes continue throughout life to respond
+equally to the stimuli which cause these movements, even when, owing to
+a visual defect of the one eye, binocular vision has become impossible.
+It is otherwise, however, with the proper co-ordination of convergent
+movements. These are primarily regulated by the unconscious desire for
+binocular vision, and more or less firmly associated with accommodation.
+When one eye becomes blind, or when binocular vision for other reasons
+is lost, the impulse is gradually, as it were, unlearnt. This is the
+cause of _divergent concomitant squint_. Under somewhat similar
+conditions a degree of convergence, which is in excess of the
+requirements of fixation, may be acquired from different causes. This
+gives rise to _convergent concomitant squint_.
+
+  For _Astigmatism_, &c., see the article VISION.
+
+2. Taking each eye as a single organ, we find it to be subject to many
+diseases. In some cases both eyes may be affected in the same way, e.g.
+where the local disease is a manifestation of some general disturbance.
+Apart from the fibrous coat of the eye, the sclera, which is little
+prone to disease, and the external muscles and other adnexa, the eye may
+be looked upon as composed of two elements, (a) the dioptric media, and
+(b) the parts more or less directly connected with perception.
+Pathological conditions affecting either of these elements may interfere
+with sight.
+
+The dioptric media, or the transparent portions which are concerned in
+the transmission of light to, and the formation of images upon, the
+retina, are the following: the _cornea_, the _aqueous humour_, the
+_crystalline lens_ and the _vitreous humour_. Loss of transparency in
+any of these media leads to blurring of the retinal images of external
+objects. In addition to loss of transparency the cornea may have its
+curvature altered by pathological processes. This necessarily causes
+imperfection of sight. The crystalline lens, on the other hand, may be
+dislocated, and thus cause image distortion.
+
+_The Cornea._--The transparency of the cornea is mainly lost by
+imflammation (_keratitis_), which causes either an infiltration of its
+tissues with leucocytes, or a more focal, more destructive ulcerative
+process.
+
+Inflammation of the cornea may be primary or secondary, i.e. the
+inflammatory changes met with in the corneal tissue may be directly
+connected with one or more foci of inflammation in the cornea itself or
+the focus or foci may be in some other part of the eye. Only the very
+superficial forms of primary keratitis, those confined to the epithelial
+layer, leave no permanent change; there is otherwise always a loss of
+tissue resulting from the inflammation and this loss is made up for by
+more or less densely intransparent connective tissue (_nebula_,
+_leucoma_). These according to their site and extent cause greater or
+less visual disturbance. Primary keratitis may be ulcerative or
+non-ulcerative, superficial or deep, diffuse or circumscribed,
+vascularized or non-vascularized. It may be complicated by deeper
+inflammations of the eye such as iritis and cyclitis. In some cases the
+anterior chamber is invaded by pus (_hypopyon_). The healing of a
+corneal ulcer is characterized by the disappearance of pain where this
+has been a symptom and by the rounding off of its sharp margins as
+epithelium spreads over them from the surrounding healthy parts. Ulcers
+tend to extend either in depth or superficially, rarely in both manners
+at the same time. A deep ulcer leads to perforation with more or less
+serious consequences according to the extent of the perforation. Often
+an eye bears permanent traces of a perforation in adhesion of the iris
+to the back of a corneal scar or in changes in the lens capsule
+(capsular cataract). In other cases the ulcerated cornea may yield to
+pressure from within, which causes it to bulge forwards (_staphyloma_).
+
+The principal causes of primary keratitis are traumata and infection
+from the conjunctiva. Traumata are most serious when the body causing
+the wound is not aseptic or when micro-organisms from some other source,
+often the conjunctiva and tear-sac, effect a lodgment before healing of
+the wound has sufficiently advanced. In infected cases a complication
+with iritis is not uncommon owing to the penetration of toxines into the
+anterior chamber.
+
+Inflammations of the cornea are the most important diseases of the eye,
+because they are among the most frequent, because of the value of the
+cornea to vision and because much good can often be done by judicious
+treatment and much harm result from wrong interference and neglect. The
+treatment of primary keratitis must vary according to the cause.
+Generally speaking the aim should be to render the ulcerated portions as
+aseptic as possible without using applications which are apt to cause a
+great deal of irritation and thus interfere with healing. On this
+account it is important to be able to recognize when healing is taking
+place, for as soon as this is the case, rest, along with frequent
+irrigation of the conjunctiva with sterilized water at the body
+temperature, and occasionally mild antiseptic irrigation of the nasal
+mucous membrane is all that is required. It is a common and dangerous
+mistake to over treat.
+
+Of local antiseptics which are of use may be mentioned the actual
+cautery, chlorine water, freshly prepared silver nitrate or protargol,
+and the yellow oxide of mercury. These different agents are of course
+not all equally applicable in any given case; it depends upon the
+severity as well as upon the nature of the inflammation which is the
+most suitable. For instance, the actual cautery is employed only in the
+case of the deeper septic or malignant ulcers, in which the destruction
+of tissue is already considerable and tending to spread further. Again
+the yellow oxide of mercury should only be used in the more superficial,
+strumous forms of inflammation. Many other substances are also in use,
+but need not here be referred to.
+
+_Secondary keratitis_ takes the form of an interstitial deposit of
+leucocytes between the layers of the cornea as well as often of
+vascularization, sometimes intense, from the deeper network of vessels
+(anterior ciliary) surrounding the cornea. The duration of a secondary
+keratitis is usually prolonged, often lasting many months. More or less
+complete restoration of transparency is the rule, however, eventually.
+
+No local treatment is called for except the shading of the eyes and in
+most cases the use of a mydriatic to prevent synechiae when the iris is
+involved. Often it is advisable to do something for the general health.
+In young people there is probably nothing better than cod-liver oil and
+syrup of the iodide of iron. Inherited syphilis, tuberculous and other
+inflammations are the causes of secondary keratitis.
+
+_Neuro-paralytic Keratitis._--When the fifth nerve is paralysed there is
+a tendency for the cornea to become inflamed. Different forms of
+inflammation may then occur which all, besides anaesthesia, show a
+marked slowness in healing. The main cause of neuro-paralytic keratitis
+lies in the greater vulnerability of the cornea. The prognosis is
+necessarily bad. The treatment consists in as far as possible protecting
+the eye from external influences, by keeping it tied up, and by
+frequently irrigating with antiseptic lotions.
+
+Certain non-inflammatory and degenerative changes are met with in the
+cornea. Of these may be mentioned _keratoconus_ or conical cornea, in
+which, owing to some disturbance of vitality, the nature of which has
+not been discovered, the normal curvature of the cornea becomes altered
+to something more of a hyberboloid of revolution, with consequent
+impairment of vision: _arcus senilis_, a whitish opacity due to fatty
+degeneration, extending round the corneal margin, varying in thickness
+in different subjects and usually only met with in old people:
+_transverse calcareous film_, consisting of a finely punctiform opacity
+extending, in a tolerably uniformly wide band, occupying the zone of the
+cornea which is left uncovered when the lids are half closed.
+
+Tumours of the cornea are not common. Those chiefly met with are
+dermoids, fibromata, sarcomata and epitheliomata.
+
+_Scleritis._--Inflammation of the sclera is confined to its anterior
+part which is covered by conjunctiva. Scleritis may occur in
+circumscribed patches or may be diffused in the shape of a belt round
+the cornea. The former is usually more superficial and uncomplicated,
+the latter deeper and complicated with corneal infiltration,
+irido-cyclitis and anterior choroiditis. Superficial scleritis or, as it
+is often called, _episcleritis_, is a long-continued disease which is
+associated with very varying degrees of discomfort. The chronic nature
+of the affection depends mainly upon the tendency that the inflammation
+has to recur in successive patches at different parts of the sclera.
+Often only one eye at a time is affected. Each patch lasts for a month
+or two and is succeeded by another after an interval of varying
+duration. Months or years may elapse between the attacks. The
+cicatricial site of a previous patch is rarely again attacked. The
+scleral infiltration causes a firm swelling, often sensitive to touch,
+over which the conjunctiva is freely movable. The overlying conjunctiva
+is always injected. The infiltration itself at the height of the process
+is densely vascularized. Seen through the conjunctiva its vessels have a
+darker, more purplish hue than the superficial ones. The swelling caused
+by the infiltration gradually subsides, leaving a cicatrix to which the
+overlying conjunctiva becomes adherent. The cicatrix has a slaty
+porcellanous-looking colour. Superficial scleritis occurs in both sexes
+with about equal frequency. No definite cause for the inflammation is
+known. The treatment on the whole is unsatisfactory. Burning down the
+nodules with the actual cautery, and subsequently a visit to such baths
+as Harrogate, Buxton, Homburg and Wiesbaden, may be recommended.
+
+Deep scleritis with its attendant complications is altogether a more
+serious disease. Etiologically it is equally obscure. Both eyes are
+almost always attacked. It more generally occurs in young people, mostly
+in young women. Deep scleritis is more persistent and less subject to
+periods of intermission than episcleritis. The deeper and more
+wide-spread inflammatory infiltrations of the sclera lead eventually to
+weakening of that coat, and cause it to yield to the intra-ocular
+pressure. Vision suffers from extension of the infiltration to the
+cornea, or from iritis with its attendant synechiae, or from anterior
+choroiditis, and sometimes also from secondary glaucoma. The treatment
+is on the whole unsatisfactory. Iridectomy, especially if done early in
+the process, may be of use.
+
+_The Aqueous Humour._--Intransparency of the aqueous humour is always
+due to some exudation. This comes either from the iris or the ciliary
+processes, and may be blood, pus or fibrin. An exudation in this
+situation tends naturally to gravitate to the most dependent part, and,
+in the case of blood or pus, is known as _kyphaema_ or _hypopyon_.
+
+_The Crystalline Lens Cataract._--Intransparency of the crystalline lens
+is technically known as _cataract_. Cataract may be idiopathic and
+uncomplicated, or traumatic, or secondary to disease in the deeper
+parts of the eye. The modified epithelial structure of which the lens is
+composed is always being added to throughout life. The older portions of
+the lens are consequently the more central. They are harder and less
+elastic. This arrangement seems to predispose to difficulties of
+nutrition. In many people, in the absence altogether of general or local
+disease, the transparency of the lens is lost owing to degeneration of
+the incompletely-nourished fibres. This idiopathic cataract mostly
+occurs in old people; hence the term _senile cataract_. So-called
+_senile_ cataract is not, however, necessarily associated with any
+general senile changes. An idiopathic uncomplicated cataract is also met
+with as a congenital defect due to faulty development of the crystalline
+lens. A particular and not uncommon form of this kind of cataract, which
+may also develop during infancy, is _lamellar_ or _zonular cataract_.
+This is a partial and stationary form of cataract in which, while the
+greater part of the lens retains its transparency, some of the lamellae
+are intransparent. Traumatic cataract occurs in two ways: by laceration
+or rupture of the lens capsule, or by nutritional changes consequent
+upon injuries to the deeper structures of the eye. The transparency of
+the lens is dependent upon the integrity of its capsule. Penetrating
+wounds of the eye involving the capsule, or rupture of the capsule from
+severe blows on the eye without perforation of its coats, are followed
+by rapidly developing cataract. Severe non-penetrating injuries, which
+do not cause rupture of the capsule, are sometimes followed, after a
+time, by slowly-progressing cataract. Secondary cataract is due to
+abnormalities in the nutrient matter supplied to the lens owing to
+disease of the ciliary body, choroid or retina. In some diseases, as
+diabetes, the altered general nutrition tells in the same way on the
+crystalline lens. Cataract is then rapidly formed. All cases of cataract
+in diabetes are not, however, necessarily true diabetic cataracts in the
+above sense. _Dislocations of the lens_ are traumatic or congenital. In
+old-standing disease of the eye the suspensory ligament may yield in
+part, and thus lead to lens dislocation. The lens is practically always
+cataractous before this takes place.
+
+_The Vitreous Humour._--The vitreous humour loses its transparency owing
+to exudation from the inflamed ciliary body or choroid. The exudation
+may be fibrinous or purulent; the latter only as a result of injuries by
+which foreign bodies or septic matter are introduced into the eye or in
+metastatic choroiditis. Blood may also be effused into the vitreous from
+rupture of retinal, ciliary or choroidal vessels. The pathological
+significance of the various effusions into the vitreous depends greatly
+upon the cause. In many cases effusion and absorption are constantly
+taking place simultaneously. The extent of possible clearing depends
+greatly upon the preponderance of the latter process.
+
+_Diseases of the Iris and Ciliary Body._--Inflammation of the iris,
+iritis, arises from different causes. The various idiopathic forms have
+relations to constitutional disturbances such as rheumatism, gout,
+albuminuria, tuberculosis, fevers, syphilis, gonorrhoea and others, or
+they may come from cold alone. Traumatic and infected cases are
+attributable to accidents, the presence of foreign bodies, operations,
+&c. In addition, iritis may be secondary to keratitis, scleritis or
+choroiditis. The beginning of an attack of inflammation of the iris is
+characterized by alterations in its colour due to hyperaemia and by
+circumcorneal injection. Later on, exudation takes place into the
+substance of the iris, causing thickening and also a loss of gloss of
+its surface. According to the nature and severity of the exudation there
+may be deposits formed on the back of the cornea, attachments between
+the iris and lens capsule (synechiae), or even gelatinous-looking
+coagulations or pus in the anterior chamber.
+
+The subjective symptoms to which the inflammation may give rise are
+dread of light (_photophobia_), pain, generally most severe at night and
+often very great, also more or less impairment of sight. Along with the
+pain and photophobia there is lacrymation. An acute attack of iritis
+usually lasts about six weeks. Some cases become chronic and last much
+longer. Others are chronic from the first, and in one clinical type of
+iritis, in which the ciliary body is also at the same time affected,
+viz. _iritis serosa_, there is usually comparatively little injection of
+the eye or pain, so that the patient's attention may only be directed to
+the eye owing to the gradual impairment of sight which results. In some
+cases, and more particularly in men, there is a tendency to the
+recurrence at longer or shorter intervals of attacks of iritis
+(_recurrent iritis_). In these cases, as well as in all cases of plastic
+iritis which have not been properly treated, serious consequences to
+sight are apt to follow from the binding down of the iris to the lens
+capsule and the occlusion of the pupil by exudation.
+
+Inflammation of the ciliary body, _cyclitis_, is frequently associated
+with iritis. This association is probable in all cases where there are
+deposits on the posterior surface of the cornea. It is certain where
+there are changes in the intra-ocular tension. Often in cyclitis there
+is a very marked diminution in tension. Cyclitis is also present when
+the degree of visual disturbance is greater than can be accounted for by
+the visible changes in the pupil and anterior chamber. The exudation
+may, as in iritis, be serous, plastic or purulent. It passes from the
+two free surfaces of the ciliary body into the posterior aqueous, and
+into the vitreous, chambers. This produces, what is a constant sign of
+cyclitis, more or less intransparency of the vitreous humour. Where
+there has been excessive exudation into the vitreous, subsequent
+shrinking and liquefaction take place, leading to detachment of the
+retina and consequent blindness.
+
+The treatment of iritis necessarily differs to some extent according to
+the cause. The general treatment applicable to all cases need only be
+here considered. What should be aimed at, at the time of the
+inflammation, is to put the eye as far as possible at rest, to prevent
+the formation of synechiae and alleviate the pain. An attempt should be
+made to get the pupil thoroughly dilated with atropine. The dilatation
+should be kept up as long as any circumcorneal injection lasts. If a
+case of iritis be left to itself or treated without the use of a
+mydriatic, posterior synechiae almost invariably form. Some fibrinous
+exudation may even organize into a membrane stretching across, and more
+or less completely occluding, the pupil. Synechiae, though not of
+themselves causing impairment of vision, increase the risk that the eye
+runs from subsequent attacks of iritis. It should however be remembered
+that as the main call for a mydriatic is to prevent synechiae, the
+_raison d'être_ for its use no longer exists when, having been begun too
+late, the pupil cannot properly be dilated by it. Under these conditions
+it may even do harm. The eyes should also be kept shaded from the light
+by the use of a shade or neutral-tinted glasses. During an attack any
+use of the eyes for reading or sewing or work of any kind calling for
+accommodation must be prohibited. This applies equally to the case of
+inflammation in one eye alone and in both.
+
+Pain is best relieved by hot fomentations, cocain, and in many cases the
+internal use of salicin or phenacetin. The treatment sometimes required
+for cases of old iritis is iridectomy. The operation is called for in
+two different classes of cases. In the first place, to improve vision
+where the pupil is small, and to a great extent occluded, though the
+condition has not so far led to serious nutritive changes; and in the
+second place, with the object as well of preventing the complete
+destruction of vision which either the existing condition or the danger
+of recurrence of the inflammation has threatened. Iridectomy for iritis
+should be performed when the inflammation has entirely subsided. The
+portion of iris excised should be large. The operation is urgently
+called for where the condition of _iris bombans_ exists.
+
+Iris tumours, either simple or malignant, are of rare occurrence.
+
+A frequent result of a severe blow on the eye is a separation of a
+portion of the iris from its peripheral attachment (_iridodialysis_). Of
+congenital anomalies the most commonly met with are coloboma and more or
+less persistence of the foetal pupillary membrane. The most serious form
+of irido-cyclitis is that which may follow penetrating wounds of the
+eye. Under certain conditions this leads to a similar inflammation in
+the other eye. This so-called _sympathetic ophthalmitis_ is of a
+malignant type, causing destruction of the sympathizing eye.
+
+_The Retina._--Choroidal inflammations are generally patchy, various
+foci of inflammation being scattered over the choroid. These patches may
+in course of time become more or less confluent. The effect upon vision
+depends upon the extent to which the external or percipient elements of
+the retina become involved. It is especially serious when the more
+central portions of the retina, are thus affected (_choroido-retinitis
+centralis_).
+
+A peculiar and grave pathological condition of the eye is what is known
+as _glaucoma_. A characteristic of this condition is increase of the
+intra-ocular tension, which has a deleterious effect on the optic nerve
+end and its ramifications in the retina. The cause of the rise of
+tension is partly congestive, partly mechanical. The effect of glaucoma,
+when untreated, is to cause ever-increasing loss of sight, although the
+time occupied by the process before it leads to complete blindness
+varies within such extraordinary wide limits as from a few hours to many
+years. The uveal tract may be the site of _sarcoma_.
+
+The retina is subject to inflammation, to detachment from the choroid,
+to haemorrhages from the blood-vessels and to tumour. Retinal
+inflammation may primarily affect either the nerve elements or the
+connective tissue framework. The former is usually associated with some
+general disease such as albuminuria or diabetes and is bilateral. The
+tissue changes are oedema, the formation of exudative patches, and
+haemorrhage. Where the connective tissue elements are primarily
+affected, the condition is a slow one, similar to _sclerosis_ of the
+central nervous system. The gradual blindness which this causes is due
+to compression of the retinal nerve elements by the connective tissue
+hyperplasia, which is always associated with characteristic changes in
+the disposition of the retinal pigment. This retinal sclerosis is
+consequently generally known as _retinitis pigmentosa_, a disease to
+which there is a hereditary predisposition. Besides occurring during
+inflammation, haemorrhages into the retina are met with in phlebitis of
+the central retinal vein, which is almost invariably unilateral, and in
+certain conditions of the blood, as pernicious anaemia, when they are
+always bilateral.
+
+The optic nerve is subject to inflammation (optic neuritis) and atrophy.
+Double optic neuritis, affecting, however, only the intra-ocular ends of
+the nerves, is an almost constant accompaniment of brain tumour.
+Unilateral neuritis has a different causation, depending upon an
+inflammation, mainly perineuritic, of the nerve in the orbit. It is
+analogous to peripheral inflammation of other nerves, such as the third,
+fourth, sixth and seventh cranial nerves.
+
+_Diseases of the Conjunctiva._--These are the most frequent diseases of
+the eye with which the surgeon has to deal. They generally lead to more
+or less interference with the functional activity of the eye and often
+indeed to great impairment of vision owing to the tendency which there
+is for the cornea to become implicated.
+
+Many different micro-organisms are of pathogenetic importance in
+connexion with the conjunctiva. Microbes exist in the normal
+conjunctival sac. These are mostly harmless, though it is usual to find
+at any rate a small proportion of others which are known to be
+pyogenetic. This fact is of great importance in connexion both with
+problems of etiology and the practical question of operations on the
+eye.
+
+_Hyperaemia._--When the conjunctiva becomes hyperaemic its colour is
+heightened and its transparency lessened. Sometimes too it becomes
+thickened and its surface altered in appearance. The often marked
+heightening of colour is due to the very superficial position of the
+dilated vessels. This is specially the case with that part of the
+membrane which forms the transition fold between the palpebral and the
+ocular conjunctiva. Consequently it is there that the redness is most
+marked, while it is seen to diminish towards the cornea. An important
+diagnostic mark is thus furnished between purely conjunctival hyperaemia
+and what is called circumcorneal congestion, which is always an
+indication of more deep-seated vascular dilatation. It also differs
+materially from a scleral injection, in which there is a visible
+dilatation of the superficial scleral vessels.
+
+When a conjunctival hyperaemia has existed for some time the papillae
+become swollen, and small blebs form on the surface of the membrane:
+sometimes too, lymph follicles begin to show. The enlargement and
+compression of adjacent papillae give rise to a velvety appearance of
+the surface.
+
+Hyperaemia of the conjunctiva where not followed by inflammation causes
+more or less lacrymation but no alteration in the character of its
+secretion. The hyperaemia may be acute and transitory or chronic. Much
+depends upon the cause as well as upon the persistence of the irritation
+which sets it up.
+
+Traumata, the presence of foreign bodies in the conjunctival sac, or the
+irritations of superficial chalky infarcts in the Meibomian ducts, cause
+more or less severe transitory congestion. Continued subjection to
+irritating particles such as flour, stones, dust, &c., causes a more
+continued hyperaemia which is often circumscribed and less pronounced.
+Bad air in schools, barracks, workhouses, &c., also causes a chronic
+hyperaemia in which it is common to find a follicular hyperplasia. Long
+exposure to too intense light, astigmatism and other ocular defects
+which cause asthenopia lead also to chronic hyperaemia. Anaemic
+individuals are often subject to discomfort from hyperaemia of this
+nature.
+
+The treatment of conjunctival hyperaemia consists first in the removal
+of the cause when it can be discovered. Often this is difficult. In
+addition the application of hot sterilized water is useful and soothing.
+
+_Conjunctivitis._--When the conjunctiva is actually inflamed the
+congested membrane is brought into a condition of heightened secreting
+action. The secretions become more copious and more or less altered in
+character. A sufficiently practical though by no means sharply defined
+clinical division of cases of conjunctivitis is arrived at by taking
+into consideration the character of the secretion from the inflamed
+membrane and the visible tissue alterations which the membrane
+undergoes. The common varieties of conjunctivitis which may thus be
+distinguished are the following: ([alpha]) Catarrhal conjunctivitis,
+([beta]) Purulent conjunctivitis, ([gamma]) Phlyctenular conjunctivitis,
+([delta]) Granular conjunctivitis and ([epsilon]) Diphtheritic
+conjunctivitis.
+
+However desirable a truly etiological classification might appear to be,
+it is doubtful whether such could satisfactorily be made. So much is
+certain at all events, that not only can identically the same clinical
+appearance result from the actions of quite different pathogenetic
+organisms, but that various concomitant circumstances may lead to very
+different clinical signs being set up by one and the same microbe. As
+regards _contagion_ there is no doubt that the secretion in the case of
+a true conjunctivitis (i.e. not merely a hyperaemia) is always more or
+less contagious. The degree of virulence varies not only in different
+cases, but the effect of contagion from the same source may be different
+in different individuals. Healthy conjunctivae may thus react
+differently, not only as regards the degree of severity, but even
+according to different clinical types, when infected by secretion from
+the same source. There are no doubt different reasons for this, such as
+the stage at which the inflammation has arrived in the eye from which
+the secretion is derived, differences in the surroundings and in the
+susceptibility of the infected individuals, the presence of dormant
+microbes of a virulent type in the healthy conjunctiva which has been
+infected, &c. Many points in this connexion are very difficult to
+investigate and much remains to be elucidated. Contagion usually takes
+place directly and not through the air. Often in this way one eye is
+first affected and may in some cases, when sufficient care is afterwards
+taken, be the only one to suffer.
+
+The treatment in all severer forms of conjunctivitis should be
+undertaken with the primary object in view of preventing any implication
+of the cornea.
+
+_Catarrhal conjunctivitis_, which is characterized by an increased
+mucoid secretion accompanying the hyperaemia, is usually bilateral and
+may be either acute or chronic. Acute conjunctivitis lasts as a rule
+only for a week or two: the chronic type may persist, with or without
+occasional exacerbations, for years. The subjective symptoms vary in
+intensity with the severity of the inflammation. There is always more or
+less troublesome "burning" in the eyes with a tired heavy feeling in the
+lids. This is aggravated by reading, which is most distressing in a
+close or smoky atmosphere and by artificial light. In acute cases,
+indeed, reading is altogether impossible. In all cases of catarrhal
+conjunctivitis the symptoms are also more marked if the eyes have been
+tied up, even though this may produce a temporary relief.
+
+A curious variety of acute catarrhal conjunctivitis, in which the
+hyperaemia and lacrymation are the predominant features, is the
+so-called _hay-fever_. In this condition the mucous membrane of the nose
+and throat are similarly affected, and there is at the same time more or
+less constitutional disturbance. Hay-fever is due to irritation from the
+pollen of many plants, but principally from that of the different
+grasses. Some people are so susceptible to it that they invariably
+suffer every year during the early summer months. Here it is difficult
+to remove the cause, but many cases can be cured and almost all are
+alleviated be means of a special antitoxin applied locally.
+
+Other ectogenetic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis which have been
+studied are mostly microbic. Of these the most common are the
+Morax-Axenfeld and the Koch-Weeks conjunctivitis.
+
+The Morax-Axenfeld bacillus sets up a conjunctivitis which affects
+individuals of all ages and conditions and which is contagious. The
+inflammation is usually chronic, at most subacute. It is often
+sufficiently characteristic to be recognized without a microscopical
+examination of the secretions. In typical cases the lid margin,
+palpebral conjunctiva, and it may be a patch of ocular conjunctiva at
+the outer or inner angle are alone hyperaemic: the secretion is not
+copious and is mostly found as a greyish coagulum lying at the inner
+lid-margin. The subjective symptoms are usually slight. Complications
+with other varieties of catarrhal conjunctivitis are not uncommon. This
+mild form of conjunctivitis generally lasts for many months, subject to
+more or less complete disappearance followed by recurrences. It can be
+rapidly cured by the use of an oxide of zinc ointment, which should be
+continued for some time after the appearances have altogether passed
+off.
+
+The conjunctivitis caused by the Koch-Weeks microbe is still more
+common. It is a more acute type, affects mostly children, and is very
+contagious and often epidemic. Here the hyperaemia involves both the
+ocular and the palpebral conjunctiva, and usually there is considerable
+swelling of the lids and a copious secretion. Both eyes are always
+affected. Occasionally the engorged conjunctival vessels give way,
+causing numerous small extravasations (ecchymoses). Complications with
+phlyctenulae (_vide infra_) are common in children. The acute symptoms
+last for a week or ten days, after which the course is more chronic.
+Treatment with nitrate of silver in solution is generally satisfactory.
+Other less frequent microbic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis yield to
+the same treatment.
+
+A form of _epidemic muco-purulent conjunctivitis_ is not uncommon, in
+which the swelling of the conjunctival folds and lids is much more
+marked and the secretions copious. It is less amenable to treatment and
+also apt to be complicated by corneal ulceration. The microbe which
+gives rise to this condition has not been definitely established. This
+inflammation is also known as _school ophthalmia_. This is extremely
+contagious, so that isolation of cases becomes necessary. The treatment
+with weak solutions of sub-acetate of lead during the acute stage,
+provided there be no corneal complication, and subsequently with a weak
+solution of tannic acid, may be recommended.
+
+_Purulent Conjunctivitis._--Some of the severer forms of catarrhal
+conjunctivitis are accompanied not only by a good deal of swelling of
+both conjunctiva and lids but also by a decidedly muco-purulent
+secretion. Nevertheless there is a sufficiently sharply-defined clinical
+difference between the catarrhal and purulent types of inflammation. In
+purulent conjunctivitis the oedema of the lids is always marked, often
+excessive, the hyperaemia of the whole conjunctiva is intense: the
+membrane is also infiltrated and swollen (chemosis), the papillae
+enlarged and the secretion almost wholly purulent. Although this variety
+of conjunctivitis is principally due to infection by gonococci, other
+microbes, which more frequently set up a catarrhal type, may lead to the
+purulent form.
+
+All forms are contagious, and transference of the secretion to other
+eyes usually sets up the same type of severe inflammation. The way in
+which infection mostly takes place is by direct transference by means of
+the hands, towels, &c., of secretions containing gonococci either from
+the eye or from some other mucous membrane. The poison may also
+sometimes be carried by flies. The dried secretion loses its virulence.
+
+In new-born children (_ophthalmia neonatorum_) infection takes place
+from the maternal passages during birth. Notwithstanding the great
+changes which occur during the progress of a purulent conjunctivitis,
+there is on recovery a complete _restitutio ad integrum_ so far as the
+conjunctiva is concerned. Owing to the tendency to severe ulceration of
+the cornea, more or less serious destructions of that membrane, and
+consequently more or less interference with sight, may result before the
+inflammation has passed off. This is a special danger in the case of
+adults. For this reason when only one eye is affected the first point to
+be attended to in the treatment is to secure the second eye from
+contagion by efficient occlusion. The appliance known as Buller's
+shield, a watch-glass strapped down by plaster, is the best for this
+purpose. It not only admits of the patient seeing with the sound eye,
+but allows the other to remain under direct observation. The treatment
+otherwise consists in frequent removal of the secretions from the
+affected eye, and the use of nitrate of silver solution as a bactericide
+applied directly to the conjunctival surface; sometimes it is necessary
+to cut away the chemotic conjunctiva immediately surrounding the cornea.
+When the cornea has become affected efforts may be made with the
+thermo-cautery or otherwise to limit the area of destruction and thus
+admit of something being done to improve the vision after all
+inflammation has subsided. The greatest cleanliness as well as proper
+antiseptic precautions should of course be observed by every one in any
+way connected with the treatment of such cases.
+
+_Phlyctenular conjunctivitis_ is an acute inflammation of the ocular
+conjunctiva, in which little blebs or phlyctenules form, more
+particularly in the vicinity of the corneal margin, as well as on the
+epithelial continuation of the conjunctiva which covers the cornea. The
+inflammation is characterized by being distributed in little
+circumscribed foci and not diffused as in all other forms of
+conjunctivitis. In it the conjunctival secretion is not altered, unless
+there should exist at the same time a complication with some other form
+of conjunctivitis. This condition is most frequent in children,
+particularly such as are ill-nourished or are recovering from some
+illness, e.g. measles. The susceptibility occurs in fact mainly where
+there exists what used to be called a "strumous" diathesis. In many
+cases, therefore, there is some kind of tubercular basis for the
+manifestations. This basis has to do with the susceptibility only, at
+all events to begin with. The local changes are not tuberculous; their
+exact origin has not been clearly established. They are in all
+probability produced by staphylococci.
+
+Many children suffering from phlyctenular conjunctivitis get after a
+short time an eczematous excoriation of the skin of the nostrils. This
+excoriated, scabby area contains crowds of staphylococci which find a
+nidus here, where the copious tear-flow down the nostrils has excoriated
+and irritated the skin. Lacrymation is indeed a very common concomitant
+of phlyctenular conjunctivitis. Another frequently distressing symptom
+is a pronounced dread of light (_photophobia_), which often leads to
+convulsive and very persistent closing of the lids (_blepharospasm_).
+Indeed the relief of the photophobia is often the most important point
+to be considered in the treatment of phlyctenular conjunctivitis. The
+photophobia may be very severe when the local changes are slight. The
+eyes should be shaded but not bandaged. Cocain may be freely used. The
+best local application is the yellow oxide of mercury used as an
+ointment.
+
+Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, and the corneal complications with which it
+is so often associated, constitute a large proportion (from ¼ to 1/3) of
+all eye affections with which the surgeon has to deal.
+
+_Granular Conjunctivitis._--This disease, which also goes by the name of
+_trachoma_, is characterized by an inflammatory infiltration of the
+adenoid tissue of the conjunctiva. The inflammation is accompanied by
+the formation of so-called _granules_, and at the same time by a
+hyperplasia of the papillae. The changes further lead in the course of
+time to cicatricial transformations, so that a gradual and progressive
+atrophy of the conjunctiva results. The disease takes its origin most
+frequently in the conjunctival fold of the upper lid, but eventually as
+a rule involves the corna and the deeper tissues of the lid,
+particularly the tarsus.
+
+The etiology of trachoma is unknown. Though a perfectly distinctive
+affection when fully established, the differential diagnosis from other
+forms of conjunctivitis, particularly those associated with much
+follicular enlargement or which have begun as purulent inflammation, may
+be difficult. Trachoma is mostly chronic. When occurring in an acute
+form it is more amenable to treatment and less likely to end in
+cicatricial changes. Fully half the cases of trachoma which occur are
+complicated by _pannus_, which is the name given to the affection when
+it has spread to the cornea. Pannus is a superficial vascularized
+infiltration of the cornea. The veiling which it produces causes more or
+less defect of sight.
+
+Various methods of treatment are in use for trachoma. Expression by
+means of roller-forceps or repeated grattage are amongst the more
+effective means of surgical treatment, while local applications of
+copper sulphate or of alum are certainly useful in suitable cases.
+
+_Diphtheritic conjunctivitis_ is characterized by an infiltration into
+the conjunctival tissues which, owing to great coagulability, rapidly
+interferes with the nutrition of the invaded area and thus leads to
+necrosis of the diphtheritic membrane. Conjunctival diphtheria may or
+may not be associated with diphtheria of the throat. It is essentially a
+disease of early childhood, not more than 10% of all cases occurring
+after the age of four. The cornea is exposed to great risk, more
+particularly during the first few days, and may be lost by necrosis.
+Subsequent ulceration is not uncommon, but may often be arrested before
+complete destruction has taken place. The disease is generally confined
+to one eye, and complicated by swelling of the preauricular glands of
+that side. It may prove fatal. In true conjunctival diphtheria the
+exciting cause is the Klebs-Löffler bacillus. The inflammation occurs in
+very varying degrees of severity. The secretion is at first thin and
+scant, afterwards purulent and more copious. In severe cases there is
+great chemosis with much tense swelling of the lids, which are often of
+an ashy-grey colour. A streptococcus infection produces somewhat similar
+and often quite as disastrous results.
+
+The treatment must be both general with antitoxin and local with
+antiseptics. Of rarer forms of conjunctivitis may be mentioned
+Parinaud's conjunctivitis and the so-called spring catarrh.
+
+_Non-inflammatory Conjunctival Affections._--These are of less
+importance than conjunctivitis, either on account of their comparative
+infrequency or because of their harmlessness. The following conditions
+may be shortly referred to.
+
+_Amyloid degeneration_, in which waxy-looking masses grow from the
+palpebral conjunctiva of both lids, often attaining very considerable
+dimensions. The condition is not uncommon in China and elsewhere in the
+East.
+
+_Essential Shrinking of the Conjunctiva._--This is the result of
+pemphigus, in which the disease has attacked the conjunctiva and led to
+its atrophy.
+
+_Pterygium_ is a hypertrophic thickening of the conjunctiva of
+triangular shape firmly attached by its apex to the superficial layers
+of the cornea. It is a common condition in warm climates owing to
+exposure to sun and dust, and often calls for operative interference.
+
+_Tumours of the Conjunctiva._--These may be malignant or benign, also
+syphilitic and tubercular.     (G. A. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Some embryologists regard the vitreous body as formed from the
+    ectoderm (see Quain's _Anatomy_, vol. i., 1908).
+
+
+
+
+EYEMOUTH, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2436. It
+is situated at the mouth of the Eye, 7½ m. N.N.W. of Berwick-on-Tweed by
+the North British railway via Burnmouth. Its public buildings are the
+town hall, library and masonic hall. The main industry is the fishing
+and allied trades. The harbour was enlarged in 1887, and the bay is
+easily accessible and affords good anchorage. Owing to the rugged
+character of the coast and its numerous ravines and caves the whole
+district was once infested with smugglers. The promontory of St Abb's
+Head is 3 m. to the N.W.
+
+
+
+
+EYLAU (_Preussisch-Eylau_), a town of Germany, in east Prussia, on the
+Pasmar, 23 m. S. by E. Of Königsberg by rail on the line
+Pillau-Prostken. It has an Evangelical church, a teachers' seminary, a
+hospital, foundries and saw mills. Pop. 3200. Eylau was founded in 1336
+by Arnolf von Eilenstein, a knight of the Teutonic Order. It is famous
+as the scene of a battle between the army of Napoleon and the Russians
+and Prussians commanded by General Bennigsen, fought on the 8th of
+February 1807.
+
+The battle was preceded by a severe general engagement on the 7th. The
+head of Napoleon's column (cavalry and infantry), advancing from the
+south-west, found itself opposed at the outlet of the Grünhöfchen defile
+by a strong Russian rearguard which held the (frozen) lakes on either
+side of the Eylau road, and attacked at once, dislodging the enemy after
+a sharp conflict. The French turned both wings of the enemy, and
+Bagration, who commanded the Russian rearguard, retired through Eylau to
+the main army, which was now arrayed for battle east of Eylau. Barclay
+de Tolly made a strenuous resistance in Eylau itself, and in the
+churchyard, and these localities changed hands several times before
+remaining finally in possession of the French. It is very doubtful
+whether Napoleon actually ordered this attack upon Eylau, and it is
+suggested that the French soldiers were encouraged to a premature
+assault by the hope of obtaining quarters in the village. There is,
+however, no reason to suppose that this attack was prejudicial to
+Napoleon's chance of success, for his own army was intended to pin the
+enemy in front, while the outlying "masses of manoeuvre" closed upon his
+flanks and rear (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). In this case the vigour of
+the "general advanced guard" was superfluous, for Bennigsen stood to
+fight of his own free will.
+
+The foremost line of the French bivouacs extended, from Rothenen to
+Freiheit, but a large proportion of the army spent the night in quarters
+farther back. The Russian army on the other hand spent the night
+bivouacked in order of battle, the right at Schloditten and the left at
+Serpallen. The cold was extreme, 2° F. being registered in the early
+morning, and food was scarce in both armies. The ground was covered at
+the time of battle with deep snow, and all the lakes and marshes were
+frozen, so that troops of all arms could pass everywhere, so far as the
+snow permitted. Two of Napoleon's corps (Davout and Ney) were still
+absent, and Ney did not receive his orders until the morning of the 8th.
+His task was to descend upon the Russian right, and also to prevent a
+Prussian corps under Lestocq from coming on to the battlefield. Davout's
+corps advancing from the south-east on Mollwitten was destined for the
+attack of Bennigsen's left wing about Serpallen and Klein Sausgarten. In
+the meantime Napoleon with his forces at and about Eylau made the
+preparations for the frontal attack. His infantry extended from the
+windmill, through Eylau, to Rothenen, and the artillery was deployed
+along the whole front; behind each infantry corps and on the wings stood
+the cavalry. The Guard was in second line south of Eylau, and an army
+reserve stood near the Waschkeiten lake. Bennigsen's army was drawn up
+in line from Schloditten to Klein Sausgarten, the front likewise covered
+by guns, in which arm he was numerically much superior. A detachment
+occupied Serpallen.
+
+The battle opened in a dense snowstorm. About 8 A.M. Bennigsen's guns
+opened fire on Eylau, and after a fierce but undecided artillery fight
+the French delivered an infantry attack from Eylau. This was repulsed
+with heavy losses, and the Russians advanced towards the windmill in
+force. Thereupon Napoleon ordered his centre, the VII. corps of Augéreau
+to move forward from the church against the Russian front, the division
+of St Hilaire on Augéreau's right participating in the attack. If we
+conceive of this first stage of the battle as the action of the "general
+advanced guard," Augéreau must be held to have overdone his part. The
+VII. corps advanced in dense masses, but in the fierce snowstorm lost
+its direction. St Hilaire attacked directly and unsupported; Augéreau's
+corps was still less fortunate. Crossing obliquely the front of the
+Russian line, as if making for Schloditten, it came under a _feu
+d'enfer_ and was practically annihilated. In the confusion the Russian
+cavalry charged with the utmost fury downhill and with the wind behind
+them. Three thousand men only out of about fourteen thousand appeared at
+the evening parade of the corps. The rest were killed, wounded,
+prisoners or dispersed. The marshal and every senior officer was amongst
+the killed and wounded, and one regiment, the 14th of the Line, cut off
+in the midst of the Russians and refusing to surrender, fell almost to a
+man. The Russian counterstroke penetrated into Eylau itself and Napoleon
+himself was in serious danger. With the utmost coolness, however, he
+judged the pace of the Russian advance and ordered up a battalion of the
+Guard at the exact moment required. In the streets of Eylau the Guard
+had the Russians at their mercy, and few escaped. Still the situation
+for the French was desperate and the battle had to be maintained at all
+costs. Napoleon now sent forward the cavalry along the whole line. In
+the centre the charge was led by Murat and Bessières, and the Russian
+horsemen were swept off the field. The Cuirassiers under D'Hautpoult
+charged through the Russian guns, broke through the first line of
+infantry and then through the second, penetrating to the woods of
+Anklappen.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Eylau.]
+
+The shock of a second wave of cavalry broke the lines again, and though
+in the final retirement the exhausted troopers lost terribly, they had
+achieved their object. The wreck of Augéreau's and other divisions had
+been reformed, the Guard brought up into first line, and, above all,
+Davout's leading troops had occupied Serpallen. Thence, with his left in
+touch with Napoleon's right (St Hilaire), and his right extending
+gradually towards Klein Sausgarten, the marshal pressed steadily upon
+the Russian left, rolling it up before him, until his right had reached
+Kutschitten and his centre Anklappen. By that time the troops under
+Napoleon's immediate command, pivoting their left on Eylau church, had
+wheeled gradually inward until the general line extended from the
+church to Kutschitten. The Russian army was being driven westward, when
+the advance of Lestocq gave them fresh steadiness. The Prussian corps
+had been fighting a continuous flank-guard action against Marshal Ney to
+the north-west of Althof, and Lestocq had finally succeeded in
+disengaging his main body, Ney being held up at Althof by a small
+rearguard, while the Prussians, gathering as they went the fugitives of
+the Russian army, hastened to oppose Davout. The impetus of these fresh
+troops led by Lestocq and his staff-officer Scharnhorst was such as to
+check even the famous divisions of Davout's corps which had won the
+battle of Auerstädt single-handed. The French were now gradually forced
+back until their right was again at Sausgarten and their centre on the
+Kreege Berg.
+
+Both sides were now utterly exhausted, for the Prussians also had been
+marching and fighting all day against Ney. The battle died away at
+nightfall, Ney's corps being unable effectively to intervene owing to
+the steadiness of the Prussian detachment left to oppose him, and the
+extreme difficulty of the roads. A severe conflict between the Russian
+extreme right and Ney's corps which at last appeared on the field at
+Schloditten ended the battle. Bennigsen retreated during the night
+through Schmoditten, Lestocq through Kutschitten. The numbers engaged in
+the first stage of the battle may be taken as--Napoleon, 50,000,
+Bennigsen, 67,000, to which later were added on the one side Ney and
+Davout, 29,000, on the other Lestocq, 7000. The losses were roughly,
+15,000 men to the French, 18,000 to the Allies, or 21 and 27%
+respectively of the troops actually engaged. The French lost 5 eagles
+and 7 other colours, the Russians 16 colours and 24 guns.
+
+
+
+
+EYRA (_Felis eyra_), a South American wild cat, of weasel-like build,
+and uniform coloration, varying in different individuals from
+reddish-yellow to chestnut. It is found in Brazil, Guiana and Paraguay,
+and extends its range to the Rio del Norte, but is rare north of the
+isthmus of Panama. Little is known of its habits in a wild state, beyond
+the fact that it is a forest-dweller, active in movement and fierce in
+disposition. Several have been exhibited in the London Zoological
+Gardens, and some have grown gentle in captivity. Don Felix de Azara
+wrote of one which he kept on a chain that it was "as gentle and playful
+as any kitten could be." The name is sometimes applied to the
+jaguarondi.
+
+
+
+
+EYRE, EDWARD JOHN (1815-1901), British colonial governor, the son of a
+Yorkshire clergyman, was born on the 5th of August 1815. He was intended
+for the army, but delays having arisen in producing a commission, he
+went out to New South Wales, where he engaged in the difficult but very
+necessary undertaking of transporting stock westward to the new colony
+of South Australia, then in great distress, and where he became
+magistrate and protector of the aborigines, whose interests he warmly
+advocated. Already experienced as an Australian traveller, he undertook
+the most extensive and difficult journeys in the desert country north
+and west of Adelaide, and after encountering the greatest hardships,
+proved the possibility of land communication between South and West
+Australia. In 1845 he returned to England and published the narrative of
+his travels. In 1846 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of New
+Zealand, where he served under Sir George Grey. After successively
+governing St Vincent and Antigua, he was in 1862 appointed
+acting-governor of Jamaica and in 1864 governor. In October 1865 a negro
+insurrection broke out and was repressed with laudable vigour, but the
+unquestionable severity and alleged illegality of Eyre's subsequent
+proceedings raised a storm at home which induced the government to
+suspend him and to despatch a special commission of investigation, the
+effect of whose inquiries, declared by his successor, Sir John Peter
+Grant, to have been "admirably conducted," was that he should not be
+reinstated in his office. The government, nevertheless, saw nothing in
+Eyre's conduct to justify legal proceedings; indictments preferred by
+amateur prosecutors at home against him and military officers who had
+acted under his direction, resulted in failure, and he retired upon the
+pension of a colonial governor. As an explorer Eyre must be classed in
+the highest rank, but opinions are always likely to differ as to his
+action in the Jamaica rebellion. He died on the 30th of November 1901.
+
+
+
+
+EYRE, SIR JAMES (1734-1799), English judge, was the son of the Rev.
+Thomas Eyre, of Wells, Somerset. He was educated at Winchester College
+and at St John's College, Oxford, which, however, he left without taking
+a degree. He was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1755, and commenced
+practice in the lord mayor's and sheriffs' courts, having become by
+purchase one of the four counsel to the corporation of London. He was
+appointed recorder of London in 1763. He was counsel for the plaintiff
+in the case of _Wilkes_ v. _Wood_, and made a brilliant speech in
+condemnation of the execution of general search warrants. His refusal to
+voice the remonstrances of the corporation against the exclusion of
+Wilkes from parliament earned him the recognition of the ministry, and
+he was appointed a judge of the exchequer in 1772. From June 1792 to
+January 1793 he was chief commissioner of the great seal. In 1793 he was
+made chief justice of the common pleas, and presided over the trials of
+Horne Tooke, Thomas Crosfield and others, with great ability and
+impartiality. He died on the 1st of July 1799 and was buried at
+Ruscombe, Berkshire.
+
+  See Howell, _State Trials_, xix. (1154--1155); Foss, _Lives of the
+  Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+EYRIE, the alternative English form of the words Aerie or Aery, the
+lofty nest of a bird of prey, especially of an eagle, hence any lofty
+place of abode; the term is also used of the brood of the bird. The word
+derives from the Fr. _aire_, of the same meaning, which comes from the
+Lat. _area_, an open space, but was early connected with _aërius_, high
+in the air, airy, a confusion that has affected the spelling of the
+word. The forms "eyrie" or "eyry" date from a 17th century attempt to
+derive the word from the Teutonic _ey_, an egg.
+
+
+
+
+EZEKIEL ([Hebrew: Ihezkel], "God strengthens" or "God is strong"; Sept.
+[Greek: Iezekiel]; Vulg. Ezechiel), son of Buzi, one of the most
+vigorous and impressive of the older Israelite thinkers. He was a priest
+of the Jerusalem temple, probably a member of the dominant house of
+Zadok, and doubtless had the literary training of the cultivated
+priesthood of the time, including acquaintance with the national
+historical, legal and ritual traditions and with the contemporary
+history and customs of neighbouring peoples. In the year 597 (being
+then, probably, not far from thirty years of age) he was carried off to
+Babylonia by Nebuchadrezzar with King Jehoiachin and a large body of
+nobles, military men and artisans, and there, it would seem, he spent
+the rest of his life. His prophecies are dated from this year ("our
+captivity," xl. 1), except in i. 1, where the meaning of the date
+"thirtieth year" is obscure; it cannot refer to his age (which would be
+otherwise expressed in Hebrew), or to the reform of Josiah, 621 (which
+is not elsewhere employed as an epoch); possibly the reference is to the
+era of Nabopolassar (626 according to the Canon of Ptolemy), if
+chronological inexactness be supposed (34 or 33 years instead of 30), a
+supposition not at all improbable. That the word "thirtieth" is old,
+appears from the fact that a scribe has added a gloss (vv. 2, 3) to
+bring this statement into accord with the usual way of reckoning in the
+book: the "thirtieth" year, he explains, is the fifth year of the
+captivity of Jehoiachin. The exiles dwelt at Tell-abib ("Hill of the
+flood"), one of the mounds or ruins made by the great floods that
+devastated the country,[1] near the "river" Chebar (Kebar), probably a
+large canal not far south of the city of Babylon. Here they had their
+own lands, and some form of local government by elders, and appear to
+have been prosperous and contented; probably the only demand made on
+them by the Babylonian government was the payment of taxes.
+
+Ezekiel was married (xxiv. 18), had his own house, and comported himself
+quietly as a Babylonian subject. But he was a profoundly interested
+observer of affairs at home and among the exiles: as patriot and
+ethical teacher he deplored alike the political blindness of the
+Jerusalem government (King Zedekiah revolted in 588) and the immorality
+and religious superficiality and apostasy of the people. He, like
+Jeremiah, was friendly to Nebuchadrezzar, regarding him as Yahweh's
+instrument for the chastisement of the nation. Convinced that opposition
+to Babylonian rule was suicidal, and interpreting historical events, in
+the manner of the times, as indications of the temper of the deity, he
+held that the imminent political destruction of the nation was proof of
+Yahweh's anger with the people on account of their moral and religious
+depravity; Jerusalem was hopelessly corrupt and must be destroyed
+(xxiv.). On the other hand, he was equally convinced that, as his
+predecessors had taught (Hos. xi. 8, 9; Isa. vii. 3 al.), Yahweh's love
+for his people would not suffer them to perish utterly--a remnant would
+be saved, and this remnant he naturally found in the exiles in
+Babylonia, a little band plucked from the burning and kept safe in a
+foreign land till the wrath should have passed (xi. 14 ff.). This
+conception of the exiles as the kernel of the restored nation he further
+set forth in the great vision of ch. i., in which Yahweh is represented
+as leaving Jerusalem and coming to take up his abode among them in
+Babylonia for a time, intending, however, to return to his own city
+(xliii. 7).
+
+This, then, was Ezekiel's political creed--destruction of Jerusalem and
+its inhabitants, restoration of the exiles, and meantime submission to
+Babylon. His arraignment of the Judeans is violent, almost malignant
+(vi. xvi. al.). The well-meaning but weak king Zedekiah he denounces
+with bitter scorn as a perjured traitor (xvii). He does not discuss the
+possibility of successful resistance to the Chaldeans; he simply assumes
+that the attempt is foolish and wicked, and, like other prophets, he
+identifies his political programme with the will of God. Probably his
+judgment of the situation was correct; yet, in view of Sennacherib's
+failure at Jerusalem in 701 and of the admitted strength of the city,
+the hope of the Jewish nobles could not be considered wholly unfounded,
+and in any case their patriotism (like that of the national party in the
+Roman siege) was not unworthy of admiration. The prophet's predictions
+of disaster continued, according to the record, up to the investment of
+the city by the Chaldean army in 588 (i.-xxiv.); after the fall of the
+city (586) his tone changed to one of consolation (xxxiii.-xxxix.)--the
+destruction of the wicked mass accomplished, he turned to the task of
+reconstruction. He describes the safe and happy establishment of the
+people in their own land, and gives a sketch of a new constitution, of
+which the main point is the absolute control of public religion by the
+priesthood (xl.-xlviii.).
+
+The discourses of the first period (i.-xxiv.) do not confine themselves
+to political affairs, but contain much interesting ethical and religious
+material. The picture given of Jerusalemite morals is an appalling one.
+Society is described as honeycombed with crimes and vices; prophets,
+priests, princes and the people generally are said to practise
+unblushingly extortion, oppression, murder, falsehood, adultery (xxii.).
+This description is doubtless exaggerated. It may be assumed that the
+social corruption in Jerusalem was such as is usually found in wealthy
+communities, made bolder in this case, perhaps, by the political unrest
+and the weakness of the royal government under Zedekiah. No such charges
+are brought by the prophet against the exiles, in whose simple life,
+indeed, there was little or no opportunity for flagrant violation of
+law. Ezekiel's own moral code is that of the prophets, which insists on
+the practice of the fundamental civic virtues. He puts ritual offences,
+however, in the same category with offences against the moral law, and
+he does not distinguish between immorality and practices that are
+survivals of old recognized customs: in ch. xxii. he mentions "eating
+with the blood"[2] along with murder, and failure to observe ritual
+regulations along with oppression of the fatherless and the widow; the
+old customary law permitted marriage with a half-sister (father's
+daughter), with a daughter-in-law, and with a father's wife (Gen. xx.
+12, xxxviii. 26; 2 Sam. xvi. 21, 22), but the more refined feeling of
+the later time frowned on the custom, and Ezekiel treats it as
+adultery.[3] However, notwithstanding the insistence on ritual, natural
+in a priest, his moral standard is high; following the prescription of
+Ex. xxii. 21 [20] he regards oppression of resident aliens (a class that
+had not then received full civil rights) as a crime (xxii. 7), and in
+his new constitution (xlvii. 22, 23) gives them equal rights with the
+homeborn. His strongest denunciation is directed against the religious
+practices of the time in Judea--the worship of the Canaanite local
+deities (the Baals), the Phoenician Tammuz, and the sun and other
+Babylonian and Assyrian gods (vi., viii., xvi., xxiii.); he maintained
+vigorously the prophetic struggle for the sole worship of Yahweh.
+Probably he believed in the existence of other gods, though he does not
+express himself clearly on this point; in any case he held that the
+worship of other deities was destructive to Israel. His conception of
+Yahweh shows a mingling of the high and the low. On the one hand, he
+regards him as supreme in power, controlling the destinies of Babylonia
+and Egypt as well as those of Israel, and as inflexibly just in dealing
+with ordinary offences against morality. But he conceives of him, on the
+other hand, as limited locally and morally--as having his special abode
+in. the Jerusalem temple, or elsewhere in the midst of the Israelite
+people, and as dealing with other nations solely in the interests of
+Israel. The bitter invectives against Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia,
+Tyre, Sidon and Egypt, put into Yahweh's mouth, are based wholly on the
+fact that these peoples are regarded as hostile and hurtful to Israel;
+Babylonia, though nowise superior to Egypt morally, is favoured and
+applauded because it is believed to be the instrument for securing
+ultimately the prosperity of Yahweh's people. The administration of the
+affairs of the world by the God of Israel is represented, in a word, as
+determined not by ethical considerations but by personal preferences.
+There is no hint in Ezekiel's writings of the grandiose conception of
+Isa. xl.-lv., that Israel's mission is to give the knowledge of
+religious truth to the other nations of the world; he goes so far as to
+say that Yahweh's object in restoring the fortunes of Israel is to
+establish his reputation among the nations as a powerful deity (xxxvi.
+20-23, xxxvii. 28, xxxix. 23). The prophet regards Yahweh's
+administrative control as immediate: he introduces no angels or other
+subordinate supernatural agents--the cherubs and the "men" of ix. 2 and
+xl. 3 are merely imaginative symbols or representations of divine
+activity. His high conception of God's transcendence, it may be
+supposed, led him to ignore intermediary agencies, which are common in
+the popular literature, and later, under the influence of this same
+conception of transcendence, are freely employed.
+
+The relations between the writings of Ezekiel and those of Jeremiah is
+not clear. They have so much in common that they must have drawn from
+the same current bodies of thought, or there must have been borrowing in
+one direction or the other. In one point, however,--the attitude toward
+the ritual--the two men differ radically. The finer mind of the nation,
+represented mainly by the prophets from Amos onward, had denounced
+unsparingly the superficial non-moral popular cult. The struggle between
+ethical religion and the current worship became acute toward the end of
+the 7th century. There were two possible solutions of the difficulty.
+The ritual books of our Pentateuch were not then in existence, and the
+sacrificial cult might be treated with contempt as not authoritative.
+This is the course taken by Jeremiah, who says boldly that God requires
+only obedience (Jer. vii. 21 ff.). On the other hand the better party
+among the priests, believing the ritual to be necessary, might undertake
+to moralize it; of such a movement, begun by Deuteronomy, Ezekiel is the
+most eminent representative. Priest and prophet, he sought to unify the
+national religious consciousness by preserving the sacrificial cult,
+discarding its abuses and vitalizing it ethically. The event showed that
+he judged the situation rightly--the religious scheme announced by him,
+though not accepted in all its details, became the dominant policy of
+the later time, and he has been justly called "the father of Judaism."
+He speaks as a legislator, citing no authority; but he formulates,
+doubtless, the ideas and perhaps the practices of the Jerusalem
+priesthood. His ritual code (xliii.-xlvi.), which in elaborateness
+stands midway between that of Deuteronomy and that of the middle books
+of the Pentateuch (resembling most nearly the code of Lev. xvii.-xxvi.)
+shows good judgment. Its most noteworthy features are two. Certain
+priests of idolatrous Judean shrines (distinguished by him as "Levites")
+he deprives of priestly functions, degrading them to the rank of temple
+menials; and he takes from the civil ruler all authority over public
+religion, permitting him merely to furnish material for sacrifices. He
+is, however, much more than a ritual reformer. He is the first to
+express clearly the conception of a sacred nation, isolated by its
+religion from all others, the guardian of divine law and the abode of
+divine majesty. This kingdom of God he conceives of as moral: Yahweh is
+to put his own spirit into the people,[4] creating in them a disposition
+to obey his commandments, which are moral as well as ritual (xxxvi. 26,
+27). The conception of a sacred nation controlled the whole succeeding
+Jewish development; if it was narrow in its exclusive regard for Israel,
+its intensity saved the Jewish religion to the world.
+
+_Text and Authorship._--The Hebrew text of the book of Ezekiel is not in
+good condition--it is full of scribal inaccuracies and additions. Many
+of the errors may be corrected with the aid of the Septuagint (e.g. the
+430--390 + 40--of iv. 5, 6 is to be changed to 190), and none of them
+affect the general thought. The substantial genuineness of the
+discourses is now accepted by the great body of critics. The Talmudic
+tradition (_Baba Bathra_ 14b) that the men of the Great Synagogue
+"wrote" Ezekiel, may refer to editorial work by later scholars.[5] There
+is no validity in the objections of Zunz (_Gottesdienstl. Vortr._) that
+the specific prediction concerning Zedekiah (xii. 12 f.) is
+non-Prophetic, and that the drawing-up of a new constitution soon after
+the destruction of the city and the mention of Noah, Daniel, Job and
+Persia are improbable. The prediction in question was doubtless added by
+Ezekiel after the event; the code belongs precisely in his time, and the
+constitution was natural for a priest; Noah, Daniel and Job are old
+legendary Hebrew figures; and it is not probable that the prophet's
+"Paras" is our "Persia." Havet's contention (in _La Modernité des
+prophètes_) that Gog represents the Parthians (40 B.C.) has little or
+nothing in its support. There are additions made _post eventum_, as in
+the case mentioned above and in xxix. 17-20, and the description of the
+commerce of Tyre (xxvii. 9b-25a), which interrupts the comparison of the
+city to a ship, looks like an insertion whether by the prophet or by
+some other; but there is no good reason to doubt that the book is
+substantially the work of Ezekiel. Ezekiel's style is generally
+impetuous and vigorous, somewhat smoother in the consolatory discourses
+(xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxvii.); he produces a great effect by the cumulation
+of details, and is a master of invective; he is fond of symbolic
+pictures, proverbs and allegories; his "visions" are elaborate literary
+productions, his prophecies show less spontaneity than those of any
+preceding prophet (he receives his revelations in the form of a book,
+ii. 9), and in their present shape were hardly pronounced in public--a
+fact that seems to be hinted at in the statement that he was "dumb" till
+the fall of Jerusalem (iii. 26, xxxiii. 22); in private interviews the
+people did not take him seriously (xxxiii. 30-33). His book was accepted
+early as part of the sacred literature: Ben-Sira (c. 180 B.C.) mentions
+him along with Isaiah and Jeremiah (Ecclus. xlix. 8); he is not quoted
+directly in the New Testament, but his imagery is employed largely in
+the Apocalypse and elsewhere. His divergencies from the Pentateuchal
+code gave rise to serious doubts, but, after prolonged study, the
+discrepancies were explained, and the book was finally canonized (Shab.
+13b). According to Jerome (Preface to _Comm. on Ezek._) the Jewish
+youth were forbidden to read the mysterious first chapter (called the
+_markaba_, the "chariot") and the concluding section (xl.-xlviii.) till
+they reached the age of thirty years.
+
+  The book divides itself naturally into three parts: the arraignment of
+  Jerusalem (i.-xxiv.); denunciation of foreign enemies (xxv.-xxxii.);
+  consolatory construction of the future (xxxiii.-xlviii.). The opening
+  "vision" (i.), an elaborate symbolic picture, is of the nature of a
+  general preface, and was composed probably late in the prophet's life.
+  Out of the north (the Babylonian sacred mountain) comes a bright
+  cloud, wherein appear four Creatures (formed on the model of
+  Babylonian composite figures), each with four faces (man, lion, bull,
+  eagle) and attended by a wheel; the wheels are full of eyes, and move
+  straight forward, impelled by the spirit dwelling in the Creatures
+  (the spirit of Yahweh). Supported on their heads is something like a
+  crystalline firmament, above which is a form like a sapphire throne
+  (cf. Ex. xxiv. 10), and on the throne a man-like form (Yahweh)
+  surrounded by a rainbow brightness. The wheels symbolize divine
+  omniscience and control, and the whole vision represents the coming of
+  Yahweh to take up his abode among the exiles. The prophet then
+  receives his call (ii., iii.) in the shape of a roll of a book, which
+  he is required to eat (an indication of the literary form now taken by
+  prophecy). He is informed that the people to whom he is sent are
+  rebellious and stiff-necked (this indicates his opinion of the people,
+  and gives the keynote of the following discourses); he is appointed
+  watchman to warn men when they sin, and is to be held responsible for
+  the consequences if he fail in this duty. To this high conception of a
+  preacher's function the prophet was faithful throughout his career.
+  Next follow minatory discourses (iv.-vii.) predicting the siege and
+  capture of Jerusalem-perhaps revised after the event. There are
+  several symbolic acts descriptive of the siege. One of these (iv. 4
+  ff.) gives the duration of the national punishment in loose
+  chronological reckoning: 40 years (a round number) for Judah, and 150
+  more (according to the corrected text) for Israel, the starting-point,
+  probably, being the year 722, the date of the capture of Samaria; the
+  procedure described in v. 8 is not to be understood literally. In vi.
+  the idolatry of the nation is pictured in darkest colours. Next
+  follows (viii.-xi.) a detailed description, in the form of a vision,
+  of the sin of Jerusalem: within the temple-area elders and others are
+  worshipping beast-forms, Tammuz and the sun (probably actual cults of
+  the time); [6] men approach to defile the temple and slay the
+  inhabitants of the city (ix.). In ch. x. the imagery of ch. i.
+  reappears, and the Creatures are identified with the cherubs of
+  Solomon's temple. This appears to be an independent form of the
+  vision, which has been brought into connexion with that of i. by a
+  harmonizing editor. There follow a symbolic prediction of the exile
+  (xii.) and a denunciation of non-moral prophets and prophetesses
+  (xiii.)--though Yahweh deceive a prophet, yet he and those who consult
+  him will be punished; and so corrupt is the nation that the presence
+  of a few eminently good men will not save it (xiv.).[7] After a
+  comparison of Israel to a worthless wild vine (xv.) come two
+  allegories, one portraying idolatrous Jerusalem as the unfaithful
+  spouse of Yahweh (xvi.), the other describing the fate of Zedekiah
+  (xvii.). The fine insistence on individual moral responsibility in
+  xviii. (cf. Deut. xxiv. 16, Jer. xxxi. 29 f.), while it is a protest
+  against a superficial current view, is not to be understood as a
+  denial of all moral relations between successive generations. This
+  latter question had not presented itself to the prophet's mind; his
+  object was simply to correct the opinion of the people that their
+  present misfortunes were due not to their own faults but to those of
+  their predecessors. A more sympathetic attitude appears in two elegies
+  (xix.), one on the kings Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin, the other on the
+  nation. These are followed by a scathing sketch of Israel's religious
+  career (xx. 1-26), in which, contrary to the view of earlier prophets,
+  it is declared that the nation had always been disobedient. From this
+  point to the end of xxiv. there is a mingling of threat and
+  promise.[8] The allegory of xxiii. is similar to that of xvi., except
+  that in the latter Samaria is relatively treated with favour, while in
+  the former it (Aholah) is involved in the same condemnation as that of
+  Jerusalem. At this point is introduced (xxv.-xxxii.) the series of
+  discourses directed against foreign nations. The description of the
+  king of Tyre (xxviii. 11-19) as dwelling in Eden, the garden of God,
+  the sacred mountain, under the protection of the cherub, bears a
+  curious resemblance to the narrative in Gen. ii., iii., of which,
+  however, it seems to be independent, using different Babylonian
+  material; the text is corrupt. The section dealing with Egypt is one
+  of remarkable imaginative power and rhetorical vigour: the king of
+  Egypt is compared to a magnificent cedar of Lebanon (in xxxi. 3 read:
+  "there was a cedar in Lebanon") and to the dragon of the Nile, and the
+  picture of his descent into Sheol is intensely tragic. Whether these
+  discourses were all uttered between the investment of Jerusalem and
+  its fall, or were here inserted by Ezekiel or by a scribe, it is not
+  possible to say. In xxxiii. the function of the prophet as watchman is
+  described at length (expansion of the description in iii.) and the
+  news of the capture of the city is received. The following chapters
+  (xxxiv.-xxxix.) are devoted to reconstruction: Edom, the detested
+  enemy of Israel, is to be crushed; the nation, politically raised from
+  the dead, with North and South united (xxxvii.), is to be established
+  under a Davidide king; a final assault, made by Gog, is to be
+  successfully met,[9] and then the people are to dwell in their own
+  land in peace for ever; this Gog section is regarded by some as the
+  beginning of Jewish apocalyptic writing. In the last section
+  (xl.-xlviii.), put as a vision, the temple is to be rebuilt, in
+  dimensions and arrangements a reproduction of the temple of Solomon
+  (cf. I Kings vi., vii.), the sacrifices and festivals and the
+  functions of priests and prince are prescribed, a stream issuing from
+  under the temple is to vivify the Dead Sea and fertilize the land
+  (this is meant literally), the land is divided into parallel strips
+  and assigned to the tribes. The prophet's thought is summed up in the
+  name of the city: _Yahweh Shammah_, "Yahweh is there," God dwelling
+  for ever in the midst of his people.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For the older works see the _Introductions_ of J.G.
+  Carpzov (1757) and C.H.H. Wright (1890). For _legends_:
+  Pseud.-Epiphan., _De vit. prophet._; Benjamin of Tudela, Itin.;
+  Hamburger, _Realencycl._; _Jew. Encycl._ On the Hebrew text; C.H.
+  Cornill, _Ezechiel_ (1886) (very valuable for text and ancient
+  versions); H. Graetz, _Emendationes_ (1893).; C.H. Toy, "Text of
+  Ezek." (1899) in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Test._ Commentaries:
+  F. Hitzig (1847); H. Ewald (1868); E. Reuss (French ed., 1876; Germ,
+  ed., 1892); Currey (1876) in _Speaker's Comm._; R. Smend (revision of
+  Hitzig) (1880) in _Kurzgefasst. exeget. Handbuch_; A.B. Davidson
+  (1882) in Cambr. _Bible for Schools_; J. Skinner (1895) in _Expos.
+  Bible_; A. Bertholet (1897) in Marti's _Kurz. Hand-Comm._; C.H. Toy
+  (1899) in Haupt's _Sacr. Bks._ (Eng. ed.); R. Kraetzschmar (1900) in
+  W. Nowack's _Handkommentar_. See also Duhm, _Theol. d. Propheten_
+  (1875); A. Kuenen, _Prophets and Prophecy_ (1877); Gautier, _La
+  Mission du prophète Ezéchiel_ (1891); Montefiore, _Hibbert Lectures_
+  (1892); A. Bertholet, _Der Verfassungsentwurf des Hesekiel_ (1896);
+  articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencykl._; Hastings, _Bibl. Dict._;
+  Cheyne, _Encycl. Bibl., Jew. Encycl._; F. Bleek, _Introd._ (Eng. tr.,
+  1875), and Bleek-Wellhausen (Germ.) (1878); Wildeboer, _Letterkunde d.
+  Oud. Verbonds_ (1893), and Germ, transl., _Litt. d. Alt. Test._;
+  Perrot and Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art_, &c., in which, however, the
+  restoration of Ezekiel's temple (by Chipiez) is probably
+  untrustworthy.     (C. H. T.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The Assyrian term _abubu_ is used of the great primeval deluge
+    (in the Gilgamesh epic), and also of the local floods common in the
+    country.
+
+  [2] So we must read (as Robertson Smith has pointed out) in xxii. 9
+    and xviii. 6, instead of "eating on the mountains."
+
+  [3] The stricter marriage law is formulated in Lev. xviii. 8-15, xx.
+    11 ff.
+
+  [4] Yahweh's spirit, thought of as Yahweh's vital principle, as man's
+    spirit is man's vital principle, is to be breathed into them, as, in
+    Gen. ii. 7, Yahweh breathes his own breath into the lifeless body.
+    The spirit in the Old Testament is a refined material thing that may
+    come or be poured out on men.
+
+  [5] The "Great Synagogue" is semi-mythical.
+
+  [6] In viii. 17 the unintelligible expression "they put the branch to
+    their nose" is the rendering of a corrupt Hebrew text; a probable
+    emendation is: "they are sending a stench to my nostrils."
+
+  [7] The legendary figure of Daniel (xiv. 14) is later taken by the
+    author of the book of Daniel as his hero.
+
+  [8] For a reconstruction of the poem in xxi. 10, 11, see the English
+    Ezekiel in Haupt's _Sacred Books_.
+
+  [9] Gog probably represents a Scythian horde (though such an invasion
+    never took place)--certainly not Alexander the Great, who would have
+    been called "king of Greece," and would have been regarded not as an
+    enemy but as a friend.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning "help"), in the Bible, the famous
+scribe and priest at the time of the return of the Jews in the reign of
+the Persian king Artaxerxes I. (458 B.C.). His book and that of Nehemiah
+form one work (see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF), apart from which we
+have little trustworthy evidence as to his life. Even in the beginning
+of the 2nd century B.C., when Ben Sira praises notable figures of the
+exilic and post-exilic age (Zerubbabel, Jeshua and Nehemiah), Ezra is
+passed over (Ecclesiasticus xlix. 11-13), and he is not mentioned in a
+still later and somewhat fanciful description of Nehemiah's work (2
+Macc. i. 18-36). Already well known as a scribe, Ezra's labours were
+magnified by subsequent tradition. He was regarded as the father of the
+scribes and the founder of the Great Synagogue. According to the
+apocryphal fourth book of Ezra (or 2 Esdras xiv.) he restored the law
+which had been lost, and rewrote all the sacred records (which had been
+destroyed) in addition to no fewer than seventy apocryphal works. The
+former theory recurs elsewhere in Jewish tradition, and may be
+associated with the representation in Ezra-Nehemiah which connects him
+with the law. But the story of his many literary efforts, like the more
+modern conjecture that he closed the canon of the Old Testament, rests
+upon no ancient basis.
+
+  See BIBLE, sect. Old Testament (Canon and Criticism); JEWS (history,
+  §21 seq.). The apocryphal books, called 1 and 2 Esdras (the Greek form
+  of the name) in the English Bible, are dealt with below as EZRA, THIRD
+  BOOK OF, and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF, while the canonical book of Ezra is
+  dealt with under EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [1 _Esdras_]. The titles of the various books of the
+Ezra literature are very confusing. The Greek, the Old Latin, the
+Syriac, and the English Bible from 1560 onwards designate this book as
+1 Esdras, the canonical books Ezra and Nehemiah being 2 Esdras in the
+Greek. In the Vulgate, however, our author was, through the action of
+Jerome, degraded into the third place and called 3 Esdras, whereas the
+canonical books _Ezra_ and _Nehemiah_ (see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF,
+below) were called 1 and 2 Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Ezra 4 Esdras.
+Thus the nomenclature of our book follows, and possibly wrongly, the
+usage of the Vulgate.[1] In the Ethiopic version a different usage
+prevails. The Apocalypse is called 1 Esdras, our author 2 Esdras, and
+Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras, or 3 and 4 Esdras. Throughout this article
+we shall use the best attested designation of this book, i.e. 1 Esdras.
+
+_Contents._--With the exception of one original section, namely, that of
+Darius and the three young men, our author contains essentially the same
+materials as the canonical Ezra and some sections of 2 Chronicles and
+Nehemiah. To the various explanations of this phenomenon we shall recur
+later. The book may be divided as follows (the verse division is that of
+the Cambridge LXX):--
+
+  Chap. i. = 2 Chron. xxxv. 1-xxxvi. 21.--Great passover of Josiah; his
+  death at Megiddo. His successors down to the destruction of Jerusalem
+  and the Captivity. (Verses i. 21-22 are not found elsewhere, though
+  the LXX of 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 exhibits a very distant parallel.)
+
+  Chap. ii. 1-14 = Ezra i.--The edict of Cyrus. Restoration of the
+  sacred vessels through Sanabassar to Jerusalem.
+
+  Chap. ii. 15-25 = Ezra iv. 6-24.--First attempt to rebuild the Temple:
+  opposition of the Samaritans. Decree of Artaxerxes: work abandoned
+  till the second year of Darius.
+
+  Chap. iii. 1-v. 6.--This section is peculiar to our author. The
+  contest between the three pages waiting at the court of Darius and the
+  victory of the Jewish youth "Zerubbabel," to whom as a reward Darius
+  decrees the return of the Jews and the restoration of the Temple and
+  worship. Partial list of those who returned with "Joachim, son of
+  Zerubbabel."
+
+  Chap. v. 7-70 = Ezra ii.-iv. 5.--List of exiles who returned with
+  Zerubbabel. Work on the Temple begun. Offer of the Samaritans'
+  co-operation rejected. Suspension of the work through their
+  intervention till the reign of Darius.
+
+  Chap. vi. 1-vii. 9 = Ezra v. 1-vi. 18.--Work resumed in the second
+  year of Darius. Correspondence between Sisinnes and Darius with
+  reference to the building of the Temple. Darius' favourable decree.
+  Completion of the work by Zerubbabel.
+
+  Chap. vii. 10-15 =Ezra vi. 19-22.--Celebration of the completion of
+  the Temple.
+
+  Chap. viii. 1-ix. 36 = Ezra vii.-x.--Return of the exiles under Ezra.
+  Mixed marriages forbidden.
+
+  Chap. ix. 37-55 = Nehemiah vii. 73-viii. 12.--The reading of the Law.
+
+Thus, apart from iii. 1-v. 3, which gives an account of the pages'
+contest, the contents of the book are doublets of the canonical Ezra and
+portions of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. The beginning of the book seems
+imperfect, with its abrupt opening "And Josiah held the passover": its
+conclusion is mutilated, as it breaks off in the middle of a sentence.
+As Thackeray suggests, it probably continued the history of the feast of
+Tabernacles described in Neh. viii.--a view that is supported by Joseph.
+_Ant_. xi. 5. 5, "who describes that feast using an Esdras word [Greek:
+epanorthôsis] and ... having hitherto followed Esdras as his authority
+passes on to the Book of Nehemiah."
+
+_Claims to Canonicity._--It would seem that even greater value was
+attached to 1 Esdras than to the Hebrew Ezra. (1) For in the best MSS.
+(BA) it stands before 2 Esdras--the verbal translation of the Hebrew
+Ezra and Nehemiah. (2) It is used by Josephus, who in fact does not seem
+aware of the existence of 2 Esdras. (3) 1 Esdras is frequently quoted by
+the Greek fathers--Clem. Alex., Origen, Eusebius, and by the
+Latin--Tertullian, Cyprian, Augustine. The adverse judgment of the
+church is due to Jerome, who, from his firm attachment to the Hebrew Old
+Testament, declined to translate the "dreams" of 3 and 4 Esdras. This
+judgment influenced alike the Council of Trent and the Lutheran church
+in Germany; for Luther also refused to translate Esdras and the
+Apocalypse of Ezra.
+
+_Origin and Relation to the Canonical Ezra._--Various theories have been
+given as to the relation of the book and the canonical Ezra.
+
+1. Some scholars, as Keil, Bissell and formerly Schürer, regarded 1
+Esdras as a free compilation from the Greek of 2 Esdras (2 Chron. and
+Ezra-Nehemiah). This theory has now given place to others more accordant
+with the facts of the case.
+
+2. Others, as Ewald, _Hist. of Isr._ v. 126-128, and Thackeray in
+Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, assume a lost Greek version of Chronicles,
+Ezra and Nehemiah, from which were derived 1 Esdras--a free redaction of
+the former and 2 Esdras. Thackeray claims that we have "a satisfactory
+explanation of the coincidences in translation and deviation from the
+Hebrew in 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, if we suppose both are to some extent
+dependent on a lost Greek original." But later in the same article
+Thackeray is compelled to modify this view and admit that 1 Esdras is
+not a mere redaction of a no longer extant version of the canonical
+books, but shows not only an independent knowledge of the Hebrew text
+but also of a Hebrew text superior in not a few passages to the
+Massoretic text, where 2 Esdras gives either an inaccurate version or a
+version reproducing the secondary Massoretic text.
+
+3. Others like Michaelis, Trendelenburg, Pohlmann, Herzfeld, Fritzsche
+hold it to be a direct and independent translation of the Hebrew. There
+is much to be said in favour of this view. It presupposes in reality two
+independent recensions of the Hebrew text, such as we cannot reasonably
+doubt existed at one time of the Book of Daniel. Against this it has
+been urged that the story of the three pages was written originally in
+Greek (Ewald, Schürer, Thackeray). The only grounds for this theory are
+the easiness of the Greek style and the paronomasia in iv. 62 [Greek:
+hanesin kai haphesin]. But the former is no real objection, and the
+latter may be purely accidental. On the other hand there are several
+undoubted Semiticisms. Thus we have two instances Of the split relative
+[Greek: ou] ... [Greek: autou] iii. 5; [Greek: ou] ... [Greek: ep' autô]
+iv. 63 and the phrase pointed out by Fritzsche [Greek: ta dikaia poiei
+apo pantôn] = [Hebrew: asa mishpat min]. It must, however, be admitted
+that there are fewer Hebraisms in this section of the book than in the
+rest.
+
+4. Sir H.H. Howorth in the treatises referred to at the close of this
+article has shown cogent grounds for regarding 1 Esdras as the original
+and genuine Septuagint translation, and 2 Esdras as probably that of
+Theodotion. For this view he adduces among others the following grounds:
+(i.) Its use by Josephus, who apparently was not acquainted with 2
+Esdras. (ii.) Its precedence of 2 Esdras in the great uncials. (iii.)
+Its origin at a time when Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah formed a single
+work. (iv.) Its preservation of a better Hebrew text in many instances
+than 2 Esdras. (v.) The fact that 1 Esdras and the Septuagint of Daniel
+go back to one and the same translator, as Dr Gwynn (_Dict. Christ.
+Biog._ iv. 977) has pointed out (cf. 1 Esdr. vi. 31, and Dan. ii. 5).
+
+This contention of Howorth has been accepted by Nestle, Cheyne,
+Bertholet, Ginsburg and other scholars, though they regard the question
+of an Aramaic original of chapters iii. 1-v. 6 as doubtful. Howorth's
+further claim that he has established the historical credibility of the
+book as a whole and its chronological accuracy as against the canonical
+Ezra has not as yet met with acceptance; but his arguments have not been
+fairly met and answered.
+
+5. Volz (_Encyc. Bibl._ ii. 1490) thinks that the solution of the
+problem is to be found in a different direction. The text is of unequal
+value, and the inequalities are so great as to exclude the supposition
+that the Greek version was produced _aus einem Guss._ iii. 1-v. 3 is an
+independent narrative written originally in Greek and itself a composite
+production, the praise of truth being an addition, vi. 1-vii. 15, ii.
+15-25a is a fragment of an Aramaic narrative. Some in Josephus (_Ant._
+xi. 4. 9) an account of Samaritan intrigues is introduced immediately
+after 1 Esdras vii. 15, it is natural to infer that something of the
+same kind has fallen out between vi. and ii. 15-25. The Aramaic text
+behind 1 Esdras here is better than that behind the canonical Ezra.
+Next, viii.-ix. is from the Ezra document (= Ezra vii.-x.; Neh. vii. 73,
+viii. 1 sqq.), though implying a different Hebrew text. ii. 1-15; v.
+7-73; vii. 2-4, 6-15 are from the Chronicles: likewise i. is from 2
+Chron. xxxv.-vi., 2 Esdras being at the same time before the translator.
+
+_Date._--The book must be placed between 300 B.C. and A.D. 100, when
+it was used by Josephus. It is idle to attempt any nearer limits until
+definite conclusions have been reached on the chief problems of the
+book.
+
+_MSS. and Versions._--The book is found in B and A. The latter seems to
+have preserved the more ancient form of the text, as it is generally
+that followed by Josephus. The Old Latin in two recensions is published
+by Sabatier, _Bibliorum sacrorum Latinae versiones antiquae_, iii.
+Another Latin translation is given in Lagarde (_Septuag. Studien_, ii.,
+1892). In Syriac the text is found only in the Syro-Hexaplar of Paul of
+Tella (A.D. 616). See Walton's Polyglott. There is also an Ethiopic
+version edited by Dillmann (_Bibl. Vet. Test. Aeth_. v., 1894) and an
+Armenian.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Exegesis: Fritzsche, _Exeget. Handb. zu den Apokr._
+  (1851); Zöckler, _Die Apokryphen_, 155-161 (1891); Bissell in
+  Lange-Schaff's _Comm_. (1880); Lupton in _Speaker's Comm_. (1888);
+  Ball, notes to 1 Esdr. in the _Variorum Apocrypha_. Introduction and
+  critical Inquiries: Trendelenburg, "Apocr. Esra," in Eichhorn's
+  _Allgem. Bibl. der bibl. Litt._ i. 178-232 (1787); Pohlmann, "Über das
+  Ansehen der apokr. dritten Buchs Esras," in _Tübingen Theol.
+  Quartalschrift_, 257-275 (1859); Sir H. Howorth, "Character and
+  Importance of 1 Esdras," in the _Academy_ (1893), pp. 13, 60, 106,
+  174, 326, 524; and further studies entitled "Some Unconventional Views
+  on the Text of the Bible," in the _Proceedings of the Society of
+  Biblical Archaeology_, 1901, pp. 147-159; 306-330, 1902, June and
+  November.     (R. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "At the Council of Trent (when the Septuagint Canon was virtually
+    accepted as authoritative), by a most curious aberration, Esdras iii.
+    and iv. and the Epistle of Manasseh were alone excluded from the
+    canon and remitted to our appendix."--Howorth, "Unconventional Views
+    on the Text of the Bible," in the _P.S.B.A._, 1901, p. 149.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF. This is the most profound and
+touching of the Jewish Apocalypses. It stands in the relation of a
+sister work to the Apocalypse of Baruch, but though the relation is so
+close, they have many points of divergence. Thus, whereas the former
+represents the ordinary Judaism of the 1st century of the Christian era,
+the teaching of 4 Ezra on the Law, Works, Justification, Original Sin
+and Free Will approximates to the school of Shammai and serves to
+explain the Pauline doctrines on those subjects; but to this subject we
+shall return.
+
+_Original Language and Versions._--In the Latin version our book
+consists of sixteen chapters, of which, however, only iii.-xiv. are
+found in the other versions. To iii.-xiv., accordingly, the present
+notice is confined. After the example of most of the Latin MSS. we
+designate the book 4 Ezra (see Bensly-James, _Fourth Book of Ezra_, pp.
+xxiv-xxvii). In the First Arabic and Ethiopic versions it is called 1
+Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in the English Authorized Version it is 2
+Ezra, and in the Armenian 3 Ezra. Chapters i.-ii. are sometimes called 3
+Ezra, and xv.-xvi. 5 Ezra. All the versions go back to a Greek text.
+This is shown by the late Greek apocalypse of Ezra (Tischendorf,
+_Apocalypses Apocryphae_, 1866, pp. 24-33), the author of which was
+acquainted with the Greek of 4 Ezra; also by quotations from it in Barn,
+iv. 4; xii. 1 = 4 Ezra xii. 10 sqq., v. 5; Clem. Alex. _Strom_. iii. 16
+(here first expressly cited) = 4 Ezra v. 35, &c. (see Bensly-James, _op.
+cit._ pp. xxvii-xxxviii). The derivation of the Latin version from the
+Greek is obvious when we consider its very numerous Graecisms. Thus the
+genitive is found after the comparative (v. 13) _horum majora_; xi. 29
+_duorum capitum majus_, even the genitive absolute as in x. 9, the
+double negative, _de_ and _ex_ with the genitive. Peculiar genders can
+only be accounted for by the influence of the original forms in Greek,
+as x. 23 _signaculum_ ([Greek: sphragis]) ... _tradita est_; xi. 4
+_caput_ ([Greek: kephalê]) ... _sed et ipsa_. In vi. 25 we have the
+Greek attraction of the relative--_omnibus istis quibus praedixi tibi_.
+In his _Messias Judaeorum_ (1869), pp. 36-110, Hilgenfeld has given a
+reconstruction of the Greek text. Till 1896 only Ewald believed that 4
+Ezra was written originally in Hebrew. In that year Wellhausen (_Gött.
+Gel. Anz._ pp. 12-13) and Charles (_Apoc. Bar._ p. lxxii) pointed out
+that a Hebrew original must be assumed on various grounds; and this
+view the former established in his _Skizzen u. Vorarbeiten_, vi. 234-240
+(1899). Of the numerous grounds for this assumption it will be necessary
+only to adduce such constructions as "de quo me interrogas de eo," iv.
+28, and xiii. 26, "qui per semet ipsum liberabit" (= [Hebrew: asher bo])
+= "through whom he will deliver," or to point to such a mistranslation
+as vii. 33, "longanimitas congregabitur," where for "congregabitur" (=
+[Hebrew: yeasef]) we require "evanescet," which is another and the
+actual meaning of the Hebrew verb in this passage. The same
+mistranslation is found in the Vulgate in Hosea iv. 3. Gunkel has
+adopted this view in his German translation of the book in Kautzsch's
+_Apok. und Pseud, des A. Testaments_, ii. 332-333, and brought forward
+in confirmation the following remarkable instance in viii. 23, where
+though the Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic and Armenian Versions read
+_testificatur_, the Second Arabic version and the Apostolic
+Constitutions have [Greek: menei eis ton aiôna], which are to be
+explained as translations of [Hebrew: (lieh) emdat la'ad]. Another
+interesting case is found in xiv. 3, where the Latin and all other
+versions but Arabic[2] read _super rubum_ and the Arabic[2] _in monte
+Sinai_. Here there is a corruption of [Hebrew: sneh] "bush" into
+[Hebrew: sinai] "Sinai."
+
+  _Latin Version._--All the older editions of this version, as those of
+  Fabricius, Sabatier, Volkmar, Hilgenfeld, Fritzsche, as well as in the
+  older editions of the Bible, are based ultimately on only one MS., the
+  Codex Sangermanensis (written A.D. 822), as Gildemeister proved in
+  1865 from the fact that the large fragment between verses 36 and 37 in
+  chapter vii., which is omitted in all the above editions, originated
+  through the excision of a leaf in this MS. A splendid edition of this
+  version based on MSS. containing the missing fragment, which have been
+  subsequently discovered, has been published by Bensly-James, op. cit.
+  This edition has taken account of all the important MSS. known, save
+  one at Leon in Spain.
+
+  _Syriac Version._--This version, found in the Ambrosian Library in
+  Milan, was translated into Latin by Ceriani, _Monumenta sacra et
+  profana_, II. ii. pp. 99-124 (1866). Two years later this scholar
+  edited the Syriac text, op. cit. V. i. pp. 4-111, and in 1883
+  reproduced the MS. by photo-lithography (_Translatio Syra Peshitto
+  V.T._ II. iv. pp. 553-572). Hilgenfeld incorporated Ceriani's Latin
+  translation in his _Messias Judaeorum_. This translation needs
+  revision and correction.
+
+  _Ethiopic Version._--First edited and translated by Laurence, _Primi
+  Ezrae libri versio Aethiopica_ (1820). Laurence's Latin translation
+  was corrected by Praetorius and reprinted in Hilgenfeld's _Messias
+  Judaeorum_. In 1894 Dillmann's text based on ten MSS. was
+  published--_V.T. Aeth. libri apocryphi_, v. 153-193.
+
+  _Arabic Versions._--The First Arabic version was translated from a MS.
+  in the Bodleian Library into English by Ockley (in Whiston's Primitive
+  Christianity, vol. iv. 1711). This was done into Latin and corrected
+  by Steiner for Hilgenfeld's _Mess. Jud._ The Second Arabic version,
+  which is independent of the first, has been edited from a Vatican MS.
+  and translated into Latin by Gildemeister, 1877.
+
+  _Armenian Version._--First printed in the Armenian Bible (1805).
+  Translated into Latin by Petermann for Hilgenfeld's Mess. Jud.; next
+  with Armenian text and English translation by Issaverdens in the
+  _Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament_, pp. 488 sqq. (Venice,
+  1901).
+
+  _Georgian Version._--According to F.C. Conybeare an accurate Georgian
+  version made from the Greek exists in an 11th-century MS. at
+  Jerusalem.
+
+  _Relation of the above Versions._--These versions stand in the order
+  of worth as follows: Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic. The remaining versions
+  are paraphrastic and less accurate, and are guilty of additions and
+  omissions. All the versions, save the Second Arabic one, go back to
+  the same Greek version. The Second Arabic version presupposes a second
+  Greek version.
+
+  _Modern Versions._--All the English versions are now antiquated,
+  except those in the Variorum Apocrypha and the Revised Version of the
+  Apocrypha, and even these are far from satisfactory. Similarly, all
+  the German versions are behindhand, except the excellent version of
+  Gunkel in _Apok. u. Pseud._ ii. 252-401, which, however, needs
+  occasional correction.
+
+_Contents._--The book (iii.-xiv.) consists of seven visions or parts,
+like the apocalypse of Baruch. They are: (1) iii. 1-v. 19; (2) v. 20-vi.
+34; (3) vi. 35-ix. 25; (4) ix. 26-x. 60; (5) xi. 1-xii. 51; (6) xiii.;
+(7) xiv. These deal with (1) religious problems and speculations and (2)
+eschatological questions. The first three are devoted to the discussion
+of religious problems affecting in the main the individual. The
+presuppositions underlying these are in many cases the same as those in
+the Pauline Epistles. The next three visions are principally concerned
+with eschatological problems which relate to the nation. The seventh
+vision is a fragment of the Ezra Saga recounting the rewriting of the
+Scriptures, which had been destroyed. This has no organic connexion with
+what precedes.
+
+  _First Vision._ iii.-v. 19.--"In the thirtieth year after the ruin of
+  the city I Salathiel (the same is Ezra) was in Babylon and lay
+  troubled upon my bed." In a long prayer Ezra asks how the desolation
+  of Sion and the prosperity of Babylon can be in keeping with the
+  justice of God. The angel Uriel answers that God's ways are
+  unsearchable and past man's understanding. When Ezra asks when the end
+  will be and what are the signs of it, the angel answers that the end
+  is at hand and enumerates the signs of it.
+
+  _Second Vision._ v. 14-vi. 34.--Phaltiel, chief of the people,
+  reproaches Ezra for forsaking his flock. Ezra fasts, and in his prayer
+  asks why God had given up his people into the hands of the heathen.
+  Uriel replies: "Lovest thou that people better than He that made
+  them?" Man cannot find out God's judgment. The end is at hand; its
+  signs are recounted.
+
+  _Third Vision._ vi. 35-ix. 25.--Ezra recounts the works of creation,
+  and asks why Israel does not possess the world since the world was
+  made for Israel. The answer is that the present state is a necessary
+  stage to the coming one. Then follows an account of the Messianic age
+  and the resurrection: the punishment of the wicked and the blessings
+  of the righteous. There can be no intercession for the departed. Few
+  will be saved--only as it were a grape out of a cluster or a plant out
+  of a forest.
+
+  _Fourth Vision._ ix. 26-x. 60.--Ezra eats of herbs in the field of
+  Ardat, and sees in a vision a woman mourning for her only son. Ezra
+  reminds her of the greater desolation of Sion. Suddenly she is
+  transfigured and vanishes, and in her place appears a city. The woman,
+  Uriel explains, represents Sion.
+
+  _Fifth Vision._ xi. i-xii. 39.--Vision of an eagle with three heads,
+  twelve wings and eight winglets, which is rebuked by a lion and
+  destroyed. The eagle is the fourth kingdom seen by Daniel, and the
+  lion is the Messiah.
+
+  _Sixth Vision._ xiii.--Vision of a man (i.e. the Messiah) arising from
+  the sea, who destroys his enemies who assemble against him, and
+  gathers to him another multitude, i.e. the lost Ten Tribes.
+
+  _Seventh Vision._ xiv.--Ezra is told of his approaching translation.
+  He asks for the restoration of the Law, and is enabled by God to
+  dictate in forty days ninety-four books (the twenty-four canonical
+  books of the Old Testament that were lost, and seventy secret books
+  for the wise among the people).
+
+  Ezra's translation is found in the Canon only in the Oriental
+  Versions. In the Latin it was omitted when xv.-xvi. were added.
+
+_Integrity._--According to Gunkel (_Apok. u. Pseud._ ii. 335-352) the
+whole book is the work of one writer. Thus down to vii. 16 he deals with
+the problem of the origin of suffering in the world, and from vii. 17 to
+ix. 25 with the question who is worthy to share in the blessedness of
+the next world. As regards the first problem the writer shows, in the
+first vision, that suffering and death come from sin--no less truly on
+the part of Israel than of all men, for God created man to be immortal;
+that the end is nigh, when wrongs will be righted; God's rule will then
+be recognized. In the second he emphasizes the consolation to be found
+in the coming time, and in the third he speaks solely of the next world,
+and then addresses himself to the second problem. The fourth, fifth and
+sixth visions are eschatological. In these the writer turns aside from
+the religious problems of the first three visions and concerns himself
+only with the future national supremacy of Israel. Zion's glory will
+certainly be revealed (vision four), Israel will destroy Rome (five) and
+the hostile Gentiles (six). Then the book is brought to a close with the
+legend of Ezra's restoration of the lost Old Testament Scriptures.
+
+In the course of the above work there are many inconsistencies and
+contradictions. These Gunkel explains by admitting that the writer has
+drawn largely on tradition, both oral and written, for his materials.
+Thus he concedes that eschatological materials in v. 1-13, vi; 18-28,
+vii. 26 sqq., also ix. 1 sqq., are from this source, and apparently from
+an originally independent work, as Kabisch urges, but that it is no
+longer possible to separate the borrowed elements from the text. Again,
+in the four last visions he is obliged to make the same concession on a
+very large scale. Vision four is based on a current novel, which the
+author has taken up and put into an allegorical form. Visions five and
+six are drawn from oral or written tradition, and relate only to the
+political expectations of Israel, and seven is a reproduction of a
+legend, for the independent existence of which evidence is furnished by
+the quotations in Bensly-James pp. xxxvii-xxxviii. Thus the chief
+champion of the unity of the book makes so many concessions as to its
+dependence on previously existing sources that, to the student of
+eschatology, there is little to choose between his view and that of
+Kabisch. In fact, if the true meaning of the borrowed materials is to be
+discovered, the sources must be disentangled. Hence the need of some
+such analysis as that of Kabisch (_Das vierte Buck Ezra_, 1889): S = an
+Apocalypse of Salathiel, c. A.D. 100, preserved in a fragmentary
+condition, iii. 1-31, iv. 1-51, v. 13b-vi. 10, 30-vii. 25, vii. 45-viii.
+62, ix. 13-x. 57, xii. 40-48, xiv. 28-35. E = an Ezra Apocalypse, c. 31
+B.C., iv. 52-v. 13a, vi. 13-28, vii. 26-44, viii. 63-ix. 12. A = an
+Eagle Vision, c. A.D. 90, x. 60-xii. 35. M = a Son-of-Man Vision, xiii.
+E^2 = an Ezra fragment, c. A.D. 100, xiv. 1-17a, 18-27, 36-47. All
+these, according to Kabisch, were edited by a Zealot, c. 120, who
+supplied the connecting links and made many small additions. In the main
+this analysis is excellent. If we assume that the editor was also the
+author of S, and that such a vigorous stylist, as he shows himself to
+be, recast to some extent the materials he borrowed, there remains but
+slight difference between the views of Kabisch and Gunkel. Neither view,
+however, is quite satisfactory, and the problem still awaits solution.
+Other attempts, such as Ewald's (_Gesch. d. Volkes Israel_[3], vii.
+69-83) and De Faye's (_Apocalypses juives_, 155-165), make no
+contribution.
+
+_School of the Author._--The author or final redactor of the book was a
+pessimist, and herein his book stands in strong contrast with the
+Apocalypse of Baruch. Thus to the question propounded in the New
+Testament--"Are there few that be saved?" he has no hesitation in
+answering, "There be many created, but few that be saved" (viii. 3): "An
+evil heart hath grown up in us which hath led us astray ... and that not
+a few only but wellnigh all that have been created" (vii. 48). In the
+Apocalypse of Baruch on the other hand it is definitely maintained that
+not a few shall be saved (xxi. 11). Moreover, the sufferings of the
+wicked are so great in the next world it were better, according to 4
+Ezra (as also to the school of Shammai), that man had not been born. "It
+is much better (for the beasts of the field) than for us; for they
+expect not a judgment and know not of torments" (vii. 66): yet "it would
+have been best not to have given a body to Adam, or that being done, to
+have restrained him from sin; for what profit is there that man should
+in the present life live in heaviness and after death look for
+punishment" (vii. 116, 117). In iv. 12 the nexus of life, sin and
+suffering just referred to, is put still more strongly: "It were better
+we had not been at all than that we should be born and sin and
+suffer."[1] The different attitude of these two writers towards this
+question springs from their respective views on the question of free
+will. The author of Baruch declares (iv. 15, 19): "For though Adam
+sinned and brought untimely death upon all, yet of those who were born
+from him each one of them prepared for his own soul torment to come, and
+again each one of them has chosen for himself glories to come ... each
+one of us has been the Adam of his own soul," Though the writer of Ezra
+would admit the possibility of a few Israelites attaining to salvation
+through the most strenuous endeavour, yet he holds that man is all but
+predoomed through his original evil disposition or through the fall of
+Adam (vii. 118). "O Adam, what hast thou done: for though it was thou
+that sinned, the evil is not fallen on thee alone, but upon all of us
+that come of thee."
+
+Another contrast between the two books is that while Baruch shows some
+mercy to the Gentiles (lxxii. 4-6) in the Messianic period, none
+according to 4 Ezra and the Shammaites (Toseph. _Sanh._ xiii. 2) will be
+extended to them, (iii. 30, ix. 22 sq., xii. 34, xiii. 37 sq.).
+
+On the above grounds it is not unreasonable to conclude that whereas the
+Apocalypse of Baruch owes its leading characteristics to a pupil of
+Hillel's school, 4 Ezra shows just as clearly its derivation from that
+of Shammai. Kohler (_Jewish Encyc._ v. 221) points out that the view of
+4 Ezra that the Ten Tribes will return was held by the Shammaites,
+whereas it was denied by Aqiba. The Apocalypse of Baruch is silent on
+this point.
+
+_Time and Place._--The work was written towards the close of the 1st
+century (iii. 1, 29), and somewhere in the east.
+
+  LITERATURE.--In addition to the authorities mentioned above, see
+  Dillmann, Herzog's _Real-Encyk._[2] xii. 353 sqq.; Schürer, _Gesch.
+  des jüd. Volkes_[3], iii. 246 sqq.; and the articles on 4 Esdras in
+  Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_ and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ by
+  Thackeray and James respectively.     (R. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the Apocalypse of Baruch, x. 6, we find a similar expression:
+    "Blessed is he who was not born, or being born has died." But here
+    death is said to be preferable to witnessing the present woes of
+    Jerusalem.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, in the Old Testament. The two canonical
+books entitled Ezra and Nehemiah in the English Bibie[1] correspond to
+the 1 and 2 Esdras of the Vulgate, to the 2 Esdras of the Septuagint,
+and to the Ezra and Nehemiah of the Massoretic (Hebrew) text. Though for
+many centuries they have thus been treated as separate compositions, we
+have abundant evidence that they were anciently regarded as forming but
+one book, and a careful examination proves that together with the book
+of Chronicles they constitute one single work. The two books may
+therefore be conveniently treated together.
+
+1. _Position and Date._--Origen (Euseb, _H.E._ vi. 25), expressly
+enumerating the twenty-two books of the old covenant as acknowledged by
+the Jews and accepted by the Christian church, names "the First and
+Second Ezra in one book"; Melito of Sardis (Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 26) in
+like manner mentions the book of Ezra only. So also the Talmud (in _Baba
+bathra_, 14. 2), nor can it be supposed that Josephus in his enumeration
+(c. _Ap._ i. 8) reckoned Nehemiah as apart from Ezra. That the Jews
+themselves recognized no real separation is shown by the fact that no
+Massoretic notes are found after Ezra x., but at the end of Nehemiah the
+contents of both are reckoned together, and it is stated that Neh. iii.
+22 is the middle verse of the book. Their position in the Hebrew Bible
+_before_ the book of Chronicles is, however, illogical. The introductory
+verses of Ezra i. are identical with the conclusion of 2 Chron. xxxvi.,
+whilst in the version of 1 Esdras no less than two chapters (2 Chron.
+xxxv. sq.) overlap. The cause of the separation is probably to be found
+in the late reception of Chronicles into the Jewish canon. Further proof
+of the unity of the three is to be found in the general similarity of
+style and treatment. The same linguistic criteria recur, and the
+interest in lists and genealogies, in priests and Levites, and in the
+temple service point unmistakably to the presence of the same hand (the
+so-called "chronicler") in Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah. See BIBLE (sect.
+Canon); CHRONICLES.
+
+The period of history covered by the books of Ezra and Nehemiah extends
+from the return of the exiles under Zerubbabel in 537-536 B.C. to
+Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem in 432 B.C. In their present form,
+however, the books are considerably later, and allusions to Nehemiah in
+the past (Neh. xii. 26, 47), to the days of Jaddua (the grandson of
+Nehemiah's contemporary Joiada; ib. xii. 11), to Darius (Nothus 423 B.C.
+or rather Codomannus 336 B.C., ib. v. 22), and the use of the term "king
+of Persia," as a distinctive title after the fall of that empire (332
+B.C.), are enough to show that, as a whole, they belong to the same age
+as the book of Chronicles.
+
+2. _Contents._--Their contents may be divided into four parts:--
+
+(a) The events preceding the mission of Ezra (i.-vi.).--In the first
+year of his reign Cyrus was inspired to grant a decree permitting the
+Jews to return to build the temple in Jerusalem (i.); a list of families
+is given (ii.). The altar of burnt-offering was set up, and in the
+second year of the return the foundations of the new temple were laid
+with great solemnity (iii.). The "adversaries of Judah and Benjamin"
+offered to assist but were repulsed, and they raised such opposition to
+the progress of the work that it ceased until the second year of Darius
+(521-520 B.C.). Aroused by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah the
+building was then resumed, and despite fresh attempts to hinder the work
+it was completed, consecrated and dedicated in the sixth year of that
+king (vi.). The event was solemnized by the celebration of the Passover
+(cf. 2 Chron. xxx., Hezekiah; xxxv. Josiah).
+
+(b) An interval of fifty-eight years is passed over in silence, and the
+rest of the book of Ezra comprises his account of his mission to
+Jerusalem (vii.-x.). Ezra, a scribe of repute, well versed in the laws
+of Moses, returns with a band of exiles in order to reorganize the
+religious community. A few months after his arrival (seventh year of
+Artaxerxes, 458 B.C.) he instituted a great religious reform, viz. the
+prohibition of intermarriage with the heathen of the land (cf. already
+vi. 21). In spite of some opposition (x. 15 obscurely worded) the reform
+was accepted, and the foundations of a new community were laid.
+
+(c) Twelve years elapse before the return of Nehemiah, whose description
+of his work is one of the most interesting pieces of Old Testament
+narrative (Neh. i.-vi.). In the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (445 B.C.),
+Nehemiah the royal cup-bearer at Shushan (Susa, the royal winter palace)
+was visited by friends from Judah and was overcome with grief at the
+tidings of the miserable condition of Jerusalem and the pitiful state of
+the Judaean remnant which had escaped the captivity. He obtained
+permission to return, and on reaching the city made a secret survey of
+the ruins and called upon the nobles and rulers to assist in repairing
+them. Much opposition was caused by Sanballat the Horonite (i.e. of the
+Moabite Horonaim or Beth-horon, about 15 m. N.W. of Jerusalem), Tobiah
+the Ammonite, Geshem (or Gashmu) the Arabian, and the Ashdodites, whose
+virulence increased as the rebuilding of the walls continued. But
+notwithstanding attempts upon the city and upon the life of Nehemiah,
+and in spite of intrigues among certain members of the Judaean section,
+in fifty-two days the city walls were complete (Neh. vi. 15). The
+hostility, however, did not cease, and measures were taken to ensure the
+safety of the city (vi. 16-vii. 4). A valuable account is given of
+Nehemiah's economical reforms, illustrating the internal social
+conditions of the period and the general character of the former
+governors who had been placed in charge (v., cf. the laws codified in
+Lev. xxv. 35 sqq.).
+
+(d) The remaining chapters carry on the story of the labours of _both_
+Ezra, and Nehemiah. The list of those who returned under the decree of
+Cyrus is repeated (Neh. vii.), and leads up to the reading of the Law by
+Ezra, a great national confession of guilt, and a solemn undertaking to
+observe the new covenant, the provisions of which are detailed (x.
+28-39). After sundry lists of the families dwelling in Jerusalem and its
+neighbourhood (xi. 1 sqq., apparently a sequel to vii. 1-4),[2] and of
+various priests and Levites, an account is given of the dedication of
+the walls (xii. 27-43), the arrangements for the Levitical organization
+(vv. 44-47), and a fresh separation from the heathen (Moabites and
+Ammonites, xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3 seq.). The book concludes with
+another extract from Nehemiah's memoirs dealing with the events of a
+second visit, twelve years later (xiii. 4-31). On this occasion he
+vindicated the sanctity of the temple by expelling Tobiah, reorganized
+the supplies for the Levites, took measures to uphold the observance of
+the Sabbath, and protested energetically against the foreign marriages.
+In the course of his reforms he thrust out a son of Joiada (son of
+Eliashib, the high-priest), who had married the daughter of Sanballat,
+an incident which had an important result (see SAMARITANS).
+
+That these books are the result of compilation (like the book of
+Chronicles itself) is evident from the many abrupt changes; the
+inclusion of certain documents written in an Aramaic dialect (Ezr. iv.
+8-vi. 18, vii. 12-26)[3]; the character of the name-lists; the lengthy
+gaps in the history; the use made of two distinct sources, attributed to
+Ezra and Nehemiah respectively, and from the varying form in which the
+narratives are cast. The chronicler's hand can usually be readily
+recognized. There are relatively few traces of it in Nehemiah's memoirs
+and in the Aramaic documents, but elsewhere the sources are largely
+coloured, if not written from the standpoint of his age. Examples of
+artificial arrangement appear notably in Ezr. ii.-iii. 1 compared with
+Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 (first clause); in the present position of Ezr. iv.
+6-23; and in the dislocation of certain portions of the two memoirs in
+Neh. viii.-xiii. (see below). It should be noticed that the present
+order of the narratives involves the theory that some catastrophe ensued
+after Ezr. x. and before Neh. i.; that the walls had been destroyed and
+the gates burnt down; that some external opposition (with which,
+however, Ezra did not have to contend) had been successful; that the
+main object of Ezra's mission was delayed for twelve years, and,
+finally, that only through Nehemiah's energy was the work of social and
+religious reorganization successful. These topics raise serious
+historical problems (see JEWS: _History_, § 21).
+
+3. _Criticism of Ezra i.-vi._--The chronicler's account of the
+destruction of Jerusalem, the seventy years' interval (2 Chron. xxxvi.
+20 sq.; cf. Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10, also Is. xxiii. 17), and the return
+of 42,360 of the exiles (Ezr. ii. 64 sqq.) represent a special view of
+the history of the period. The totals, as also the detailed figures, in
+Ezr., Neh. and 1 Esdr. v. vary considerably; the number is extremely
+large (contrast Jer. lii. 30); it includes the common people (contrast 2
+Kings xxiv. 14, xxv. 12), and ignores the fact that Judah was not
+depopulated, that the Jews were carried off to other places besides
+Babylon and that many remained behind in Babylon. According to this
+view, Judah and Jerusalem were practically deserted until the return.
+The list in Ezr. ii. is that of families which returned "every man unto
+his city" under twelve leaders (including Nehemiah, Azariah [cf. Ezra],
+Zcrubbabel and Jeshua); it recurs with many variations in a different
+and apparently more original context in Neh. vii., and in 1 Esdr. v. is
+ascribed to the time of Darius. The families (to judge from the
+northwards extension of Judaean territory) are probably those of the
+population in the later Persian period, hardly those who returned to the
+precise homes of their ancestors (see C.F. Kent, Israel's _Hist. and
+Biogr. Narratives_, p. 379). The offerings which are for the
+temple-service in Neh. vii. 70-72 (cf. 1 Chron. xxix. 6-8) are for the
+building of the temple in Ezr. ii. 68-70; and since the walls are not
+yet built, the topographical details in Neh. viii. 1 (see 1 Esdr. v. 47)
+are adjusted, and the event of the seventh month is not the reading of
+the Law amid the laments of the people (Neh. viii.; see _vv._ 9-11) but
+the erection of the altar by Jeshua and Zerubbabel under inauspicious
+circumstances (cf. Ezr. iii. 3 with 1 Esdr. v. 50).
+
+The chronologically misplaced account of the successful opposition in
+the time of Ahasuerus (i.e. Xerxes) and Artaxerxes (the son and grandson
+of Darius respectively) breaks the account of the _temple_ under Cyrus
+and Darius, and is concerned with the city walls (iv. 6-23)[4]; there is
+some obscurity in _vv._ 7-9: Rehum and Shimshai evidently take the lead,
+Tabeel may be an Aramaized equivalent of Tobiah. A recent return is
+implied (iv. 12) and the record hints that a new decree may be made (v.
+21). The account of the unsuccessful opposition to the _temple_ in the
+time of Darius (v. sq.; for another account see Jos. _Ant._ xi. 4, 9) is
+independent of iv. 7-23, and throws another light upon the decree of
+Cyrus (vi. 3-5, contrast i. 2-4). It implies that Sheshbazzar, who had
+been sent with the temple vessels in the time of Cyrus, had laid the
+foundations and that the work had continued without cessation (v. 16,
+contrast iv. 5, 24). The beginning of the reply of Darius is wanting
+(vi. 6 sqq.), and the decree which had been sought in Babylon is found
+at Ecbatana. Chap. vi. 15 sqq. follow more naturally upon v. 1-2, but
+v. 14 with its difficult reference to Artaxerxes now seems to presuppose
+the decree in iv. 21 and looks forward to the time of Ezra or Nehemiah.
+As regards this section (Ezr. i.-vi.) as a whole, there is little doubt
+that i. iii. 1-iv. 5, vi. 15-22 are from the chronicler, whose free
+treatment of his material is seen in the use he has made of ch. ii.
+Notwithstanding the unimpeachable evidence for the tolerant attitude of
+Persian kings and governors towards the religion of subject races, it is
+probable that the various decrees incorporated in the book (cf. also 1
+Esdr. iv. 42 sqq.) have been reshaped from a Jewish standpoint. A
+noteworthy example appears in the account of the unique powers entrusted
+to Ezra (vii. 11-26), the introduction to whose memoirs, at all events,
+is quite in the style of the chronicler.
+
+4. _Memoirs of Nehemiah and Ezra._--The memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah do
+not appear to have been incorporated without some adjustment. The lapse
+of time between Neh. i. 1 and ii. 1 is noteworthy, and with the prayer
+in i. 5-11 cf. Ezr. ix. 6-15, Dan. ix. 4 sqq. (also parallels in
+Deuteronomy); chap. i. in its present form may be a compiler's
+introduction. The important topographical list in ch. iii. is probably
+from another source; the styie is different, Nehemiah is absent, and the
+high-priest is unusually prominent.[5] Chap, v., where Nehemiah reviews
+his _past_ conduct as governor, turns aside to economic reforms and
+scarcely falls within the fifty-two days of the building of the walls.
+The chapter is closely associated with the contents of xiii. and breaks
+the account of the opposition. Anticipated already in ii. 10, the
+hostility partly arises from the repudiation of Samaritan religious
+claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezr. iv. 3) and is partly political. It is difficult
+to follow its progress clearly, and the account ceases abruptly in. vi.
+17-19 with the notice of the conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of
+Judah. The chronicler's style can be recognized in vii. 1-5 (in its
+present form), where steps are taken to protect and to people Jerusalem;
+the older sequel is now found in ch. xi. Whilst the account of the
+dedication of the walls is marked by the use of the pronoun "I" (xii.
+31, 38, 40), it is probably now due as a whole to the chronicler, and
+when the more trustworthy memoirs of Nehemiah are resumed (xiii. 4 sqq.)
+the episodes, although placed twelve years later (ver. 6), are
+intimately connected with the preceding reforms (cf. xii. 44-xiii. 3
+with xiii. 10 sqq., 23 sqq.).[6] Nehemiah's attitude towards
+intermarriage is markedly moderate in contrast to the drastic measures
+of Ezra, whose mission and work the simpler and perhaps earlier
+narratives of Nehemiah originally ignored, and the relation between the
+two is complicated further by the literary character of the memoir of
+Ezra.
+
+To the last mentioned are prefixed (a) the scribe's genealogy, which
+traces him back to Aaron and names as his immediate ancestor, Seraiah,
+who had been slain 130 years previously (Ezr. vii. 1-5), and (b) an
+independent account of the return (_vv._ 6-10) with a reference to
+Ezra's renown, obviously not from the hand of Ezra himself. Whatever the
+original prelude to Ezra's thanksgiving may have been (vii. 27 seq.), we
+now have the essentially Jewish account of the letter of Artaxerxes with
+its unusual concessions.[7] The list of those who returned amounts to
+the moderate total of 1496 males (viii., but 1690 in 1 Esdr. viii. 30
+sqq.). Ezra's mission was obviously concerned with the Law and Temple
+service (vii. 6, 10, 14 sqq., 25; viii. 17, 24-30, 33 sq.), but four
+months elapse between his return in the fifth month (vii. 9) and the
+preparations for the marriage reforms in the ninth (x. 9), and there is
+a delay of twelve years before the Law is read (Neh. viii.). The
+Septuagint version (1 Esdr. ix.; cf. Josephus, _Antiq._ xi. 5. 5 and
+some modern scholars) would place the latter after Ezr. x., but more
+probably this event (dated in the seventh month) should precede the
+great undertaking in Ezr. ix.[8] That the adjustment was attended with
+considerable revision of the passages appears from a careful comparison
+of Neh. viii. sq. with Ezr. ix. sq. With Ezra's confession (ix. 6 sqq.)
+compare the prayer in Neh. ix. 5 sqq., which the Septuagint ascribes to
+him. In Ezr. x. (written in the third person) the number of those that
+had intermarried with the heathen is relatively small considering the
+general trend of the preliminaries, and the list bears a marked
+resemblance to that in ch. ii. It ends abruptly and obscurely (x. 44;
+cf. 1 Esdr. ix. 36), and whilst as a whole the memoirs of Ezra point to
+ideas later than those of Nehemiah, the present close literary connexion
+between them is seen in the isolated reference to Johanan the son of
+Eliashib in Ezra x. 6, which seems to be connected with Neh. xiii. 7,
+and (after W.R. Smith) in the suitability of _ib._ xiii. 1, 2 between
+Ezr. x. 9 and 10. The list of signatories in Neh. x. 1-27 should be
+compared with the names in xii. and 1 Chron. xxiv.; the true connexion
+of ix. 38 is very obscure, and the relation to Ezr. ix. seq. is
+complicated by the reference to the separation from the heathen in Neh.
+ix. 2. The description of the covenant (Neh. x. 28 sqq., marked by the
+use of "we") is closely connected with xii. 43-xiii. 3 (from the same or
+an allied source), and anticipates the parallel though somewhat
+preliminary measures detailed in the more genuine memoirs (Neh. xiii. 4
+sqq.). Finally, the specific allusion in xiii. 1-3 to Ammon and Moab is
+possibly intended as an introduction to the references to Tobiah and
+Sanballat respectively (_vv._ 4 seq., 28).
+
+5. _Summary._--The literary and historical criticism of Ezra-Nehemiah is
+closely bound up with that of Chronicles, whose characteristic features
+it shares. Although the three formed a unit at one stage it may seem
+doubtful whether two so closely related chapters as 1 Chron. ix. and
+Neh. xi. would have appeared in one single work, while the repetition of
+Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 in Ezr. ii.-iii. 1 is less unnatural if they had
+originally appeared in distinct sources. Thus other hands apart from the
+compiler of Chronicles may have helped to shape the narratives, either
+before their union with that book or after their separation.[9] The
+present intricacy is also due partly to specific historical theories
+regarding the post-exilic period. Here the recension in 1 Esdras
+especially merits attention for its text, literary structure and for its
+variant traditions.[10] Its account of a return in the time of Darius
+scarcely arose _after_ Ezr. i.-iii. (Cyrus); the reverse seems more
+probable, and the possibility of some confusion or of an intentional
+adjustment to the earlier date is emphasized by the relation between the
+popular feeling in Ezr. iii. 12 (Cyrus) and Hag. ii. 3 (Darius), and
+between the grant by Cyrus in iii. 7 (it is not certain that he held
+Phoenicia) and the permit of Darius in 1 Esdr. iv. 47-57 (see v. 48). To
+the latter context belongs the list of names which reappears in Ezr. ii.
+(Cyrus). But from the independent testimony of Haggai and Zechariah it
+is doubtful whether the chronicler's account of the return under Cyrus
+is at all trustworthy. The list in 1 Esdr. v., Ezr. ii., as already
+observed, appears to be in its more original context in Neh. vii., i.e.
+in the time of Artaxerxes, and it is questionable whether the earliest
+of the surviving detailed traditions in Ezra-Nehemiah went back before
+this reign. It is precisely at this age that there is evidence for a
+return, apparently other than that of Ezra or Nehemiah (see Ezr. iv.
+12), yet no account seems to be preserved unless the records were used
+for the history of earlier periods (cf. generally Ezr. iii. 12 sq. with
+Neh. viii. 9-11; Ezr. iii. 7 with the special favour enlisted on behalf
+of the Jews in vi. 7 sq., 13, vii. 21; Neh. ii. 7 sq.). But the account
+of the events in the reign of Artaxerxes is extremely perplexing. Since
+the building of the walls of Jerusalem must have begun early in the
+fifth month (Neh. vi. 15), an allowance of three days (ii. 11) makes the
+date of Nehemiah's arrival practically the anniversary of Ezra's return
+(Ezr. vii. 9, viii. 32). Considering the close connexion between the
+work of the two men this can hardly be accidental. The compiler,
+however, clearly intends Neh. vi. 15 (25th of sixth month) to be the
+prelude to the events in Neh. vii. 73, viii. (seventh month), but the
+true sequence of Neh. vi. sqq. is uncertain, and the possibility of
+artificiality is suggested by the unembellished statement of Josephus
+that the building of the walls occupied, not fifty-two days, but two
+years four months (_Ant_. xi. 5. 8). The present chronological order of
+Nehemiah's work is confused (cf. §4, n. 3), and the obscure interval of
+twelve years in his work corresponds very closely to that which now
+separates the records of Ezra's labours. However, both the recovery of
+the compilers' aims and attempted reconstructions are precluded from
+finality by the scantiness of independent historical evidence. (See
+further JEWS: _History_, §21 seq.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S.R. Driver, _Lit. of the O.T._ (1909), pp. 540 sqq.
+  and the commentaries of H.E. Ryle (_Camb. Bible_, 1893), C. Siegfried
+  (1901), A. Bertholet (1902), and T.W. Davies (_Cent. Bible_, 1909).
+  Impetus to recent criticism of these books starts with Van Hoonacker
+  (_Neh. et Esd_. [1890]; see also _Expos. Times_ [1897], pp. 351-354,
+  and M.-J. Lagrange, _Rev. biblique_, iii. 561-585 [1894], iv. 186-202
+  [1895]) and W.H. Kosters (Germ. ed., _Wiederherstellung Israëls_,
+  1895). The latter's important conclusions (for which see his article
+  with Cheyne's additions in _Ency. Bib_. col. 1473 sqq., 3380 sqq.)
+  have been adversely criticized, especially by J. Wellhausen
+  (_Nachrichten_ of the Univ. of Göttingen, 1895, pp. 166-186), E. Meyer
+  (_Entstehung d. Judentums_, 1896), J. Nikel (_Wiederherstellung d.
+  jüd. Gemein._, 1900), and S. Jampel in _Monatsschrift f. Gesch. u.
+  Wissens. d. Judentums_, vols. xlvi.-xlvii. (1902-1903). The negative
+  criticisms of Kosters have, however, been strengthened by his replies
+  (in the Dutch _Theolog. Tijdschrift_), and by the discussions of C.C.
+  Torrey and C.F. Kent (op. cit) and of G. Jahn (_Esra u. Neh._ pp.
+  i-lxxviii; 1909), and his general position appears to do more justice
+  to the biblical evidence as a whole.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] References to 1 Esdras in this article are to the book discussed
+    above as EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF.
+
+  [2] With Neh. xi. 4-19 cf. 1 Chron. ix. 3-17; with the list xii. 1-7
+    cf. _vv._ 12-21 and x. 3-9; and with xii. 10 sq. cf. 1 Chron. vi.
+    3-13 (to which it forms the sequel). See further Smend, _Listen d.
+    Esra u. Neh._ (1881).
+
+  [3] Sometimes wrongly styled Chaldee (q.v.); see SEMITIC LANGUAGES.
+
+  [4] Its real position in the history of this period is not certain.
+    Against the supposition that the names refer to Cambyses and
+    Pseudo-Smerdis who reigned after Cyrus and before Darius, see H.E.
+    Ryle, _Camb. Bible_, "Ezra and Neh.," p. 65 sq. Against the view that
+    Darius is D. ii. Nothus of 423-404 B.C., see G.A. Smith, _Minor
+    Prophets_, ii. 191 sqq. The ignorance of the compiler regarding the
+    sequence of the kings finds a parallel in that of the author of the
+    book of Daniel (q.v.); see C.C. Torrey, _Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lang._
+    (1907), p. 178, n. 1.
+
+  [5] See further H.G. Mitchell, _Journ. of Bibl. Lit._ (1903), pp. 88
+    sqq.
+
+  [6] The chronological difficulties will be seen from xiii. 6 ("before
+    this"), which would imply that the dedication of the walls was on the
+    occasion of Nehemiah's later visit (see G.A. Smith, _Expositor_, July
+    1906, p. 12). His previous departure is perhaps foreshadowed in vii.
+    2.
+
+  [7] See _Ency. Bib._ col. 1480. Papyri from a Jewish colony in
+    Elephantine (407 B.C.) clearly show the form which royal permits
+    could take, and what the Jews were prepared to give in return; the
+    points of resemblance are extremely interesting, but compared with
+    the biblical documents the papyri reveal some striking differences.
+
+  [8] C.C. Torrey, _Comp. and Hist. Value of Ezra-Neh._ (Beihefte of
+    _Zeit. f. alttest. Wissens._, 1896), pp. 30-34; C.F. Kent, _Israel's
+    Hist. and Biog. Narratives_, pp. 32, 369. Since Neh. vii. 70-73 is
+    closely joined to viii., the suggested transposition would place its
+    account of the contributions to the temple in a more appropriate
+    context (cf. Ezr. viii. 24-30, 33 sq.).
+
+  [9] For linguistic evidence reference should be made to J. Geissler,
+    _Die litterarischen Beziehungen d. Esramemoiren_ (Chemnitz, 1899).
+
+  [10] See especially Sir Henry Howorth, _Proc. of Society of Bibl.
+    Arch._ (1901-1904), _passim_; C.C. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_ (Chicago,
+    1910). For the text, see A. Klostermann, _Real-Ency. f. prot. Theol._
+    v. 501 sqq.; H. Guthe in Haupt's _Sacred Books of Old Testament_
+    (1899); and S.A. Cook in R.H. Charles, _Apocrypha and
+    Pseudepigrapha_.
+
+
+
+
+EZZO, or EHRENFRIED (c. 954-1024), count palatine in Lorraine, was the
+son of a certain Hermann (d. c. 1000), also a count palatine in Lorraine
+who had possessions in the neighbourhood of Bonn. Having married Matilda
+(d. 1025), a daughter of the emperor Otto II., Ezzo came to the front
+during the reign of his brother-in-law, the emperor Otto III.
+(983-1002); his power was increased owing to the liberal grant of lands
+in Thuringia and Franconia which he received with his wife, and some
+time later his position as count palatine was recognized as an
+hereditary dignity. Otto's successor, the emperor Henry II., was less
+friendly towards the powerful count palatine, though there was no
+serious trouble between them until 1011; but some disturbances in
+Lorraine quickly compelled the emperor to come to terms, and the
+assistance of Ezzo was purchased by a gift of lands. Henceforward the
+relations between Henry and his vassal appear to have been satisfactory.
+Very little is known about Ezzo's later life, but we are told that he
+died at a great age at Saalfeld on the 21st of March 1024. He left three
+sons, among them being Hermann, who was archbishop of Cologne from 1036
+to 1056, and Otto, who was for a short time duke of Swabia; and seven
+daughters, six of whom became abbesses. Ezzo founded a monastery at
+Brauweiler near Cologne, the place where his marriage had been
+celebrated. This was dedicated in 1028 by Piligrim, archbishop of
+Cologne, and here both Ezzo and his wife were buried.
+
+
+
+
+EZZOLIED, or ANEGENGE, an old German poem, written by Ezzo, a scholar of
+Bamberg. It was written about 1060, but not, as one authority asserts,
+composed while the author was making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The
+subject of the poem is the life of Christ. Very popular during the later
+middle ages, the _Ezzolied_ had a great influence on the poetry of south
+Germany, and is valuable as a monument of the poetical literature of the
+time.
+
+  The text is printed in the _Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus
+  dem 8-12. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1892) of C.V. Müllenhoff and W.
+  Scherer.
+
+
+
+
+F     This is the sixth letter of the English alphabet as it was of the
+Latin. In the ordinary Greek alphabet the symbol has disappeared,
+although it survived far into historical times in many Greek dialects as
+F, the digamma, the use of which in early times was inductively proved
+by Bentley, when comparatively little was known of the local alphabets
+and dialects of Greece. The so-called _stigma_ [symbol], which serves
+for the numeral 6, is all that remains to represent it. This symbol
+derives its name from its resemblance in medieval MSS. to the
+abbreviation for [Greek: st]. The symbol occupying the same position in
+the Phoenician alphabet was Vau ([symbol] [symbol]), which seems to be
+represented by the Greek [Upsilon], the Latin V, at the end of the early
+alphabet. Many authorities therefore contend that F is only a
+modification of the preceding symbol E and has nothing to do with the
+symbol Vau. In some early Latin inscriptions F is represented by
+[symbol], as E is by [symbol]. It must be admitted that the resemblance
+between the sixth symbol of the Phoenician alphabet and the
+corresponding symbol of the European alphabet is not striking. But the
+position of the limbs of symbols in early alphabets often varies
+surprisingly. In Greek, besides F we find for _f_ in Pamphylia (the only
+Greek district in Asia which possesses the symbol) [symbol], and in
+Boeotia, Thessaly, Tarentum, Cumae and on Chalcidian vases of Italy the
+form [symbol], though except at Cumae and on the vases the form F exists
+contemporaneously with [symbol] or even earlier. At the little town of
+Falerii (Civita Castellana), whose alphabet is undoubtedly of the same
+origin as the Latin, F takes the form [symbol]. Though uncertain,
+therefore, it seems not impossible that the original symbol of the
+Phoenician alphabet, which was a consonant like the English _w_, may
+have been differentiated in Greek into two symbols, one indicating the
+consonant value _w_ and retaining the position of the Phoenician
+consonant Vau, the other having the vowel value _u_, which ultimately
+most dialects changed to a modified sound like French _u_ or German _ü_.
+Be this as it may, the value of the symbol F in Greek was _w_, a
+bilabial voiced sound, not the labio-dental unvoiced sound which we call
+_f_. When the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet they took over the
+symbols with their Greek values. But Greek had no sound corresponding to
+the Latin _f_, for [phi] was pronounced _p-h_, like the final sound of
+_lip_ in ordinary English or the initial sound of _pig_ in Irish
+English. Consequently in the very old inscription on a gold fibula found
+at Praeneste and published in 1887 (see ALPHABET) the Latin _f_ is
+represented by FB. Later, as Latin did not use F for the consonant
+written as _v_ in _vis_, &c., H was dropped and F received a new special
+value in Latin as representative of the unvoiced labio-dental spirant.
+In the Oscan and Umbrian dialects, whose alphabet was borrowed from
+Etruscan, a special form appears for _f_, viz. 8, the old form [symbol]
+being kept for the other consonant _v_ (i.e. English _w_). The 8 has
+generally been asserted to be developed out of the second element in the
+combination FB, its upper and lower halves being first converted into
+lozenges, [symbol], which naturally changed to 8 when inscribed without
+lifting the writing or incising implement. Recent discoveries, however,
+make this doubtful (see ALPHABET).     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+FABBRONI, ANGELO (1732-1803), Italian biographer, was born at Marradi in
+Tuscany on the 25th of September 1732. After studying at Faenza he
+entered the Roman college founded for the education of young Tuscans. On
+the conclusion of his studies he continued his stay in Rome, and having
+been introduced to the celebrated Jansenist Bottari, received from him
+the canonry of Santa Teresa in Trastevere. Some time after this he was
+chosen to preach a discourse in the pontifical chapel before Benedict
+XIV. and made such a favourable impression that the pontiff settled on
+him an annuity, with the possession of which Fabbroni was able to devote
+his whole time to study. He was intimate with Leopold I., grand-duke of
+Tuscany, but the Jesuits disliked him on account of his Jansenist views.
+Besides his other literary labours he began at Pisa in 1771 a literary
+journal, which he continued till 1796. About 1772 he made a journey to
+Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Condorcet, Diderot,
+d'Alembert, Rousseau and most of the other eminent Frenchmen of the day.
+He also spent four months in London. He died at Pisa on the 22nd of
+September 1803.
+
+  The following are his principal works:--_Vitae Italorum doctrina
+  excellentium qui saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt_ (20 vols., Pisa,
+  1778-1799, 1804-1805), the last two vols., published posthumously,
+  contain a life of the author; _Laurentii Medicei Magnifici Vita_ (2
+  vols., Pisa, 1784), a work which served as a basis for H. Roscoe's
+  _Life of Lorenzo dei Medici_; _Leonis X. pontificis maximi Vita_
+  (Pisa, 1797); and _Elogi di Dante Alighieri, di Angelo Poliziano, di
+  Lodovico Ariosto, e di Torq. Tasso_ (Parma, 1800).
+
+
+
+
+FABER, the name of a family of German lead-pencil manufacturers. Their
+business was founded in 1760 at Stein, near Nuremberg, by Kaspar Faber
+(d. 1784). It was then inherited by his son Anton Wilhelm (d. 1819).
+Georg Leonhard Faber succeeded in 1810 (d. 1839), and the business
+passed to Johann Lothar von Faber (1817-1896), the great-grandson of the
+founder. At the time of his assuming control about twenty hands were
+employed, under old-fashioned conditions, and owing to the invention of
+the French _crayons Contés_ of Nicolas Jacques Conté (q.v.) competition
+had reduced the entire Nuremberg industry to a low ebb (see PENCIL).
+Johann introduced improvements in machinery and methods, brought his
+factory to the highest state of efficiency, and it became a model for
+all the other German and Austrian manufacturers. He established branches
+in New York, Paris, London and Berlin, and agencies in Vienna, St
+Petersburg and Hamburg, and made his greatest _coup_ in 1856, when he
+contracted for the exclusive control of the graphite obtained from the
+East Siberian mines. Faber had also branched out into the manufacture of
+water-colour and oil paints, inks, slates and slate-pencils, and
+engineers' and architects' drawing instruments, and built additional
+factories to house his various industries at New York and at
+Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, and had his own cedar mills in Florida. For
+his services to German industry he received a patent of nobility and an
+appointment as councillor of state. After the death of his widow (1903)
+the business was inherited by his grand-daughter Countess Otilie von
+Faber-Castell and her husband, Count Alexander.
+
+
+
+
+FABER, BASIL (1520--c. 1576), Lutheran schoolmaster and theologian, was
+born at Sorau, in lower Lusatia, in 1520. In 1538 he entered the
+university of Wittenberg, studying as _pauper gratis_ under Melanchthon.
+Choosing the schoolmaster's profession, he became successively rector of
+the schools at Nordhausen, Tennstadt (1555), Magdeburg (1557) and
+Quedlinburg (1560). From this last post he was removed in December 1570
+as a Crypto-Calvinist. In 1571 he was appointed to the Raths-gymnasium
+at Erfurt, not as rector, but as director (_Vorsteher_). In this
+situation he remained till his death in 1575 or 1576. His translation of
+the first twenty-five chapters of Luther's commentary on Genesis was
+published in 1557; in other ways he promoted the spread of Lutheran
+views. He was a contributor to the first four of the _Magdeburg
+Centuries_. He is best known by his _Thesaurus eruditionis scholasticae_
+(1571; last edition, improved by J.H. Leich, 1749, folio, 2 vols.); this
+was followed by his _Libellus de disciplina scholastica_ (1572).
+
+  See Wagenmann and G. Müller in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_
+  (1898).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863), British hymn writer and
+theologian, was born on the 28th of June 1814 at Calverley, Yorkshire,
+of which place his grandfather, Thomas Faber, was vicar. He attended the
+grammar school of Bishop Auckland for a short time, but a large portion
+of his boyhood was spent in Westmorland. He afterwards went to Harrow
+and to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1835 he obtained a scholarship at
+University College; and in 1836 he gained the Newdigate prize for a poem
+on "The Knights of St John," which elicited special praise from Keble.
+Among his college friends were Dean Stanley and Roundell Palmer, 1st
+earl of Selborne. In January 1837 he was elected fellow of University
+College. Meanwhile he had given up the Calvinistic views of his youth,
+and had become an enthusiastic follower of John Henry Newman. In 1841 a
+travelling tutorship took him to the continent; and on his return a book
+appeared called _Sights and Thoughts in Foreign Churches and among
+Foreign Peoples_ (London, 1842), with a dedication to his friend the
+poet Wordsworth. He accepted the rectory of Elton in Huntingdonshire,
+but soon after went again to the continent, in order to study the
+methods of the Roman Catholic Church; and after a prolonged mental
+struggle he joined the Roman Catholic communion in November 1845. He
+founded a religious community at Birmingham, called Wilfridians, which
+was ultimately merged in the oratory of St Philip Neri, with John Henry
+Newman as Superior. In 1849 a branch of the oratory--subsequently
+independent--was established in London, first in King William Street,
+and afterwards at Brompton, over which Faber presided till his death on
+the 26th of September 1863. In spite of his weak health, an almost
+incredible amount of work was crowded into those years. He published a
+number of theological works, and edited the _Oratorian Lives of the
+Saints_. He was an eloquent preacher, and a man of great charm of
+character. It is mainly as a hymn-writer, however, that Faber is
+remembered. Among his best-known hymns are:--"The Greatness of God,"
+"The Will of God," "The Eternal Father," "The God of my Childhood,"
+"Jesus is God," "The Pilgrims of the Night," "The Land beyond the Sea,"
+"Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go," "I was wandering and weary," and
+"The Shadow of the Rock." The hymns are largely used in Protestant
+collections. In addition to many pamphlets and translations, Faber
+published the following works: _All for Jesus_; _The Precious Blood_;
+_Bethlehem_; _The Blessed Sacrament_; _The Creator and the Creature_;
+_Growth of Holiness; Spiritual Conferences_; _The Foot of the Cross_ (8
+vols., London, 1853-1860).
+
+  See his _Life and Letters_, by Father J.E. Bowden (London, 1869), and
+  _A Brief Sketch of the Early Life of the late F.W. Faber_, D.D., by
+  his brother the Rev. F.A. Faber (London, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+FABER, Fabri or Fabry (surnamed STAPULENSIS), JACOBUS [Jacques Lefèvre
+d'Étaples] (c. 1455--c. 1536), a pioneer of the Protestant movement in
+France, was born of humble parents at Étaples, in Pas de Calais,
+Picardy, about 1455. He appears to have been possessed of considerable
+means. He had already been ordained priest when he entered the
+university of Paris for higher education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his
+master in Greek. He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures
+of Argyropulus, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with
+Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy, studying
+in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar with the writings
+of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the Platonic philosophy.
+Returning to Paris, he became professor in the college of Cardinal
+Lemoine. Among his famous pupils were F.W. Vatable and Farel; his
+connexion with the latter drew him to the Calvinistic side of the
+movement of reform. At this time he began the publication, with critical
+apparatus, of Boëtius (_De Arithmetica_), and Aristotle's _Physics_
+(1492), _Ethics_ (1497), _Metaphysics_ (1501) and _Politics_ (1506). In
+1507 he took up his residence in the Benedictine Abbey of St Germain des
+Prés, near Paris; this was due to his connexion with the family of
+Briçonnet (one of whom was the superior), especially with William
+Briçonnet, cardinal bishop of St Malo (Meaux). He now began to give
+himself to Biblical studies, the first-fruit of which was his
+_Quintuplex Psalterium: Gallicum, Romanum, Hebraicum, Vetus,
+Conciliatum_ (1509); the _Conciliatum_ was his own version. This was
+followed by _S. Pauli Epistolae xiv. ex vulgata editione, adjecta
+intelligentia ex Graeco cum commentariis_ (1512), a work of great
+independence and judgment. His _De Maria Magdalena et triduo Christi
+disceptatio_ (1517) provoked violent controversy and was condemned by
+the Sorbonne (1521). He had left Paris during the whole of 1520, and,
+removing to Meaux, was appointed (May 1, 1523) vicar-general to Bishop
+Briçonnet, and published his French version of the New Testament (1523).
+This (contemporary with Luther's German version) has been the basis of
+all subsequent translations into French. From this, in the same year, he
+extracted the versions of the Gospels and Epistles "à l'usage du diocèse
+de Meaux." The prefaces and notes to both these expressed the view that
+Holy Scripture is the only rule of doctrine, and that justification is
+by faith alone. He incurred much hostility, but was protected by Francis
+I. and the princess Margaret. Francis being in captivity after the
+battle of Pavia (February 25, 1525), Faber was condemned and his works
+suppressed by commission of the parlement; these measures were quashed
+on the return of Francis some months later. He issued _Le Psautier de
+David_ (1525), and was appointed royal librarian at Blois (1526); his
+version of the Pentateuch appeared two years later. His complete version
+of the Bible (1530), on the basis of Jerome, took the same place as his
+version of the New Testament. Margaret (now queen of Navarre) led him to
+take refuge (1531) at Nérac from persecution. He is said to have been
+visited (1533) by Calvin on his flight from France. He died in 1536 or
+1537.
+
+  See C.H. Graf, _Essai sur la vie et les écrits_ (1842); G.
+  Bonet-Maury, in A. Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1898).
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FABER (or LEFÈVRE), JOHANN (1478-1541), German theologian, styled from
+the title of one of his works "Malleus Haereticorum," son of one
+Heigerlin, a smith (_faber_), was born at Leutkirch, in Swabia, in 1478.
+His early life is obscure; the tradition that he joined the Dominicans
+is untenable. He studied theology and canon law at Tübingen and at
+Freiburg im Breisgau, where he matriculated on the 26th of July 1509,
+and graduated M.A. and doctor of canon law. He was soon appointed vicar
+of Lindau and Leutkirch, and shortly afterwards canon of Basel. In 1518
+Hugo von Landenberg, bishop of Constance, made him one of his
+vicars-general, and Pope Leo X. appointed him papal protonotary. He was
+an advocate of reforms, in sympathy with Erasmus, and corresponded
+(1519-1520) with Zwingli. While he defended Luther against Eck, he was
+as little inclined to adopt the position of Luther as of Carlstadt. His
+journey to Rome in the autumn of 1521 had the result of estranging him
+from the views of the Protestant leaders. He published _Opus adversus
+nova quaedam dogmata Lutheri_ (1522), and appeared as a disputant
+against Zwingli at Zürich (1523). Then followed his _Malleus in haeresin
+Lutheranam_ (1524). Among his efforts to stem the tide of Protestant
+innovation was the establishment of a training-house for the maintenance
+and instruction of popular preachers, drawn from the lower ranks, to
+compete with the orators of reform. In 1526 he became court preacher to
+the emperor Ferdinand, and in 1527 and 1528 was sent by him as envoy to
+Spain and England. He approved the death by burning of Balthasar
+Hubmeier, the Baptist, at Vienna on the 10th of March 1528. In 1531 he
+was consecrated bishop of Vienna, and combined with this (till 1538) the
+administration of the diocese of Neustadt. He died at Vienna on the 21st
+of May 1541. His works were collected in three volumes, 1537, 1539 and
+1541.
+
+  See C.E. Kettner, _Diss. de J. Fabri Vita Scriptisque_ (1737);
+  Wagenmann and Egli in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopädie_ (1898).
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FABERT, ABRAHAM DE (1599-1660), marshal of France, was the son of Abraham
+Fabert, seigneur de Moulins (d. 1638), a famous printer who rendered
+great services, civil and military, to Henry IV. At the age of fourteen
+he entered the _Gardes françaises_, and in 1618 received a commission in
+the Piedmont regiment, becoming major in 1627. He distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the constant wars of the period, notably in La Rochelle and
+at the siege of Exilles in 1630. His bravery and engineering skill were
+again displayed in the sieges of Avesnes and Maubeuge in 1637, and in
+1642 Louis XIII. made him governor of the recently-acquired fortress of
+Sedan. In 1651 he became lieutenant-general, and in 1654 at the siege of
+Stenay he introduced new methods of siegecraft which anticipated in a
+measure the great improvements of Vauban. In 1658 Fabert was made a
+marshal of France, being the first commoner to attain that rank. He died
+at Sedan on the 17th of May 1660.
+
+  See _Histoire du maréchal de Fabert_ (Amsterdam, 1697); P. Barre, _Vie
+  de Fabert_ (Paris, 1752); A. Feillet, _Le Premier Maréchal de France
+  plébéien_ (Paris, 1869); Bourelly, _Le Maréchal Fabert_ (Paris, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+FABIAN [FABIANUS], SAINT (d. 250), pope and martyr, was chosen pope, or
+bishop of Rome, in January 236 in succession to Anteros. Eusebius
+(_Hist. Eccl._ vi. 29) relates how the Christians, having assembled in
+Rome to elect a new bishop, saw a dove alight upon the head of Fabian, a
+stranger to the city, who was thus marked out for this dignity, and was
+at once proclaimed bishop, although there were several famous men among
+the candidates for the vacant position. Fabian was martyred during the
+persecution under the emperor Decius, his death taking place on the 20th
+of January 250, and was buried in the catacomb of Calixtus, where a
+memorial has been found. He is said to have baptized the emperor Philip
+and his son, to have done some building in the catacombs, to have
+improved the organization of the church in Rome, to have appointed
+officials to register the deeds of the martyrs, and to have founded
+several churches in France. His deeds are thus described in the _Liber
+Pontificalis_: "Hic regiones dividit diaconibus et fecit vii
+subdiacones, qui vii notariis imminerent, ut gestas martyrum integro
+fideliter colligerent, et multas fabricas per cymiteria fieri
+praecepit." Although there is very little authentic information about
+Fabian, there is evidence that his episcopate was one of great
+importance in the history of the early church. He was highly esteemed by
+Cyprian, bishop of Carthage; Novatian refers to his _nobilissimae
+memoriae_, and he corresponded with Origen. One authority refers to him
+as Flavian.
+
+  See the article on "Fabian" by A. Harnack in Herzog-Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopädie_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FABIUS, the name of a number of Roman soldiers and statesmen. The Fabian
+gens was one of the oldest and most distinguished patrician families of
+Rome. Its members claimed descent from Hercules and a daughter of the
+Arcadian Evander. From the earliest times it played a prominent part in
+Roman history, and was one of the two gentes exclusively charged with
+the management of the most ancient festival in Rome--the Lupercalia
+(Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 375). The chief family names of the Fabian gens or
+clan, in republican times, were Vibulanus, Ambustus, Maximus, Buteo,
+Pictor, Dorso, Labeo; with surnames Verrucosus, Rullianus, Gurges,
+Aemilianus, Allobrogicus (all of the Maximus branch). The most important
+members of the family are the following:--
+
+1. MARCUS FABIUS AMBUSTUS, pontifex maximus in the year of the capture
+of Rome by the Gauls (390). His three sons, Quintus, Numerius and Caeso,
+although they had been sent as ambassadors to the Gauls when they were
+besieging Clusium, subsequently took part in hostilities (Livy v. 35).
+The Gauls thereupon demanded their surrender, on the ground that they
+had violated the law of nations; the Romans, by way of reply, elected
+them consular tribunes in the following year. The result was the march
+of the Gauls upon Rome, the battle of the Allia, and the capture of the
+city (Livy vi. 1).
+
+2. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS, surnamed _Rullianus_ or _Rullus_, master of the
+horse in the second Samnite War to L. Papirius Cursor, by whom he was
+degraded for having fought the Samnites contrary to orders (Livy viii.
+30), in spite of the fact that he gained a victory. In 315, when
+dictator, he was defeated by the Samnites at Lautulae (Livy ix. 23). In
+310 he defeated the Etruscans at the Vadimonian Lake. In 295, consul for
+the fifth time, he defeated, at the great battle of Sentinum, the
+combined forces of the Etrurians, Umbrians, Samnites and Gauls (see
+ROME: _History_, II. "The Republic"). As censor (304) he altered the
+arrangement of Appius Claudius Caecus, whereby the freedmen were taken
+into all the tribes, and limited them to the four city tribes. For this
+he is said to have received the title of _Maximus_, as the deliverer of
+the comitia from the rule of the mob (Livy ix. 46), but there is reason
+to think that this title was first conferred on his grandson. It is
+probable that his achievements are greatly exaggerated by historians
+favourable to the Fabian house.
+
+3. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS, surnamed _Verrucosus_ (from a wart on his
+lip), _Ovicula_ ("the lamb," from his mild disposition), and _Cunctator_
+("the delayer," from his cautious tactics in the war against Hannibal),
+grandson of the preceding. He served his first consulship in Liguria
+(233 B.C.), was censor (230) and consul for the second time (228). In
+218 he was sent to Carthage to demand satisfaction for the attack on
+Saguntum (Livy xxi. 18). According to the well-known story, he held up a
+fold of his toga and offered the Carthaginians the choice between peace
+and war. When they declared themselves indifferent, he let fall his toga
+with the words, "Then take war." After the disastrous campaign on the
+Trebia, and the defeat on the banks of the Trasimene Lake, Fabius was
+named dictator (Livy calls him pro-dictator, since he was nominated, not
+by the consul, but by the people) in 217, and began his tactics of
+"masterly inactivity." Manoeuvring among the hills, where Hannibal's
+cavalry were useless, he cut off his supplies, harassed him incessantly,
+and did everything except fight. His steady adherence to his plan caused
+dissatisfaction at Rome and in his own camp, and aroused the suspicion
+that he was merely endeavouring to prolong his command. Minucius Rufus,
+his master of the horse, seized the opportunity, during the absence of
+Fabius at Rome, to make an attack upon the enemy which proved
+successful. The people, more than ever convinced that a forward movement
+was necessary, divided the command between Minucius and Fabius (Livy
+xxii. 15. 24; Polybius iii. 88). Minucius was led into an ambuscade by
+Hannibal, and his army was only saved by the opportune arrival of
+Fabius. Minucius confessed his mistake and henceforth submitted to the
+orders of Fabius (Livy xxiii. 32). At the end of the legal time of six
+months Fabius resigned the dictatorship and the war was carried on by
+the consuls. The result of the abandonment of Fabian tactics was the
+disaster of Cannae (216). In 215 and 214 (as consul for the third and
+fourth times) he was in charge of the operations against Hannibal
+together with Claudius Marcellus (Livy xxiii. 39). He laid siege to
+Capua, which had gone over to Hannibal after Cannae, and captured the
+important position of Casilinum; in his fifth consulship (209) he retook
+Tarentum, which had been occupied by Hannibal for three years (Livy
+xxvii. 15; Polybius xiii. 4; Plutarch, _Fabius_). He died in 203. Fabius
+was a strenuous opponent of the new aggressive policy, and did all he
+could to prevent the invasion of Africa by Scipio. He was distinguished
+for calmness and prudence, while by no means lacking in courage when it
+was required. In his later years, however, he became morose, and showed
+jealousy of rising young men, especially Scipio (_Life_ by Plutarch;
+Livy xx.-xxx.; Polybius iii. 87-106).
+
+4. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS AEMILIANUS, eldest son of L. Aemilius Paullus,
+adopted by Fabius Cunctator. He served in the last Macedonian War (168),
+and, as consul, defeated Viriathus in Spain (Livy, _Epit_. 52). He was
+the pupil and patron of Polybius (Polybius xviii., xxix. 6, xxxii. 8-10;
+Livy xliv. 35).
+
+5. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS ALLOBROGICUS, son of the above, consul 121 in Gaul.
+He obtained his surname from his victory over the Allobroges and Arverni
+in that year (Vell. Pat. ii. 10; Eutropius iv. 22). As censor (108) he
+erected the first triumphal arch.
+
+6. Q. FABIUS VIBULANUS, with his brothers Caeso and Marcus, filled the
+consulship for seven years in succession (485-479 B.C.). In the last year
+there was a reaction against the family, in consequence of Caeso
+espousing the cause of the plebeians. Thereupon the Fabii--to the number,
+it is said, of 306 patricians, with some 5000 dependents--emigrated from
+Rome under the leadership of Caeso, and settled on the banks of the
+Cremera, a few miles above Rome. For two years the exiles continued to be
+the city's chief defence against the Veientes, until at last they were
+surprised and cut off. The only survivor of the gens was Quintus, the sen
+of Marcus, who apparently took no part in the battle. The story that he
+had been left behind at Rome on account of his youth cannot be true, as
+he was consul ten years afterwards. This Quintus was consul in 467, 465
+and 459, and a member of the second decemvirate in 450, on the fall of
+which he went into voluntary exile (Livy ii. 42, 48-50, iii. 1, 9, 41,
+58, vi. 1; Dion. Halic. viii. 82-86, ix. 14-22: Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 195).
+
+  The Fabian name is met with as late as the 2nd century A.D. A complete
+  list of the Fabii will be found in de Vit's _Onomasticon_; see also
+  W.N. du Rieu, _Disputatio de Gente Fabia_ (1856), containing an
+  account of 57 members of the family.
+
+
+
+
+FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS, the father of Roman history, was born about 254
+B.C. He was the grandson of Gaius Fabius, who received the surname
+_Pictor_ for his painting of the temple of Salus (302). He took an
+active part in the subjugation of the Gauls in the north of Italy (225),
+and after the battle of Cannae (216) was employed by the Romans to
+proceed to Delphi in order to consult the oracle of Apollo. He was the
+earliest prose writer of Roman history. His materials consisted of the
+_Annales Maximi_, _Commentarii Consulares_, and similar records; the
+chronicles of the great Roman families; and his own experiences in the
+Second Punic War. He is also said to have made much use of the Greek
+historian Diodes of Peparethus. His work, which was written in Greek,
+began with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and ended with the Hannibalic
+war. Although Polybius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus frequently find
+fault with him, the first uses him as his chief authority for the Second
+Punic War. A Latin version of the work was in existence in the time of
+Cicero, but it is doubtful whether it was by Fabius Pictor or by a later
+writer with whom he was confused--Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus (consul
+142); or there may have been two annalists of the name of Fabius Pictor.
+
+  Fragments in H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_ (1883); see
+  also ANNALISTS and LIVY, and Teuffel-Schwabe, _History of Roman
+  Literature_, § 116.
+
+
+
+
+FABLE (Fr. _fable_, Lat. _fabula_). With certain restrictions, the
+necessity of which will be shown in the course of the article, we may
+accept the definition of "fable" which Dr Johnson proposes in his _Life
+of Gay_: "A _fable_ or _apologue_ seems to be, in its genuine state, a
+narrative in which beings irrational, and sometimes inanimate (_arbores
+loquuntur, non tantum ferae_), are, for the purpose of moral
+instruction, feigned to act and speak with human interests and
+passions." The description of La Fontaine, the greatest of fabulists, is
+a poetic rendering of Johnson's definition:
+
+  "Fables in sooth are not what they appear;
+   Our moralists are mice, and such small deer.
+   We yawn at sermons, but we gladly turn
+   To moral tales, and so amused we learn."
+
+The fable is distinguished from the myth, which grows and is not made,
+the spontaneous and unconscious product of primitive fancy as it plays
+round some phenomenon of natural or historical fact. The literary myth,
+such as, for instance, the legend of Pandora in Hesiod or the tale of Er
+in the _Republic_ of Plato, is really an allegory, and differs from the
+fable in so far as it is self-interpreting; the story and the moral are
+intermingled throughout. Between the parable and the fable there is no
+clear line of demarcation, and theologians like Trench have
+unwarrantably narrowed their definition of a parable to fit those of the
+New Testament. The soundest distinction is drawn by Neander. In the
+fable human passions and actions are attributed to beasts; in the
+parable the lower creation is employed only to illustrate the higher
+life and never transgresses the laws of its kind. But whether Jotham's
+apologue of the trees choosing a king, perhaps the first recorded in
+literature, should be classed as a fable or a parable is hardly worth
+disputing. Lastly, we may point out the close affinity between the fable
+and the proverb. A proverb is often a condensed or fossilized fable, and
+not a few fables are amplified or elaborated proverbs.
+
+The history of the fable goes back to the remotest antiquity, and Aesop
+has even less claim to be reckoned the father of the fable than has
+Homer to be entitled the father of poetry. The fable has its origin in
+the universal impulse of men to express their thoughts in concrete
+images, and is strictly parallel to the use of metaphor in language. It
+is the most widely diffused if not the most primitive form of
+literature. Though it has fallen from its high place it still survives,
+as in J. Chandler Harris's _Uncle Remus_ and Rudyard Kipling's _Jungle
+Book_. The Arab of to-day will invent a fable at every turn of the
+conversation as the readiest form of argument, and in the _Life_ of
+Coventry Patmore it is told how an impromptu fable of his about the
+pious dormouse found its way into Catholic books of devotion.
+
+With the fable, as we know it, the moral is indispensable. As La
+Fontaine puts it, an apologue is composed of two parts, body and soul.
+The body is the story, the soul the morality. But if we revert to the
+earliest type we shall find that this is no longer the case. In the
+primitive beast-fable, which is the direct progenitor of the Aesopian
+fable, the story is told simply for its own sake, and is as innocent of
+any moral as the fairy tales of Little Red Riding-Hood and Jack and the
+Beanstalk. Thus, in a legend of the Flathead Indians, the Little Wolf
+found in cloud-land his grandsires the Spiders with their grizzled hair
+and long crooked nails, and they spun balls of thread to let him down to
+earth; when he came down and found his wife the Speckled Duck, whom the
+Old Wolf had taken from him, she fled in confusion, and this is why she
+lives and dives alone to this very day. Such animal myths are as common
+in the New World as in the Old, and abound from Finland and Kamtchatka
+to the Hottentots and Australasians. From the story invented, as the one
+above quoted, to account for some peculiarity of the animal world, or
+told as a pure exercise of the imagination, just as a sailor spins a
+yarn about the sea-serpent, to the moral apologue the transition is
+easy; and that it has been effected by savages unaided by the example of
+higher races seems sufficiently proved by the tales quoted by E.B. Tylor
+(_Primitive Culture_, vol. i. p. 411). From the beast-fables of savages
+we come next to the Oriental apologues, which we still possess in their
+original form. The East, the land of myth and legend, is the natural
+home of the fable, and Hindustan was the birthplace, if not of the
+original of these tales, at least of the oldest shape in which they
+still exist. The _Pancha Tantra_ (2nd century B.C.), or fables of the
+Brahma Vishnu Sarman, have been translated from Sanskrit into almost
+every language and adapted by most modern fabulists. The _Kalilah_ and
+_Dimna_ (names of two jackals), or fables of Bidpai (or Pilpai), passed
+from India to western Europe through the successive stages of Pahlavi
+(ancient Persian), Arabic, Greek, Latin. By the end of the 16th century
+there were Italian, French and English versions. There is an excellent
+Arabic edition (Paris, 1816) with an introduction by Sylvestre de Sacy.
+The _Hitopadesa_, or "friendly instruction," is a modernized form of the
+same work, and of it there are three translations into English by Dr
+Charles Wilkins, Sir William Jones and Professor F. Johnson. The
+_Hitopadesa_ is a complete chaplet of fables loosely strung together,
+but connected so as to form something of a continuous story, with moral
+reflections freely interspersed, purporting to be written for the
+instruction of some dissolute young princes. Thus, in the first fable a
+flock of pigeons see the grains of rice which a fowler has scattered,
+and are about to descend on them, when the king of the pigeons warns
+them by telling the fable of a traveller who being greedy of a bracelet
+was devoured by a tiger. They neglect his warning and are caught in the
+net, but are afterwards delivered by the king of the mice, who tells the
+story of the Deer, the Jackal and the Crow, to show that no real
+friendship can exist between the strong and the weak, the beast of prey
+and his quarry, and so on to the end of the volume. Another book of
+Eastern fables is well worthy of notice, _Buddhaghosha's Parables_, a
+commentary on the _Dhammapada_ or _Buddha's Paths of Virtue_. The
+original is in Pali, but an English translation of the Burmese version
+was made by Captain T. Rogers, R.E.
+
+From Hindustan the Sanskrit fables passed to China, Tibet and Persia;
+and they must have reached Greece at an early age, for many of the
+fables which passed under the name of Aesop are identical with those of
+the East. Aesop to us is little more than a name, though, if we may
+trust a passing notice in Herodotus (ii. 134), he must have lived in the
+6th century B.C. Probably his fables were never written down, though
+several are ascribed to him by Xenophon, Aristotle, Plutarch and other
+Greek writers, and Plato represents Socrates as beguiling his last days
+by versifying such as he remembered. Aristophanes alludes to them as
+merry tales, and Plato, while excluding the poets from his ideal
+republic, admits Aesop as a moral teacher. Of the various versions of
+_Aesop's Fables_, by far the most trustworthy is that of Babrius or
+Babrias, a Greek probably of the 3rd century A.D., who rendered them in
+choliambic verse. These, which were long known in fragments only, were
+recovered in a MS. found by M. Minas in a monastery on Mount Athos in
+1842, now in the British Museum.[1] An inferior version of the same in
+Latin iambics was made by Phaedrus, a slave of Thracian origin, brought
+to Rome in the time of Augustus and manumitted by him. Phaedrus
+professes to polish in senarian verse the rough-hewn blocks from Aesop's
+quarry; but the numerous allusions to contemporary events, as, for
+example, his hit at Sejanus in the Frogs and the Sun, which brought upon
+the author disgrace and imprisonment, show that many of them are
+original or free adaptations. For some time scholars doubted as to the
+genuineness of Phaedrus's fables, but their doubts have been lately
+dispelled by a closer examination of the MSS. and by the discovery of
+two verses of a fable on a tomb at Apulum in Dacia. Phaedrus's style is
+simple, clear and brief, but dry and unpoetical; and, as Lessing has
+pointed out, he often falls into absurdities when he deserts his
+original. For instance, in Aesop the dog with the meat in his mouth sees
+his reflection in the water as he passes over a bridge; Phaedrus makes
+him see it as he swims across the river.
+
+To sum up the characteristics of the Aesopian fable, it is artless,
+simple and transparent. It affects no graces of style, and we hardly
+need the text with which each concludes, [Greek: ho mythos dêloi hoti,
+k.t.l.] The moral inculcated is that of _Proverbial Philosophy_ and
+_Poor Richard's Almanacks_. Aesop is no maker of phrases, but an orator
+who wishes to gain some point or induce some course of action. It is the
+Aesopian type that Aristotle has in view when he treats of the fable as
+a branch of rhetoric, not of poetry.
+
+The Latin race was given to moralizing, and the language lent itself to
+crisp and pointed narrative, but they lacked the free play of fancy, the
+childlike "make-believe," to produce a national body of fables. With the
+doubtful exception of Phaedrus, we possess nothing but solitary
+examples, such as the famous apologue of Menenius Agrippa to the Plebs
+and the exquisite Town Mouse and Country Mouse of Horace's _Satires_.
+
+The fables of the rhetorician Aphthonius about A.D. 400 in Greek prose,
+and those in Latin elegiac verse by Avianus, used for centuries as a
+text-book in schools, form in the history of the apologue a link between
+classical and medieval times. In a Latin dress, sometimes in prose,
+sometimes in regular verse, and sometimes in rhymed stanzas, the fable
+contributed, with other kinds of narratives, to make up the huge mass of
+stories which has been bequeathed to us by the monastic libraries. These
+served more uses than one. They were at once easier and safer reading
+than the classics. To the lazy monk they stood in place of novels; to
+the more industrious and gifted they furnished an exercise on a par with
+Latin verse composition in our public schools; the more original
+transformed them into _fabliaux_, or embodied them in edifying stories,
+as in the _Gesta Romanorum_. It is not in the _Speculum Doctrinale_ of
+Vincent de Beauvais, a Dominican of the 12th century, nor in the
+collection of his contemporary Odo de Cerinton, an English Cistercian,
+nor in Planudes of the 14th century, whose one distinction is to have
+added to the fables a life of Aesop, that the direct lineage of La
+Fontaine must be traced. It is the _fabliaux_ that inspired some of his
+best fables--the Lion's Court, the Young Widow, the Coach and the Fly.
+
+As the supremacy of Latin declined and modern languages began to be
+turned to literary uses, the fable took a new life. Not only were there
+numerous adaptations of Aesop, known as Ysopets, but Marie de France in
+the 13th century composed many original fables, some rivalling La
+Fontaine's in simplicity and gracefulness. Later, also, fables were not
+wanting, though not numerous, in the English tongue. Chaucer has given
+us one, in his Nonne Preste's Tale, which is an expansion of the fable
+_Don Coc et don Werpil_ of Marie de France; another is Lydgate's tale of
+The Churl and the Bird.
+
+Several of Odo's tales, like Chaucer's story, can be ultimately traced
+to the History of Reynard the Fox. This great beast-epic has been
+referred by Grimm as far back as the 10th century, and is known to us in
+three forms, each with independent episodes, but all woven upon a common
+basis. The Latin form is probably the earliest, and the poems
+_Reinardus_ and _Ysengrinus_ date from the 10th or 11th century. Next
+come the German versions. The most ancient, that of a minnesinger
+Heinrich der Glichesaere (probably a Swabian), was analysed and edited
+by Grimm in 1840. The French poem of more than 30,000 lines, the _Roman
+du Rénard_, belongs probably to the 13th century. In 1498 appeared
+_Reynke de Voss_, almost a literal version in Low Saxon of the Flemish
+poem of the 12th century, _Reinaert de Vos_. Hence the well-known
+version of Goethe into modern German hexameters was taken. The poem has
+been well named "an unholy world Bible." In it the Aesopian fable
+received a development which was in several respects quite original. We
+have here no short and unconnected stories. Materials, partly borrowed
+from older apologues, but in a much greater proportion new, are worked
+up into one long and systematic tale. The moral, so prominent in the
+fable proper, shrinks so far into the background, that the epic might be
+considered a work of pure fiction, an animal romance. The attempts to
+discover in it personal satire have signally failed; some critics deny
+even the design to represent human conduct at all; and we can scarcely
+get nearer to its signification than by regarding it as being, in a
+general way, what Carlyle has called "a parody of human life." It
+represents a contest maintained successfully, by selfish craft and
+audacity, against enemies of all sorts, in a half-barbarous and
+ill-organized society. With his weakest foes, like Chaunteclere the
+Cock, Reynard uses brute-force; over the weak who are protected, like
+Kiward the Hare and Belin the Ram, he is victorious by uniting violence
+with cunning; Bruin, the dull, strong, formidable Bear, is humbled by
+having greater power than his own enlisted against him; and the most
+dangerous of all the fox's enemies, Isengrim, the obstinate, greedy and
+implacable Wolf, after being baffled by repeated strokes of malicious
+ingenuity, forces Reynard to a single combat, but even thus is not a
+match for his dexterous adversary. The knavish fox has allies worthy of
+him in Grimbart the watchful badger, and in his own aunt Dame Rukenawe,
+the learned She-ape; and he plays at his pleasure on the simple
+credulity of the Lion-King, the image of an impotent feudal sovereign.
+The characters of these and other brutes are kept up with a rude kind of
+consistency, which gives them great liveliness; many of the incidents
+are devised with much force of humour; and the sly hits at the weak
+points of medieval polity and manners and religion are incessant and
+palpable.
+
+It is needless to trace the fable, or illustrations borrowed from
+fables, that so frequently occur as incidental ornaments in the older
+literature of England and other countries. It has appeared in every
+modern nation of Europe, but has nowhere become very important, and has
+hardly ever exhibited much originality either of spirit or of manner. In
+English, Prior transplanted from France some of La Fontaine's ease of
+narration and artful artlessness, while Gay took as his model the
+_Contes_ rather than the _Fables_. Gay's fables are often political
+satires, but some, like the Fox on his Deathbed, have the true ring, and
+in the Hare with many Friends there is genuine pathos. To Dryden's
+spirited remodellings of old poems, romances and _fabliaux_, the name of
+fables, which he was pleased to give them, is quite inapplicable. In
+German, Hagedorn and Gellert, both famous in their day and the latter
+extolled by Goethe, are quite forgotten; and even Lessing's fables are
+read by few but schoolboys. In Spanish, Yriarte's fables on literary
+subjects are sprightly and graceful, but the critic is more than the
+fabulist. A spirited version of the best appeared in _Blackwood's
+Magazine_, 1839. Among Italians Pignotti is famous for versatility and
+command of rhythm, as amongst Russians is Kriloff for his keen satire on
+Russian society. He has been translated into English by Ralston.
+
+France alone in modern times has attained any pre-eminence in the fable,
+and this distinction is almost entirely owing to one author. Marie de
+France in the 13th century, Gilles Corrozet, Guillaume Haudent and
+Guillaume Gueroult in the 16th, are now studied mainly as the
+precursors of La Fontaine, from whom he may have borrowed a stray hint
+or the outline of a story. The unique character of his work has given a
+new word to the French language: other writers of fables are called
+_fabulistes_, La Fontaine is named _le fablier_. He is a true poet; his
+verse is exquisitely modulated; his love of nature often reminds us of
+Virgil, as do his tenderness and pathos (see, for instance, The Two
+Pigeons and Death and the Woodcutter). He is full of sly fun and
+delicate humour; like Horace he satirizes without wounding, and "plays
+around the heart." Lastly, he is a keen observer of men. The whole
+society of the 17th century, its greatness and its foibles, its luxury
+and its squalor, from _Le grand monarque_ to the poor _manant_, from his
+majesty the lion to the courtier of an ape, is painted to the life. To
+borrow his own phrase, La Fontaine's fables are "une ample comédie à
+cent actes divers." Rousseau did his best to discredit the _Fables_ as
+immoral and corruptors of youth, but in spite of _Émile_ they are
+studied in every French school and are more familiar to most Frenchmen
+than their breviary. Among the successors of La Fontaine the most
+distinguished is Florian. He justly estimates his own merits in the
+pretty apologue that he prefixed to his _Fables_. He asks a sage whether
+a fabulist writing after La Fontaine would not be wise to consign his
+work to the flames. The sage replies by a question: "What would you say
+did some sweet, ingenuous Maid of Athens refuse to let herself be seen
+because there was once a Helen of Troy?"
+
+The fables of Lessing represent the reaction against the French school
+of fabulists. "With La Fontaine himself," says Lessing, "I have no
+quarrel, but against the imitators of La Fontaine I enter my protest."
+His attention was first called to the fable by Gellert's popular work
+published in 1746. Gellert's fables were closely modelled after La
+Fontaine's, and were a vehicle for lively railings against the fair sex,
+and hits at contemporary follies. Lessing's early essays were in the
+same style, but his subsequent study of the history and theory of the
+fable led him to discard his former model as a perversion of later
+times, and the "Fabeln," published in 1759, are the outcome of his riper
+views. Lessing's fables, like all that he wrote, display his vigorous
+common sense. He has, it is true, little of La Fontaine's _curiosa
+felicitas_, his sly humour and lightness of touch; and Frenchmen would
+say that his criticism of La Fontaine is an illustration of the fable of
+the sour grapes. On the other hand, he has the rare power of looking at
+both sides of a moral problem; he holds a brief for the stupid and the
+feeble, the ass and the lamb; and in spite of his formal protest against
+poetical ornament, there is in not a few of his fables a vein of true
+poetry, as in the Sheep (ii. 13) and Jupiter and the Sheep (ii. 18). But
+the monograph which introduced the _Fabeln_ is of more inportance than
+the fables themselves. According to Lessing the ideal fable is that of
+Aesop. All the elaborations and refinements of later authors, from
+Phaedrus to La Fontaine, are perversions of this original. The fable is
+essentially a moral precept illustrated by a single example, and it is
+the lesson thus enforced which gives to the fable its unity and makes it
+a work of art. The illustration must be either an actual occurrence or
+represented as such, because a fictitious case invented _ad hoc_ can
+appeal but feebly to the reader's judgment. Lastly, the fable requires a
+story or connected chain of events. A single fact will not make a fable,
+but is only an emblem. We thus arrive at the following definition:--"A
+fable is a relation of a series of changes which together form a whole.
+The unity of the fable consists herein, that all the parts lead up to an
+end, the end for which the fable was invented being the moral precept."
+
+We may notice in passing a problem in connexion with the fable which had
+long been debated, but never satisfactorily resolved till Lessing took
+it in hand--Why should animals have been almost universally chosen as
+the chief _dramatis personae_? The reason, according to Lessing, is that
+animals have distinct characters which are known and recognized by all.
+The fabulist who writes of Britannicus and Nero appeals to the few who
+know Roman history. The Wolf and the Lamb comes home to every one
+whether learned or simple. But, besides this, human sympathies obscure
+the moral judgment; hence it follows that the fable, unlike the drama
+and the epos, should abstain from all that is likely to arouse our
+prejudices or our passions. In this respect the Wolf and the Lamb of
+Aesop is a more perfect fable than the Rich Man and the Poor Man's Ewe
+Lamb of Nathan.
+
+Lessing's analysis and definition of the fable, though he seems himself
+unconscious of the scope of his argument, is in truth its death-warrant.
+The beast-fable arose in a primitive age when men firmly believed that
+beasts could talk and reason, that any wolf they met might be a
+were-wolf, that a peacock might be a Pythagoras in disguise, and an ox
+or even a cat a being worthy of their worship. To this succeeded the
+second age of the fable, which belongs to the same stage of culture as
+the Hebrew proverbs and the gnomic poets of Greece. That honesty is the
+best policy, that death is common to all, seemed to the men of that day
+profound truths worthy to be embalmed in verse or set off by the aid of
+story or anecdote. Last comes an age of high literary culture which
+tolerates the trite morals and hackneyed tales for the sake of the
+exquisite setting, and is amused at the wit which introduces topics and
+characters of the day under the transparent veil of animal life. Such an
+artificial product can be nothing more than the fashion of a day, and
+must, like pastoral poetry, die a natural death. A serious moralist
+would hardly choose that form to inculcate, like Mandeville in his
+_Fable of the Bees_, a new doctrine in morals, for the moral of the
+fable must be such that he who runs may read. A true poet will not care
+to masquerade as a moral teacher, or show his wit by refurbishing some
+old-world maxim. Yet Taine in France, Lowell in America, and J.A. Froude
+in England have proved that the fable as one form of literature is not
+yet extinct, and is capable of new and unexpected developments.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Pantschatantrum_, ed. Kosegarten (Bonn, 1848);
+  _Hitopadesa_, ed. Max Müller (1864); Silvestre de Sacy, _Calilah et
+  Dimna, ou Fables de Bidpai, en Arabe, précédées d'un mémoire sur
+  l'origine de ce livre_ (Paris, 1816), translated by the Rev. Wyndham
+  Knatchbull (Oxford, 1819); Comparetti, _Ricerche intorno al Libro di
+  Sindebad_ (Milan, 1869); Max Müller, "Migration of Fables," _Chips
+  from a German Workshop_, vol. iv. (1875); Keller, _Untersuchungen über
+  die Geschichte der griechischen Fabel_ (Leipzig, 1862); _Babrius_, ed.
+  W.G. Rutherford, with excursus on Greek fables (1883); L. Hervieux,
+  _Les Fabuiistes latins_ (1884); Jakob Grimm, _Reinhart Fuchs_ (Berlin,
+  1834); A.C.M. Robert, _Fables inédites des XII^e, XIII^e, et XIV^e
+  siècles_, &c. (Paris, 1825); Taine, _Essai sur les fables de La
+  Fontaine_ (1853); Saint-Marc Girardin, _La Fontaine et les fabulistes_
+  (Paris, 1867).     (F. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] M. Minas professed to have discovered under the same
+    circumstances another collection of ninety-four fables by Babrius.
+    This second part was accepted by Sir G.C. Lewis, but J. Conington
+    conclusively proved it spurious, and probably a forgery. See BABRIUS.
+
+
+
+
+FABLIAU. The entertaining tales in eight-syllable rhymed verse which
+form a marked section of French medieval literature are called
+_fabliaux_, the word being derived by Littré from _fablel_, a diminutive
+of _fable_. It is a mistake to suppose, as is frequently done, that
+every legend of the middle ages is a fabliau. In a poem of the 12th
+century a clear distinction is drawn between songs of chivalry, war or
+love, and _fabliaux_, which are recitals of laughter. A fabliau always
+related an event; it was usually brief, containing not more than 400
+lines; it was neither sentimental, religious nor supernatural, but comic
+and gay. MM. de Montaiglon and Raynaud, who have closely investigated
+this class of literature, consider that about 150 fabliaux have come
+down to us more or less intact; a vast number have doubtless
+disappeared. It appears from a phrase in the writings of the trouvère,
+Henri d'Andeli, that the fabliau was not thought worthy of being copied
+out on parchment. The wonder, then, is that so many of these ephemeral
+compositions have been preserved. Arguments brought forward by M. Joseph
+Bédier, however, tend to show that we need not regret the disappearance
+of the majority of the fabliaux, as those which were copied into MSS.
+were those which were felt to be of the greatest intrinsic value. As
+early as the 8th century fabliaux must have existed, since the faithful
+are forbidden to take pleasure in these _fabulas inanes_ by the
+_Paenitentiale_ of Egbert. But it appears that all the early examples
+are lost.
+
+In the opinion of the best scholars, the earliest surviving fabliau is
+that of _Richeut_, which dates from 1159. This is a rough and powerful
+study of the coarse life of the day, with little plot, but engaged with
+a realistic picture of manners. Such poems, but of a more strictly
+narrative nature, continued to be produced, mainly in the north and
+north-east of France, until the middle of the 14th century. Much
+speculation has been expended on the probable sources of the tales which
+the trouvères told. The Aryan theory, which saw in them the direct
+influence of India upon Europe, has now been generally abandoned. It
+does not seem probable that any ancient or exotic influences were
+brought to bear upon the French jongleurs, who simply invented or
+adapted stories of that universal kind which springs unsown from every
+untilled field of human society. More remarkable than the narratives
+themselves is the spirit in which they are told. This is full of the
+national humour and the national irony, the true _esprit gaulois_. A
+very large section of these popular poems deals satirically with the
+pretensions of the clergy. Such are the famous _Prêtre aux mûres_, the
+_Prêtre qui dit la Passion_ and _Les Perdrix_. Some of these are
+innocently merry; others are singularly depraved and obscene. Another
+class of fabliaux is that which comprises jests against the professions;
+in this, the most prominent example is _Le Vilain Mire_, a satire on
+doctors, which curiously predicts the _Médecin malgré lui_ of Molière.
+There are also tales whose purpose is rather voluptuous than witty, and
+whose aim is to excuse libertinage and render marriage ridiculous. Among
+these are prominent _Court Mantel_ and _Le Dit de Berenger_. Yet another
+class repeated, with a strain of irony or oddity, such familiar
+classical stories as those of Narcissus, and Pyramus and Thisbe. It is
+rarely that any elevation of tone raises these poems above a familiar
+and even playful level, but there are some that are almost idealistic.
+Among these the story of a sort of Sisyphus errant, _Le Chevalier de
+Barizel_, offers an ethical interest which lifts it in certain respects
+above all other surviving fabliaux. An instance of the pathetic fabliau
+is _Housse Partie_, a kind of primitive version of the story of King
+Lear.
+
+In composing these pieces, of very varied character, the jongleurs have
+practised an art which was in many respects rudimentary, but sincere and
+simple. The student of language finds the rich vocabulary of the
+fabliaux much more attractive to him than the conventionality of the
+serious religious and amatory poems of the same age. The object of the
+writers was the immediate amusement of their audience; by reference to
+familiar things, they hoped to arouse a quick and genuine merriment.
+Hence their incorrectness and their negligence are balanced by a
+delightful ease and absence of pedantry, and in the fabliaux we get
+closer than elsewhere to the living diction of medieval France. It is
+true that if we extend too severe a judgment to these pieces, we may
+find ourselves obliged to condemn them altogether. An instructed French
+critic, vexed with their faults, has gone so far as to say that "the
+subjects of these tales are degrading, their inspiration nothing better
+than flat and cruel derision, their distinguishing features rascality,
+vulgarity and platitude of style." From one point of view, this
+condemnation of the fabliau is hardly too severe. But such scholars as
+Gaston Paris and Paul Meyer have not failed to emphasize other sides to
+the question. They have praised, in the general laxity of style and
+garrulity of the middle ages, the terseness of the jongleurs; in the
+period of false ornament, their fidelity to nature; in a time of general
+vagueness, the sharp and picturesque outlines of their art. One feature
+of the fabliaux, however, cannot be praised and yet must not be
+overlooked. In no other section of the world's literature is the scorn
+and hatred of women so prominent. It is difficult to account for the
+anti-feminine rage which pervades the fabliaux, and takes hideous shapes
+in such examples as _Le Valet aux deux femmes_, _Le Pêcheur de
+Pont-sur-Seine_ and _Chicheface et Bigorne_. Probably this was a violent
+reaction against the extravagant cult of woman as expressed in the
+contemporary _lais_ as well as in the legends of saints. The
+exaggeration was not greater in the one case than in the other, and it
+is probable that the exaltation was made endurable to those who listened
+to the trouvères by the corresponding degradation. We must remember,
+too, that those who listened were not nobles or clerks, they were the
+common people. The fabliaux were _fabellae ignobilium_, little stories
+told to amuse persons of low degree, who were irritated by the moral
+pretensions of their superiors.
+
+The names of about twenty of the authors of fabliaux have been
+preserved, although in most cases nothing is known of their personal
+history. The most famous poet of this class of writing is the man whose
+name, or more probably pseudonym, was Rutebeuf. He wrote _Frère Denyse_
+and _Le Sacristain_, while to him is attributed the _Dit d'Aristote_, in
+the course of which Aristotle gives good advice to Alexander. Fabliaux,
+however, form but a small part of the work of Rutebeuf, who was a
+satirical poet of wide accomplishment and varied energy. Most of the
+jongleurs who wrote these merry and indecent tales in octosyllabic verse
+were persons of less distinction. Henri d'Andeli was an ecclesiastic,
+attached, it is supposed, to the cathedral of Rouen. Jean de Condé, who
+flourished in the court of Hainaut from 1310 to 1340, and who is the
+latest of the genuine writers of fabliaux, lived in comfort and
+security, but most of the professional jongleurs seem to have spent
+their years in a Bohemian existence, wandering among the clergy and the
+merchant class, alternately begging for money and food and reciting
+their mocking verses.
+
+  The principal authorities for the fabliaux are MM. Anatole de
+  Montaiglon and Gaston Raynaud, who published the text, in 6 vols.,
+  between 1872 and 1890. This edition corrected and supplemented the
+  very valuable labours of Méon (1808-1823) and Jubinal (1839-1842). The
+  works of Henri d'Andeli were edited by M.A. Héron in 1880, and those
+  of Rutebeuf were made the subject of an exhaustive monograph by M.
+  Léon Clédat in 1891. See also the editions of separate fabliaux by
+  Gaston Paris, Paul Meyer, Ebeling, August Schéler and other modern
+  scholars. M. Joseph Bedier's _Les Fabliaux_ (1895) is a useful summary
+  of critical opinion on the entire subject.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRE, FERDINAND (1830-1898), French novelist, was born at Bédarieux, in
+Hérault, a very picturesque district of the south of France, which he
+made completely his own in literature. He was the son of a local
+architect, who failed in business, and Ferdinand was brought up by his
+uncle, the Abbé Fulcran Fabre, at Camplong among the mulberry woods. Of
+his childhood and early youth he has given a charming account in _Ma
+Vocation_ (1889). He was destined to the priesthood, and was sent for
+that purpose to the seminary of St Pons de Thomières, where, in 1848, he
+had, as he believed, an ecstatic vision of Christ, who warned him "It is
+not the will of God that thou shouldst be a priest." He had now to look
+about for a profession, and, after attempting medicine at Montpellier,
+was articled as a lawyer's clerk in Paris. In 1853 he published a volume
+of verses, _Feuilles de lierre_, broke down in health, and crept back,
+humble and apparently without ambition, to his old home at Bédarieux.
+After some eight or nine years of country life he reappeared in Paris,
+with the MS. of his earliest novel, _Les Courbezon_ (1862), in which he
+treated the subject which was to recur in almost all his books, the
+daily business of country priests in the Cevennes. This story enjoyed an
+immediate success with the literary class of readers; George Sand
+praised it, Sainte-Beuve hailed in its author "the strongest of the
+disciples of Balzac," and it was crowned by the French Academy. From
+this time forth Fabre settled down to the production of novels, of which
+at the time of his death he had published about twenty. Among these the
+most important were _Le Chevrier_ (1868), unique among his works as
+written in an experimental mixture of Cevenol patois and French of the
+16th century; _L'Abbé Tigrane, candidat à la papauté_ (1873), by common
+consent the best of all Fabre's novels, a very powerful picture of
+unscrupulous priestly ambition; _Mon Oncle Célestin_ (1881), a study of
+the entirely single and tender-hearted country abbé; and _Lucifer_
+(1884), a marvellous gallery of serious clerical portraits. In 1883
+Fabre was appointed curator of the Mazarin Library, with rooms in the
+Institute, where, on 11th February 1898, he died after a brief attack of
+pneumonia. Ferdinand Fabre occupies in French literature a position
+somewhat analogous to that of Mr Thomas Hardy amongst English writers of
+fiction. He deals almost exclusively with the population of the mountain
+villages of Hérault, and particularly with its priests. He loved most of
+all to treat of the celibate virtues, the strictly ecclesiastical
+passions, the enduring tension of the young soul drawn between the
+spiritual vocation and the physical demands of nature. Although never a
+priest, he preserved a comprehension of and a sympathy with the clerical
+character, and he always indignantly denied that he was hostile to the
+Church, although he stood just outside her borders. Fabre possessed a
+limited and a monotonous talent, but within his own field he was as
+original as he was wholesome and charming.
+
+  See also J. Lemaître, _Les Contemporains_, vol. ii.; G. Pellissier,
+  _Études de littérature contemporaine_ (1898); E.W. Gosse, _French
+  Profiles_ (1905).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRE D'ÉGLANTINE, PHILIPPE FRANÇOIS NAZAIRE (1750-1794), French
+dramatist and revolutionist, was born at Carcassonne on the 28th of July
+1750. His real name was simple Fabre, the "d'Églantine" being added in
+commemoration of his receiving the golden eglantine of Clémence Isaure
+from the academy of the floral games at Toulouse. After travelling
+through the provinces as an actor, he came to Paris, and produced an
+unsuccessful comedy entitled _Les Gens de lettres, ou le provincial à
+Paris_ (1787). A tragedy, _Augusta_, produced at the _Théâtre Français_,
+was also a failure. One only of his plays, _Philinte, ou la suite du
+Misanthrope_ (1790), still preserves its reputation. It professes to be
+a continuation of Molière's _Misanthrope_, but the hero of the piece is
+of a different character from the nominal prototype--an impersonation,
+indeed, of pure and simple egotism. On its publication the play was
+introduced by a preface, in which the author mercilessly satirizes the
+_Optimiste_ of his rival J.F. Collin d'Harleville, whose _Châteaux en
+Espagne_ had gained the applause which Fabre's _Présomptueux_ (1789) had
+failed to win. The character of Philinte had much political
+significance. Alceste received the highest praise, and evidently
+represents the citizen patriot, while Philinte is a dangerous aristocrat
+in disguise. Fabre was president and secretary of the club of the
+Cordeliers, and belonged also to the Jacobin club. He was chosen by
+Danton as his private secretary, and sat in the National Convention. He
+voted for the king's death, supporting the _maximum_ and the law of the
+suspected, and he was a bitter enemy of the Girondins. After the death
+of Marat he published a _Portrait de l'Ami du Peuple_. On the abolition
+of the Gregorian calendar he sat on the committee entrusted with the
+formation of the republican substitute, and to him was due a large part
+of the new nomenclature, with its poetic _Prairial and Floréal_, its
+prosaic _Primidi_ and _Duodi_. The report which he made on the subject,
+on the 24th of October, has some scientific value. On the 12th of
+January 1794 he was arrested by order of the committee of public safety
+on a charge of malversation and forgery in connexion with the affairs of
+the Compagnie des Indes. Documents still existing prove that the charge
+was altogether groundless. During his trial Fabre showed the greatest
+calmness and sang his own well-known song of _Il pleut, il pleut,
+bergère, rentre tes blancs moutons_. He was guillotined on the 5th of
+April 1794. On his way to the scaffold he distributed his manuscript
+poems to the people.
+
+A posthumous play, _Les Précepteurs_, steeped with the doctrines of
+Rousseau's _Émile_, was performed on the 17th of September 1794, and met
+with an enthusiastic reception. Among Fabre's other plays are the gay
+and successful _Convalescent de qualité_ (1791), and _L'Intrigue
+épistolaire_ (1791). In the latter play Fabre is supposed to have drawn
+a portrait of the painter Jean Baptiste Greuze.
+
+  The author's _Oeuvres mêlées et posthumes_ were published at Paris
+  1802, 2 vols. See Albert Maurin, _Galerie hist. de la Révolution
+  française_, tome 11; Jules Janin, _Hist. de la litt. dram._; Chénier,
+  _Tableau de la litt. française_; F.A. Aulard in the _Nouvelle Revue_
+  (July 1885).
+
+
+
+
+FABRETTI, RAPHAEL (1618-1700), Italian antiquary, was born in 1618 at
+Urbino in Umbria. He studied law at Cagli and Urbino, where he took the
+degree of doctor at the age of eighteen. While in Rome he attracted the
+notice of Cardinal Lorenzo Imperiali, who employed him successively as
+treasurer and auditor of the papal legation in Spain, where he remained
+thirteen years. Meanwhile, his favourite classical and antiquarian
+studies were not neglected; and on his return journey he made important
+observations of the relics and monuments of Spain, France and Italy. At
+Rome he was appointed judge of appellation of the Capitol, which post he
+left to be auditor of the legation at Urbino. After three years he
+returned to Rome, on the invitation of Cardinal Carpegna, vicar of
+Innocent XI., and devoted himself to antiquarian research, examining
+with minute care the monuments and inscriptions of the Campagna. He
+always rode a horse which his friends nicknamed "Marco Polo," after the
+Venetian traveller. By Innocent XII. he was made keeper of the archives
+of the castle St Angelo, a charge which he retained till his death. He
+died at Rome on the 7th of January 1700. His collection of inscriptions
+and monuments was purchased by Cardinal Stoppani, and placed in the
+ducal palace at Urbino, where they may still be seen.
+
+His work _De Aquis et Aquae-ductibus veteris Romae_ (1680), three
+dissertations on the topography of ancient Latium, is inserted in
+Graevius's _Thesaurus_, iv. (1677). His interpretation of certain
+passages in Livy and other classical authors involved him in a dispute
+with Gronovius, which bore a strong resemblance to that between Milton
+and Salmasius, Gronovius addressing Fabretti as _Faber Rusticus_, and
+the latter, in reply, speaking of _Grunnovius_ and his _titivilitia_. In
+this controversy Fabretti used the pseudonym Iasitheus, which he
+afterwards took as his pastoral name in the Academy of the Arcadians.
+His other works, _De Columna Trajani Syntagma_ (Rome, 1683), and
+_Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio_ (Rome, 1699), throw much light on
+Roman antiquity. In the former is to be found his explication of a
+bas-relief, with inscriptions, now in the Capitol at Rome, representing
+the war and taking of Troy, known as the Iliac table. Letters and other
+shorter works of Fabretti are to be found in publications of the time,
+as the _Journal des Savants_.
+
+  See Crescimbeni, _Le Vite degli Arcadi illustri_; Fabroni, _Vitae
+  Italorum_, vi. 174; Niceron, iv. 372; J. Lamius, _Memorabilia Italorum
+  eruditione praestantium_ (Florence, 1742-1748).
+
+
+
+
+FABRIANI, SEVERINO (1792-1849), Italian author and teacher, was born at
+Spilamberto, Italy, on the 7th of January 1792. Entering the Church, he
+took up educational work, but in consequence of complete loss of voice
+he resolved to devote himself to teaching deaf mutes, and founded a
+small school specially for them. This school the duke of Modena made
+into an institute, and by a special authority from the pope a teaching
+staff of nuns was appointed. Fabriani's method of instruction is summed
+up in his _Logical Letters on Italian Grammar_ (1847). He died on the
+27th of April 1849.
+
+
+
+
+FABRIANO, a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ancona, from
+which it is 44 m. S.W. by rail, 1066 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
+town 9586, commune 22,996. It has been noted since the 13th century for
+its paper mills, which still produce the best paper in Italy. A school
+of painting arose here, one of the early masters of which is Allegretto
+Nuzi (1308-1385); and several of the churches contain works by him and
+other local masters. His pupil, Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1428), was a
+painter of considerably greater skill and wider knowledge; but there are
+no important works of his at Fabriano. The sacristy of S. Agostino also
+contains some good frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio. The municipal
+picture gallery contains a collection of pictures, and among them are
+some primitive frescoes, attributable to the 12th century, which still
+retain traces of Byzantine influence. The Archivio Comunale contains
+documents on watermarked paper of local manufacture going back to the
+13th century. The Ponte dell' Acra, a bridge of the 15th century, is
+noticeable for the ingenuity and strength of its construction. The
+hospital of S. Maria Buon Gesu is a fine work of 1456, attributed to
+Rossellino.
+
+  See A. Zonghi, _Antiche Carte Fabrianesi_.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. "the one-eyed"), Roman general, was the
+first member of the Fabrician gens who settled in Rome. He migrated to
+Rome from Aletrium (Livy ix. 43), one of the Hernican towns which was
+allowed to retain its independence as a reward for not having revolted.
+In 285 he was one of the ambassadors sent to the Tarentines to dissuade
+them from making war on the Romans. In 282 (when consul) he defeated the
+Bruttians and Lucanians, who had besieged Thurii (Livy, _Epit._ 12).
+After the defeat of the Romans by Pyrrhus at Heraclea (280), Fabricius
+was sent to treat for the ransom and exchange of the prisoners. All
+attempts to bribe him were unsuccessful, and Pyrrhus is said to have
+been so impressed that he released the prisoners without ransom
+(Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 18). The story that Pyrrhus attempted to frighten
+Fabricius by the sight of an elephant is probably a fiction. In 278
+Fabricius was elected consul for the second time, and was successful in
+negotiating terms of peace with Pyrrhus, who sailed away to Sicily.
+Fabricius afterwards gained a series of victories over the Samnites, the
+Lucanians and the Bruttians, and on his return to Rome received the
+honour of a triumph. Notwithstanding the offices he had filled he died
+poor, and provision had to be made for his daughter out of the funds of
+the state (Val. Max. iv. 4, 10). Fabricius was regarded by the Romans of
+later times as a model of ancient simplicity and incorruptible
+integrity.
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571), German poet, historian and archaeologist,
+was born at Chemnitz in upper Saxony on the 23rd of April 1516, and
+educated at Leipzig. Travelling in Italy with one of his pupils, he made
+an exhaustive study of the antiquities of Rome. He published the results
+in his _Roma_ (1550), in which the correspondence between every
+discoverable relic of the old city and the references to them in ancient
+literature was traced in detail. In 1546 he was appointed rector of the
+college of Meissen, where he died on the 17th of July 1571. In his
+sacred poems he affected to avoid every word with the slightest savour
+of paganism; and he blamed the poets for their allusions to pagan
+divinities.
+
+  Principal works: editions of Terence (1548) and Virgil (1551);
+  _Poëmatum sacrorum libri xxv._ (1560); _Poëtarum veterum
+  ecclesiasticorum opera Christiana_ (1562); _De Re Poëtica libri
+  septem_ (1565); _Rerum Misnicarum libri septem_ (1569); (posthumous)
+  _Originum illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae libri septem_ (1597);
+  _Rerum Germaniae magnae et Saxoniae universae memorabilium
+  mirabiliumque volumina duo_ (1609). A life of Georg Fabricius was
+  published in 1839 by D.C.W. Baumgarten-Crusius, who in 1845 also
+  issued an edition of Fabricius's _Epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios
+  aequales_, with a short sketch _De Vita Ge. Fabricii et de gente
+  Fabriciorum_; see also F. Wachter in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopädie_.
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS [FABRIZIO, GERONIMO] (1537-1619), Italian
+anatomist and embryologist, was surnamed Acquapendente from the
+episcopal city of that name, where he was born in 1537. At Padua, after
+a course of philosophy, he studied medicine under G. Fallopius, whose
+successor as teacher of anatomy and surgery he became in 1562. From the
+senators of Venice he received numerous honours, and an anatomical
+theatre was built by them for his accommodation. He died at Venice on
+the 21st of May 1619. His works include _De visione, voce et auditu_
+(1600), _De formato foetu_ (1600), _De venarum ostiolis_ (1603), _De
+formatione ovi et pulli_ (1621). His collected works were published at
+Leipzig in 1687 as _Opera omnia Anatomica et Physiologica_, but the
+Leiden edition, published by Albinus in 1738, is preferred as containing
+a life of the author and the prefaces of his treatises. (See ANATOMY;
+EMBRYOLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736), German classical scholar and
+bibliographer, was born at Leipzig on the 11th of November 1668. His
+father, Werner Fabricius, director of music in the church of St Paul at
+Leipzig, was the author of several works, the most important being
+_Deliciae Harmonicae_ (1656). The son received his early education from
+his father, who on his death-bed recommended him to the care of the
+theologian Valentin Alberti. He studied under J.G. Herrichen, and
+afterwards at Quedlinburg under Samuel Schmid. It was in Schmid's
+library, as he afterwards said, that he found the two books, F. Barth's
+_Adversaria_ and D.G. Morhof's _Polyhistor Literarius_, which suggested
+to him the idea of his _Bibliothecae_, the works on which his great
+reputation was founded. Having returned to Leipzig in 1686, he published
+anonymously (two years later) his first work, _Scriptorum recentiorum
+decas_, an attack on ten writers of the day. His _Decas Decadum, sive
+plagiariorum et pseudonymorum centuria_ (1689) is the only one ot his
+works to which be signs the name Faber. He then applied himself to the
+study of medicine, which, however, he relinquished for that of
+theology; and having gone to Hamburg in 1693, he proposed to travel
+abroad, when the unexpected tidings that the expense of his education
+had absorbed his whole patrimony, and even left him in debt to his
+trustee, forced him to abandon his project. He therefore remained at
+Hamburg in the capacity of librarian to J.F. Mayer. In 1696 he
+accompanied his patron to Sweden; and on his return to Hamburg, not long
+afterwards, he became a candidate for the chair of logic and philosophy.
+The suffrages being equally divided between Fabricius and Sebastian
+Edzardus, one of his opponents, the appointment was decided by lot in
+favour of Edzardus; but in 1699 Fabricius succeeded Vincent Placcius in
+the chair of rhetoric and ethics, a post which he held till his death,
+refusing invitations to Greifswald, Kiel, Giessen and Wittenberg. He
+died at Hamburg on the 30th of April 1736.
+
+  Fabricius is credited with 128 books, but very many of them were only
+  books which he had edited. One of the most famed and laborious of
+  these is the _Bibliotheca Latina_ (1697, republished in an improved
+  and amended form by J.A. Ernesti, 1773). The divisions of the
+  compilation are--the writers to the age of Tiberius; thence to that of
+  the Antonines; and thirdly, to the decay of the language; a fourth
+  gives fragments from old authors, and chapters on early Christian
+  literature. A supplementary work was _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et
+  infimae Aetatis_ (1734-1736; supplementary volume by C. Schöttgen,
+  1746; ed. Mansi, 1754). His _chef-d'oeuvre_, however, is the
+  _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (1705-1728, revised and continued by G.C. Harles,
+  1790-1812), a work which has justly been denominated _maximus antiquae
+  eruditionis thesaurus_. Its divisions are marked off by Homer, Plato,
+  Christ, Constantine, and the capture of Constantinople in 1453, while
+  a sixth section is devoted to canon law, jurisprudence and medicine.
+  Of his remaining works we may mention:--_Bibliotheca Antiquaria_, an
+  account of the writers whose works illustrated Hebrew, Greek, Roman
+  and Christian antiquities (1713); _Centifolium Lutheranum_, a Lutheran
+  bibliography (1728); _Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica_ (1718). His _Codex
+  Apocryphus_ (1703) is still considered indispensable as an authority
+  on apocryphal Christian literature.
+
+  The details of the life of Fabricius are to be found in _De Vita et
+  Scriptis J.A. Fabricii Commentarius_, by his son-in-law, H.S.
+  Reimarus, the well-known editor of Dio Cassius, published at Hamburg,
+  1737; see also C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopädie_, and J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-1808), Danish entomologist and
+economist, was born at Tondern in Schleswig on the 7th of January 1745.
+After studying at Altona and Copenhagen, he was sent to Upsala, where he
+attended the lectures of Linnaeus. He devoted his attention
+professionally to political economy, and, after lecturing on that
+subject in 1769, was appointed in 1775 professor of natural history,
+economy and finance at Kiel, in which capacity he wrote various works,
+chiefly referring to Denmark, and of no special interest. He also
+published a few other works on general and natural history, botany and
+travel (including _Reise nach Norwegen_, 1779), and, although his
+professional stipend was small, he extended his personal researches into
+every town in northern and central Europe where a natural history museum
+was to be found. It is as an entomologist that his memory survives, and
+for many years his great scientific reputation rested upon the system of
+classification which he founded upon the structure of the mouth-organs
+instead of the wings. He had a keen eye for specific differences, and
+possessed the art of terse and accurate description. He died on the 3rd
+of March 1808.
+
+  A complete list of his entomological publications (31) will be found
+  in Hagen's _Bibliotheca Entomologiae_; the following are the
+  chief:--_Systema Entomologiae_ (1775); _Genera Insectorum_ (1776);
+  _Philosophia Entomologica_ (1778); _Species insectorum_ (1781);
+  _Mantissa Insectorum_ (1787); _Entomologia Systematica_ (1792-1794),
+  with a supplement (1798); _Systema Eleutheratorum_ (1801),
+  _Rhyngotorum_ (1803), _Piezatorum_ (1804), and _Antliatorum_ (1805).
+  Full particulars of his life will be found, with a portrait, in the
+  _Transactions of the Entomological Society of London_ (1845), 4, pp.
+  i-xvi, where his autobiography is translated from the Danish.
+
+
+
+
+FABRIZI, NICOLA (1804-1885), Italian patriot, was born at Modena on the
+4th of April 1804. He took part in the Modena insurrection of 1831, and
+attempted to succour Ancona, but was arrested at sea and taken to
+Toulon, whence he proceeded to Marseilles. Afterwards he organized with
+Mazzini the ill-fated Savoy expedition. Taking refuge in Spain, he
+fought against the Carlists, and was decorated for valour on the
+battlefield (18th July 1837). At the end of the Carlist War he
+established a centre of conspiracy at Malta, endeavoured to dissuade
+Mazzini from the Bandiera enterprise, but aided Crispi in organizing the
+Sicilian revolution of 1848. With a company of volunteers he
+distinguished himself in the defence of Venice, afterwards proceeding to
+Rome, where he took part in the defence of San Pancrazio. Upon the fall
+of Rome he returned to Malta, accumulating arms and stores; which he
+conveyed to Sicily; after having, in 1859, worked with Crispi to prepare
+the Sicilian revolution of 1860. While Garibaldi was sailing from Genoa
+towards Marsala Fabrizi landed at Pizzolo, and, after severe fighting,
+joined Garibaldi at Palermo. Under the Garibaldian Dictatorship he was
+appointed governor of Messina and minister of war. Returning to Malta
+after the Neapolitan plebiscite, which he had vainly endeavoured to
+postpone, he was recalled to aid Cialdini in suppressing brigandage.
+While on his way to Sicily in 1862, to induce Garibaldi to give up the
+Aspromonte enterprise, he was arrested at Naples by Lamarmora. During
+the war of 1866 he became Garibaldi's chief of staff, and in 1867 fought
+at Mentana. In parliament he endeavoured to promote agreement between
+the chiefs of the Left, and from 1878 onwards worked to secure the
+return of Crispi to power, but died on the 31st of March 1885, two years
+before the realization of his object. His whole life was characterized
+by ardent patriotism and unimpeachable integrity.     (H. W. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL (1580-1659), French jurisconsult, was born at
+Aix in Provence on the 15th of September 1580. At an early age he made
+great progress in the ancient languages and in the civil and the canon
+law; and in 1602 he received the degree of doctor of law, and was made
+avocat to the parlement of Aix. In 1609 he obtained a professorship in
+the university of his native town. He is best known by his translation
+of the _Basilica_, which may be said to have formed the code of the
+Eastern empire till its destruction. This work was published at Paris in
+1647 in 7 vols. fol., and obtained for its author a considerable pension
+from the chancellor, Pierre Seguier, to whom it was dedicated. Fabrot
+likewise rendered great service to the science of jurisprudence by his
+edition of Cujas, which comprised several treatises of that great jurist
+previously unpublished. He also edited the works of several Byzantine
+historians, and was besides the author of various antiquarian and legal
+treatises. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1659.
+
+
+
+
+FABYAN, ROBERT (d. 1513), English chronicler, belonged to an Essex
+family, members of which had been connected with trade in London. He was
+a member of the Drapers company, alderman of Farringdon Without, and
+served as sheriff in 1493-1494. In 1496 he was one of those appointed to
+make representations to the king on the new impositions on English cloth
+in Flanders. Next year he was one of the aldermen employed in keeping
+watch at the time of the Cornish rebellion. He resigned his aldermanry
+in 1502, on the pretext of poverty, apparently in order to avoid the
+expense of mayoralty. He had, however, acquired considerable wealth with
+his wife Elizabeth Pake, by whom he had a numerous family. He spent his
+latter years on his estate of Halstedys at Theydon Garnon in Essex. He
+died on the 28th of February 1513 (_Inquisitiones post mortem for
+London_, p. 29, edited by G.S. Fry, 1896); his will, dated the 11th of
+July 1511, was proved on the 12th of July 1513. Fabyan's Chronicle was
+first published by Richard Pynson in 1516 as _The new chronicles of
+England and of France_. In this edition it ends with the reign of
+Richard III., and this probably represents the work as Fabyan left it,
+though with the omission of an autobiographical note and some religious
+verses, which form the _Envoi_ of his history. The note and verses are
+first found in the second edition, printed by John Rastell in 1533 with
+continuations down to 1509. A third edition appeared in 1542, and a
+fourth in 1559 with additions to that year. The only modern edition is
+that of Sir Henry Ellis, 1811.
+
+In the note above mentioned Fabyan himself says: "and here I make an
+ende of the vii. parte and hole werke, the vii. day of November in the
+yere of our Lord Jesu Christes Incarnacion M. vc. and iiij." This seems
+conclusive that in 1504 he did not contemplate any extension of his
+chronicles beyond 1485. The continuations printed by Rastell are
+certainly not Fabyan's work. But Stow in his _Collections_ (ap. _Survey
+of London_, ii. 305-306, ed. C.L. Kingsford) states that Fabyan wrote "a
+Chronicle of London, England and of France, beginning at the creation
+and endynge in the third year of Henry VIII., which both I have in
+written hand." In his _Survey of London_ (i. 191, 209, ii. 55, 116) Stow
+several times quotes Fabyan as his authority for statements which are
+not to be found in the printed continuations of Rastell. Some further
+evidence may be found in other notes of Stow's (ap. _Survey of London_,
+ii. 280, 283, 365-366), and in the citation by Hakluyt of an unprinted
+work of Fabyan as the authority for his note of Cabot's voyages. That
+Fabyan had continued his Chronicle to 1511 may be accepted as certain,
+but no trace of the manuscript can now be found.
+
+It is only the seventh part of Fabyan's Chronicle, from the Norman
+Conquest onwards, that possesses any historical value. For his French
+history he followed chiefly the _Compendium super Francorum gestis_ of
+Robert Gaguin, printed at Paris in 1497. For English history his best
+source was the old _Chronicles of London_, from which he borrowed also
+the arrangement of his work in civic form. From 1440 to 1485 he follows,
+as a rule with great fidelity, the original of the London Chronicle in
+Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XVI. (printed in _Chronicles of London_, 1905,
+pp. 153-264).
+
+Fabyan's own merits are little more than those of an industrious
+compiler, who strung together the accounts of his different authorities
+without any critical capacity. He says expressly that his work was
+"gaderyd without understandynge," and speaks of himself as "of cunnynge
+full destitute." Nevertheless he deserves the praise which he has
+received as an early worker, and for having made public information
+which through Hall and Holinshed has become the common property of later
+historians, and has only recently been otherwise accessible. Bale
+alleges that the first edition was burnt by order of Cardinal Wolsey
+because it reflected on the wealth of the clergy; this probably refers
+to his version of the Lollards Bill of 1410, which Fabyan extracted from
+one of the London Chronicles.
+
+  See further Ellis' _Introduction_; W. Busch, _England under the
+  Tudors_ (trans. A.M. Todd, 1895), i. 405-410; and C.L. Kingsford,
+  _Chronicles of London_, pp. xxvi-xxxii (1905).     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FAÇADE, a French architectural term signifying the external face of a
+building, but more generally applied to the principal front.
+
+
+
+
+FACCIOLATI, JACOPO (1682-1769), Italian philologist, was born at
+Torriglia, in the province of Padua, in 1682. He owed his admission to
+the seminary of Padua to Cardinal Barberigo, who had formed a high
+opinion of the boy's talents. As professor of logic, and regent of the
+schools, Facciolati was the ornament of the Paduan university during a
+period of forty-five years. He published improved editions of several
+philological works, such as the _Thesaurus Ciceronianus_ of Nizolius,
+and the polyglot vocabulary known under the name of Calepino. The latter
+work, in which he was assisted by his pupil Egidio Forcellini, he
+completed in four years--1715 to 1719. It was written in seven
+languages, and suggested to the editor the idea of his _opus magnum_,
+the _Tolius Latinitatis Lexicon_, which was ultimately published at
+Cardinal Priole's expense, 4 vols. fol., Padua, 1771 (revised ed. by de
+Vit, 1858-1887). In the compilation of this work the chief burden seems
+to have been borne by Facciolati's pupil Forcellini, to whom, however,
+the lexicographer allows a very scanty measure of justice. Perhaps the
+best testimony to the learning and industry of the compiler is the
+well-known observation that the whole body of Latinity, if it were to
+perish, might be restored from this lexicon. Facciolati's mastery of
+Latin style, as displayed in his epistles, has been very much admired
+for its purity and grace. In or about 1739 Facciolati undertook the
+continuation of Papadopoli's history of the university of Padua,
+carrying it on to his own day. Facciolati was known over all Europe as
+one of the most enlightened and zealous teachers of the time; and among
+the many flattering invitations which he received, but always declined,
+was one from the king of Portugal, to accept the directorship of a
+college at Lisbon for the young nobility. He died in 1769. His history
+of the university was published in 1757, under the name _Fasti Gymnasii
+Patavini_. In 1808 a volume containing nine of his Epistles, never
+before published, was issued at Padua.
+
+  See J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+FACE (from Lat. _facies_, derived either from _facere_, to make, or from
+a root _fa-_, meaning "appear"; cf. Gr. [Greek: phainein]), a word whose
+various meanings of surface, front, expression of countenance, look or
+appearance, are adaptations of the application of the word to the
+external part of the front portion of the head, usually taken to extend
+from the top of the forehead to the point of the chin, and from ear to
+ear (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and Artistic_; and PHYSIOGNOMY).
+
+
+
+
+FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons
+combined for action, _facere_, to do; from the other French derivative
+_façon_ comes "fashion"), a term, used especially with an opprobrious
+meaning, for a body of partisans who put their party aims and interests
+above those of the state or public, and employ unscrupulous or
+questionable means; it is thus a common term of reciprocal abuse between
+parties. In the history of the Roman and Later Roman empires the
+factions (_factiones_) of the circus and hippodrome, at Rome and
+Constantinople, played a prominent part in politics. The _factiones_
+were properly the four companies into which the charioteers were
+divided, and distinguished by the colours they wore. Originally at Rome
+there were only two, white (_albata_) and red (_russata_), when each
+race was open to two chariots only; on the increase to four, the green
+(_prasina_) and blue (_veneta_) were added. At Constantinople the last
+two absorbed the red and white factions.
+
+  For a brilliant description of the factions at Constantinople under
+  Justinian, and the part they played in the celebrated Nika riot in
+  January 532, see Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, ch. xl.; and J.B. Bury's
+  _Appendix_ 10 in vol. iv. of his edition (1898), for a discussion of
+  the relationship between the _factiones_ and the demes of
+  Constantinople.
+
+
+
+
+FACTOR (from Lat. _facere_, to make or do), strictly "one who makes";
+thus in ordinary parlance, anything which goes to the composition of
+anything else is termed one of its "factors," and in mathematics the
+term is used of those quantities which, when multiplied together,
+produce a given product. In a special sense, however--and that to which
+this article is devoted--"factor" is the name given to a mercantile
+agent (of the class known as "general agents") employed to buy or sell
+goods for a commission. When employed to sell, the possession of the
+goods is entrusted to him by his principal, and when employed to buy it
+is his duty to obtain possession of the goods and to consign them to his
+principal. In this he differs from a broker (q.v.), who has not such
+possession, and it is this distinguishing characteristic which gave rise
+in England to the series of statutes known as the Factors Acts. By these
+acts, consolidated and extended by the act of 1889, third parties buying
+or taking pledges from factors are protected as if the factor were in
+reality owner; but these enactments have in no way affected the
+contractual relations between the factor and his employer, and it will
+be convenient to define them before discussing the position of third
+parties as affected by the act.
+
+
+I. FACTOR AND PRINCIPAL
+
+A factor is appointed or dismissed in the same way as any other agent.
+He may be employed for a single transaction or to transact all his
+principal's business of a certain class during a limited period or till
+such time as his authority may be determined. A factor's duty is to sell
+or buy as directed; to carry out with care, skill and good faith any
+instructions he may receive; to receive or make payment; to keep
+accounts, and to hand over to his principal the balance standing to his
+principal's credit, without any deduction save for commission and
+expenses. All express instructions he must carry out to the full,
+provided they do not involve fraud or illegality. On any point not
+covered by his express instructions he must follow the usual practice of
+his particular business, if not inconsistent with his instructions or
+his position as factor. Many usages of businesses in which factors are
+employed have been proved in court, and may now be regarded as legally
+established. For instance, he may, unless otherwise directed, sell in
+his own name, give warranties as to goods sold by him, sell by sample
+(in most businesses), give such credit as is usual in his business,
+receive payment in cash or as customary; and give receipts in full
+discharge, sell by indorsement of bills of lading; and insure the goods.
+It is his duty to clear the goods at the customs, take charge of them
+and keep them safely, give such notices to his principal and others as
+may be required, and if necessary take legal proceedings for the
+protection of the goods. On the other hand, he has not authority to
+delegate his employment, or to barter; and as between himself and his
+principal he has no right to pledge the goods, although as between the
+principal and the pledgee, an unauthorized pledge made by the factor may
+by virtue of the Factors Act 1889 be binding upon the principal. It is,
+moreover, inconsistent with his employment as agent that he should buy
+or sell on his own account from or to his principal. A factor has no
+right to follow any usage which is inconsistent with the ordinary duties
+and authority of a factor unless his principal has expressly or
+impliedly given his consent.
+
+On the due performance of his duties the factor is entitled to his
+commission, which is usually a percentage on the value of the goods sold
+or bought by him on account of his principal, regulated in amount by,
+the usages of each business. Sometimes the factor makes himself
+personally responsible for the solvency of the persons with whom he
+deals, in order that his principal may avoid the risk entailed by the
+usual trade credit. In such a case the factor is said to be employed on
+_del credere_ terms, and is entitled to a higher rate of commission,
+usually 2½% extra. Such an arrangement is not a contract of guarantee
+within the Statute of Frauds, and therefore need not be in writing.
+Besides his remuneration, the factor is entitled to be reimbursed by his
+principal for any expenses, and to be indemnified against any
+liabilities which he may have properly incurred in the execution of his
+principal's instructions. For the purpose of enforcing his rights a
+factor has, without legal proceedings, two remedies. Firstly, by virtue
+of his general _lien_ (q.v.) he may hold any of his principal's goods
+which come to his hands as security for the payment to him of any
+commission, out-of-pocket expenses, or even general balance of account
+in his favour. Although he cannot sell the goods, he may refuse to give
+them up until he is paid. Secondly, where he has consigned goods to his
+principal but not been paid, he may "_stop in transit_" subject to the
+same rules of law as an ordinary vendor; that is to say, he must
+exercise his right before the transit ends; and his right may be
+defeated by his principal transferring the document of title to the
+goods to some third person, who takes it in good faith and for valuable
+consideration (Factors Act 1889, section 10). If the factor does not
+carry out his principal's instructions, or carries them out so
+negligently or unskilfully that his principal gets no benefit thereby,
+the factor loses his commission and his right to reimbursement and
+indemnity. If by such failure or negligence the principal suffers any
+loss, the latter may recover it as damages. So too if the factor fails
+to render proper accounts his principal may by proper legal proceedings
+obtain an account and payment of what is found due; and threatened
+breaches of duty may be summarily stopped by an injunction. Criminal
+acts by the factor in relation to his principal's goods are dealt with
+by section 78 of the Larceny Act 1860.
+
+
+II. PRINCIPAL AND THIRD PARTY
+
+(a) _At Common Law._--The actual authority of a factor is defined by the
+same limits as his duty, the nature of which has been just described;
+i.e. firstly, by his principal's express instructions; secondly, by the
+rules of law and usages of trade, in view of which those instructions
+were expressed. But his power to bind his principal as regards third
+parties is often wider than his actual authority; for it would not be
+reasonable that third parties should be prejudiced by secret
+instructions, given in derogation of the authority ordinarily conferred
+by the custom of trade; and, as regards them, the factor is said to have
+"_apparent_" or "_ostensible_" authority, or to be _held out_ as having
+authority to do what is customary, even though he may in fact have been
+expressly forbidden so to do by his principal. But this rule is subject
+to the proviso that if the third party have notice of the factor's
+actual instructions, the "apparent" authority will not be greater than
+the actual. "The general principle of law," said Lord Blackburn in the
+case of _Cole_ v. _North-Western Bank_, 1875, L.R. 10, C.P. 363, "is
+that when the true owner has clothed any one with apparent authority to
+act as his agent, he is bound to those who deal with the agent on the
+assumption that he really is an agent with that authority, to the same
+extent as if the apparent authority were real." Under such circumstances
+the principal is for reasons of common fairness precluded, or, in legal
+phraseology, _estopped_, from denying his agent's authority. On the same
+principle of estoppel, but not by reason of any trade usages, a course
+of dealing which has been followed between a factor and a third party
+with the assent of the principal will give the factor apparent authority
+to continue dealing on the same terms even after the principal's assent
+has been withdrawn; provided that the third party has no notice of the
+withdrawal.
+
+Such apparent authority binds the principal both as to acts done in
+excess of the actual authority and also when the actual authority has
+entirely ceased. For instance, A. B. receives goods from C.D. with
+instructions not to sell below 1s. per lb.; A. B. sells at 10½d., the
+market price; the buyer is entitled to the goods at 10½d., because A. B.
+had apparent authority, although he exceeded his actual authority. On
+the same principle the buyer would get a good title by buying from A. B.
+goods entrusted to him by C. D., even though at the time of the sale C.
+D. had revoked A. B.'s authority and instructed him not to sell at all.
+In either case the factor is held out as having authority to sell, and
+the principal cannot afterwards turn round and say that his factor had
+no such authority. As in the course of his business the factor must
+necessarily make representations preliminary to the contracts into which
+he enters, so the principal will be bound by any such representations as
+may be within the factor's actual or apparent authority to the same
+degree as by the factor's contracts.
+
+(b) _Under the Factors Act 1889._--The main object of the Factors Acts,
+in so far as they relate to transactions carried out by factors, has
+been to add to the number of cases in which third parties honestly
+buying or lending money on the security of goods may get a good title
+from persons in whose possession the goods are with the consent, actual
+or apparent, of the real owners, thus calling in aid the principle of
+French law that "_possession vaut titre_" as against the doctrine of the
+English common law that "_nemo dat quod non habet_." The chief change in
+the law relating specially to factors has been to put pledges by factors
+on the same footing as sales, so as to bind a principal to third parties
+by his factor's pledge as by his factor's sale. The Factors Act 1889 in
+part re-enacts and in part extends the provisions of the earlier acts of
+1823, 1825, 1842 and 1877; and is, so far as it relates to sales by
+factors, in large measure merely declaratory of the law as it previously
+existed. Its most important provisions concerning factors are as
+follows:--
+
+  Section I., s.s. 1. The expression mercantile agent shall mean a
+  mercantile agent having in the customary course of his business as
+  such agent authority either to sell goods, or to consign goods for the
+  purpose of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the security of
+  goods;
+
+  2. A person shall be deemed to be in possession of goods or of the
+  documents or title to goods when the goods or documents are in his
+  actual custody or are held by any other person subject to his control
+  or for him on his behalf.
+
+  4. The expression "document of title" shall include any bill of
+  lading, dock warrant, warehouse keeper's certificate, and warrant or
+  order for the delivery of goods, and any other document used in the
+  ordinary course of business as proof of the possession or control of
+  goods, or authorizing or purporting to authorize, either by
+  indorsement or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer
+  or receive goods thereby represented.
+
+  Section II., s.s. 1. Where a mercantile agent is, with the consent of
+  the owner, in possession of goods or of the documents or title to
+  goods, any sale, pledge or other disposition of the goods made by him
+  when acting in the ordinary course of business of a mercantile agent
+  shall, subject to the provisions of this act, be as valid as if he
+  were expressly authorized by the owner of the goods to make the same;
+  provided that the person taking under the disposition acts in good
+  faith, and has not at the time of the disposition notice that the
+  person making the disposition has not authority to make the same.
+
+  2. Where a mercantile agent has, with the consent of the owner, been
+  in possession of goods or of the documents of title to goods, any
+  sale, pledge or other disposition which would have been valid if the
+  consent had continued shall be valid notwithstanding the determination
+  of the consent; provided that the person taking under the disposition
+  has not at the time thereof notice that the consent has been
+  determined.
+
+  3. Where a mercantile agent has obtained possession of any documents
+  of title to goods by reason of his being or having been, with the
+  consent of the owner, in possession of the goods represented thereby,
+  or of any other documents of title to the goods, his possession of the
+  first-mentioned documents shall, for the purposes of the act, be
+  deemed to be with the consent of the owner.
+
+
+III. ENFORCEMENT OF CONTRACTS
+
+1. Where a factor makes a contract in the name of his principal and
+himself signs as agent only, he drops out as soon as the contract is
+made, and the principal and third party alone can sue or be sued upon
+it. As factors usually contract in their own name this is not a common
+case. It is characteristic of brokers rather than of factors.
+
+2. Where a factor makes a contract for the principal without disclosing
+his principal's name, the third party may, on discovering the principal,
+elect whether he will treat the factor or his principal as the party to
+the contract; provided that if the factor contract expressly as factor,
+so as to exclude the idea that he is personally responsible, he will not
+be liable. The principal may sue upon the contract, so also may the
+factor, unless the principal first intervene.
+
+3. Where a factor makes a contract in his own name without disclosing
+the existence of his principal, the third party may, on discovering the
+existence of the principal, elect whether he will sue the factor or the
+principal. Either principal or factor may sue the third party upon the
+contract. But if the factor has been permitted by the principal to hold
+himself out as the principal, and the person dealing with the factor has
+believed that the factor was the principal and has acted on that belief
+before ascertaining his mistake, then in an action by the principal the
+third party may set up any defences he would have had against the factor
+if the factor had brought the action on his own account as principal.
+
+4. Where a factor has a lien upon the goods and their proceeds for
+advances made to the principal it will be no defence to an action by him
+for the third party to plead that he has paid the principal, unless the
+factor by his conduct led the third party to believe that he agreed to a
+settlement being made with his principal.
+
+5. The factor who acts for a foreign principal will always be personally
+liable unless it is clear that the third party has agreed to look only
+to the principal.
+
+6. If a factor contract by deed under seal he alone can sue or be sued
+upon the contract; but mercantile practice makes contracts by deed
+uncommon.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Story, _Commentaries on the Law of Agency_ (Boston,
+  1882); Boyd and Pearson, _The Factors Acts 1823 to 1877_ (London,
+  1884); Blackwell, _The Law relating to Factors_ (London, 1897).
+       (L. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FACTORY ACTS, the name given generally to a long series of acts
+constituting one of the most important chapters in the history of
+English labour legislation (see LABOUR LEGISLATION); the term "factory"
+itself being short for manufactory, a building or collection of
+buildings in which men or women are employed in industry.
+
+
+
+
+FACULA (diminutive of _fax_, Lat. for "torch"), in astronomy, a minute
+shining spot on the sun's disk, markedly brighter than the photosphere
+in general, usually appearing in groups. Faculae are most frequent in
+the neighbourhood of spots. (See SUN.)
+
+
+
+
+FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. _facultas_, ability to do
+anything, from _facilis_, easy, _facere_, to do; another form of the
+word in Lat. _facilitas_, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning),
+power or capacity of mind or body for particular kinds of activity,
+feeling, &c. In the early history of psychology the term was applied to
+various mental processes considered as causes or conditions of the
+mind--a treatment of "class concepts of mental phenomena as if they were
+real forces producing these phenomena" (G.F. Stout, _Analytic
+Psychology_, vol. i. p. 17). In medieval Latin _facultas_ was used to
+translate [Greek: dunamis] in the Aristotelian application of the word
+to a branch of learning or knowledge, and thus it is particularly
+applied to the various departments of knowledge as taught in a
+university and to the body of teachers of the particular art or science
+taught. The principal "faculties" in the medieval universities were
+theology, canon and civil law, medicine and arts (see UNIVERSITIES). A
+further extension of this use is to the body of members of any
+particular profession.
+
+In law, "faculty" is a dispensation or licence to do that which is not
+permitted by the common law. The word in this sense is used only in
+ecclesiastical law. A faculty may be granted to be ordained deacon under
+twenty-three years of age; to hold two livings at once (usually called a
+licence or dispensation, but granted under the seal of the office of
+faculties; see BENEFICE); to be married at any place or time (usually
+called a special licence; see MARRIAGE; LICENCE); to act as a notary
+public (q.v.). Any alteration in a church, such as an addition or
+diminution in the fabric or the utensils or ornaments of the church,
+cannot strictly be made without the legal sanction of the ordinary,
+which can only be expressed by the issue of a faculty. So a faculty
+would be required for a vault, for the removal of a body, for the
+purpose of erecting monuments, for alterations in a parsonage house, for
+brick graves, for the apportionment of a seat, &c. Cathedrals, however,
+are exempt from the necessity for a faculty before making alterations in
+the fabric, utensils or ornaments.
+
+The court of faculties is the court of the archbishop for granting
+faculties. It is a court in which there is no litigation or holding of
+pleas. Its chief officer is called the master of faculties, and he is
+one and the same with the judge of the court of arches. Attached to the
+court of faculties are a registrar and deputy registrars, a chief clerk
+and record-keeper, and a seal keeper. In Scotland the society of
+advocates of the court of session, and local bodies of legal
+practitioners, are described as faculties.
+
+
+
+
+FAED, THOMAS (1826-1900), British painter, born in Kirkcudbrightshire,
+was the brother of John Faed, R.S.A., and received his art education in
+the school of design, Edinburgh. He was elected an associate of the
+Royal Scottish Academy in 1849, came to London three years later, was
+elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1861, and academician in
+1864, and retired in 1893. He had much success as a painter of domestic
+genre, and had considerable executive capacity. Three of his pictures,
+"The Silken Gown," "Faults on Both Sides," and "The Highland Mother,"
+are in the National Gallery of British Art.
+
+  See William D. McKay, _The Scottish School of Painting_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+FAENZA (anc. _Faventia_), a city and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
+the province of Ravenna, from which it is 31 m. S.W. by rail, 110 ft.
+above sea-level. It is 31 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail, on the line from
+Bologna to Rimini, and it is the junction of a line to Florence through
+the Apennines. Pop. (1901) 21,809 (town), 39,757 (commune). The town is
+surrounded by walls which date from 1456. The cathedral of S. Costanzo
+stands in the spacious Piazza Vittorio Emanuele in the centre of the
+town. It was begun in 1474 by Giuliano da Maiano; the façade is,
+however, incomplete. In the interior is the beautiful early Renaissance
+tomb of S. Savinus with reliefs showing scenes from his life, of fine
+and fresh execution, by Benedetto da Maiano; and later tombs by P.
+Bariloto, a local sculptor. Opposite the cathedral is a fountain with
+bronze ornamentation of 1583-1621. The clock tower alongside the
+cathedral belongs to the 17th century. Beyond it is the Palazzo
+Comunale, formerly the residence of the Manfredi, but entirely
+reconstructed. The other churches of the town have been mostly restored,
+but S. Michele (and the Palazzo Manfredi opposite it) are fine early
+Renaissance buildings in brickwork. The municipal art gallery contains
+an altar-piece by Girolamo da Treviso (who also painted a fresco in the
+Chiesa della Commenda), a wooden St Jerome by Donatello, and a bust of
+the young St John by Antonio Rossellino (?), and some fine specimens of
+majolica, a variety of which, faience, takes its name from the town. It
+was largely manufactured in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the
+industry has been revived in modern times with success.
+
+The ancient Faventia, on the Via Aemilia, was obviously from its name
+founded by the Romans and had the citizenship before the Social War. It
+was the scene of the defeat of C. Papirius Carbo and C. Norbanus by Q.
+Caecilius Metellus Pius in 82 B.C. In the census of Vespasian a woman of
+Faventia is said to have given her age as 135. Pliny speaks of the
+whiteness of its linen, and the productiveness of its vines is
+mentioned. It is noticeable that some of the fields in the territory of
+the ancient Faventia still preserve the exact size of the ancient Roman
+_centuria_ of 200 _iugeri_ (E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi.,
+Berlin, 1888, p. 121). When the exarchate was established, the town
+became part of it, and in 748 it was taken by Liutprand. Desiderius gave
+it to the church with the duchy of Ferrara. In the 11th century it began
+to increase in importance. In the wars of the 12th and 13th centuries it
+at first took the imperial side, but in 1240 it stood a long siege from
+Frederick II. and was only taken after eight months. After further
+struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Manfredi made themselves
+masters of the place early in the 14th century, and remained in power
+until 1501, when the town was taken by Caesar Borgia and the last
+legitimate members of the house of the Manfredi were drowned in the
+Tiber; and, after falling for a few years into the hands of the
+Venetians, it became a part of the states of the church in 1509.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FAEROE (also written FAROE or THE FAEROES, Danish _Faeröerne_ or
+_Färöerne_, "the sheep islands"), a group of islands in the North Sea
+belonging to Denmark. They are situated between Iceland and the Shetland
+Islands, about 200 m. N.W. of the latter, about the intersection of 7°
+E. with 62° N. The total land area of the group is 511 sq. m., and there
+are twenty-one islands (excluding small rocks and reefs), of which
+seventeen are inhabited. The population in 1880 amounted to 11,220, and
+in 1900 to 15,230. The principal islands are Strömö, on which is the
+chief town, Thorshavn, with a population of 1656; Osterö, Süderö, Vaagö,
+Sandö and Bordö. They consist throughout of rocks and hills, separated
+from each other by narrow valleys or ravines; but, though the hills rise
+abruptly, there are often on their summits, or at different stages of
+their ascent, plains of considerable magnitude. Almost everywhere they
+present to the sea perpendicular cliffs, broken into fantastic forms,
+affording at every turn, to those who sail along the coast, the most
+picturesque and varied scenery. The highest hills are Slättaretindur in
+Osterö, and Kopende and Skellingfjeld in Strömö, which rise respectively
+to 2894, 2592 and 2520 ft. The sea pierces the islands in deep fjords,
+or separates them by narrow inlets through which tidal currents set with
+great violence, at speeds up to seven or eight knots an hour; and, as
+communications are maintained almost wholly by boat, the natives have
+need of expert watermanship. There are several lakes in which trout are
+abundant, and char also occur; the largest is Sörvaag Lake in Vaagö,
+which is close to the sea, and discharges into it by a sheer fall of
+about 160 ft. Trees are scarce, and there is evidence that they formerly
+flourished where they cannot do so now.
+
+  The fundamental formation is a series of great sheets of columnar
+  basalt, 70 to 100 ft. thick, in which are intercalated thin beds of
+  tuff. Upon the basalt rests the so-called Coal formation, 35 to 50 ft.
+  thick; the lower part of this is mainly fireclay and sandstone, the
+  upper part is weathered clay with thin layers of brown coal and shale.
+  The coal is found in Süderö and in some of the other islands in
+  sufficient quantity to make it a matter of exploitation. Above these
+  beds there are layers of dolerite, 15 to 20 ft. thick, with nodular
+  segregations and abundant cavities which are often lined with
+  zeolites. As the rocks lie in a horizontal position, on most of the
+  islands of the group only the basalts or dolerite are visible. The
+  crater from which the volcanic rocks were outpoured probably lies off
+  the Faeroe Bank some distance to the south-west of Süderö. The basalts
+  are submarine flows which formed the basis of the land upon which
+  grew the vegetation which gave rise to the coals; the effusion of
+  dolerite which covered up the Coal formation was subaerial. The
+  existing land features, with the fjords, are due to ice erosion in the
+  glacial period.[1]
+
+The climate is oceanic; fogs are common, violent storms are frequent at
+all seasons. July and August are the only true summer months, but the
+winters are not very severe. It seldom freezes for more than one month,
+and the harbours are rarely ice-bound. The methods of agriculture are
+extremely primitive and less than 3% of the total area is under
+cultivation. As the plough is ill-suited to the rugged surface of the
+land, the ground is usually turned up with the spade, care being taken
+not to destroy the roots of the grass, as hay is the principal crop.
+Horses and cows are few, and the cows give little milk, in consequence
+of the coarse hay upon which they are fed. The number of sheep, however,
+justifies the name of the islands, some individuals having flocks of
+from three to five hundred, and the total number in the islands
+considerably exceeds ten thousand. The northern hare (_Lepus alpinus_)
+is pretty abundant in Strömö and Osterö, having been introduced into the
+islands about 1840-1850. The catching of the numerous sea-birds which
+build their nests upon the face of the cliffs forms an important source
+of subsistence to the inhabitants. Sometimes the fowler is let down from
+the top of the cliff; at other times he climbs the rocks, or, where
+possible, is pushed upwards by poles made for the purpose. The birds and
+the contents of the nests are taken in nets mounted on poles; shooting
+is not practised, lest it should permanently scare the birds away.
+Fowling has somewhat decreased in modern times, as the fisheries have
+risen in importance. The puffin is most commonly taken for its feathers.
+The cod fishery is especially important, dried fish being exported in
+large quantity, and the swim-bladders made into gelatine, and also used
+and exported for food. The whaling industry came into importance towards
+the close of the 19th century, and stations for the extraction of the
+oil and whalebone have been established at several points, under careful
+regulations designed to mitigate the pollution of water, the danger to
+live-stock from eating the blubber, &c. The finner whale is the species
+most commonly taken.
+
+The trade of the Faeroe Islands was for some time a monopoly in the
+hands of a mercantile house at Copenhagen, and this monopoly was
+afterwards assumed by the Danish government, but by the law of the 21st
+of March 1855 all restrictions were removed. The produce of the whaling
+and fishing industries, woollen goods, lamb skins and feathers, are the
+chief exports, while in Thorshavn the preserving of fish and the
+manufacture of carpets are carried on to some extent. Thorshavn is
+situated on the S.E. side of Strömö, upon a narrow tongue of land,
+having creeks on each side, where ships may be safely moored. It is the
+seat of the chief government and ecclesiastical officials, and has a
+government house and a hospital. The houses are generally built of wood
+and roofed with birch bark covered with turf. The character of the
+people is marked by simplicity of manners, kindness and hospitality.
+They are healthy, and the population increases steadily. The Faeroes
+form an _amt_ (county) of Denmark. They have also a local parliament
+(_lagthing_), consisting of the _amtmann_ and nineteen other members.
+Among other duties, this body elects a representative to the upper house
+of parliament (_landsthing_) in Denmark; the people choose by vote a
+representative in the lower house (_folkething_). The islands are
+included in the Danish bishopric of Zealand.
+
+_History._--The early history of the Faeroes is not clear. It appears
+that about the beginning of the 9th century Grim Kamban, a Norwegian
+emigrant who had left his country to escape the tyranny of Harold
+Haarfager, settled in the islands. It is said that a small colony of
+Irish and Scottish monks were found in Süderö and dispersed by him. The
+Faeroes then already bore their name of Sheep Islands, as these animals
+had been found to flourish here exceedingly. Early in the 11th century
+Sigmund or Sigismund Bresterson, whose family had flourished in the
+southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the
+northern, was sent from Norway, whither he had escaped, to take
+possession of the islands for Olaf Trygvason, king of Norway. He
+introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered,
+Norwegian supremacy was upheld, and continued till 1386, when the
+islands were transferred to Denmark. English adventurers gave great
+trouble to the inhabitants in the 16th century, and the name of Magnus
+Heineson, a native of Strömö, who was sent by Frederick II. to clear the
+seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. There was formerly
+a bishopric at Kirkebö, S. of Thorshavn, where remains of the cathedral
+may be seen; but it was abolished at the introduction of Protestantism
+by Christian III. Denmark retained possession of the Faeroes at the
+peace of Kiel in 1815. The native literature of the islands consists of
+the _Faereyinga Saga_, dealing with the period of Sigmund Bresterson,
+and a number of popular songs and legends of early origin.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lucas Jacobson Debes, _Feroa Reserata_ (Copenhagen,
+  1673; Eng. transl. London, 1675); Torfaeus, _De rebus gestis
+  Faereyensium_ (Copenhagen, 1695); I. Landt, _Beskrivelse over
+  Färöerne_ (1800), and _Descriptions of the Feroe Islands_ (London,
+  1810); A.J. Symington, _Pen and Pencil Sketches of Faroe and Iceland_
+  (1862); J. Russel-Jeaffreson, _The Faröe Islands_ (1901); J. Falk
+  Rönne, _Beskrivelse over Färöerne_ (Copenhagen, 1902); C.H. Ostenfeld,
+  E. Warming and others, _Botany of the Faeroes_ (Copenhagen,
+  1901-1903); Annandale, _The Faroes and Iceland_ (Oxford, 1905). The
+  _Faereyinga Saga_ was translated by F. York Powell (London, 1896); for
+  folk-songs and legends see S. Kraeth, _Die färöischen Lieder von
+  Sigurd_ (Paderborn, 1877); V.U. Hammershaimb, _Faeröisk Anthologi_
+  (Copenhagen, 1886-1891).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Hans von Post, "Om Färöarnes uppkomst," _Geologiska
+    Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar_, vol. xxiv. (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FAESULAE (mod. _Fiesole_, q.v.), an ancient city of Etruria, on the
+height 3 m. to the N.E. of Florentia, 970 ft. above sea-level. Remains
+of its walls are preserved on all sides, especially on the N.E., in one
+place to a height of 12 to 14 courses. The blocks are often not quite
+rectangular, and the courses sometimes change; but the general tendency
+is horizontal and the walls are not of remote antiquity, the
+irregularities in them being rather due to the hardness of the material
+employed, the rock of the hill itself. The courses vary in height from 1
+to 3 ft., and some blocks are as long as 12½ ft. In this portion of the
+wall are two drains, below one of which is a _phallus_. The site of an
+ancient gate, and the road below it, can be traced; a little farther E.
+was an archway, conjectured by Dennis to be a gate of the Roman period,
+destroyed in 1848. The whole circuit of the walls extended for about
+1-2/3 m. The Franciscan monastery (1130 ft.) occupies the site of the
+acropolis, once encircled by a triple wall, of which no traces are now
+visible. Here was also the _Capitolium_ of Roman times, as an
+inscription found here in 1879 records (_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ xi.,
+Berlin, 1888, No. 1545). The Roman theatre, below the cathedral to the
+N.E., has 19 tiers of stone seats and is 37 yds. in diameter. Above it
+is an embanking wall of irregular masonry, and below it some remains of
+Roman baths, including five parallel vaults of concrete. Just outside
+the town on the E. a reservoir, roofed by the convergence of its sides,
+which were of large regular blocks, was discovered in 1832, but filled
+in again. Over 1000 silver denarii, all coined before 63 B.C., were
+found at Faesulae in 1829. A small museum contains the objects found in
+the excavations of the theatre.
+
+Though Faesulae was an Etruscan city, we have no record of it in history
+until 215 B.C., when the Gauls passed near it in their march on Rome.
+Twelve years later Hannibal seems to have taken this route in his march
+south after the victory of the Trebia. It appears to have suffered at
+the hands of Rome in the Social War, and Sulla expelled some of the
+inhabitants from their lands to make room for his veterans, but some of
+the latter were soon driven out in their turn by the former occupiers.
+Both the veterans, who soon wasted what they had acquired, and the
+dispossessed cultivators joined the partisans of Catiline, and Manlius,
+one of his supporters, made his headquarters at Faesulae. Under the
+empire we hear practically nothing of it; in A.D. 405 Radagaisus was
+crushed in the neighbouring hills, and Belisarius besieged and took it
+in A.D. 539.
+
+  See L.A. Milani, _Rendiconti dei Lincei_, ser. vi. vol. ix. (1900),
+  289 seq., on the discovery of an archaic altar of the _Locus sacer_ of
+  Florence, belonging to Ancharia (Angerona), the goddess of Fiesole.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FAFNIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of the giant Hreidmar. He was
+the guardian of the hoard of the Nibelungs and was killed by Sigurd.
+
+
+
+
+FAGGING (from "fag," meaning "weary"; of uncertain etymology), in
+English public schools, a system under which, generally with the full
+approval of the authorities, a junior boy performs certain duties for a
+senior. In detail this custom varies slightly in the different schools,
+but its purpose--the maintenance of discipline among the boys
+themselves--is the same. Dr Arnold of Rugby defined fagging as "the
+power given by the supreme authorities of the school to the Sixth Form,
+to be exercised by them over the lower boys, for the sake of securing a
+regular government among the boys themselves, and avoiding the evils of
+anarchy; in other words, of the lawless tyranny of brute force." Fagging
+was a fully established system at Eton and Winchester in the 16th
+century, and is probably a good deal older. That the advantages of thus
+granting the boys a kind of autonomy have stood the test of time is
+obvious from the fact that in almost all the great public schools
+founded during the 19th century, fagging has been deliberately adopted
+by the authorities. The right to fag carries with it certain
+well-defined duties. The fag-master is the protector of his fags, and
+responsible for their happiness and good conduct. In cases of bullying
+or injustice their appeal is to him, not to the form or house master,
+and, except in the gravest cases, all such cases are dealt with by the
+fag-master on his own responsibility and without report to the master.
+Until recent years a fag's duties included such humble tasks as blacking
+boots, brushing clothes, and cooking breakfasts, and there was no limit
+as to hours; almost all the fag's spare time being so monopolized. This
+is now changed. Fagging is now restricted to such light tasks as running
+errands, bringing tea to the "master's" study, and fagging at cricket or
+football. At Eton there is no cricket fagging, and at most schools it is
+made lighter by all the fags taking their turn in regular order for one
+hour, so that each boy has to "fag" but once in so many weeks. At Rugby
+there is "study-fagging"--two fags being assigned to each Sixth Form boy
+and made responsible for the sweeping out and tidying up of his study
+alternately each week,--and "night-fagging"--running errands for the
+Sixth between 8.30 and 9.30 every evening,--and each boy can choose
+whether he will be a study-fag or night-fag. The right to fag is usually
+restricted to the Sixth Form, but at Eton the privilege is also granted
+the Fifth, and at Marlborough and elsewhere the Eleven have a right to
+fag at cricket, whether in the Sixth or not.
+
+
+
+
+FAGGOT, a bundle of sticks used for firewood. The word is adapted from
+the Fr. _fagot_, and appears in Italian as _fagotto_, the name given to
+the bassoon (q.v.). "Faggot" is frequently used with reference to the
+burning of heretics, and recanted heretics wore an embroidered faggot on
+the arm as a symbol of the punishment they had escaped. In the 18th
+century the word is used of a "dummy" soldier, appearing on the rolls of
+a regiment. It is this use, coupled with the idea of a bundle of sticks
+as being capable of subdivision, that appears in the expression
+"faggot-vote," a vote artificially created by the minute splitting up of
+property so as to give a bare qualification for the franchise.
+
+
+
+
+FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES (1842-   ), French historian and economist, was
+born in Paris on the 6th of October 1842. Trained at the École des
+Chartes and the École des Hautes Études, he made his first appearance in
+the world of scholarship as the author of an excellent book called
+_Études sur l'industrie et la classe industrielle à Paris au XIII^e et au
+XIV^e siècle_ (1877). This work, composed almost entirely from documents,
+many unpublished, opened a new field for historical study. Twenty years
+later he supplemented this book by an interesting collection of
+_Documents relatifs à l'histoire de l'industrie et du commerce en France_
+(2 vols., 1898-1900), and in 1897 he published _L'Économie sociale de la
+France sous Henri IV_, a volume containing the results of very minute
+research. He did not, however, confine himself to economic history. His
+_Le Père Joseph et Richelieu_ (1894), though somewhat frigid and severe,
+is based on a mass of unpublished information, and shows remarkable
+psychologic grasp. In 1878 his _Journal parisien de Jean de Maupoint,
+prieur de Ste Catherine-de-la-Couture_ was published in vol. iv. of the
+_Mémoires de la sociêtê de l'histoire de Paris et de l'Île de France_. He
+wrote numerous articles in the _Revue historique_ (of which he was
+co-director with Gabriel Monod for some years) and in other learned
+reviews, such as the _Revue des questions historiques_ and the _Journal
+des savants_. In 1901 he was elected member of the Académie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques.
+
+
+
+
+FAGUET, ÉMILE (1847-   ), French critic and man of letters, was born at
+La Roche sur Yon on the 17th of December 1847. He was educated at the
+normal school in Paris, and after teaching for some time in La Rochelle
+and Bordeaux he came to Paris. After acting as assistant professor of
+poetry in the university he became professor in 1897. He was elected to
+the academy in 1900, and received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour in
+the next year. He acted as dramatic critic to the _Soleil_; from 1892 he
+was literary critic to the _Revue bleue_; and in 1896 took the place of
+M. Jules Lemaître on the _Journal des débats_. Among his works are
+monographs on _Flaubert_ (1899), _André Chénier_ (1902), _Zola_ (1903);
+an admirably concise _Histoire de la littérature française depuis le
+XVII^e siècle jusqu'à nos jours_; series of literary studies on the
+17th, 18th and 19th centuries; _Questions politiques_ (1899); _Propos
+littéraires_ (3 series, 1902-1905); _Le Libéralisme_ (1902); and
+_L'Anticléricalisme_ (1906).
+
+  See A. Séché, _Émile Faguet_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+FA-HIEN (fl. A.D. 399-414), Chinese Buddhist monk, pilgrim-traveller,
+and writer, author of one of the earliest and most valuable Chinese
+accounts of India. He started from Changgan or Si-gan-fu, then the
+capital of the Tsin empire, and passing the Great Wall, crossed the
+"River of Sand" or Gobi Desert beyond, that home of "evil demons and hot
+winds," which he vividly describes,--where the only way-marks were the
+bones of the dead, where no bird appeared in the air above, no animal on
+the ground below. Arriving at Khotan, the traveller witnessed a great
+Buddhist festival; here, as in Yarkand, Afghanistan and other parts
+thoroughly Islamized before the close of the middle ages, Fa-Hien shows
+us Buddhism still prevailing. India was reached by a perilous descent of
+"ten thousand cubits" from the "wall-like hills" of the Hindu Kush into
+the Indus valley (about A.D. 402); and the pilgrim passed the next ten
+years in the "central" Buddhist realm,--making journeys to Peshawur and
+Afghanistan (especially the Kabul region) on one side, and to the Ganges
+valley on another. His especial concern was the exploration of the
+scenes of Buddha's life, the copying of Buddhist texts, and converse
+with the Buddhist monks and sages whom the Brahmin reaction had not yet
+driven out. Thus we find him at Buddha's birthplace on the Kohana,
+north-west of Benares; in Patna and on the Vulture Peak near Patna; at
+the Jetvana monastery in Oudh; as well as at Muttra on the Jumna, at
+Kanauj, and at Tamluk near the mouth of the Hugli. But now the
+narrative, which in its earlier portions was primarily historical and
+geographical, becomes mystical and theological; miracle-stories and
+meditations upon Buddhist moralities and sacred memories almost entirely
+replace matters of fact. From the Ganges delta Fa-Hien sailed with a
+merchant ship, in fourteen days, to Ceylon, where he transcribed all the
+sacred books, as yet unknown in China, which he could find; witnessed
+the festival of the exhibition of Buddha's tooth; and remarked the trade
+of Arab merchants to the island, two centuries before Mahomet. He
+returned by sea to the mouth of the Yangtse-Kiang, changing vessels at
+Java, and narrowly escaping shipwreck or the fate of Jonah.
+
+Fa-Hien's work is valuable evidence to the strength, and in many places
+to the dominance, of Buddhism in central Asia and in India at the time
+of the collapse of the Roman empire in western Europe. His tone
+throughout is that of the devout, learned, sensible, rarely hysterical
+pilgrim-traveller. His record is careful and accurate, and most of his
+positions can be identified; his devotion is so strong that it leads him
+to depreciate China as a "border-land," India the home of Buddha being
+the true "middle kingdom" of his creed.
+
+  See James Legge, _Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, being an account by
+  the Chinese Monk Fâ-hien of his travels in India and Ceylon_;
+  translated and edited, with map, &c. (Oxford, 1886); S. Beal, _Travels
+  of Fah-Hian and Sung-Yun, Buddhist pilgrims from China to India, 400
+  and 518 A.D._, translated, with map, &c. (1869); C.R. Beazley, _Dawn
+  of Modern Geography_, vol. i. (1897), pp. 478-485.
+
+
+
+
+FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK (1790-1866), Swedish author, was born at
+Stora Tuna in Sweden on the 30th of August 1790. His brothers, Carl
+Johan (1774-1861), the landscape-painter, and Axel Magnus (1780-1854),
+the sculptor, became hardly less distinguished than himself. In 1804 he
+entered the university of Upsala; in 1821 he became tutor in Arabic, and
+in 1825 professor of Oriental languages. In 1828 he entered the church,
+but earlier than this, in 1825, he published his _Noachs Ark_, a
+successful satire on the literary and social life of his time, followed
+in 1826 by a second part. In 1835 Fahlcrantz brought out the first part
+of his epic of _Ansgarius_, which was completed in 1846, in 14 cantos.
+In 1842 he was made a member of the Swedish Academy, and in 1849 he was
+made bishop of Vesterås, his next literary work being an archaeological
+study on the beautiful ancient cathedral of his diocese. In the course
+of the years 1858-1861 appeared the five volumes of his _Rom förr och
+nu_ (_Rome as it was and is_), a theological polemic, mainly directed
+against the Jesuits. He died on the 6th of August 1866. His complete
+works (7 vols., Örebro, 1863-1866) were issued mainly under his own
+superintendence.
+
+
+
+
+FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686-1736), German physicist, was born at
+Danzig on the 14th of May 1686. For the most part he lived in England
+and Holland, devoting himself to the study of physics and making a
+living, apparently, by the manufacture of meteorological instruments. He
+was the author of important improvements in the construction of
+thermometers, and he introduced the thermometric scale known by his name
+and still extensively used in Great Britain and the United States (see
+THERMOMETRY). He also invented an improved form of hygrometer, a
+description of which, together with accounts of various observations and
+experiments made by him, was published in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1724.
+He died in Holland on the 16th of September 1736.
+
+
+
+
+FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LÉON CÉSAR (1818-1889), French general and colonial
+administrator, was born on the 3rd of June 1818, at Lille, received his
+military education at the École Polytechnique and at Metz, and entered
+the engineers in 1840. From 1844 to 1847 he served in Algeria, then two
+years in the West Indies, and again in Algeria, taking part in many
+expeditions against the Arabs. In 1852 he was transferred to Senegal as
+sub-director of engineers, and in 1854 was promoted _chef de bataillon_
+and appointed governor of the colony. He held this post with one brief
+interval until July 1865. The work he accomplished in West Africa
+constitutes his most enduring monument. At that time France possessed in
+Senegal little else than the town of St Louis and a strip of coast.
+Explorers had, however, made known the riches and possibilities of the
+Niger regions, and Faidherbe formed the design of adding those countries
+to the French dominions. He even dreamed of creating a French African
+empire stretching from Senegal to the Red Sea. To accomplish even the
+first part of his design he had very inadequate resources, especially in
+view of the aggressive action of Omar Al-Hadji, the Moslem ruler of the
+countries of the middle Niger. By boldly advancing the French outposts
+on the upper Senegal Faidherbe stemmed the Moslem advance, and by an
+advantageous treaty with Omar in 1860 brought the French possessions
+into touch with the Niger. He also brought into subjection the country
+lying between the Senegal and Gambia. When he resigned his post French
+rule had been firmly established over a very considerable and fertile
+area and the foundation laid upon which his successors built up the
+predominant position occupied now by France in West Africa. In 1863 he
+became general of brigade. From 1867 to the early part of 1870 he
+commanded the subdivision of Bona in Algeria, and was commanding the
+Constantine division at the commencement of the Franco-German War.
+Promoted general of division in November 1870, he was on the 3rd of
+December appointed by the Government of National Defence to be
+commander-in-chief of the army of the North. In this post he showed
+himself to be possessed of the highest military talents, and the
+struggle between the I. German army and that commanded by Faidherbe, in
+which were included the hard-fought battles of Pont Noyelles, Bapaume
+and St Quentin, was perhaps the most honourable to the French army in
+the whole of the People's War. Even with the inadequate force of which
+he disposed he was able to maintain a steady resistance up to the end of
+the war. Elected to the National Assembly for the department of the
+Nord, he resigned his seat in consequence of its reactionary
+proceedings. For his services he was decorated with the grand cross, and
+made chancellor of the order of the Legion of Honour. In 1872 he went on
+a scientific mission to Upper Egypt, where he studied the monuments and
+inscriptions. An enthusiastic geographer, philologist and archaeologist,
+he wrote numerous works, among which may be mentioned _Collection des
+inscriptions numidiques_ (1870), _Épigraphie phénicienne_ (1873), _Essai
+sur la langue poul_ (1875), and _Le Zénaga des tribes sénégalaises_
+(1877), the last a study of the Berber language. He also wrote on the
+geography and history of Senegal and the Sahara, and _La Campagne de
+l'armée du Nord_ (1872). He was elected a senator in 1879, and, in spite
+of failing health, continued to the last a close student of his
+favourite subjects. He died on the 29th of September 1889, and received
+a public funeral. Statues and monuments to his memory were erected at
+Lille, Bapaume, St Quentin and St Louis, Senegal.
+
+
+
+
+FAIENCE, properly the French term for the _porzellana di Faenza_, a fine
+kind of glazed and painted earthenware made at Faenza in Italy, hence a
+term applied generally to all kinds of pottery other than unglazed
+pottery or porcelain. It is often particularly applied to the
+translucent earthenware made in Persia (see CERAMICS).
+
+
+
+
+FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE (1810-1892), French general, was born at
+Rozoy-sur-Serre (Aisne) on the 21st of January 1810, and entered the
+army from St Cyr in 1828. In 1851 he had risen to the rank of colonel,
+and Napoleon III., with whom he was a favourite, made him general of
+brigade in 1854 and general of division in 1855, after which for a time
+De Failly was his aide-de-camp. In the war of 1859 De Failly commanded a
+division, and in 1867 he defeated Garibaldi at Mentana, this action
+being the first in which the chassepot was used. In 1870 De Failly
+commanded the V. corps. His inactivity at Bitsch on the 6th of August
+while the I. corps on his right and the II. corps on his left were
+crushed at Wörth and Spicheren respectively, gave rise to the greatest
+indignation in France, and his military career ended, after the V. corps
+had been severely handled at Beaumont on the 30th of August, with the
+catastrophe of Sedan. The rest of his life was spent in retirement. De
+Failly wrote _Campaigne de 1870, Opérations et marche du 5^me corps
+jusqu'au 30 août_ (Brussels, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANÇOIS (1778-1837), French historian, was born in
+Paris on the 11th of January 1778. Having gained admittance to the
+offices of the Directory, he became head of a department. Under the
+Consulate he entered the office of the secretary of state, in the
+department of the archives. In 1806 he was appointed secretary and
+archivist to the _cabinet particulier_ of the emperor, whom he attended
+on his campaigns and journeys. He was created a baron of the empire in
+1809, and, on the fall of Napoleon, was first secretary of the cabinet
+and confidential secretary. Compelled by the second Restoration to
+retire into private life, he devoted his leisure to writing the history
+of his times, an occupation for which his previous employments well
+fitted him. He published successively _Manuscrit de 1814, contenant
+l'histoire des six derniers mois du règne de Napoléon_ (1823; new
+edition with illustrations, 1906); _Manuscrit de 1813, contenant le
+précis des événements de cette année pour servir à l'histoire de
+l'empereur Napoléon_ (1824); _Manuscrit de 1812_ (1827); and _Manuscrit
+de l'an iii. (1794-1795), contenant les premières transactions de
+l'Europe avec la république française et le tableau des derniers
+événements du régime conventionnel_ (1828), all of which are remarkable
+for accuracy and wide range of knowledge, and are a very valuable source
+for the history of Napoleon I. Of still greater importance for the
+history of Napoleon are Fain's _Mémoires_, which were published
+posthumously in 1908; they relate more particularly to the last five
+years of the empire, and give a detailed picture of the emperor at work
+on his correspondence among his confidential secretaries. Immediately
+after the overthrow of Charles X., King Louis Philippe appointed Fain
+first secretary of his cabinet (August 1830). Fain was a member of the
+council of state and deputy from Montargis from 1834 until his death,
+which occurred in Paris on the 16th of September 1837.
+
+
+
+
+FAIR, a commercial institution, defined as a "greater species of market
+recurring at more distant intervals": both "fair" and "market" (q.v.)
+have been distinguished by Lord Coke from "mart," which he considers as
+a greater species of fair; and all three may be defined as periodic
+gatherings of buyers and sellers in an appointed place, subject to
+special regulation by law or custom. Thus in England from a strictly
+legal point of view there can be no fair or market without a franchise;
+and a franchise of fair or market can only be exercised by right of a
+grant from the crown, or by the authority of parliament or by
+prescription presupposing a grant. In the earliest times periodical
+trading in special localities was necessitated by the difficulties of
+communication and the dangers of travel. Public gatherings, whether
+religious, military or judicial, which brought together widely scattered
+populations, were utilized as opportunities for commerce. At the
+festivals of Delos and at the Olympic games trade, it is said, found
+important outlets, while in Etruria the annual general assembly at the
+temple of Voltumna served at the same time as a fair and was regularly
+attended by Roman traders. Instances of a similar nature might be
+multiplied; but it was above all with religious festivals which recurred
+with regularity and convoked large numbers of persons that fairs, as
+distinguished from markets, are most intimately associated.
+
+The most commonly accepted derivation of the word "fair" is from the
+Latin _feria_, a name which the church borrowed from Roman custom and
+applied to her own festivals. A fair was generally held during the
+period of a saint's feast and in the precincts of his church or abbey,
+but in England this desecration of church or churchyard was first
+forbidden by the Statute of Winton (c. Edward I.). Most of the famous
+fairs of medieval England and Europe, with their tolls or other
+revenues, and, within certain limits of time and place, their monopoly
+of trade, were grants from the sovereign to abbots, bishops and other
+ecclesiastical dignitaries. Their "holy day" associations are preserved
+in the German word for fairs, _Messen_; as also in the _kirmiss_,
+"church mass," of the people of Brittany. So very intimate was the
+connexion between the fair and the feast of the saint that the former
+has very commonly been regarded as an off-shoot or development of the
+latter. But there is every reason to suppose that fairs were already
+existing national institutions, long before the church turned or was
+privileged to turn them to her own profit.
+
+The first charter of the great fair of Stourbridge, near Cambridge, was
+granted by King John for the maintenance of a leper hospital; but the
+origin of the fair itself is ascribed to Carausius, the rebel emperor of
+Britain, A.D. 207. At all events, it may be seen from the _data_ given
+in Herbert Spencer's _Descriptive Sociology_ that the country had then
+arrived at the stage of development where fairs might have been
+recognized as a necessity. The Romans also appear to have elaborated a
+market-law similar to that in force throughout medieval Europe--though
+it must be observed that the Roman _nundinae_, which some have regarded
+as fairs, were weekly markets. It has also been supposed that the
+ancient fairs of Lyons were a special privilege granted by the Roman
+conquerors; and Sidonius Apollinaris, A.D. 427, alludes to the fairs of
+the district afterwards known as the county of Champagne, as if they
+were then familiarly known institutions. Fairs, in a word, would not
+only have arisen naturally, wherever the means of communication between
+individual centres of production and consumption were felt to be
+inadequate to the demand for an interchange of commodities; but, from
+their very nature, they might be expected to show some essential
+resemblances, even in points of legislation, and where no international
+transmission of custom could have been possible. Thus, the fair courts
+of pre-Spanish Mexico corresponded very closely to those of the
+Beaucaire fair. They resembled the English courts of piepowder. The
+Spaniards, when first they saw the Mexican fairs, were reminded of the
+like institutions in Salamanca and Granada. The great fair or market at
+the city of Mexico is said to have been attended by about 40,000 or
+50,000 persons, and is thus described by Prescott:--
+
+  "Officers patrolled the square, whose business it was to keep the
+  peace, to collect the dues imposed on the various kinds of
+  merchandise, to see that no false measures or fraud of any kind were
+  used, and to bring offenders at once to justice. A court of twelve
+  judges sat in one part of the _tianguez_ clothed with those ample and
+  summary powers which, in despotic countries, are often delegated even
+  to petty tribunals. The extreme severity with which they exercised
+  those powers, in more than one instance, proves that they were not a
+  dead letter."
+
+But notwithstanding the great antiquity of fairs, their charters are
+comparatively modern--the oldest known being that of St Denys, Paris,
+which Dagobert, king of the Franks, granted (A.D. 642) to the monks of
+the place "for the glory of God, and the honour of St Denys at his
+festival."
+
+In England it was only after the Norman conquest that fairs became of
+capital importance. Records exist of 2800 grants of franchise markets
+and fairs between the years 1199 and 1483. More than half of these were
+made during the reigns of John and Henry III., when the power of the
+church was in ascendancy. The first recorded grant, however, appears to
+be that of William the Conqueror to the bishop of Winchester, for leave
+to hold an annual "free fair" at St Giles's hill. The monk who had been
+the king's jester received his charter of Bartholomew fair, Smithfield,
+in the year 1133. And in 1248 Henry III. granted a like privilege to the
+abbot of Westminster, in honour of the "translation" of Edward the
+Confessor. Sometimes fairs were granted to towns as a means for enabling
+them to recover from the effects of war and other disasters. Thus,
+Edward III. granted a "free fair" to the town of Burnley in Rutland,
+just as, in subsequent times, Charles VII. favoured Bordeaux after the
+English wars, and Louis XIV. gave fair charters to the towns of Dieppe
+and Toulon. The importance attached to these old fairs may be understood
+from the inducements which, in the 14th century, Charles IV. held out to
+traders visiting the great fair of Frankfort-on-Main. The charter
+declared that both during the continuance of the fair, and for eighteen
+days before and after it, merchants would be exempt from imperial
+taxation, from arrest for debt, or civil process of any sort, except
+such as might arise from the transactions of the market itself and
+within its precincts. Philip of Valois's regulations for the fairs of
+Troyes in Champagne might not only be accepted as typical of all
+subsequent fair-legislation of the kingdom, but even of the English and
+German laws on the subject. The fair had its staff of notaries for the
+attestation of bargains, its court of justice, its police officers, its
+sergeants for the execution of the market judges' decrees, and its
+visitors--of whom we may mention the _prud'hommes_,--whose duty it was
+to examine the quality of goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate
+those found unfit for consumption. The confiscation required the consent
+of five or six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
+The effect of these great "free fairs" of England and the continent on
+the development of society was indeed great. They helped to familiarize
+the western and northern countries with the banking and financial
+systems of the Lombards and Florentines, who resorted to them under the
+protection of the sovereign's "firm peace," and the ghostly terrors of
+the pope. They usually became the seat of foreign agencies. In the names
+of her streets Provins preserved the memory of her 12th-century
+intercourse with the agents and merchants of Germany and the Low
+Countries, and long before that time the Syrian traders at St Denys had
+established their powerful association in Paris. Like the church on the
+religious side, the free fairs on the commercial side evoked and
+cherished the international spirit. And during long ages, when
+commercial "protection" was regarded as indispensable to a nation's
+wealth, and the merchant was compelled to "fight his way through a
+wilderness of taxes," they were the sole and, so far as they went, the
+complete substitute for the free trade of later days.
+
+Their privileges, however, were, from their very nature, destined to
+grow more oppressive and intolerable the more the towns were multiplied
+and the means of communication increased. The people of London were
+compelled to close their shops during the days when the abbot of
+Westminster's fair was open. But a more curious and complete instance of
+such an ecclesiastical monopoly was that of the St Giles's fair, at
+first granted for the customary three days, which were increased by
+Henry III. to sixteen. The bishop of Winchester was, as we have seen,
+the lord of this fair. On the eve of St Giles's feast the magistrates of
+Winchester surrendered the keys of the city gates to the bishop, who
+then appointed his own mayor, bailiff and coroner, to hold office until
+the close of the fair. During the same period, Winchester and
+Southampton also--though it was then a thriving trading town--were
+forbidden to transact their ordinary commercial business, except within
+the bishop's fair, or with his special permission. The bishop's officers
+were posted along the highways, with power to forfeit to his lordship
+all goods bought and sold within 7 m. of the fair--in whose centre stood
+"the pavilion," or bishop's court. It is clear, from the curious record
+of the _Establishment and Expenses of the Household_ of Percy, 5th earl
+of Northumberland, that fairs were the chief centres of country traffic
+even as late as the 16th century. They began to decline rapidly after
+1759, when good roads had been constructed and canal communication
+established between Liverpool and the towns of Yorkshire, Cheshire and
+Lancashire. In the great towns their extinction was hastened in
+consequence of their evil effects on public morals. All the London fairs
+were abolished as public nuisances before 1855--the last year of the
+ever famous fair of St Bartholomew; and the fairs of Paris were swept
+away in the storm of the Revolution.
+
+_English Fairs and Markets._--For the general reasons apparent from the
+preceding sketch, fairs in England, as in France and Germany, have very
+largely given way to markets for specialities. Even the live-stock
+market of the metropolis is being superseded by the dead-meat market, a
+change which has been encouraged by modern legislation on cattle
+disease, the movements of home stock and the importation of foreign
+animals. Agricultural markets are also disappearing before the
+"agencies" and the corn exchanges in the principal towns. Still there
+are some considerable fairs yet remaining. Of the English fairs for live
+stock, those of Weyhill in Hampshire (October 10), St Faith's, near
+Norwich (October 17), as also several held at Devizes, Wiltshire, are
+among the largest in the kingdom. The first named stands next to none
+for its display of sheep. Horncastle, Lincolnshire, is the largest horse
+fair in the kingdom, and is regularly visited by American and
+continental dealers. The other leading horse fairs in England are Howden
+in Yorkshire (well known for its hunters), Woodbridge (on Lady Day) for
+Suffolk horses, Barnet in Hertfordshire, and Lincoln. Exeter December
+fair has a large display of cattle, horses and most kinds of
+commodities. Large numbers of Scotch cattle are also brought to the
+fairs of Carlisle and Ormskirk. Nottingham has a fair for geese. Ipswich
+has a fair for lambs on the 1st of August, and for butter and cheese on
+the 1st of September. Gloucester fair is also famous for the last-named
+commodity. Falkirk fair, or tryst, for cattle and sheep, is one of the
+largest in Scotland; and Ballinasloe, Galway, holds a like position
+among Irish fairs. The Ballinasloe cattle are usually fed for a year in
+Leinster before they are considered fit for the Dublin or Liverpool
+markets.
+
+_French Fairs._--In France fairs and markets are held under the
+authority of the prefects, new fairs and markets being established by
+order of the prefects at the instance of the commune interested. Before
+the Revolution fairs and markets could only be established by _seigneurs
+justiciers_, but only two small markets have survived the law of 1790
+abolishing private ownership of market rights, namely, the _Marché Ste
+Catherine_ and the _Marché des enfants rouges_, both in Paris. Under the
+present system markets and fairs are held in most of the towns and
+villages in France; and at all such gatherings entertainments form an
+important feature. The great fair of Beaucaire instituted in 1168 has
+steadily declined since the opening of railway communication, and now
+ranks with the fairs of ordinary provincial towns. Situated at the
+junction of the Rhone and the Canal du Midi, and less than 40 m. from
+the sea, it at one time attracted merchants from Spain, from Switzerland
+and Germany, and from the Levant and Mediterranean ports, and formed one
+of the greatest temporary centres of commerce on the continent. One
+trade firm alone, it is said, rarely did less than 1,000,000 francs
+worth of business during the fortnight that the fair lasted.
+
+_German Fairs._--In Germany the police authorities are considered the
+market authorities, and to them in most cases is assigned the duty of
+establishing new fairs and markets, subject to magisterial decision. The
+three great fairs of Germany are those of Frankfort-on-Main,
+Frankfort-on-Oder and Leipzig, but, like all the large fairs of Europe,
+they have declined rapidly in importance. Those of Frankfort-on-Main
+begin on Easter Tuesday and on the nearest Monday to September 8
+respectively, and their legal duration is three weeks, though the limit
+is regularly extended. The fairs of the second-named city are
+_Reminiscere_, February or March; _St Margaret_, July; _St Martin_,
+November. Ordinarily they last fifteen days, which is double the legal
+term. The greatest of the German fairs are those of Leipzig, whose
+display of books is famous all over the world. Its three fairs are dated
+January 1, Easter, Michaelmas. The Easter one is the book fair, which is
+attended by all the principal booksellers of Germany, and by many more
+from the adjoining countries. Most German publishers have agents at
+Leipzig. As many as 5000 new publications have been entered in a single
+Leipzig catalogue. As in the other instances given, the Leipzig fairs
+last for three weeks, or nearly thrice their allotted duration. Here no
+days of grace are allowed, and the holder of a bill must demand payment
+when due, and protest, if necessary, on the same day, otherwise he
+cannot proceed against either drawer or endorser.
+
+_Russian Fairs._--In Russia fairs are held by local authorities. Landed
+proprietors may also hold fairs on their estates subject to the sanction
+of the local authorities; but no private tolls may be levied on
+commodities brought to such fairs. In Siberia and the east of Russia,
+where more primitive conditions foster such centres of trade, fairs are
+still of considerable importance. Throughout Russia generally they are
+very numerous. The most important, that of Nijni Novgorod, held annually
+in July and August at the confluence of the rivers Volga and Kama, was
+instituted in the 17th century by the tsar Michael Fedorovitch. In 1881
+it was calculated that trade to the value of 246,000,000 roubles was
+carried on within the limits of the fair. It still continues to be of
+great commercial importance, and is usually attended by upwards of
+100,000 persons from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe. Other fairs
+of consequence are those of Irbit in Perm, Kharkoff (January and
+August), Poltava (August and February), Koreunais in Koursk,
+Ourloupinsknia in the Don Cossack country, Krolevetz in Tchernigoff, and
+a third fair held at Poltava on the feast of the Ascension.
+
+_Indian Fairs._--The largest of these, and perhaps the largest in Asia,
+is that of Hurdwar, on the upper course of the Ganges. The visitors to
+this holy fair number from 200,000 to 300,000; but every twelfth year
+there occurs a special pilgrimage to the sacred river, when the numbers
+may amount to a million or upwards. Those who go solely for the purposes
+of trade are Nepalese, Mongolians, Tibetans, central Asiatics and
+Mahommedan pedlars from the Punjab, Sind and the border states. Persian
+shawls and carpets, Indian silks, Kashmir shawls, cottons (Indian and
+English), preserved fruits, spices, drugs, &c., together with immense
+numbers of cattle, horses, sheep and camels, are brought to this famous
+fair.
+
+_American Fairs._--The word "fair," as now used in the United States,
+appears to have completely lost its Old World meaning. It seems to be
+exclusively applied to industrial exhibitions and to what in England are
+called fancy bazaars. Thus, during the Civil War, large sums were
+collected at the "sanitary fairs," for the benefit of the sick and
+wounded. To the first-named class belong the state and county fairs, as
+they are called. Among the first and best-known of these was the "New
+York World's Fair," opened in 1853 by a company formed in 1851. (See
+EXHIBITION.)
+
+  _Law of Fairs._--As no market or fair can be held in England without a
+  royal charter, or right of prescription, so any person establishing a
+  fair without such sanction is liable to be sued under a writ of _Quo
+  warranto_, by any one to whose property the said market may be
+  injurious. Nor can a fair or market be legally held beyond the time
+  specified in the grant; and by 5 Edward III. c. 5 (1331) a merchant
+  selling goods after the legal expiry of the fair forfeited double
+  their value. To be valid, a sale must take place in "market-overt"
+  (open market); "it will not be binding if it carries with it a
+  presumption of fraudulence." These regulations satisfied, the sale
+  "transfers a complete property in the thing sold to the vendee; so
+  that however injurious or illegal the title of the vendor may be, yet
+  the vendee's is good against all men except the king." (In Scottish
+  law, the claims of the real owner would still remain valid.) However,
+  by 21 Henry VIII. c. 2 (1529) it was enacted that, "if any felon rob
+  or take away money, goods, or chattels, and be indicted and found
+  guilty, or otherwise attainted upon evidence given by the owner or
+  party robbed, or by any other by their procurement, the owner or party
+  robbed shall be restored to his money, goods or chattels," but only
+  those goods were restored which were specified in the indictment, now
+  could the owner recover from a _bona fide_ purchaser in market-overt
+  who had sold the goods before conviction. For obvious reasons the
+  rules of market-overt were made particularly stringent in the case of
+  horses. Thus, by 2 Philip & Mary c. 7 (1555) and 31 Eliz. c. 12 (1589)
+  no sale of a horse was legal which had not satisfied the following
+  conditions;--Public exposure of the animal for at least an hour
+  between sunrise and sunset; identification of the vendor by the market
+  officer, or guarantee for his honesty by "one sufficient and credible
+  person"; entry of these particulars, together with a description of
+  the animal, and a statement of the price paid for it, in the market
+  officer's book. Even if his rights should have been violated in spite
+  of all these precautions, the lawful owner could recover, if he
+  claimed within six months, produced witnesses, and tendered the price
+  paid to the vendor. Tolls were not a "necessary incident" of a
+  fair--i.e. they were illegal unless specially granted in the patent,
+  or recognized by custom. As a rule, they were paid only by the vendee,
+  and to the market clerk, whose record of the payment was an
+  attestation to the genuineness of the purchase. By 2 & 3 Philip & Mary
+  c. 7 every lord of a fair entitled to exact tolls was bound to appoint
+  a clerk to collect and enter them. It was also this functionary's
+  business to test measures and weights. Tolls, again, are sometimes
+  held to include "stallage" and "picage," which mean respectively the
+  price for permission to erect stalls and to dig holes for posts in the
+  market grounds. But toll proper belongs to the lord of the market,
+  whereas the other two are usually regarded as the property of the lord
+  of the soil. The law also provided that stallage might be levied on
+  any house situated in the vicinity of a market, and kept open for
+  business during the legal term of the said market. Among modern
+  statutes, one of the chief is the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act 1847,
+  the chief purpose of which was to consolidate previous measures. By
+  the act no proprietors of a new market were permitted to let
+  stallages, take tolls, or in any way open their ground for business,
+  until two justices of the peace certified to the completion of the
+  fair or market. After the opening of the place for public use, no
+  person other than a licensed hawker may sell anywhere within the
+  borough, his own house or shop excepted, any articles in respect of
+  which tolls are legally exigible in the market. A breach of this
+  provision entails a penalty of forty shillings. Vendors of unwholesome
+  meat are liable to a penalty of £5 for each offence; and the
+  "inspectors of provisions" have full liberty to seize the goods and
+  institute proceedings against the owners. They may also enter "at all
+  times of the day, with or without assistance," the slaughter-house
+  which the undertaker of the market may, by the special act, have been
+  empowered to construct. For general sanitary reasons, persons are
+  prohibited from killing animals anywhere except in these
+  slaughter-houses. Again, by the Fairs Act 1873, times of holding fairs
+  are determined by the secretary of state; while the Fairs Act 1871
+  empowers him to abolish any fair on the representation of the
+  magistrate and with the consent of the owner. The preamble of the act
+  states that many fairs held in England and Wales are both unnecessary
+  and productive of "grievous immorality."
+
+  _The Fair Courts._--The piepowder courts, the lowest but most
+  expeditious courts of justice in the kingdom, as Chitty calls them,
+  were very ancient. The Conqueror's law _De Emporiis_ shows their
+  pre-existence in Normandy. Their name was derived from _pied
+  poudreux_, i.e. "dusty-foot."[1] The lord of the fair or his
+  representative was the presiding judge, and usually he was assisted by
+  a jury of traders chosen on the spot. Their jurisdiction was limited
+  by the legal time and precincts of the fair, and to disputes about
+  contracts, "slander of wares," attestations, the preservation of
+  order, &c.
+
+  _Authorities._--See Herbert Spencer's _Descriptive Sociology_ (1873),
+  especially the columns and paragraphs on "Distribution"; Prescott's
+  _History of Mexico_, for descriptions of fairs under the Aztecs; Giles
+  Jacob's _Law Dictionary_ (London, 1809); Joseph Chitty's _Treatise on
+  the Law of Commerce and Manufactures_, vol. ii. chap. 9 (London,
+  1824); Holinshed's and Grafton's _Chronicles_, for lists, &c., of
+  English fairs; Meyer's _Das grosse Conversations-Lexicon_ (1852),
+  under "Messen"; article "Foire" in Larousse's _Dictionnaire
+  universelle du XIX^e siècle_ (Paris, 1866-1874), and its references to
+  past authorities; and especially, the second volume, commercial
+  series, of the _Encyclopédie méthodique_ (Paris, 1783); M'Culloch's
+  _Dictionary of Commerce_ (1869-1871); Wharton's _History of English
+  Poetry_, pp. 185, 186 of edition of 1870 (London, Murray & Son), for a
+  description of the Winchester Fair, &c.; a note by Professor Henry
+  Morley in p. 498, vol. vii. _Notes and Queries_, second series; the
+  same author's unique _History of the Fair of St Bartholomew_ (London,
+  1859); Wharton's _Law Lexicon_ (Will's edition, London, 1876); P.
+  Huvelin's _Essai historique sur le droit des marchés et des foires_
+  (Paris, 1897); _Report of the Royal Commission on Market Rights and
+  Tolls_, vols. i. (1889), xiv. (1891); _Final Report_ (1891); Walford's
+  _Fairs, Past and Present_ (1883); _The Law relating to Markets and
+  Fairs_, by Pease and Chitty (London, 1899).     (J. Ma.; Ev. C.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In Med. Lat. _pede-pulverosus_ meant an itinerant merchant or
+    pedlar. In Scots borough law "marchand travelland" and "dusty fute"
+    are identical.
+
+
+
+
+FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838-   ), British Nonconformist divine, was
+born near Edinburgh on the 4th of November 1838. He was educated at the
+universities of Edinburgh and Berlin, and at the Evangelical Union
+Theological Academy in Glasgow. He entered the Congregational ministry
+and held pastorates at Bathgate, West Lothian and at Aberdeen. From 1877
+to 1886 he was principal of Airedale College, Bradford, a post which he
+gave up to become the first principal of Mansfield College, Oxford. In
+the transference to Oxford under that name of Spring Hill College,
+Birmingham, he took a considerable part, and he has exercised influence
+not only over generations of his own students, but also over a large
+number of undergraduates in the university generally. He was granted the
+degree of M.A. by a decree of Convocation, and in 1903 received the
+honorary degree of doctor of literature. He was also given the degrees
+of doctor of divinity of Edinburgh and Yale, and doctor of laws of
+Aberdeen. His activities were not limited to his college work. He
+delivered the Muir lectures at Edinburgh University (1878-1882), the
+Gifford lectures at Aberdeen (1892-1894), the Lyman Beecher lectures at
+Yale (1891-1892), and the Haskell lectures in India (1898-1899). He was
+a member of the Royal Commission of Secondary Education in 1894-1895,
+and of the Royal Commission on the Endowments of the Welsh Church in
+1906. In 1883 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and
+Wales. He is a prolific writer on theological subjects. He resigned his
+position at Mansfield College in the spring of 1909.
+
+  Among his works are:--_Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and
+  History_ (1876); _Studies in the Life of Christ_ (1881); _Religion in
+  History and in Modern Life_ (1884; rev. 1893); _Christ in Modern
+  Theology_ (1893); _Christ in the Centuries_ (1893); _Catholicism Roman
+  and Anglican_ (1899); _Philosophy of the Christian Religion_ (1902);
+  _Studies in Religion and Theology_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1789-1874), Scottish engineer, was born
+on the 19th of February 1789 at Kelso, Roxburghshire, where his father
+was a farm-bailiff. In 1803 he obtained work at three shillings a week
+as a mason's labourer on the bridge then being built by John Rennie at
+Kelso; but within a few days he was incapacitated by an accident. Later
+in the same year, his father having been appointed steward on a farm
+connected with Percy Main Colliery near North Shields, he obtained
+employment as a carter in connexion with the colliery. In March 1804 he
+was bound an apprentice to a millwright at Percy Main, and then found
+time to supplement the deficiencies of his early education by systematic
+private study. It was at Percy Main that he made the acquaintance of
+George Stephenson, who then had charge of an engine at a neighbouring
+colliery. For some years subsequent to the expiry of his apprenticeship
+in 1811, he lived a somewhat roving life, seldom remaining long in one
+place and often reduced to very hard straits before he got employment.
+But in 1817 he entered into partnership with a shopmate, James Lillie,
+with whose aid he hired an old shed in High Street, Manchester, where he
+set up a lathe and began business. The firm quickly secured a good
+reputation, and the improvements in mill-work and water-wheels
+introduced by Fairbairn caused its fame to extend beyond Manchester to
+Scotland and even the continent of Europe. The partnership was dissolved
+in 1832.
+
+In 1830 Fairbairn had been employed by the Forth and Clyde Canal Company
+to make experiments with the view of determining whether it were
+possible to construct steamers capable of traversing the canal at a
+speed which would compete successfully with that of the railway; and the
+results of his investigation were published by him in 1831, under the
+title _Remarks on Canal Navigation_. His plan of using iron boats proved
+inadequate to overcome the difficulties of this problem, but in the
+development of the use of this material both in the case of merchant
+vessels and men-of-war he took a leading part. In this way also he was
+led to pursue extensive experiments in regard to the strength of iron.
+In 1835 he established, in connexion with his Manchester business, a
+shipbuilding yard at Millwall, London, where he constructed several
+hundred vessels, including many for the royal navy; but he ultimately
+found that other engagements prevented him from paying adequate
+attention to the management, and at the end of fourteen years he
+disposed of the concern at a great loss. In 1837 he was consulted by the
+sultan of Turkey in regard to machinery for the government workshops at
+Constantinople. In 1845 he was employed, in conjunction with Robert
+Stephenson, in constructing the tubular railway bridges across the
+Conway and Menai Straits. The share he had in the undertaking has been
+the subject of some dispute; his own version is contained in a volume he
+published in 1849, _An Account of the Construction of the Britannia and
+Conway Tubular Bridges_. In 1849 he was invited by the king of Prussia
+to submit designs for the construction of a bridge across the Rhine, but
+after various negotiations, another design, by a Prussian engineer,
+which was a modification of Fairbairn's, was adopted. Another matter
+which engaged much of Fairbairn's attention was steam boilers, in the
+construction of which he effected many improvements. Amid all the cares
+of business he found time for varied scientific investigation. In 1851
+his fertility and readiness of invention greatly aided an inquiry
+carried out at his Manchester works by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
+and J.P. Joule, at the instigation of William Hopkins, to determine the
+melting points of substances under great pressure; and from 1861 to 1865
+he was employed to guide the experiments of the government committee
+appointed to inquire into the "application of iron to defensive
+purposes." He died at Moor Park, Surrey, on the 18th of August 1874.
+Fairbairn was a member of many learned societies, both British and
+foreign, and in 1861 served as president of the British Association. He
+declined a knighthood, in 1861, but accepted a baronetcy in 1869.
+
+His youngest brother, SIR PETER FAIRBAIRN (1799-1861), founded a large
+machine manufacturing business in Leeds. Starting on a small scale with
+flax-spinning machinery, he subsequently extended his operations to the
+manufacture of textile machinery in general, and finally to that of
+engineering tools. He was knighted in 1858.
+
+  See _The Life of Sir William Fairbairn_, partly written by himself and
+  edited and completed by Dr William Pole (1877).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 1, by Various
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+
+<pre>
+
+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 1
+       "Evangelical Church Conference" to "Fairbairn, Sir William"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2011 [EBook #36735]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10, SL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+</pre>
+
+
+
+<table border="0" cellpadding="10" style="background-color: #dcdcdc; color: #696969; " summary="Transcriber's note">
+<tr>
+<td style="width:25%; vertical-align:top">
+Transcriber&rsquo;s note:
+</td>
+<td class="norm">
+A few typographical errors have been corrected. They
+appear in the text <span class="correction" title="explanation will pop up">like this</span>, and the
+explanation will appear when the mouse pointer is moved over the marked
+passage. Sections in Greek will yield a transliteration
+when the pointer is moved over them, and words using diacritic characters in the
+Latin Extended Additional block, which may not display in some fonts or browsers, will
+display an unaccented version. <br /><br />
+<a name="artlinks">Links to other EB articles:</a> Links to articles residing in other EB volumes will
+be made available when the respective volumes are introduced online.
+</td>
+</tr>
+</table>
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 180%">THE</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 250%; color: #C11B17;">ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</p>
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 150%">ELEVENTH EDITION</p>
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" width="70%" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tc5">FIRST</td>
+    <td class="tc6">edition,</td>
+    <td class="tc6">published in</td>
+    <td class="tc5">three</td>
+    <td class="tc6">volumes,</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1768-1771.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">SECOND</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">ten</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1777-1784.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">THIRD</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">eighteen</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1788-1797.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">FOURTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">twenty</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1801-1810.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">FIFTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">twenty</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1815-1817.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">SIXTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">twenty</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1823-1824.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">SEVENTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">twenty-one</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1830-1842.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">EIGHTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">twenty-two</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1853-1860.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">NINTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">twenty-five</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1875-1889.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">TENTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6" colspan="3">ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes,</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1902-1903.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tc5">ELEVENTH</td>
+    <td class="tc6">&rdquo;</td>
+    <td class="tc6" colspan="3">published in twenty-nine volumes,</td>
+    <td class="tc5">1910-1911.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<p class="center">COPYRIGHT</p>
+<p class="center">in all countries subscribing to the<br />
+Bern Convention</p>
+
+<p class="center">by</p>
+<p class="center">THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS</p>
+<p class="center">of the</p>
+<p class="center">UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE</p>
+
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center"><i>All rights reserved</i></p>
+
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 180%">THE</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 250%; color: #C11B17;">ENCYCLOP&AElig;DIA BRITANNICA</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">A</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 180%">DICTIONARY</p>
+
+<p class="center">OF</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL</p>
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">INFORMATION</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 120%">ELEVENTH EDITION</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 170%; font-family: 'Courier New';">VOLUME X</p>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 140%; font-family: 'Courier New';">EVANGELICAL CHURCH to FRANCIS JOSEPH</p>
+<div class="pt1">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">New York</p>
+<p>&nbsp;</p>
+<p class="center">Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica, Inc.</p>
+<p class="center f80">342 Madison Avenue</p>
+
+<div class="pt1">&nbsp;</div>
+<p class="center">Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,<br />
+by<br />
+The Encyclop&aelig;dia Britannica Company.</p>
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+<hr class="full" />
+<h3>VOLUME X SLICE I<br /><br />
+Evangelical Church Conference to Fairbairn, Sir William</h3>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center1" style="font-size: 150%; font-family: 'verdana';">Articles in This Slice</p>
+<table class="reg" style="width: 90%; font-size: 90%; border: gray 2px solid;" cellspacing="8" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar1">EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar80">EXPULSION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar2">EVANGELICAL UNION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar81">EXTENSION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar3">EVANS, CHRISTMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar82">EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar4">EVANS, EVAN HERBER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar83">EXTERRITORIALITY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar5">EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar84">EXTORTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar6">EVANS, SIR JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar85">EXTRACT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar7">EVANS, OLIVER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar86">EXTRADITION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar8">EVANSON, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar87">EXTRADOS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar9">EVANSTON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar88">EXTREME UNCTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar10">EVANSVILLE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar89">EYBESCHÜTZ, JONATHAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar11">EVARISTUS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar90">EYCK, VAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar12">EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar91">EYE</a> (English town)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar13">EVE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar92">EYE</a> (organ)</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar14">EVECTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar93">EYEMOUTH</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar15">EVELETH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar94">EYLAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar16">EVELYN, JOHN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar95">EYRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar17">EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar96">EYRE, EDWARD JOHN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar18">EVEREST, SIR GEORGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar97">EYRE, SIR JAMES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar19">EVEREST, MOUNT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar98">EYRIE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar20">EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar99">EZEKIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar21">EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar100">EZRA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar22">EVERETT, EDWARD</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar101">EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar23">EVERETT</a> (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar102">EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar24">EVERETT</a> (Washington, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar103">EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar25">EVERGLADES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar104">EZZO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar26">EVERGREEN</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar105">EZZOLIED</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar27">EVERLASTING</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar106">F</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar28">EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar107">FABBRONI, ANGELO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar29">EVESHAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar108">FABER</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar30">EVIDENCE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar109">FABER, BASIL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar31">EVIL EYE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar110">FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar32">EVOLUTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar111">FABER, JACOBUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar33">EVORA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar112">FABER, JOHANN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar34">ÉVREUX</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar113">FABERT, ABRAHAM DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar35">EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar114">FABIAN, SAINT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar36">EWALD, JOHANNES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar115">FABIUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar37">EWART, WILLIAM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar116">FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar38">E&#7810;E</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar117">FABLE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar39">EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar118">FABLIAU</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar40">EWING, ALEXANDER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar119">FABRE, FERDINAND</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar41">EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar120">FABRE D&rsquo;ÉGLANTINE, PHILIPPE FRANÇOIS NAZAIRE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar42">EWING, THOMAS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar121">FABRETTI, RAPHAEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar43">EXAMINATIONS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar122">FABRIANI, SEVERINO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar44">EXARCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar123">FABRIANO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar45">EXCAMBION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar124">FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar46">EXCELLENCY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar125">FABRICIUS, GEORG</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar47">EXCHANGE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar126">FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar48">EXCHEQUER</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar127">FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar49">EXCISE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar128">FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar50">EXCOMMUNICATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar129">FABRIZI, NICOLA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar51">EXCRETION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar130">FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar52">EXECUTION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar131">FABYAN, ROBERT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar53">EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar132">FAÇADE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar54">EXEDRA</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar133">FACCIOLATI, JACOPO</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar55">EXELMANS, RENÉ JOSEPH ISIDORE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar134">FACE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar56">EXEQUATUR</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar135">FACTION</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar57">EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar136">FACTOR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar58">EXETER</a> (England)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar137">FACTORY ACTS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar59">EXETER</a> (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)</td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar138">FACULA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar60">EXETER BOOK</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar139">FACULTY</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar61">EXHIBITION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar140">FAED, THOMAS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar62">EXHUMATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar141">FAENZA</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar63">EXILARCH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar142">FAEROE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar64">EXILE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar143">FAESULAE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar65">EXILI</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar144">FAFNIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar66">EXMOOR FOREST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar145">FAGGING</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar67">EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar146">FAGGOT</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar68">EXMOUTH</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar147">FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar69">EXODUS, BOOK OF</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar148">FAGUET, ÉMILE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar70">EXODUS, THE</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar149">FA-HIEN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar71">EXOGAMY</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar150">FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar72">EXORCISM</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar151">FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar73">EXORCIST</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar152">FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LÉON CÉSAR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar74">EXOTIC</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar153">FAIENCE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar75">EXPATRIATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar154">FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar76">EXPERT</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar155">FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANÇOIS</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar77">EXPLOSIVES</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar156">FAIR</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar78">EXPRESS</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar157">FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN</a></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl"><a href="#ar79">EXPROPRIATION</a></td> <td class="tcl"><a href="#ar158">FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM</a></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 120%">INITIALS USED IN VOLUME X. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL<br />
+CONTRIBUTORS,<a name="FnAnchor_1" id="FnAnchor_1" href="#Footnote_1"><span class="sp">1</span></a> WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE<br />
+ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.</p>
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" width="100%" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1" style="width: 10%;">A. B. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2" style="width: 60%;"><span class="sc">Alfred Barton Rendle, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S., F.L.S.</span><br />
+                Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of <i>Text Book on Classification
+                of Flowering Plants</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flower.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. D.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Austin Dobson, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Dobson, H. Austin</span>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fielding, Henry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. F. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Aldred Farrer Barker, M.Sc.</span><br />
+                Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Felt.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. F. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Albert Frederick Pollard, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc.</span><br />
+                Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls&rsquo;
+                College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the <i>Dictionary of National Biography</i>, 1893-1901.
+                Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of
+                <i>England under Protector Somerset</i>; <i>Henry VIII.</i>; <i>Life of Thomas Cranmer</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ferrar, Bishop;<br />
+Fox, Edward;<br />
+Fox, Richard.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. G.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Major Arthur George Frederick Griffiths</span> (d. 1908).
+                H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of <i>The Chronicles of Newgate</i>;
+                <i>Secrets of the Prison House</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finger Prints.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. Go.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Alexander Gordon, M.A.</span><br />
+                Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Faber, Basil, Jacobus and Johann;<br />
+Familists; Farel, G.; Flacius.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. H.-S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir A. Houtum-Schindler, C.I.E.</span><br />
+                General in the Persian Army. Author of <i>Eastern Persian Irak</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fars;<br />
+Firuzabad.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. L.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Andrew Lang.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Lang, Andrew.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fairy;<br />
+Family.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. L. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alfred Lys Baldry.</span><br />
+                Art Critic of the <i>Globe</i>, 1893-1908. Author of <i>Modern Mural Decoration</i> and
+                biographies of Albert Moore, Sir H. von Herkomer, R.A., Sir J. E. Millais, P.R.A.,
+                Marcus Stone, R.A., and G. H. Boughton, R.A.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fortuny.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. N.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alfred Newton, F.R.S.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Newton, Alfred</span>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Falcon; Fieldfare; Finch;<br />
+Flycatcher; Fowl.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur Smithells, F.R.S.</span><br />
+                Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. Author of Scientific Papers on
+                Flame and Spectrum Analysis.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flame.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. M. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Agnes Mary Clerke.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Clerke, A. M.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flamsteed.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. W.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Arthur Watson.</span><br />
+                Secretary in the Academic Department, University of London.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Examinations (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. W. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Alexander Wood Renton, M.A., LL.B.</span><br />
+                Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of <i>Encyclopaedia of the Laws
+                of England</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fixtures;<br />
+Flat.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">A. W. W.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Adolphus William Ward, D.Litt., LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Ward, A. W.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Foote, Samuel;<br />
+Ford, John.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. El.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Charles Norton Edgcumbe Eliot, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.</span><br />
+                Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College,
+                Oxford. H.M.&rsquo;s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa
+                Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German
+                East Africa, 1900-1904.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finno-Ugrian.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. F. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Francis Bastable, M.A., LL.D.</span><br />
+                Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the University of
+                Dublin. Author of <i>Public Finance</i>; <i>Commerce of Nations</i>; <i>Theory of International
+                Trade</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finance.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. F. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">C. F. Cross, B.Sc.</span> (Lond.), F.C.S. F.I.C.
+                Analytical and Consulting Chemist.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fibres.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. F. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Francis Richardson, A.M., Ph.D.</span><br />
+                Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, U.S.A.
+                Author of <i>A Story of English Rhyme</i>; <i>A History of American Literature</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fiske, John.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. H. T.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Crawford Howell Toy, A.M.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Toy, Crawford Howell</span>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ezekiel.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. J.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Johnson, M.A.</span><br />
+                Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office. Joint Editor of the <i>Domesday Survey</i> for the
+                <i>Victoria County History: Norfolk</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exchequer (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. J. B. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles John Bruce Marriott, M.A.</span><br />
+                Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Football: Rugby (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. J. N. F.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles James Nicol Fleming.</span><br />
+                H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Football: Rugby (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. L. K.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles Lethbridge Kingsford, M.A., F.R.Hist.Soc., F.S.A.</span><br />
+                Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of <i>Life of Henry V.</i> Editor
+                of <i>Chronicles of London</i> and Stow&rsquo;s <i>Survey of London</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fabyan;<br />
+Fastolf.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. P. I.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Courtenay Peregrine Ilbert, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.</span><br />
+                Clerk of the House of Commons. Chairman of Statute Law Committee. Parliamentary
+                Counsel to the Treasury, 1899-1901. Legal Member of Council of Governor-General
+                of India, 1882-1886; President, 1886. Fellow of the British Academy.
+                Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Author of <i>The Government
+                of India</i>; <i>Legislative Method and Forms</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Evidence.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">C. W. A.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Charles William Alcock.</span> (d. 1907).
+                Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Football: Association (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">D. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">David Hannay.</span><br />
+                Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of <i>Short History of the Royal
+                Navy</i>; <i>Life of Emilio Castelar</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">First of June, Battle of the;<br />
+Fox, Charles James.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">D. Mn.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Dugald Macfadyen, M.A.</span><br />
+                Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director of the London
+                Missionary Society.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Excommunication.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">D. N. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Diarmid Noel Paton, M.D., F.R.C.P.</span> (Edin.).
+                Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow. Formerly Superintendent
+                of Research Laboratory of Royal College of Physicians, Edinburgh.
+                Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University, 1884. Author of <i>Essentials of Human
+                Physiology</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fever.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">D. S. M.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">David Samuel Margoliouth, M.A., D.Litt.</span><br />
+                Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author of <i>Arabic
+                Papyri of the Bodleian Library</i>; <i>Mohammed and the Rise of Islam</i>; <i>Cairo, Jerusalem
+                and Damascus</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fatimites.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edward Breck, M.A., Ph.D.</span><br />
+                Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the <i>New York Herald</i> and the <i>New York Times</i>.
+                Author of <i>Fencing</i>; <i>Wilderness Pets</i>; <i>Sporting in Nova Scotia</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Foil-fencing;<br />
+Football: American (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. Ca.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Egerton Castle, M.A., F.S.A.</span><br />
+                Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of <i>Schools and Masters of Fence</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fencing.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">Ed. C.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">The Hon. Edward Evan Charteris.</span><br />
+                Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fair (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. C. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rt. Rev. Edward Cuthbert Butler, O.S.B., M.A., D.Litt.</span><br />
+                Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of &ldquo;The Lausiac History of Palladius,&rdquo;
+                in <i>Cambridge Texts and Studies</i>, vol. vi.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fontevrault;<br />
+Francis of Assisi, St;<br />
+Francis of Paola, St.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. C. Q.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edmund Crosby Quiggin, M.A.</span><br />
+                Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in Celtic,
+                Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finn mac Cool.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. D. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Lieut.-Colonel Emilius C. Delmé Radcliffe.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>Falconry: Notes on the Falconidae used in India in Falconry</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Falconry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. E. A.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest E. Austen.</span><br />
+                Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South Kensington.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flea.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. E. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Edward Everett Hale.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Hale, E. E.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Everett, Edward.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. G.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edmund Gosse, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Gosse, Edmund</span>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ewald, Johannes; Fabliau;<br />
+Fabre, Ferdinand; Feuillet;<br />
+Finland: <i>Literature</i>;<br />
+FitzGerald, Edward; Flaubert;<br />
+Flemish Literature; Forssell.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. H. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edward Henry Palmer, M.A.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Palmer, E. H.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Firdousi (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. K.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edmund Knecht, Ph.D., M.Sc.Tech.</span> (Manchester), F.I.C.
+                Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head of Chemical
+                Department, Municipal School of Technology, Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing,
+                City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of <i>A Manual of Dyeing</i>; &amp;c. Editor
+                of <i>Journal of the Society of Dyers and Colourists</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finishing.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. M. Ha.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest Maes Harvey.</span><br />
+                Partner in Messrs. Allen Harvey &amp; Ross, Bullion Brokers, London.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exchange.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. O.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.Sc.</span><br />
+                Consulting Surgeon to St Mary&rsquo;s Hospital, London, and to the Children&rsquo;s Hospital,
+                Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Late Examiner
+                in Surgery at the University of Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of <i>A
+                Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fistula.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. O. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edwin Otho Sachs, F.R.S.</span> (Edin.), <span class="sc">A.M.Inst.M.E.</span><br />
+                Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President, National
+                Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International Fire Service Council. Author
+                of <i>Fires and Public Entertainments</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fire and Fire Extinction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. Pr.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Edgar Prestage.</span><br />
+                Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of Manchester. Commendador,
+                Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon
+                Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Falcao;<br />
+Ferreira.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. Re.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Elisée Reclus.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Reclus, J. J. E.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fire.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. Tn.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Ethelred Leonard Taunton</span>, (d. 1907).
+                Author of <i>The English Black Monks of St Benedict</i>; <i>History of the Jesuits in England</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Feckenham;<br />
+Fisher, John.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">E. W. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ernest William Hobson, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.</span><br />
+                Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. Stokes Lecturer
+                in Mathematics in the University.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fourier&rsquo;s Series.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">F. C. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frederick Cornwallis Conybeare, M.A., D.Th.</span> (Giessen).
+                Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford.
+                Author of <i>The Ancient Armenian Texts of Aristotle</i>; <i>Myth, Magic and Morals</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Extreme Unction.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">F. G. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frederick Gymer Parsons, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.Anthrop.Inst.</span><br />
+                Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland. Lecturer on
+                Anatomy at St Thomas&rsquo;s Hospital and the London School of Medicine for Women.
+                Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal College of Surgeons.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Eye: <i>Anatomy</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">F. J. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.</span><br />
+                Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of
+                Brasenose College. Ford&rsquo;s Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of the British Academy.
+                Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fosse.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">F. J. W.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frederick Joseph Wall, F.C.S.</span><br />
+                Secretary to the Football Association.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Football: <i>Association</i> (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">F. R. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Frank R. Cana.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">France: <i>Colonies</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">F. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Francis Storr, M.A.</span><br />
+                Editor of the <i>Journal of Education</i>, London. Officier d&rsquo;Académie, Paris.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fable.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. A. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George A. Boulenger, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S.</span><br />
+                In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of Zoology, British
+                Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society of London.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flat-fish.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. A. Be.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George Andreas Berry, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S.</span> (Edin.).
+                Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Formerly Senior Ophthalmic
+                Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on Ophthalmology in the University
+                of Edinburgh. Vice-President, Ophthalmological Society. Author of
+                <i>Diseases of the Eye</i>; <i>The Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis</i>; <i>Subjective
+                Symptoms in Eye Diseases</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Eye: <i>Diseases</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. B. A.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George Burton Adams, A.M., B.D., Ph.D., Litt.D.</span><br />
+                Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of <i>American Historical Review</i>.
+                Author of <i>Civilization during the Middle Ages</i>; <i>Political History of England,</i>
+                1066-1216; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Feudalism.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. C. L.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George Collins Levey, C.M.G.</span><br />
+                Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly Editor and
+                Proprietor of the <i>Melbourne Herald</i>. Secretary, Colonial Committee of Royal
+                Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900. Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887.
+                Secretary, Royal Commission, Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Commissioners
+                for Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
+                and Melbourne, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1880-1881.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exhibition.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. E.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S.</span><br />
+                Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford&rsquo;s Lecturer, 1909.
+                Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign Member, Netherlands Association
+                of Literature.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flanders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. F. Z.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George Frederick Zimmer, A.M.Inst.C.E.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>Mechanical Handling of Material</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flour and Flour Manufacture.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. G. P.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">George Grenville Phillimore, M.A., B.C.L.</span><br />
+                Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fishery, Law of.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Gifford Pinchot, A.M., D.Sc., LL.D.</span><br />
+                Professor of Forestry, Yale University. Formerly Chief Forester, U.S.A. President
+                of the National Conservation Association. Member of the Society of American
+                Foresters, Royal English Arboricultural Society, &amp;c. Author of <i>The White Pine</i>;
+                <i>A Primer of Forestry</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Forests and Forestry: <i>United States</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">G. W. T.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Griffiths Wheeler Thatcher, M.A., B.D.</span><br />
+                Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew and Old
+                Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fair&#363;z&#257;b&#257;d&#299;;<br />
+Fakhr ud-D&#299;n R&#257;zi;<br />
+F&#257;r&#257;b&#299;; Farazdaq.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. B. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Henry Barclay Swete, M.A., D.D., Litt.D.</span><br />
+                Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge University. Fellow of Gonville and Caius
+                College, Cambridge. Fellow of King&rsquo;s College, London. Fellow of British Academy.
+                Hon. Canon of Ely Cathedral. Author of <i>The Holy Spirit in the New Testament</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fathers of the Church.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. Ch.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hugh Chisholm, M.A.</span><br />
+                Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the 11th Edition
+                of the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>; Co-Editor of the 10th edition.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Forster.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. De.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hippolyte Delehaye, S.J.</span><br />
+                Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications: <i>Analecta Bollandiana</i>
+                and <i>Acta Sanctorum</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fiacre, Saint;<br />
+Florian, Saint.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. F. G.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hans Friedrich Gadow, F.R.S., Ph.D.</span><br />
+                Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of Cambridge.
+                Author of &ldquo;Amphibia and Reptiles,&rdquo; in the <i>Cambridge Natural History</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flamingo.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. L. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">H. Lawrence Swinburne</span> (d. 1909).</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flag.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. St.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Henry Sturt, M.A.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>Idola Theatri</i>; <i>The Idea of a Free Church</i>; <i>Personal Idealism</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fechner;<br />
+Feuerbach, Ludwig A.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. W. C. D.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Henry William Carless Davis, M.A.</span><br />
+                Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls&rsquo; College, Oxford,
+                1895-1902. Author of <i>England under the Normans and Angevins</i>; <i>Charlemagne</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fitz Neal;<br />
+Fitz Peter, Geoffrey;<br />
+Fitz Stephen, William;<br />
+Fitz Thedmar; Flambard;<br />
+Florence of Worcester.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">H. W. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">H. Wickham Steed.</span><br />
+                Correspondent of <i>The Times</i> at Vienna. Correspondent of <i>The Times</i> at Rome,
+                1897-1902.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fabrizi.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">I. A.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Israel Abrahams, M.A.</span><br />
+                Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of Cambridge. President,
+                Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of <i>A Short History of Jewish Literature</i>;
+                <i>Jewish Life in the Middle Ages</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exilarch;<br />
+Eybeschutz.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. A. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Joseph Archer Crowe, K.C.M.G.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Crowe, Sir Joseph A.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Eyck, Van.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. A. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Allen Howe, B.Sc.</span><br />
+                Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of
+                <i>The Geology of Building Stones</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">France: <i>Geology</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. A. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Addington Symonds, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Symonds, John A.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ficino;<br />
+Filelfo.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. B.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Joseph Burton.</span><br />
+                Partner in Pilkington&rsquo;s Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction, Manchester.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Firebrick (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. B. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Bell Pettigrew, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P.</span> (Edin.) (1834-1908).
+                Chandos Professor of Medicine and Anatomy, University of St Andrews, 1875-1908.
+                Author of <i>Animal Locomotion</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flight and Flying (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Bt.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Bartlett.</span><br />
+                Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities, &amp;c., at King&rsquo;s
+                College, London. Member of Society of Architects. Member of Institute of
+                Junior Engineers.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Foundations.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. C. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Clerk Maxwell, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Maxwell, James Clerk</span>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Faraday.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. E. C. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Edward Courtenay Bodley, M.A.</span><br />
+                Balliol College, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Author
+                of <i>France</i>; <i>The Coronation of Edward VII.</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">France: <i>History</i>, 1870-1910.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. E. P. W.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Edward Power Wallis, M.A.</span><br />
+                Puisne Judge, Madras. Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Inns of Court
+                Reader in Constitutional Law, 1892-1897. Formerly Editor of <i>State Trials</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Extradition.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. F. St.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Frederick Stenning, M.A.</span><br />
+                Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Aramaic.
+                Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exodus, Book of.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. G. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Joseph G. Horner, A.M.I.Mech.E.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>Plating and Boiler Making</i>; <i>Practical Metal Turning</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Forging;<br />
+Founding.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. G. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John George Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.</span><br />
+                Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer on the
+                English Language, Strassburg University. Author of <i>History of German Literature</i>;
+                &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fouqué, Baron.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. H. P.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Hungerford Pollen, M.A.</span> (d. 1908).
+                Formerly Professor of Fine Arts in Catholic University of Dublin. Fellow of
+                Merton College, Oxford. Cantor Lecturer, Society of Arts, 1885. Author of
+                <i>Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork</i>; <i>Ancient and Modern Gold and
+                Silversmith&rsquo;s Work</i>; <i>The Trajan Column</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fan.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Hl. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D.</span><br />
+                Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local Lectures Syndicate.
+                Author of <i>Life of Napoleon I.</i>; <i>Napoleonic Studies</i>; <i>The Development of the European
+                Nations</i>; <i>The Life of Pitt</i>; chapters in the <i>Cambridge Modern History</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fouché.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. H. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D.</span> (Edin.).
+                Author of <i>Feudal England</i>; <i>Studies in Peerage and Family History</i>; <i>Peerage and
+                Pedigree</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ferrers: <i>Family</i>;<br />
+Fitzgerald: <i>Family</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. I.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jules Isaac.</span><br />
+                Professor of History at the Lycée of Lyons.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Francis I. of France.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. K. L.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir John Knox Laughton, M.A., Litt.D.</span><br />
+                Professor of Modern History, King&rsquo;s College, London. Secretary of the Navy
+                Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in China, 1856-1859.  Mathematical
+                and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873;
+                Greenwich, 1873-1885. President, Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884.
+                Honorary Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King&rsquo;s College,
+                London. Author of <i>Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing Winds and
+                Currents</i>; <i>Studies in Naval History</i>; <i>Sea Fights and Adventures</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Farragut;<br />
+Fitzroy.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. L. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Julian Levett Baker, F.I.C.</span><br />
+                Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Examiner in Brewing to the City and Guilds
+                of London Institute, Department of Technology. Hon. Secretary of the Institute
+                of Brewing. Author of <i>The Brewing Industry</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fermentation.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Ma.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Macdonald.</span><br /></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fair (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. M. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Montgomery Stuart.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>The History of Free Trade in Tuscany</i>; <i>Reminiscences and Essays</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Foscolo.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. Pa.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">James Paton, F.L.S.</span><br />
+                Superintendent of Museums and Art Galleries of Corporation of Glasgow. Assistant
+                in Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh, 1861-1876. President of Museums
+                Association of United Kingdom, 1896. Editor and part-author of <i>Scottish National
+                Memorials</i>, 1890.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Feather (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. P. E.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Jean Paul Hippolyte Emmanuel Adhémar Esmein.</span><br />
+                Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion of Honour.
+                Member of the Institute of France. Author of <i>Cours élémentaire d&rsquo;histoire du droit
+                français</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">France: <i>Law and Institutions</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. R. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Joseph Rogerson Cotter, M.A.</span><br />
+                Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy, Trinity College,
+                Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston&rsquo;s <i>Theory of Heat</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fluorescence.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. R. F.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Joseph R. Fisher.</span><br />
+                Editor of the <i>Northern Whig</i>, Belfast. Author of <i>Finland and the Tsars</i>; <i>Law of
+                the Press</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finland.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. R. J. J.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Julian Robert John Jocelyn.</span><br />
+                Colonel, R.A. Formerly Commandant, Ordnance College; Member of Ordnance
+                Committee; Commandant, Schools of Gunnery.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fireworks: <i>History</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. S. Bl.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. John Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D.</span><br />
+                Assistant Editor, 9th edition, <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i>. Joint Editor of the
+                <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i>. Translated Ritschl&rsquo;s <i>Critical History of the Christian
+                Doctrine of Justification and Reconciliation</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fasting;<br />
+Feasts and Festivals.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. S. F.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Smith Flett, D.Sc, F.G.S.</span><br />
+                Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edinburgh
+                University. Neill Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby
+                Medallist of the Geological Society of London.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Felsite;<br />
+Flint.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. S. K.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John Scott Keltie, LL.D., F.S.S.. F.S.A.</span> (Scot.).
+                Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of North Star.
+                Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon. Member, Geographical
+                Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &amp;c. Editor of <i>Statesman&rsquo;s Year Book</i>. Editor of
+                the <i>Geographical Journal</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Finland (<i>in part</i>);<br />
+Flinders.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">J. T. Be.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">John T. Bealby.</span><br />
+                Joint Author of Stanford&rsquo;s <i>Europe</i>. Formerly Editor of the <i>Scottish Geographical
+                Magazine</i>. Translator of Sven Hedin&rsquo;s <i>Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fens;<br />
+Ferghana (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">K. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Kathleen Schlesinger.</span><br />
+                Author of <i>The Instruments of the Orchestra</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fiddle; Fife; Flageolet;<br />
+Flute (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">L. D.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Louis Duchesne.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Duchesne, L. M. O.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Formosus.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">L. F. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Leslie Frederic Scott, M.A., K.C.C.</span><br />
+                Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Factor.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">L. J.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Lieut.-Colonel Louis Charles Jackson, R.E., C.M.G.</span><br />
+                Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office. Formerly Instructor
+                in Fortification, R.M.A., Woolwich. Instructor in Fortification and Military
+                Engineering, School of Military Engineering, Chatham</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fortification and Siegecraft.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">L. V.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Luigi Villari.</span><br />
+                Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper Correspondent
+                in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907;
+                Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910. Author of <i>Italian Life in Town and Country</i>; <i>Fire and
+                Sword in the Caucasus</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Faliero; Fanti, Manfredo;<br />
+Farini, Luigi Carlo;<br />
+Farnese: <i>Family</i>;<br />
+Ferdinand I. and IV. of Naples;<br />
+Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies;<br />
+Fiesco; Filangieri, C.;<br />
+Florence; Foscari;<br />
+Fossombroni;<br />
+Francis II. of the Two Sicilies;<br />
+Francis IV. and V. of Modena.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">M. Ha.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Marcus Hartog, M.A., D.Sc, F.L.S.</span><br />
+                Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of "&ldquo;Protozoa,&rdquo; in <i>Cambridge
+                Natural History</i>; and papers for various scientific journals.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flagellate; Foraminifera.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">N. W. T.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Northcote Whitbridge Thomas, M.A.</span><br />
+                Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding Member of the
+                Société d&rsquo;Anthropologie de Paris. Author of <i>Thought Transference</i>; <i>Kinship and
+                Marriage in Australia</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Faith Healing;<br />
+Fetishism;<br />
+Folklore.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">O. H.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Otto Hehner, F.I.C., F.C.S.</span><br />
+                Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts. Vice-President
+                of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and Ireland. Author of works on Butter
+                Analysis; Alcohol Tables; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Food Preservation.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">O. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">David Orme Masson, M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S.</span><br />
+                Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on chemistry in
+                the transactions of various learned societies.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fireworks: <i>Modern</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. A.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Paul Daniel Alphandéry.</span><br />
+                Professor of the History of Dogma, École Pratique des Hautes Études, Sorbonne,
+                Paris. Author of <i>Les Idées morales chez les hétérodoxes latines au début du XIII^e
+                siècle</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flagellants.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. A. K.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Prince Peter Alexeivitch Kropotkin.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Kropotkin, P. A.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ferghana (<i>in part</i>);<br />
+Finland (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. C. Y.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Philip Chesney Yorke, M.A.</span><br />
+                Magdalen College, Oxford.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Falkland; Fanshaw;<br />
+Fawkes, Guy; Fell, John;<br />
+Fortescue, Sir John.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. C. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Peter Chalmers Mitchell, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc, LL.D.</span><br />
+                Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Comparative
+                Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1881-1891.
+                Examiner in Zoology to the University of London, 1903. Author of <i>Outlines of
+                Biology</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Evolution.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. G. K.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Paul George Konody.</span><br />
+                Art Critic of the <i>Observer</i> and the <i>Daily Mail</i>. Formerly Editor of <i>The Artist</i>.
+                Author of <i>The Art of Walter Crane</i>; <i>Velasquez, Life and Work</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fiorenzo di Lorenzo;<br />
+Fragonard.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. J. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Philip Joseph Hartog, M.A., L. ès Sc.</span> (Paris).
+                Academic Registrar of the University of London. Author of <i>The Writing of English</i>,
+                and articles in the Special Reports on educational subjects of the Board of Education.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Examinations (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">P. W.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Paul Wiriath.</span><br />
+                Director of the École Supérieure Pratique de Commerce et d&rsquo;Industrie, Paris.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">France: <i>History to</i> 1870.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. Ad.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Adamson, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Adamson, R.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fichte;<br />
+Fourier, F. C. M.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. A. S. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Alexander Stewart Macalister, M.A., F.S.A.</span><br />
+                St John&rsquo;s College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Exploration
+                Fund.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Font.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. H. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Robert Henry Charles, M.A., D.D., D.Litt.</span> (Oxon.).
+                Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford. Fellow of the British
+                Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of Trinity College, Dublin. Author and
+                Editor of <i>Book of Enoch</i>; <i>Book of Jubilees</i>; <i>Apocalypse of Baruch</i>; <i>Assumption of
+                Moses</i>; <i>Ascension of Isaiah</i>; <i>Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ezra: <i>Third and Fourth Books of</i>.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. J. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Ronald John McNeill, M.A.</span><br />
+                Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the <i>St James&rsquo;s
+                Gazette</i>, London.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fenians;<br />
+Fitzgerald, Lord Edward;<br />
+Flood, Henry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. L.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Richard Lydekker, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.</span><br />
+                Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of
+                <i>Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in British Museum</i>; <i>The Deer
+                of all Lands</i>; <i>The Game Animals of Africa</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flying-Squirrel; Fox.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. N. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Nisbet Bain</span> (d. 1909).
+                Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of <i>Scandinavia: the
+                Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, 1513-1900</i>; <i>The First Romanovs,
+                1613-1725</i>; <i>Slavonic Europe: the Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469
+                to 1796</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fersen, Counts von.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. Po.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">René Poupardin, D. ès L.</span><br />
+                Secretary of the École des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the Bibliothèque
+                Nationale, Paris. Author of <i>Le Royaume de Provence sous les Carolingiens</i>; <i>Recueil
+                des chartes de Saint-Germain</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Franche-Comté.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. P. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">R. Phené Spiers, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.</span><br />
+                Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past
+                President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King&rsquo;s College,
+                London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson&rsquo;s
+                <i>History of Architecture</i>. Author of <i>Architecture: East and West</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flute: <i>Architecture</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. S. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Robert Seymour Conway, M.A., D.Litt.</span> (Cantab.).
+                Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester.
+                Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville
+                and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of <i>The Italic Dialects</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Falisci.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">R. Tr.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Roland Truslove, M.A.</span><br />
+                Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics
+                at Worcester College, Oxford.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">France: <i>Statistics</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">S. A. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Stanley Arthur Cook, M.A.</span><br />
+                Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and
+                formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and
+                Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of <i>Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions</i>;
+                <i>The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi</i>; <i>Critical Notes on Old Testament
+                History</i>; <i>Religion of Ancient Palestine</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exodus, The;<br />
+Ezra and Nehemiah, Books of.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">S. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sidney Colvin, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Colvin, S.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fine Arts; Finiguerra;<br />
+Flaxman.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">St C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Viscount St Cyres.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Iddesleigh, 1st Earl of</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fénelon.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">S. E. B.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hon. Simeon Eben Baldwin, M.A., LL.D.</span><br />
+                Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale University.
+                Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the American Bar Association.
+                Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut. Author of <i>Modern Political Institutions</i>;
+                <i>American Railroad Law</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Extradition: U.S.A.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">S. E. S.-R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Stephen Edward Spring-Rice, M.A., C.B.</span> (1856-1902).
+                Formerly Principal Clerk, H.M. Treasury, and Auditor of the Civil List. Fellow of
+                Trinity College, Cambridge.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exchequer (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. A. I.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Allan Ingram, M.A., LL.D.</span><br />
+                Trinity College, Dublin.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Explosives: <i>Law</i>.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. As.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Ashby, M.A., D.Litt.</span> (Oxon.), <span class="sc">F.S.A.</span><br />
+                Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of Christ
+                Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Corresponding Member of the Imperial
+                German Archaeological Institute. Author of the <i>Classical Topography of the Roman
+                Campagna</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Faesulae; Falerii; Falerio;<br />
+Fanum Fortunae;<br />
+Ferentino; Fermo;<br />
+Flaminia Via;<br />
+Florence: <i>Early History</i>;<br />
+Fondi; Fonni; Forum Appii.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. Ba.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Thomas Barclay, M.P.</span><br />
+                Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the Supreme Council of
+                the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of Honour. Author of <i>Problems of
+                International Practice and Diplomacy</i>; &amp;c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Exterritoriality.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. H. H.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Thomas Hungerford Holdich, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.Sc., F.R.G.S.</span><br />
+                Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys, India, 1892-1898.
+                Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. H.M. Commissioner for the
+                Persia-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of <i>The Indian Borderland</i>; <i>The Gates of
+                India</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Everest, Mount.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. K. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. Thomas Kelly Cheyne, D.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Cheyne, T. K.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Eve (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. Se.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Seccombe, M.A.</span><br />
+                Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University of London.
+                Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant Editor of <i>Dictionary of
+                National Biography</i>, 1891-1901. Joint-author of <i>The Bookman History of English
+                Literature</i>. Author of <i>The Age of Johnson</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fawcett, Henry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">T. Wo.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Thomas Woodhouse.</span><br />
+                Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical College, Dundee.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flax.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">V. M.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Victor Charles Mahillon.</span><br />
+                Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Legion
+                of Honour.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Flute (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. A. B. C.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Rev. William Augustus Brevoort Coolidge, M.A., F.R.G.S.</span>, Ph.D. (Bern).
+                Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David&rsquo;s
+                College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of <i>Guide to Switzerland</i>; <i>The Alps in
+                Nature and in History</i>; &amp;c. Editor of the <i>Alpine Journal</i>, 1880-1889.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Feldkirch.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. A. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Alison Phillips, M.A.</span><br />
+                Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John&rsquo;s College,
+                Oxford. Author of <i>Modern Europe</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Excellency; Faust;<br />
+Febronianism.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. B.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Burton, M.A., F.C.S.</span><br />
+                Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great Britain. Author of
+                <i>English Stoneware and Earthenware</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Firebrick (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Ca.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Camp, A.M.</span><br />
+                Member of Yale University Council. Author of <i>American Football</i>; <i>Football Facts
+                and Figures</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Football: <i>American</i> (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Ga.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Garstang, M.A., D.Sc.</span><br />
+                Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds. Scientific Adviser to H.M.
+                Delegates on the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907.
+                Formerly Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Author of <i>The Races and Migrations
+                of the Mackerel</i>; <i>The Impoverishment of the Sea</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fisheries.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. He.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Walter Hepworth.</span><br />
+                Formerly Commissioner of the Council of Education, Science and Art Department,
+                South Kensington.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fool.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. M. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Michael Rossetti.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Rossetti, Dante G.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ferrari, Gaudenzio;<br />
+Fielding, Copley;<br />
+Franceschi, Piero; Francia.</td></tr>
+
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. P. P.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Plane Pycraft, F.Z.S.</span><br />
+                Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum. Formerly Assistant
+                Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford. Vice-President of the
+                Selborne Society. Author of <i>A History of Birds</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Feather (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. N. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Napier Shaw, M.A., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.</span><br />
+                Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in the University of
+                London. President of Permanent International Meteorological Committee.
+                Member of Meteorological Council, 1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College,
+                Cambridge. Fellow of Emmanuel College, 1877-1899; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899.
+                Joint Author of <i>Text Book of Practical Physics</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fog.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. P. R.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Hon. William Pember Reeves.</span><br />
+                Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High Commissioner
+                for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education, Labour and Justice, New
+                Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of <i>The Long White Cloud, a History of New Zealand</i>;
+                &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fox, Sir William.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. R. S.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Robertson Smith, LL.D.</span><br />
+                See the biographical article: <span class="sc">Smith, W. R.</span></td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Eve (<i>in part</i>).</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. R. E. H.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Richard Eaton Hodgkinson, Ph.D., F.R.S.</span><br />
+                Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich. Formerly
+                Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich. Part Author of Valentin-Hodgkinson&rsquo;s
+                 <i>Practical Chemistry</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Explosives.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. Sch.</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">Sir Wilhelm Schlich, K.C.I.E., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.</span><br />
+                Professor of Forestry at the University of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of St John&rsquo;s College.
+                Author of <i>A Manual of Forestry</i>; <i>Forestry in the United Kingdom</i>; <i>The Outlook of
+                the World&rsquo;s Timber Supply</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Forests and Forestry.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. W. F.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Warde Fowler, M.A.</span><br />
+                Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford Lecturer,
+                Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of <i>The City-State of the Greeks and Romans</i>;
+                <i>The Roman Festivals of the Republican Period</i>; &amp;c.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Fortuna.</td></tr>
+
+<tr> <td class="tc1">W. W. R.*</td>
+  <td class="tc2"><span class="sc">William Walker Rockwell, Lic. Theol.</span><br />
+                Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary, New York.
+                Author of <i>Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von Hessen</i>.</td>
+   <td class="tc4 cl">Ferrara-Florence, Council of.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="Footnote_1" id="Footnote_1" href="#FnAnchor_1"><span class="fn">1</span></a> A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
+      the final volume.</p>
+</div>
+
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+
+<p class="center" style="font-size: 130%">PRINCIPAL UNSIGNED ARTICLES</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" width="90%" summary="Contents">
+
+<tr><td class="tc51 bold" style="width: 33%;">
+<p>Evil Eye.</p>
+<p>Excise.</p>
+<p>Execution.</p>
+<p>Executors and Administrators.</p>
+<p>Exeter.</p>
+<p>Exile.</p>
+<p>Eylau.</p>
+<p>Famine.</p>
+<p>Fault.</p>
+<p>Federal Government.</p>
+<p>Federalist Party.</p>
+<p>Fehmic Courts.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tc51 bold" style="width: 33%;">
+<p>Felony.</p>
+<p>Fez.</p>
+<p>Fezzan.</p>
+<p>Fictions.</p>
+<p>Fife.</p>
+<p>Fig.</p>
+<p>Filigree.</p>
+<p>Fir.</p>
+<p>Fives.</p>
+<p>Fleurus.</p>
+<p>Florida.</p></td>
+
+<td class="tc51 bold">
+<p>Foix.</p>
+<p>Fold.</p>
+<p>Fontenelle.</p>
+<p>Fontenoy.</p>
+<p>Foot and Mouth Disease.</p>
+<p>Forest Laws.</p>
+<p>Forfarshire.</p>
+<p>Forgery.</p>
+<p>Formosa.</p>
+<p>Foundling Hospitals.</p>
+<p>Fountain.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<div class="pt2">&nbsp;</div>
+<hr class="full" />
+
+<div style="padding-top: 3em; ">&nbsp;</div>
+
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page1" id="page1"></a>1</span></p>
+<p><span class="bold">EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE,<a name="ar1" id="ar1"></a></span> a convention of
+delegates from the different Protestant churches of Germany.
+The conference originated in 1848, when the general desire for
+political unity made itself felt in the ecclesiastical sphere as well.
+A preliminary meeting was held at Sandhof near Frankfort in
+June of that year, and on the 21st of September some five
+hundred delegates representing the Lutheran, the Reformed, the
+United and the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg.
+The gathering was known as <i>Kirchentag</i> (church diet), and,
+while leaving each denomination free in respect of constitution,
+ritual, doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act
+unitedly in bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches
+and in defending the rights and liberties of the churches in the
+federation. The organization thus closely resembles that of the
+Free Church Federation in England. The movement exercised
+considerable influence during the middle of the 19th century.
+Though no <i>Kirchentag</i>, as such, has been convened since 1871,
+its place has been taken by the <i>Kongress für innere Mission</i>,
+which holds annual meetings in different towns. There is also
+a biennial conference of the evangelical churches held at Eisenach
+to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no
+legislative force.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANGELICAL UNION,<a name="ar2" id="ar2"></a></span> a religious denomination which
+originated in the suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816-1893),
+minister of a United Secession congregation in Kilmarnock,
+Scotland, for certain views regarding faith, the work of the Holy
+Spirit in salvation, and the extent of the atonement, which were
+regarded by the supreme court of his church as anti-Calvinistic
+and heretical. Morison was suspended by the presbytery in
+1841 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession
+Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two
+other ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar
+opinions, the four met at Kilmarnock on the 16th of May 1843
+(two days before the &ldquo;Disruption&rdquo; of the Free Church), and,
+on the basis of certain doctrinal principles, formed themselves
+into an association under the name of the Evangelical Union,
+&ldquo;for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and otherwise
+aiding one another, and also for the purpose of training up
+spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and
+&lsquo;pleasure of the Lord.&rsquo;&rdquo; The doctrinal views of the new denomination
+gradually assumed a more decidedly anti-Calvinistic
+form, and they began also to find many sympathizers among
+the Congregationalists of Scotland. Nine students were expelled
+from the Congregational Academy for holding &ldquo;Morisonian&rdquo;
+doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from the
+Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with
+the Evangelical Union. The Union exercised no jurisdiction
+over the individual churches connected with it, and in this respect
+adhered to the Independent or Congregational form of church
+government; but those congregations which originally were Presbyterian
+vested their government in a body of elders. In 1889
+the denomination numbered 93 churches; and in 1896, after
+prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was incorporated
+with the Congregational Union of Scotland.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Evangelical Union Annual; History of the Evangelical
+Union</i>, by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); <i>The Worthies of the E. U.</i>
+(1883); W. Adamson, <i>Life of Dr James Morison</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANS, CHRISTMAS<a name="ar3" id="ar3"></a></span> (1766-1838), Welsh Nonconformist
+divine, was born near the village of Llandyssul, Cardiganshire,
+on the 25th of December 1766. His father, a shoemaker, died
+early, and the boy grew up as an illiterate farm labourer. At
+the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a Presbyterian
+minister, David Davies, he was affected by a religious revival and
+learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The itinerant
+Calvinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist
+church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined
+the latter denomination. In 1789 he went into North Wales
+as a preacher and settled for two years in the desolate peninsula
+of Lleyn, Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in
+Anglesey. Here, on a stipend of £17 a year, supplemented by a
+little tract-selling, he built up a strong Baptist community,
+modelling his organization to some extent on that of the Calvinistic
+Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the money being
+collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South
+Wales.</p>
+
+<p>In 1826 Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where
+he remained for two years, removing in 1828 to Cardiff.
+In 1832, in response to urgent calls from the north, he settled
+in Carnarvon and again undertook the old work of building and
+collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in South Wales, and died
+at Swansea on the 19th of July 1838. In spite of his early disadvantages
+and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye in a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page2" id="page2"></a>2</span>
+youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful
+preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling he united a
+nimble mind and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple,
+his piety humble and his faith fervently evangelical. For a time
+he came under Sandemanian influence, and when the Wesleyans
+entered Wales he took the Calvinist side in the bitter controversies
+that were frequent from 1800 to 1810. His chief characteristic
+was a vivid and affluent imagination, which absorbed and
+controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the name of
+&ldquo;the Bunyan of Wales.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works were edited by Owen Davies in 3 vols. (Carnarvon,
+1895-1897). See the <i>Lives</i> by D.R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton
+Hood (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANS, EVAN HERBER<a name="ar4" id="ar4"></a></span> (1836-1896), Welsh Nonconformist
+divine, was born on the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near
+Newcastle Emlyn, Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something
+of the &ldquo;Rebecca Riots,&rdquo; and went to school at the neighbouring
+village of Llechryd. In 1853 he went into business, first at
+Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year made his way to
+Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied arts
+and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and
+the Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened
+by the religious revival of 1858-1859. In 1862 he succeeded
+Thomas Jones as minister of the Congregational church at
+Morriston near Swansea. In 1865 he became pastor of Salem
+church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied for nearly thirty
+years despite many invitations to English pastorates. In 1894
+he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor.
+He died on the 30th of December 1896. He was chairman of
+the Welsh Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational
+Union of England and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest
+ministry, his eloquence and his literary work, especially in the
+denominational paper <i>Y Dysgedydd</i>, he achieved a position of
+great influence in his country.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Life</i> by H. Elvet Lewis.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY<a name="ar5" id="ar5"></a></span> (1787-1870), British soldier,
+was born at Moig, Limerick, in 1787. He was educated at
+Woolwich Academy, and entered the army in 1806 as a volunteer,
+obtaining an ensigncy in the 22nd regiment in 1807. His early
+service was spent in India, but he exchanged into the 3rd Light
+Dragoons in order to take part in the Peninsular War, and was
+present in the retreat from Burgos in 1812. In 1813 he was at
+Vittoria, and was afterwards employed in making a military
+survey of the passes of the Pyrenees. He took part in the campaign
+of 1814, and was present at Pampeluna, the Nive and
+Toulouse; and later in the year he served with great distinction
+on the staff in General Ross&rsquo;s Bladensburg campaign, and took
+part in the capture of Washington and of Baltimore and the
+operations before New Orleans. He returned to England in the
+spring of 1815, in time to take part in the Waterloo campaign as
+assistant quartermaster-general on Sir T. Picton&rsquo;s staff. As a
+member of the staff of the duke of Wellington he accompanied
+the English army to Paris, and remained there during the
+occupation of the city by the allies. He was still a substantive
+captain in the 5th West India regiment, though a lieutenant-colonel
+by brevet, when he went on half-pay in 1818. In 1830
+he was elected M.P. for Rye in the Liberal interest; but in the
+election of 1832 he was an unsuccessful candidate both for that
+borough and for Westminster. For the latter constituency he
+was, however, returned in 1833, and, except in the parliament
+of 1841-1846, he continued to represent it till 1865, when he
+retired from political life. His parliamentary duties did not,
+however, interfere with his career as a soldier. In 1835 he went
+out to Spain in command of the Spanish Legion, recruited in
+England, and 9600 strong, which served for two years in the
+Carlist War on the side of the queen of Spain. In spite of great
+difficulties the legion won great distinction on the battlefields
+of northern Spain, and Evans was able to say that no prisoners
+had been taken from it in action, that it had never lost a gun
+or an equipage, and that it had taken 27 guns and 1100 prisoners
+from the enemy. He received several Spanish orders, and on his
+return in 1839 was made a colonel and K.C.B. In 1846 he became
+major-general; and in 1854, on the breaking-out of the Crimean
+War, he was made lieutenant-general and appointed to command
+the 2nd division of the Army of the East. At the battle of the
+Alma, where he received a severe wound, his quick comprehension
+of the features of the combat largely contributed to the victory.
+On the 26th of October he defeated a large Russian force which
+attacked his position on Mount Inkerman. Illness and fatigue
+compelled him a few days after this to leave the command of his
+division in the hands of General Pennefather; but he rose
+from his sick-bed on the day of the battle of Inkerman, the 5th of
+November, and, declining to take the command of his division
+from Pennefather, aided him in the long-protracted struggle by
+his advice. On his return invalided to England in the following
+February, Evans received the thanks of the House of Commons.
+He was made a G.C.B., and the university of Oxford conferred on
+him the degree of D.C.L. In 1861 he was promoted to the full
+rank of general. He died in London on the 9th of January 1870.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANS, SIR JOHN<a name="ar6" id="ar6"></a></span> (1823-1908), English archaeologist and
+geologist, son of the Rev. Dr A.B. Evans, head master of
+Market Bosworth grammar school, was born at Britwell Court,
+Bucks, on the 17th of November 1823. He was for many years
+head of the extensive paper manufactory of Messrs John Dickinson
+at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, but was especially distinguished
+as an antiquary and numismatist. He was the author
+of three books, standard in their respective departments: <i>The
+Coins of the Ancient Britons</i> (1864); <i>The Ancient Stone Implements,
+Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain</i> (1872, 2nd ed.
+1897); and <i>The Ancient Bronze Implements, Weapons and
+Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland</i> (1881). He also wrote a
+number of separate papers on archaeological and geological subjects&mdash;notably
+the papers on &ldquo;Flint Implements in the Drift&rdquo;
+communicated in 1860 and 1862 to <i>Archaeologia</i>, the organ of the
+Society of Antiquaries. Of that society he was president from
+1885 to 1892, and he was president of the Numismatic Society
+from 1874 to the time of his death. He also presided over the
+Geological Society, 1874-1876; the Anthropological Institute,
+1877-1879; the Society of Chemical Industry, 1892-1893;
+the British Association, 1897-1898; and for twenty years (1878-1898)
+he was treasurer of the Royal Society. As president of the
+Society of Antiquaries he was an <i>ex officio</i> trustee of the British
+Museum, and subsequently he became a permanent trustee.
+His academic honours included honorary degrees from several
+universities, and he was a corresponding member of the Institut
+de France. He was created a K.C.B. in 1892. He died at
+Berkhamsted on the 31st of May 1908.</p>
+
+<p>His eldest son, <span class="sc">Arthur John Evans</span>, born in 1851, was
+educated at Brasenose College, Oxford, and Göttingen. He became
+fellow of Brasenose and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean
+Museum at Oxford. He travelled in Finland and Lapland in
+1873-1874, and in 1875 made a special study of archaeology
+and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his
+investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of
+the utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece
+and the eastern Mediterranean (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Aegean Civilization and
+Crete</a></span>). He is a member of all the chief archaeological societies
+in Europe, holds honorary degrees at Oxford, Edinburgh and
+Dublin, and is a fellow of the Royal Society. His chief publications
+are: <i>Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script</i>
+(1896); <i>Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script</i> (1898);
+<i>The Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult</i> (1901); <i>Scripta Minoa</i>
+(1909 foll.); and reports on the excavations. He also edited
+with additions Freeman&rsquo;s <i>History of Sicily</i>, vol. iv.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANS, OLIVER<a name="ar7" id="ar7"></a></span> (1755-1819), American mechanician, was
+born at Newport, Delaware, in 1755. He was apprenticed to a
+wheelwright, and at the age of twenty-two he invented a machine
+for making the card-teeth used in carding wool and cotton.
+In 1780 he became partner with his brothers, who were practical
+millers, and soon introduced various labour-saving appliances
+which both cheapened and improved the processes of flour-milling.
+Turning his attention to the steam engine, he employed
+steam at a relatively high pressure, and the plans of his invention
+which he sent over to England in 1787 and in 1794-1795 are said
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page3" id="page3"></a>3</span>
+to have been seen by R. Trevithick, whom in that case he
+anticipated in the adoption of the high-pressure principle. He
+made use of his engine for driving mill machinery; and in 1803
+he constructed a steam dredging machine, which also propelled
+itself on land. In 1819 a disastrous fire broke out in his factory
+at Pittsburg, and he did not long survive it, dying at New York
+on the 21st of April 1819.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANSON, EDWARD<a name="ar8" id="ar8"></a></span> (1731-1805), English divine, was born
+on the 21st of April 1731 at Warrington, Lancashire. After
+graduating at Cambridge (Emmanuel College) and taking holy
+orders, he officiated for several years as curate at Mitcham. In
+1768 he became vicar of South Mimms near Barnet; and in
+November 1769 he was presented to the rectory of Tewkesbury,
+with which he held also the vicarage of Longdon in Worcestershire.
+In the course of his studies he discovered what he thought
+important variance between the teaching of the Church of England
+and that of the Bible, and he did not conceal his convictions.
+In reading the service he altered or omitted phrases which seemed
+to him untrue, and in reading the Scriptures pointed out errors
+in the translation. A crisis was brought on by his sermon on the
+resurrection, preached at Easter 1771; and in November 1773
+a prosecution was instituted against him in the consistory court
+of Gloucester. He was charged with &ldquo;depraving the public
+worship of God contained in the liturgy of the Church of England,
+asserting the same to be superstitious and unchristian, preaching,
+writing and conversing against the creeds and the divinity of
+our Saviour, and assuming to himself the power of making
+arbitrary alterations in his performance of the public worship.&rdquo;
+A protest was at once signed and published by a large number
+of his parishioners against the prosecution. The case was dismissed
+on technical grounds, but appeals were made to the court
+of arches and the court of delegates. Meanwhile Evanson had
+made his views generally known by several publications. In
+1772 appeared anonymously his <i>Doctrines of a Trinity and the
+Incarnation of God, examined upon the Principles of Reason and
+Common Sense</i>. This was followed in 1777 by <i>A Letter to Dr
+Hurd, Bishop of Worcester, wherein the Importance of the Prophecies
+of the New Testament and the Nature of the Grand Apostasy predicted
+in them are particularly and impartially considered</i>. He also
+wrote some papers on the Sabbath, which brought him into
+controversy with Joseph Priestley, who published the whole
+discussion (1792). In the same year appeared Evanson&rsquo;s work
+entitled <i>The Dissonance of the four generally received Evangelists</i>,
+to which replies were published by Priestley and David Simpson
+(1793). Evanson rejected most of the books of the New Testament
+as forgeries, and of the four gospels he accepted only that
+of St Luke. In his later years he ministered to a Unitarian
+congregation at Lympston, Devonshire. In 1802 he published
+<i>Reflections upon the State of Religion in Christendom</i>, in which he
+attempted to explain and illustrate the mysterious foreshadowings
+of the Apocalypse. This he considered the most important
+of his writings. Shortly before his death at Colford, near
+Crediton, Devonshire, on the 25th of September 1805, he completed
+his <i>Second Thoughts on the Trinity</i>, in reply to a work of the
+bishop of Gloucester.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His sermons (prefaced by a Life by G. Rogers) were published in
+two volumes in 1807, and were the occasion of T. Falconer&rsquo;s <i>Bampton
+Lectures</i> in 1811. A narrative of the circumstances which led to the
+prosecution of Evanson was published by N. Havard, the town-clerk
+of Tewkesbury, in 1778.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANSTON<a name="ar9" id="ar9"></a></span>, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the
+shore of Lake Michigan, 12 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900)
+19,259, of whom 4441 were foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census)
+24,978. It is served by the Chicago &amp; North-Western, and the
+Chicago, Milwaukee &amp; St Paul railways, and by two electric
+lines. The city is an important residential suburb of Chicago.
+In 1908 the Evanston public library had 41,430 volumes. In the
+city are the College of Liberal Arts (1855), the Academy (1860),
+and the schools of music (1895) and engineering (1908) of Northwestern
+University, co-educational, chartered in 1851, opened in
+1855, the largest school of the Methodist Episcopal Church in
+America. In 1909-1910 it had productive funds amounting to
+about $7,500,000, and, including all the allied schools, a faculty of
+418 instructors and 4487 students; its schools of medicine (1869),
+law (1859), pharmacy (1886), commerce (1908) and dentistry
+(1887) are in Chicago. In 1909 its library had 114,869 volumes
+and 79,000 pamphlets (exclusive of the libraries of the professional
+schools in Chicago); and the Garrett Biblical Institute had a
+library of 25,671 volumes and 4500 pamphlets. The university
+maintains the Grand Prairie Seminary at Onarga, Iroquois
+county, and the Elgin Academy at Elgin, Kane county. Enjoying
+the privileges of the university, though actually independent
+of it, are the Garrett Biblical Institute (Evanston Theological
+Seminary), founded in 1855, situated on the university campus,
+and probably the best-endowed Methodist Episcopal theological
+seminary in the United States, and affiliated with the Institute,
+the Norwegian Danish Theological school; and the Swedish
+Theological Seminary, founded at Galesburg in 1870, removed to
+Evanston in 1882, and occupying buildings on the university
+campus until 1907, when it removed to Orrington Avenue and
+Noyes Street. The Cumnock School of Oratory, at Evanston,
+also co-operates with the university. By the charter of the
+university the sale of intoxicating liquors is forbidden within
+4 m. of the university campus. The manufacturing importance
+of the city is slight, but is rapidly increasing. The principal
+manufactures are wrought iron and steel pipe, bakers&rsquo; machinery
+and bricks. In 1905 the value of the factory products was
+$2,550,529, being an increase of 207.3% since 1900. In
+Evanston are the publishing offices of the National Woman&rsquo;s
+Christian Temperance Union. Evanston was incorporated as a
+town in 1863 and as a village in 1872, and was chartered
+as a city in 1892. The villages of North Evanston and
+South Evanston were annexed to Evanston in 1874 and 1892
+respectively.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVANSVILLE,<a name="ar10" id="ar10"></a></span> a city and the county-seat of Vanderburg
+county, Indiana, U.S.A., and a port of entry, on the N. bank of
+the Ohio river, 200 m. below Louisville, Kentucky&mdash;measuring
+by the windings of the river, which double the direct distance.
+Pop. (1890) 50,756; (1900) 59,007; (1910 census) 69,647.
+Of the total population in 1900, 5518 were negroes, 5626 were
+foreign-born (including 4380 from Germany and 384 from England),
+and 17,419 were of foreign parentage (both parents
+foreign-born), and of these 13,910 were of German parentage.
+Evansville is served by the Evansville &amp; Terre Haute, the
+Evansville &amp; Indianapolis, the Illinois Central, the Louisville &amp;
+Nashville, the Louisville, Henderson &amp; St Louis, and the Southern
+railways, by several interurban electric lines, and by river steamboats.
+The city is situated on a plateau above the river, and
+has a number of fine business and public buildings, including
+the court house and city hall, the Southern Indiana hospital for
+the insane, the United States marine hospital, and the Willard
+library and art gallery, containing in 1908 about 30,000 volumes.
+The city&rsquo;s numerous railway connexions and its situation in
+a coal-producing region (there are five mines within the city
+limits) and on the Ohio river, which is navigable nearly all the
+year, combine to make it the principal commercial and manufacturing
+centre of Southern Indiana. It is in a tobacco-growing
+region, is one of the largest hardwood lumber markets in the
+country, and has an important shipping trade in pork, agricultural
+products, dried fruits, lime and limestone, flour and tobacco.
+Among its manufactures in 1905 were flour and grist mill products
+(value, $2,638,914), furniture ($1,655,246), lumber and timber
+products ($1,229,533), railway cars ($1,118,376), packed meats
+($998,428), woollen and cotton goods, cigars and cigarettes,
+malt liquors, carriages and wagons, leather and canned goods.
+The value of the factory products increased from $12,167,524
+in 1900 to $19,201,716 in 1905, or 57.8%, and in the latter year
+Evansville ranked third among the manufacturing cities in the
+state. The waterworks are owned and operated by the city.
+First settled about 1812, Evansville was laid out in 1817, and
+was named in honour of Robert Morgan Evans (1783-1844), one
+of its founders, who was an officer under General W.H. Harrison
+in the war of 1812. It soon became a thriving commercial town
+with an extensive river trade, was incorporated in 1819, and
+received a city charter in 1847. The completion of the Wabash
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page4" id="page4"></a>4</span>
+&amp; Erie Canal, in 1853, from Evansville to Toledo, Ohio, a distance
+of 400 m., greatly accelerated the city&rsquo;s growth.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVARISTUS,<a name="ar11" id="ar11"></a></span> fourth pope (<i>c.</i> 98-105), was the immediate
+successor of Clement.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL<a name="ar12" id="ar12"></a></span> (1818-1901), American
+lawyer, was born in Boston on the 6th of February 1818. He
+graduated at Yale in 1837, was admitted to the bar in New York
+in 1841, and soon took high rank in his profession. In 1860 he
+was chairman of the New York delegation to the Republican
+national convention. In 1861 he was an unsuccessful candidate
+for the United States senatorship from New York. He was chief
+counsel for President Johnson during the impeachment trial,
+and from July 1868 until March 1869 he was attorney-general of
+the United States. In 1872 he was counsel for the United States
+in the &ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; arbitration. During President Hayes&rsquo;s administration
+(1877-1881) he was secretary of state; and from
+1885 to 1891 he was one of the senators from New York. As
+an orator Senator Evarts stood in the foremost rank, and some
+of his best speeches were published. He died in New York on
+the 28th of February 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVE,<a name="ar13" id="ar13"></a></span> the English transcription, through Lat. <i>Eva</i> and Gr. <span class="grk" title="Eua">&#917;&#8020;&#945;</span>,
+of the Hebrew name <span title="Hava">&#1495;&#1493;&#1492;</span> &#7716;avvah, given by Adam to his wife
+because she was &ldquo;mother of all living,&rdquo; or perhaps more strictly,
+&ldquo;of every group of those connected by female kinship&rdquo; (see
+W.R. Smith, <i>Kinship</i>, 2nd ed., p. 208), as if Eve were the personification
+of mother-kinship, just as Adam (&ldquo;man&rdquo;) is the
+personification of mankind.</p>
+
+<p>[The abstract meaning &ldquo;life&rdquo; (LXX. <span class="grk" title="Zôê">&#918;&#969;&#942;</span>), once favoured by
+Robertson Smith, is at any rate unsuitable in a popular story.
+Wellhausen and Nöldeke would compare the Ar. <i>&#7717;ayyatun</i>,
+&ldquo;serpent,&rdquo; and the former remarks that, if this is right, the
+Israelites received their first ancestress from the &#7716;ivvites
+(Hivites), who were originally the serpent-tribe (<i>Composition des
+Hexateuchs</i>, p. 343; cf. <i>Reste arabischen Heidentums</i>, 2nd ed.,
+p. 154). Cheyne, too, assumes a common origin for &#7716;avvah and
+the &#7716;ivvites.]</p>
+
+<p>[The account of the origin of Eve (Gen. iii. 21-23) runs thus:
+&ldquo;And Yahweh-Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man,
+and he slept. And he took one of his ribs, and closed
+up the flesh in its stead, and the rib which Yahweh-Elohim
+<span class="sidenote">Creation of Eve.</span>
+had taken from the man he built up into a
+woman, and he brought her to the man.&rdquo; Enchanted at the
+sight, the man now burst out into elevated, rhythmic speech:
+&ldquo;This one,&rdquo; he said, &ldquo;at length is bone of my bone and flesh
+of my flesh,&rdquo; &amp;c. ; to which the narrator adds the comment,
+&ldquo;Therefore doth a man forsake his father and his mother, and
+cleave to his wife, and they become one flesh (body).&rdquo; Whether
+this comment implies the existence of the custom of <i>beena</i>,
+marriage (W.R. Smith, <i>Kinship</i>, 2nd ed., p. 208), seems doubtful.
+It is at least equally possible that the expression &ldquo;his wife&rdquo;
+simply reflects the fact that among ordinary Israelites circumstances
+had quite naturally brought about the prevalence of
+monogamy.<a name="fa1a" id="fa1a" href="#ft1a"><span class="sp">1</span></a> What the narrator gives is not a doctrine of
+marriage, much less a precept, but an explanation of a simple
+and natural phenomenon. How is it, he asks, that a man is so
+irresistibly drawn towards a woman? And he answers: Because
+the first woman was built up out of a rib of the first man. At the
+same time it is plain that the already existing tendency towards
+monogamy must have been powerfully assisted by this presentation
+of Eve&rsquo;s story as well as by the prophetic descriptions of
+Yahweh&rsquo;s relation to Israel under the figure of a monogamous
+union.]</p>
+
+<p>[The narrator is no rhetorician, and spares us a description of
+the ideal woman. But we know that, for Adam, his strangely
+produced wife was a &ldquo;help (or helper) matching or
+corresponding to him&rdquo;; or, as the Authorized Version
+<span class="sidenote">New Testament application.</span>
+puts it, &ldquo;a help meet for him&rdquo; (ii. 18b). This does
+not, of course, exclude subordination on the part of the
+woman; what is excluded is that exaggeration of natural
+subordination which the narrator may have found both in his
+own and in the neighbouring countries, and which he may have
+regarded as (together with the pains of parturition) the punishment
+of the woman&rsquo;s transgression (Gen. iii. 16). His own ideal
+of woman seems to have made its way in Palestine by slow degrees.
+An apocryphal book (Tobit viii. 6, 7) seems to contain the only
+reference to the section till we come to the time of Christ, to
+whom the comment in Gen. ii. 24 supplies the text for an authoritative
+prohibition of divorce, which presupposes and sanctifies
+monogamy (Matt. x. 7, 8; Matt. xix. 5). For other New
+Testament applications of the story of Eve see 1 Cor. xi. 8, 9
+(especially); 2 Cor. xi. 3; 1 Tim. ii. 13, 14; and in general cf.
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adam</a></span>, and <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, &ldquo;Adam and Eve.&rdquo;]</p>
+
+<p>[The seeming omissions in the Biblical narrative have been
+filled up by imaginative Jewish writers.] The earliest source
+which remains to us is the Book of Jubilees, or Leptogenesis,
+a Palestinian work (referred by R.H. Charles
+<span class="sidenote">Imaginative or legendary developments.</span>
+to the century immediately preceding the Christian era;
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Apocalyptic Literature</a></span>). In this book, which was
+largely used by Christian writers, we find a chronology
+of the lives of Adam and Eve and the names of their daughters&mdash;Avan
+and Azura.<a name="fa2a" id="fa2a" href="#ft2a"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The Targum of Jonathan informs us that Eve
+was created from the thirteenth rib of Adam&rsquo;s right side, thus
+taking the view that Adam had a rib more than his descendants.
+Some of the Jewish legends show clear marks of foreign influence.
+Thus the notion that the first man was a double being, afterwards
+separated into the two persons of Adam and Eve (<i>Berachot</i>, 61;
+<i>Erubin</i>, 18), may be traced back to Philo (<i>De mundi opif.</i> §53;
+cf. <i>Quaest. in Gen.</i> lib. i. §25), who borrows the idea, and almost
+the words, of the myth related by Aristophanes in the Platonic
+<i>Symposium</i> (189 D, 190 A), which, in extravagant form, explains
+the passion of love by the legend that male and female originally
+formed one body.</p>
+
+<p>[A recent critic<a name="fa3a" id="fa3a" href="#ft3a"><span class="sp">3</span></a> (F. Schwally) even holds that this notion
+was originally expressed in the account of the creation of man in
+Gen. i. 27. This involves a textual emendation, and one must
+at least admit that the present text is not without difficulty,
+and that Berossus refers to the existence of primeval monstrous
+androgynous beings according to Babylonian mythology.]
+There is an analogous Iranian legend of the true man, which
+parted into man and woman in the Bundahish<a name="fa4a" id="fa4a" href="#ft4a"><span class="sp">4</span></a> (the Parsí
+Genesis), and an Indian legend, which, according to Spiegel,
+has presumably an Iranian source.<a name="fa5a" id="fa5a" href="#ft5a"><span class="sp">5</span></a></p>
+
+<p>[It has been remarked elsewhere (<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Adam</a></span>, §16) that though
+the later Jews gathered material for thought very widely, such
+guidance as they required in theological reflection was
+mainly derived from Greek culture. What, for instance,
+<span class="sidenote">Course of Jewish and Christian interpretation.</span>
+was to be made of such a story as that in Gen.
+ii.-iv.? To &ldquo;minds trained under the influence of the
+Jewish Haggada, in which the whole Biblical history
+is freely intermixed with legendary and parabolic matter,&rdquo; the
+question as to the literal truth of that story could hardly be
+formulated. It is otherwise when the Greek leaven begins to
+work.]</p>
+
+<p>Josephus, in the prologue to his <i>Archaeology</i>, reserves the
+problem of the true meaning of the Mosaic narrative, but does
+not regard everything as strictly literal. Philo, the great representative
+of Alexandrian allegory, expressly argues that in the
+nature of things the trees of life and knowledge cannot be taken
+otherwise than symbolically. His interpretation of the creation
+of Eve is, as has been already observed, plainly suggested by a
+Platonic myth. The longing for reunion which love implants
+in the divided halves of the original dual man is the source of
+sensual pleasure (symbolized by the serpent), which in turn is
+the beginning of all transgression. Eve represents the sensuous
+or perceptive part of man&rsquo;s nature, Adam the reason. The
+serpent, therefore, does not venture to attack Adam directly.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page5" id="page5"></a>5</span>
+It is sense which yields to pleasure, and in turn enslaves the reason
+and destroys its immortal virtue. This exposition, in which
+the elements of the Bible narrative become mere symbols of
+the abstract notions of Greek philosophy, and are adapted to
+Greek conceptions of the origin of evil in the material and sensuous
+part of man, was adopted into Christian theology by Clement
+and Origen, notwithstanding its obvious inconsistency with the
+Pauline anthropology, and the difficulty which its supporters
+felt in reconciling it with the Christian doctrine of the excellence
+of the married state (Clemens Alex. <i>Stromata</i>, p. 174). These
+difficulties had more weight with the Western church, which,
+less devoted to speculative abstractions and more deeply influenced
+by the Pauline anthropology, refused, especially since
+Augustine, to reduce Paradise and the fall to the region of pure
+<i>intelligibilia</i>; though a spiritual sense was admitted along with
+the literal (Aug. <i>Civ. Dei</i>, xiii. 21).<a name="fa6a" id="fa6a" href="#ft6a"><span class="sp">6</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The history of Adam and Eve became the basis of anthropological
+discussions which acquired more than speculative importance
+from their connexion with the doctrine of original sin and
+the meaning of the sacrament of baptism. One or two points
+in Augustinian teaching may be here mentioned as having to do
+particularly with Eve. The question whether the soul of Eve
+was derived from Adam or directly infused by the Creator is
+raised as an element in the great problem of traducianism and
+creationism (<i>De Gen. ad lit.</i> lib. x.). And it is from Augustine
+that Milton derives the idea that Adam sinned, not from desire
+for the forbidden fruit, but because love forbade him to dissociate
+his fate from Eve&rsquo;s (<i>ibid.</i> lib. xi. <i>sub fin.</i>). Medieval discussion
+moved mainly in the lines laid down by Augustine. A sufficient
+sample of the way in which the subject was treated by the schoolmen
+may be found in the <i>Summa</i> of Thomas, pars i. qu. xcii.
+<i>De productione mulieris</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The Reformers, always hostile to allegory, and in this matter
+especially influenced by the Augustinian anthropology, adhered
+strictly to the literal interpretation of the history of the Protoplasts,
+which has continued to be generally identified with
+Protestant orthodoxy. The disintegration of the confessional
+doctrine of sin in last century was naturally associated with new
+theories of the meaning of the biblical narrative; but neither
+renewed forms of the allegorical interpretation, in which everything
+is reduced to abstract ideas about reason and sensuality,
+nor the attempts of Eichhorn and others to extract a kernel of
+simple history by allowing largely for the influence of poetical
+form in so early a narrative, have found lasting acceptance.
+On the other hand, the strict historical interpretation is beset
+with difficulties which modern interpreters have felt with increasing
+force, and which there is a growing disposition to solve
+by adopting in one or other form what is called the <i>mythical</i>
+theory of the narrative. But interpretations pass under this
+now popular title which have no real claim to be so designated.
+What is common to the &ldquo;mythical&rdquo; interpretations is to find the
+real value of the narrative, not in the form of the story, but in the
+thoughts which it embodies. But the story cannot be called
+a myth in the strict sense of the word, unless we are prepared
+to place it on one line with the myths of heathenism, produced
+by the unconscious play of plastic fancy, giving shape to the
+impressions of natural phenomena on primitive observers. Such
+a theory does no justice to a narrative which embodies profound
+truths peculiar to the religion of revelation. Other forms of the
+so-called mythical interpretation are little more than abstract
+allegory in a new guise, ignoring the fact that the biblical story
+does not teach general truths which repeat themselves in every
+individual, but gives a view of the purpose of man&rsquo;s creation,
+and of the origin of sin, in connexion with the divine plan of
+redemption. Among his other services in refutation of the
+unhistorical rationalism of last century, Kant has the merit of
+having forcibly recalled attention to the fact that the narrative of
+Genesis, even if we do not take it literally, must be regarded as
+presenting a view of the beginnings of the history of the human
+race (<i>Muthmasslicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte</i>, 1786)
+Those who recognize this fact ought not to call themselves or be
+called by others adherents of the mythical theory, although they
+also recognize that in the nature of things the divine truths
+brought out in the history of the creation and fall could not have
+been expressed either in the form of literal history or in the shape
+of abstract metaphysical doctrine; or even although they may
+hold&mdash;as is done by many who accept the narrative as a part of
+supernatural revelation&mdash;that the specific biblical truths which
+the narrative conveys are presented through the vehicle of a
+story which, at least in some of its parts, may possibly be shaped
+by the influence of legends common to the Hebrews with their
+heathen neighbours.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. R. S.; [T. K. C.])</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1a" id="ft1a" href="#fa1a"><span class="fn">1</span></a> That polygamy had not become morally objectionable is shown
+by the stories of Lamech, Abraham and Jacob.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2a" id="ft2a" href="#fa2a"><span class="fn">2</span></a> See West&rsquo;s authoritative translation in <i>Pahlavi Texts</i> (Sacred
+Books of the East).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3a" id="ft3a" href="#fa3a"><span class="fn">3</span></a> &ldquo;Die bibl. Schöpfungsberichte&rdquo; (<i>Archiv für Religionswissenschaft</i>,
+ix. 171 ff.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4a" id="ft4a" href="#fa4a"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Spiegel, <i>Erânische Alterthumskunde</i>, i. 511.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5a" id="ft5a" href="#fa5a"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Muir, <i>Sanscrit Texts</i>, vol. i. p. 25; cf. Spiegel, vol. i. p. 458.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6a" id="ft6a" href="#fa6a"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Thus in medieval theology Eve is a type of the church, and her
+formation from the rib has a mystic reason, inasmuch as blood and
+water (the sacraments of the church) flowed from the side of Christ
+on the cross (Thomas, <i>Summa</i>, par. i. qu. xcii.).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVECTION<a name="ar14" id="ar14"></a></span> (Latin for &ldquo;carrying away&rdquo;), in astronomy, the
+largest inequality produced by the action of the sun in the
+monthly revolution of the moon around the earth. The deviation
+expressed by it has a maximum amount of about 1° 15&prime; in either
+direction. It may be considered as arising from a semi-annual
+variation in the eccentricity of the moon&rsquo;s orbit and the position
+of its perigee. It was discovered by Ptolemy.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVELETH,<a name="ar15" id="ar15"></a></span> a city of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., about
+71 m. N.N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2752; (1905, state census)
+5332, of whom 2975 were foreign-born (1145 Finns, 676 Austrians
+and 325 Swedes); (1910) 7036. Eveleth is served by the
+Duluth, Missabe &amp; Northern and the Duluth &amp; Iron Range railways.
+It lies in the midst of the great red and brown hematite
+iron-ore deposits of the Mesabi Range&mdash;the richest in the Lake
+Superior district&mdash;and the mining and shipping of this ore are
+its principal industries. The municipality owns and operates
+the water-works, the water being obtained from Lake Saint
+Mary, one of a chain of small lakes lying S. of the city. Eveleth
+was first chartered as a city in 1902.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVELYN, JOHN<a name="ar16" id="ar16"></a></span> (1620-1706), English diarist, was born at
+Wotton House, near Dorking, Surrey, on the 31st of October
+1620. He was the younger son of Richard Evelyn, who owned
+large estates in the county, and was in 1633 high sheriff of Surrey
+and Sussex. When John Evelyn was five years old he went to
+live with his mother&rsquo;s parents at Cliffe, near Lewes. He refused
+to leave his &ldquo;too indulgent&rdquo; grandmother for Eton, and when
+on her husband&rsquo;s death she married again, the boy went with her
+to Southover, where he attended the free school of the place.
+He was admitted to the Middle Temple in February 1637, and in
+May <span class="correction" title="amended from be">he</span> became a fellow commoner of Balliol College, Oxford.
+He left the university without taking a degree, and in 1640 was
+residing in the Middle Temple. In that year his father died, and
+in July 1641 he crossed to Holland. He was enrolled as a
+volunteer in Apsley&rsquo;s company, then encamped before Genep
+on the Waal, but his commission was apparently complimentary,
+his military experience being limited to six days of camp life,
+during which, however, he took his turn at &ldquo;trailing a pike.&rdquo;
+He returned in the autumn to find England on the verge of
+civil war. Evelyn&rsquo;s part in the conflict is best told in his own
+words:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;12th November was the battle of Brentford, surprisingly fought....
+I came in with my horse and arms just at the retreat; but
+was not permitted to stay longer than the 15th by reason of the army
+marching to Gloucester; which would have left both me and my
+brothers exposed to ruin, without any advantage to his Majesty ...
+and on the 10th [December] returned to Wotton, nobody
+knowing of my having been in his Majesty&rsquo;s army.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>At Wotton he employed himself in improving his brother&rsquo;s
+property, making a fishpond, an island and other alterations in
+the gardens. But he found it difficult to avoid taking a side;
+he was importuned to sign the Covenant, and &ldquo;finding it impossible
+to evade doing very unhandsome things,&rdquo; he obtained
+leave in October 1643 from the king to travel abroad. From
+this date his <i>Diary</i> becomes full and interesting. He travelled in
+France and visited the cities of Italy, returning in the autumn
+of 1646 to Paris, where he became intimate with Sir Richard
+Browne, the English resident at the court of France. In June
+of the following year he married Browne&rsquo;s daughter and heiress,
+Mary, then a child of not more than twelve years of age. Leaving
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page6" id="page6"></a>6</span>
+his wife in the care of her parents, he returned to England to
+settle his affairs. He visited Charles I. at Hampton Court in
+1647, and during the next two years maintained a cipher correspondence
+with his father-in-law in the royal interest. In 1649
+he obtained a pass to return to Paris, but in 1650 paid a short
+visit to England. The defeat of Charles II. at Worcester in 1651
+convinced him that the royalist cause was hopeless, and he decided
+to return to England. He went in 1652 to Sayes Court at Deptford,
+a house which Sir Richard Browne had held on a lease
+from the crown. This had been seized by the parliament, but
+Evelyn was able to compound with the occupiers for £3500, and
+after the Restoration his possession was secured. Here his wife
+joined him, their eldest son, Richard, being born in August 1652.
+Under the Commonwealth Evelyn amused himself with his
+favourite occupation of gardening, and made many friends among
+the scientific inquirers of the time. He was one of the promoters
+of the scheme for the Royal Society, and in the king&rsquo;s charter in
+1662 was nominated a member of its directing council. Meanwhile
+he had refused employment from the government of the
+Commonwealth, and had maintained a cipher correspondence
+with Charles. In 1659 he published an <i>Apology for the Royal
+Party</i>, and in December of that year he vainly tried to persuade
+Colonel Herbert Morley, then lieutenant of the Tower, to forestall
+General Monk by declaring for the king. From the Restoration
+onwards Evelyn enjoyed unbroken court favour till his death in
+1706; but he never held any important political office, although
+he filled many useful and often laborious minor posts. He was
+commissioner for improving the streets and buildings of London,
+for examining into the affairs of charitable foundations, commissioner
+of the Mint, and of foreign plantations. In 1664 he
+accepted the responsibility for the care of the sick and wounded
+and the prisoners in the Dutch war. He stuck to his post
+throughout the plague year, contenting himself with sending his
+family away to Wotton. He found it impossible to secure
+sufficient money for the proper discharge of his functions, and in
+1688 he was still petitioning for payment of his accounts in this
+business. Evelyn was secretary of the Royal Society in 1672,
+and as an enthusiastic promoter of its interests was twice (in
+1682 and 1691) offered the presidency. Through his influence
+Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, was induced to present the
+Arundel marbles to the university of Oxford (1667) and the
+valuable Arundel library to Gresham College (1678). In the
+reign of James II., during the earl of Clarendon&rsquo;s absence in
+Ireland, he acted as one of the commissioners of the privy seal.
+He was seriously alarmed by the king&rsquo;s attacks on the English
+Church, and refused on two occasions to license the illegal sale
+of Roman Catholic literature. He concurred in the revolution of
+1688, in 1695 was entrusted with the office of treasurer of Greenwich
+hospital for old sailors, and laid the first stone of the new
+building on the 30th of June 1696. In 1694 he left Sayes Court
+to live at Wotton with his brother, whose heir he had become,
+and whom he actually succeeded in 1699. He spent the rest of his
+life there, dying on the 27th of February 1706. Evelyn&rsquo;s house
+at Sayes Court had been let to Captain, afterwards Admiral John
+Benbow, who was not a &ldquo;polite&rdquo; tenant. He sublet it to Peter
+the Great, who was then visiting the dockyard at Deptford.
+The tsar did great damage to Evelyn&rsquo;s beautiful gardens, and,
+it is said, made it one of his amusements to ride in a wheelbarrow
+along a thick holly hedge planted especially by the owner. The
+house was subsequently used as a workhouse, and is now alms-houses,
+the grounds having been converted into public gardens
+by Mr Evelyn in 1886.</p>
+
+<p>It will be seen that Evelyn&rsquo;s politics were not of the heroic
+order. But he was honourable and consistent in his adherence
+to the monarchical principle throughout his life. With the court
+of Charles II. he could have had no sympathy, his dignified
+domestic life and his serious attention to religion standing in the
+strongest contrast with the profligacy of the royal surroundings.
+His <i>Diary</i> is therefore a valuable chronicle of contemporary
+events from the standpoint of a moderate politician and a devout
+adherent of the Church of England. He had none of Pepys&rsquo;s
+love of gossip, and was devoid of his all-embracing curiosity,
+as of his diverting frankness of self-revelation. Both were admirable
+civil servants, and they had a mutual admiration for each
+other&rsquo;s sterling qualities. Evelyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i> covers more than half
+a century (1640-1706) crowded with remarkable events, while
+Pepys only deals with a few years of Charles II.&rsquo;s reign.</p>
+
+<p>Evelyn was a generous art patron, and Grinling Gibbons was
+introduced by him to the notice of Charles II. His domestic
+affections were very strong. He had six sons, of whom John
+(1655-1699), the author of some translations, alone reached
+manhood. He has left a pathetic account of the extraordinary
+accomplishments of his son Richard, who died before he was six
+years old, and of a daughter Mary, who lived to be twenty, and
+probably wrote most of her father&rsquo;s <i>Mundus muliebris</i> (1690).
+Of his two other daughters, Susannah, who married William
+Draper of Addiscombe, Surrey, survived him.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Evelyn&rsquo;s <i>Diary</i> remained in MS. until 1818. It is in a quarto
+volume containing 700 pages, covering the years between 1641 and
+1697, and is continued in a smaller book which brings the narrative
+down to within three weeks of its author&rsquo;s death. A selection from
+this was edited by William Bray, with the permission of the Evelyn
+family, in 1818, under the title of <i>Memoirs illustrative of the Life and
+Writings of John Evelyn, comprising his Diary from 1641 to 1705/6,
+and a Selection of his Familiar Letters</i>. Other editions followed,
+the most notable being those of Mr H.B. Wheatley (1879) and
+Mr Austin Dobson (3 vols., 1906). Evelyn&rsquo;s active mind produced
+many other works, and although these have been overshadowed by
+the famous <i>Diary</i> they are of considerable interest. They include:
+<i>Of Liberty and Servitude</i> ... (1649), a translation from the French
+of Francois de la Mothe le Vayer, Evelyn&rsquo;s own copy of which contains
+a note that he was &ldquo;like to be call&rsquo;d in question by the Rebells for
+this booke&rdquo;; <i>The State of France, as it stood in the IXth year of
+... Louis XIII.</i> (1652); <i>An Essay on the First Book of T. Lucretius
+Carus de Rerum Natura</i>. <i>Interpreted and made English verse by
+J. Evelyn</i> (1656); <i>The Golden Book of St John Chrysostom, concerning
+the Education of Children</i>. <i>Translated out of the Greek by J.E.</i>
+(printed 1658, dated 1659); <i>The French Gardener: instructing how
+to cultivate all sorts of Fruit-trees</i> ... (1658), translated from the
+French of N. de Bonnefons; <i>A Character of England</i> ... (1659),
+describing the customs of the country as they would appear to a
+foreign observer, reprinted in <i>Somers&rsquo; Tracts</i> (ed. Scott, 1812), and
+in the <i>Harleian Miscellany</i> (ed. Park, 1813); <i>The Late News from
+Brussels unmasked</i> ... (1660), in answer to a libellous pamphlet
+on Charles I. by Marchmont Needham; <i>Fumifugium, or the inconvenience
+of the Aer and Smoak of London dissipated</i> (1661), in which
+he suggested that sweet-smelling trees should be planted in London
+to purify the air; <i>Instructions concerning erecting of a Library</i> ...
+(1661), from the French of Gabriel Naudé; <i>Tyrannus or the Mode,
+in a Discourse of Sumptuary Laws</i> (1661); <i>Sculptura: or the History
+and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper</i> ... (1662);
+<i>Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees ... to which is annexed
+Pomona ... Also Kalendarium Hortense</i> ... (1664); <i>A Parallel
+of the Ancient Architecture with the Modern</i> ... (1664), from
+the French of Roland Fréart; <i>The History of the three late famous
+Imposters, viz. Padre Ottomano, Mahomed Bei, and Sabatei Sevi</i> ...
+(1669); <i>Navigation and Commerce ... in which his Majesties
+title to the Dominion of the Sea is asserted against the Novel and
+later Pretenders</i> (1674), which is a preface to a projected history
+of the Dutch wars undertaken at the request of Charles II., but
+countermanded on the conclusion of peace; <i>A Philosophical Discourse
+of Earth</i> ... (1676), a treatise on horticulture, better known
+by its later title of <i>Terra</i>; <i>The Compleat Gardener</i> ... (1693), from
+the French of J. de la Quintinie; <i>Numismata</i> ... (1697). Some
+of these were reprinted in <i>The Miscellaneous Writings of John Evelyn</i>,
+edited (1825) by William Upcott. Evelyn&rsquo;s friendship with Mary
+Blagge, afterwards Mrs Godolphin, is recorded in the diary, when he
+says he designed &ldquo;to consecrate her worthy life to posterity.&rdquo; This
+he effectually did in a little masterpiece of religious biography which
+remained in MS. in the possession of the Harcourt family until it
+was edited by Samuel Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford, as the <i>Life of
+Mrs Godolphin</i> (1847), reprinted in the &ldquo;King&rsquo;s Classics&rdquo; (1904).
+The picture of Mistress Blagge&rsquo;s saintly life at court is heightened
+in interest when read in connexion with the scandalous memoirs
+of the comte de Gramont, or contemporary political satires on the
+court. Numerous other papers and letters of Evelyn on scientific
+subjects and matters of public interest are preserved, a collection of
+private and official letters and papers (1642-1712) by, or addressed
+to, Sir Richard Browne and his son-in-law being in the British Museum
+(<i>Add. MSS.</i> 15857 and 15858).</p>
+
+<p>Next to the <i>Diary</i> Evelyn&rsquo;s most valuable work is <i>Sylva</i>. By the
+glass factories and iron furnaces the country was being rapidly
+depleted of wood, while no attempt was being made to replace the
+damage by planting. Evelyn put in a plea for afforestation, and
+besides producing a valuable work on arboriculture, he was able to
+assert in his preface to the king that he had really induced landowners
+to plant many millions of trees.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page7" id="page7"></a>7</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN<a name="ar17" id="ar17"></a></span> (1621-?1675), Dutch painter
+and engraver, the son of a government clerk at Alkmaar, was
+born, it is said, in 1621, and educated, if we believe an old tradition,
+under Roeland Savery at Utrecht. He wandered in 1645
+to Haarlem, where he studied under Peter de Molyn, and finally
+settled about 1657 at Amsterdam, where he remained till his
+death. It would be difficult to find a greater contrast than that
+which is presented by the works of Savery and Everdingen.
+Savery inherited the gaudy style of the Breughels, which he
+carried into the 17th century; whilst Everdingen realized the
+large and effective system of coloured and powerfully shaded
+landscape which marks the precursors of Rembrandt. It is not
+easy on this account to believe that Savery was Everdingen&rsquo;s
+master, while it is quite within the range of probability that he
+acquired the elements of landscape painting from de Molyn.
+Pieter de Molyn, by birth a Londoner, lived from 1624 till 1661
+in Haarlem. He went periodically on visits to Norway, and his
+works, though scarce, exhibit a broad and sweeping mode of
+execution, differing but slightly from that transferred at the
+opening of the 17th century from Jan van Goyen to Solomon
+Ruysdael. His etchings have nearly the breadth and effect of
+those of Everdingen. It is still an open question when de Molyn
+wielded influence on his clever disciple. Alkmaar, a busy trading
+place near the Texel, had little of the picturesque for an artist
+except polders and downs or waves and sky. Accordingly we
+find Allart at first a painter of coast scenery. But on one of his
+expeditions he is said to have been cast ashore in Norway, and
+during the repairs of his ship he visited the inland valleys, and
+thus gave a new course to his art. In early pieces he cleverly
+represents the sea in motion under varied, but mostly clouded,
+aspects of sky. Their general intonation is strong and brown,
+and effects are rendered in a powerful key, but the execution is
+much more uniform than that of Jacob Ruysdael. A dark scud
+lowering on a rolling sea near the walls of Flushing characterizes
+Everdingen&rsquo;s &ldquo;Mouth of the Schelde&rdquo; in the Hermitage at St
+Petersburg. Storm is the marked feature of sea-pieces in the
+Staedel or Robartes collections; and a strand with wreckers
+at the foot of a cliff in the Munich Pinakothek may be a reminiscence
+of personal adventure in Norway. But the Norwegian coast
+was studied in calms as well as in gales; and a fine canvas at
+Munich shows fishermen on a still and sunny day taking herrings
+to a smoking hut at the foot of a Norwegian crag. The earliest
+of Everdingen&rsquo;s sea-pieces bears the date of 1640. After 1645
+we meet with nothing but representations of inland scenery,
+and particularly of Norwegian valleys, remarkable alike for
+wildness and a decisive depth of tone. The master&rsquo;s favourite
+theme is a fall in a glen, with mournful fringes of pines interspersed
+with birch, and log-huts at the base of rocks and craggy
+slopes. The water tumbles over the foreground, so as to entitle
+the painter to the name of &ldquo;inventor of cascades.&rdquo; It gives
+Everdingen his character as a precursor of Jacob Ruysdael in a
+certain form of landscape composition; but though very skilful
+in arrangement and clever in effects, Everdingen remains much
+more simple in execution; he is much less subtle in feeling
+or varied in touch than his great and incomparable countryman.
+Five of Everdingen&rsquo;s cascades are in the museum of Copenhagen
+alone: of these, one is dated 1647, another 1649. In the Hermitage
+at St Petersburg is a fine example of 1647; another in the
+Pinakothek at Munich was finished in 1656. English public
+galleries ignore Everdingen; but one of his best-known masterpieces
+is the Norwegian glen belonging to Lord Listowel. Of
+his etchings and drawings there are much larger and more
+numerous specimens in England than elsewhere. Being a collector
+as well as an engraver and painter, he brought together
+a large number of works of all kinds and masters; and the
+sale of these by his heirs at Amsterdam on the 11th of March
+1676 gives an approximate clue to the date of the painter&rsquo;s
+death.</p>
+
+<p>His two brothers, Jan and Caesar, were both painters. <span class="sc">Caesar
+van Everdingen</span> (1606-1679), mainly known as a portrait
+painter, enjoyed some vogue during his life, and many of his
+pictures are to be seen in the museums and private houses of
+Holland. They show a certain cleverness, but are far from
+entitling him to rank as a master.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVEREST, SIR GEORGE<a name="ar18" id="ar18"></a></span> (1790-1866), British surveyor and
+geographer, was the son of Tristram Everest of Gwerndale,
+Brecknockshire, and was born there on the 4th of July 1790.
+From school at Marlow he proceeded to the military academy
+at Woolwich, where he attracted the special notice of the mathematical
+master, and passed so well in his examinations that he
+was declared fit for a commission before attaining the necessary
+age. Having gone to India in 1806 as a cadet in the Bengal
+Artillery, he was selected by Sir Stamford Raffles to take part in
+the reconnaissance of Java (1814-1816); and after being employed
+in various engineering works throughout India, he was
+appointed in 1818 assistant to Colonel Lambton, the founder of
+the great trigonometrical survey of that country. In 1823, on
+Colonel Lambton&rsquo;s death, he succeeded to the post of superintendent
+of the survey; in 1830 he was appointed by the court
+of directors of the East India Company surveyor-general of India;
+and from that date till his retirement from the service in 1843
+he continued to discharge the laborious duties of both offices.
+During the rest of his life he resided in England, where he became
+fellow of the Royal Society and an active member of several
+other scientific associations. In 1861 he was made a C.B. and
+received the honour of knighthood, and in 1862 he was chosen
+vice-president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died at
+Greenwich on the 1st of December 1866. The geodetical labours
+of Sir George Everest rank among the finest achievements of
+their kind; and more especially his measurement of the meridional
+arc of India, 11½° in length, is accounted as unrivalled
+in the annals of the science. In great part the Indian survey is
+what he made it.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>His works are purely professional:&mdash;A paper in vol. i. of the
+<i>Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society</i>, pointing out a mistake
+in La Caille&rsquo;s measurement of an arc of the meridian which he
+had discovered during sick-leave at the Cape of Good Hope; <i>An
+account of the measurement of the arc of the meridian between the
+parallels of 18° 3&prime; and 24° 7&prime;, being a continuation of the Grand
+Meridional Arc of India, as detailed by Lieut.-Col. Lambton in the
+volumes of the Asiatic Society of Calcutta</i> (London, 1830); <i>An
+account of the measurement of two sections of the Meridional Arc of
+India bounded by the parallels of 18° 3&prime; 15&Prime;, 24° 7&prime; 11&Prime;, and 20° 30&prime;
+48&Prime;</i> (London, 1847).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVEREST, MOUNT,<a name="ar19" id="ar19"></a></span> the highest mountain in the world. It
+is a peak of the Himalayas situated in Nepal almost precisely
+on the intersection of the meridian 87 E. long. with the parallel
+28 N. lat. Its elevation as at present determined by trigonometrical
+observation is 29,002 ft., but it is possible that further
+investigation into the value of refraction at such altitudes will
+result in placing the summit even higher. It has been confused
+with a peak to the west of it called Gaurisankar (by Schlagintweit),
+which is more than 5000 ft. lower; but the observations
+of Captain Wood from peaks near Khatmandu, in Nepal, and
+those of the same officer, and of Major Ryder, from the route
+between Lhasa and the sources of the Brahmaputra in 1904,
+have definitely fixed the relative position of the two mountain
+masses, and conclusively proved that there is no higher peak
+than Everest in the Himalayan system. The peak possesses
+no distinctive native name and has been called Everest after
+Sir George Everest (<i>q.v.</i>), who completed the trigonometrical
+survey of the Himalayas in 1841 and first fixed its position and
+altitude.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. H. H.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL<a name="ar20" id="ar20"></a></span> (1790-1847), American
+author and diplomatist, was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on
+the 19th of March 1790. He was the son of Rev. Oliver Everett
+(1753-1802), a Congregational minister in Boston, and the
+brother of Edward Everett. He graduated at Harvard in 1806,
+taking the highest honours of his year, though the youngest
+member of his class. He spent one year as a teacher in Phillips
+Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire, and then began the study of
+law in the office of John Quincy Adams. In 1809 Adams was
+appointed minister to Russia, and Everett accompanied him as
+his private secretary, remaining attached to the American
+legation in Russia until 1811. He was secretary of the American
+legation at The Hague in 1815-1816, and <i>chargé d&rsquo;affaires</i> there
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page8" id="page8"></a>8</span>
+from 1818 to 1824. From 1825 to 1829, during the presidency
+of John Quincy Adams, he was the United States minister to
+Spain. At that time Spain recognized none of the governments
+established by her revolted colonies, and Everett became the
+medium of all communications between the Spanish government
+and the several nations of Spanish origin which had been established,
+by successful revolutions, on the other side of the ocean.
+Everett was a member of the Massachusetts legislature in 1830-1835,
+was president of Jefferson College in Louisiana in 1842-1844,
+and was appointed commissioner of the United States to
+China in 1845, but did not go to that country until the following
+year, and died on the 29th of May 1847 at Canton, China.
+Everett, however, is known rather as a man of letters than as
+a diplomat. In addition to numerous articles, published chiefly
+in the <i>North American Review</i>, of which he was the editor from
+1829 to 1835, he wrote: <i>Europe, or a General Survey of the
+Political Situation of the Principal Powers, with Conjectures on
+their Future Prospects</i> (1822), which attracted considerable
+attention in Europe and was translated into German, French
+and Spanish; <i>New Ideas on Population</i> (1822); <i>America, or a
+General Survey of the Political Situation of the Several Powers
+of the Western Continent, with Conjectures on their Future Prospects</i>
+(1827), which was translated into several European languages;
+a volume of <i>Poems</i> (1845); and <i>Critical and Miscellaneous
+Essays</i> (first series, 1845; second series, 1847).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL<a name="ar21" id="ar21"></a></span> (1829-1900), American
+divine and philosopher, was born on the 19th of June 1829, at
+Brunswick, Maine. He studied at Bowdoin College, where he
+graduated in 1850, after which he proceeded to Berlin. Subsequently
+he took a degree in divinity at the Harvard Divinity
+School. From 1859 to 1869 he was pastor of the Independent
+Congregational (Unitarian) church at Bangor, Maine. This
+charge he resigned to take the Bussey professorship of theology
+at Harvard University, and, in 1878, became dean of the faculty
+of theology. Interested in a variety of subjects, he devoted
+himself chiefly to the philosophy of religion, and published <i>The
+Science of Thought</i> (Boston, 1869; revised 1891). He also wrote
+<i>Fichte&rsquo;s Science of Knowledge</i> (1884); <i>Poetry, Comedy and Duty</i>
+(1888); <i>Religions before Christianity</i> (1883); <i>Ethics for Young
+People</i> (1891); <i>The Gospel of Paul</i> (1892). He died at Cambridge
+on the 16th of October 1900.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERETT, EDWARD<a name="ar22" id="ar22"></a></span> (1794-1865), American statesman and
+orator, was born in Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 11th of
+April 1794. He was the son of Rev. Oliver Everett and the
+brother of Alexander Hill Everett (<i>q.v.</i>). His father died in
+1802, and his mother removed to Boston with her family after
+her husband&rsquo;s death. At seventeen Edward Everett graduated
+from Harvard College, taking first honours in his class. While
+at college he was the chief editor of <i>The Lyceum</i>, the earliest
+in the series of college journals published at the American
+Cambridge. His earlier predilections were for the study of law,
+but the advice of Joseph Stevens Buckminster, a distinguished
+preacher in Boston, led him to prepare for the pulpit, and as a
+preacher he at once distinguished himself. He was called to
+the ministry of the Brattle Street church (Unitarian) in Boston
+before he was twenty years old. His sermons attracted wide
+attention in that community, and he gained a considerable
+reputation as a theologian and a controversialist by his publication
+in 1814 of a volume entitled <i>Defence of Christianity</i>,
+written in answer to a work, <i>The Grounds of Christianity Examined</i>
+(1813), by George Bethune English (1787-1828), an
+adventurer, who, born in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was in turn
+a student of law and of theology, an editor of a newspaper, and
+a soldier of fortune in Egypt. Everett&rsquo;s tastes, however, were
+then, as always, those of a scholar; and in 1815, after a service
+of little more than a year in the pulpit, he resigned his charge
+to accept a professorship of Greek literature in Harvard College.</p>
+
+<p>After nearly five years spent in Europe in preparation, he
+entered with enthusiasm on his duties, and, for five years more,
+gave a vigorous impulse, not only to the study of Greek, but to
+all the work of the college. In January 1820 he assumed the
+charge of the <i>North American Review</i>, which now became a
+quarterly; and he was indefatigable during the four years of
+his editorship in contributing on a great variety of subjects.
+From 1825 to 1835 he was a member of the National House of
+Representatives, supporting generally the administration of
+President J.Q. Adams and opposing that of Jackson, which
+succeeded it. He bore a part in almost every important debate,
+and was a member of the committee of foreign affairs during
+the whole time of his service in Congress. Everett was a member
+of nearly all the most important select committees, such as those
+on the Indian relations of the state of Georgia, the Apportionment
+Bill, and the Bank of the United States, and drew the
+report either of the majority or the minority. The report on the
+congress of Panama, the leading measure of the first session of
+the Nineteenth Congress, was drawn up by Everett, although he
+was the youngest member of the committee and had just entered
+Congress. He led the unsuccessful opposition to the Indian
+policy of General Jackson (the removal of the Cherokee and other
+Indians, without their consent, from lands guaranteed to them
+by treaty).</p>
+
+<p>In 1835 he was elected governor of Massachusetts. He brought
+to the duties of the office the untiring diligence which was the
+characteristic of his public life. We can only allude to a few
+of the measures which received his efficient support, <i>e.g.</i> the
+establishment of the board of education (the first of such boards
+in the United States), the scientific surveys of the state (the first
+of such public surveys), the criminal law commission, and the
+preservation of a sound currency during the panic of 1837.</p>
+
+<p>Everett filled the office of governor for four years, and was then
+defeated by a single vote, out of more than one hundred thousand.
+The election is of interest historically as being the first important
+American election where the issue turned on the question of the
+prohibition of the retail sale of intoxicating liquors. In the
+following spring he made a visit with his family to Europe. In
+1841, while residing in Florence, he was named United States
+minister to Great Britain, and arrived in London to enter upon
+the duties of his mission at the close of that year. Great questions
+were at that time open between the two countries&mdash;the
+north-eastern boundary, the affair of M&lsquo;Leod, the seizure of
+American vessels on the coast of Africa, in the course of a few
+months the affair of the &ldquo;Creole,&rdquo; to which was soon added the
+Oregon question. His position was more difficult by reason of
+the frequent changes that took place in the department at home,
+which, in the course of four years, was occupied successively by
+Messrs Webster, Legaré, Upshur, Calhoun and Buchanan. From
+all these gentlemen Everett received marks of approbation and
+confidence.</p>
+
+<p>By the institution of the special mission of Lord Ashburton,
+however, the direct negotiations between the two governments
+were, about the time of Everett&rsquo;s arrival in London, transferred
+to Washington, though much business was transacted at the
+American legation in London.</p>
+
+<p>Immediately after the accession of Polk to the presidency
+Everett was recalled. From January 1846 to 1849, as the
+successor of Josiah Quincy, he was president of Harvard College.
+On the death, in October 1852, of his friend Daniel Webster, to
+whom he had always been closely attached, and of whom he was
+always a confidential adviser, he succeeded him as secretary of
+state, which post he held for the remaining months of Fillmore&rsquo;s
+administration, leaving it to go into the Senate in 1853, as one
+of the representatives of Massachusetts. Under the work of
+the long session of 1853-1854 his health gave way. In May
+1854 he resigned his seat, on the orders of his physician, and
+retired to what was called private life.</p>
+
+<p>But, as it proved, the remaining ten years of his life most widely
+established his reputation and influence throughout America.
+As early as 1820 he had established a reputation as an orator,
+such as few men in later days have enjoyed. He was frequently
+invited to deliver an &ldquo;oration&rdquo; on some topic of historical or other
+interest. With him these &ldquo;orations,&rdquo; instead of being the
+ephemeral entertainments of an hour, became careful studies
+of some important theme. Eager to avert, if possible, the impending
+conflict of arms between the North and South, Everett
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page9" id="page9"></a>9</span>
+prepared an &ldquo;oration&rdquo; on George Washington, which he delivered
+in every part of America. In this way, too, he raised
+more than one hundred thousand dollars, for the purchase of
+the old home of Washington at Mount Vernon. Everett also
+prepared for the <i>Encyclopaedia Britannica</i> a biographical sketch
+of Washington, which was published separately in 1860. In
+1860 Everett was the candidate of the short-lived Constitutional-Union
+party for the vice-presidency, on the ticket
+with John Bell (<i>q.v.</i>), but received only 39 electoral votes.
+During the Civil War he zealously supported the national
+government and was called upon in every quarter to speak at
+public meetings. He delivered the last of his great orations at
+Gettysburg, after the battle, on the consecration of the national
+cemetery there. On the 9th of January 1865 he spoke at a public
+meeting in Boston to raise funds for the southern poor in
+Savannah. At that meeting he caught cold, and the immediate
+result was his death on the 15th of January 1865.</p>
+
+<p>In Everett&rsquo;s life and career was a combination of the results
+of diligent training, unflinching industry, delicate literary tastes
+and unequalled acquaintance with modern international politics.
+This combination made him in America an entirely exceptional
+person. He was never loved by the political managers; he was
+always enthusiastically received by assemblies of the people.
+He would have said himself that the most eager wish of his life
+had been for the higher education of his countrymen. His
+orations have been collected in four volumes (1850-1859). A
+work on international law, on which he was engaged at his death,
+was never finished. Allibone records 84 titles of his books and
+published addresses.</p>
+<div class="author">(E. E. H.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERETT,<a name="ar23" id="ar23"></a></span> a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A.,
+adjoining Chelsea and 3 m. N. of Boston, of which it is a residential
+suburb. Pop. (1880) 4159; (1890) 11,068; (1900)
+24,336, of whom 6882 were foreign-born; (1910 census)
+33,484. It covers an area of about 3 sq. m. and is served by
+the Boston &amp; Maine railway and by interurban electric lines.
+Everett has the Frederick E. Parlin memorial library (1878), the
+Shute memorial library (1898), the Whidden memorial hospital
+and Woodlawn cemetery (176 acres). The principal manufactures
+are coke, chemicals and boots and shoes; among others are
+iron and structural steel. According to the U.S. Census of
+Manufactures (1905), &ldquo;the coke industry in Everett is unique,
+inasmuch as illuminating gas is the primary product and coke
+really a by-product, while the coal used is brought from mines
+located in Nova Scotia.&rdquo; The value of the city&rsquo;s total factory
+product increased from $4,437,180 in 1900 to $6,135,650 in 1905
+or 38.3%. Everett was first settled about 1630, remaining a
+part of Malden (and being known as South Malden) until 1870,
+when it was incorporated as a township. It was chartered as
+a city in 1892.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERETT,<a name="ar24" id="ar24"></a></span> a city, a sub-port of entry, and the county-seat of
+Snohomish county, Washington, U.S.A., on Puget Sound, at
+the mouth of the Snohomish river, about 35 m. N. of Seattle.
+Pop. (1900) 7838; (1910 U.S. census) 24,814. The city is
+served by the Northern Pacific and the Great Northern railways,
+being the western terminus of the latter&rsquo;s main transcontinental
+line, by interurban electric railway, and by several lines of
+Sound and coasting freight and passenger steamboats. Everett
+has a fine harbour with several large iron piers. Among its
+principal buildings are a Carnegie library, a Y.M.C.A. building
+and two hospitals. The buildings of the Pacific College were
+erected here by the United Norwegian Lutheran Church in 1908.
+The city is in a rich lumbering, gardening, farming, and copper-,
+gold- and silver-mining district. There is a U.S. assayer&rsquo;s office
+here, and there are extensive shipyards, a large paper mill, iron
+works, and, just outside the city limits, the smelters of the
+American Smelters Securities Company, in connexion with which
+is one of the two plants in the United States for saving arsenic
+from smelter fumes. Lumber interests, however, are of most
+importance, and here are some of the largest lumber plants in
+the Pacific Northwest. Red-cedar shingles are an important
+product. Everett was settled in 1891 and was incorporated in
+1893. Its rapid growth is due to its favourable situation as a
+commercial port, its transportation facilities, and its nearness
+to extensive forests whence the material for its chief industries
+is obtained.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERGLADES,<a name="ar25" id="ar25"></a></span> an American lake, about 8000 sq. m. in area,
+in which are numerous half-submerged islands; situated in the
+southern part of Florida, U.S.A., in Lee, De Soto, Dade and
+St Lucie counties. West of it is the Big Cypress Swamp. The
+floor of the lake is a limestone basin, extending from Lake
+Okechobee in the N. to the extreme S. part of the state, and
+the lake varies in depth from 1 to 12 ft., its water being pure
+and clear. The surface is above tide level, and the lake is
+enclosed, probably on all sides, within an outcropping limestone
+rim, averaging about 10 ft. above mean low tide, and approaching
+much nearer to the Atlantic on the E. than to the gulf on the
+W. There are several small outlets, such as the Miami river and
+the New river on the E. and the Shark river on the S.W., but
+no streams empty into the Everglades, and the water-supply is
+furnished by springs and precipitation. There is a general south-easterly
+movement of the water. The soil of the islands is very
+fertile and is subject to frequent inundations, but gradually
+the water area is being replaced by land. The vegetation is
+luxuriant, the live oak, wild lemon, wild orange, cucumber,
+papaw, custard apple and wild rubber trees being among the
+indigenous species; there are, besides, many varieties of wild
+flowers, the orchids being especially noteworthy. The fauna
+is also varied; the otter, alligator and crocodile are found, also
+the deer and panther, and among the native birds are the ibis,
+egret, heron and limpkin. There are two seasons, wet and dry,
+but the climate is equable.</p>
+
+<p>Systematic exploration has been prevented by the dense
+growth of saw grass (<i>Cladium effusum</i>), a kind of sedge, with
+sharp, saw-toothed leaves, which grows everywhere on the muck-covered
+rock basin and extends several feet above the shallow
+water. The first white man to enter the region was Escalente
+de Fontenada, a Spanish captive of an Indian chief, who named
+the lake Laguno del Espiritu Santo and the islands Cayos del
+Espiritu Santo. Between 1841 and 1856 various United States
+military forces penetrated the Everglades for the purpose of
+attacking and driving out the Seminoles, who took refuge here.
+The most important explorations during the later years of the
+19th century were those of Major Archie P. Williams in 1883,
+James E. Ingraham in 1892 and Hugh L. Willoughby in 1897.
+The Seminole Indians were in 1909 practically the only inhabitants.
+In 1850 under the &ldquo;Arkansas Bill,&rdquo; or Swamp and Overflow
+Act, practically all of the Everglades, which the state had
+been urging the federal government to drain and reclaim, were
+turned over to the state for that purpose, with the provision
+that all proceeds from such lands be applied to their reclamation.
+A board of trustees for the Internal Improvement Fund, created
+in 1855 and having as members <i>ex officio</i> the governor, comptroller,
+treasurer, attorney-general and commissioner-general,
+sold and allowed to railway companies much of the grant.
+Between 1881 and 1896 a private company owning 4,000,000
+acres of the Everglades attempted to dig a canal from Lake
+Okechobee through Lake Hicpochee and along the Caloosahatchee
+river to the Gulf of Mexico; the canal was closed in
+1902 by overflows. Six canals were begun under state control
+in 1905 from the lake to the Atlantic, the northernmost at
+Jensen, the southernmost at Ft. Lauderdale; the total cost,
+estimated at $1,035,000 for the reclamation of 12,500 sq. m.,
+is raised by a drainage tax (not to exceed 10 cents per acre)
+levied by the trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund and
+Board of Drainage commissioners. The small area reclaimed
+prior to that year (1905) was found very fertile and particularly
+adapted to raising sugar-cane, oranges and garden truck.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Hugh L. Willoughby&rsquo;s <i>Across the Everglades</i> (Philadelphia,
+1898), and especially an article &ldquo;The Everglades of Florida&rdquo; by
+Edwin A. Dix and John M. MacGonigle, in the <i>Century Magazine</i>
+for February 1905.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERGREEN,<a name="ar26" id="ar26"></a></span> a general term applied to plants which are
+always in leaf, as contrasted with deciduous trees which
+are bare for some part of the year (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Horticulture</a></span>). In
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page10" id="page10"></a>10</span>
+temperate or colder zones where a season favourable to vegetation
+is succeeded by an unfavourable or winter season, leaves of
+evergreens must be protected from the frost and cold drying
+winds, and are therefore tougher or more leathery in texture
+than those of deciduous trees, and frequently, as in pines, firs
+and other conifers, are needle-like, thus exposing a much smaller
+surface to the drying action of cold winds. The number of
+seasons for which the leaves last varies in different plants; every
+season some of the older leaves fall, while new ones are regularly
+produced. The common English bramble is practically evergreen,
+the leaves lasting through winter and until the new leaves
+are developed next spring. In privet also the leaves fall after the
+production of new ones in the next year. In other cases the
+leaves last several years, as in conifers, and may sometimes
+be found on eleven-year-old shoots.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERLASTING,<a name="ar27" id="ar27"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Immortelle</span>, a plant belonging to the
+division <i>Tubuliflorae</i> of the natural order Compositae, known
+botanically as <i>Helichrysum orientale</i>. It is a native of North
+Africa, Crete, and the parts of Asia bordering on the Mediterranean;
+and it is cultivated in many parts of Europe. It first
+became known in Europe about the year 1629, and has been cultivated
+since 1815. In common with several other plants of the
+same group, known as &ldquo;everlastings,&rdquo; the immortelle plant
+possesses a large involucre of dry scale-like or scarious bracts,
+which preserve their appearance when dried, provided the plant
+be gathered in proper condition. The chief supplies of <i>Helichrysum
+orientale</i> come from lower Provence, where it is cultivated
+in large quantities on the ground sloping to the Mediterranean,
+in positions well exposed to the sun, and usually in plots surrounded
+by dry stone walls. The finest flowers are grown on the
+slopes of Bandols and Ciotat, where the plant begins to flower in
+June. It requires a light sandy or stony soil, and is very readily
+injured by rain or heavy dews. It can be propagated in quantity
+by means of offsets from the older stems. The flowering stems
+are gathered in June, when the bracts are fully developed, all the
+fully-expanded and immature flowers being pulled off and rejected.
+A well-managed plantation is productive for eight or
+ten years. The plant is tufted in its growth, each plant producing
+60 or 70 stems, while each stem produces an average of 20
+flowers. About 400 such stems weigh a kilogramme. A hectare
+of ground will produce 40,000 plants, bearing from 2,400,000 to
+2,800,000 stems, and weighing from 5½ to 6½ tons, or from 2 to
+3 tons per acre. The colour of the bracts is a deep yellow.
+The natural flowers are commonly used for garlands for the dead,
+or plants dyed black are mixed with the yellow ones. The plant
+is also dyed green or orange-red, and thus employed for bouquets
+or other ornamental purposes.</p>
+
+<p>Other species of <i>Helichrysum</i> and species of allied genera with
+scarious heads of flowers are also known as &ldquo;everlastings.&rdquo; One
+of the best known is the Australian species <i>H. bracteatum</i>, with
+several varieties, including double forms, of different colours;
+<i>H. vestitum</i> (Cape of Good Hope) has white satiny heads. Others
+are species of <i>Helipterum</i> (West Australia and South Africa),
+<i>Ammobium</i> and <i>Waitzia</i> (Australia) and <i>Xeranthemum</i> (south
+Europe). Several members of the natural order Amarantaceae
+have also &ldquo;everlasting&rdquo; flowers; such are <i>Gomphrena globosa</i>,
+with rounded or oval heads of white, orange, rose or violet,
+scarious bracts, and <i>Celosia pyramidalis</i>, with its elegant, loose,
+pyramidal inflorescences. Frequently these everlastings are
+mixed with bleached grasses, as <i>Lagurus ovatus</i>, <i>Briza maxima</i>,
+<i>Bromus brizaeformis</i>, or with the leaves of the Cape silver tree
+(<i>Leucadendron argenteum</i>), to form bouquets or ornamental
+groups.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE,<a name="ar28" id="ar28"></a></span> <span class="sc">Viscount</span> (1794-1888),
+speaker of the British House of Commons, eldest son of
+Mr Charles Shaw (who assumed his wife&rsquo;s name of Lefevre in
+addition to his own on his marriage), was born in London on the
+22nd of February 1794, and educated at Winchester and at
+Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1819,
+and though a diligent student was also a keen sportsman.
+Marrying a daughter of Mr Samuel Whitbread, whose wife was
+the sister of Earl Grey, afterwards premier, he thus became
+connected with two influential political families, and in 1830 he
+entered the House of Commons as member for Downton, in the
+Liberal interest. In 1831 he was returned, after a severe contest,
+as one of the county members for Hampshire, in which he resided;
+and after the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 he was elected
+for the Northern Division of the county. For some years Mr
+Shaw Lefevre was chairman of a committee on petitions for
+private bills. In 1835 he was chairman of a committee on
+agricultural distress, but as his report was not accepted by the
+House, he published it as a pamphlet addressed to his constituents.
+He acquired a high reputation in the House of
+Commons for his judicial fairness, combined with singular tact
+and courtesy, and when Mr James Abercromby retired in 1839,
+he was nominated as the Liberal candidate for the chair. The
+Conservatives put forward Henry Goulburn, but Mr Shaw
+Lefevre was elected by 317 votes to 299. The period was one of
+fierce party conflict, and the debates were frequently very
+acrimonious; but the dignity, temper and firmness of the new
+speaker were never at fault. In 1857 he had served longer than
+any of his predecessors, except the celebrated Arthur Onslow
+(1691-1768), who was speaker for more than 33 years in five
+successive parliaments. Retiring on a pension, he was raised
+to the peerage as Viscount Eversley of Heckfield, in the county
+of Southampton. His appearances in the House of Lords were
+very infrequent, but in his own county he was active in the
+public service. From 1859 he was an ecclesiastical commissioner,
+and he was also appointed a trustee of the British Museum.
+He died on the 28th of December 1888, the viscountcy becoming
+extinct.</p>
+
+<p>His younger brother, <span class="sc">Sir John George Shaw Lefevre</span> (1797-1879),
+who was senior wrangler at Cambridge in 1818, had a long
+and distinguished career as a public official. He was under-secretary
+for the colonies, and had much to do with the introduction
+of the new poor law in 1834, and with the foundation
+of the colony of South Australia; then having served on several
+important commissions he was made clerk of the parliaments in
+1855, and in the same year became one of the first civil service
+commissioners. He helped to found the university of London,
+of which he was vice-chancellor for twenty years, and also the
+Athenaeum Club. He died on the 20th of August 1879.</p>
+
+<p>The latter&rsquo;s son, <span class="sc">George John Shaw Lefevre</span> (b. 1832),
+was created Baron Eversley in 1906, in recognition of long and
+prominent services to the Liberal party. He had filled the
+following offices:&mdash;civil lord of the admiralty, 1856; secretary
+to the board of trade, 1869-1871; under-secretary, home
+office, 1871; secretary to the admiralty, 1871-1874; first
+commissioner of works, 1881-1883; postmaster-general, 1883-1884;
+first commissioner of works, 1892-1893; president of
+local government board, 1894-1895; chairman of royal commission
+on agriculture, 1893-1896.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVESHAM,<a name="ar29" id="ar29"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough in the
+Evesham parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England,
+107 m. W.N.W. of London by the Great Western railway, and
+15 m. S.E. by E. of Worcester, with a station on the Redditch-Ashchurch
+branch of the Midland railway. Pop. (1901) 7101.
+It lies on the right (north) bank of the Avon, in the rich and
+beautiful Vale of Evesham. The district is devoted to market-gardening
+and orchards, and the trade of the town is mainly
+agricultural. Evesham is a place of considerable antiquity, a
+Benedictine house having been founded here by St Egwin in
+the 8th century. It became a wealthy abbey, but was almost
+wholly destroyed at the Dissolution. The churchyard, however,
+is entered by a Norman gateway, and there survives also a
+magnificent isolated bell-tower dating from 1533, of the best
+ornate Perpendicular workmanship. The abbey walls surround
+the churchyard, but almost the only other remnant is a single
+Decorated arch. Close to the bell-tower, however, are the two
+parish churches of St Lawrence and of All Saints, the former
+of the 16th century, the latter containing Early English work,
+and the ornate chapel of Abbot Lichfield, who erected the bell-tower.
+Other buildings include an Elizabethan town hall, the
+grammar school, founded by Abbot Lichfield, and the picturesque
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page11" id="page11"></a>11</span>
+almonry. The borough includes the parish of Bengeworth
+St Peter, on the left bank of the river. Evesham is governed
+by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2265 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Evesham (<i>Homme</i>, <i>Ethomme</i>) grew up around the Benedictine
+abbey, and had evidently become of some importance as a trading
+centre in 1055, when Edward the Confessor gave it a market
+and the privileges of a commercial town. It is uncertain when
+the town first became a borough, but the Domesday statement
+that the men paid 20s. may indicate the existence of a more or
+less organized body of tradesmen. Before 1482 the burgesses
+were holding the town at a fee farm rent of twenty marks, but
+the abbot still had practical control of the town, and his steward
+presided over the court at which the bailiffs were chosen. After
+the Dissolution the manor with the markets and fairs and other
+privileges was granted to Sir Philip Hoby, who increased his
+power over the town by persuading the burgesses to agree that,
+after they had nominated six candidates for the office of bailiff,
+the steward of the court instructed by him should indicate the
+two to be chosen. This privilege was contested by Queen
+Elizabeth, but when the case was taken before the court of the
+exchequer it was decided in favour of Sir Philip&rsquo;s heir, Sir
+Edward Hoby. In 1604 James I. granted the burgesses their
+first charter, but in the following year, by a second charter, he
+incorporated Evesham with the village of Bengeworth, and
+granted that the borough should be governed by a mayor and
+seven aldermen, to whom he gave the power of holding markets
+and fairs and several other privileges which had formerly belonged
+to the lord of the manor. Evesham received two later charters,
+but in 1688 that of 1605 was restored and still remains the governing
+charter of the borough. Evesham returned two members
+to parliament in 1295 and again in 1337, after which date the
+privilege lapsed until 1604. Its two members were reduced to one
+by the act of 1867, and the borough was disfranchised in 1885.</p>
+
+<p>Evesham gave its name to the famous battle, fought on the
+4th of August 1265, between the forces of Simon de Montfort,
+earl of Leicester, and the royalist army under Prince Edward.
+After a masterly campaign, in which the prince had succeeded
+in defeating Leicester in the valleys of the Severn and Usk, and
+had destroyed the forces of the younger Montfort at Kenilworth
+before he could effect a junction with the main body, the royalist
+forces approached Evesham in the morning of the 4th of August
+in time to intercept Leicester&rsquo;s march towards Kenilworth.
+Caught in the bend of the river Avon by the converging columns,
+and surrounded on all sides, the old earl attempted to cut his
+way out of the town to the northward. At first the fury of his
+assault forced back the superior numbers of the prince; but
+Simon&rsquo;s Welsh levies melted away and his enemies closed the
+last avenue of escape. The final struggle took place on Green
+Hill, a little to the north-west of the town, where the devoted
+friends of de Montfort formed a ring round their leader, and died
+with him. The spot is marked with an obelisk.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVIDENCE<a name="ar30" id="ar30"></a></span> (Lat. <i>evidentia</i>, <i>evideri</i>, to appear clearly), a term
+which may be defined briefly as denoting the facts presented to
+the mind of a person for the purpose of enabling him to decide
+a disputed question. Evidence in the widest sense includes all
+such facts, and reference may be made to the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Logic</a></span> for
+the science or art of dealing with the proper way of drawing
+correct conclusions and the nature of proof. In a narrower
+sense, however, evidence includes in English law only such facts
+as are allowed to be so presented in the course of judicial proceedings.
+Thus we say that a fact is not evidence, meaning
+thereby that it is not admissible as evidence in accordance with
+the rules of English law. The law of legal evidence is part of the
+law of procedure. It determines the kinds of evidence which
+may be produced in judicial proceedings, and regulates the mode
+in which, and the conditions under which, evidence may be
+produced and tested.</p>
+
+<p>The English law of evidence is of comparatively modern growth.
+It enshrines certain maxims, some derived from Roman law,
+some invented by Coke, who, as J.B. Thayer says,
+&ldquo;spawned Latin maxims freely.&rdquo; But for the most
+<span class="sidenote">History.</span>
+part it was built up by English judges in the course of the
+18th century, and consists of this judge-made law, as modified
+by statutory enactments of the 19th century. Early Teutonic
+procedure knew nothing of evidence in the modern sense, just
+as it knew nothing of trials in the modern sense. What it knew
+was &ldquo;proofs.&rdquo; There were two modes of proof, ordeals and
+oaths. Both were appeals to the supernatural. The judicial
+combat was a bilateral ordeal. Proof followed, instead of preceding,
+judgment. A judgment of the court, called by German
+writers the <i>Beweisurteil</i>, and by M.M. Bigelow the &ldquo;medial
+judgment,&rdquo; awarded that one of the two litigants must prove
+his case, by his body in battle, or by a one-sided ordeal, or by
+an oath with oath-helpers, or by the oaths of witnesses. The
+court had no desire to hear or weigh conflicting testimony. To
+do so would have been to exercise critical faculties, which the
+court did not possess, and the exercise of which would have been
+foreign to the whole spirit of the age. The litigant upon whom
+the burden of furnishing proof was imposed had a certain task
+to perform. If he performed it, he won; if he failed, he lost.
+The number of oath-helpers varied in different cases, and was
+determined by the law or by the court. They were probably,
+at the outset, kinsmen, who would have had to take up the
+blood-feud. At a later stage they became witnesses to character.
+In the cases, comparatively rare, where the oaths of witnesses
+were admitted as proof, their oaths differed materially from the
+sworn testimony of modern courts. As a rule no one could
+testify to a fact unless, when the fact happened, he was solemnly
+&ldquo;taken to witness.&rdquo; Then, when the witness was adduced, he
+came merely to swear to a set formula. He did not make a
+promissory oath to answer questions truly. He merely made an
+assertory oath in a prescribed form.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the 12th and 13th centuries the old formal
+accusatory procedure began to break down, and to be superseded
+by another form of procedure known as <i>inquisitio</i>, inquest,
+or <i>enquête</i>. Its decay was hastened by the decree of the fourth
+Lateran Council in 1215, which forbade ecclesiastics to take part
+in ordeals. The Norman administrative system introduced into
+England by the Conquest was familiar with a method of ascertaining
+and determining facts by means of a verdict, return or
+finding made on oath by a body of men drawn from the locality.
+The system may be traced to Carolingian, and even earlier,
+sources. Henry II., by instituting the grand assize and the
+four petty assizes, placed at the disposal of litigants in certain
+actions the opportunity of giving proof by the verdict of a sworn
+inquest of neighbours, proof &ldquo;by the country.&rdquo; The system was
+gradually extended to other cases, criminal as well as civil. The
+verdict given was that of persons having a general, but not necessarily
+a particular, acquaintance with the persons, places and
+facts to which the inquiry related. It was, in fact, a finding by
+local popular opinion. Had the finding of such an inquest been
+treated as final and conclusive in criminal cases, English
+criminal procedure might, like the continental inquisition, the
+French <i>enquête</i>, have taken the path which, in the forcible language
+of Fortescue (<i>De laudibus</i>, &amp;c. ) &ldquo;leads to hell&rdquo; (<i>semita
+ipsa est ad gehennam</i>). Fortunately English criminal procedure
+took a different course. The spirit of the old accusatory procedure
+was applied to the new procedure by inquest. In serious
+cases the words of the jurors, the accusing jurors, were treated
+not as testimony, but as accusation, the new indictment was
+treated as corresponding to the old appeal, and the preliminary
+finding by the accusing jury had to be supplemented by the
+verdict of another jury. In course of time the second jury were
+required to base their findings not on their own knowledge, but
+on evidence submitted to them. Thus the modern system of
+inquiry by grand jury and trial by petty jury was gradually
+developed.</p>
+
+<p>A few words may here be said about the parallel development
+of criminal procedure on the continent of Europe. The tendency
+in the 12th and 13th centuries to abolish the old formal methods
+of procedure, and to give the new procedure the name of inquisition
+or inquest, was not peculiar to England. Elsewhere the
+old procedure was breaking down at the same time, and for
+similar reasons. It was the great pope Innocent III., the pope
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page12" id="page12"></a>12</span>
+of the fourth Lateran Council, who introduced the new inquisitorial
+procedure into the canon law. The procedure
+was applied to cases of heresy, and, as so applied, especially by
+the Dominicans, speedily assumed the features which made it
+infamous. &ldquo;Every safeguard of innocence was abolished or
+disregarded; torture was freely used. Everything seems to have
+been done to secure a conviction.&rdquo; Yet, in spite of its monstrous
+defects, the inquisitorial procedure of the ecclesiastical courts,
+secret in its methods, unfair to the accused, having torture as
+an integral element, gradually forced its way into the temporal
+courts, and may almost be said to have been adopted by the
+common law of western Europe. In connexion with this inquisitorial
+procedure continental jurists elaborated a theory of
+evidence, or judicial proofs, which formed the subject of an
+extensive literature. Under the rules thus evolved full proof
+(<i>plena probatio</i>) was essential for conviction, in the absence of
+confession, and the standard of full proof was fixed so high that
+it was in most cases unattainable. It therefore became material
+to obtain confession by some means or other. The most effective
+means was torture, and thus torture became an essential feature
+in criminal procedure. The rules of evidence attempted to
+graduate the weight to be attached to different kinds of testimony
+and almost to estimate that weight in numerical terms.
+&ldquo;Le parlement de Toulouse,&rdquo; said Voltaire, &ldquo;a un usage très
+singulier dans les preuves par témoins. On admet ailleurs des
+demi-preuves, ... mais à Toulouse on admet des quarts et des
+huitièmes de preuves.&rdquo; Modern continental procedure, as embodied
+in the most recent codes, has removed the worst features
+of inquisitorial procedure, and has shaken itself free from the
+trammels imposed by the old theory and technical rules of proof.
+But in this, as in other branches of law, France seems to have
+paid the penalty for having been first in the field with codification
+by lagging behind in material reforms. The French Code of
+Criminal Procedure was largely based on Colbert&rsquo;s Ordonnance of
+1670, and though embodying some reforms, and since amended
+on certain points, still retains some of the features of the unreformed
+procedure which was condemned in the 18th century by
+Voltaire and the <i>philosophes</i>. Military procedure is in the rear
+of civil procedure, and the trial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes in
+1899 presented some interesting archaisms. Among these were
+the weight attached to the rank and position of witnesses as
+compared with the intrinsic character of their evidence, and the
+extraordinary importance attributed to confession even when
+made under suspicious circumstances and supported by flimsy
+evidence.</p>
+
+<p>The history of criminal procedure in England has been traced
+by Sir James Stephen. The modern rules and practice as to
+evidence and witnesses in the common law courts, both in civil
+and in criminal cases, appear to have taken shape in the course
+of the 18th century. The first systematic treatise on the
+English law of evidence appears to have been written by Chief
+Baron Gilbert, who died in 1726, but whose <i>Law of Evidence</i>
+was not published until 1761. In writing it he is said to have
+been much influenced by Locke.<a name="fa1b" id="fa1b" href="#ft1b"><span class="sp">1</span></a> It is highly praised by Blackstone
+as &ldquo;a work which it is impossible to abstract or abridge
+without losing some beauty and destroying the charm of the
+whole&rdquo;; but Bentham, who rarely agrees with Blackstone,
+speaks of it as running throughout &ldquo;in the same strain of
+anility, garrulity, narrow-mindedness, absurdity, perpetual misrepresentation
+and indefatigable self-contradiction.&rdquo; In any
+case it remained the standard authority on the law of evidence
+throughout the remainder of the 18th century. Bentham wrote
+his <i>Rationale of Judicial Evidence, specially applied to English
+Practice</i>, at various times between the years 1802 and 1812.
+By this time he had lost the nervous and simple style of his
+youth, and required an editor to make him readable. His
+great interpreter, Dumont, condensed his views on evidence
+into the <i>Traité des preuves judiciaires</i>, which was published in
+1823. The manuscript of the <i>Rationale</i> was edited for English
+reading, and to a great extent rewritten, by J.S. Mill, and
+was published in five volumes in 1827. The book had a great
+effect both in England and on the continent. The English
+version, though crabbed and artificial in style, and unmeasured
+in its invective, is a storehouse of comments and criticisms on the
+principles of evidence and the practice of the courts, which are
+always shrewd and often profound. Bentham examined the
+practice of the courts by the light of practical utility. Starting
+from the principle that the object of judicial evidence is the
+discovery of truth, he condemned the rules which excluded some
+of the best sources of evidence. The most characteristic feature
+of the common-law rules of evidence was, as Bentham pointed
+out, and, indeed, still is, their exclusionary character. They
+excluded and prohibited the use of certain kinds of evidence
+which would be used in ordinary inquiries. In particular, they
+disqualified certain classes of witnesses on the ground of interest
+in the subject-matter of the inquiry, instead of treating the
+interest of the witness as a matter affecting his credibility. It
+was against this confusion between competency and credibility
+that Bentham directed his principal attack. He also attacked
+the system of paper evidence, evidence by means of affidavits
+instead of by oral testimony in court, which prevailed in the
+court of chancery, and in ecclesiastical courts. Subsequent
+legislation has endorsed his criticisms. The Judicature Acts
+have reduced the use of affidavits in chancery proceedings within
+reasonable limits. A series of acts of parliament have removed,
+step by step, almost all the disqualifications which formerly
+made certain witnesses incompetent to testify.</p>
+
+<p>Before Bentham&rsquo;s work appeared, an act of 1814 had removed
+the incompetency of ratepayers as witnesses in certain cases
+relating to parishes. The Civil Procedure Act 1833 enacted
+that a witness should not be objected to as incompetent, solely
+on the ground that the verdict or judgment would be admissible
+in evidence for or against him. An act of 1840 removed some
+doubts as to the competency of ratepayers to give evidence
+in matters relating to their parish. The Evidence Act 1843
+enacted broadly that witnesses should not be excluded from
+giving evidence by reason of incapacity from crime or interest.
+The Evidence Act 1851 made parties to legal proceedings admissible
+witnesses subject to a proviso that &ldquo;nothing herein
+contained shall render any person who in any criminal proceeding
+is charged with the commission of any indictable offence, or
+any offence punishable on summary conviction, competent or
+compellable to give evidence for or against himself or herself, or
+shall render any person compellable to answer any question
+tending to criminate himself or herself, or shall in any criminal
+proceeding render any husband competent or compellable to give
+evidence for or against his wife, or any wife competent or compellable
+to give evidence for or against her husband.&rdquo; The
+Evidence (Scotland) Act 1853 made a similar provision for Scotland.
+The Evidence Amendment Act 1853 made the husbands
+and wives of parties admissible witnesses, except that husbands
+and wives could not give evidence for or against each other in
+criminal proceedings or in proceedings for adultery, and could
+not be compelled to disclose communications made to each other
+during marriage. Under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857 the
+petitioner can be examined and cross-examined on oath at the
+hearing, but is not bound to answer any question tending to
+show that he or she has been guilty of adultery. Under the
+Matrimonial Causes Act 1859, on a wife&rsquo;s petition for dissolution
+of marriage on the ground of adultery coupled with cruelty or
+desertion, husband and wife are competent and compellable to
+give evidence as to the cruelty or desertion. The Crown Suits
+&amp;c.  Act 1865 declared that revenue proceedings were not to
+be treated as criminal proceedings for the purposes of the acts
+of 1851 and 1853. The Evidence Further Amendment Act 1869
+declared that parties to actions for breach of promise of marriage
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page13" id="page13"></a>13</span>
+were competent to give evidence in the action, subject to a
+proviso that the plaintiff should not recover unless his or her
+testimony was corroborated by some other material evidence.
+It also made the parties to proceedings instituted in consequence
+of adultery, and their husbands and wives, competent to give
+evidence, but a witness in any such proceeding, whether a party
+or not, is not to be liable to be asked or bound to answer any
+question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of
+adultery, unless the witness has already given evidence in the
+same proceeding in disproof of the alleged adultery. There are
+similar provisions applying to Scotland in the Conjugal Rights
+(Scotland) Amendment Act 1861, and the Evidence Further
+Amendment (Scotland) Act 1874. The Evidence Act 1877
+enacts that &ldquo;on the trial of any indictment or other proceeding
+for the non-repair of any public highway or bridge, or for a
+nuisance to any public highway, river, or bridge, and of any
+other indictment or proceeding instituted for the purpose of
+trying or enforcing a civil right only, every defendant to such
+indictment or proceeding, and the wife or husband of any such
+defendant shall be admissible witnesses and compellable to give
+evidence.&rdquo; From 1872 onwards numerous enactments were
+passed making persons charged with particular offences, and
+their husbands and wives, competent witnesses. The language
+and effect of these enactments were not always the same, but
+the insertion of some provision to this effect in an act creating
+a new offence, especially if it was punishable by summary
+proceedings, gradually became almost a common form in legislation.
+In the year 1874 a bill to generalize these particular
+provisions, and to make the evidence of persons charged with
+criminal offences admissible in all cases was introduced by Mr
+Gladstone&rsquo;s government, and was passed by the standing committee
+of the House of Commons. During the next fourteen
+years bills for the same purpose were repeatedly introduced,
+either by the government of the day, or by Lord Bramwell as
+an independent member of the House of Lords. Finally the
+Criminal Evidence Act 1898, introduced by Lord Halsbury, has
+enacted in general terms that &ldquo;every person charged with an
+offence, and the wife or husband, as the case may be, of the
+person so charged, shall be a competent witness for the defence
+at every stage of the proceedings, whether the person so charged
+is charged solely or jointly with any other person.&rdquo; But this
+general enactment is qualified by some special restrictions, the
+nature of which will be noticed below. The act applies to
+Scotland but not to Ireland. It was not to apply to proceedings
+in courts-martial unless so applied by general orders or rules
+made under statutory authority. The provisions of the act have
+been applied by rules to military courts-martial, but have not
+yet been applied to naval courts-martial. The removal of disqualifications
+for want of religious belief is referred to below
+under the head of &ldquo;Witnesses.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The act of 1898 finishes for the present the history of English
+legislation on evidence. For a view of the legal literature on the
+subject it is necessary to take a step backwards. Early
+in the 19th century Chief Baron Gilbert was superseded
+<span class="sidenote">Literature.</span>
+as an authority on the English law of evidence by the books of
+Phillips (1814) and Starkie (1824), who were followed by Roscoe
+(<i>Nisi Prius</i>, 1827; Criminal Cases, 1835), Greenleaf (American,
+1842), Taylor (based on Greenleaf, 1848), and Best (1849). In
+1876 Sir James FitzJames Stephen brought out his <i>Digest of the
+Law of Evidence</i>, based upon the Indian Evidence Act 1872, which
+he had prepared and passed as law member of the council of the
+governor-general of India. This Digest obtained a rapid and
+well-deserved success, and has materially influenced the form of
+subsequent writings on the English law of evidence. It sifted
+out what Stephen conceived to be the main rules of evidence
+from the mass of extraneous matter in which they had been embedded.
+Roscoe&rsquo;s Digests told the lawyer what things must be
+proved in order to sustain particular actions or criminal charges,
+and related as much to pleadings and to substantive law as to
+evidence proper. Taylor&rsquo;s two large volumes were a vast storehouse
+of useful information, but his book was one to consult, not to master.
+Stephen eliminated much of this extraneous matter, and summed up
+his rules in a series of succinct propositions, supplemented by apt
+illustrations, and couched in such a form that they could be easily
+read and remembered. Hence the English Digest, like the Indian
+Act, has been of much educational value. Its most original feature,
+but unfortunately also its weakest point, is its theory of relevancy.
+Pondering the multitude of &ldquo;exclusionary&rdquo; rules which had been
+laid down by the English courts, Stephen thought that he had
+discovered the general principle on which those rules reposed, and
+could devise a formula by which the principle could be expressed.
+&ldquo;My study of the subject,&rdquo; he says, &ldquo;both practically and in books
+has convinced me that the doctrine that all facts in issue and relevant
+to the issue, and no others, may be proved, is the unexpressed
+principle which forms the centre of and gives unity to all the express
+negative rules which form the great mass of the law.&rdquo; The result was
+the chapter on the relevancy of facts in the Indian Evidence Act,
+and the definition of relevancy in s. 7 of that act. This definition
+was based on the view that a distinction could be drawn between
+things which were and things which were not causally connected
+with each other, and that relevancy depended on causal connexion.
+Subsequent criticism convinced Stephen that his definition was in
+some respects too narrow and in others too wide, and eventually
+he adopted a definition out of which all reference to causality was
+dropped. But even in their amended form the provisions about
+relevancy are open to serious criticism. The doctrine of relevancy,
+<i>i.e.</i> of the probative effect of facts, is a branch of logic, not of law,
+and is out of place both in an enactment of the legislature and in a
+compendium of legal rules. The necessity under which Stephen
+found himself of extending the range of relevant facts by making it
+include facts &ldquo;deemed to be relevant,&rdquo; and then narrowing it by
+enabling the judge to exclude evidence of facts which are relevant,
+illustrates the difference between the rules of logic and the rules of
+law. Relevancy is one thing; admissibility is another; and the
+confusion between them, which is much older than Stephen, is to
+be regretted. Rightly or wrongly English judges have, on practical
+grounds, declared inadmissible evidence of facts, which are relevant
+in the ordinary sense of the term, and which are so treated in non-judicial
+inquiries. Under these circumstances the attempt so to
+define relevancy as to make it conterminous with admissibility is
+misleading, and most readers of Stephen&rsquo;s Act and Digest would
+find them more intelligible and more useful if &ldquo;admissible&rdquo; were
+substituted for &ldquo;relevant&rdquo; throughout. Indeed it is hardly too
+much to say that Stephen&rsquo;s doctrine of relevancy is theoretically
+unsound and practically useless. The other parts of the work contain
+terse and vigorous statements of the law, but a Procrustean attempt
+to make legal rules square with a preconceived theory has often
+made the language and arrangement artificial, and the work, in
+spite of its compression, still contains rules which, under a more
+scientific treatment, would find their appropriate place in other
+branches of the law. These defects are characteristic of a strong
+and able man, who saw clearly, and expressed forcibly what he did
+see, but was apt to ignore or to deny the existence of what he did
+not see, whose mind was vigorous rather than subtle or accurate,
+and who, in spite of his learning, was somewhat deficient in the
+historical sense. But notwithstanding these defects, the conspicuous
+ability of the author, his learning, and his practical
+experience, especially in criminal cases, attach greater weight to
+FitzJames Stephen&rsquo;s statements than to those of any other English
+writer on the law of evidence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The object of every trial is, or may be, to determine two
+classes of questions or issues, which are usually distinguished
+as questions of law, and questions of fact, although
+the distinction between them is not so clear as might
+<span class="sidenote">Rules.</span>
+appear on a superficial view. In a trial by jury these two classes
+of questions are answered by different persons. The judge lays
+down the law. The jury, under the guidance of the judge, find
+the facts. It was with reference to trial by jury that the English
+rules of evidence were originally framed; it is by the peculiarities
+of this form of trial that many of them are to be explained; it
+is to this form of trial alone that some of the most important of
+them are exclusively applicable. The negative, exclusive, or
+exclusionary rules which form the characteristic features of the
+English law of evidence, are the rules in accordance with which
+the judge guides the jury. There is no difference of principle
+between the method of inquiry in judicial and in non-judicial
+proceedings. In either case a person who wishes to find out
+whether a particular event did or did not happen, tries, in the
+first place, to obtain information from persons who were present
+and saw what happened (direct evidence), and, failing this, to
+obtain information from persons who can tell him about facts
+from which he can draw an inference as to whether the event
+did or did not happen (indirect evidence). But in judicial
+inquiries the information given must be given on oath, and be
+liable to be tested by cross-examination. And there are rules
+of law which exclude from the consideration of the jury certain
+classes of facts which, in an ordinary inquiry, would, or might,
+be taken into consideration. Facts so excluded are said to be
+&ldquo;not admissible as evidence,&rdquo; or &ldquo;not evidence,&rdquo; according
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page14" id="page14"></a>14</span>
+as the word is used in the wider or in the narrower sense. And
+the easiest way of determining whether a fact is or is not evidence
+in the narrower sense, is first to consider whether it has any
+bearing on the question to be tried, and, if it has, to consider
+whether it falls within any one or more of the rules of exclusion
+laid down by English law. These rules of exclusion are peculiar
+to English law and to systems derived from English law. They
+have been much criticized, and some of them have been repealed
+or materially modified by legislation. Most of them may be
+traced to directions given by a judge in the course of trying a
+particular case, given with special reference to the circumstances
+of that case, but expressed in general language, and, partly
+through the influence of text-writers, eventually hardened into
+general rules. In some cases their origin is only intelligible by
+reference to obsolete forms of pleading or practice. But in most
+cases they were originally rules of convenience laid down by the
+judge for the assistance of the jury. The judge is a man of trained
+experience, who has to arrive at a conclusion with the help of
+twelve untrained men, and who is naturally anxious to keep them
+straight, and give them every assistance in his power. The
+exclusion of certain forms of evidence assists the jury by concentrating
+their attention on the questions immediately before
+them, and by preventing them from being distracted or bewildered
+by facts which either have no bearing on the question
+before them, or have so remote a bearing on those questions as
+to be practically useless as guides to the truth. It also prevents a
+jury from being misled by statements the effect of which, through
+the prejudice they excite, is out of all proportion to their true
+weight. In this respect the rules of exclusion may be compared
+to blinkers, which keep a horse&rsquo;s eyes on the road before him.
+In criminal cases the rules of exclusion secure fair play to the
+accused, because he comes to the trial prepared to meet a specific
+charge, and ought not to be suddenly confronted by statements
+which he had no reason to expect would be made against him.
+They protect absent persons against statements affecting their
+character. And lastly they prevent the infinite waste of time
+which would ensue in the discussion of a question of fact if an
+inquiry were allowed to branch out into all the subjects with
+which that fact is more or less connected. The purely practical
+grounds on which the rules are based, according to the view of
+a great judge, may be illustrated by some remarks of Mr Justice
+Willes (1814-1872). In discussing the question whether evidence
+of the plaintiff&rsquo;s conduct on other occasions ought to be
+admitted, he said:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;It is not easy in all cases to draw the line and to define with
+accuracy where probability ceases and speculation begins; but
+we are bound to lay down the rule to the best of our ability. No
+doubt the rule as to confining the evidence to that which is relevant
+and pertinent to the issue is one of great importance, not only as
+regards the particular case, but also with reference to saving the
+time of the court, and preventing the minds of the jury from being
+drawn away from the real point they have to decide.... Now it
+appears to me that the evidence proposed to be given in this case,
+if admitted, would not have shown that it was more probable that
+the contract was subject to the condition insisted upon by the
+defendant. The question may be put thus, Does the fact of a person
+having once or many times in his life done a particular act in a
+particular way make it more probable that he has done the same
+thing in the same way upon another and different occasion? To
+admit such speculative evidence would, I think, be fraught with
+great danger.... If such evidence were held admissible it would
+be difficult to say that the defendant might not in any case, where
+the question was whether or not there had been a sale of goods on
+credit, call witnesses to prove that the plaintiff had dealt with other
+persons upon a certain credit; or, in an action for an assault, that
+the plaintiff might not give evidence of former assaults committed
+by the defendant upon other persons, or upon other persons of a
+particular class, for the purpose of showing that he was a quarrelsome
+individual, and therefore that it was highly probable that the
+particular charge of assault was well founded. The extent to which
+this sort of thing might be carried is inconceivable.... To obviate
+the prejudices, the injustice, and the waste of time to which the
+admission of such evidence would lead, and bearing in mind the
+extent to which it might be carried, and that litigants are mortal,
+it is necessary not only to adhere to the rule, but to lay it down
+strictly. I think, therefore, the fact that the plaintiff had entered
+into contracts of a particular kind with other persons on other
+occasions could not be properly admitted in evidence where no
+custom of trade to make such contracts, and no connexion between
+such and the one in question, was shown to exist&rdquo; (<i>Hollingham</i> v.
+<i>Head</i>, 1858, 4 C.B. N.S. 388).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>There is no difference between the principles of evidence in
+civil and in criminal cases, although there are a few special rules,
+such as those relating to confessions and to dying declarations,
+which are only applicable to criminal proceedings. But in civil
+proceedings the issues are narrowed by mutual admissions of
+the parties, more use is made of evidence taken out of court, such
+as affidavits, and, generally, the rules of evidence are less strictly
+applied. It is often impolitic to object to the admission of
+evidence, even when the objection may be sustained by previous
+rulings. The general tendency of modern procedure is to place
+a more liberal and less technical construction on rules of evidence,
+especially in civil cases. In recent volumes of law reports cases
+turning on the admissibility of evidence are conspicuous by their
+rarity. Various causes have operated in this direction. One of
+them has been the change in the system of pleading, under which
+each party now knows before the actual trial the main facts on
+which his opponent relies. Another is the interaction of chancery
+and common-law practice and traditions since the Judicature
+Acts. In the chancery courts the rules of evidence were always
+less carefully observed, or, as Westminster would have said,
+less understood, than in the courts of common law. A judge
+trying questions of fact alone might naturally think that blinkers,
+though useful for a jury, are unnecessary for a judge. And the
+chancery judge was apt to read his affidavits first, and to determine
+their admissibility afterwards. In the meantime they had
+affected his mind.</p>
+
+<p>The tendency of modern text-writers, among whom Professor
+J.B. Thayer (1831-1902), of Harvard, was perhaps the most
+independent, instructive and suggestive, is to restrict materially
+the field occupied by the law of evidence, and to relegate to other
+branches of the law topics traditionally treated under the head
+of evidence. Thus in every way the law of evidence, though
+still embodying some principles of great importance, is of less
+comparative importance as a branch of English law than it was
+half a century ago. Legal rules, like dogmas, have their growth
+and decay. First comes the judge who gives a ruling in a particular
+case. Then comes the text-writer who collects the scattered
+rulings, throws them into the form of general propositions,
+connects them together by some theory, sound or unsound,
+and often ignores or obscures their historical origin. After him
+comes the legislator who crystallizes the propositions into enactments,
+not always to the advantage of mankind. So also with
+decay. Legal rules fall into the background, are explained away,
+are ignored, are denied, are overruled. Much of the English
+law of evidence is in a stage of decay.</p>
+
+<p>The subject-matter of the law of evidence may be arranged
+differently according to the taste or point of view of the writer.
+It will be arranged here under the following heads:&mdash;I. Preliminary
+Matter; II. Classes of Evidence; III. Rules of Exclusion;
+IV. Documentary Evidence; V. Witnesses.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">I. Preliminary Matter</p>
+
+<p>Under this head may be grouped certain principles and considerations
+which limit the range of matters to which evidence
+relates.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Law and Fact.</i>&mdash;Evidence relates only to facts. It is
+therefore necessary to touch on the distinction between law
+and facts. <i>Ad quaestionem facti non respondent judices; ad
+quaestionem juris non respondent juratores.</i> Thus Coke, attributing,
+after his wont, to Bracton a maxim which may have been
+invented by himself. The maxim became the subject of political
+controversy, and the two rival views are represented by Pulteney&rsquo;s
+lines&mdash;</p>
+
+<table class="reg" summary="poem f90"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;For twelve honest men have decided the cause</p>
+<p class="i05">Who are judges alike of the facts and the laws,&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">and by Lord Mansfield&rsquo;s variant&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center f90">&ldquo;Who are judges of facts, but not judges of laws.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p class="noind">The particular question raised with respect to the law of libel
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page15" id="page15"></a>15</span>
+was settled by Fox&rsquo;s Libel Act 1792. Coke&rsquo;s maxim describes
+in a broad general way the distinction between the functions of
+the judge and of the jury, but is only true subject to important
+qualifications. Judges in jury cases constantly decide what may
+be properly called questions of fact, though their action is
+often disguised by the language applied or the procedure employed.
+Juries, in giving a general verdict, often practically
+take the law into their own hands. The border-line between the
+two classes of questions is indicated by the &ldquo;mixed questions
+of law and fact,&rdquo; to use a common phrase, which arise in such
+cases as those relating to &ldquo;necessaries,&rdquo; &ldquo;due diligence,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;negligence,&rdquo; &ldquo;reasonableness,&rdquo; &ldquo;reasonable and probable
+cause.&rdquo; In the treatment of these cases the line has been drawn
+differently at different times, and two conflicting tendencies
+are discernible. On the one hand, there is the natural tendency
+to generalize common inferences into legal rules, and to fix legal
+standards of duty. On the other hand, there is the sound instinct
+that it is a mistake to define and refine too much in these cases,
+and that the better course is to leave broadly to the jury, under
+the general guidance of the judge, the question what would be
+done by the &ldquo;reasonable&rdquo; or &ldquo;prudent&rdquo; man in particular
+cases. The latter tendency predominates in modern English
+law, and is reflected by the enactments in the recent acts codifying
+the law on bills of exchange and sale of goods, that certain
+questions of reasonableness are to be treated as questions of
+fact. On the same ground rests the dislike to limit the right of
+a jury to give a general verdict in criminal cases. Questions of
+custom begin by being questions of fact, but as the custom obtains
+general recognition it becomes law. Many of the rules of the
+English mercantile law were &ldquo;found&rdquo; as customs by Lord
+Mansfield&rsquo;s special juries. Generally, it must be remembered
+that the jury act in subordinate co-operation with the judge,
+and that the extent to which the judge limits or encroaches on
+the province of the jury is apt to depend on the personal idiosyncrasy
+of the judge.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Judicial Notice.</i>&mdash;It may be doubted whether the subject
+of judicial notice belongs properly to the law of evidence, and
+whether it does not belong rather to the general topic of legal or
+judicial reasoning. Matters which are the subject of judicial
+notice are part of the equipment of the judicial mind. It would
+be absurd to require evidence of every fact; many facts must
+be assumed to be known. The judge, like the juryman, is supposed
+to bring with him to the consideration of the question
+which he has to try common sense, a general knowledge of
+human nature and the ways of the world, and also knowledge of
+things that &ldquo;everybody is supposed to know.&rdquo; Of such matters
+judicial notice is said to be taken. But the range of general
+knowledge is indefinite, and the range of judicial notice has, for
+reasons of convenience, been fixed or extended, both by rulings
+of the judges and by numerous enactments of the legislature.
+It would be impossible to enumerate here the matters of which
+judicial notice must or may be taken. These are to be found
+in the text-books. For present purposes it must suffice to say
+that they include not only matters of fact of common and certain
+knowledge, but the law and practice of the courts, and many
+matters connected with the government of the country.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Presumptions.</i>&mdash;A presumption in the ordinary sense is an
+inference. It is an argument, based on observation, that what
+has happened in some cases will probably happen in others of the
+like nature. The subject of presumptions, so far as they are
+mere inferences or arguments, belongs, not to the law of evidence,
+or to law at all, but to rules of reasoning. But a legal presumption,
+or, as it is sometimes called, a presumption of law, as distinguished
+from a presumption of fact, is something more. It
+may be described, in Stephen&rsquo;s language, as &ldquo;a rule of law that
+courts and judges shall draw a particular inference from a
+particular fact, or from particular evidence, unless and until
+the truth&rdquo; (perhaps it would be better to say &lsquo;soundness&rsquo;)
+&ldquo;of the inference is disproved.&rdquo; Courts and legislatures have
+laid down such rules on grounds of public policy or general convenience,
+and the rules have then to be observed as rules of
+positive law, not merely used as part of the ordinary process of
+reasoning or argument. Some so-called presumptions are rules
+of substantive law under a disguise. To this class appear to
+belong &ldquo;conclusive presumptions of law,&rdquo; such as the common-law
+presumption that a child under seven years of age cannot
+commit a felony. So again the presumption that every one
+knows the law is merely an awkward way of saying that ignorance
+of the law is not a legal excuse for breaking it. Of true legal
+presumptions, the majority may be dealt with most appropriately
+under different branches of the substantive law, such as the law
+of crime, of property, or of contract, and accordingly Stephen
+has included in his <i>Digest of the Law of Evidence</i> only some which
+are common to more than one branch of the law. The effect
+of a presumption is to impute to certain facts or groups of facts
+a prima facie significance or operation, and thus, in legal proceedings,
+to throw upon the party against whom it works the
+duty of bringing forward evidence to meet it. Accordingly the
+subject of presumptions is intimately connected with the subject
+of the burden of proof, and the same legal rule may be expressed
+in different forms, either as throwing the advantage of a presumption
+on one side, or as throwing the burden of proof on the other.
+Thus the rule in Stephen&rsquo;s Digest, which says that the burden of
+proving that any person has been guilty of a crime or wrongful
+act is on the person who asserts it, appears in the article entitled
+&ldquo;Presumption of Innocence.&rdquo; Among the more ordinary and
+more important legal presumptions are the presumption of
+regularity in proceedings, described generally as a presumption
+<i>omnia esse rite acta</i>, and including the presumption that the
+holder of a public office has been duly appointed, and has duly
+performed his official duties, the presumption of the legitimacy
+of a child born during the mother&rsquo;s marriage, or within the
+period of gestation after her husband&rsquo;s death, and the presumptions
+as to life and death. &ldquo;A person shown not to have been
+heard of for seven years by those (if any) who, if he had been
+alive, would naturally have heard of him, is presumed to be dead
+unless the circumstances of the case are such as to account for
+his not being heard of without assuming his death; but there is
+no presumption as to the time when he died, and the burden of
+proving his death at any particular time is upon the person who
+asserts it. There is no presumption&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> legal presumption)
+&ldquo;as to the age at which a person died who is shown to have been
+alive at a given time, or as to the order in which two or more
+persons died who are shown to have died in the same accident,
+shipwreck or battle&rdquo; (Stephen, <i>Dig.</i>, art. 99). A document
+proved or purporting to be thirty years old is presumed to be
+genuine, and to have been properly executed and (if necessary)
+attested if produced from the proper custody. And the legal
+presumption of a &ldquo;lost grant,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> the presumption that a right
+or alleged right which has been long enjoyed without interruption
+had a legal origin, still survives in addition to the common
+law and statutory rules of prescription.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Burden of Proof.</i>&mdash;The expression <i>onus probandi</i> has come
+down from the classical Roman law, and both it and the Roman
+maxims, <i>Agenti incumbit probatio</i>, <i>Necessitas probandi incumbit
+ei qui dicit non ei qui negat</i>, and <i>Reus excipiendo fit actor</i>, must
+be read with reference to the Roman system of actions, under
+which nothing was admitted, but the plaintiff&rsquo;s case was tried
+first; then, unless that failed, the defendant&rsquo;s on his <i>exceptio</i>;
+then, unless that failed, the plaintiff&rsquo;s on his <i>replicatio</i>, and so
+on. Under such a system the burden was always on the &ldquo;actor.&rdquo;
+In modern law the phrase &ldquo;burden of proof&rdquo; may mean one of
+two things, which are often confused&mdash;the burden of establishing
+the proposition or issue on which the case depends, and the
+burden of producing evidence on any particular point either at
+the beginning or at a later stage of the case. The burden in the
+former sense ordinarily rests on the plaintiff or prosecutor. The
+burden in the latter sense, that of going forward with evidence
+on a particular point, may shift from side to side as the case
+proceeds. The general rule is that he who alleges a fact must
+prove it, whether the allegation is couched in affirmative or
+negative terms. But this rule is subject to the effect of presumptions
+in particular cases, to the principle that in considering the
+amount of evidence necessary to shift the burden of proof regard
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page16" id="page16"></a>16</span>
+must be had to the opportunities of knowledge possessed by the
+parties respectively, and to the express provisions of statutes
+directing where the burden of proof is to lie in particular cases.
+Thus many statutes expressly direct that the proof of lawful
+excuse or authority, or the absence of fraudulent intent, is to lie
+on the person charged with an offence. And the Summary
+Jurisdiction Act 1848 provides that if the information or complaint
+in summary proceedings negatives any exemption, exception,
+proviso, or condition in the statute on which it is founded,
+the prosecutor or complainant need not prove the negative, but
+the defendant may prove the affirmative in his defence.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">II. Classes of Evidence</p>
+
+<p>Evidence is often described as being either oral or documentary.
+To these two classes should be added a third, called by
+Bentham real evidence, and consisting of things presented
+immediately to the senses of the judge or the jury. Thus the
+judge or jury may go to view any place the sight of which may
+help to an understanding of the evidence, and may inspect anything
+sufficiently identified and produced in court as material
+to the decision. Weapons, clothes and things alleged to have
+been stolen or damaged are often brought into court for this
+purpose. Oral evidence consists of the statements of witnesses.
+Documentary evidence consists of documents submitted to the
+judge or jury by way of proof. The distinction between primary
+and secondary evidence relates only to documentary evidence,
+and will be noticed in the section under that head. A division
+of evidence from another point of view is that into direct and
+indirect, or, as it is sometimes called, circumstantial evidence.
+By direct evidence is meant the statement of a person who saw,
+or otherwise observed with his senses, the fact in question. By
+indirect or circumstantial evidence is meant evidence of facts
+from which the fact in question may be inferred. The difference
+between direct and indirect evidence is a difference of kind,
+not of degree, and therefore the rule or maxim as to &ldquo;best
+evidence&rdquo; has no application to it. Juries naturally attach
+more weight to direct evidence, and in some legal systems it is
+only this class of evidence which is allowed to have full probative
+force. In some respects indirect evidence is superior to direct
+evidence, because, as Paley puts it, &ldquo;facts cannot lie,&rdquo; whilst
+witnesses can and do. On the other hand facts often deceive;
+that is to say, the inferences drawn from them are often erroneous.
+The circumstances in which crimes are ordinarily committed are
+such that direct evidence of their commission is usually not
+obtainable, and when criminality depends on a state of mind,
+such as intention, that state must necessarily be inferred by
+means of indirect evidence.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">III. Rules of Exclusion</p>
+
+<p>It seems desirable to state the leading rules of exclusion in
+their crude form instead of obscuring their historical origin by
+attempting to force them into the shape of precise technical
+propositions forming parts of a logically connected system. The
+judges who laid the foundations of our modern law of evidence,
+like those who first discoursed on the duties of trustees, little
+dreamt of the elaborate and artificial system which was to be
+based upon their remarks. The rules will be found, as might be
+expected, to be vague, to overlap each other, to require much
+explanation, and to be subject to many exceptions. They may
+be stated as follows:&mdash;(1) Facts not relevant to the issue cannot
+be admitted as evidence. (2) The evidence produced must be
+the best obtainable under the circumstances. (3) Hearsay is
+not evidence. (4) Opinion is not evidence.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Rule of Relevancy.</i>&mdash;The so-called rule of relevancy is sometimes
+stated by text-writers in the form in which it was laid
+down by Baron Parke in 1837 (<i>Wright</i> v. <i>Doe and Tatham</i>, 7 A.
+and E. 384), when he described &ldquo;one great principle&rdquo; in the
+law of evidence as being that &ldquo;all facts which are relevant to the
+issue may be proved.&rdquo; Stated in different forms, the rule has
+been made by FitzJames Stephen the central point of his theory
+of evidence. But relevancy, in the proper and natural sense,
+as we have said, is a matter not of law, but of logic. If Baron
+Parke&rsquo;s dictum relates to relevancy in its natural sense it is not
+true; if it relates to relevancy in a narrow and artificial sense,
+as equivalent to admissible, it is tautological. Such practical
+importance as the rule of relevancy possesses consists, not in
+what it includes, but in what it excludes, and for that reason
+it seems better to state the rule in a negative or exclusive form.
+But whether the rule is stated in a positive or in a negative form
+its vagueness is apparent. No precise line can be drawn between
+&ldquo;relevant&rdquo; and &ldquo;irrelevant&rdquo; facts. The two classes shade
+into each other by imperceptible degrees. The broad truth is
+that the courts have excluded from consideration certain matters
+which have some bearing on the question to be decided, and
+which, in that sense, are relevant, and that they have done so
+on grounds of policy and convenience. Among the matters so
+excluded are matters which are likely to mislead the jury, or to
+complicate the case unnecessarily, or which are of slight, remote,
+or merely conjectural importance. Instances of the classes of
+matters so excluded can be given, but it seems difficult to refer
+their exclusion to any more general principle than this. Rules
+as to evidence of character and conduct appear to fall under this
+principle. Evidence is not admissible to show that the person
+who is alleged to have done a thing was of a disposition or character
+which makes it probable that he would or would not have
+done it. This rule excludes the biographical accounts of the
+prisoner which are so familiar in French trials, and is an important
+principle in English trials. It is subject to three exceptions:
+first, that evidence of good character is admissible in
+favour of the prisoner in all criminal cases; secondly, that a
+prisoner indicted for rape is entitled to call evidence as to the
+immoral character of the prosecutrix; and thirdly, that a
+witness may be called to say that he would not believe a previous
+witness on his oath. The exception allowing the good character
+of a prisoner to influence the verdict, as distinguished from the
+sentence, is more humane than logical, and seems to have been
+at first admitted in capital cases only. The exception in rape
+cases does not allow evidence to be given of specific acts of immorality
+with persons other than the prisoner, doubtless on the
+ground that such evidence would affect the reputations of third
+parties. Where the character of a person is expressly in issue,
+as in actions of libel and slander, the rule of exclusion, as stated
+above, does not apply. Nor does it prevent evidence of bad
+character from being given in mitigation of damages, where the
+amount of damages virtually depends on character, as in cases of
+defamation and seduction. As to conduct there is a similar
+general rule, that evidence of the conduct of a person on other
+occasions is not to be used merely for the purpose of showing the
+likelihood of his having acted in a similar way on a particular
+occasion. Thus, on a charge of murder, the prosecutor cannot
+give evidence of the prisoner&rsquo;s conduct to other persons for the
+purpose of proving a bloodthirsty and murderous disposition.
+And in a civil case a defendant was not allowed to show that
+the plaintiff had sold goods on particular terms to other persons
+for the purpose of proving that he had sold similar goods on the
+same terms to the defendant. But this general rule must be
+carefully construed. Where several offences are so connected
+with each other as to form parts of an entire transaction, evidence
+of one is admissible as proof of another. Thus, where a prisoner
+is charged with stealing particular goods from a particular place,
+evidence may be given that other goods, taken from the same
+place at the same time, were found in his possession. And where
+it is proved or admitted that a person did a particular act, and
+the question is as to his state of mind, that is to say, whether he
+did the act knowingly, intentionally, fraudulently, or the like,
+evidence may be given of the commission by him of similar acts
+on other occasions for the purpose of proving his state of mind
+on the occasion. This principle is most commonly applied in
+charges for uttering false documents or base coin, and not uncommonly
+in charges for false pretences, embezzlement or murder.
+In proceedings for the receipt or possession of stolen property,
+the legislature has expressly authorized evidence to be given of
+the possession by the prisoner of other stolen property, or of his
+previous conviction of an offence involving fraud or dishonesty
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page17" id="page17"></a>17</span>
+(Prevention of Crimes Act 1871). Again, where there is a
+question whether a person committed an offence, evidence may
+be given of any fact supplying a motive or constituting preparation
+for the offence, of any subsequent conduct of the person
+accused, which is apparently influenced by the commission of
+the offence, and of any act done by him, or by his authority, in
+consequence of the offence. Thus, evidence may be given that,
+after the commission of the alleged offence, the prisoner absconded,
+or was in possession of the property, or the proceeds
+of the property, acquired by the offence, or that he attempted
+to conceal things which were or might have been used in committing
+the offence, or as to the manner in which he conducted
+himself when statements were made in his presence and hearing.
+Statements made to or in the presence of a person charged with
+an offence are admitted as evidence, not of the facts stated, but
+of the conduct or demeanour of the person to whom or in whose
+presence they are made, or of the general character of the transaction
+of which they form part (under the <i>res gestae</i> rule mentioned
+below).</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Best Evidence Rule.</i>&mdash;Statements to the effect of the best
+evidence rule were often made by Chief Justice Holt about the
+beginning of the 18th century, and became familiar in the courts.
+Chief Baron Gilbert, in his book on evidence, which must have
+been written before 1726, says that &ldquo;the first and most signal
+rule in relation to evidence is this, that a man must have the
+utmost evidence the nature of the fact is capable of.&rdquo; And in
+the great case of <i>Omichund</i> v. <i>Barker</i> (1744), Lord Hardwicke
+went so far as to say, &ldquo;The judges and sages of the law have laid
+down that there is but one general rule of evidence, the best that
+the nature of the case will admit&rdquo; (1 Atkyns 49). It is no
+wonder that a rule thus solemnly stated should have found a
+prominent place in text-books on the law of evidence. But,
+apart from its application to documentary evidence, it does not
+seem to be more than a useful guiding principle which underlies,
+or may be used in support of, several rules.</p>
+
+<p>It is to documentary evidence that the principle is usually
+applied, in the form of the narrower rule excluding, subject to
+exceptions, secondary evidence of the contents of a document
+where primary evidence is obtainable. In this form the rule is
+a rule of exclusion, but may be most conveniently dealt with
+in connexion with the special subject of documentary evidence.
+As noticed above, the general rule does not apply to the difference
+between direct and indirect evidence. And, doubtless on
+account of its vague character, it finds no place in Stephen&rsquo;s
+Digest.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Hearsay.</i>&mdash;The term &ldquo;hearsay&rdquo; primarily applies to what
+a witness has heard another person say in respect to a fact in
+dispute. But it is extended to any statement, whether reduced
+to writing or not, which is brought before the court, not by the
+author of the statement, but by a person to whose knowledge the
+statement has been brought. Thus the hearsay rule excludes
+statements, oral or written, made in the first instance by a person
+who is not called as a witness in the case. Historically this rule
+may be traced to the time when the functions of the witnesses
+were first distinguished from the functions of the jury, and when
+the witnesses were required by their formula to testify <i>de visu
+suo et auditu</i>, to state what they knew about facts from the direct
+evidence of their senses, not from the information of others.
+The rule excludes statements the effect of which is liable to be
+altered by the narrator, and which purport to have been made
+by persons who did not necessarily speak under the sanction of
+an oath, and whose accuracy or veracity is not tested by cross-examination.
+It is therefore of practical utility in shutting out
+many loose statements and much irresponsible gossip. On the
+other hand, it excludes statements which are of some value as
+evidence, and may indeed be the only available evidence. Thus,
+a statement has been excluded as hearsay, even though it can be
+proved that the author of the statement made it on oath, or
+that it was against his interest when he made it, or that he is
+prevented by insanity or other illness from giving evidence himself,
+or that he has left the country and disappeared, or that he
+is dead.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Owing to the inconveniences which would be caused by a strict
+application of the rule, it has been so much eaten into by exceptions
+that some persons doubt whether the rule and the exceptions ought
+not to change places. Among the exceptions the following may be
+noticed: (<i>a</i>) <i>Certain sworn statements</i>.&mdash;In many cases statements
+made by a person whose evidence is material, but who cannot come
+before the court, or could not come before it without serious difficulty,
+delay or expense, may be admitted as evidence under proper
+safeguards. Under the Indictable Offences Act 1848, where a person
+has made a deposition before a justice at a preliminary inquiry into
+an offence, his deposition may be read in evidence on proof that the
+deponent is dead, or too ill to travel, that the deposition was taken
+in the presence of the accused person, and that the accused then had
+a full opportunity of cross-examining the deponent. The deposition
+must appear to be signed by the justice before whom it purports to
+have been taken. Depositions taken before a coroner are admissible
+under the same principle. And the principle probably extends to
+cases where the deponent is insane, or kept away by the person
+accused. There are other statutory provisions for the admission of
+depositions, as in the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867; the
+Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890; and the Children Act 1908, incorporating
+an act of 1894. In civil cases the rule excluding statements
+not made in court at the trial is much less strictly applied. Frequent
+use is made of evidence taken before an examiner, or under a commission.
+Affidavits are freely used for subordinate issues or under
+an arrangement between the parties, and leave may be given to use
+evidence taken in other proceedings. The old chancery practice,
+under which evidence, both at the trial and at other stages of a
+proceeding, was normally taken by affidavit, irrespectively of consent,
+was altered by the Judicature Acts. Under the existing rules of
+the supreme court evidence may be given by affidavit upon any
+motion, petition or summons, but the court or a judge may, on the
+application of either party, order the attendance for cross-examination
+of the person making the affidavit. (<i>b</i>) <i>Dying declarations.</i>&mdash;In
+a trial for murder or manslaughter a declaration by the person
+killed as to the cause of his death, or as to any of the circumstances
+of the transaction which resulted in his death, is admissible as
+evidence. But this exception is very strictly construed. It must
+be proved that the declarant, at the time of making the declaration,
+was in actual danger of death, and had given up all hope of recovery.
+(<i>c</i>) <i>Statements in pedigree cases.</i>&mdash;On a question of pedigree the
+statement of a deceased person, whether based on his own personal
+knowledge or on family tradition, is admissible as evidence, if it is
+proved that the person who made the statement was related to the
+person about whose family relations the statement was made, and
+that the statement was made before the question with respect to
+which the evidence is required had arisen. (<i>d</i>) <i>Statements as to
+matters of public or general interest.</i>&mdash;Statements by deceased persons
+are admissible as evidence of reputation or general belief in
+questions relating to the existence of any public or general right
+or custom, or matter of public and general interest. Statements of
+this kind are constantly admitted in questions relating to right of
+way, or rights of common, or manorial or other local customs.
+Maps, copies of court rolls, leases and other deeds, and verdicts,
+judgments, and orders of court fall within the exception in cases of
+this kind. (<i>e</i>) <i>Statements in course of duty or business.</i>&mdash;A statement
+with respect to a particular fact made by a deceased person in
+pursuance of his duty in connexion with any office, employment or
+business, whether public or private, is admissible as evidence of that
+fact, if the statement appears to have been made from personal
+knowledge, and at or about the time when the fact occurred. This
+exception covers entries by clerks and other employees. (<i>f</i>) <i>Statements
+against interest.</i>&mdash;A statement made by a deceased person against
+his pecuniary or proprietary interest is admissible as evidence,
+without reference to the time at which it was made. Where such a
+statement is admissible the whole of it becomes admissible, though
+it may contain matters not against the interest of the person who
+made it, and though the total effect may be in his favour. Thus,
+where there was a question whether a particular sum was a gift or a
+loan, entries in an account book of receipt of interest on the sum
+were admitted, and a statement in the book that the alleged debtor
+had on a particular date acknowledged the loan was also admitted.
+(<i>g</i>) <i>Public documents.</i>&mdash;Under this head may be placed recitals in
+public acts of parliament, notices in the <i>London</i>, <i>Edinburgh</i>, or <i>Dublin
+Gazette</i> (which are made evidence by statute in a large number of
+cases), and entries made in the performance of duty in official
+registers or records, such as registers of births, deaths or marriages,
+registers of companies, records in judicial proceedings, and the like.
+An entry in a public document may be treated as a statement made
+in the course of duty, but it is admissible whether the person who
+made the statement is alive or dead, and without any evidence as
+to personal knowledge, or the time at which the statement is made.
+(<i>h</i>) <i>Admissions.</i>&mdash;By the term &ldquo;admission,&rdquo; as here used, is meant
+a statement made out of the witness-box by a party to the proceedings,
+whether civil or criminal, or by some person whose statements are
+binding on that party, against the interest of that party. The term
+includes admissions made in answer to interrogatories, or to a notice
+to admit facts, but not admissions made on the pleadings. Admissions,
+in this sense of the term, are admissible as evidence against the
+person by whom they are made, or on whom they are binding,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page18" id="page18"></a>18</span>
+without reference to the life or death of the person who made them.
+A person is bound by the statements of his agent, acting within the
+scope of his authority, and barristers and solicitors are agents for
+their clients in the conduct of legal proceedings. Conversely, a
+person suing or defending on behalf of another, <i>e.g.</i> as agent or
+trustee, is bound by the statements of the person whom he represents.
+Statements respecting property made by a predecessor in
+title bind the successor. Where a statement is put in evidence as an
+admission by, or binding on, any person, that person is entitled to
+have the whole statement given in evidence. The principle of this
+rule is obviously sound, because it would be unfair to pick out from
+a man&rsquo;s statement what tells against him, and to suppress what is
+in his favour. But the application of the rule is sometimes attended
+with difficulty. An admission will not be allowed to be used as
+evidence if it was made under a stipulation, express or implied, that
+it should not be so used. Such admissions are said to be made
+&ldquo;without prejudice.&rdquo; (<i>i</i>) <i>Confessions.</i>&mdash;A confession is an admission
+by a person accused of an offence that he has committed the offence
+of which he is accused. But the rules about admitting as evidence
+confessions in criminal proceedings are much more strict than the
+rules about admissions in civil proceedings. The general rule is,
+that a confession is not admissible as evidence against any person
+except the person who makes it. But a confession made by one
+accomplice in the presence of another is admissible against the latter
+to this extent, that, if it implicates him, his silence under the charge
+may be used against him, whilst on the other hand his prompt
+repudiation of the charge might tell in his favour. In other words,
+the confession may be used as evidence of the conduct of the person
+in whose presence it was made. A confession cannot be admitted
+as evidence unless proved to be voluntary. A confession is not
+treated as being voluntary if it appears to the court to have been
+caused by any inducement, threat or promise which proceeded
+from a magistrate or other person in authority concerned in the
+charge, and which, in the opinion of the court, gave the accused
+person reasonable ground for supposing that by making a confession
+he would gain some advantage or avoid some evil in reference to the
+proceedings against him. This applies to any inducement, threat
+or promise having reference to the charge, whether it is addressed
+directly to the accused person or is brought to his knowledge indirectly.
+But a confession is not involuntary merely because it appears to
+have been caused by the exhortations of a person in authority to
+make it as a matter of religious duty, or by an inducement collateral
+to the proceedings, or by an inducement held out by a person having
+nothing to do with the apprehension, prosecution or examination
+of the prisoner. Thus, a confession made to a gaol chaplain in consequence
+of religious exhortation has been admitted as evidence.
+So also has a confession made by a prisoner to a gaoler in consequence
+of a promise by the gaoler, that if the prisoner confessed he should
+be allowed to see his wife. To make a confession involuntary, the
+inducement must have reference to the prisoner&rsquo;s escape from the
+charge against him, and must be made by some person having power
+to relieve him, wholly or partially, from the consequences of the
+charge. A confession is treated as voluntary if, in the opinion of the
+court, it was made after the complete removal of the impression
+produced by any inducement, threat or promise which would have
+made it involuntary. Where a confession was made under an
+inducement which makes the confession involuntary, evidence
+may be given of facts discovered in consequence of the confession,
+and of so much of the confession as distinctly relates to those facts.
+Thus, A. under circumstances which make the confession involuntary,
+tells a policeman that he, A., had thrown a lantern into the pond.
+Evidence may be given that the lantern was found in the pond, and
+that A. said he had thrown it there. It is of course improper to try
+to extort a confession by fraud or under the promise of secrecy.
+But if a confession is otherwise admissible as evidence, it does not
+become inadmissible <i>merely</i> because it was made under a promise
+of secrecy, or in consequence of a deception practised on the accused
+person for the purpose of obtaining it, or when he was drunk, or
+because it was made in answer to questions, whether put by a
+magistrate or by a private person, or because he was not warned
+that he was not bound to make the confession, and that it might
+be used against him. If a confession is given in evidence, the whole
+of it must be given, and not merely the parts disadvantageous to the
+accused person. Evidence amounting to a confession may be used
+as such against the person who gave it, though it was given on oath,
+and though the proceeding in which it was given had reference to
+the same subject-matter as the proceeding in which it is to be used,
+and though the witness might have refused to answer the questions
+put to him. But if, after refusing to answer such questions, the
+witness is improperly compelled to answer, his answers are not
+a voluntary confession. The grave jealousy and suspicion with
+which the English law regards confessions offer a marked contrast
+to the importance attached to this form of evidence in other systems
+of procedure, such as the inquisitorial system which long prevailed,
+and still to some extent prevails, on the continent. (<i>j</i>) <i>Res gestae.</i>&mdash;Statements
+are often admitted as evidence on the ground that they
+form part of what is called the &ldquo;transaction,&rdquo; or <i>res gestae</i>, the
+occurrence or nature of which is in question. For instance, where
+an act may be proved, statements accompanying and explaining
+the act made by or to the person doing it, may be given in evidence.
+There is no difficulty in understanding the principle on which this
+exception from the hearsay rule rests, but there is often practical
+difficulty in applying it, and the practice has varied. How long is
+the &ldquo;transaction&rdquo; to be treated as lasting? What ought to be
+treated as &ldquo;the immediate and natural effect of continuing action,&rdquo;
+and, for that reason, as part of the <i>res gestae</i>? When an act of violence
+is committed, to what extent are the terms of the complaint made
+by the sufferer, as distinguished from the fact of a complaint having
+been made, admissible as evidence? These are some of the questions
+raised. The cases in which statements by a person as to his bodily
+or mental condition may be put in evidence may perhaps be treated
+as falling under the same principle. In the Rugeley poisoning case,
+statements by the deceased person before his illness as to his state
+of health, and as to his symptoms during illness, were admitted as
+evidence for the prosecution. Under the same principle may also
+be brought the rule as to statements in conspiracy cases. In charges
+of conspiracy, after evidence has been given of the existence of the
+plot, and of the connexion of the accused with it, the charge against
+one conspirator may be supported by evidence of anything done,
+written, or said, not only by him, but by any other of the conspirators,
+in furtherance of the common purpose. On the other hand, a statement
+made by one conspirator, not in execution of the common
+purpose, but in narration of some event forming part of the conspiracy,
+would be treated, not as part of the &ldquo;transaction,&rdquo; but as
+a statement excluded by the hearsay rule. Thus the admissibility
+of writings in conspiracy cases may depend on the time when they
+can be shown to have been in the possession of a fellow-conspirator,
+whether before or after the prisoner&rsquo;s apprehension. (<i>k</i>) <i>Complaints
+in rape cases, &amp;c. </i>&mdash;In trials for rape and similar offences, the fact
+that shortly after the commission of the alleged offence a complaint
+was made by the person against whom the offence was committed,
+and also the terms of the complaint, have been admitted as evidence,
+not of the facts complained of, but of the consistency of the complainant&rsquo;s
+conduct with the story told by her in the witness-box, and
+as negativing consent on her part.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>4. <i>Opinion.</i>&mdash;The rule excluding expressions of opinion also
+dates from the first distinction between the functions of witnesses
+and jury. It was for the witnesses to state facts, for the
+jury to form conclusions. Of course every statement of fact
+involves inference, and implies a judgment on phenomena observed
+by the senses. And the inference is often erroneous, as in
+the answer to the question, &ldquo;Was he drunk?&rdquo; A prudent witness
+will often guard himself, and is allowed to guard himself, by
+answering to the best of his belief. But, for practical purposes,
+it is possible to draw a distinction between a statement of facts
+observed and an expression of opinion as to the inference to be
+drawn from these facts, and the rule telling witnesses to state
+facts and not express opinions is of great value in keeping their
+statements out of the region of argument and conjecture. The
+evidence of &ldquo;experts,&rdquo; that is to say, of persons having a special
+knowledge of some particular subject, is generally described as
+constituting the chief exception to the rule. But perhaps it
+would be more accurate to say that experts are allowed a much
+wider range than ordinary witnesses in the expression of their
+opinions, and in the statement of facts on which their opinions
+are based. Thus, in a poisoning case, a doctor may be asked
+as an expert whether, in his opinion, a particular poison produces
+particular symptoms. And, where lunacy is set up as a defence,
+an expert may be asked whether, in his opinion, the symptoms
+exhibited by the alleged lunatic commonly show unsoundness of
+mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually renders
+persons incapable of knowing the nature of their acts, or of
+knowing that what they do is either wrong or contrary to the
+law. Similar principles are applied to the evidence of engineers,
+and in numerous other cases. In cases of disputed handwriting
+the evidence of experts in handwriting is expressly recognized
+by statute (Evidence and Practice on Criminal Trials 1865).</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">IV. Documentary Evidence</p>
+
+<p>Charters and other writings were exhibited to the jury at a
+very early date, and it is to writings so exhibited that the term
+&ldquo;evidence&rdquo; or &ldquo;evidences&rdquo; seems to have been originally
+applied <i>par excellence</i>. The oral evidence of witnesses came
+later. Where a document is to be used as evidence the first
+question is how its contents are to be proved. To this question
+the principle of &ldquo;best evidence&rdquo; applies, in the form of the rule
+that primary evidence must be given except in the cases where
+secondary evidence is allowed. By primary evidence is meant
+the document itself produced for inspection. By secondary
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page19" id="page19"></a>19</span>
+evidence is meant a copy of the document, or verbal accounts of
+its contents.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The rule as to the inadmissibility of a copy of a document is
+applied much more strictly to private than to public or official
+documents. Secondary evidence may be given of the contents of
+a private document in the following cases:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession
+of the adverse party, and he, after having been served
+with reasonable notice to produce it, does not do so.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession
+or power of a stranger not legally bound to produce it, and
+he, after having been served with a writ of <i>subpoena duces
+tecum</i>, or after having been sworn as a witness and asked
+for the document, and having admitted that it is in court,
+refuses to produce it.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Where it is shown that proper search has been made for the
+original, and there is reason for believing that it is destroyed
+or lost.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) Where the original is of such a nature as not to be easily
+movable, as in the case of a placard posted on a wall, or
+of a tombstone, or is in a country from which it is not
+permitted to be removed.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>e</i>) Where the original is a document for the proof of which special
+provision is made by any act of parliament, or any law in
+force for the time being. Documents of that kind are
+practically treated on the same footing as private documents.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>f</i>) Where the document is an entry in a banker&rsquo;s book, provable
+according to the special provisions of the Bankers&rsquo; Books
+Evidence Act 1879.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Secondary evidence of a private document is usually given either
+by producing a copy and calling a witness who can prove the copy
+to be correct, or, when there is no copy obtainable, by calling a
+witness who has seen the document, and can give an account of its
+contents. No general definition of public document is possible,
+but the rules of evidence applicable to public documents are expressly
+applied by statute to many classes of documents. Primary evidence
+of any public document may be given by producing the document
+from proper custody, and by a witness identifying it as being what
+it professes to be. Public documents may always be proved by
+secondary evidence, but the particular kind of secondary evidence
+required is in many cases defined by statute. Where a document
+is of such a public nature as to be admissible in evidence on its mere
+production from the proper custody, and no statute exists which
+renders its contents provable by means of a copy, any copy thereof
+or extract therefrom is admissible as proof of its contents, if it is
+proved to be an examined copy or extract, or purports to be signed
+or certified as a true copy or extract by the officer to whose custody
+the original is entrusted. Many statutes provide that various
+certificates, official and public documents, documents and proceedings
+of corporations and of joint stock and other companies, and
+certified copies of documents, by-laws, entries in registers and other
+books, shall be receivable as evidence of certain particulars in courts
+of justice, if they are authenticated in the manner prescribed by the
+statutes. Whenever, by virtue of any such provision, any such
+certificate or certified copy is receivable as proof of any particular
+in any court of justice, it is admissible as evidence, if it
+purports to be authenticated in the manner prescribed by law,
+without calling any witness to prove any stamp, seal, or signature
+required for its authentication, or the official character of the person
+who appears to have signed it. The Documentary Evidence Acts
+1868, 1882 and 1895, provide modes of proving the contents of
+several classes of proclamations, orders and regulations.</p>
+
+<p>If a document is of a kind which is required by law to be attested,
+but not otherwise, an attesting witness must be called to prove its
+due execution. But this rule is subject to the following exceptions:</p>
+
+<div class="list">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) If it is proved that there is no attesting witness alive, and
+capable of giving evidence, then it is sufficient to prove
+that the attestation of at least one attesting witness is in
+his handwriting, and that the signature of the person
+executing the document is in the handwriting of that
+person.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) If the document is proved, or purports to be, more than
+thirty years old, and is produced from what the court
+considers to be its proper custody, an attesting witness
+need not be called, and it will be presumed without evidence
+that the instrument was duly executed and attested.</p>
+</div></div>
+
+<p>Where a document embodies a judgment, a contract, a grant,
+or disposition of property, or any other legal transaction or
+&ldquo;act in the law,&rdquo; on which rights depend, the validity of the
+transaction may be impugned on the ground of fraud, incapacity,
+want of consideration, or other legal ground. But this seems
+outside the law of evidence. In this class of cases a question
+often arises whether extrinsic evidence can be produced to vary
+the nature of the transaction embodied in the document. The
+answer to this question seems to depend on whether the document
+was or was not intended to be a complete and final statement
+of the transaction which it embodies. If it was, you cannot
+go outside the document for the purpose of ascertaining the
+nature of the transaction. If it was not, you may. But the
+mere statement of this test shows the difficulty of formulating
+precise rules, and of applying them when formulated. FitzJames
+Stephen mentions, among the facts which may be proved
+in these cases, the existence of separate and consistent oral
+agreements as to matters on which the document is silent, if there
+is reason to believe that the document is not a complete and final
+statement of the transaction, and the existence of any usage or
+custom with reference to which a contract may be presumed to
+have been made. But he admits that the rules on the subject
+are &ldquo;by no means easy to apply, inasmuch as from the nature
+of the case an enormous number of transactions fall close on
+one side or the other of most of them.&rdquo; The underlying principle
+appears to be a rule of substantive law rather than of evidence.
+When parties to an arrangement have reduced the terms of the
+arrangement to a definite, complete, and final written form, they
+should be bound exclusively by the terms embodied in that form.
+The question in each case is under what circumstances they
+ought to be treated as having done so.</p>
+
+<p>The expression &ldquo;parol evidence,&rdquo; which includes written as
+well as verbal evidence, has often been applied to the extrinsic
+evidence produced for the purpose of varying the nature of the
+transaction embodied in a document. It is also applied to extrinsic
+evidence used for another purpose, namely, that of explaining
+the meaning of the terms used in a document. The two
+questions, What is the real nature of the transaction referred
+to in a document? and, What is the meaning of a document? are
+often confused, but are really distinct from each other. The
+rules bearing on the latter question are rules of construction or
+interpretation rather than of evidence, but are ordinarily treated
+as part of the law of evidence, and are for that reason included
+by FitzJames Stephen in his Digest. In stating these rules he
+adopts, with verbal modifications, the six propositions laid down
+by Vice-Chancellor Wigram in his <i>Examinations of the Rules of
+Law respecting the admission of Extrinsic Evidence in Aid of the
+Interpretation of Wills</i>. The substance of these propositions
+appears to be this, that wherever the meaning of a document
+cannot be satisfactorily ascertained from the document itself,
+use may be made of any other evidence for the purpose of
+elucidating the meaning, subject to one restriction, that, except
+in cases of equivocation, <i>i.e.</i> where a person or thing is described
+in terms applicable equally to more than one, resort cannot be
+had to extrinsic expressions of the author&rsquo;s intention.</p>
+
+<p class="pt1 center sc">V. Witnesses</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Attendance.</i>&mdash;If a witness does not attend voluntarily he
+can be required to attend by a writ of <i>subpoena</i>.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Competency.</i>&mdash;As a general rule every person is a competent
+witness. Formerly persons were disqualified by crime
+or interest, or by being parties to the proceedings, but these
+disqualifications have now been removed by statute, and the
+circumstances which formerly created them do not affect the
+competency, though they may often affect the credibility, of a
+witness.</p>
+
+<p>Under the general law as it stood before the Criminal Evidence
+Act 1898 came into force, a person charged with an offence was
+not competent to give evidence on his own behalf. But many
+exceptions had been made to this rule by legislation, and the rule
+itself was finally abolished by the act of 1898. Under that law
+a person charged is a competent witness, but he can only give
+evidence for the defence, and can only give evidence if he himself
+applies to do so. Under the law as it stood before 1898, persons
+jointly charged and being tried together were not competent to
+give evidence either for or against each other. Under the act
+of 1898 a person charged jointly with another is a competent
+witness, but only for the defence, and not for the prosecution.
+If, therefore, one of the persons charged applies to give evidence
+his cross-examination must not be conducted with a view to
+establish the guilt of the other. Consequently, if it is thought
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page20" id="page20"></a>20</span>
+desirable to use against one prisoner the evidence of another
+who is being tried with him, the latter should be released, or a
+separate verdict of not guilty taken against him. A prisoner so
+giving evidence is popularly said to turn king&rsquo;s evidence. It
+follows that, subject to what has been said above as to persons
+tried together, the evidence of an accomplice is admissible
+against his principal, and <i>vice versa</i>. The evidence of an accomplice
+is, however, always received with great jealousy and caution.
+A conviction on the unsupported testimony of an accomplice
+may, in some cases, be strictly legal, but the practice is to require
+it to be confirmed by unimpeachable testimony in some material
+part, and more especially as to his identification of the person or
+persons against whom his evidence may be received. The wife
+of a person charged is now a competent witness, but, except in
+certain special cases, she can only give evidence for the defence,
+and can only give evidence if her husband applies that she should
+do so. The special cases in which a wife can be called as a
+witness either for the prosecution or for the defence, and without
+the consent of the person charged, are cases arising under particular
+enactments scheduled to the act of 1898, and relating
+mainly to offences against wives and children, and cases in which
+the wife is by common law a competent witness against her
+husband, <i>i.e.</i> where the proceeding is against the husband for
+bodily injury or violence inflicted on his wife. The rule of exclusion
+extends only to a lawful wife. There is no ground for
+supposing that the wife of a prosecutor is an incompetent witness.
+A witness is incompetent if, in the opinion of the court, he is
+prevented by extreme youth, disease affecting his mind, or any
+other cause of the same kind, from recollecting the matter on
+which he is to testify, from understanding the questions put to him,
+from giving rational answers to those questions, or from knowing
+that he ought to speak the truth. A witness unable to speak
+or hear is not incompetent, but may give his evidence by writing
+or by signs, or in any other manner in which he can make it intelligible.
+The particular form of the religious belief of a witness,
+or his want of religious belief, does not affect his competency.
+This ground of incompetency has now been finally removed by the
+Oaths Act 1888. It will be seen that the effect of the successive
+enactments which have gradually removed the disqualifications
+attaching to various classes of witnesses has been to draw a
+distinction between the <i>competency</i> of a witness and his <i>credibility</i>.
+No person is disqualified on moral or religious grounds, but his
+character may be such as to throw grave doubts on the value
+of his evidence. No relationship, except to a limited extent that
+of husband and wife, excludes from giving evidence. The parent
+may be examined on the trial of the child, the child on that of
+the parent, master for or against servant, and servant for or
+against master. The relationship of the witness to the prosecutor
+or the prisoner in such cases may affect the credibility of
+the witness, but does not exclude his evidence.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Privilege.</i>&mdash;It does not follow that, because a person is
+<i>competent</i> to give evidence, he can therefore be compelled to
+do so.</p>
+
+<p>No one, except a person charged with an offence when giving
+evidence on his own application, and as to the offence wherewith
+he is charged, is bound to answer a question if the answer
+would, in the opinion of the court, have a tendency to expose
+the witness, or the wife or husband of the witness, to any criminal
+charge, penalty, or forfeiture, which the court regards as reasonably
+likely to be preferred or sued for. Accordingly, an accomplice
+cannot be examined without his consent, but if an accomplice
+who has come forward to give evidence on a promise of
+pardon, or favourable consideration, refuses to give full and fair
+information, he renders himself liable to be convicted on his
+own confession. However, even accomplices in such circumstances
+are not required to answer on their cross-examination
+as to other offences. Where, under the new law, a person charged
+with an offence offers himself as a witness, he may be asked any
+question in cross-examination, notwithstanding that it would
+tend to criminate him as to the offence charged. But he may
+not be asked, and if he is asked must not be required to answer,
+any question tending to show that he has committed, or been
+convicted of, or been charged with, any other offence, or is of
+bad character, unless:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed list">
+<p>(i.) The proof that he has committed, or been convicted of, the
+other offence is admissible evidence to show that he is
+guilty of the offence with which he is then charged; or,</p>
+
+<p>(ii.) He has personally, or by his advocate, asked questions of
+the witnesses for the prosecution, with a view to establish
+his own good character, or has given evidence of his good
+character, or the nature or conduct of the defence is such
+as to involve imputations on the character of the prosecutor
+or the witnesses for the prosecution; or,</p>
+
+<p>(iii.) He has given evidence against any other person charged
+with the same offence.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>He may not be asked questions tending to criminate his wife.</p>
+
+<p>The privilege as to criminating answers does not cover answers
+merely tending to establish a civil liability. No one is excused
+from answering a question or producing a document only because
+the answer or document may establish or tend to establish that
+he owes a debt, or is otherwise liable to any civil proceeding.
+It is a privilege for the protection of the witness, and therefore
+may be waived by him. But there are other privileges which
+cannot be so waived. Thus, on grounds of public policy, no one
+can be compelled, or is allowed, to give evidence relating to any
+affairs of state, or as to official communications between public
+officers upon public affairs, except with the consent of the head
+of the department concerned, and this consent is refused if the
+production of the information asked for is considered detrimental
+to the public service.</p>
+
+<p>Again, in cases in which the government is immediately concerned,
+no witness can be compelled to answer any question the
+answer to which would tend to discover the names of persons
+by or to whom information was given as to the commission of
+offences. It is, as a rule, for the court to decide whether the permission
+of any such question would or would not, under the
+circumstances of the particular case, be injurious to the administration
+of justice.</p>
+
+<p>A husband is not compellable to disclose any communication
+made to him by his wife during the marriage; and a wife is not
+compellable to disclose any communication made to her by her
+husband during the marriage.</p>
+
+<p>A legal adviser is not permitted, whether during or after the
+termination of his employment as such, unless with his client&rsquo;s
+express consent, to disclose any communication, oral or documentary,
+made to him <i>as such legal adviser</i>, by or on behalf of
+his client, during, in the course of, and for the purpose of his
+employment, or to disclose any advice given by him to his client
+during, in the course of, and for the purpose of such employment.
+But this protection does not extend to&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) Any such communication if made in furtherance of any
+criminal purpose; nor</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Any fact observed by a legal adviser in the course of his
+employment as such, showing that any crime or fraud has been
+committed since the commencement of his employment, whether
+his attention was directed to such fact by or on behalf of his
+client or not; nor</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Any fact with which the legal adviser became acquainted
+otherwise than in his character as such.</p>
+
+<p>Medical men and clergymen are not privileged from the disclosure
+of communications made to them in professional confidence,
+but it is not usual to press for the disclosures of communications
+made to clergymen.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Oaths.</i>&mdash;A witness must give his evidence under the sanction
+of an oath, or of what is equivalent to an oath, that is to say, of
+a solemn promise to speak the truth. The ordinary form of oath
+is adapted to Christians, but a person belonging to a non-Christian
+religion may be sworn in any form prescribed or
+recognized by the custom of his religion. (See the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Oath</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Publicity.</i>&mdash;The evidence of a witness at a trial must, as
+a general rule, be given in open court in the course of the trial.
+The secrecy which was such a characteristic feature of the
+&ldquo;inquisition&rdquo; procedure is abhorrent to English law, and, even
+where publicity conflicts with decency, English courts are very
+reluctant to dispense with or relax the safeguards for justice
+which publicity involves.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page21" id="page21"></a>21</span></p>
+
+<p>6. <i>Examination.</i>&mdash;The normal course of procedure is this.
+The party who begins, <i>i.e.</i> ordinarily the plaintiff or prosecutor,
+calls his witnesses in order. Each witness is first examined on
+behalf of the party for whom he is called. This is called the
+examination in chief. Then he is liable to be cross-examined
+on behalf of the other side. And, finally, he may be re-examined
+on behalf of his own side. After the case for the other side has
+been opened, the same procedure is adopted with the witnesses
+for that side. In some cases the party who began is allowed to
+adduce further evidence in reply to his opponent&rsquo;s evidence.
+The examination is conducted, not by the court, but by or on
+behalf of the contending parties. It will be seen that the principle
+underlying this procedure is that of the duel, or conflict
+between two contending parties, each relying on and using his
+own evidence, and trying to break down the evidence of his
+opponent. It differs from the principle of the &ldquo;inquisition&rdquo;
+procedure, in which the court takes a more active part, and in
+which the cases for the two sides are not so sharply distinguished.
+In a continental trial it is often difficult to determine whether
+the case for the prosecution or the case for the defence is proceeding.
+Conflicting witnesses stand up together and are &ldquo;confronted&rdquo;
+with each other. In the examination in chief questions
+must be confined to matters bearing on the main question at
+issue, and a witness must not be asked leading questions, <i>i.e.</i>
+questions suggesting the answer which the person putting the
+question wishes or expects to receive, or suggesting disputed
+facts about which the witness is to testify. But the rule about
+leading questions is not applied where the questions asked are
+simply introductory, and form no part of the real substance of
+the inquiry, or where they relate to matters which, though
+material, are not disputed. And if the witness called by a person
+appears to be directly hostile to him, or interested on the other
+side, or unwilling to reply, the reason for the rules applying to
+examination in chief breaks down, and the witness may be
+asked leading questions and cross-examined, and treated in every
+respect as though he was a witness called on the other side, except
+that a party producing a witness must not impeach his credit by
+general evidence of bad character (Evidence and Practice on
+Criminal Trials Act 1865). In cross-examination questions not
+bearing on the main issue and leading questions may be put and
+(subject to the rules as to privilege) must be answered, as the
+cross-examiner is entitled to test the examination in chief by
+every means in his power. Questions not bearing on the main
+issue are often asked in cross-examination merely for the purpose
+of putting off his guard a witness who is supposed to have learnt
+up his story. In cross-examination questions may also be asked
+which tend either to test the accuracy or credibility of the
+witness, or to shake his credit by impeaching his motives or injuring
+his character. The licence allowed in cross-examination has
+often been seriously abused, and the power of the court to check
+it is recognized by one of the rules of the supreme court (R.S.C.
+xxxvi. 39, added in 1883). It is considered wrong to put
+questions which assume that facts have been proved which have
+not been proved, or that answers have been given contrary to
+the fact. A witness ought not to be pressed in cross-examination
+as to any facts which, if admitted, would not affect the question
+at issue or the credibility of the witness. If the cross-examiner
+intends to adduce evidence contrary to the evidence given by
+the witness, he ought to put to the witness in cross-examination
+the substance of the evidence which he proposes to adduce, in
+order to give the witness an opportunity of retracting or explaining.
+Where a witness has answered a question which only tends
+to affect his credibility by injuring his character, it is only in a
+limited number of cases that evidence can be given to contradict
+his answer. Where he is asked whether he has ever been
+convicted of any felony or misdemeanour, and denies or refuses
+to answer, proof may be given of the truth of the facts suggested
+(28 &amp; 29 Vict. c. 15, s. 6). The same rule is observed where
+he is asked a question tending to show that he is not impartial.
+Where a witness has previously made a statement inconsistent
+with his evidence, proof may be given that he did in fact make
+it. But before such proof is given the circumstances of the alleged
+statement, sufficient to designate the particular occasion, must
+be mentioned to the witness, and he must be asked whether he
+did or did not make the statement. And if the statement was
+made in, or has been reduced to, writing, the attention of the
+witness must, before the writing is used against him, be called to
+those parts of the writing which are to be used for the purpose of
+contradicting him (Evidence and Practice on Criminal Trials Act
+1865, ss. 4, 5). The credibility of a witness may be impeached
+by the evidence of persons who swear that they, from their
+knowledge of the witness, believe him to be unworthy of
+credit on his oath. These persons may not on their examination
+in chief give reasons for their belief, but they may be
+asked their reasons in cross-examination, and their answers
+cannot be contradicted. When the credit of a witness is so
+impeached, the party who called the witness may give evidence
+in reply to show that the witness is worthy of credit. Re-examination
+must be directed exclusively to the explanation
+of matters referred to in cross-examination, and if new matter
+is, by the permission of the court, introduced in re-examination,
+the other side may further cross-examine upon it. A witness
+under examination may refresh his memory by referring to any
+writing made by himself at or about the time of the occurrence
+to which the writing relates, or made by any other person, and
+read and found accurate by the witness at or about the time.
+An expert may refresh his memory by reference to professional
+treatises.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For the history of the English law of evidence, see Brunner,
+<i>Entstehung der Schwurgerichte</i>; Bigelow, <i>History of Procedure in
+England</i>; Stephen (Sir J.F.), <i>History of the Criminal Law of England</i>;
+Pollock and Maitland, <i>History of English Law</i>, bk. ii. ch. ix.;
+Thayer, Preliminary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law. The
+principal text-books now in use are&mdash;Roscoe, <i>Digest of the Law of
+Evidence on the Trial of Actions at Nisi Prius</i> (18th ed., 1907);
+Roscoe, <i>Digest of the Law of Evidence in Criminal Cases</i> (13th ed.,
+1908); Taylor, <i>Treatise on the Law of Evidence</i> (10th ed., 1906);
+Best, <i>Principles of the Law of Evidence</i> (10th ed., 1906); Powell,
+<i>Principles and Practice of the Law of Evidence</i> (8th ed., 1904);
+Stephen, <i>Digest of the Law of Evidence</i> (8th ed., 1907); Wills, <i>Theory
+and Practice of the Law of Evidence</i> (1907). For the history of the law
+of criminal evidence in France, see Esmein, <i>Hist. de la procédure
+criminelle en France</i>. For Germany, see Holtzendorff, <i>Encyclopädie
+der Rechtswissenschaft</i> (passages indexed under head &ldquo;Beweis&rdquo;);
+Holtzendorff, <i>Rechtslexikon</i> (&ldquo;Beweis&rdquo;).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. P. I.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1b" id="ft1b" href="#fa1b"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Reference may be made to a well-known passage in the <i>Essay
+concerning Human Understanding</i> (Book iv. ch. xv.): &ldquo;The grounds
+of probability are&mdash;First, the conformity of anything with our own
+knowledge, observation and experience. Second, the testimony of
+others touching their observation and experience. In the testimony
+of others is to be considered (1) the number, (2) the integrity,
+(3) the skill of the witnesses. (4) The design of the author, where
+it is a testimony out of a book cited. (5) The consistency of the
+parts and circumstances of the relation. (6) Contrary testimonies.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVIL EYE.<a name="ar31" id="ar31"></a></span> The terror of the arts of &ldquo;fascination,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> that
+certain persons can bewitch, injure and even kill with a glance,
+has been and is still very widely spread. The power was not
+thought to be always maliciously cultivated. It was as often
+supposed to be involuntary (cf. Deuteronomy xxviii. 54); and
+a story is told of a Slav who, afflicted with the evil eye, at last
+blinded himself in order that he might not be the means of injuring
+his children (Woyciki, <i>Polish Folklore</i>, trans. by Lewenstein,
+p. 25). Few of the old classic writers fail to refer to the dread
+power. In Rome the &ldquo;evil eye&rdquo; was so well recognized that
+Pliny states that special laws were enacted against injury to
+crops by incantation, excantation or fascination. The power
+was styled <span class="grk" title="baskania">&#946;&#945;&#963;&#954;&#945;&#957;&#943;&#945;</span> by the Greeks and <i>fascinatio</i> by the Latins.
+Children and young animals of all kinds were thought to be specially
+susceptible. Charms were worn against the evil eye both
+by man and beast, and in Judges viii. 21 it is thought there is
+a reference to this custom in the allusion to the &ldquo;ornaments&rdquo;
+on the necks of camels. In classic times the wearing of amulets
+was universal. They were of three classes: (1) those the intention
+of which was to attract on to themselves, as the lightning-rod
+the lightning, the malignant glance; (2) charms hidden
+in the bosom of the dress; (3) written words from sacred writings.
+Of these three types the first was most numerous. They
+were oftenest of a grotesque and generally grossly obscene nature.
+They were also made in the form of frogs, beetles and so on.
+But the ancients did not wholly rely on amulets. Spitting was
+among the Greeks and Romans a most common antidote to the
+poison of the evil eye. According to Theocritus it is necessary
+to spit three times into the breast of the person who fears fascination.
+Gestures, too, often intentionally obscene, were regarded
+as prophylactics on meeting the dreaded individual. The evil
+eye was believed to have its impulse in envy, and thus it came
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page22" id="page22"></a>22</span>
+to be regarded as unlucky to have any of your possessions praised.
+Among the Romans, therefore, it was customary when praising
+anything to add <i>Praefiscini dixerim</i> (Fain Evil! I should say).
+This custom survives in modern Italy, where in like circumstances
+is said <i>Si mal occhio non ci fosse</i> (May the evil eye not strike it).
+The object of these conventional phrases was to prove that the
+speaker was sincere and had no evil designs in his praise. Though
+there is no set formula, traces of the custom are found in English
+rural sayings, <i>e.g.</i> the Somersetshire &ldquo;I don&rsquo;t wish ee no harm,
+so I on&rsquo;t zay no more.&rdquo; This is what the Scots call &ldquo;fore-speaking,&rdquo;
+when praise beyond measure is likely to be followed
+by disease or accident. A Manxman will never say he is very
+well: he usually admits that he is &ldquo;middling,&rdquo; or qualifies his admission
+of good health by adding &ldquo;now&rdquo; or &ldquo;just now.&rdquo; The
+belief led in many countries to the saying, when one heard anybody
+or anything praised superabundantly, &ldquo;God preserve him
+or it.&rdquo; So in Ireland, to avoid being suspected of having the evil
+eye, it is advisable when looking at a child to say &ldquo;God bless it&rdquo;;
+and when passing a farm-yard where cows are collected at milking
+time it is usual for the peasant to say, &ldquo;The blessing of God be
+on you and all your labour.&rdquo; Bacon writes: &ldquo;It seems some
+have been so curious as to note that the times when the stroke
+... of an envious eye does most hurt are particularly when
+the party envied is beheld in glory and triumph.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The powers of the evil eye seem indeed to have been most
+feared by the prosperous. Its powers are often quoted as almost
+limitless. Thus one record solemnly declares that in a town
+of Africa a fascinator called Elzanar killed by his evil art no less
+than 80 people in two years (W.W. Story, <i>Castle St Angelo</i>,
+1877, p. 149). The belief as affecting cattle was universal in the
+Scottish Highlands as late as the 18th century and still lingers.
+Thus if a stranger looks admiringly on a cow the peasants still
+think she will waste away, and they offer the visitor some of her
+milk to drink in the belief that in this manner the spell is broken.
+The modern Turks and Arabs also think that their horses and
+camels are subject to the evil eye. But the people of Italy,
+especially the Neapolitans, are the best modern instances of
+implicit believers. The <i>jettatore</i>, as the owner of the evil eye is
+called, is so feared that at his approach it is scarcely an exaggeration
+to say that a street will clear: everybody will rush
+into doorways or up alleys to avoid the dreaded glance. The
+<i>jettatore di bambini</i> (fascinator of children) is the most dreaded
+of all. The evil eye is still much feared for horses in India,
+China, Turkey, Greece and almost everywhere where horses are
+found. In rural England the pig is of all animals oftenest
+&ldquo;overlooked.&rdquo; While the Italians are perhaps the greatest
+believers in the evil eye as affecting persons, the superstition
+is rife in the East. In India the belief is universal. In Bombay
+the blast of the evil eye is supposed to be a form of spirit-possession.
+In western India all witches and wizards are said to
+be evil-eyed. Modern Egyptian mothers thus account for the
+sickly appearance of their babies. In Turkey passages from
+the Koran are painted on the outside of houses to save the inmates,
+and texts as amulets are worn upon the person, or hung
+upon camels and horses by Arabs, Abyssinians and other
+peoples. The superstition is universal among savage races.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a full discussion see <i>Evil Eye</i> by F.T. Elworthy (London,
+1895); also W.W. Story, <i>Castle St Angelo and the Evil Eye</i> (1877);
+E.N. Rolfe and H. Ingleby, <i>Naples in 1888</i> (1888); Johannes
+Christian Frommann, <i>Tractatus de fascinatione novus et singularis</i>,
+&amp;c. , &amp;c.  (Nuremburg, 1675); R.C. Maclagan, <i>Evil Eye in the Western
+Highlands</i> (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVOLUTION.<a name="ar32" id="ar32"></a></span> The modern doctrine of evolution or &ldquo;evolving,&rdquo;
+as opposed to that of simple creation, has been defined by
+Prof. James Sully in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia as a
+&ldquo;natural history of the cosmos including organic beings, expressed
+in physical terms as a mechanical process.&rdquo; The following
+exposition of the historical development of the doctrine is
+taken from Sully&rsquo;s article, and for the most part is in his own
+words.</p>
+
+<p>In the modern doctrine of evolution the cosmic system appears
+as a natural product of elementary matter and its laws. The
+various grades of life on our planet are the natural consequences
+of certain physical processes involved in the gradual transformations
+of the earth. Conscious life is viewed as conditioned by
+physical (organic and more especially nervous) processes, and
+as evolving itself in close correlation with organic evolution.
+Finally, human development, as exhibited in historical and prehistorical
+records, is regarded as the highest and most complex
+result of organic and physical evolution. This modern doctrine
+of evolution is but an expansion and completion of those physical
+theories (see below) which opened the history of speculation.
+It differs from them in being grounded on exact and verified
+research. As such, moreover, it is a much more limited theory
+of evolution than the ancient. It does not necessarily concern
+itself about the question of the infinitude of worlds in space and
+in time. It is content to explain the origin and course of development
+of the world, the solar or, at most, the sidereal system
+which falls under our own observation. It would be difficult to
+say what branches of science had done most towards the establishment
+of this doctrine. We must content ourselves by referring
+to the progress of physical (including chemical) theory, which has
+led to the great generalization of the conservation of energy; to
+the discovery of the fundamental chemical identity of the matter
+of our planet and of other celestial bodies, and of the chemical
+relations of organic and inorganic bodies; to the advance of
+astronomical speculation respecting the origin of the solar system,
+&amp;c. ; to the growth of the science of geology which has necessitated
+the conception of vast and unimaginable periods of time
+in the past history of our globe, and to the rapid march of the
+biological sciences which has made us familiar with the simplest
+types and elements of organism; finally, to the development
+of the science of anthropology (including comparative psychology,
+philology, &amp;c. ), and to the vast extension and improvement
+of all branches of historical study.</p>
+
+<p><i>History of the Idea of Evolution.</i>&mdash;The doctrine of evolution
+in its finished and definite form is a modern product. It required
+for its formation an amount of scientific knowledge which could
+only be very gradually acquired. It is vain, therefore, to look
+for clearly defined and systematic presentations of the idea among
+ancient writers. On the other hand, nearly all systems of philosophy
+have discussed the underlying problems. Such questions
+as the origin of the cosmos as a whole, the production of organic
+beings and of conscious minds, and the meaning of the observable
+grades of creation, have from the dawn of speculation occupied
+men&rsquo;s minds; and the answers to these questions often imply a
+vague recognition of the idea of a gradual evolution of things.
+Accordingly, in tracing the antecedents of the modern philosophic
+doctrine we shall have to glance at most of the principal systems
+of cosmology, ancient and modern. Yet since in these systems
+inquiries into the <i>esse</i> and <i>fieri</i> of the world are rarely distinguished
+with any precision, it will be necessary to indicate
+very briefly the general outlines of the system so far as they
+are necessary for understanding their bearing on the problems
+of evolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Mythological Interpretation.</i>&mdash;The problem of the origin of the
+world was the first to engage man&rsquo;s speculative activity. Nor
+was this line of inquiry pursued simply as a step in the more
+practical problem of man&rsquo;s final destiny. The order of ideas
+observable in children suggests the reflection that man began to
+discuss the &ldquo;whence&rdquo; of existence before the &ldquo;whither.&rdquo; At
+first, as in the case of the child, the problem of the genesis of
+things was conceived anthropomorphically: the question
+&ldquo;How did the world arise?&rdquo; first shaped itself to the human
+mind under the form &ldquo;Who made the world?&rdquo; As long as the
+problem was conceived in this simple manner there was, of course,
+no room for the idea of a necessary self-conditioned evolution.
+Yet the first indistinct germ of such an idea appears to emerge
+in combination with that of creation in some of the ancient
+systems of theogony. Thus, for example, in the myth of the
+ancient Parsees, the gods Ormuzd and Ahriman are said to
+evolve themselves out of a primordial matter. It may be supposed
+that these crude fancies embody a dim recognition of the
+physical forces and objects personified under the forms of deities,
+and a rude attempt to account for their genesis as a natural
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page23" id="page23"></a>23</span>
+process. These first unscientific ideas of a genesis of the permanent
+objects of nature took as their pattern the process of
+organic reproduction and development, and this, not only
+because these objects were regarded as personalities, but also
+because this particular mode of becoming would most impress
+these early observers. This same way of looking at the origin
+of the material world is illustrated in the Egyptian notion of a
+cosmic egg out of which issues the god (Phta) who creates the
+world.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indian Philosophy.</i>&mdash;Passing from mythology to speculation
+properly so called, we find in the early systems of philosophy of
+India theories of emanation which approach in some respects
+the idea of evolution. Brahma is conceived as the eternal self-existent
+being, which on its material side unfolds itself to the
+world by gradually condensing itself to material objects through
+the gradations of ether, fire, water, earth and the elements. At
+the same time this eternal being is conceived as the all-embracing
+world-soul from which emanates the hierarchy of individual
+souls. In the later system of emanation of Sankhya there is a
+more marked approach to a materialistic doctrine of evolution.
+If, we are told, we follow the chain of causes far enough back
+we reach unlimited eternal creative nature or matter. Out of
+this &ldquo;principal thing&rdquo; or &ldquo;original nature&rdquo; all material and
+spiritual existence issues, and into it will return. Yet this primordial
+creative nature is endowed with volition with regard to
+its own development. Its first emanation as plastic nature
+contains the original soul or deity out of which all individual
+souls issue.</p>
+
+<p><i>Early Greek Physicists.</i>&mdash;Passing by Buddhism, which, though
+teaching the periodic destruction of our world by fire, &amp;c. , does
+not seek to determine the ultimate origin of the cosmos, we come
+to those early Greek physical philosophers who distinctly set
+themselves to eliminate the idea of divine interference with the
+world by representing its origin and changes as a natural process.
+The early Ionian physicists, including Thales, Anaximander and
+Anaximenes, seek to explain the world as generated out of a
+primordial matter (Gr. <span class="grk" title="hylê">&#8021;&#955;&#951;</span>; hence the name &ldquo;Hylozoists&rdquo;),
+which is at the same time the universal support of things. This
+substance is endowed with a generative or transmutative force
+by virtue of which it passes into a succession of forms. They
+thus resemble modern evolutionists, since they regard the world
+with its infinite variety of forms as issuing from a simple mode
+of matter. More especially the cosmology of Anaximander
+resembles the modern doctrine of evolution in its conception of
+the indeterminate (<span class="grk" title="to apeiron">&#964;&#8056; &#7940;&#960;&#949;&#953;&#961;&#959;&#957;</span>) out of which the particular forms
+of the cosmos are differentiated. Again, Anaximander may be
+said to prepare the way for more modern conceptions of material
+evolution by regarding his primordial substance as eternal, and
+by looking on all generation as alternating with destruction,
+each step of the process being of course simply a transformation
+of the indestructible substance. Once more, the notion that
+this indeterminate body contains potentially in itself the fundamental
+contraries&mdash;hot, cold, &amp;c. &mdash;by the excretion or evolution
+of which definite substances were generated, is clearly a forecasting
+of that antithesis of potentiality and actuality which
+from Aristotle downwards has been made the basis of so many
+theories of development. In conclusion, it is noteworthy that
+though resorting to utterly fanciful hypotheses respecting the
+order of the development of the world, Anaximander agrees with
+modern evolutionists in conceiving the heavenly bodies as
+arising out of an aggregation of diffused matter, and in assigning
+to organic life an origin in the inorganic materials of the primitive
+earth (pristine mud). The doctrine of Anaximenes, who unites
+the conceptions of a determinate and indeterminate original
+substance adopted by Thales and Anaximander in the hypothesis
+of a primordial and all-generating air, is a clear advance on these
+theories, inasmuch as it introduces the scientific idea of condensation
+and rarefaction as the great generating or transforming
+agencies. For the rest, his theory is chiefly important as emphasizing
+the vital character of the original substance. The
+primordial air is conceived as animated. Anaximenes seems
+to have inclined to a view of cosmic evolution as throughout
+involving a quasi-spiritual factor. This idea of the air as the
+original principle and source of life and intelligence is much
+more clearly expressed by a later writer, Diogenes of Apollonia.
+Diogenes made this conception of a vital and intelligent air the
+ground of a teleological view of climatic and atmospheric phenomena.
+It is noteworthy that he sought to establish the identity
+of organic and inorganic matter by help of the facts of vegetal
+and animal nutrition. Diogenes distinctly taught that the world
+is of finite duration, and will be renewed out of the primitive
+substance.</p>
+
+<p>Heraclitus again deserves a prominent place in a history of
+the idea of evolution. Heraclitus conceives of the incessant
+process of flux in which all things are involved as consisting of
+two sides or moments&mdash;generation and decay&mdash;which are regarded
+as a confluence of opposite streams. In thus making
+transition or change, viewed as the identity of existence and
+non-existence, the leading idea of his system, Heraclitus anticipated
+in some measure Hegel&rsquo;s peculiar doctrine of evolution
+as a dialectic process.<a name="fa1c" id="fa1c" href="#ft1c"><span class="sp">1</span></a> At the same time we may find expressed
+in figurative language the germs of thoughts which enter into
+still newer doctrines of evolution. For example, the notion of
+conflict (<span class="grk" title="polemos">&#960;&#972;&#955;&#949;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>) as the father of all things and of harmony as
+arising out of a union of discords, and again of an endeavour by
+individual things to maintain themselves in permanence against
+the universal process of destruction and renovation, cannot but
+remind one of certain fundamental ideas in Darwin&rsquo;s theory of
+evolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Empedocles.</i>&mdash;Empedocles took an important step in the direction
+of modern conceptions of physical evolution by teaching that
+all things arise, not by transformations of some primitive form of
+matter, but by various combinations of a number of permanent
+elements. Further, by maintaining that the elements are continually
+being combined and separated by the two forces love
+and hatred, which appear to represent in a figurative way the
+physical forces of attraction and repulsion, Empedocles may be
+said to have made a considerable advance in the construction
+of the idea of evolution as a strictly mechanical process. It
+may be observed, too, that the hypothesis of a primitive compact
+mass (<i>sphaerus</i>), in which love (attraction) is supreme,
+has some curious points of similarity to, and contrast with, that
+notion of a primitive nebulous matter with which the modern
+doctrine of cosmic evolution usually sets out. Empedocles tries
+to explain the genesis of organic beings, and, according to Lange,
+anticipates the idea of Darwin that adaptations abound, because
+it is their nature to perpetuate themselves. He further recognizes
+a progress in the production of vegetable and animal forms,
+though this part of his theory is essentially crude and unscientific.
+More important in relation to the modern problems of evolution
+is his thoroughly materialistic way of explaining the origin of
+sensation and knowledge by help of his peculiar hypothesis of
+effluvia and pores. The supposition that sensation thus rests
+on a material process of absorption from external bodies naturally
+led up to the idea that plants and even inorganic <span class="correction" title="amended from subtances">substances</span>
+are precipient, and so to an indistinct recognition of organic life
+as a scale of intelligence.</p>
+
+<p><i>Atomists.</i>&mdash;In the theory of Atomism taught by Leucippus
+and Democritus we have the basis of the modern mechanical
+conceptions of cosmic evolution. Here the endless harmonious
+diversity of our cosmos, as well as of other worlds supposed to
+coexist with our own, is said to arise through the various combination
+of indivisible material elements differing in figure and
+magnitude only. The force which brings the atoms together in
+the forms of objects is inherent in the elements, and all their
+motions are necessary. The origin of things, which is also their
+substance, is thus laid in the simplest and most homogeneous
+elements or principles. The real world thus arising consists only
+of diverse combinations of atoms, having the properties of
+magnitude, figure, weight and hardness, all other qualities being
+relative only to the sentient organism. The problem of the
+genesis of mind is practically solved by identifying the soul,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page24" id="page24"></a>24</span>
+or vital principle, with heat or fire which pervades in unequal
+proportions, not only man and animals, but plants and nature
+as a whole, and through the agitation of which by incoming
+effluvia all sensation arises.</p>
+
+<p><i>Aristotle.</i>&mdash;Aristotle is much nearer a conception of evolution
+than his master Plato. It is true he sets out with a transcendent
+Deity, and follows Plato in viewing the creation of the cosmos
+as a process of descent from the more to the less perfect according
+to the distance from the original self-moving agency. Yet
+on the whole Aristotle leans to a teleological theory of evolution,
+which he interprets dualistually by means of certain metaphysical
+distinctions. Thus even his idea of the relation of the
+divine activity to the world shows a tendency to a pantheistic
+notion of a divine thought which gradually realizes itself in the
+process of becoming. Aristotle&rsquo;s distinction of form and matter,
+and his conception of becoming as a transition from actuality
+to potentiality, provides a new ontological way of conceiving
+the process of material and organic evolution.<a name="fa2c" id="fa2c" href="#ft2c"><span class="sp">2</span></a> To Aristotle
+the whole of nature is instinct with a vital impulse towards some
+higher manifestation. Organic life presents itself to him as a
+progressive scale of complexity determined by its final end,
+namely, man.<a name="fa3c" id="fa3c" href="#ft3c"><span class="sp">3</span></a> In some respects Aristotle approaches the
+modern view of evolution. Thus, though he looked on species
+as fixed, being the realization of an unchanging formative principle
+(<span class="grk" title="physis">&#966;&#973;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span>), he seems, as Ueberweg observes, to have inclined
+to entertain the possibility of a spontaneous generation in the
+case of the lowest organisms. Aristotle&rsquo;s teleological conception
+of organic evolution often approaches modern mechanical
+conceptions. Thus he says that nature fashions organs in the
+order of their necessity, the first being those essential to life.
+So, too, in his psychology he speaks of the several degrees of
+mind as arising according to a progressive necessity.<a name="fa4c" id="fa4c" href="#ft4c"><span class="sp">4</span></a> In his
+view of touch and taste, as the two fundamental and essential
+senses, he may remind one of Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s doctrine. At
+the same time Aristotle precludes the idea of a natural development
+of the mental series by the supposition that man contains,
+over and above a natural finite soul inseparable from the body,
+a substantial and eternal principle (<span class="grk" title="nous">&#957;&#959;&#8166;&#962;</span>) which enters into the
+individual from without. Aristotle&rsquo;s brief suggestions respecting
+the origin of society and governments in the <i>Politics</i> show a
+leaning to a naturalistic interpretation of human history as a
+development conditioned by growing necessities.</p>
+
+<p><i>Strato.</i>&mdash;Of Aristotle&rsquo;s immediate successors one deserves
+to be noticed here, namely, Strato of Lampsacus, who developed
+his master&rsquo;s cosmology into a system of naturalism.
+Strato appears to reject Aristotle&rsquo;s idea of an original source
+of movement and life extraneous to the world in favour of an
+immanent principle. All parts of matter have an inward plastic
+life whereby they can fashion themselves to the best advantage,
+according to their capability, though not with consciousness.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Stoics.</i>&mdash;In the cosmology of the Stoics we have the germ
+of a monistic and pantheistic conception of evolution. All things
+are said to be developed out of an original being, which is at once
+material (fire) and spiritual (the Deity), and in turn they will
+dissolve back into this primordial source. At the same time the
+world as a developed whole is regarded as an organism which is
+permeated with the divine Spirit, and so we may say that the
+world-process is a self-realization of the divine Being. The formative
+principle or force of the world is said to contain the several
+rational germinal forms of things. Individual things are supposed
+to arise out of the original being, as animals and plants out
+of seeds. Individual souls are an efflux from the all-compassing
+world-soul. The necessity in the world&rsquo;s order is regarded by
+the Stoics as identical with the divine reason, and this idea is
+used as the basis of a teleological and optimistic view of nature.
+Very curious, in relation to modern evolutional ideas, is the
+Stoical doctrine that our world is but one of a series of exactly
+identical ones, all of which are destined to be burnt up and
+destroyed.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Epicureans&mdash;Lucretius.</i>&mdash;The Epicureans differed from
+the Stoics by adopting a purely mechanical view of the world-process.
+Their fundamental conception is that of Democritus;
+they seek to account for the formation of the cosmos, with its
+order and regularity, by setting out with the idea of an original
+(vertical) motion of the atoms, which somehow or other results
+in movements towards and from one another. Our world is but
+one of an infinite number of others, and all the harmonies and
+adaptations of the universe are regarded as a special case of the
+infinite possibilities of mechanical events. Lucretius regards the
+primitive atoms (first beginnings or first bodies) as seeds out
+of which individual things are developed. All living and sentient
+things are formed out of insentient atoms (<i>e.g.</i> worms spring out
+of dung). The peculiarity of organic and sentient bodies is due
+to the minuteness and shape of their particles, and to their special
+motions and combinations. So, too, mind consists but of extremely
+fine particles of matter, and dissolves into air when the
+body dies. Lucretius traces, in the fifth book of his poem, the
+progressive genesis of vegetal and animal forms out of the mother-earth.
+He vaguely anticipates the modern idea of the world
+as a survival of the fittest when he says that many races may
+have lived and died out, and that those which still exist have
+been protected either by craft, courage or speed. Lucretius
+touches on the development of man out of a primitive, hardy,
+beast-like condition. Pregnant hints are given respecting a
+natural development of language which has its germs in sounds
+of quadrupeds and birds, of religious ideas out of dreams and
+waking hallucinations, and of the art of music by help of the
+suggestion of natural sounds. Lucretius thus recognizes the
+whole range of existence to which the doctrine of evolution may
+be applied.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neoplatonists.</i>&mdash;In the doctrines of the Neoplatonists, of
+whom Plotinus is the most important, we have the world-process
+represented after the example of Plato as a series of
+descending steps, each being less perfect than its predecessors,
+since it is further removed from the first cause.<a name="fa5c" id="fa5c" href="#ft5c"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The system
+of Plotinus, Zellar remarks, is not strictly speaking one of
+emanation, since there is no communication of the divine
+essence to the created world; yet it resembles emanation inasmuch
+as the genesis of the world is conceived as a necessary
+physical effect, and not as the result of volition. In Proclus we
+find this conception of an emanation of the world out of the
+Deity, or the absolute, made more exact, the process being regarded
+as threefold&mdash;(1) persistence of cause in effect, (2) the
+departure of effect from cause, and (3) the tendency of effect to
+revert to its cause.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fathers.</i>&mdash;The speculations of the fathers respecting
+the origin and course of the world seek to combine Christian
+ideas of the Deity with doctrines of Greek philosophy. The
+common idea of the origin of things is that of an absolute creation
+of matter and mind alike. The course of human history is
+regarded by those writers who are most concerned to refute
+Judaism as a progressive divine education. Among the Gnostics
+we meet with the hypothesis of emanation, as, for example, in
+the curious cosmic theory of Valentinus.</p>
+
+<p><i>Middle Ages&mdash;Early Schoolmen.</i>&mdash;In the speculative writings
+of the middle ages, including those of the schoolmen, we find
+no progress towards a more accurate and scientific view of nature.
+The cosmology of this period consists for the most part of the
+Aristotelian teleological view of nature combined with the
+Christian idea of the Deity and His relation to the world. In
+certain writers, however, there appears a more elaborate transformation
+of the doctrine of creation into a system of emanation.
+According to John Scotus Erigena, the nothing out of which the
+world is created is the divine essence. Creation is the act by
+which God passes through the primordial causes, or universal
+ideas, into the region of particular things (<i>processio</i>), in order
+finally to return to himself (<i>reversio</i>). The transition from the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page25" id="page25"></a>25</span>
+universal to the particular is of course conceived as a descent
+or degradation. A similar doctrine of emanation is to be found
+in the writings of Bernhard of Chartres, who conceives the
+process of the unfolding of the world as a movement in a circle
+from the most general to the individual, and from this back to
+the most general. This movement is said to go forth from God
+to the animated heaven, stars, visible world and man, which
+represent decreasing degrees of cognition.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arab Philosophers.</i>&mdash;Elaborate doctrines of emanation, largely
+based on Neoplatonic ideas, are also propounded by some of
+the Arabic philosophers, as by F&#257;r&#257;b&#299; and Avicenna. The
+leading thought is that of a descending series of intelligences,
+each emanating from its predecessor, and having its appropriate
+region in the universe.</p>
+
+<p><i>Jewish Philosophy.</i>&mdash;In the Jewish speculations of the middle
+ages may be found curious forms of the doctrine of emanations
+uniting the Biblical idea of creation with elements drawn from
+the Persians and the Greeks. In the later and developed form
+of the Kabbala, the origin of the world is represented as a gradually
+descending emanation of the lower out of the higher. Among
+the philosophic Jews, the Spanish Avicebron, in his <i>Fons Vitae</i>,
+expounds a curious doctrine of emanation. Here the divine will
+is viewed as an efflux from the divine wisdom, as the intermediate
+link between God, the first substance, and all things,
+and as the fountain out of which all forms emanate. At the
+same time all forms, including the higher intelligible ones, are
+said to have their existence only in matter. Matter is the one
+universal substance, body and mind being merely specifications
+of this. Thus Avicebron approaches, as Salomon Munk
+observes,<a name="fa6c" id="fa6c" href="#ft6c"><span class="sp">6</span></a> a pantheistic conception of the world, though he
+distinctly denies both matter and form to God.</p>
+
+<p><i>Later Scholastics.</i>&mdash;Passing now to the later schoolmen, a bare
+mention must be made of Thomas Aquinas, who elaborately
+argues for the absolute creation of the world out of nothing, and
+of Albertus Magnus, who reasons against the Aristotelian idea
+of the past eternity of the world. More importance attaches to
+Duns Scotus, who brings prominently forward the idea of a
+progressive development in nature by means of a process of
+determination. The original substance of the world is the
+<i>materia primo-prima</i>, which is the immediate creation of the
+Deity. This serves Duns Scotus as the most universal basis
+of existence, all angels having material bodies. This matter
+is differentiated into particular things (which are not privations
+but perfections) through the addition of an individualizing
+principle (<i>haecceitas</i>) to the universal (<i>quidditas</i>). The whole
+world is represented by the figure of a tree, of which the seeds
+and roots are the first indeterminate matter, the leaves the
+accidents, the twigs and branches corruptible creatures, the
+blossoms the rational soul, and the fruit pure spirits or angels.
+It is also described as a bifurcation of two twigs, mental and
+bodily creation out of a common root. One might almost say
+that Duns Scotus recognizes the principle of a gradual physical
+evolution, only that he chooses to represent the mechanism by
+which the process is brought about by means of quaint scholastic
+fictions.</p>
+
+<p><i>Revival of Learning.</i>&mdash;The period of the revival of learning,
+which was also that of a renewed study of nature, is marked by
+a considerable amount of speculation respecting the origin of
+the universe. In some of these we see a return to Greek theories,
+though the influence of physical discoveries, more especially those
+of Copernicus, Kepler and Galileo, is distinctly traceable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Telesio.</i>&mdash;An example of a return to early Greek speculation
+is to be met with in Bernardino Telesio. By this writer the world
+is explained as a product of three principles&mdash;dead matter, and
+two active forces, heat and cold. Terrestrial things arise through
+a confluence of heat, which issues from the heavens, and cold,
+which comes from the earth. Both principles have sensibility,
+and thus all products of their collision are sentient, that is, feel
+pleasure and pain. The superiority of animals to plants and
+metals in the possession of special organs of sense is connected
+with the greater complexity and heterogeneity of their structure.</p>
+
+<p><i>Giordano Bruno.</i>&mdash;In the system of Giordano Bruno, who
+sought to construct a philosophy of nature on the basis of new
+scientific ideas, more particularly the doctrine of Copernicus,
+we find the outlines of a theory of cosmic evolution conceived
+as an essentially vital process. Matter and form are here identified,
+and the evolution of the world is presented as the unfolding
+of the world-spirit to its perfect forms according to the plastic
+substratum (matter) which is but one of its sides. This process
+of change is conceived as a transformation, in appearance only,
+of the real unchanging substance (matter and form). All parts
+of matter are capable of developing into all forms; thus the
+materials of the table and chair may under proper circumstances
+be developed to the life of the plant or of the animal. The
+elementary parts of existence are the <i>minima</i>, or monads, which
+are at once material and mental. On their material side they are
+not absolutely unextended, but spherical. Bruno looked on our
+solar system as but one out of an infinite number of worlds.
+His theory of evolution is essentially pantheistic, and he does not
+employ his hypothesis of monads in order to work out a more
+mechanical conception.</p>
+
+<p><i>Campanella.</i>&mdash;A word must be given to one of Bruno&rsquo;s contemporary
+compatriots, namely Campanella, who gave poetic
+expression to that system of universal vitalism which Bruno
+developed. He argues, from the principle <i>quicquid est in effectibus
+esse et in causis</i>, that the elements and the whole world have
+sensation, and thus he appears to derive the organic part of
+nature out of the so-called &ldquo;inorganic.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Boehme.</i>&mdash;Another writer of this transition period deserves
+a passing reference here, namely, Jacob Boehme the mystic,
+who by his conception of a process of inner diremption as the
+essential character of all mind, and so of God, prepared the
+way for later German theories of the origin of the world as
+the self-differentiation and self-externalization of the absolute
+spirit.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hobbes and Gassendi.</i>&mdash;The influence of an advancing study of
+nature, which was stimulated if not guided by Bacon&rsquo;s writings,
+is seen in the more careful doctrines of materialism worked out
+almost simultaneously by Hobbes and Gassendi. These theories,
+however, contain little that bears directly on the hypothesis of
+a natural evolution of things. In the view of Hobbes, the
+difficulty of the genesis of conscious minds is solved by saying
+that sensation and thought are part of the reaction of the organism
+on external movement. Yet Hobbes appears (as Clarke
+points out) to have vaguely felt the difficulty; and in a passage
+of his <i>Physics</i> (chap. 25, sect. 5) he says that the universal existence
+of sensation in matter cannot be disproved, though he
+shows that when there are no organic arrangements the mental
+side of the movement (<i>phantasma</i>) is evanescent. The theory
+of the origin of society put forth by Hobbes, though directly
+opposed in most respects to modern ideas of social evolution,
+deserves mention here by reason of its enforcing that principle
+of struggle (<i>bellum omnium contra omnes</i>) which has played
+so conspicuous a part in the modern doctrine of evolution.
+Gassendi, with some deviations, follows Epicurus in his theory
+of the formation of the world. The world consists of a finite
+number of atoms, which have in their own nature a self-moving
+force or principle. These atoms, which are the seeds of all things,
+are, however, not eternal but created by God. Gassendi distinctly
+argues against the existence of a world-soul or a principle
+of life in nature.</p>
+
+<p><i>Descartes.</i>&mdash;In the philosophy of Descartes we meet with a
+dualism of mind and matter which does not easily lend itself
+to the conception of evolution. His doctrine that consciousness
+is confined to man, the lower animals being unconscious machines
+(<i>automata</i>), excludes all idea of a progressive development of
+mind. Yet Descartes, in his <i>Principia Philosophiae</i>, laid the
+foundation of the modern mechanical conception of nature and
+of physical evolution. In the third part of this work he inclines
+to a thoroughly natural hypothesis respecting the genesis of the
+physical world, and adds in the fourth part that the same kind
+of explanation might be applied to the nature and formation
+of plants and animals. He is indeed careful to keep right with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page26" id="page26"></a>26</span>
+the orthodox doctrine of creation by saying that he does not
+believe the world actually arose in this mechanical way out of
+the three kinds of elements which he here supposes, but that he
+simply puts out his hypothesis as a mode of conceiving how it
+might have arisen. Descartes&rsquo;s account of the mind and its
+passions is thoroughly materialistic, and to this extent he works
+in the direction of a materialistic explanation of the origin of
+mental life.</p>
+
+<p><i>Spinoza.</i>&mdash;In Spinoza&rsquo;s pantheistic theory of the world, which
+regards thought and extension as but two sides of one substance,
+the problem of becoming is submerged in that of being. Although
+Spinoza&rsquo;s theory attributes a mental side to all physical
+events, he rejects all teleological conceptions and explains the
+order of things as the result of an inherent necessity. He recognizes
+gradations of things according to the degree of complexity
+of their movements and that of their conceptions. To Spinoza
+(as Kuno Fischer observes) man differs from the rest of nature
+in the degree only and not in the kind of his powers. So far
+Spinoza approaches the conception of evolution. He may be
+said to furnish a further contribution to a metaphysical conception
+of evolution in his view of all finite individual things
+as the infinite variety to which the unlimited productive power
+of the universal substance gives birth. Sir F. Pollock has
+taken pains to show how nearly Spinoza approaches certain
+ideas contained in the modern doctrine of evolution, as for
+example that of self-preservation as the determining force in
+things.</p>
+
+<p><i>Locke.</i>&mdash;In Locke we find, with a retention of certain anti-evolutionist
+ideas, a marked tendency to this mode of viewing
+the world. To Locke the universe is the result of a direct act of
+creation, even matter being limited in duration and created.
+Even if matter were eternal it would, he thinks, be incapable of
+producing motion; and if motion is itself conceived as eternal,
+thought can never begin to be. The first eternal being is thus
+spiritual or &ldquo;cogitative,&rdquo; and contains in itself all the perfections
+that can ever after exist. He repeatedly insists on the impossibility
+of senseless matter putting on sense.<a name="fa7c" id="fa7c" href="#ft7c"><span class="sp">7</span></a> Yet while thus
+placing himself at a point of view opposed to that of a gradual
+evolution of the organic world, Locke prepared the way for this
+doctrine in more ways than one. First of all, his genetic method
+as applied to the mind&rsquo;s ideas&mdash;which laid the foundations of
+English analytical psychology&mdash;was a step in the direction of
+a conception of mental life as a gradual evolution. Again he
+works towards the same end in his celebrated refutation of the
+scholastic theory of real specific essences. In this argument he
+emphasizes the vagueness of the boundaries which mark off
+organic species with a view to show that these do not correspond
+to absolutely fixed divisions in the objective world, that they
+are made by the mind, not by nature.<a name="fa8c" id="fa8c" href="#ft8c"><span class="sp">8</span></a> This idea of the continuity
+of species is developed more fully in a remarkable passage
+(<i>Essay</i>, bk. iii. ch. vi. § 12), where he is arguing in favour of the
+hypothesis, afterwards elaborated by Leibnitz, of a graduated
+series of minds (species of spirits) from the Deity down to the
+lowest animal intelligence. He here observes that &ldquo;all quite
+down from us the descent is by easy steps, and a continued
+series of things, that in each remove differ very little from one
+another.&rdquo; Thus man approaches the beasts, and the animal
+kingdom is nearly joined with the vegetable, and so on down
+to the lowest and &ldquo;most inorganical parts of matter.&rdquo; Finally,
+it is to be observed that Locke had a singularly clear view of
+organic arrangements (which of course he explained according
+to a theistic teleology) as an adaptation to the circumstances
+of the environment or to &ldquo;the neighbourhood of the bodies that
+surround us.&rdquo; Thus he suggests that man has not eyes of a
+microscopic delicacy, because he would receive no great advantage
+from such acute organs, since though adding indefinitely
+to his speculative knowledge of the physical world they would
+not practically benefit their possessor (<i>e.g.</i> by enabling him to
+avoid things at a convenient distance).<a name="fa9c" id="fa9c" href="#ft9c"><span class="sp">9</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Idea of Progress in History.</i>&mdash;Before leaving the 17th century
+we must just refer to the writers who laid the foundations of the
+essentially modern conception of human history as a gradual
+upward progress. According to Flint,<a name="fa10c" id="fa10c" href="#ft10c"><span class="sp">10</span></a> there were four men who
+in this and the preceding century seized and made prominent
+this idea, namely, Bodin, Bacon, Descartes and Pascal. The
+former distinctly argues against the idea of a deterioration of
+man in the past. In this way we see that just as advancing
+natural science was preparing the way for a doctrine of physical
+evolution, so advancing historical research was leading to the
+application of a similar idea to the collective human life.</p>
+
+<p><i>English Writers of the 18th Century&mdash;Hume.</i>&mdash;The theological
+discussions which make up so large a part of the English speculation
+of the 18th century cannot detain us here. There is,
+however, one writer who sets forth so clearly the alternative
+suppositions respecting the origin of the world that he claims a
+brief notice. We refer to David Hume. In his <i>Dialogues concerning
+Natural Religion</i> he puts forward tentatively, in the
+person of one of his interlocutors, the ancient hypothesis that
+since the world resembles an animal or vegetal organism rather
+than a machine, it might more easily be accounted for by a process
+of generation than by an act of creation. Later on he
+develops the materialistic view of Epicurus, only modifying it
+so far as to conceive of matter as finite. Since a finite number
+of particles is only susceptible of finite transpositions, it must
+happen (he says), in an eternal duration that every possible
+order or position will be tried an infinite number of times, and
+hence this world is to be regarded (as the Stoics maintained) as an
+exact reproduction of previous worlds. The speaker seeks to
+make intelligible the appearance of art and contrivance in the
+world as a result of a natural settlement of the universe (which
+passes through a succession of chaotic conditions) into a stable
+condition, having a constancy in its forms, yet without its
+several parts losing their motion and fluctuation.</p>
+
+<p><i>French Writers of the 18th Century.</i>&mdash;Let us now pass to the
+French writers of the 18th century. Here we are first struck
+by the results of advancing physical speculation in their bearing
+on the conception of the world. Careful attempts, based on new
+scientific truths, are made to explain the genesis of the world as
+a natural process. Maupertuis, who, together with Voltaire,
+introduced the new idea of the universe as based on Newton&rsquo;s
+discoveries, sought to account for the origin of organic things by
+the hypothesis of sentient atoms. Buffon the naturalist speculated,
+not only on the structure and genesis of organic beings,
+but also on the course of formation of the earth and solar system,
+which he conceived after the analogy of the development of
+organic beings out of seed. Diderot, too, in his varied intellectual
+activity, found time to speculate on the genesis of sensation
+and thought out of a combination of matter endowed with an
+elementary kind of sentience. De la Mettrie worked out a
+materialistic doctrine of the origin of things, according to which
+sensation and consciousness are nothing but a development out
+of matter. He sought (<i>L&rsquo;Homme-machine</i>) to connect man in
+his original condition with the lower animals, and emphasized
+(<i>L&rsquo;Homme-plante</i>) the essential unity of plan of all living things.
+Helvétius, in his work on man, referred all differences between
+our species and the lower animals to certain peculiarities of
+organization, and so prepared the way for a conception of human
+development out of lower forms as a process of physical evolution.
+Charles Bonnet met the difficulty of the origin of conscious beings
+much in the same way as Leibnitz, by the supposition of eternal
+minute organic bodies to which are attached immortal souls.
+Yet though in this way opposing himself to the method of the
+modern doctrine of evolution, he aided the development of
+this doctrine by his view of the organic world as an ascending
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page27" id="page27"></a>27</span>
+scale from the simple to the complex. Robinet, in his treatise
+<i>De la nature</i>, worked out the same conception of a gradation in
+organic existence, connecting this with a general view of nature
+as a progress from the lowest inorganic forms of matter up to
+man. The process is conceived as an infinite series of variations
+or specifications of one primitive and common type. Man is
+the <i>chef-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i> of nature, which the gradual progression of
+beings was to have as its last term, and all lower creations are
+regarded as pre-conditions of man&rsquo;s existence, since nature
+&ldquo;could only realize the human form by combining in all imaginable
+ways each of the traits which was to enter into it.&rdquo; The
+formative force in this process of evolution (or &ldquo;metamorphosis&rdquo;)
+is conceived as an intellectual principle (<i>idée génératrice</i>).
+Robinet thus laid the foundation of that view of the world as
+wholly vital, and as a progressive unfolding of a spiritual formative
+principle, which was afterwards worked out by Schelling.
+It is to be added that Robinet adopted a thorough-going
+materialistic view of the dependence of mind on body, going
+even to the length of assigning special nerve-fibres to the moral
+sense. The system of Holbach seeks to provide a consistent
+materialistic view of the world and its processes. Mental operations
+are identified with physical movements, the three conditions
+of physical movement, inertia, attraction and repulsion,
+being in the moral world self-love, love and hate. He left open
+the question whether the capability of sensation belongs to all
+matter, or is confined to the combinations of certain materials.
+He looked on the actions of the individual organism and of
+society as determined by the needs of self-preservation. He
+conceived of man as a product of nature that had gradually
+developed itself from a low condition, though he relinquished the
+problem of the exact mode of his first genesis and advance as
+not soluble by data of experience. Holbach thus worked out the
+basis of a rigorously materialistic conception of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The question of human development which Holbach touched
+on was one which occupied many minds both in and out of
+France during the 18th century, and more especially towards
+its close. The foundations of this theory of history as an upward
+progress of man out of a barbaric and animal condition were
+laid by Vico in his celebrated work <i>Principii di scienza nuova</i>.
+In France the doctrine was represented by Turgot and Condorcet.</p>
+
+<p><i>German Writers of the 18th Century&mdash;Leibnitz.</i>&mdash;In Leibnitz
+we find, if not a doctrine of evolution in the strict sense, a theory
+of the world which is curiously related to the modern doctrine.
+The chief aim of Leibnitz is no doubt to account for the world
+in its static aspect as a co-existent whole, to conceive the ultimate
+reality of things in such a way as to solve the mystery of mind
+and matter. Yet by his very mode of solving the problem he
+is led on to consider the nature of the world-process. By placing
+substantial reality in an infinite number of monads whose essential
+nature is force or activity, which is conceived as mental
+(representation), Leibnitz was carried on to the explanation of
+the successive order of the world. He prepares the way, too,
+for a doctrine of evolution by his monistic idea of the substantial
+similarity of all things, inorganic and organic, bodily and spiritual,
+and still more by his conception of a perfect gradation of existence
+from the lowest &ldquo;inanimate&rdquo; objects, whose essential activity
+is confused representation, up to the highest organized being&mdash;man&mdash;with
+his clear intelligence.<a name="fa11c" id="fa11c" href="#ft11c"><span class="sp">11</span></a> Turning now to Leibnitz&rsquo;s
+conception of the world as a process, we see first that he supplies,
+in his notion of the underlying reality as force which is represented
+as spiritual (<i>quelque chose d&rsquo;analogique au sentiment et
+à l&rsquo;appétit</i>), both a mechanical and a teleological explanation of
+its order. More than this, Leibnitz supposes that the activity
+of the monads takes the form of a self-evolution. It is the following
+out of an inherent tendency or impulse to a series of changes,
+all of which were virtually pre-existent, and this process cannot
+be interfered with from without. As the individual monad,
+so the whole system which makes up the world is a gradual
+development. In this case, however, we cannot say that each
+step goes out of the other as in that of individual development.
+Each monad is an original independent being, and is determined
+to take this particular point in the universe, this place in the scale
+of beings. We see how different this metaphysical conception
+is from that scientific notion of cosmic evolution in which the
+lower stages are the antecedents and conditions of the higher.
+It is probable that Leibnitz&rsquo;s notion of time and space, which
+approaches Kant&rsquo;s theory, led him to attach but little importance
+to the successive order of the world. Leibnitz, in fact, presents
+to us an infinite system of perfectly distinct though parallel
+developments, which on their mental side assume the aspect of
+a scale, not through any mutual action, but solely through
+the determination of the Deity. Even this idea, however, is
+incomplete, for Leibnitz fails to explain the physical aspect of
+development. Thus he does not account for the fact that organic
+beings&mdash;which have always existed as preformations (in the case
+of animals as <i>animaux spermatiques</i>)&mdash;come to be developed
+under given conditions. Yet Leibnitz prepared the way for a
+new conception of organic evolution. The modern monistic
+doctrine, that all material things consist of sentient elements,
+and that consciousness arises through a combination of these,
+was a natural transformation of Leibnitz&rsquo;s theory.<a name="fa12c" id="fa12c" href="#ft12c"><span class="sp">12</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Lessing.</i>&mdash;Of Leibnitz&rsquo;s immediate followers we may mention
+Lessing, who in his <i>Education of the Human Race</i> brought out
+the truth of the process of gradual development underlying
+human history, even though he expressed this in a form inconsistent
+with the idea of a spontaneous evolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Herder.</i>&mdash;Herder, on the other hand, Lessing&rsquo;s contemporary,
+treated the subject of man&rsquo;s development in a thoroughly
+naturalistic spirit. In his I<i>deen zur Philosophie der Geschichte</i>,
+Herder adopts Leibnitz&rsquo;s idea of a graduated scale of beings, at
+the same time conceiving of the lower stages as the conditions
+of the higher. Thus man is said to be the highest product of
+nature, and as such to be dependent on all lower products. All
+material things are assimilated to one another as organic, the
+vitalizing principle being inherent in all matter. The development
+of man is explained in connexion with that of the earth,
+and in relation to climatic variations, &amp;c.  Man&rsquo;s mental faculties
+are viewed as related to his organization, and as developed under
+the pressure of the necessities of life.<a name="fa13c" id="fa13c" href="#ft13c"><span class="sp">13</span></a></p>
+
+<p><i>Kant.</i>&mdash;Kant&rsquo;s relation to the doctrine of evolution is a
+many-sided one. In the first place, his peculiar system of subjective
+idealism, involving the idea that time is but a mental
+form to which there corresponds nothing in the sphere of
+noümenal reality, serves to give a peculiar philosophical interpretation
+to every doctrine of cosmic evolution. Kant, like
+Leibnitz, seeks to reconcile the mechanical and teleological
+views of nature, only he assigns to these different spheres. The
+order of the inorganic world is explained by properly physical
+causes. In his <i>Naturgeschichte des Himmels</i>, in which he anticipated
+the nebular theory afterwards more fully developed by
+Laplace, Kant sought to explain the genesis of the cosmos as
+a product of physical forces and laws. The worlds, or systems
+of worlds, which fill infinite space are continually being formed
+and destroyed. Chaos passes by a process of evolution into a
+cosmos, and this again into chaos. So far as the evolution of
+the solar system is concerned, Kant held these mechanical causes
+as adequate. For the world as a whole, however, he postulated
+a beginning in time (whence his use of the word creation), and
+further supposed that the impulse of organization which was
+conveyed to chaotic matter by the Creator issued from a central
+point in the infinite space spreading gradually outwards.<a name="fa14c" id="fa14c" href="#ft14c"><span class="sp">14</span></a> While
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page28" id="page28"></a>28</span>
+in his cosmology Kant thus relies on mechanical conceptions, in
+his treatment of organic life his mind is, on the contrary, dominated
+by teleological ideas. An organism was to him something
+controlled by a formative organizing principle. It was natural,
+therefore, that he rejected the idea of a spontaneous generation
+of organisms (which was just then being advocated by his friend
+Forster), not only as unsupported by experience but as an inadequate
+hypothesis. Experience forbids our excluding organic
+activity from natural causes, also our excluding intelligence from
+purposeful (<i>zwecktätigen</i>) causes; hence experience forbids our
+defining the fundamental force or first cause out of which living
+creatures arose.<a name="fa15c" id="fa15c" href="#ft15c"><span class="sp">15</span></a> Just as Kant thus sharply marks off the regions
+of the inorganic and the organic, so he sets man in strong opposition
+to the lower animals. His ascription to man of a unique
+faculty, free-will, forbade his conceiving our species as a link
+in a graduated series of organic developments. In his doctrine
+of human development he does indeed recognize an early stage
+of existence in which our species was dominated by sensuous
+enjoyment and instinct. He further conceives of this stage as
+itself a process of (natural) development, namely, of the natural
+disposition of the species to vary in the greatest possible manner
+so as to preserve its unity through a process of self-adaptation
+(<i>Anarten</i>) to climate. This, he says, must not be conceived as
+resulting from the action of external causes, but is due to a
+natural disposition (<i>Anlage</i>). From this capability of natural
+development (which already involves a teleological idea) Kant
+distinguishes the power of moral self-development or self-liberation
+from the dominion of nature, the gradual realization
+of which constitutes human history or progress. This moral
+development is regarded as a gradual approach to that rational,
+social and political state in which will be realized the greatest
+possible quantity of liberty. Thus Kant, though he appropriated
+and gave new form to the idea of human progress, conceived of
+this as wholly distinct from a natural (mechanical) process.
+In this particular, as in his view of organic actions, Kant distinctly
+opposed the idea of evolution as one universal process
+swaying alike the physical and the moral world.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schelling.</i>&mdash;In the earlier writings of Schelling, containing
+the philosophy of identity, existence is represented as a becoming,
+or process of evolution. Nature and mind (which are the
+two sides, or polar directions, of the one absolute) are each
+viewed as an activity advancing by an uninterrupted succession
+of stages. The side of this process which Schelling worked out
+most completely is the negative side, that is, nature. Nature
+is essentially a process of organic self-evolution. It can only be
+understood by subordinating the mechanical conception to the
+vital, by conceiving the world as one organism animated by a
+spiritual principle or intelligence (<i>Weltseele</i>). From this point
+of view the processes of nature from the inorganic up to the most
+complex of the organic become stages in the self-realization of
+nature. All organic forms are at bottom but one organization,
+and the inorganic world shows the same formative activity in
+various degrees or potences. Schelling conceives of the gradual
+self-evolution of nature in a succession of higher and higher forms
+as brought about by a limitation of her infinite productivity,
+showing itself in a series of points of arrest. The detailed exhibition
+of the organizing activity of nature in the several processes
+of the organic and inorganic world rests on a number of fanciful
+and unscientific ideas. Schelling&rsquo;s theory is a bold attempt to
+revitalize nature in the light of growing physical and physiological
+science, and by so doing to comprehend the unity of the
+world under the idea of one principle of organic development.
+His highly figurative language might leave us in doubt how far
+he conceived the higher stages of this evolution of nature as
+following the lower in time. In the introduction to his work
+<i>Von der Weltseele</i>, however, he argues in favour of the possibility
+of a transmutation of species in periods incommensurable with
+ours. The evolution of mind (the positive pole) proceeds by
+way of three stages&mdash;theoretic, practical and aesthetical activity.
+Schelling&rsquo;s later theosophic speculations do not specially concern
+us here.</p>
+
+<p><i>Followers of Schelling.</i>&mdash;Of the followers of Schelling a word
+or two must be said. Heinrich Steffens, in his <i>Anthropologie</i>,
+seeks to trace out the origin and history of man in connexion
+with a general theory of the development of the earth, and this
+again as related to the formation of the solar system. All these
+processes are regarded as a series of manifestations of a vital
+principle in higher and higher forms. Oken, again, who carries
+Schelling&rsquo;s ideas into the region of biological science, seeks to
+reconstruct the gradual evolution of the material world out of
+original matter, which is the first immediate appearance of God,
+or the absolute. This process is an upward one, through the
+formation of the solar system and of our earth with its inorganic
+bodies, up to the production of man. The process is essentially
+a polar linear action, or differentiation from a common centre.
+By means of this process the bodies of the solar system separate
+themselves, and the order of cosmic evolution is repeated in
+that of terrestrial evolution. The organic world (like the world
+as a whole) arises out of a primitive chaos, namely, the infusorial
+slime. A somewhat similar working out of Schelling&rsquo;s idea is
+to be found in H.C. Oersted&rsquo;s work entitled <i>The Soul in Nature</i>
+(Eng. trans.). Of later works based on Schelling&rsquo;s doctrine of
+evolution mention may be made of the volume entitled <i>Natur
+und Idee</i>, by G.F. Carus. According to this writer, existence is
+nothing but a becoming, and matter is simply the momentary
+product of the process of becoming, while force is this process
+constantly revealing itself in these products.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hegel.</i>&mdash;Like Schelling, Hegel conceives the problem of existence
+as one of becoming. He differs from him with respect to
+the ultimate motive of that process of gradual evolution which
+reveals itself alike in nature and in mind. With Hegel the
+absolute is itself a dialectic process which contains within itself
+a principle of progress from difference to difference and from
+unity to unity. &ldquo;This process (W. Wallace remarks) knows
+nothing of the distinctions between past and future, because it
+implies an eternal present.&rdquo; This conception of an immanent
+spontaneous evolution is applied alike both to nature and to
+mind and history. Nature to Hegel is the idea in the form of
+hetereity; and finding itself here it has to remove this exteriority
+in a progressive evolution towards an existence for itself in life
+and mind. Nature (says Zeller) is to Hegel a system of gradations,
+of which one arises necessarily out of the other, and is the
+proximate truth of that out of which it results. There are three
+stadia, or moments, in this process of nature&mdash;(1) the mechanical
+moment, or matter devoid of individuality; (2) the physical
+moment, or matter which has particularized itself in bodies&mdash;the
+solar system; and (3) the organic moment, or organic beings,
+beginning with the geological organism&mdash;or the mineral kingdom,
+plants and animals. Yet this process of development is not to
+be conceived as if one stage is naturally produced out of the other,
+and not even as if the one followed the other in time. Only
+spirit has a history; in nature all forms are contemporaneous.<a name="fa16c" id="fa16c" href="#ft16c"><span class="sp">16</span></a>
+Hegel&rsquo;s interpretation of mind and history as a process of evolution
+has more scientific interest than his conception of nature.
+His theory of the development of free-will (the objective spirit),
+which takes its start from Kant&rsquo;s conception of history, with
+its three stages of legal right, morality as determined by motive
+and instinctive goodness (<i>Sittlichkeit</i>), might almost as well be
+expressed in terms of a thoroughly naturalistic doctrine of
+human development. So, too, some of his conceptions respecting
+the development of art and religion (the absolute spirit) lend
+themselves to a similar interpretation. Yet while, in its application
+to history, Hegel&rsquo;s theory of evolution has points of resemblance
+with those doctrines which seek to explain the world-process
+as one unbroken progress occurring in time, it constitutes
+on the whole a theory apart and <i>sui generis</i>. It does not conceive
+of the organic as succeeding on the inorganic, or of conscious life
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page29" id="page29"></a>29</span>
+as conditioned in time by lower forms. In this respect it resembles
+Leibnitz&rsquo;s idea of the world as a development; the idea
+of evolution is in each case a metaphysical as distinguished from
+a scientific one. Hegel gives a place in his metaphysical system
+to the mechanical and the teleological views; yet in his treatment
+of the world as an evolution the idea of end or purpose is the
+predominant one.</p>
+
+<p>Of the followers of Hegel who have worked out his peculiar
+idea of evolution it is hardly necessary to speak. A bare reference
+may be made to J.K. F. Rosenkranz, who in his work <i>Hegel&rsquo;s
+Naturphilosophie</i> seeks to develop Hegel&rsquo;s idea of an earth-organism
+in the light of modern science, recognizing in crystallization
+the morphological element.</p>
+
+<p><i>Schopenhauer.</i>&mdash;Of the other German philosophers immediately
+following Kant, there is only one who calls for notice here,
+namely, Arthur Schopenhauer. This writer, by his conception of
+the world as will which objectifies itself in a series of gradations
+from the lowest manifestations of matter up to conscious man,
+gives a slightly new shape to the evolutional view of Schelling,
+though he deprives this view of its optimistic character by
+denying any co-operation of intelligence in the world-process.
+In truth, Schopenhauer&rsquo;s conception of the world as the activity
+of a blind force is at bottom a materialistic and mechanical
+rather than a spiritualistic and teleological theory. Moreover,
+Schopenhauer&rsquo;s subjective idealism, and his view of time as
+something illusory, hindered him from viewing this process as a
+sequence of events in time. Thus he ascribes eternity of existence
+to species under the form of the &ldquo;Platonic ideas.&rdquo; As Ludwig
+Noiré observes, Schopenhauer has no feeling for the problem
+of the origin of organic beings. He says Lamarck&rsquo;s original
+animal is something metaphysical, not physical, namely, the
+will to live. &ldquo;Every species (according to Schopenhauer) has of
+its own will, and according to the circumstances under which
+it would live, determined its form and organization,&mdash;yet not
+as something physical in time, but as something metaphysical
+out of time.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Von Baer.</i>&mdash;Before leaving the German speculation of the
+first half of the century, a word must be said of von Baer, to
+whose biological contributions we shall refer later in this article,
+who recognized in the law of development the law of the universe
+as a whole. In his <i>Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere</i> (p. 264)
+he distinctly tells us that the law of growing individuality is
+&ldquo;the fundamental thought which goes through all forms and
+degrees of animal development and all single relations. It is
+the same thought which collected in the cosmic space the divided
+masses into spheres, and combined these to solar systems;
+the same which caused the weather-beaten dust on the surface
+of our metallic planet to spring forth into living forms.&rdquo; Von
+Baer thus prepared the way for Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s generalization
+of the law of organic evolution as the law of all evolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>Comte.</i>&mdash;As we arrive at the 19th century, though yet before the
+days of Darwin, biology is already beginning to affect the general
+aspect of thought. It might suffice to single out the influence
+of Auguste Comte, as the last great thinker who wrote before
+Darwinism began to permeate philosophic speculation. Though
+Comte did not actually contribute to a theory of cosmic organic
+evolution, he helped to lay the foundations of a scientific conception
+of human history as a natural process of development
+determined by general laws of human nature together with the
+accumulating influences of the past. Comte does not recognize
+that this process is aided by any increase of innate capacity;
+on the contrary, progress is to him the unfolding of fundamental
+faculties of human nature which always pre-existed in a latent
+condition; yet he may perhaps be said to have prepared the
+way for the new conception of human progress by his inclusion
+of mental laws under biology.</p>
+
+<p><i>Development of the Biological Doctrine.</i>&mdash;In the 19th century
+the doctrine of evolution received new biological contents and
+became transformed from a vague, partly metaphysical theory
+to the dominant modern conception. At this point it is convenient
+to leave the guidance of Professor J. Sully and to follow
+closely T.H. Huxley, who in the 9th edition of this encyclopaedia
+traced the history of the growth of the biological idea of evolution
+from its philosophical beginnings to its efflorescence in Charles
+Darwin.</p>
+
+<p>In the earlier half of the 18th century the term &ldquo;evolution&rdquo;
+was introduced into biological writings in order to denote the
+mode in which some of the most eminent physiologists of that
+time conceived that the generation of living things took place;
+in opposition to the hypothesis advocated, in the preceding
+century, by W. Harvey in that remarkable work<a name="fa17c" id="fa17c" href="#ft17c"><span class="sp">17</span></a> which would
+give him a claim to rank among the founders of biological science,
+even had he not been the discoverer of the circulation of the
+blood.</p>
+
+<p>One of Harvey&rsquo;s prime objects is to defend and establish, on
+the basis of direct observation, the opinion already held by
+Aristotle, that, in the higher animals at any rate, the formation
+of the new organism by the process of generation takes place,
+not suddenly, by simultaneous accretion of rudiments of all or
+the most important of the organs of the adult, nor by sudden
+metamorphosis of a formative substance into a miniature of
+the whole, which subsequently grows, but by <i>epigenesis</i>, or
+successive differentiation of a relatively homogeneous rudiment
+into the parts and structures which are characteristic of the
+adult.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Et primo, quidem, quoniam per <i>epigenesin</i> sive partium superexorientium
+additamentum pullum fabricari certum est: quaenam
+pars ante alias omnes exstruatur, et quid de illa ejusque generandi
+modo observandum veniat, dispiciemus. Ratum sane est et in ovo
+manifeste apparet quod <i>Aristoteles</i> de perfectorum animalium generatione
+enuntiat: nimirum, non omnes partes simul fieri, sed ordine
+aliam post aliam; primumque existere particulam genitalem, cujus
+virtute postea (tanquam ex principio quodam) reliquae omnes
+partes prosiliant. Qualem in plantarum seminibus (fabis, puta,
+aut glandibus) gemmam sive apicem protuberantem cernimus, totius
+futurae arboris principium. <i>Estque haec particula velut filius emancipatus
+seorsumque collocatus, et principium per se vivens; unde
+postea membrorum ordo describitur; et quaecunque ad absolvendum
+animal pertinent, disponuntur.</i><a name="fa18c" id="fa18c" href="#ft18c"><span class="sp">18</span></a> Quoniam enim <i>nulla pars se ipsam
+generat; sed postquam generata est, se ipsam jam auget; ideo eam
+primum oriri necesse est, quae principium augendi contineat</i> (<i>sive
+enim planta, sive animal est, aeque omnibus inest quod vim habeat
+vegetandi, sive nutriendi</i>),<a name="fa19c" id="fa19c" href="#ft19c"><span class="sp">19</span></a> simulque reliquas omnes partes suo
+quamque ordine distinguat et formet; proindeque in eadem primogenita
+particula anima primario inest, sensus, motusque, et totius
+vitae auctor et principium.&rdquo; (<i>Exercitatio</i> 51.)</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Harvey proceeds to contrast this view with that of the
+&ldquo;Medici,&rdquo; or followers of Hippocrates and Galen, who, &ldquo;badly
+philosophizing,&rdquo; imagined that the brain, the heart, and the
+liver were simultaneously first generated in the form of vesicles;
+and, at the same time, while expressing his agreement with
+Aristotle in the principle of epigenesis, he maintains that it is
+the blood which is the primal generative part, and not, as
+Aristotle thought, the heart.</p>
+
+<p>In the latter part of the 17th century the doctrine of epigenesis
+thus advocated by Harvey was controverted on the ground of
+direct observation by M. Malpighi, who affirmed that the body
+of the chick is to be seen in the egg before the <i>punctum sanguineum</i>
+makes it appearance. But from this perfectly correct observation
+a conclusion which is by no means warranted was drawn,
+namely, that the chick as a whole really exists in the egg antecedently
+to incubation; and that what happens in the course of
+the latter process is no addition of new parts, &ldquo;alias post alias
+natas,&rdquo; as Harvey puts it, but a simple expansion or unfolding
+of the organs which already exist, though they are too small
+and inconspicuous to be discovered. The weight of Malpighi&rsquo;s
+observations therefore fell into the scale of that doctrine which
+Harvey terms metamorphosis, in contradistinction to epigenesis.</p>
+
+<p>The views of Malpighi were warmly welcomed on philosophical
+grounds by Leibnitz,<a name="fa20c" id="fa20c" href="#ft20c"><span class="sp">20</span></a> who found in them a support to his
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page30" id="page30"></a>30</span>
+hypothesis of monads, and by Nicholas Malebranche;<a name="fa21c" id="fa21c" href="#ft21c"><span class="sp">21</span></a> while, in
+the middle of the 18th century, not only speculative considerations,
+but a great number of new and interesting observations on
+the phenomena of generation, led the ingenious Charles Bonnet
+and A. von Haller, the first physiologist of the age, to adopt,
+advocate and extend them.</p>
+
+<p>Bonnet affirms that, before fecundation, the hen&rsquo;s egg contains
+an excessively minute but complete chick; and that fecundation
+and incubation simply cause this germ to absorb nutritious
+matters, which are deposited in the interstices of the elementary
+structures of which the miniature chick, or germ, is made up.
+The consequence of this intussusceptive growth is the &ldquo;development&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;evolution&rdquo; of the germ into the visible bird. Thus
+an organized individual (<i>tout organisé</i>) &ldquo;is a composite body
+consisting of the original, or <i>elementary</i>, parts and of the matters
+which have been associated with them by the aid of nutrition&rdquo;;
+so that, if these matters could be extracted from the individual
+(<i>tout</i>), it would, so to speak, become concentrated in a point,
+and would thus be restored to its primitive condition of a <i>germ</i>;
+&ldquo;just as, by extracting from a bone the calcareous substance
+which is the source of its hardness, it is reduced to its primitive
+state of gristle or membrane.&rdquo;<a name="fa22c" id="fa22c" href="#ft22c"><span class="sp">22</span></a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Evolution&rdquo; and &ldquo;development&rdquo; are, for Bonnet, synonymous
+terms; and since by &ldquo;evolution&rdquo; he means simply the
+expansion of that which was invisible into visibility, he was
+naturally led to the conclusion, at which Leibnitz had arrived
+by a different line of reasoning, that no such thing as generation,
+in the proper sense of the word exists in nature. The growth of
+an organic being is simply a process of enlargement, as a particle
+of dry gelatine may be swelled up by the intussusception of
+water; its death is a shrinkage, such as the swelled jelly might
+undergo on desiccation. Nothing really new is produced in the
+living world, but the germs which develop have existed since the
+beginning of things; and nothing really dies, but, when what we
+call death takes place, the living thing shrinks back into its germ
+state.<a name="fa23c" id="fa23c" href="#ft23c"><span class="sp">23</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The two parts of Bonnet&rsquo;s hypothesis, namely, the doctrine
+that all living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that
+these contain, one enclosed within the other, the germs of all
+future living things, which is the hypothesis of &ldquo;emboîtement,&rdquo;
+and the doctrine that every germ contains in miniature all the
+organs of the adult, which is the hypothesis of evolution or
+development, in the primary senses of these words, must be
+carefully distinguished. In fact, while holding firmly by the
+former, Bonnet more or less modified the latter in his later
+writings, and, at length, he admits that a &ldquo;germ&rdquo; need not be
+an actual miniature of the organism, but that it may be
+merely an &ldquo;original preformation&rdquo; capable of producing the
+latter.<a name="fa24c" id="fa24c" href="#ft24c"><span class="sp">24</span></a></p>
+
+<p>But, thus defined, the germ is neither more nor less than the
+&ldquo;particula genitalis&rdquo; of Aristotle, or the &ldquo;primordium vegetale&rdquo;
+or &ldquo;ovum&rdquo; of Harvey; and the &ldquo;evolution&rdquo; of such a germ
+would not be distinguishable from &ldquo;epigenesis.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Supported by the great authority of Haller, the doctrine of
+evolution, or development, prevailed throughout the whole
+of the 18th century, and Cuvier appears to have substantially
+adopted Bonnet&rsquo;s later views, though probably he would not
+have gone all lengths in the direction of &ldquo;emboîtement.&rdquo; In
+a well-known note to Charles Leopold Laurillard&rsquo;s <i>Éloge</i>, prefixed
+to the last edition of the <i>Ossemens fossiles</i>, the &ldquo;radical de l&rsquo;être&rdquo;
+is much the same thing as Aristotle&rsquo;s &ldquo;particula genitalis&rdquo; and
+Harvey&rsquo;s &ldquo;ovum.&rdquo;<a name="fa25c" id="fa25c" href="#ft25c"><span class="sp">25</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Bonnet&rsquo;s eminent contemporary, Buffon, held nearly the same
+views with respect to the nature of the germ, and expresses them
+even more confidently.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Ceux qui ont cru que le c&oelig;ur étoit le premier formé, se sont
+trompés; ceux qui disent que c&rsquo;est le sang se trompent aussi: tout
+est formé en même temps. Si l&rsquo;on ne consulte que l&rsquo;observation, le
+poulet se voit dans l&rsquo;&oelig;uf avant qu&rsquo;il ait été couvé.&rdquo;<a name="fa26c" id="fa26c" href="#ft26c"><span class="sp">26</span></a></p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;J&rsquo;ai ouvert une grande quantité d&rsquo;&oelig;ufs à differens temps avant
+et après l&rsquo;incubation, et je me suis convaincu par mes yeux que le
+poulet existe en entier dans le milieu de la cicatrule au moment
+qu&rsquo;il sort du corps de la poule.&rdquo;<a name="fa27c" id="fa27c" href="#ft27c"><span class="sp">27</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;moule intérieur&rdquo; of Buffon is the aggregate of elementary
+parts which constitute the individual, and is thus the
+equivalent of Bonnet&rsquo;s germ,<a name="fa28c" id="fa28c" href="#ft28c"><span class="sp">28</span></a> as defined in the passage cited
+above. But Buffon further imagined that innumerable &ldquo;molécules
+organiques&rdquo; are dispersed throughout the world, and that
+alimentation consists in the appropriation by the parts of an
+organism of those molecules which are analogous to them.
+Growth, therefore, was, on this hypothesis, partly a process
+of simple evolution, and partly of what has been termed syngenesis.
+Buffon&rsquo;s opinion is, in fact, a sort of combination of
+views, essentially similar to those of Bonnet, with others, somewhat
+similar to those of the &ldquo;Medici&rdquo; whom Harvey condemns.
+The &ldquo;molécules organiques&rdquo; are physical equivalents of Leibnitz&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;monads.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>It is a striking example of the difficulty of getting people
+to use their own powers of investigation accurately, that this
+form of the doctrine of evolution should have held its ground
+so long; for it was thoroughly and completely exploded, not
+long after its enunciation, by Caspar Frederick Wolff, who in his
+<i>Theoria generatìonis</i>, published in 1759, placed the opposite
+theory of epigenesis upon the secure foundation of fact, from
+which it has never been displaced. But Wolff had no immediate
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page31" id="page31"></a>31</span>
+successors. The school of Cuvier was lamentably deficient in
+embryologists; and it was only in the course of the first thirty
+years of the 19th century that Prévost and Dumas in France,
+and, later on, Döllinger, Pander, von Bär, Rathke, and Remak
+in Germany, founded modern embryology; and, at the same
+time, proved the utter incompatibility of the hypothesis of
+evolution as formulated by Bonnet and Haller with easily
+demonstrable facts.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, though the conceptions originally denoted
+by &ldquo;evolution&rdquo; and &ldquo;development&rdquo; were shown to be untenable,
+the words retained their application to the process by which
+the embryos of living beings gradually make their appearance;
+and the terms &ldquo;development,&rdquo; &ldquo;Entwickelung,&rdquo; and &ldquo;evolutio&rdquo;
+are now indiscriminately used for the series of genetic changes
+exhibited by living beings, by writers who would emphatically
+deny that &ldquo;development&rdquo; or &ldquo;Entwickelung&rdquo; or &ldquo;evolutio,&rdquo;
+in the sense in which these words were usually employed by
+Bonnet or Haller, ever occurs.</p>
+
+<p>Evolution, or development, is, in fact, at present employed
+in biology as a general name for the history of the steps by
+which any living being has acquired the morphological and the
+physiological characters which distinguish it. As civil history
+may be divided into biography, which is the history of individuals,
+and universal history, which is the history of the human race,
+so evolution falls naturally into two categories&mdash;the evolution
+of the individual (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embryology</a></span>) and the evolution of the
+sum of living beings.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Evolution of the Sum of Living Beings.</i>&mdash;The notion that
+all the kinds of animals and plants may have come into existence
+by the growth and modification of primordial germs is as old
+as speculative thought; but the modern scientific form of the
+doctrine can be traced historically to the influence of several
+converging lines of philosophical speculation and of physical
+observation, none of which go further back than the 17th century.
+These are:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. The enunciation by Descartes of the conception that the
+physical universe, whether living or not living, is a mechanism,
+and that, as such, it is explicable on physical principles.</p>
+
+<p>2. The observation of the gradations of structure, from
+extreme simplicity to very great complexity, presented by
+living things, and of the relation of these graduated forms to
+one another.</p>
+
+<p>3. The observation of the existence of an analogy between
+the series of gradations presented by the species which compose
+any great group of animals or plants, and the series of embryonic
+conditions of the highest members of that group.</p>
+
+<p>4. The observation that large groups of species of widely
+different habits present the same fundamental plan of structure;
+and that parts of the same animal or plant, the functions of which
+are very different, likewise exhibit modifications of a common
+plan.</p>
+
+<p>5. The observation of the existence of structures, in a rudimentary
+and apparently useless condition, in one species of a
+group, which are fully developed and have definite functions
+in other species of the same group.</p>
+
+<p>6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in
+modifying living organisms.</p>
+
+<p>7. The observation of the facts of geographical distribution.</p>
+
+<p>8. The observation of the facts of the geological succession
+of the forms of life.</p>
+
+<p>1. Notwithstanding the elaborate disguise which fear of
+the powers that were led Descartes to throw over his real opinions,
+it is impossible to read the <i>Principes de la philosophie</i> without
+acquiring the conviction that this great philosopher held that the
+physical world and all things in it, whether living or not living,
+have originated by a process of evolution, due to the continuous
+operation of purely physical causes, out of a primitive relatively
+formless matter.<a name="fa29c" id="fa29c" href="#ft29c"><span class="sp">29</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The following passage is especially instructive:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Et tant s&rsquo;en faut que je veuille que l&rsquo;on croie toutes les choses
+que j&rsquo;écrirai, que même je prétends en proposer ici quelques-unes
+que je crois absolument être fausses; à savoir, je ne doute point
+que le monde n&rsquo;ait été créé au commencement avec autant de perfection
+qu&rsquo;il en a; en sorte que le soleil, la terre, la lune, et les
+étoiles ont été dès lors; et que la terre n&rsquo;a pas eu seulement en soi
+les semences des plantes, mais que les plantes même en ont couvert
+une partie; et qu&rsquo;Adam et Ève n&rsquo;ont pas été créés enfans mais en
+âge d&rsquo;hommes parfaits. La religion chrétienne veut que nous le
+croyons ainsi, et la raison naturelle nous persuade entièrement cette
+vérité; car si nous considérons la toute puissance de Dieu, nous
+devons juger que tout ce qu&rsquo;il a fait a eu dès le commencement
+toute la perfection qu&rsquo;il devoit avoir. Mais néanmoins, comme on
+connoîtroit beaucoup mieux quelle a été la nature d&rsquo;Adam et celle
+des arbres de Paradis si on avoit examiné comment les enfants se
+forment peu à peu dans le ventre de leurs mères et comment les
+plantes sortent de leurs semences, que si on avoit seulement considéré
+quels ils ont été quand Dieu les a créés: tout de même, nous ferons
+mieux entendre quelle est généralement la nature de toutes les
+choses qui sont au monde si nous pouvons imaginer quelques principes
+qui soient fort intelligibles et fort simples, desquels nous
+puissions voir clairement que les astres et la terre et enfin tout ce
+monde visible auroit pu être produit ainsi que de quelques semences
+(bien que nous sachions qu&rsquo;il n&rsquo;a pas été produit en cette façon)
+que si nous la décrivions seulement comme il est, ou bien comme
+nous croyons qu&rsquo;il a été créé. Et parceque je pense avoir trouvé des
+principes qui sont tels, je tâcherai ici de les expliquer.&rdquo;<a name="fa30c" id="fa30c" href="#ft30c"><span class="sp">30</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If we read between the lines of this singular exhibition of
+force of one kind and weakness of another, it is clear that
+Descartes believed that he had divined the mode in which the
+physical universe had been evolved; and the <i>Traité de l&rsquo;homme</i>
+and the essay <i>Sur les passions</i> afford abundant additional
+evidence that he sought for, and thought he had found, an
+explanation of the phenomena of physical life by deduction
+from purely physical laws.</p>
+
+<p>Spinoza abounds in the same sense, and is as usual perfectly
+candid&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Naturae leges et regulae, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis
+formis in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem.&rdquo;<a name="fa31c" id="fa31c" href="#ft31c"><span class="sp">31</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Leibnitz&rsquo;s doctrine of continuity necessarily led him in the
+same direction; and, of the infinite multitude of monads with
+which he peopled the world, each is supposed to be the focus of
+an endless process of evolution and involution. In the <i>Protogaea</i>,
+xxvi., Leibnitz distinctly suggests the mutability of species&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Alii mirantur in saxis passim species videri quas vel in orbe
+cognito, vel saltem in vicinis locis frustra quaeras. Ita <i>Cornua
+Ammonis</i>, quae ex nautilorum numero habeantur, passim et forma
+et magnitudine (nam et pedali diametro aliquando reperiuntur)
+ab omnibus illis naturis discrepare dicunt, quas praebet mare. Sed
+quis absconditos ejus recessus aut subterraneas abyssos pervestigavit?
+quam multa nobis animalia antea ignota offert novus orbis?
+Et credibile est per magnas illas conversiones etiam animalium
+species plurimum immutatas.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus in the end of the 17th century the seed was sown which
+has at intervals brought forth recurrent crops of evolutional
+hypotheses, based, more or less completely, on general reasonings.</p>
+
+<p>Among the earliest of these speculations is that put forward
+by Benoît de Maillet in his <i>Telliamed</i>, which, though printed in
+1735, was not published until twenty-three years later. Considering
+that this book was written before the time of Haller,
+or Bonnet, or Linnaeus, or Hutton, it surely deserves more
+respectful consideration than it usually receives. For De
+Maillet not only has a definite conception of the plasticity of
+living things, and of the production of existing species by the
+modification of their predecessors, but he clearly apprehends
+the cardinal maxim of modern geological science, that the
+explanation of the structure of the globe is to be sought in the
+deductive application to geological phenomena of the principles
+established inductively by the study of the present course of
+nature. Somewhat later, P.L.M. de Maupertuis<a name="fa32c" id="fa32c" href="#ft32c"><span class="sp">32</span></a> suggested
+a curious hypothesis as to the causes of variation, which he
+thinks may be sufficient to account for the origin of all animals
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page32" id="page32"></a>32</span>
+from a single pair. Jean Baptiste René Robinet<a name="fa33c" id="fa33c" href="#ft33c"><span class="sp">33</span></a> followed out
+much the same line of thought as De Maillet, but less soberly;
+and Bonnet&rsquo;s speculations in the <i>Palingénésie</i>, which appeared
+in 1769, have already been mentioned. Buffon (1753-1778),
+at first a partisan of the absolute immutability of species, subsequently
+appears to have believed that larger or smaller groups
+of species have been produced by the modification of a primitive
+stock; but he contributed nothing to the general doctrine of
+evolution.</p>
+
+<p>Erasmus Darwin (<i>Zoonomia</i>, 1794), though a zealous evolutionist,
+can hardly be said to have made any real advance on his
+predecessors; and, notwithstanding the fact that Goethe had
+the advantage of a wide knowledge of morphological facts, and
+a true insight into their signification, while he threw all the
+power of a great poet into the expression of his conceptions, it
+may be questioned whether he supplied the doctrine of evolution
+with a firmer scientific basis than it already possessed. Moreover,
+whatever the value of Goethe&rsquo;s labours in that field, they were
+not published before 1820, long after evolutionism had taken
+a new departure from the works of Treviranus and Lamarck&mdash;the
+first of its advocates who were equipped for their task with
+the needful large and accurate knowledge of the phenomena
+of life as a whole. It is remarkable that each of these writers
+seems to have been led, independently and contemporaneously,
+to invent the same name of &ldquo;biology&rdquo; for the science of the
+phenomena of life; and thus, following Buffon, to have recognized
+the essential unity of these phenomena, and their contradistinction
+from those of inanimate nature. And it is hard to
+say whether Lamarck or Treviranus has the priority in propounding
+the main thesis of the doctrine of evolution; for
+though the first volume of Treviranus&rsquo;s <i>Biologie</i> appeared only
+in 1802, he says, in the preface to his later work, the <i>Erscheinungen
+und Gesetze des organischen Lebens</i>, dated 1831, that he
+wrote the first volume of the <i>Biologie</i> &ldquo;nearly five-and-thirty
+years ago,&rdquo; or about 1796.</p>
+
+<p>Now, in 1794, there is evidence that Lamarck held doctrines
+which present a striking contrast to those which are to be
+found in the <i>Philosophie zoologique</i>, as the following passages
+show:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;685. Quoique mon unique objet dans cet article n&rsquo;ait été que
+de traiter de la cause physique de l&rsquo;entretien de la vie des êtres
+organiques, malgré cela j&rsquo;ai osé avancer en débutant, que l&rsquo;existence
+de ces êtres étonnants n&rsquo;appartiennent nullement à la nature; que
+tout ce qu&rsquo;on peut entendre par le mot <i>nature</i>, ne pouvoit donner
+la vie, c&rsquo;est-à-dire, que toutes les qualités de la matière, jointes à
+toutes les circonstances possibles, et même à l&rsquo;activité répandue
+dans l&rsquo;univers, ne pouvaient point produire un être muni du mouvement
+organique, capable de reproduire son semblable, et sujet à
+la mort.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;686. Tous les individus de cette nature, qui existent, proviennent
+d&rsquo;individus semblables qui tous ensemble constituent l&rsquo;espèce
+entière. Or, je crois qu&rsquo;il est aussi impossible à l&rsquo;homme de connoître
+la cause physique du premier individu de chaque espèce, que
+d&rsquo;assigner aussi physiquement la cause de l&rsquo;existence de la matière ou
+de l&rsquo;univers entier. C&rsquo;est au moins ce que le résultat de mes connaissances
+et de mes réflexions me portent à penser. S&rsquo;il existe
+beaucoup de variétés produites par l&rsquo;effet des circonstances, ces
+variétés ne dénaturent point les espèces; mais on se trompe, sans
+doute souvent, en indiquant comme espèce, ce qui n&rsquo;est que variété;
+et alors je sens que cette erreur peut tirer à conséquence dans les
+raisonnements que l&rsquo;on fait sur cette matière.&rdquo;<a name="fa34c" id="fa34c" href="#ft34c"><span class="sp">34</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The first three volumes of Treviranus&rsquo;s Biologie, which contains
+his general views of evolution, appeared between 1802 and 1805.
+The <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;organisation des corps vivants</i>, which sketches
+out Lamarck&rsquo;s doctrines, was published in 1802; but the full
+development of his views in the <i>Philosophie zoologique</i> did not
+take place until 1809.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>Biologie</i> and the <i>Philosophie zoologique</i> are both very
+remarkable productions, and are still worthy of attentive study,
+but they fell upon evil times. The vast authority of Cuvier
+was employed in support of the traditionally respectable hypotheses
+of special creation and of catastrophism; and the wild
+speculations of the <i>Discours sur les révolutions de la surface du
+globe</i> were held to be models of sound scientific thinking, while
+the really much more sober and philosophical hypotheses of
+the <i>Hydrogéologie</i> were scouted. For many years it was the
+fashion to speak of Lamarck with ridicule, while Treviranus was
+altogether ignored.</p>
+
+<p>Nevertheless, the work had been done. The conception of
+evolution was henceforward <span class="correction" title="amended from irrespressible">irrepressible</span>, and it incessantly
+reappears, in one shape or another,<a name="fa35c" id="fa35c" href="#ft35c"><span class="sp">35</span></a> up to the year 1858, when
+Charles Darwin and A.R. Wallace published their <i>Theory of
+Natural Selection</i>. The <i>Origin of Species</i> appeared in 1859;
+and thenceforward the doctrine of evolution assumed a position
+and acquired an importance which it never before possessed. In
+the <i>Origin of Species</i>, and in his other numerous and important
+contributions to the solution of the problem of biological
+evolution, Darwin confined himself to the discussion of the
+causes which have brought about the present condition of living
+matter, assuming such matter to have once come into existence.
+On the other hand, Spencer<a name="fa36c" id="fa36c" href="#ft36c"><span class="sp">36</span></a> and E. Haeckel<a name="fa37c" id="fa37c" href="#ft37c"><span class="sp">37</span></a> dealt with
+the whole problem of evolution. The profound and vigorous
+writings of Spencer embody the spirit of Descartes in the knowledge
+of our own day, and may be regarded as the <i>Principes
+de la philosophie</i> of the 19th century; while, whatever hesitation
+may not unfrequently be felt by less daring minds in
+following Haeckel in many of his speculations, his attempt
+to systematize the doctrine of evolution and to exhibit its
+influence as the central thought of modern biology, cannot fail
+to have a far-reaching influence on the progress of science.</p>
+
+<p>If we seek for the reason of the difference between the scientific
+position of the doctrine of evolution in the days of Lamarck
+and that which it occupies now, we shall find it in the great
+accumulation of facts, the several classes of which have been
+enumerated above, under the second to the eighth heads. For
+those which are grouped under the second to the seventh of these
+classes, respectively, have a clear significance on the hypothesis
+of evolution, while they are unintelligible if that hypothesis
+be denied. And those of the eighth group are not only <span class="correction" title="amended from unin-intelligible">unintelligible</span>
+without the assumption of evolution, but can be
+proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in
+some cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires.
+The demonstration of these assertions would require a volume,
+but the general nature of the evidence on which they rest may be
+briefly indicated.</p>
+
+<p>2. The accurate investigation of the lowest forms of animal
+life, commenced by Leeuwenhoek and Swammerdam, and
+continued by the remarkable labours of Réaumur, Abraham
+Trembley, Bonnet, and a host of other observers in the latter
+part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th centuries, drew
+the attention of biologists to the gradation in the complexity
+of organization which is presented by living beings, and culminated
+in the doctrine of the <i>échelle des êtres</i>, so powerfully and clearly
+stated by Bonnet, and, before him, adumbrated by Locke and
+by Leibnitz. In the then state of knowledge, it appeared that
+all the species of animals and plants could be arranged in one
+series, in such a manner that, by insensible gradations, the
+mineral passed into the plant, the plant into the polype, the
+polype into the worm, and so, through gradually higher forms
+of life, to man, at the summit of the animated world.</p>
+
+<p>But, as knowledge advanced, this conception ceased to be
+tenable in the crude form in which it was first put forward.
+Taking into account existing animals and plants alone, it became
+obvious that they fell into groups which were more or less
+sharply separated from one another; and, moreover, that even
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page33" id="page33"></a>33</span>
+the species of a genus can hardly ever be arranged in linear
+series. Their natural resemblances and differences are only
+to be expressed by disposing them as if they were branches
+springing from a common hypothetical centre.</p>
+
+<p>Lamarck, while affirming the verbal proposition that animals
+form a single series, was forced by his vast acquaintance with
+the details of zoology to limit the assertion to such a series as
+may be formed out of the abstractions constituted by the
+common characters of each group.<a name="fa38c" id="fa38c" href="#ft38c"><span class="sp">38</span></a></p>
+
+<p>Cuvier on anatomical, and Von Baer on embryological grounds,
+made the further step of proving that, even in this limited sense,
+animals cannot be arranged in a single series, but that there are
+several distinct plans of organization to be observed among
+them, no one of which, in its highest and most complicated
+modification, leads to any of the others.</p>
+
+<p>The conclusions enunciated by Cuvier and Von Baer have been
+confirmed in principle by all subsequent research into the
+structure of animals and plants. But the effect of the adoption
+of these conclusions has been rather to substitute a new metaphor
+for that of Bonnet than to abolish the conception expressed by it.
+Instead of regarding living things as capable of arrangement in
+one series like the steps of a ladder, the results of modern investigation
+compel us to dispose them as if they were the twigs
+and branches of a tree. The ends of the twigs represent individuals,
+the smallest groups of twigs species, larger groups
+genera, and so on, until we arrive at the source of all these
+ramifications of the main branch, which is represented by a
+common plan of structure. At the present moment it is impossible
+to draw up any definition, based on broad anatomical
+or developmental characters, by which any one of Cuvier&rsquo;s great
+groups shall be separated from all the rest. On the contrary,
+the lower members of each tend to converge towards the lower
+members of all the others. The same may be said of the vegetable
+world. The apparently clear distinction between flowering and
+flowerless plants has been broken down by the series of gradations
+between the two exhibited by the <i>Lycopodiaceae</i>, <i>Rhizocarpeae</i>,
+and <i>Gymnospermeae</i>. The groups of <i>Fungi</i>, <i>Licheneae</i>
+and <i>Algae</i> have completely run into one another, and, when the
+lowest forms of each are alone considered, even the animal and
+vegetable kingdoms cease to have a definite frontier.</p>
+
+<p>If it is permissible to speak of the relations of living forms to
+one another metaphorically, the similitude chosen must undoubtedly
+be that of a common root, whence two main trunks,
+one representing the vegetable and one the animal world, spring;
+and, each dividing into a few main branches, these subdivide into
+multitudes of branchlets and these into smaller groups of twigs.</p>
+
+<p>As Lamarck has well said:&mdash;<a name="fa39c" id="fa39c" href="#ft39c"><span class="sp">39</span></a></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Il n&rsquo;y a que ceux qui se sont longtemps et fortement occupés de la
+détermination des espèces, et qui ont consulté de riches collections,
+qui peuvent savoir jusqu&rsquo;à quel point les <i>espèces</i>, parmi les corps
+vivants, se fondent les unes dans les autres, et qui ont pu se convaincre
+que, dans les parties où nous voyons des <i>espèces</i> isolées, cela
+n&rsquo;est ainsi que parcequ&rsquo;il nous en manque d&rsquo;autres qui en sont plus
+voisines et que nous n&rsquo;avons pas encore recueillies.</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Je ne veux pas dire pour cela que les animaux qui existent forment
+une série très-simple et partout également nuancée; mais je dis
+qu&rsquo;ils forment une série rameuse, irrégulièrement graduée et qui
+n&rsquo;a point de discontinuité dans ses parties, ou qui, du moins, n&rsquo;en
+a toujours pas eu, s&rsquo;il est vrai que, par suite de quelques espèces
+perdues, il s&rsquo;en trouve quelque part. Il en résulte que les <i>espèces</i>
+qui terminent chaque rameau de la série générale tiennent, au moins
+d&rsquo;un côté, à d&rsquo;autres espèces voisines qui se nuancent avec elles.
+Voilà ce que l&rsquo;état bien connu des choses me met maintenant à
+portée de démontrer. Je n&rsquo;ai besoin d&rsquo;aucune hypothèse ni d&rsquo;aucune
+supposition pour cela: j&rsquo;en atteste tous les naturalistes observateurs.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>3. In a remarkable essay<a name="fa40c" id="fa40c" href="#ft40c"><span class="sp">40</span></a> Meckel remarks:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;There is no good physiologist who has not been struck by the
+observation that the original form of all organisms is one and the
+same, and that out of this one form, all, the lowest as well as the
+highest, are developed in such a manner that the latter pass through
+the permanent forms of the former as transitory stages. Aristotle,
+Haller, Harvey, Kielmeyer, Autenrieth, and many others have
+either made this observation incidentally, or, especially the latter,
+have drawn particular attention to it, and drawn therefrom results
+of permanent importance for physiology.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Meckel proceeds to exemplify the thesis, that the lower forms
+of animals represent stages in the course of the development
+of the higher, with a large series of illustrations.</p>
+
+<p>After comparing the salamanders and the perenni-branchiate
+<i>Urodela</i> with the tadpoles and the frogs, and enunciating the
+law that the more highly any animal is organized the more
+quickly does it pass through the lower stages, Meckel goes on to
+say:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;From these lowest Vertebrata to the highest, and to the highest
+forms among these, the comparison between the embryonic conditions
+of the higher animals and the adult states of the lower can
+be more completely and thoroughly instituted than if the survey is
+extended to the Invertebrata, inasmuch as the latter are in many
+respects constructed upon an altogether too dissimilar type; indeed
+they often differ from one another far more than the lowest vertebrate
+does from the highest mammal; yet the following pages will show
+that the comparison may be also extended to them with interest.
+In fact, there is a period when, as Aristotle long ago said, the embryo
+of the highest animal has the form of a mere worm, and, devoid of
+internal and external organization, is merely an almost structureless
+lump of polype-substance. Notwithstanding the origin of organs, it
+still for a certain time, by reason of its want of an internal bony
+skeleton, remains worm and mollusk, and only later enters into the
+series of the Vertebrata, although traces of the vertebral column
+even in the earliest periods testify its claim to a place in that series.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Op.
+cit.</i> pp. 4, 5.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>If Meckel&rsquo;s proposition is so far qualified, that the comparison
+of adult with embryonic forms is restricted within the limits of
+one type of organization; and if it is further recollected, that
+the resemblance between the permanent lower form and the
+embryonic stage of a higher form is not special but general, it
+is in entire accordance with modern embryology; although there
+is no branch of biology which has grown so largely, and improved
+its methods so much since Meckel&rsquo;s time, as this. In its original
+form, the doctrine of &ldquo;arrest of development,&rdquo; as advocated by
+Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Serres, was no doubt an over-statement
+of the case. It is not true, for example, that a fish is a
+reptile arrested in its development, or that a reptile was ever a
+fish; but it is true that the reptile embryo, at one stage of its
+development, is an organism which, if it had an independent
+existence, must be classified among fishes; and all the organs
+of the reptile pass, in the course of their development, through
+conditions which are closely analogous to those which are
+permanent in some fishes.</p>
+
+<p>4. That branch of biology which is termed morphology is a
+commentary upon, and expansion of, the proposition that widely
+different animals or plants, and widely different parts of animals
+or plants, are constructed upon the same plan. From the rough
+comparison of the skeleton of a bird with that of a man by
+Pierre Delon, in the 16th century (to go no further back), down
+to the theory of the limbs and the theory of the skull at the
+present day; or, from the first demonstration of the homologies
+of the parts of a flower by C.F. Wolff, to the present elaborate
+analysis of the floral organs, morphology exhibits a continual
+advance towards the demonstration of a fundamental unity
+among the seeming diversities of living structures. And this
+demonstration has been completed by the final establishment of
+the cell theory (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cytology</a></span>), which involves the admission of a
+primitive conformity, not only of all the elementary structures
+in animals and plants respectively, but of those in the one of
+these great divisions of living things with those in the other.
+No <i>a priori</i> difficulty can be said to stand in the way of evolution,
+when it can be shown that all animals and all plants proceed by
+modes of development, which are similar in principle, from a
+fundamental protoplasmic material.</p>
+
+<p>5. The innumerable cases of structures, which are rudimentary
+and apparently useless, in species, the close allies of which
+possess well-developed and functionally important homologous
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page34" id="page34"></a>34</span>
+structures, are readily intelligible on the theory of evolution,
+while it is hard to conceive their <i>raison d&rsquo;être</i> on any other
+hypothesis. However, a cautious reasoner will probably rather
+explain such cases deductively from the doctrine of evolution
+than endeavour to support the doctrine of evolution by them.
+For it is almost impossible to prove that any structure, however
+rudimentary, is useless&mdash;that is to say, that it plays no part
+whatever in the economy; and, if it is in the slightest degree
+useful, there is no reason why, on the hypothesis of direct
+creation, it should not have been created. Nevertheless; double-edged
+as is the argument from rudimentary organs, there is
+probably none which has produced a greater effect in promoting
+the general acceptance of the theory of evolution.</p>
+
+<p>6. The older advocates of evolution sought for the causes of
+the process exclusively in the influence of varying conditions,
+such as climate and station, or hybridization, upon living forms.
+Even Treviranus has got no further than this point. Lamarck
+introduced the conception of the action of an animal on itself
+as a factor in producing modification. Starting from the well-known
+fact that the habitual use of a limb tends to develop the
+muscles of the limb, and to produce a greater and greater facility
+in using it, he made the general assumption that the effort of
+an animal to exert an organ in a given direction tends to develop
+the organ in that direction. But a little consideration showed
+that, though Lamarck had seized what, as far as it goes, is a true
+cause of modification, it is a cause the actual effects of which
+are wholly inadequate to account for any considerable modification
+in animals, and which can have no influence at all in the
+vegetable world; and probably nothing contributed so much
+to discredit evolution, in the early part of the 19th century, as
+the floods of easy ridicule which were poured upon this part
+of Lamarck&rsquo;s speculation. The theory of natural selection, or
+survival of the fittest, was suggested by William Charles Wells
+in 1813, and further elaborated by Patrick Matthew in 1831.
+But the pregnant suggestions of these writers remained practically
+unnoticed and forgotten, until the theory was independently
+devised and promulgated by Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred
+Russell Wallace in 1858, and the effect of its publication was
+immediate and profound.</p>
+
+<p>Those who were unwilling to accept evolution, without
+better grounds than such as are offered by Lamarck, and who
+therefore preferred to suspend their judgment on the question,
+found in the principle of selective breeding, pursued in all its
+applications with marvellous knowledge and skill by Darwin,
+a valid explanation of the occurrence of varieties and races;
+and they saw clearly that, if the explanation would apply to
+species, it would not only solve the problem of their evolution,
+but that it would account for the facts of teleology, as well as
+for those of morphology; and for the persistence of some forms
+of life unchanged through long epochs of time, while others
+undergo comparatively rapid metamorphosis.</p>
+
+<p>How far &ldquo;natural selection&rdquo; suffices for the production of
+species remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the
+whole cause, it is a very important factor in that operation;
+and that it must play a great part in the sorting out of varieties
+into those which are transitory and those which are permanent.</p>
+
+<p>But the causes and conditions of variation have yet to be
+thoroughly explored; and the importance of natural selection
+will not be impaired, even if further inquiries should prove
+that variability is definite, and is determined in certain directions
+rather than in others, by conditions inherent in that which varies.
+It is quite conceivable that every species tends to produce
+varieties of a limited number and kind, and that the effect of
+natural selection is to favour the development of some of these,
+while it opposes the development of others along their predetermined
+lines of modification.</p>
+
+<p>7. No truths brought to light by biological investigation
+were better calculated to inspire distrust of the dogmas intruded
+upon science in the name of theology than those which relate
+to the distribution of animals and plants on the surface of the
+earth. Very skilful accommodation was needful, if the limitation
+of sloths to South America, and of the <i>Ornithorhynchus</i> to
+Australia, was to be reconciled with the literal interpretation
+of the history of the Deluge; and, with the establishment of
+the existence of distinct provinces of distribution, any serious
+belief in the peopling of the world by migration from Mount
+Ararat came to an end.</p>
+
+<p>Under these circumstances, only one alternative was left for
+those who denied the occurrence of evolution; namely, the
+supposition that the characteristic animals and plants of each
+great province were created, as such, within the limits in which,
+we find them. And as the hypothesis of &ldquo;specific centres,&rdquo;
+thus formulated, was heterodox from the theological point of
+view, and unintelligible under its scientific aspect, it may be
+passed over without further notice, as a phase of transition from
+the creational to the evolutional hypothesis.</p>
+
+<p>8. In fact, the strongest and most conclusive arguments in
+favour of evolution are those which are based upon the facts
+of geographical, taken in conjunction with those of geological,
+distribution.</p>
+
+<p>Both Darwin and Wallace lay great stress on the close relation
+which obtains between the existing fauna of any region and that
+of the immediately antecedent geological epoch in the same
+region; and rightly, for it is in truth inconceivable that there
+should be no genetic connexion between the two. It is possible
+to put into words the proposition, that all the animals and plants
+of each geological epoch were annihilated, and that a new set
+of very similar forms was created for the next epoch, but it
+may be doubted if any one who ever tried to form a distinct
+mental image of this process of spontaneous generation on the
+grandest scale ever really succeeded in realizing it.</p>
+
+<p>In later years the attention of the best palaeontologists has
+been withdrawn from the hodman&rsquo;s work of making &ldquo;new
+species&rdquo; of fossils, to the scientific task of completing our
+knowledge of individual species, and tracing out the succession
+of the forms presented by any given type in time.</p>
+
+<p><i>Evolution at the Beginning of the 20th century.</i>&mdash;Since Huxley
+and Sully wrote their masterly essays in the 9th edition of this
+encyclopaedia, the doctrine of evolution has outgrown the
+trammels of controversy and has been accepted as a fundamental
+principle. Writers on biological subjects no longer have to waste
+space in weighing evolution against this or that philosophical
+theory or religious tradition; philosophical writers have frankly
+accepted it, and the supporters of religious tradition have made
+broad their phylacteries to write on them the new words. A
+closer scrutiny of the writers of all ages who preceded Charles
+Darwin, and, in particular, the light thrown back from Darwin
+on the earlier writings of Herbert Spencer, have made plain
+that without Darwin the world by this time might have come
+to a general acceptance of evolution; but it seems established
+as a historical fact that the world has come to accept evolution,
+first, because of Darwin&rsquo;s theory of natural selection, and second,
+because of Darwin&rsquo;s exposition of the evidence for the actual
+occurrence of organic evolution. The evidence as set out by
+Darwin has been added to enormously; new knowledge has in
+many cases altered our conceptions of the mode of the actual
+process of evolution, and from time to time a varying stress has
+been laid on what are known as the purely Darwinian factors
+in the theory. The balance of these tendencies has been against
+the attachment of great importance to sexual selection, and in
+favour of attaching a great importance to natural selection;
+but the dominant feature in the recent history of the theory
+has been its universal acceptance and the recognition that this
+general acceptance has come from the stimulus given by Darwin.</p>
+
+<p>A change has taken place in the use of the word evolution.
+Huxley, following historical custom, devoted one section of his
+article to the &ldquo;Evolution of the Individual.&rdquo; The
+facts and theories respecting this are now discussed
+<span class="sidenote">Ontogeny.</span>
+under such headings as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embryology</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heredity</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation
+and Selection</a></span>; under these headings must be sought information
+on the important recent modifications with regard to the
+theory of the relation between the development of the individual
+and the development of the race, the part played by the environment
+on the individual, and the modern developments of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page35" id="page35"></a>35</span>
+old quarrel between evolution and epigenesis. The most striking
+general change has been against seeing in the facts of ontogeny
+any direct evidence as to phylogeny. The general proposition
+as to a parallelism between individual and ancestral development
+is no doubt indisputable, but extended knowledge of the very
+different ontogenetic histories of closely allied forms has led us
+to a much fuller conception of the mode in which stages in
+embryonic and larval history have been modified in relation
+to their surroundings, and to a consequent reluctance to attach
+detailed importance to the embryological argument for evolution.</p>
+
+<p>The vast bulk of botanical and zoological work on living and
+extinct forms published during the last quarter of the 19th
+century increased almost beyond all expectation the
+evidence for the fact of evolution. The discovery of
+<span class="sidenote">Phylogeny.</span>
+a single fossil creature in a geological stratum of a wrong period,
+the detection of a single anatomical or physiological fact irreconcilable
+with origin by descent with modification, would have been
+destructive of the theory and would have made the reputation
+of the observer. But in the prodigious number of supporting
+discoveries that have been made no single negative factor has
+appeared, and the evolution from their predecessors of the
+forms of life existing now or at any other period must be taken
+as proved. It is necessary to notice, however, that although
+the general course of the stream of life is certain, there is not the
+same certainty as to the actual individual pedigrees of the
+existing forms. In the attempts to place existing creatures in
+approximately phylogenetic order, a striking change, due to a
+more logical consideration of the process of evolution, has become
+established and is already resolving many of the earlier difficulties
+and banishing from the more recent tables the numerous hypothetical
+intermediate forms so familiar in the older phylogenetic
+trees. The older method was to attempt the comparison between
+the highest member of a lower group and the lowest member of
+a higher group&mdash;to suppose, for example, that the gorilla and the
+chimpanzee, the highest members of the apes, were the existing
+representatives of the ancestors of man and to compare these
+forms with the lowest members of the human race. Such a
+comparison is necessarily illogical, as the existing apes are
+separated from the common ancestor by at least as large a number
+of generations as separate it from any of the forms of existing
+man. In the natural process of growth, the gap must necessarily
+be wider between the summits of the twigs than lower down,
+and, instead of imagining &ldquo;missing links,&rdquo; it is necessary to
+trace each separate branch as low down as possible, and to
+institute the comparisons between the lowest points that can be
+reached. The method is simply the logical result of the fact
+that every existing form of life stands at the summit of a long
+branch of the whole tree of life. A due consideration of it leads to
+the curious paradox that if any two animals be compared, the
+zoologically lower will be separated from the common ancestor
+by a larger number of generations, since, on the average, sexual
+maturity is reached more quickly by the lower form. Naturally
+very many other factors have to be considered, but this alone is
+a sufficient reason to restrain attempts to place existing forms
+in linear phylogenetic series. In embryology the method finds
+its expression in the limitation of comparisons to the corresponding
+stages of low and high forms and the exclusion of the comparisons
+between the adult stages of low forms and the embryonic
+stages of higher forms. Another expression of the same method,
+due to Cope, and specially valuable to the taxonomist, is
+that when the relationship between orders is being considered,
+characters of subordinal rank must be neglected. It must not
+be supposed that earlier writers all neglected this method, or
+still less that all writers now employ it, but merely that formerly
+it was frequently overlooked by the best writers, and now is
+neglected only by the worst. The result is, on the one hand,
+a clearing away of much fantastic phylogeny, on the other,
+an enormous reduction of the supposed gaps between groups.</p>
+
+<p>There has been a renewed activity in the study of existing
+forms from the point of view of obtaining evidence as to the
+nature and origin of species. Comparative anatomists have been
+learning to refrain from basing the diagnosis of a species, or the
+<span class="sidenote">Comparative anatomy.</span>
+description of the condition of an organ, on the evidence of a
+single specimen. Naturalists who deal specially with museum
+collections have been compelled, it is true, for other
+reasons to attach an increasing importance to what is
+called the type specimen, but they find that this insistence
+on the individual, although invaluable from the
+point of view of recording species, is unsatisfactory from the point
+of view of scientific zoology; and propositions for the amelioration
+of this condition of affairs range from a refusal of Linnaean
+nomenclature in such cases, to the institution of a division
+between <i>master species</i> for such species as have been properly
+revised by the comparative morphologist, and <i>provisional species</i>
+for such species as have been provisionally registered by those
+working at collections. Those who work with living forms of
+which it is possible to obtain a large number of specimens, and
+those who make revisions of the provisional species of palaeontologists,
+are slowly coming to some such conception as that a
+species is the abstract central point around which a group of
+variations oscillate, and that the peripheral oscillations of one
+species may even overlap those of an allied species. It is plain
+that we have moved far from the connotation and denotation
+of the word <i>species</i> at the time when Darwin began to discuss the
+origin of species, and that the movement, on the one hand, tends
+to simplify the problem philosophically, and, on the other, to
+make it difficult for the amateur theorist.</p>
+
+<p>The conception of evolution is being applied more rigidly to
+the comparative anatomy of organs and systems of organs.
+When a series of the modifications of an anatomical structure
+has been sufficiently examined, it is frequently possible to decide
+that one particular condition is primitive, ancestral or central,
+and that the other conditions have been derived from it. Such
+a condition has been termed, with regard to the group of animals
+or plants the organs of which are being studied, <i>archecentric</i>.
+The possession of the character in the archecentric condition
+in (say) two of the members of the group does not indicate that
+these two members are more nearly related to one another
+than they are to other members of the group; the archecentric
+condition is part of the common heritage of all the members of
+the group, and may be retained by any. On the other hand,
+when the ancestral condition is modified, it may be regarded
+as having moved outwards along some radius from the archecentric
+condition. Such modified conditions have been termed
+<i>apocentric</i>. It is obvious that the mere apocentricity of a character
+can be no guide to the affinities of its possessor. It is
+necessary to determine if the modification be a simple change
+that might have occurred in independent cases, in fact if it
+be a multiradial apocentricity, or if it involved intricate and
+precisely combined anatomical changes that we could not expect
+to occur twice independently; that is to say, if it be a uniradial
+apocentricity. Multiradial apocentricities lie at the root of
+many of the phenomena that have been grouped under the
+designation <i>convergence</i>. Especially in the case of manifest
+adaptations, organs possessed by creatures far apart genealogically
+may be moulded into conditions that are extremely alike.
+Sir E. Ray Lankester&rsquo;s term, <i>homoplasy</i>, has passed into currency
+as designating such cases where different genetic material has
+been pressed by similar conditions into similar moulds. These
+may be called heterogeneous homoplasies, but it is necessary
+to recognize the existence of homogeneous homoplasies,
+here called multiradial apocentricities. A complex apocentric
+modification of a kind which we cannot imagine to have
+been repeated independently, and which is to be designated as
+uniradial, frequently forms a new centre around which new
+diverging modifications are produced. With reference to any
+particular group of forms such a new centre of modification
+may be termed a <i>metacentre</i>, and it is plain that the archecentre
+of the whole group is a metacentre of the larger group of which
+the group under consideration is a branch. Thus, for instance,
+the archecentric condition of any Avian structure is a metacentre
+of the Sauropsidan stem. A form of apocentricity
+extremely common and often perplexing may be termed <i>pseudocentric</i>;
+in such a condition there is an apparent simplicity that
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page36" id="page36"></a>36</span>
+reveals its secondary nature by some small and apparently
+meaningless complexity.</p>
+
+<p>Another group of investigations that seems to play an important
+part in the future development of the theory of evolution
+relates to the study of what is known as organic
+symmetry. The differentiations of structure that characterize
+<span class="sidenote">Bionomics.</span>
+animals and plants are being shown to be
+orderly and definite in many respects; the relations of the
+various parts to one another and to the whole, the modes of
+repetition of parts, and the series of changes that occur in groups
+of repeated parts appear to be to a certain extent inevitable,
+to depend on the nature of the living material itself and on the
+necessary conditions of its growth. Closely allied to the study
+of symmetry is the study of the direct effect of the circumambient
+media on embryonic young and adult stages of living beings
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embryology</a></span>: <i>Physiology</i>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heredity</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation
+and Selection</a></span>), and a still larger number of observers have
+added to our knowledge of these. It is impossible here to give
+even a list of the names of the many observers who in recent
+times have made empirical study of the effects of growth-forces
+and of the symmetrical limitations and definitions of growth.
+It is to be noticed, however, that, even after such phenomena
+have been properly grouped and designated under Greek names
+as laws of organic growth, they have not become explanations of
+the series of facts they correlate. Their importance in the theory
+of evolution is none the less very great. In the first place, they
+lessen the number of separate facts to be explained; in the
+second, they limit the field within which explanation must be
+sought, since, for instance, if a particular mode of repetition of
+parts occur in mosses, in flowering-plants, in beetles and in
+elephants, the seeker of ultimate explanations may exclude
+from the field of his inquiry all the conditions individual to
+these different organic forms, and confine himself only to what
+is common to all of them; that is to say, practically only
+the living material and its environment. The prosecution
+of such inquiries is beginning to make unnecessary much ingenious
+speculation of a kind that was prominent from 1880
+to 1900; much futile effort has been wasted in the endeavour
+to find on Darwinian principles special &ldquo;selection-values&rdquo; for
+phenomena the universality of which places them outside the
+possibility of having relations with the particular conditions
+of particular organisms. On the other hand, many of those
+who have been specially successful in grouping diverse phenomena
+under empirical generalizations have erred logically in
+posing their generalizations against such a <i>vera causa</i> as
+the preservation of favoured individuals and races. The thirty
+years which followed the publication of the <i>Origin of Species</i>
+were characterized chiefly by anatomical and embryological
+work; since then there has been no diminution in anatomical
+and embryological enthusiasm, but many of the continually
+increasing body of investigators have turned again to bionomical
+work. Inasmuch as Lamarck attempted to frame a theory of
+evolution in which the principle of natural selection had no part,
+the interpretation placed on their work by many bionomical
+investigators recalls the theories of Lamarck, and the name
+<i>Neo-Lamarckism</i> has been used of such a school of biologists,
+particularly active in America. The weakness of the Neo-Lamarckian
+view lies in its interpretation of heredity; its
+strength lies in its zealous study of the living world and the
+detection therein of proximate empirical laws, a strength shared
+by very many bionomical investigations, the authors of which
+would prefer to call themselves Darwinians, or to leave themselves
+without sectarian designation.</p>
+
+<p>Statistical inquiry into the facts of life has long been employed,
+and in particular Francis Galton, within the Darwinian period, has
+advocated its employment and developed its methods.
+Within quite recent years, however, a special school
+<span class="sidenote">Biometrics.</span>
+has arisen with the main object of treating the processes
+of evolution quantitatively. Here it is right to speak of
+Karl Pearson as a pioneer of notable importance. It has been
+the habit of biologists to use the terms variation, selection,
+elimination, correlation and so forth, vaguely; the new school,
+which has been strongly reinforced from the side of physical
+science, insists on quantitative measurements of the terms.
+When the anatomist says that one race is characterized by long
+heads, another by round heads, the biometricist demands numbers
+and percentages. When an organ is stated to be variable, the
+biometricist demands statistics to show the range of the variations
+and the mode of their distribution. When a character is
+said to be favoured by natural selection, the biometricist demands
+investigation of the death-rate of individuals with or without
+the character. When a character is said to be transmitted, or
+to be correlated with another character, the biometricist declares
+the statement valueless without numerical estimations of the
+inheritance or correlation. The subject is still so new, and its
+technical methods (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation and Selection</a></span>) have as
+yet spread so little beyond the group which is formulating and
+defining them, that it is difficult to do more than guess at the
+importance of the results likely to be gained. Enough, however,
+has already been done to show the vast importance of the
+method in grouping and codifying the empirical facts of life,
+and in so preparing the way for the investigation of ultimate
+&ldquo;causes.&rdquo; The chief pitfall appears to be the tendency to attach
+more meaning to the results than from their nature they can bear.
+The ultimate value of numerical inquiries must depend on the
+equivalence of the units on which they are based. Many of
+the characters that up to the present have been dealt with by
+biometrical inquiry are obviously composite. The height or
+length of the arm of a human being, for instance, is the result
+of many factors, some inherent, some due to environment, and
+until these have been sifted out, numerical laws of inheritance
+or of correlation can have no more than an empirical value.
+The analysis of composite characters into their indivisible units
+and statistical inquiry into the behaviour of the units would
+seem to be a necessary part of biometric investigation, and one
+to which much further attention will have to be paid.</p>
+
+<p>It is well known that Darwin was deeply impressed by differences
+in flora and fauna, which seemed to be functions of
+locality, and not the result of obvious dissimilarities of
+environment. A.R. Wallace&rsquo;s studies of island life,
+<span class="sidenote">Segregation.</span>
+and the work of many different observers on local
+races of animals and plants, marine, fluviatile and terrestrial,
+have brought about a conception of segregation as apart from
+differences of environment as being one of the factors in the
+differentiation of living forms. The segregation may be geographical,
+or may be the result of preferential mating, or of
+seasonal mating, and its effects plainly can be made no more of
+than proximate or empirical laws of differentiation, of great
+importance in codifying and simplifying the facts to be explained.
+The minute attention paid by modern systematists to the exact
+localities of subspecies and races is bringing together a vast
+store of facts which will throw further light on the problem
+of segregation, but the difficulty of utilizing these facts is increased
+by an unfortunate tendency to make locality itself one
+of the diagnostic characters.</p>
+
+<p>Consideration of phylogenetic series, especially from the
+palaeontological side, has led many writers to the conception
+that there is something of the nature of a growth-force
+inherent in organisms and tending inevitably towards
+<span class="sidenote">Bathmism.</span>
+divergent evolution. It is suggested that even in the absence of
+modification produced by any possible Darwinian or Lamarckian
+factors, that even in a neutral environment, divergent evolution
+of some kind would have occurred. The conception is necessarily
+somewhat hazy, but the words <i>bathmism</i> and <i>bathmic Evolution</i>
+have been employed by a number of writers for some such
+conception. Closely connected with it, and probably underlying
+many of the facts which have led to it, is a more definite
+group of ideas that may be brought together under the phrase
+&ldquo;phylogenetic limitation of variation.&rdquo; In its simplest form,
+this phrase implies such an obvious fact as that whatever be the
+future development of, say, existing cockroaches, it will be on
+lines determined by the present structure of these creatures.
+In a more general way, the phrase implies that at each successive
+branching of the tree of life, the branches become more specialized,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page37" id="page37"></a>37</span>
+more defined, and, in a sense, more limited. The full implications
+of the group of ideas require, and are likely to receive, much
+attention in the immediate future of biological investigation,
+but it is enough at present to point out that until the more
+obvious lines of inquiry have been opened out much more fully,
+we cannot be in a position to guess at the existence of a residuum,
+for which such a metaphysical conception as bathmism would
+serve even as a convenient disguise for ignorance.</p>
+
+<p>Almost every side of zoology has contributed to the theory
+of evolution, but of special importance are the facts and theories
+associated with the names of Gregor Mendel, A. Weismann
+and Hugo de Vries. These are discussed under the headings
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Heredity</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Mendelism</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Variation and Selection</a></span>. It
+has been a feature of great promise in recent contributions to the
+theory of evolution, that such contributions have received
+attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of
+observation and the new series of facts with which they have
+come. Those have found little favour who brought to the
+debate only formal criticisms or amplifications of the Darwinian
+arguments, or re-marshallings of the Darwinian facts, however
+ably conducted. The time has not yet come for the attempt
+to synthesize the results of the many different and often
+apparently antagonistic groups of workers. The great work that
+is going on is the simplification of the facts to be explained by
+grouping them under empirical laws; and the most general statement
+relating to these that can yet be made is that no single one
+of these laws has as yet shown signs of taking rank as a <i>vera causa</i>
+comparable with the Darwinian principle of natural selection.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For evolution in relation to society see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sociology</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">References.</span>&mdash;Practically, every botanical and zoological publication
+of recent date has its bearing on evolution. The following
+are a few of the more general works: Bateson, <i>Materials for the
+Study of Variation</i>; Bunge, <i>Vitalismus und Mechanismus</i>; Cope,
+<i>Origin of the Fittest</i>, <i>Primary Factors of Organic Evolution</i>, <i>Darwin&rsquo;s
+Life and Letters</i>; H. de Vries, <i>Species and Varieties and their Origin
+by Mutation</i>; Eimer, <i>Organic Evolution</i>; Gulick, &ldquo;Divergent
+Evolution through Cumulative Segregation,&rdquo; <i>Jour. Linn. Soc.</i> xx.;
+Haacke, <i>Schöpfung des Menschen</i>; Mitchell, &ldquo;Valuation of Zoological
+Characters,&rdquo; <i>Trans. Linn. Soc.</i> viii. pt. 7; Pearson, <i>Grammar
+of Science</i>; Romanes, <i>Darwin and after Darwin</i>; Sedgwick, Presidential
+Address to Section Zoology, <i>Brit. Ass. Rep. 1899</i>; Wallace,
+<i>Darwinism</i>; Weismann, <i>The Germ-Plasm</i>. Further references of
+great value will be found in the works of Bateson and Pearson
+referred to above, and in the annual volumes of the <i>Zoological
+Record</i>, particularly under the head &ldquo;General Subject.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. C. M.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1c" id="ft1c" href="#fa1c"><span class="fn">1</span></a> This is brought out by F. Lassalle, <i>Die Philosophie Herakleitos</i>,
+p. 126.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2c" id="ft2c" href="#fa2c"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Zeller says that through this distinction Aristotle first made
+possible the idea of development.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3c" id="ft3c" href="#fa3c"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See this well brought out in G.H. Lewes&rsquo;s <i>Aristotle</i>, p. 187.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4c" id="ft4c" href="#fa4c"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Grote calls attention to the contrast between Plato&rsquo;s and Aristotle&rsquo;s
+way of conceiving the gradations of mind (<i>Aristotle</i>, ii. 171).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5c" id="ft5c" href="#fa5c"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Zeller observes that this scale of decreasing perfection is a
+necessary consequence of the idea of a transcendent deity.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6c" id="ft6c" href="#fa6c"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Mélanges de philosophie juive et arabe, p. 225.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7c" id="ft7c" href="#fa7c"><span class="fn">7</span></a> Yet he leaves open the question whether the Deity has annexed
+thought to matter as a faculty, or whether it rests on a distinct
+spiritual principle.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8c" id="ft8c" href="#fa8c"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Locke half playfully touches on certain monsters, with respect
+to which it is difficult to determine whether they ought to be called
+men. (<i>Essay</i>, book iii. ch. vi. sect. 26, 27.)</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9c" id="ft9c" href="#fa9c"><span class="fn">9</span></a> A similar coincidence between the teleological and the modern
+evolutional way of viewing things is to be met with in Locke&rsquo;s account
+of the use of pain in relation to the preservation of our being (bk. ii.
+ch. vii. sect. 4).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10c" id="ft10c" href="#fa10c"><span class="fn">10</span></a> <i>Philosophy of History</i> (1893), p. 103, where an interesting sketch
+of the growth of the idea of progress is to be found.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11c" id="ft11c" href="#fa11c"><span class="fn">11</span></a> G.H. Lewes points out that Leibnitz is inconsistent in his account
+of the intelligence of man in relation to that of lower animals, since
+when answering Locke he no longer regards these as differing in
+degree only.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12c" id="ft12c" href="#fa12c"><span class="fn">12</span></a> Both Lewes and du Bois Reymond have brought out the points
+of contact between Leibnitz&rsquo;s theory of monads and modern biological
+speculations (<i>Hist. of Phil.</i> ii. 287, and <i>Leibnitzsche Gedanken
+in der modernen Naturwissenschaft</i>, p. 23 seq.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13c" id="ft13c" href="#fa13c"><span class="fn">13</span></a> For Herder&rsquo;s position in relation to the modern doctrine of evolution
+see F. von Bärenbach&rsquo;s <i>Herder als Vorgänger Darwins</i>, a work
+which tends to exaggerate the proximity of the two writers.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft14c" id="ft14c" href="#fa14c"><span class="fn">14</span></a> Kant held it probable that other planets besides our earth are
+inhabited, and that their inhabitants form a scale of beings, their
+perfection increasing with the distance of the planet which they
+inhabit from the sun.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft15c" id="ft15c" href="#fa15c"><span class="fn">15</span></a> Kant calls the doctrine of the transmutation of species &ldquo;a
+hazardous fancy of the reason.&rdquo; Yet, as Strauss and others have
+shown, Kant&rsquo;s mind betrayed a decided leaning at times to a more
+mechanical conception of organic forms as related by descent.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft16c" id="ft16c" href="#fa16c"><span class="fn">16</span></a> Hegel somewhere says that the question of the eternal duration
+of the world is unanswerable: time as well as space can be predicated
+of finitudes only.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft17c" id="ft17c" href="#fa17c"><span class="fn">17</span></a> <i>The Exercitationes de generatione animalium</i>, which Dr George
+Ent extracted from him and published in 1651.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft18c" id="ft18c" href="#fa18c"><span class="fn">18</span></a> <i>De generatione animalium</i>, lib. ii. cap. x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft19c" id="ft19c" href="#fa19c"><span class="fn">19</span></a> <i>De generatione animalium</i>, lib. ii. cap. iv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft20c" id="ft20c" href="#fa20c"><span class="fn">20</span></a> &ldquo;Cependant, pour revenir aux formes ordinaires ou aux âmes
+matérielles, cette durée qu&rsquo;il leur faut attribuer, à la place de celle
+qu&rsquo;on avoit attribuée aux atomes pourroit faire douter si elles ne vont
+pas de corps en corps; ce qui seroit la métempsychose, à peu près
+comme quelques philosophes ont cru la transmission du mouvement
+et celle des espèces. Mais cette imagination est bien éloignée de
+la nature des choses. Il n&rsquo;y a point de tel passage; et c&rsquo;est ici
+où les transformations de Messieurs Swammerdam, Malpighi, et
+Leewenhoek, qui sont des plus excellens observateurs de notre tems,
+sont venues à mon secours et m&rsquo;ont fait admettre plus aisément, que
+l&rsquo;animal, et toute autre substance organisée ne commence point
+lorsque nous le croyons, et que sa génération apparente n&rsquo;est qu&rsquo;un
+développement et une espèce d&rsquo;augmentation. Aussi ai-je remarqué
+que l&rsquo;auteur de la <i>Recherche de la vérité</i>, M. Regis, M. Harts&oelig;ker,
+et d&rsquo;autres habiles hommes n&rsquo;ont pas été fort éloignés de ce sentiment.&rdquo;
+Leibnitz, <i>Système nouveau de la nature</i> (1695). The doctrine
+of &ldquo;Emboîtement&rdquo; is contained in the <i>Considérations sur le principe
+de vie</i> (1705); the preface to the <i>Théodicée</i> (1710); and the <i>Principes
+de la nature et de la grâce</i> (§ 6) (1718).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft21c" id="ft21c" href="#fa21c"><span class="fn">21</span></a> &ldquo;Il est vrai que la pensée la plus raisonnable et la plus conforme
+à l&rsquo;expérience sur cette question très difficile de la formation du
+f&oelig;tus; c&rsquo;est que les enfans sont déjà presque tout formés avant
+même l&rsquo;action par laquelle ils sont conçus; et que leurs mères ne
+font que leur donner l&rsquo;accroissement ordinaire dans le temps de la
+grossesse.&rdquo; <i>De la recherche de la vérité</i>, livre ii. chap. vii. p. 334
+(7th ed., 1721).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft22c" id="ft22c" href="#fa22c"><span class="fn">22</span></a> <i>Considérations sur les corps organisés</i>, chap. x.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft23c" id="ft23c" href="#fa23c"><span class="fn">23</span></a> Bonnet had the courage of his opinions, and in the <i>Palingénésie
+philosophique</i>, part vi. chap, iv., he develops a hypothesis which he
+terms &ldquo;évolution naturelle&rdquo;; and which, making allowance for his
+peculiar views of the nature of generation, bears no small resemblance
+to what is understood by &ldquo;evolution&rdquo; at the present day:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Si la volonté divine a créé par un seul Acte l&rsquo;Universalité des
+êtres, d&rsquo;où venoient ces plantes et ces animaux dont Moyse nous
+décrit la Production au troisième et au cinquième jour du renouvellement
+de notre monde?</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Abuserois-je de la liberté de conjectures si je disois, que les
+Plantes et les Animaux qui existent aujourd&rsquo;hui sont parvenus par
+une sorte d&rsquo;évolution naturelle des Êtres organisés qui peuplaient ce
+premier Monde, sorti immédiatement des <span class="sc">Mains</span> du <span class="sc">Créateur</span>?...</p>
+
+<p>&ldquo;Ne supposons que trois révolutions. La Terre vient de sortir
+des <span class="sc">Mains</span> du <span class="sc">Créateur</span>. Des causes préparées par sa Sagesse font
+développer de toutes parts les Germes. Les Êtres organisés commencent
+à jouir de l&rsquo;existence. Ils étoient probablement alors bien
+différens de ce qu&rsquo;ils sont aujourd&rsquo;hui. Ils l&rsquo;étoient autant que
+ce premier Monde différoit de celui que nous habitons. Nous
+manquons de moyens pour juger de ces dissemblances, et peut-être
+que le plus habile Naturaliste qui auroit été placé dans ce premier
+Monde y auroit entièrement méconnu nos Plantes et nos Animaux.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft24c" id="ft24c" href="#fa24c"><span class="fn">24</span></a> &ldquo;Ce mot (germe) ne désignera pas seulement un corps organisé
+<i>réduit en petit</i>; il désignera encore toute espèce de <i>préformation
+originelle dont un Tout organique peut résulter comme de son principe
+immédiat.&rdquo;&mdash;Palingénésie philosophique</i>, part. x. chap. ii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft25c" id="ft25c" href="#fa25c"><span class="fn">25</span></a> &ldquo;M. Cuvier considérant que tous les êtres organisés sont dérivés
+de parens, et ne voyant dans la nature aucune force capable de
+produire l&rsquo;organisation, croyait à la pré-existence des germes; non
+pas à la pré-existence d&rsquo;un être tout formé, puisqu&rsquo;il est bien évident
+que ce n&rsquo;est que par des développemens successifs que l&rsquo;être acquiert
+sa forme; mais, si l&rsquo;on peut s&rsquo;exprimer ainsi, à la pré-existence du
+radical de l&rsquo;être, radical qui existe avant que la série des évolutions
+ne commence, et qui remonte certainement, suivant la belle observation
+de Bonnet, à plusieurs générations.&rdquo;&mdash;Laurillard, <i>Éloge de
+Cuvier</i>, note 12.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft26c" id="ft26c" href="#fa26c"><span class="fn">26</span></a> <i>Histoire naturelle</i>, tom. ii. ed. ii. (1750), p. 350.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft27c" id="ft27c" href="#fa27c"><span class="fn">27</span></a> <i>Ibid.</i> p. 351.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft28c" id="ft28c" href="#fa28c"><span class="fn">28</span></a> See particularly Buffon, l.c. p. 41.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft29c" id="ft29c" href="#fa29c"><span class="fn">29</span></a> As Buffon has well said:&mdash;&ldquo;L&rsquo;idée de ramener l&rsquo;explication de
+tous les phénomènes à des principes mécaniques est assurément
+grande et belle, ce pas est le plus hardi qu&rsquo;on peut faire en philosophie,
+et c&rsquo;est Descartes qui l&rsquo;a fait.&rdquo;&mdash;l.c. p. 50.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft30c" id="ft30c" href="#fa30c"><span class="fn">30</span></a> <i>Principes de la philosophie</i>, Troisième partie, § 45.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft31c" id="ft31c" href="#fa31c"><span class="fn">31</span></a> <i>Ethices</i>, Pars tertia, Praefatio.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft32c" id="ft32c" href="#fa32c"><span class="fn">32</span></a> <i>Système de la Nature. Essai sur la formation des corps organisés</i>,
+1751, xiv.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft33c" id="ft33c" href="#fa33c"><span class="fn">33</span></a> <i>Considérations philosophiques sur la gradation naturelle des
+formes de l&rsquo;être; ou les essais de la nature qui apprend à faire l&rsquo;homme</i>
+(1768).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft34c" id="ft34c" href="#fa34c"><span class="fn">34</span></a> <i>Recherches sur les causes des principaux faits physiques</i>, par J.B.
+Lamarck. Paris. Seconde année de la République. In the preface,
+Lamarck says that the work was written in 1776, and presented to
+the Academy in 1780; but it was not published before 1794, and at
+that time it presumably expressed Lamarck&rsquo;s mature views. It
+would be interesting to know what brought about the change of
+opinion manifested in the <i>Recherches sur l&rsquo;organisation des corps
+vivants</i>, published only seven years later.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft35c" id="ft35c" href="#fa35c"><span class="fn">35</span></a> See the &ldquo;Historical Sketch&rdquo; prefixed to the last edition of the
+<i>Origin of Species</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft36c" id="ft36c" href="#fa36c"><span class="fn">36</span></a> <i>First Principles and Principles of Biology</i> (1860-1864).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft37c" id="ft37c" href="#fa37c"><span class="fn">37</span></a> <i>Generelle Morphologie</i> (1866).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft38c" id="ft38c" href="#fa38c"><span class="fn">38</span></a> &ldquo;Il s&rsquo;agit donc de prouver que la série qui constitute l&rsquo;échelle
+animale réside essentiellement dans la distribution des masses principals
+qui la composent et non dans celle des espèces ni même toujours
+dans celle des genres.&rdquo;&mdash;<i>Phil. zoologique</i>, chap. v.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft39c" id="ft39c" href="#fa39c"><span class="fn">39</span></a> <i>Philosophie zoologique</i>, première partie, chap. iii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft40c" id="ft40c" href="#fa40c"><span class="fn">40</span></a> &ldquo;Entwurf einer Darstellung der zwischen dem Embryozustände
+der höheren Thiere und dem per manenten der niederen stattfindenden
+Parallele,&rdquo; <i>Beyträge zur vergleichenden Anatomie</i>, Bd. ii. 1811.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EVORA,<a name="ar33" id="ar33"></a></span> the capital of an administrative district in the
+province of Alemtejo, Portugal; 72 m. E. by S. of Lisbon, on
+the Casa Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1900) 16,020.
+Evora occupies a fertile valley enclosed by low hills. It is surrounded
+by ramparts flanked with towers, and is further
+defended by two forts; but the neglected condition of these,
+combined with the narrow arcaded streets and crumbling walls
+of Roman or Moorish masonry, gives the city an appearance
+corresponding with its real antiquity. Evora is the see of an
+archbishop, and has several churches, convents and hospitals,
+barracks, a diocesan school and a museum. A university,
+founded in 1550, was abolished on the expulsion of the Jesuits
+in the 18th century. The cathedral, originally a Romanesque
+building erected 1186-1204, was restored in Gothic style about
+1400; its richly decorated chancel was added in 1761. The
+church of São Francisco (1507-1525) is a good example of the
+blended Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoellian.
+The art gallery, formerly the archbishop&rsquo;s palace, contains a
+collection of Portuguese and early Flemish paintings. An
+ancient tower, and the so-called aqueduct of Sertorius, 9 m.
+long, have been partly demolished to make room for the market-square,
+in which one of the largest fairs in Portugal is held at
+midsummer. Both tower and aqueduct were long believed to
+have been of Roman origin, but are now known to have been
+constructed about 1540-1555 in the reign of John III., at the
+instance of an antiquary named Resende. The aqueduct was
+probably constructed on the site of the old Roman one. A small
+Roman temple is used as a public library; it is usually known
+as the temple of Diana, a name for which no valid authority
+exists. Evora is of little commercial importance, except as an
+agricultural centre, but its neighbourhood is famous for its mules
+and abounds in cork-woods; there are also mines of iron, copper,
+and asbestos and marble quarries.</p>
+
+<p>Under its original name of <i>Ebora</i>, the city was from 80 to 72 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>
+the headquarters of Sertorius, and it long remained an important
+Roman military station. It was called <i>Liberalitas Juliae</i> on
+account of certain municipal privileges bestowed on it by
+Julius Caesar (<i>c.</i> 100-44 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Its bishopric, founded in the
+5th century, was raised to an archbishopric in the 16th. In
+712 Evora was conquered by the Moors, who named it <i>Jabura</i>;
+and it was only retaken in 1166. <span class="correction" title="amended from Fom">From</span> 1663 to 1665 it was held
+by the Spaniards. In 1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom
+Pedro, took refuge in Evora; and here was signed the convention
+of Evora, by which he was banished. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Portugal</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>The administrative district of Evora coincides with the central
+part of Alemtejo (<i>q.v.</i>); pop. (1900) 128,062; area, 2856 sq. m.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">ÉVREUX,<a name="ar34" id="ar34"></a></span> a town of north-western France, capital of the
+department of Eure, 67 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the Western
+railway to Cherbourg. Pop. (1906) town, 13,773; commune,
+18,971. Situated in the pleasant valley of the Iton, arms of
+which traverse it, the town, on the south, slopes up toward
+the public gardens and the railway station. It is the seat of a
+bishop, and its cathedral is one of the largest and finest in France.
+Part of the lower portion of the nave dates from the 11th century;
+the west façade with its two ungainly towers is, for the most part,
+the work of the late Renaissance, and various styles of the
+intervening period are represented in the rest of the church.
+A thorough restoration was completed in 1896. The elaborate
+north transept and portal are in the flamboyant Gothic; the choir,
+the finest part of the interior, is in an earlier Gothic style.
+Cardinal de la Balue, bishop of Évreux in the latter half of the
+15th century, constructed the octagonal central tower, with its
+elegant spire; to him is also due the Lady chapel, which is remarkable
+for some finely preserved stained glass. Two rose windows
+in the transepts and the carved wooden screens of the side chapels
+are masterpieces of 16th-century workmanship. The episcopal
+palace, a building of the 15th century, adjoins the south side
+of the cathedral. An interesting belfry, facing the handsome
+modern town hall, dates from the 15th century. The church of
+St Taurin, in part Romanesque, has a choir of the 14th century
+and other portions of later date; it contains the shrine of St
+Taurin, a work of the 13th century. At Vieil Évreux, 3½ m.
+south-east of the town, the remains of a Roman theatre, a palace,
+baths and an aqueduct have been discovered, as well as various
+relics which are now deposited in the museum of Évreux. Évreux
+is the seat of a prefect, a court of assizes, of tribunals of first
+instance and commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of
+trade arbitrators, and has a branch of the Bank of France, a
+lycée and training colleges for teachers. The making of ticking,
+boots and shoes, agricultural implements and gas motors, and
+metal-founding and bleaching are carried on.</p>
+
+<p>Vieil-Évreux (<i>Mediolanum Aulercorum</i>) was the capital of the
+Gallic tribe of the <i>Aulerci Eburovices</i> and a flourishing city during
+the Gallo-Roman period. Its bishopric dates from the 4th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The first family of the counts of Évreux which is known
+was descended from an illegitimate son of Richard I., duke of
+Normandy, and became extinct in the male line with the death
+of Count William in 1118. The countship passed in right of Agnes,
+William&rsquo;s sister, wife of Simon de Montfort-l&rsquo;Amaury (d. 1087)
+to the house of the lords of Montfort-l&rsquo;Amaury. Amaury III.
+of Montfort ceded it in 1200 to King Philip Augustus. Philip
+the Fair presented it (1307) to his brother Louis, for whose benefit
+Philip the Long raised the countship of Évreux into a peerage
+of France (1317). Philip of Évreux, son of Louis, became king
+of Navarre by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of Louis the
+Headstrong (Hutin), and their son Charles the Bad and their
+grandson Charles the Noble were also kings of Navarre. The
+latter ceded his countships of Évreux, Champagne and Brie
+to King Charles VI. (1404). In 1427 the countship of Évreux
+was bestowed by King Charles VII. on Sir John Stuart of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page38" id="page38"></a>38</span>
+Darnley (<i>c.</i> 1365-1429), the commander of his Scottish bodyguard,
+who in 1423 had received the seigniory of Aubigny and
+in February 1427/8 was granted the right to quarter the royal
+arms of France for his victories over the English (see Lady
+Elizabeth Cust, <i>Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny in France,
+1422-1672</i>, 1891). On Stuart&rsquo;s death (before Orleans during an
+attack on an English convoy) the countship reverted to the crown.
+It was again temporarily alienated (1569-1584) as an appanage
+for Francis, duke of Anjou, and in 1651 was finally made over to
+Frédéric Maurice de la Tour d&rsquo;Auvergne, duke of Bouillon, in
+exchange for the principality of Sedan.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON<a name="ar35" id="ar35"></a></span> (1803-1875),
+German Orientalist and theologian, was born on the 16th of
+November 1803 at Göttingen, where his father was a linen-weaver.
+In 1815 he was sent to the gymnasium, and in 1820
+he entered the university of his native town, where under
+J.G. Eichhorn and T.C. Tychsen he devoted himself specially
+to the study of Oriental languages. At the close of his academical
+career in 1823 he was appointed to a mastership in the gymnasium
+at Wolfenbüttel, and made a study of the Oriental manuscripts
+in the Wolfenbüttel library. But in the spring of 1824 he was
+recalled to Göttingen as <i>repetent</i>, or theological tutor, and in
+1827 (the year of Eichhorn&rsquo;s death) he became professor <i>extraordinarius</i>
+in philosophy and lecturer in Old Testament exegesis.
+In 1831 he was promoted to the position of professor <i>ordinarius</i>
+in philosophy; in 1833 he became a member of the Royal
+Scientific Society, and in 1835, after Tychsen&rsquo;s death, he entered
+the faculty of theology, taking the chair of Oriental languages.</p>
+
+<p>Two years later occurred the first important episode in his
+studious life. In 1837, on the 18th of November, along with six
+of his colleagues he signed a formal protest against the action
+of King Ernst August (duke of Cumberland) in abolishing the
+liberal constitution of 1833, which had been granted to the
+Hanoverians by his predecessor William IV. This bold procedure
+of the seven professors led to their speedy expulsion from the
+university (14th December). Early in 1838 Ewald received a
+call to Tübingen, and there for upwards of ten years he held a
+chair as professor <i>ordinarius</i>, first in philosophy and afterwards,
+from 1841, in theology. To this period belong some of his most
+important works, and also the commencement of his bitter feud
+with F.C. Baur and the Tübingen school. In 1847, &ldquo;the great
+shipwreck-year in Germany,&rdquo; as he has called it, he was invited
+back to Göttingen on honourable terms&mdash;the liberal constitution
+having been restored. He gladly accepted the invitation. In
+1862-1863 he took an active part in a movement for reform
+within the Hanoverian Church, and he was a member of the synod
+which passed the new constitution. He had an important share
+also in the formation of the Protestantenverein, or Protestant
+association, in September 1863. But the chief crisis in his life
+arose out of the political events of 1866. His loyalty to King
+George (son of Ernst August) would not permit him to take the
+oath of allegiance to the victorious king of Prussia, and he was
+therefore placed on the retired list, though with the full amount
+of his salary as pension. Perhaps even this degree of severity
+might have been held by the Prussian authorities to be unnecessary,
+had Ewald been less exasperating in his language.
+The violent tone of some of his printed manifestoes about this
+time, especially of his <i>Lob des Königs u. des Volkes</i>, led to his
+being deprived of the <i>venia legendi</i> (1868) and also to a criminal
+process, which, however, resulted in his acquittal (May 1869).
+Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was returned by the
+city of Hanover as a member of the North German and German
+parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on
+Prince Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick II. in
+&ldquo;his unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion
+and morality,&rdquo; to Napoleon III. in his way of &ldquo;picking out the
+best time possible for robbery and plunder.&rdquo; For this offence
+he was sentenced to undergo three weeks&rsquo; imprisonment. He
+died in his 72nd year of heart disease on the 4th of May 1875.</p>
+
+<p>Ewald was no common man. In his public life he displayed
+many noble characteristics,&mdash;perfect simplicity and sincerity,
+intense moral earnestness, sturdy independence, absolute
+fearlessness. As a teacher he had a remarkable power of kindling
+enthusiasm; and he sent out many distinguished pupils, among
+whom may be mentioned Hitzig, Schrader, Nöldeke, Diestel
+and Dillmann. His disciples were not all of one school, but many
+eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by his
+influence have in fact developed some of the many ideas which he
+suggested. His numerous writings, from 1823 onwards, were
+the reservoirs in which the entire energy of a life was stored.
+His <i>Hebrew Grammar</i> inaugurated a new era in biblical philology.
+All subsequent works in that department have been avowedly
+based on his, and to him will always belong the honour of having
+been, as Hitzig has called him, &ldquo;the second founder of the
+science of the Hebrew language.&rdquo; As an exegete and biblical critic
+no less than as a grammarian he has left his abiding mark. His
+<i>Geschichte des Volkes Israël</i>, the result of thirty years&rsquo; labour,
+was epoch-making in that branch of research. While in every line
+it bears the marks of intense individuality, it is at the same time
+a product highly characteristic of the age, and even of the decade,
+in which it appeared. If it is obviously the outcome of immense
+learning on the part of its author, it is no less manifestly the
+result of the speculations and researches of many laborious
+predecessors in all departments of history, theology and philosophy.
+Taking up the idea of a divine education of the human
+race, which Lessing and Herder had made so familiar to the
+modern mind, and firmly believing that to each of the leading
+nations of antiquity a special task had been providentially
+assigned, Ewald felt no difficulty about Israel&rsquo;s place in universal
+history, or about the problem which that race had been called
+upon to solve. The history of Israel, according to him, is simply
+the history of the manner in which the one true religion really
+and truly came into the possession of mankind. Other nations,
+indeed, had attempted the highest problems in religion; but
+Israel alone, in the providence of God, had succeeded, for Israel
+alone had been inspired. Such is the supreme meaning of that
+national history which began with the exodus and culminated
+(at the same time virtually terminating) in the appearing of
+Christ. The historical interval that separated these two events is
+treated as naturally dividing itself into three great periods,&mdash;those
+of Moses, David and Ezra. The periods are externally
+indicated by the successive names by which the chosen people
+were called&mdash;Hebrews, Israelites, Jews. The events prior to
+the exodus are relegated by Ewald to a preliminary chapter of
+primitive history; and the events of the apostolic and post-apostolic
+age are treated as a kind of appendix. The entire construction
+of the history is based, as has already been said, on a
+critical examination and chronological arrangement of the
+available documents. So far as the results of criticism are still
+uncertain with regard to the age and authorship of any of these,
+Ewald&rsquo;s conclusions must of course be regarded as unsatisfactory.
+But his work remains a storehouse of learning and is increasingly
+recognized as a work of rare genius.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Of his works the more important are:&mdash;<i>Die Composition der
+Genesis kritisch untersucht</i> (1823), an acute and able attempt to
+account for the use of the two names of God without recourse to the
+document-hypothesis; he was not himself, however, permanently
+convinced by it; <i>De metris carminum Arabicorum</i> (1825); <i>Das
+Hohelied Salomo&rsquo;s übersetzt u. erklärt</i> (1826; 3rd ed., 1866); <i>Kritische
+Grammatik der hebr. Sprache</i> (1827)&mdash;this afterwards became the
+<i>Ausführliches Lehrbuch der hebr. Sprache</i> (8th ed., 1870); and it was
+followed by the <i>Hebr. Sprachlehre für Anfänger</i> (4th ed., 1874);
+<i>Über einige ältere Sanskritmetra</i> (1827); <i>Liber Vakedii de Mesopotamiae
+expugnatae historia</i> (1827); <i>Commentarius in Apocalypsin
+Johannis</i> (1828); <i>Abhandlungen zur biblischen u. orientalischen
+Literatur</i> (1832); <i>Grammatica critica linguae Arabicae</i> (1831-1833);
+<i>Die poetischen Bücher des alten Bundes</i> (1835-1837, 3rd ed., 1866-1867);
+<i>Die Propheten des alten Bundes</i> (1840-1841, 2nd ed., 1867-1868);
+<i>Geschichte des Volkes Israël</i> (1843-1859, 3rd ed., 1864-1868);
+<i>Alterthümer Israels</i> (1848); <i>Die drei ersten Evangelien übersetzt u.
+erklärt</i> (1850); <i>Über das äthiopische Buch Henoch</i> (1854); <i>Die
+Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus übersetzt u. erklärt</i> (1857); <i>Die
+Johanneischen Schriften übersetzt u. erklärt</i> (1861-1862); <i>Über das
+vierte Esrabuch</i> (1863); <i>Sieben Sendschreiben des neuen Bundes</i>
+(1870); <i>Das Sendschreiben an die Hebräer u. Jakobos&rsquo; Rundschreiben</i>
+(1870); <i>Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, oder Theologie des alten u.
+neuen Bundes</i> (1871-1875). The <i>Jahrbücher der biblischen Wissenschaft</i>
+(1849-1865) were edited, and for the most part written, by
+him. He was the chief promoter of the <i>Zeitschrift für die Kunde des</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page39" id="page39"></a>39</span>
+<i>Morgenlandes</i>, begun in 1837; and he frequently contributed on
+various subjects to the <i>Götting. gelehrte Anzeigen</i>. He was also the
+author of many pamphlets of an occasional character.</p>
+
+<p>The following have been translated into English:&mdash;<i>Hebrew Grammar</i>,
+by John Nicholson (from 2nd German edition) (London 1836);
+<i>Introductory Hebrew Grammar</i> (from 3rd German edition) (London,
+1870); <i>History of Israel</i>, 5 vols. (corresponding to vols. i.-iv. of the
+German), by Russell Martineau and J. Estlin Carpenter (London,
+1867-1874); <i>Antiquities of Israel</i>, by H.S. Solly (London, 1876);
+<i>Commentary on the Prophets of the Old Testament</i>, by J. Frederick
+Smith (2 vols., London, 1876-1877); <i>Isaiah the Prophet</i>, chaps.
+i.-xxxiii., by O. Glover (London, 1869); <i>Life of Jesus Christ</i>, also
+by O. Glover (London, 1865).</p>
+
+<p>See the article in Herzog-Hauck; T. Witton Davies, <i>Heinrich
+Ewald</i> (1903); and cf. T.K. Cheyne, <i>Founders of Old Testament
+Criticism</i> (1893); F. Lichtenberger, <i>History of German Theology in
+the Nineteenth Century</i> (1889).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWALD, JOHANNES<a name="ar36" id="ar36"></a></span> (1743-1781), the greatest lyrical poet of
+Denmark, was the son of a melancholy and sickly chaplain at
+Copenhagen, where he was born on the 18th of November 1743.
+At the age of eleven he was sent to school at Schleswig, his
+father&rsquo;s birthplace, and returned to the capital only to enter
+the university in 1758. His father was by that time dead, and
+in his mother, a frivolous and foolish woman, he found neither
+sympathy nor moral support. At fifteen he fell passionately
+in love with Arense Hulegaard, a girl whose father afterwards
+married the poet&rsquo;s mother; and the romantic boy resolved on
+various modes of making himself admired by the young lady.
+He began to learn Abyssinian, for the purpose of going out as a
+missionary to Africa, but this scheme was soon given up, and he
+persuaded a brother, four years older than himself, to run away
+that they might enlist as hussars in the Prussian army. They
+managed to reach Hamburg just when the Seven Years&rsquo; War
+was commencing and were allowed to enter a regiment. But
+the elder brother soon got tired and ran away, while the poet,
+after a series of extraordinary adventures, deserted to the
+Austrian army, where from being drummer he rose to being
+sergeant, and was only not made an officer because he was a
+Protestant. In 1760 he was weary of a soldier&rsquo;s life and deserted
+again, getting safe back to Denmark. For the next two years
+he worked with great diligence at the university, but the Arense
+for whom he had gone through so much hardship and taken so
+much pains married another man almost immediately after
+Ewald&rsquo;s final and very successful examination. The disappointment
+was one from which he never recovered, but his own
+weakness of will was largely to blame for it. He plunged into
+dissipation of every kind, and gave his serious thoughts only to
+poetry.</p>
+
+<p>In 1763 his first work, a perfunctory dissertation, <i>De pyrologia
+sacra</i>, first saw the light. In 1764 he made a considerable success
+with a short prose story in the popular manner of Sneedorf,
+<i>Lykkens Tempel</i> (The Temple of Fortune), which was translated
+into German and Icelandic. On the death of Frederick V., however,
+Ewald first appeared prominently as a poet; he published in
+1766 three <i>Elegies</i> over the dead king, which were received with
+universal acclamation, and of which one, at least, is a veritable
+masterpiece. But his dramatic poem <i>Adam og Eva</i> (Adam and
+Eve), by far the finest imaginative work produced in Denmark
+up to that time, was rejected by the Society of Arts in 1767 and
+was not published until 1769. At the latter date, however, its
+merits were perceived. In 1770 Ewald attained success with
+<i>Philet</i>, a narrative and lyrical poem, and still more with his
+splendid <i>Rolf Krage</i>, the first original Danish tragedy. For the
+next ten years Ewald was occupied in producing one brilliant
+poetical work after another, in rapid succession. In 1771 he
+published <i>De brutale Klappers</i> (The Brutal Clappers), a tragi-comedy
+or parody satirizing the dispute then raging between
+the critics and the manager of the Royal Theatre; in 1772
+he translated from the German the lyrical drama of <i>Philemon
+and Baucis</i>, and brought out his versified comedy of <i>Harlequin
+Patriot</i>, a satire on the passion for political scribbling created by
+Struensee&rsquo;s introduction of the liberty of the press. In 1773 he
+published <i>Pebersvendene</i> (Old Bachelors), a prose comedy.
+In 1771 he had already collected some of his lyrical poems under
+the title of <i>Adskilligt af Johannes Ewald</i> (Miscellanies). In 1774
+appeared the heroic opera of <i>Balder&rsquo;s Död</i> (Balder&rsquo;s Death),
+and in 1779 the finest of his works, the lyrical drama <i>Fiskerne</i>
+(The Fishers), which contains the Danish National Song, &ldquo;King
+Christian stood by the high Mast,&rdquo; his most famous lyric. In
+the two poems last mentioned, however, Ewald passed beyond
+contemporary taste, and these great works, the pride of Danish
+literature, were coldly received. But while the new poetry was
+slowly winning its way into popular esteem, the poet did not lack
+admirers, and at the head of these he founded in 1775 the Danish
+Literary Society, a body which became influential, and which
+made the study of Ewald a cultus. But the poet&rsquo;s health had
+broken; when he was writing <i>Rolf Krage</i> he was already an
+inmate of the consumptive hospital, and when he seemed to be
+recovering, his health was shattered again by a night spent in the
+frosty streets. He embittered his existence by the recklessness
+of his private life, and finally, through a fall from a horse, he
+ended by becoming a complete invalid. His last ten years were
+full of acute suffering; his mother treated him with cruelty,
+his family with neglect, and but few even of his friends showed
+any manliness or generosity towards him. In 1774 he was placed
+in the house of an inspector of fisheries at Rungsted, where
+Anna Hedevig Jacobsen, the daughter of the house, tended the
+wasted poet with infinite tenderness and skill. He stayed in
+this house for three years, and wrote there some of his finest later
+lyrics. Meanwhile he had fallen deeply in love with the charming
+solace of his sufferings and won her consent to a marriage.
+This step, however, was prevented by his family, who roughly
+removed him to their own keeping near Kronborg. Here he
+was treated so infamously that he insisted on being taken back
+to Copenhagen in 1777, where he found an older, but no less
+tender nurse, in Ane Kirstine Skou. Here he wrote <i>Fiskerne</i>
+with his imagination full of the familiar shore at Hornbaek,
+near Rungsted. In 1780 he was a little better, and managed to
+be present at the theatre at the first performance of his poem.
+But this excitement hastened his end, and after months of extreme
+agony he died on the 17th of March 1781, and was carried to
+the grave by a large assembly of his admirers, since he was now
+just recognized by the public for the first time as the greatest
+national poet. Among his papers were found fragments of
+three dramas, two on old Scandinavian subjects, entitled
+<i>Frode</i> and <i>Helgo</i>, and the third a tragedy on the story of
+<i>Hamlet</i>, which he meant to treat in a way wholly distinct from
+Shakespeare&rsquo;s.</p>
+
+<p>Ewald belongs to the race of poetical reformers who appeared
+in all countries of Europe at the end of the 18th century; but it is
+interesting to observe that in point of time he preceded all of
+them. He was born six years earlier than Goethe and Alfieri,
+sixteen years before Schiller, nine years before André Chénier,
+and twenty-seven years earlier than Wordsworth, but he did for
+Denmark what each of these poets did for his own country.
+Ewald found Danish literature given over to tasteless rhetoric,
+and without art or vigour. He introduced vivacity of style,
+freshness and brevity of form, and an imaginative study of nature
+which was then unprecedented. But perhaps his greatest claim
+to notice is the fact that he was the first person to call the attention
+of the Scandinavian peoples to the treasuries of their ancient
+history and mythology, and to suggest the use of these in imaginative
+writing. With a colouring more distinctly modern than that
+of Collins and Gray, his lyrics yet resemble the odes of these his
+English contemporaries more closely than those of any continental
+poet; from another point of view his ballads remind us of those
+of Schiller, which they preceded. His dramas, which had an
+immense influence on the Danish stage, are now chiefly of antiquarian
+interest, with the exception of &ldquo;The Fishers,&rdquo; a work
+that must always live as a great national poem. In personal
+character and in fate Ewald seems to have been not unlike
+Heinrich Heine.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The first collected edition of Ewald&rsquo;s works began to appear in
+his lifetime. It is in four volumes, 1780-1784. His works have
+constantly been reprinted, but the standard edition is that by
+Liebenberg, in 8 vols., 1850-1855. The best biographies of him are
+those by C. Molbech (1831), Hammerich (1860) and Andreas Dolleris
+(1900).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page40" id="page40"></a>40</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWART, WILLIAM<a name="ar37" id="ar37"></a></span> (1798-1869), English politician, was
+born in Liverpool on the 1st of May 1798. He was educated at
+Eton and Christ Church, Oxford, gaining the Newdigate prize
+for English verse. He was called to the bar at the Middle
+Temple in 1827, and the next year entered parliament for the
+borough of Bletchingley in Surrey. He subsequently sat for
+Liverpool from 1830 to 1837, for Wigan in 1839, and for Dumfries
+Burghs from 1841 until his retirement from public life in 1868.
+He died at Broadleas, near Devizes, on the 23rd of January 1869,
+Ewart, who was an advanced liberal in politics, was responsible
+during his long political career for many useful measures. In
+1834 he carried a bill for the abolition of hanging in chains, and
+in 1837 he was successful in getting an act passed for abolishing
+capital punishment for cattle-stealing and other offences. In
+1850 he carried a bill for establishing free libraries supported out
+of the rates, and in 1864 he was instrumental in getting an act
+passed for legalizing the use of the metric system of weights and
+measures. He was always a strong advocate for the abolition
+of capital punishment, and on his motion in 1864 a select committee
+was appointed to consider the subject. Other reforms
+which he advocated and which have since been carried out were
+an annual statement on education, and the examination of
+candidates for the civil service and army.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">E&#7810;E<a name="ar38" id="ar38"></a></span>, a group of Negro peoples of the Slave Coast, West
+Africa. By the natives their country is called <i>E&#7811;e-me</i>, &ldquo;Land
+of the E&#7811;e.&rdquo; The E&#7811;e family forms five linguistic groups:
+the Anlo or Anglawa on the Gold Coast frontier, the Krepi of
+Anfueh speech, the Jeji, the Dahomeyans and the Mahi.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further Dahomey, and A.B. Ellis, <i>The E&#7811;e-Speaking Peoples
+of the Slave Coast</i> ... (London, 1890).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT<a name="ar39" id="ar39"></a></span> (1817-1872), American
+soldier, lieutenant-general in the Confederate army, was born in
+Georgetown, now a part of Washington, D.C., on the 2nd of
+February 1817, and graduated at West Point in 1840. As a
+cavalry officer he saw much active service in the Mexican War
+and later in Indian warfare in New Mexico. He resigned his
+commission at the outbreak of the Civil War, and entered the
+Confederate service. He commanded a brigade in the first Bull
+Run campaign, and a division in the famous Valley Campaign
+of &ldquo;Stonewall&rdquo; Jackson, to whom he was next in rank. At Cross
+Keys he was in command of the forces which defeated General
+Frémont. Ewell&rsquo;s division served with Jackson in the Seven
+Days and in the campaign of Second Bull Run. At the action
+of Groveton Ewell lost a leg, but did not on that account retire
+from active service, though other generals led his men in the
+sanguinary battles of Antietam (where they lost 47% of their
+numbers) and Fredericksburg. After the death of &ldquo;Stonewall&rdquo;
+Jackson, Ewell was promoted lieutenant-general and appointed
+to command the 2nd Corps, with which he had served from the
+beginning of the Valley Campaign. His promotion set aside
+General J.E.B. Stuart, the temporary commander of Jackson&rsquo;s
+corps; that Ewell, crippled as he was, was preferred to the
+brilliant cavalry leader was a marked testimony to his sterling
+qualities as a soldier. The invasion of Pennsylvania soon
+followed, Ewell&rsquo;s corps leading the advance of Lee&rsquo;s army. A
+federal force was skilfully cut off and destroyed near Winchester,
+Va., and Ewell&rsquo;s corps then raided Maryland and southern
+Pennsylvania unchecked. At the battle of Gettysburg, the
+2nd Corps decided the fighting of the first day in favour of
+the Confederates, driving the enemy before them; on the
+second day it fought a desperate action on Lee&rsquo;s left wing.
+Ewell took part in the closing operations of 1863 and in all the
+battles of the Wilderness and Petersburg campaigns. In the
+final campaign of 1865 he and the remnant of his corps were cut
+off and forced to surrender at Sailor&rsquo;s Creek, a few days before
+his chief capitulated to Grant at Appomattox. After the war
+General Ewell lived in retirement. He died near Spring Hill,
+Maury County, Tennessee, on the 25th of January 1872.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWING, ALEXANDER<a name="ar40" id="ar40"></a></span> (1814-1873), Scottish divine, was
+born of an old Highland family in Aberdeen on the 25th of
+March 1814. In October 1838 he was admitted to deacon&rsquo;s
+orders, and after his return from Italy he took charge of the
+episcopal congregation at Forres, and was ordained a presbyter
+in the autumn of 1841. In 1846 he was elected first bishop of
+the newly restored diocese of Argyll and the Isles, the duties of
+which position he discharged till his death on the 22nd of May
+1873. In 1851 he received the degree of D.C.L. from the university
+of Oxford. Though hampered by a delicate bodily constitution,
+he worked in a spirit of buoyant cheerfulness. By the
+charm of his personal manner and his catholic sympathies he
+gradually attained a prominent position. In theological discussion
+he contended for the exercise of a wide tolerance, and
+attached little importance to ecclesiastical authority and
+organization. His own theological position had close affinity
+with that of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Frederick
+Denison Maurice; but his opinions were the fruit of his own
+meditation, and were coloured by his own individuality. The
+trend of his teaching is only to be gathered from fragmentary
+publications&mdash;letters to the newspapers, pamphlets, special
+sermons, essays contributed to the series of <i>Present Day Papers</i>,
+of which he was the editor, and a volume of sermons entitled
+<i>Revelation considered as Light</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Besides his strictly theological writings, Ewing was the author
+of the <i>Cathedral or Abbey Church of Iona</i> (1865), the first part of
+which contains drawings and descriptive letterpress of the ruins,
+and the second a history of the early Celtic church and the mission
+of St Columba. See <i>Memoir of Alexander Ewing, D.C.L.</i>, by A.J.
+Ross (1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR<a name="ar41" id="ar41"></a></span> (1841-1885), English
+writer of books for children, daughter of the Rev. Alfred Gatty
+and of Margaret Gatty (<i>q.v.</i>), was born at Ecclesfield, Yorkshire,
+in 1841. One of a large family, she was accustomed to act as
+nursery story-teller to her brothers and sisters, and her brother
+Alfred Scott Gatty provided music to accompany her plays.
+She was well educated in classics and modern languages, and at
+an early age began to publish verses, being a contributor to
+<i>Aunt Judy&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, which her mother started in 1866. <i>The
+Land of Lost Toys</i> and many other of Juliana&rsquo;s stories appeared
+in this magazine. In 1867 she married Major Alexander Ewing,
+himself an author, and the composer of the well-known hymn
+&ldquo;Jerusalem the Golden.&rdquo; From this time until her death
+(13th <span class="correction" title="amended from may">May</span> 1885), previously to which she had been a constant
+invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming children&rsquo;s
+stories. The best of these are: <i>The Brownies</i> (1870), <i>A Flat-Iron
+for a Farthing</i> (1873), <i>Lob-lie-by the Fire</i> (1874), <i>The Story of a
+Short Life</i> (1885) and <i>Jackanapes</i> (1884), the two last-named, in
+particular, obtaining great success; among others may be
+mentioned <i>Mrs Over-the-Way&rsquo;s Remembrances</i> (1869), <i>Six to
+Sixteen, Jan of the Windmill</i> (1876), <i>A Great Emergency</i> (1877),
+<i>We and the World</i> (1881), <i>Old-Fashioned Fairy Tales, Brothers
+of Pity</i> (1882), <i>The Doll&rsquo;s Wash</i>, <i>Master Fritz</i>, <i>Our Garden</i>, <i>A
+Soldier&rsquo;s Children</i>, <i>Three Little Nest-Birds</i>, <i>A Week Spent in a
+Glass-House</i>, <i>A Sweet Little Dear</i>, and <i>Blue-Red</i> (1883). Many
+of these were published by the S.P.C.K. Simple and unaffected
+in style, and sound and wholesome in matter, with quiet touches
+of humour and bright sketches of scenery and character, Mrs
+Ewing&rsquo;s best stories have never been surpassed in the style of
+literature to which they belong.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EWING, THOMAS<a name="ar42" id="ar42"></a></span> (1789-1871), American lawyer and statesman,
+was born near the present West Liberty, West Virginia, on
+the 28th of December 1789. His father, George Ewing, settled at
+Lancaster, Fairfield county, Ohio, in 1792. Thomas graduated
+at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, in 1815, and in August 1816
+was admitted to the bar at Lancaster, where he won high rank
+as an advocate. He was a Whig member of the United States
+senate in 1831-1837, and as such took a prominent part in the
+legislative struggle over the United States Bank, whose rechartering
+he favoured and which he resolutely defended against
+President Jackson&rsquo;s attack, opposing in able speeches the withdrawal
+of deposits and Secretary Woodbury&rsquo;s &ldquo;Specie Circular&rdquo;
+of 1836. In March 1841 he became secretary of the treasury in
+President W.H. Harrison&rsquo;s cabinet. When, however, after
+President Tyler&rsquo;s accession, the relations between the President
+and the Whig Party became strained, he retired (September
+1841) and was succeeded by Walter Forward (1786-1852).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page41" id="page41"></a>41</span>
+Subsequently from March 1849 to July 1850 he was a member
+of President Taylor&rsquo;s cabinet as the first secretary of the newly
+established department of the interior. He thoroughly organized
+the department, and in his able annual report advocated the
+construction by government aid of a railroad to the Pacific
+Coast. In 1850-1851 he filled the unexpired term of Thomas
+Corwin in the U.S. Senate, strenuously opposing Clay&rsquo;s compromise
+measures and advocating the abolition of slavery in the
+District of Columbia. He was subsequently a delegate to the
+Peace Congress in 1861, and was a loyal supporter of President
+Lincoln&rsquo;s war policy. He died at Lancaster, Ohio, on the 26th
+of October 1871.</p>
+
+<p>His daughter was the wife of General William T. Sherman.
+His son, Hugh Boyle Ewing (1826-1905), served throughout the
+Civil War in the Federal armies, rising from the rank of colonel
+(1861) to that of brigadier-general (1862) and brevet major-general
+(1865), and commanding brigades at Antietam and
+Vicksburg and a division at Chickamauga; and was minister of
+the United States to the Netherlands in 1866-1870. Another son,
+Thomas Ewing (1829-1896), studied at Brown University in
+1852-1854 (in 1894, by a special vote, he was placed on the
+list of graduates in the class of 1856); he was a lawyer and a free-state
+politician in Kansas in 1857-1861, and was the first chief-justice
+of the Kansas supreme court (1861-1862). In the Civil
+War he attained the rank of brigadier-general (March 1863) and
+received the brevet of major-general (1865). He was subsequently
+a representative in Congress from Ohio in 1877-1881;
+and from 1882 to 1896 practised law in New York City, where he
+was long one of the recognized leaders of the bar.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXAMINATIONS.<a name="ar43" id="ar43"></a></span> The term &ldquo;examination&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> inspecting,
+weighing and testing; from Lat. <i>examen</i>, the tongue of a balance)
+is used in the following article to denote a systematic test of
+knowledge, and of either special or general capacity or fitness,
+carried out under the authority of some public body.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>History.</i>&mdash;The oldest known system of examinations in
+history is that used in China for the selection of officers for the
+public service (<i>c.</i> 1115 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), and the periodic tests which they
+undergo after entry (<i>c.</i> 2200 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>). See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">China</a></span>; also W.A.P.
+Martin, <i>The Lore of Cathay</i> (1901), p. 311 et seq.; T.L. Bullock,
+&ldquo;Competitive Examinations in China&rdquo; (<i>Nineteenth Century</i>,
+July 1894); and Étienne Zi, <i>Pratique des examens littéraires en
+Chine</i> (Shanghai, 1894). The abolition of this system was
+announced in 1906, and, as a partial substitute, it was decided to
+hold an annual examination in Peking of Chinese graduates
+educated abroad (<i>Times</i>, 22nd of October 1906).</p>
+
+<p>The majority of examinations in western countries are derived
+from the university examinations of the middle ages. The first
+universities of Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and
+of students analogous to the trade gilds and merchant gilds of
+the time. In the trade gilds there were apprentices, companions,
+and masters. No one was admitted to mastership until he had
+served his apprenticeship (<i>q.v.</i>), nor, as a rule, until he had shown
+that he could accomplish a piece of work to the satisfaction of the
+gild.</p>
+
+<p>The object of the universities was to teach; and to the three
+classes established by the gild correspond roughly the <i>scholar</i>,
+the <i>bachelor</i> or pupil-teacher (see Rashdall i. 209, note 2, and 221,
+note 5), and the <i>master</i> or <i>doctor</i> (two terms at first equivalent)
+who, having served his apprenticeship and passed a definite
+technical test, had received permission to teach. The early
+universities of Europe, being under the same religious authority
+and animated by the same philosophy, resembled each other very
+closely in curriculum and general organization and examinations,
+and by the authority of the emperor, or of the pope in most cases,
+the permission to teach granted by one university was valid in
+all (<i>jus ubicunque docendi</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The earliest university examinations of which a description is
+available are those in civil and in canon law held at Bologna
+at a period subsequent to 1219. The student was admitted
+without examination as bachelor after from four to six years&rsquo;
+study, and after from six to eight years&rsquo; study became
+qualified as a candidate for the doctorate. He might obtain
+the doctorate in both branches of law in ten years (Rashdall i.
+221-222).</p>
+
+<p>The doctoral examination at Bologna in the 13th-14th
+centuries consisted of two parts&mdash;a private examination which
+was the real test, and a public one of a ceremonial character
+(<i>conventus</i>). The candidate first took an &ldquo;oath that he had
+complied with all the statutable conditions, that he would give
+no more than the statutable fees or entertainments to the rector
+himself, the doctor or his fellow-students, and that he would
+obey the rector.&rdquo; He was then presented to the archdeacon of
+Bologna by one or more doctors, who were required to have
+satisfied themselves of his fitness by private examination. On
+the morning of the examination, after attending mass, he was
+assigned by one of the doctors of the assembled college two
+passages (<i>puncta</i>) in the civil or canon law, which he retired to
+his house to study, possibly with the assistance of the presenting
+doctor. Later in the day he gave a lecture on, or exposition of,
+the prepared passages, and was examined on them by two of
+the doctors appointed by the college. Other doctors might then
+put supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages,
+or might suggest objections to his answers. The vote of the
+doctors present was taken by ballot, and the fate of the candidate
+was determined by the majority. The successful candidate,
+who received the title of licentiate, was, on payment of a heavy
+fee and other expenses, permitted to proceed to the <i>conventus</i>
+or final public examination. This consisted in the delivery of
+a speech and the defence of a thesis on some point of law,
+selected by the candidate, against opponents selected from among
+the students. The successful candidate received from the archdeacon
+the formal &ldquo;licence to teach&rdquo; by the authority of the
+pope in the name of the Trinity, and was invested with the
+insignia of office. At Bologna, though not at Paris, the &ldquo;permission
+to teach&rdquo; soon became fictitious, only a small number
+of doctors being allowed to exercise the right of teaching in that
+university (Rashdall).</p>
+
+<p>In the faculty of arts of Paris, towards the end of the 13th
+century, the system was already more complicated than at
+Bologna. The baccalaureate, licentiateship, and mastership
+formed three distinct degrees. For admission to the baccalaureate
+a preliminary test or &ldquo;Responsions&rdquo; was first required, at which
+the candidate had to dispute in grammar or logic with a master.
+The examiners then inspected the certificates (<i>schedulae</i>) of
+residence and of having attended lectures in the prescribed
+subjects, and examined him in the contents of his books. The
+successful candidate was admitted to maintain a thesis against
+an opponent, a process called &ldquo;determination&rdquo; (see Rashdall
+i. 443 et seq.), and as bachelor was then permitted to give
+&ldquo;cursory&rdquo; lectures. After five or six years from the date of beginning
+his studies (matriculation) and being twenty years of age
+(these conditions varied at different periods), a bachelor was
+permitted to present himself for the examination for the licentiateship,
+which was divided into two parts. The first part was
+conducted in private by the chancellor and four examiners
+(<i>temptatores in cameris</i>), and included an inquiry into the
+candidate&rsquo;s residence, attendance at lectures, and performance
+of exercises, as well as examination in prescribed books; those
+candidates adjudged worthy were admitted to the more important
+examination before the faculty, and the names of
+successful candidates were sent to the chancellor in batches of
+eight or more at a time, arranged in order of merit. (The order
+of merit at the examination for the licentiateship existed in
+Paris till quite recently.) Each successful candidate was then
+required to maintain a thesis chosen by himself (<i>quodlibetica</i>)
+in St Julian&rsquo;s church, and was finally submitted to a purely
+formal public examination (<i>collatio</i>) at either the episcopal
+palace or the abbey of Ste Geneviève, before receiving from
+the chancellor, in the name of the Trinity, the licence to incept
+or begin to teach in the faculty of arts. After some six months
+more the licentiate took part &ldquo;in a peculiarly solemn disputation
+known as his &lsquo;Vespers,&rsquo;&rdquo; then gave his formal inaugural
+lecture or disputation before the faculty, and was received into
+the faculty as master. This last process was called &ldquo;inception.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page42" id="page42"></a>42</span></p>
+
+<p>In discussing the value of medieval examinations of the kind
+described, Paulsen (<i>The German Universities</i> (1906), p. 25) asserts
+that they were well adapted to increase a student&rsquo;s alertness,
+his power of comprehending new ideas, and his ability quickly
+and surely to assimilate them to his own, and that &ldquo;they did
+more to enable [students] to grasp a subject than the mute and
+solitary reviewing and cramming of our modern examinations
+can possibly do.&rdquo; At their best they fulfilled precisely the
+technical purpose for which they were intended; they fully
+tested the capacity of the candidate to teach the subjects which
+he was required to teach in accordance with the methods which
+he was required to use. The limitations of the test were the
+limitations of the educational and philosophic ideals of the time,
+in which a dogmatic basis was presupposed to all knowledge
+and criticism was limited to the superstructure. At their worst,
+even with venal examiners (and additional fees were often offered
+as a bribe), Rashdall regards these examinations (at the end of
+the 13th century) as probably &ldquo;less of a farce than the pass
+examinations of Oxford and Cambridge almost within the
+memory of persons now living.&rdquo; It is, however, to be pointed out
+that the standard in Paris and elsewhere at a later date became
+scandalously low in some cases. In some universities the sons of
+nobles were regularly excused certain examinations. At Cambridge
+in 1774 Fellow Commoners were examined with such
+precipitation to fulfil the formal requirements of the statutes
+that the ceremony was termed &ldquo;huddling for a degree&rdquo; (Jebb,
+<i>Remarks upon the Present Mode of Education in the University
+of Cambridge</i>, 4th ed., 1774, p. 32). The last privileges of this
+kind were abolished at Cambridge by a grace passed on the 20th
+of March 1884.</p>
+
+<p>In the medieval examinations described above we find most of
+the elements of our present examinations: certificates of previous
+study and good conduct, preparation of set-books, questioning
+on subjects not specially prepared, division of examinations
+into various parts, classification in order of merit, payment of
+fees, the presentation of a dissertation, and the defence and
+publication of a thesis (a term of which the meaning has now
+become extended).</p>
+
+<p>The requirement to write answers to questions written or
+dictated, to satisfy a practical test (other than in teaching),
+and a clinical test in medicine, appear to be of later date.<a name="fa1d" id="fa1d" href="#ft1d"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The
+medieval candidate for the doctorate in medicine, although
+required to have attended practice before presenting himself,
+discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical question, often
+semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme example
+may be quoted &ldquo;whether Adam had a navel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The competitive system was developed considerably at
+Louvain, and in the 15th century the candidates for the mastership
+of arts were divided into three classes (<i>rigorosi</i>, honour-men;
+<i>transibiles</i>, pass-men; <i>gratiosi</i>, charity-passes), while a fourth,
+which was not published, contained the names of those who failed.
+In the 17th century the first class comprised the names of twelve,
+and the second, of twenty-four, candidates, who were divided
+on the report of their teachers into classes before the examination,
+and finally arranged in order of merit by the examiners
+(Vernulaeus, quoted by Sir W. Hamilton, <i>Discussions</i>, 1852;
+p. 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii. 262). At the Cambridge tripos (as
+described by Jebb in 1774, <i>Remarks</i>, &amp;c. , pp. 20-31) the first
+twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test;
+they were then divided further into &ldquo;wranglers&rdquo; (the disputants,
+<i>par excellence</i>) and <i>Senior Optimes</i>, the next twelve on the list
+being called the <i>Junior Optimes</i>. These names have in the
+mathematics tripos survived the procedure. (The name <i>Tripos</i>
+is derived from the three-legged stool on which &ldquo;an old
+bachilour,&rdquo; selected for the purpose, sat during his disputation
+with the senior bachelor of the year, who was required to propound
+two questions to him.)</p>
+
+<p>The subjects in which the medieval universities examined
+were (i.) those of the trivium and quadrivium in the faculty of
+arts; (ii.) theology; (iii.) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon
+law. The number of subjects in which examinations are held
+has since grown immensely. We can only sketch in outline
+the transformations of certain typical university systems of
+examinations.</p>
+
+<p>At Oxford there is no record of a process of formal examination
+on books similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii. 442 et seq.),
+disputations being apparently the only test applied in its early
+history. Examinations were definitely introduced for the B.A.
+and M.A. degrees by Laud in 1636-1638 (Brodrick, <i>History of
+Oxford</i>, p. 114), but the standard prescribed was so much beyond
+the actual requirements of later times that it may be doubted if
+it was enforced. The studies fell in the 18th century into an
+&ldquo;abject state,&rdquo; from which they were first raised by a statute
+passed in 1800 (<i>Report of Oxford University Commission of
+1850-1852</i>, p. 60 et seq.), under which distinctions were first
+allotted to the ablest candidates for the bachelor&rsquo;s degree.
+Further changes were made in 1807 and 1825; and in 1830 a
+distinction was made between honours examinations of a more
+difficult character, at which successful candidates were divided
+into four classes, and pass examinations of an easier character.
+By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate &ldquo;Moderations&rdquo;
+examination was instituted between the preliminary examination
+called &ldquo;Responsions&rdquo; and the final examination. Since 1850,
+although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced,
+no considerable change of system has been made.</p>
+
+<p>The bachelor&rsquo;s degree at Oxford tended from an early period to
+be postponed to an advanced stage of studies, while the requirements
+for the master&rsquo;s degree diminished until, in 1807, the
+examination for the M.A. was abolished. It is now awarded to
+bachelors of three years&rsquo; standing on payment of a fee.</p>
+
+<p>Cambridge in early times followed the example of Oxford,
+and here also the bachelor&rsquo;s degree became more and more
+important (Bass Mullinger, <i>History of the University of Cambridge
+from 1535</i>..., p. 414), and the M.A. has been finally reduced to
+a mere formality, awarded on terms similar to those of the sister
+university. The standard of examinations was raised in Cambridge
+at an earlier date than at Oxford, and in the 18th century
+the tripos &ldquo;established the reputation of Cambridge as a School
+of Mathematical Science.&rdquo; The school, however, produced
+few, if any, great mathematicians between Newton and George
+Green. It was only between 1830 and 1840 that the standard
+of the tripos became a high one. At Cambridge there is no
+intermediate examination between the &ldquo;Previous Examination&rdquo;
+(commonly called &ldquo;Little-go&rdquo;), which corresponds to Oxford
+&ldquo;Responsions&rdquo; or &ldquo;Smalls&rdquo; and the triposes and examinations
+for the &ldquo;Poll&rdquo; degree, which correspond to the Oxford final
+honours and pass examinations respectively. But most of the
+triposes have been divided into two parts, of which the second is
+not obligatory in order to obtain a degree. The &ldquo;senior wrangler&rdquo;
+was the first candidate in order of merit in the first part of the
+mathematical tripos. The abolition of order of merit at this
+examination was decided on in 1906, and names of candidates
+appeared in this order for the last time in 1909.</p>
+
+<p>At the Scottish universities the B.A. degree has become
+extinct, and the M.A., awarded on the results of examination,
+is the first degree in the faculty of arts.</p>
+
+<p>The incorporation of the university of London in 1836 marks an
+era in the history of examinations; the teaching and examining
+functions of a university were dissociated for the first time.
+Until 1858 the London examinations were open only to students
+in affiliated colleges, and the teachers had no share in the appointment
+of the examiners or in determining the curricula for examinations;
+in 1858 the examinations were thrown open to all comers,
+and no requirements were insisted on with regard to courses of
+study except for degrees in the faculty of medicine. The sole
+function of the university was to examine, and its examinations
+for matriculation and for degrees in arts and science were carried
+on by means of written papers not only in London but in many
+centres in the United Kingdom and the colonies. From the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page43" id="page43"></a>43</span>
+first the degrees were (unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge
+until 1871) open to all male persons without religious distinctions;
+and in 1878 they were opened to women. (Tripos examinations
+were thrown open to women at Cambridge by the grace of 24th
+Feb. 1881, and at Oxford women were admitted to examinations
+for honours by statute of 29th April 1884. Proposals to admit
+women to university degrees were rejected by Oxford and
+Cambridge in 1896 and 1897 respectively.)</p>
+
+<p>The standard of difficulty set by the university of London
+was a high one, very much higher for its pass degrees than the
+corresponding standards at Oxford and Cambridge, while the
+standard for honours was equally high. In medicine the
+examinations were made both wider in range and more searching
+than those of any other examining body. But, for reasons dealt
+with below, great discontent was roused by the new system.
+In 1880 the Victoria University, Manchester, was established,
+in which teaching and examining were again united; and in the
+universities since established, with the exception of the Royal
+University of Ireland (which was created in 1880 as an examining
+body on the model of London, but which was dissolved under the
+Irish Universities Act 1908, and replaced by the National University
+of Ireland and the Queen&rsquo;s University of Belfast), the precedent
+of Victoria has been followed. By an act passed in 1898,
+of which the provisions came into force in 1900, the university of
+London was reconstituted as a teaching university, although
+provision was made for the continuance of the system of examinations
+by &ldquo;external examiners&rdquo; for &ldquo;external students,&rdquo; together
+with &ldquo;internal examinations&rdquo; for &ldquo;internal students,&rdquo; in which
+the teachers and the external examiners of the university are
+associated. The examinations in music and the final examinations
+in law and medicine are carried on [1910] both for
+&ldquo;internal&rdquo; and &ldquo;external&rdquo; students by &ldquo;external&rdquo; examiners
+only, who are, however, appointed on the recommendation of
+boards of studies consisting mainly of London teachers.</p>
+
+<p>At the university of Dublin, examinations have been maintained
+both for the B.A. and M.A. degrees, and students may be
+admitted to the examinations in subjects other than divinity,
+law, medicine, and engineering without attendance at university
+courses.</p>
+
+<p>The examinations of the newer universities, the Victoria University
+of Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield
+and Wales, are open only to students at these universities,
+and are conducted by the teachers in association with one or
+more external examiners for each subject. In some universities,
+<i>e.g.</i> Manchester, the M.A. degree is given after examination to
+students who have taken a pass, and without examination to
+those who have taken an honours degree.</p>
+
+<p>The universities which have departed furthest from the
+medieval system of examinations, at any rate in appearance,
+are those of Germany. The baccalaureate has disappeared,
+but students cannot be matriculated without having passed the
+<i>Abiturienten-examen</i> (see below), probably the most severe of
+all entrance examinations (foreign students may be exempted
+under certain conditions). The student desiring to proceed to
+the doctorate is free from examinations thereafter until he
+presents his thesis for the doctor&rsquo;s degree,<a name="fa2d" id="fa2d" href="#ft2d"><span class="sp">2</span></a> when, if it is accepted,
+he is submitted to a public oral examination not only in his
+principal subject (<i>Hauptfach</i>), but also as a rule in two or more
+collateral subjects (<i>Nebenfächer</i>). The doctor&rsquo;s degree does not
+give the right to teach in a faculty (<i>venia legendi</i>). To acquire
+this a doctor must present a further thesis (<i>Habilitationsschrift</i>),
+and must deliver two lectures, one before the faculty, followed
+by a discussion (<i>colloquium</i>), the other in public; but these
+lectures &ldquo;seem to be merely secondary and are tending to become
+so more and more&rdquo;; &ldquo;scientific productiveness is so sharply
+emphasized among the conditions for admission that it overshadows
+all the rest&rdquo; (Paulsen, <i>loc. cit.</i> p. 165).</p>
+
+<p>In France the examination for the baccalaureate, though
+conducted in part by university examiners, has become a school-leaving
+examination (see below). The licentiateship has been
+preserved in the faculties of arts, science and laws, and is in
+point of difficulty about equal to the pass degree examinations
+of the university of London, though differing in the nature of the
+tests. In the faculty of sciences, the three subjects of examination
+selected may, under a recent regulation, be taken separately.
+Until a few years ago the successful candidates at the licentiateship
+were arranged in order of merit. For the doctorate in the
+faculty of letters two theses must be submitted, of which the
+subject and plan must be approved by the faculty (until recently
+one of them was required to be written in Latin). Permission
+to print the theses is given by the rector or vice-rector after
+report from one or more professors, and they are then discussed
+publicly by the faculty and the candidate (<i>soutenance de thèse</i>).
+In this public discussion the &ldquo;disputation&rdquo; of the middle ages
+survives in its least changed form. The literary theses required
+by French universities are, as a rule, volumes of several hundred
+pages, and more important in character even than the
+German <i>Habilitationsschrift</i>. The possession of the doctorate
+is a <i>sine qua non</i> for eligibility to a university chair, and to a
+lectureship in the university of Paris.</p>
+
+<p>In the faculty of sciences a candidate for the doctorate may
+submit two theses, or else submit one thesis and undergo an
+oral examination.</p>
+
+<p>For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are
+required.</p>
+
+<p>In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for
+the doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis
+submitted.</p>
+
+<p>There is also a special doctorate, the &ldquo;<i>doctorat d&rsquo;Université</i>,&rdquo;
+awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are
+diplomas (<i>Diplômes d&rsquo;Études supérieures</i>) awarded on dissertations
+and examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and
+geography, classics or modern languages, selected mainly by the
+candidate and approved by the faculty.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Professional Examinations.</i> (<i>a</i>) <i>Teaching.</i>&mdash;University examinations
+for degrees having ceased to be used as technical
+tests of teaching capacity, new examinations have been devised
+for this purpose. The test for German university teachers has
+been described above. For secondary teachers, W. von Humboldt
+instituted a special examination in 1810 (Paulsen, <i>Gesch.
+des gelehrten Unterrichts</i>, ii. pp. 283 and 393), and an examination
+for primary teachers was instituted in Prussia in 1794.</p>
+
+<p>In France there is a competitive examination for secondary
+teachers, the <i>agrégation</i>, originally established in 1766. <i>Agrégés</i>
+have a right to state employment and they alone can occupy the
+highest teaching post (<i>chaire de professeur</i>) in a state secondary
+school, other posts being open to licentiates. There are also
+examinations for primary teachers. The tests for teachers are
+different for the two sexes.</p>
+
+<p>In England there is no obligatory test for secondary teachers.
+The universities and the College of Preceptors conduct examinations
+for teaching diplomas. The Board of Education holds
+special examinations (Preliminary Certificate examination and
+Certificate examination, &amp;c. ) for primary teachers.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Medicine.</i>&mdash;See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Medical Education.</a></span></p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>Other Professions.</i>&mdash;A system of professional examinations
+carried on by professional bodies, in some cases with legal
+sanction, was developed in England during the 19th century.
+Those in the following subjects are the most important:
+Accountancy (Institute of Chartered Accountants and Society
+of Accountants and Auditors), actuarial work (Institute of
+Actuaries), music (Royal Academy of Music, Royal College of
+Music, Trinity College of Music, Royal College of Organists, and
+the Incorporated Society of Musicians), pharmacy (Pharmaceutical
+Society), plumbing (the Plumbers&rsquo; Company), surveying
+(Surveyors&rsquo; Institution), veterinary medicine (Royal College of
+Veterinary Surgeons), technical subjects, <i>e.g.</i> cotton-spinning,
+dyeing, motor-manufacture (City &amp; Guilds of London Institute),
+architecture (Royal Institute of British Architects), commercial
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page44" id="page44"></a>44</span>
+subjects, shorthand (the Society of Arts and London Chamber
+of Commerce), engineering (Institutions of Civil Engineers, of
+Mechanical Engineers, and of Electrical Engineers).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>School-leaving Examinations.</i>&mdash;The faculty of arts in
+medieval universities covered secondary as well as higher
+education in the subjects concerned. The division in arts subjects
+between secondary and university education has been drawn at
+different levels in different countries. Thus the first two years
+of the arts curriculum in English and American universities
+correspond, roughly speaking, to the last two years spent in a
+secondary school of Germany or France, and the continental
+&ldquo;school-leaving examinations&rdquo; correspond to the intermediate
+examinations of the newer English universities and to the pass
+examinations for the degree at Oxford and Cambridge (Mark
+Pattison, <i>Suggestions on Academical Organization</i>, 1868, p. 238,
+and Matthew Arnold, <i>Higher Schools and Universities in
+Germany</i>, 1892, p. 209).</p>
+
+<p>A tabular summary is given (see Tables I., II., III., IV.) of the
+requirements of the secondary school-leaving examinations of
+France, Prussia (for the nine-year secondary schools) and
+Scotland, and of the university of London.</p>
+
+<p>There are in England a number of school examinations which,
+under prescribed conditions, also serve as school-leaving examinations,
+and give entrance to certain universities, especially the
+Oxford and Cambridge local examinations (both established in
+1858), and the examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge &ldquo;Joint
+Board.&rdquo; A movement to reduce the number of entrance examinations
+and to secure uniformity in their standard was set on foot in
+1901. In that year the General Medical Council communicated
+to the Board of Education a memorial on the subject from
+the Headmasters&rsquo; Conference. The memorial was further communicated
+to various professional bodies concerned. Conferences
+were held by the consultative committee of the Board of Education
+in 1903, with representatives of the universities, the Headmasters&rsquo;
+Conference, the Association of Head-Masters, the
+Association of Head-Mistresses, the College of Preceptors, the
+Private Schools&rsquo; Association, and with representatives of professional
+bodies. The committee were of opinion that a central
+board, consisting of representatives of the Board of Education
+and the different examining bodies, should be established, to
+co-ordinate and control the standards of the examinations,
+and to secure interchangeability of certificates, &amp;c. , as soon as
+a sufficient number of such bodies signified their willingness to
+be represented on the board. They recommended that the
+examination should be conducted by external and internal examiners,
+representing in each case the examining body and the
+school staff respectively, and that reports on the school work of
+candidates should be available for reference by the examiners
+(circular of the Board of Education of 12th of July 1904).</p>
+
+<p>The &ldquo;accrediting&rdquo; system in the United States was started by
+the university of Michigan in 1871. A school desiring to be
+accredited is submitted to inspection without previous notice.
+If the inspection is satisfactory, the school is accredited by a
+university for from one to three years, and upon the favourable
+report of its principal any of its students are admitted to the
+university by which it has been accredited without any entrance
+examination. In practice it is found that many students whom
+their teachers refuse to certify are able to pass the university
+entrance examination. The statistics of nine years show that the
+standard of the certified students is higher than that of non-certified
+students. Two hundred and fifty schools are accredited
+by the university of Michigan. In 1904 it was stated that the
+system was gaining favour in the east,<a name="fa3d" id="fa3d" href="#ft3d"><span class="sp">3</span></a> and that it had been
+adopted more or less by all the eastern colleges and universities
+with the exception of Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Columbia.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Methods of Examination.</i>&mdash;Examinations may test (i.)
+knowledge, or, more exactly, the power of restating facts and
+arguments of a kind that may be learnt by rote; (ii.) the power
+of doing something, <i>e.g.</i> of making a <i>précis</i> of a written document,
+of writing a letter or a report on a particular subject with a
+particular object in view, of translating from or into a foreign
+language, of solving a mathematical problem, of criticizing a
+passage from a literary work, of writing an essay on an historical
+or literary subject with the aid of books in a library, of diagnosing
+the malady of a patient, of analysing a chemical mixture or compound;
+and (the highest form under the rubric) of making an
+original contribution to learning or science as the result of
+personal investigation or experiment. Examinations are carried
+out at present by means of (1) written papers; (2) oral examinations;
+(3) practical, including in medicine clinical, tests; (4)
+theses; or a combination of these.</p>
+
+<p>In written examinations the candidates are, as a rule, supplied
+with a number of printed questions, of which they must answer
+all, or a certain proportion, within a given time,
+varying, as a rule, from 1½ to 3 hours, the latter being
+<span class="sidenote">Written.</span>
+the duration most generally adopted for higher examinations in
+England. Whereas in France and Germany the questions are
+generally few in number and require long answers, showing
+constructive skill and mastery of the mother-tongue on the part
+of the candidates, such &ldquo;essay-papers&rdquo; are comparatively rare
+in England. In many subjects, the written examinations test
+memory rather than capacity. It has been suggested that sets
+of questions to be answered in writing should as a rule be divided
+into two parts: (i.) a number of questions requiring short answers
+and intended to test the range of the candidate&rsquo;s knowledge;
+(ii.) questions requiring long answers, intended to test its depth,
+and the candidate&rsquo;s powers of co-ordination and reflection.
+A necessary condition for the application of the second kind of
+test is that time should be given for reflection and for rewriting,
+say one-third or one-quarter of the whole time allowed. A
+further distinction is important, especially in such subjects as
+mathematics or foreign languages, in which it is legitimate to ask
+what precise power on the part of a candidate the passing of
+an examination shall signify. Owing to a prevailing confusion
+between tests of memory and tests of capacity, the allowance
+for chance fairly applied to the former is apt to be unduly
+extended to the latter. In applying tests of memory, it may be
+legitimate to allow a candidate to pass who answers correctly
+from 30 to 50% of the questions; such an allowance if applied
+to a test of capacity, such as the performance of a sum in addition,
+the solution of triangles by means of trigonometrical tables,
+or the translation of an easy passage from a foreign language,
+appears to be irrational. A candidate who obtains only 50%
+of the marks in performing such operations cannot be regarded as
+being able to perform them; and, if the examination is to be
+treated as a test of his capacity to perform them, he should be
+rejected unless he obtains full marks, less a certain allowance
+(say 10, or at most 20%) in view of the more or less artificial
+conditions inherent in all examinations.</p>
+
+<p>The oral examination is better suited than the written to
+discover the range of a candidate&rsquo;s knowledge; it also serves
+as a test of his powers of expression in his mother-tongue,
+or in a foreign language, and may be used (as
+<span class="sidenote">Oral.</span>
+in the examination for entrance to the Osborne Naval College)
+to test the important qualities (hardly tested in any other
+examinations at present), readiness of wit, common-sense and
+nerve. It may be objected that candidates are heavily handicapped
+by nervousness in oral examinations, but this objection
+does not afford sufficient ground for rejecting the test,
+provided that it is supplemented by others. Oral tests are
+used almost invariably in medical examinations; and there
+is a growing tendency to make them compulsory in dealing
+with modern languages. Oral examinations are much more
+used abroad than in England, where the pupils during their
+school years receive but little exercise in the art of consecutive
+speaking.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page45" id="page45"></a>45</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">TABLE I.&mdash;PRUSSIA: ABITURIENTEN EXAMEN</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">I.<br />Name of Examination.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="3"><p><i>Abiturienten Examen</i> (established in 1788).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">II.<br />Minimum Age for Entry.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="3"><p>Age only limited by condition of length of school course. The usual
+    age is 17-18.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">III.<br />Length of Course of Study.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="3"><p> &emsp; 9 years.<br /><br /></p>
+ <p>Candidates who have not attended the 9 years&rsquo; school course may be
+    admitted to the examination on special application.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="3">IV.<br />Subjects.</td>
+
+ <td class="tccm allb">In <i>Gymnasium</i>.</td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb" style="width: 35%;"><p class="center">Written.<br /></p>
+  <p>German essay.</p>
+  <p>Mathematics.</p>
+  <p>Translation into Latin.</p>
+  <p>Translation from Greek into German.</p></td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb" style="width: 35%;"><p class="center">Oral.<br /></p>
+  <p>Latin.</p>
+  <p>Greek.</p>
+  <p>English or French.</p>
+  <p>Religion.</p>
+  <p>History.</p>
+  <p>Mathematics.</p></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">In <i>Real-Gymnasium</i>.</td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb"><p class="center">Written.<br /></p>
+  <p>German essay.</p>
+  <p>Mathematics.</p>
+  <p>Translation from Latin.</p>
+  <p>Translation from German into or essay in English or French.</p>
+  <p>Physics.</p></td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb"><p class="center">Oral.<br /></p>
+  <p>Latin.</p>
+  <p>English.</p>
+  <p>French.</p>
+  <p>Physics or Chemistry.</p>
+  <p>Religion.</p>
+  <p>History.</p>
+  <p>Mathematics.</p></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td class="tccm allb">In <i>Ober-Realschule</i>.</td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb"><p class="center">Written.<br /></p>
+   <p>German essay.</p>
+   <p>Mathematics.</p>
+   <p>An exercise in French and in English (an essay in one language and a translation
+     from the other into German).</p>
+   <p>Physics or Chemistry.</p></td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb"><p class="center">Oral.<br /></p>
+  <p>English.</p>
+  <p>French.</p>
+  <p>Physics.</p>
+  <p>Chemistry.</p>
+  <p>Religion.</p>
+  <p>History.</p>
+  <p>Mathematics.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">V.<br />Co-ordination with Teaching.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="3"><p>The object of the examination is defined as being a test of whether
+    the candidate has fulfilled the aims laid down in the curricula,
+    &amp;c. , prescribed for a <i>Gymnasium</i>, <i>Real-gymnasium</i>, or
+    <i>Ober-realschule</i>, as the case may be, and the subjects of
+    examination are those prescribed in the curricula for the kind of
+    school concerned.</p>
+
+ <p>The report on the school work of each candidate in his various
+    subjects is laid before the Examining Board before the beginning of
+    the examination.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VI.<br />Examiners.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="3"><p>The Examining Board consists of a government inspector (<i>der
+    Königliche Kommissar</i>) acting as chairman, the headmaster of the
+    school, and the teachers of the highest classes in the school. The
+    inspector may nominate a deputy, who is as a rule, the headmaster of
+    the school.</p>
+
+ <p>Each teacher concerned selects for the written examination three
+    alternative subjects in his branch, from which, after receiving a
+    report thereon from the headmaster, the inspector makes a final
+    choice.</p>
+
+ <p>The papers are marked by the teachers concerned and circulated the
+    the whole Board of Examiners, who then decide whether individual
+    candidates shall be (i.) rejected, (ii.) admitted with (ii.)
+    admitted with oral examination, or (iii.) submitted to the oral
+    examination.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VII.<br />Nature of Examination and General Remarks.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="3"><p>The written examination extends over four or five days. Only one
+    paper is given each day, for which 3 to 5½ hours are allowed (5½
+    hours for the German essay). For essays in foreign languages
+    dictionaries may be used.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">TABLE II.&mdash;FRANCE: BACCALAURÉAT</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">I.<br />Name of Examination.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p><i>Baccalauréat de l&rsquo;enseignement secondaire.</i></p>
+
+  <p>This examination has been carried on under different forms since
+    1808. The regulations summarized here date from 1902, when the
+    <i>baccalauréat</i> described replaced the <i>baccalauréat-ès-lettres,
+    baccalauréat-ès-sciences</i>, and <i>baccalauréat de l&rsquo;enseignement
+    moderne.</i></p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">II.<br />Minimum Age for Entry.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>Part I., 16, or, with special permission, 15.</p>
+
+ <p>Part II. may not be taken within an academic year after passing Part I.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">III.<br />Length of Course of Study.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>There is no requirement of attendance. Part I. of the examination
+    corresponds exactly to the subjects taken in the &ldquo;second cycle&rdquo; of
+    secondary education, and Part II. to the <i>classe de philosophie</i> and
+    <i>classe de mathématiques.</i></p>
+
+ <p>See also under V.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" rowspan="4">IV.<br />Subjects.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>Part I. is divided into four Branches, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+      <p> &emsp; (1) Latin-Greek.</p>
+      <p> &emsp; (2) Latin-modern languages.</p>
+      <p> &emsp; (3) Latin-science.</p>
+      <p> &emsp; (4) Science-modern languages.</p>
+
+   <p>In each Branch the examination is divided into two parts, viz.,
+    written and oral. The nature of the examination may be indicated by
+    the following requirements in Branch (1):&mdash;</p></td></tr>
+
+ <tr><td class="tcl allb" style="width: 43%;"><p class="center">Written</p>
+         <p>(i.) French composition.</p>
+        <p>(ii.) Translation from Latin.</p>
+       <p>(iii.) Translation from Greek.</p></td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb" style="width: 43%;"><p class="center">Oral</p>
+         <p>(i.) Explanation of a Greek text.</p>
+        <p>(ii.) Explanation of a Latin text.</p>
+       <p>(iii.) Explanation of a French text.</p>
+        <p>(iv.) Text in a modern foreign language.</p>
+         <p>(v.) Interrogation on ancient history.</p>
+        <p>(vi.) Interrogation on modern history.</p>
+       <p>(vii.) Interrogation on geography.</p>
+      <p>(viii.) Interrogation on mathematics.</p>
+        <p>(ix.) Interrogation on physics.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>Part II. is divided into two Branches, viz.:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p> &emsp; (1) Philosophy.</p>
+      <p> &emsp; (2) Mathematics.</p>
+
+  <p>The nature of the examination may be indicated by the following
+    requirements in Branch (I):&mdash;</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl allb"><p class="center">Written</p>
+         <p>(i.) An essay in French on a philosophical subject.</p>
+        <p>(ii.) An examination in physical and natural science.</p></td>
+
+ <td class="tcl allb"><p class="center">Oral</p>
+         <p>(i.) Interrogation on philosophy and philosophical writers.</p>
+        <p>(ii.) Interrogation on contemporary history.</p>
+       <p>(iii.) Interrogation on physical science.</p>
+        <p>(iv.) Interrogation on natural science.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">V.<br />Co-ordination with Teaching.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>The syllabus of the examination is that prescribed for the higher
+    classes in the Government secondary schools.</p>
+
+  <p>The candidate may submit his <i>livret scolaire</i>, or school record,
+    which will be taken into account.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VI.<br />Examiners.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>The Board of Examiners (or &ldquo;jury&rdquo;) consists of (i.) University
+    examiners being members of a faculty of letters or faculty of
+    sciences; (ii.) secondary teachers, active or retired, selected by
+    the minister of public instruction. The Board consists of from four
+    to six examiners, of whom, when the number is even, half are chosen
+    from either category.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VII.<br />Nature of Examination and General Remarks.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb" colspan="2"><p>The written portion of Part I. extends over from 9 to 10 hours in
+    all (not on a single day), in periods of 3 or 4 hours each; the
+    written portion of Part II. extends over from 6 to 9 hours. The oral
+    examination for each part lasts ¾ hour on the average, and is
+    public.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page46" id="page46"></a>46</span></p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">TABLE III.&mdash;SCOTLAND: SCHOOL-LEAVING EXAMINATION</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" style="width: 15%;">I.<br />Name of Examination.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>Scottish school-leaving examination (established 1888). (See
+    pamphlet on the &ldquo;Leaving Certificate Examination&rdquo; issued by the
+    Scottish Education Department, 1908.)</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">II.<br />Minimum Age for Entry.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>17 on 1st of January following the year in which the candidate
+    passes the last of the written examinations.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">III.<br />Length of Course of Study.</td>
+
+ <td class="tcc allb">4 years.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">IV. Subjects.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>Candidates must pass in four subjects on the higher grade standard,
+    or in three subjects on the higher grade standard and two on the
+    lower. A pass in drawing is accepted in lieu of one of the two lower
+    grade passes. A pass in Gaelic is reckoned as a pass on lower grade.
+    All candidates must have passed in higher English and in either
+    higher or lower grade mathematics. The remaining subjects may be
+    either science with one or more languages (Latin Greek, French,
+    German, Spanish, or Italian), or languages only. But where two or
+    more languages other than English are taken, the candidate&rsquo;s group
+    must include either higher or lower grade Latin. A pass in Spanish,
+    Italian, or science (in which subjects there is only one
+    examination) is reckoned as a pass on the higher grade standard.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">V.<br />Co-ordination with Teaching.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>Schools are inspected, and the course of instruction must be
+    approved by the Scottish Education Department, but the examinations
+    are conducted by external examiners with whom teachers are not
+    associated.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VI.<br />Examiners.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>The examiners are appointed by the Scottish Education Department.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VII.<br />Nature of Examination and General Remarks.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>The examination consists of a written examination and an oral
+    examination, on which stress is laid. The length of the examination
+    varies with the subjects selected. The periods of examination vary
+    from 1 to 2½ hours. If the candidate selects on the higher grade,
+    English, Latin, mathematics, and French, the examination extends
+    over 19½ hours.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2 center">TABLE IV.&mdash;UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SCHOOL EXAMINATION, MATRICULATION STANDARD</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb" style="width: 15%;">I.<br />Name of Examination.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>School examination, matriculation standard (established in 1902).</p>
+
+ <p><i>Note</i>&mdash;A higher school-leaving certificate is awarded to pupils who
+    (i.) have pursued an approved course of study for a period of years
+    at a school or schools under inspection approved by the University;
+    and (ii.) being matriculated students, have passed the &ldquo;higher
+    school examination&rdquo; in at least three subjects at one and the same
+    examination.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">II.<br />Minimum Age For Entry.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>The minimum age of entry is 15, but if the candidate is under 16 he
+    must remain at school until he is 16 years of age in order to be
+    qualified for the school-leaving certificate, and cannot be
+    registered as a student of the University until he has reached that
+    age.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">III.<br />Length of Course of Study.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>The curriculum of each school is considered on its own merits.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">IV.<br />Subjects.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>Pupils must satisfy the examiners in not less than five subjects, as
+    follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+  <p>(1) English.</p>
+
+  <p>(2) Elementary mathematics.</p>
+
+  <p>(3) Latin, or elementary mechanics, or elementary physics&mdash;heat,
+    light and sound, or elementary chemistry, or elementary botany, or
+    general elementary science.</p>
+
+  <p>(4) and (5) Two of the following subjects, neither of which has
+    already been taken under section (3). If Latin be not taken, one of
+    the other subjects selected must be another language, either ancient
+    or modern, from the list, and languages other than those included in
+    the list may be taken if approved by the University, provided that
+    the language is included in the regular curriculum:&mdash;Latin, Greek,
+    French, German, ancient history, modern history, history and
+    geography, physical and general geography, logic, geometrical and
+    mechanical drawing, mathematics (more advanced), elementary
+    mechanics, elementary chemistry, elementary physics&mdash;heat, light and
+    sound, elementary physics&mdash;electricity and magnetism, elementary
+    biology&mdash;botany, elementary biology&mdash;zoology, general elementary
+    science (chemistry and physics).</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">V.<br />Co-ordination with Teaching.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>Schools under approved inspection, and course of instruction
+    approved by the University.</p>
+
+  <p>The papers are ordinarily set on the matriculation syllabus, but
+    papers may be specially set more closely in accordance with the
+    school curriculum provided that the syllabus proposed is approved by
+    the University as at least equivalent to that for which it is
+    substituted.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VI.<br />Examiners.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>The examiners are ordinarily those appointed by the University for
+    the ordinary matriculation examination.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">VII.<br />Nature of Examination and General Remarks.</td>
+
+ <td class="tclm allb"><p>The examination extends over at least 18 hours, and includes an oral
+    examination in modern languages.</p></td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The laboratory examination may be used in subjects like
+physics, chemistry, geology, zoology, botany, anatomy, physiology,
+to test powers of manipulation and knowledge of
+experimental methods. In some cases (<i>e.g.</i> in certain honours
+<span class="sidenote">Practical.</span>
+examinations) the examination may be prolonged over one or
+more days, and may test higher powers of investigation. But
+such powers can only be fully tested by the performance
+of original work, under conditions difficult to
+fulfil in the examination room or laboratory. At the French
+examinations for the <i>prix de Rome</i> the candidates are required
+to execute a painting in a given number of days, under strict
+supervision (<i>en loge</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In medicine the clinical examination of a patient is a test
+carried out under conditions more nearly approaching those of
+actual work than any other; and distinction in medical examinations
+is probably more often followed by distinction in after life
+than is the case in other examinations.</p>
+
+<p>For the doctor&rsquo;s degree (where this is not an honorary distinction)
+a thesis or dissertation is generally, though not invariably,
+required in England. Of recent years the
+thesis has been introduced into lower examinations;
+<span class="sidenote">Thesis.</span>
+it is required for the master&rsquo;s degree at London in the case of
+internal students, in subjects other than mathematics (1910);
+both at Oxford and London, the B.Sc. degree, and at Cambridge
+the B.A. degree, may be given for research, although the number
+of students proceeding to a degree in this way is at present
+relatively small. In certain of the honours B.A. and B.Sc.
+examinations at Manchester and Liverpool, candidates may take
+the written portion of the examination at the end of the second
+year&rsquo;s course of study and submit a dissertation at the end of
+the third year. Theses are generally examined by two or more
+specialists.</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Competitive Examinations.</i>&mdash;The arrangement of students in
+order of merit led naturally to the use of examinations not only
+as a qualifying but also as a selective test, and to the offering of
+money prizes (including exhibitions, scholarships and fellowships)
+on the results. In 1854 selection by examination as a method
+of appointment to posts in the English public service was first
+substituted for the patronage system, which had caused grave
+dissatisfaction (see Macaulay&rsquo;s speech on the subject, <i>The Times</i>
+of the 25th of June 1853). The first public competitive examination
+for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, took place in
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page47" id="page47"></a>47</span>
+1855, and in 1870 the principle of open competition for the civil
+service was adopted as a general rule. (For further details
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Civil Service</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>In the Württemberg civil service candidates are admitted to
+a year&rsquo;s probation after passing a theoretical examination, at
+the conclusion of which they must pass an examination of a more
+practical character (A. Herbert, <i>Sacrifice of Education</i> ..., 1889,
+p. 111).</p>
+
+<p>In the award of scholarships, &amp;c. , it should be definitely decided
+whether the scholarship is to be awarded (1) for attainment,
+in which case the examination-test pure and simple may suffice,
+or (2) for promise, in which case personal information and a
+<i>curriculum vitae</i> are necessary. To take a simple instance: a
+candidate partly educated in Germany may obtain more marks
+in German at a scholarship examination than another who is
+more gifted, but whose opportunities have been less; the question
+at once arises, are the examiners to take the circumstances of
+the candidate into account or not? It is understood that at the
+colleges of the older universities such circumstances are considered.
+It must again be decided whether the financial circumstances
+of candidates are to be taken into account; are scholarships
+intended as prizes, or as a means of enabling poor students
+to obtain a university education? In some cases wealthy
+students have been known to return the emoluments of scholarships.
+<span class="correction" title="amended from It">In</span> many universities of the United States there is a
+definite understanding that emoluments shall only be accepted
+by those needing them. It would not be difficult to ask candidates
+to make a confidential declaration on this subject on
+entrance and to establish in Great Britain a tradition similar
+to that of the United States, and steps in this direction have been
+taken both at Oxford and Cambridge (Lord Curzon of Kedleston,
+<i>University Reform</i>, p. 86).</p>
+
+<p>A special allowance may be made for age. In certain scholarship
+examinations held formerly by the London County Council
+a percentage was added to the marks of each candidate proportionate
+to the number of months by which his age fell short
+of the maximum age for entry. The whole subject of entrance
+scholarships at English schools and universities, and especially
+their tendency to produce premature specialization, has recently
+been much discussed.</p>
+
+<p>6. <i>The Organization and Conduct of Examinations.</i>&mdash;The
+organization and conduct of examinations, in such a way that
+each candidate shall be treated in precisely the same way as
+every other candidate, is a complex matter, especially where
+several thousand candidates are concerned. The greatest
+precautions must be taken to ensure the secrecy of the examination
+papers before the examination, and the effective isolation
+of individual candidates during the examination. The supervision
+should be adequate to remove all temptation to copying.
+The hygienic conditions should be such as to reduce the strain
+to a minimum. The question of the mental fatigue produced
+by examinations has been studied by certain German observers,
+but has not yet been fully investigated.</p>
+
+<p>7. <i>Marking, Classification and Errors of Detail.</i>&mdash;In applying
+a single test in a qualifying examination it would be sufficient
+to mark candidates as passing or failing. But examinations
+consist as a rule of a number of tests, each one of which is complex;
+and a mark is recorded in respect of each test or portion of a
+test in order to enable the examining body to estimate the performance,
+considered as a whole, of the candidate. At Oxford
+the marks are not numerical, but the papers are judged as of this
+or that supposed &ldquo;class,&rdquo; and various degrees of merit are
+indicated by the symbols &alpha;, &beta;, &gamma;, &delta;, to which the signs + or &minus;
+may be prefixed, according as they are above or below a
+certain standard within each class. At Cambridge, numerical
+marks are used. The advantage of numerical marks is that they
+are more easily manipulated than symbols; the disadvantage,
+that they produce the false impression that merit can be estimated
+with mathematical accuracy. Professor F.Y. Edgeworth, in
+two papers on &ldquo;The Statistics of Examinations&rdquo; and the
+&ldquo;Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations&rdquo; (<i>Journal
+of the Royal Statistical Society</i>, 1888 and 1890), has dealt with
+the subject, although on somewhat limited lines. His investigations
+show clearly that with candidates near the border-line of
+failure, which must necessarily be fixed at a given point (subject
+to certain allowances, where more than one subject is considered),
+the element of chance necessarily enters largely into the question
+of pass and failure. The fact may be stated in this way:&mdash;the
+general efficiency of the test being granted, it is true to say that
+the large majority of those who pass an examination will be
+superior in efficiency to those who fail; but a few of those who
+fail may be superior to a few of those who pass. These errors are
+not peculiar to the examination system, they are inherent in
+all human judgments. It is necessary to allow for them in
+considering the failure of an individual candidate as an index
+of inefficiency.</p>
+
+<p>The element of chance, which prevails in the region on either
+side of the border between pass and failure, obviously prevails
+equally on either side of the border between &ldquo;classes,&rdquo; where
+candidates are classified; it has been suggested by Dr Schuster
+that numerical order should accompany classification so as to
+avoid the creation of an artificial gap between the last candidate
+in one class and the highest in the next. Edgeworth&rsquo;s objection
+to such an argument is that the number of uncertainties is far
+less when candidates are classed than when they are placed in
+ostensible order of merit.</p>
+
+<p>The difficulties of comparison of marks are further complicated
+when students take different subjects and it is necessary to
+compare their merit by means of marks allotted by different
+examiners and added together. In a pass examination the
+question has to be considered how far, if at all, excellence in one
+subject shall compensate for deficiency in another, a question
+which is indeterminate until the precise object of the whole
+examination is formulated. In the competitive examination
+for the Indian civil service, places are allotted on the aggregate
+of marks obtained in a number of subjects selected by the
+candidate from a list of thirty-two. The successful candidates are
+compared a year later on the results of another examination in
+which there is again a choice, though a much more limited one. The
+order of merit in the two examinations is, as a rule, very different.</p>
+
+<p>Two further points may be noted. An examiner may have
+underestimated the time required to answer the questions which
+he has set; this will be obvious if with a large number of
+candidates (say 300 or 400) none approaches the maximum
+mark. In this case the maximum should be reduced. Again, it
+is generally recognized to be undesirable to give marks for a
+smattering. In order to avoid this various devices are adopted.
+The simplest is to award a proportion of marks (say 10 to 15,
+or even 20%) for &ldquo;general impression.&rdquo; In some examinations,
+unless say 20% or more marks are obtained for a particular
+subject, no credit is given for the paper in that subject. Latham
+(<i>The Action of Examinations</i>, 1877, p. 490) describes other
+numerical adjustments used to meet this difficulty, especially
+that used in English civil service examinations. The numerical
+results of the civil service examinations are reduced so as to
+conform to a certain symmetrical &ldquo;frequency-curve,&rdquo; of which
+the abscissae represent percentages of marks between definite
+limits and the ordinates the number of candidates obtaining
+marks between those limits. C.E. Fawsitt (<i>The Education of
+the Examiner</i>, Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow, 1905)
+shows that frequency-curves deduced from actual investigation
+of class-marks are not symmetrical, but have two maxima
+corresponding to the performance of &ldquo;non-workers&rdquo; and of
+&ldquo;workers.&rdquo; In pass examinations of a well-known character
+there is a maximum just beyond the pass mark, this being the
+point of efficiency at which many students aim.</p>
+
+<p>8. <i>The Object and Efficiency of Examinations, and their Indirect
+Effects.</i>&mdash;In order to estimate the efficiency of an examination
+as a test, the precise question should be asked in each case&mdash;what
+is it intended to test? Much of the evil attributed to,
+and resulting from, examinations is due to the fact that this
+question has not been definitely put, and that a test legitimate
+for certain purposes has been used for others to which it is
+unsuited. Examinations are suited in the first instance for the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page48" id="page48"></a>48</span>
+purpose for which they were originally designed in medieval
+universities&mdash;the test of technical and professional capacity; it
+has never been proposed to abolish qualifying examinations for
+doctors, pharmaceutical chemists, &amp;c. ; the tests applied are
+(or should be) direct tests of capacity carried out under conditions
+as nearly as possible like those of actual practice. If a
+student can auscultate correctly, or make up a prescription, at
+an examination, he will in all probability be able to do so in other
+circumstances.</p>
+
+<p>Examinations as tests of the knowledge of isolated facts are
+necessarily of relatively small value, because the memory of such
+facts is transient; and memorization of a large number of facts
+for examination purposes is generally admitted to be specially
+transient; the &ldquo;knowledge-test,&rdquo; considered apart from a
+test of capacity, is in fact not a test of permanent knowledge,
+but of the power of retaining facts for a length of time which it is
+impossible to estimate and which with some candidates extends
+over a few weeks only. When used as tests of &ldquo;general culture,&rdquo;
+examinations, in the view of Paulsen, based on a study of German
+education, not only fail in their purpose, but tend to destroy the
+faculties which it is desired to develop (<i>Geschichte des gelehrten
+Unterrichts</i>, ii. 684 et seq.); to prepare ready answers to the
+numberless questions which an examiner may ask on a large
+variety of subjects is to paralyse the natural and free activity
+of the mind (cf. A.C. Benson on the results of English secondary
+classical education, <i>From a College Window</i>, 3rd ed., 1906, pp.
+154-177). If pushed to its logical conclusion the view of Paulsen
+must, it is submitted, lead to the complete abandonment at
+examinations of tests of &ldquo;knowledge&rdquo; as distinguished from
+direct tests of capacity. Thus isolated questions on details of
+grammar would disappear from papers on the mother-tongue
+and on foreign languages, in which the test would consist mainly
+or entirely of composition and translation. Erudition would
+be tested by the power of writing, at leisure, a dissertation on
+some subject selected by the examiners or the candidate or, in
+the case of a teacher, by the delivery of a lecture on the subject.
+At the French <i>agrégation</i> candidates are given twenty-four
+hours for the preparation of a lecture of this kind. Such examinations
+would test the &ldquo;skill in the manipulation of facts which is
+the true sign of a trained intelligence&rdquo; (cf. K. Pearson, &ldquo;The
+Function of Science in the Modern State,&rdquo; <i>Ency. Brit.</i> 10th ed.
+xxxii. Prefatory essay). They might possibly be supplemented
+by easy oral examinations to test both range of knowledge and
+readiness of mind. But in the case of a pupil who had passed
+through a good secondary school it would be as safe to rely for
+supplementary information under this head on the testimony
+of his teachers, as it is to rely on their evidence with regard to
+the fundamental and all-important element on which no examination
+supplies direct information&mdash;personal character.</p>
+
+<p>The main arguments of those opposed to the examination
+system may be summarized as follows: (i.) Examinations
+tend to destroy natural interests and exclude from the attention
+of the pupil all matters outside the purview of the examination
+(they would not do so if examinations were so limited in character
+that preparation therefor could absorb only a fraction of the
+pupil&rsquo;s time); (ii.) they tend to cultivate a personal judgment
+where no personal basis of judgment is possible (this argument,
+directed mainly against the Oxford essay system, applies not to
+examinations in general, but to the character of the subjects
+set for essays); (iii.) competitive examinations on the home
+and Indian civil services scheme tend to diffuse mental energy
+over too many subjects (but see (xviii.) below); (iv.) examinations,
+especially competitive examinations, tend to become more and
+more difficult, difficulty being confused with efficiency&mdash;this has
+shown itself with the Cambridge mathematical tripos, in which
+for years questions of increasing difficulty were set on relatively
+unimportant subjects, until the examination was reformed
+(reply: all examinations should be overhauled periodically);
+(v.) they tend to paralyse the powers of exposition, all statements
+of knowledge being thrown into a form suitable, not for an
+uninstructed person, but for one who already possesses it, the
+examiner (this tendency should be counteracted by definite
+training in composition); (vi.) the sample of knowledge and
+capacity yielded at an examination is frequently not a fair
+sample; it is liable to extreme variations in a favourable sense,
+if the candidate happens to have prepared the precise questions
+asked; in an unfavourable sense, if the candidate is suffering
+from misfortune or from accidental ill-health, the latter, owing
+to the periodic function, occurring much more frequently in the
+case of women than of men&mdash;[the reform of examination
+methods may remove to a great extent the element of chance in
+questions set; in a competitive examination it is impossible to
+allow for ill-health; in a qualifying examination it is difficult
+to make any allowance unless the examination is definitely
+conducted in whole or in part by the teachers, and the past record
+of the candidate is taken into account (cf. Paulsen, <i>The German
+Universities</i>, pp. 344-345)]; (vii.) examinations of several
+hundred candidates at a time cannot be rationally conducted
+so as to be equally fair to the individuality of all candidates;
+the individual test is the only complete one (it is admitted
+that examinations on a large scale necessarily involve a margin
+of error; but this error may be reduced to a minimum, especially
+by a combination of oral and practical with written work);
+(viii.) the multiplicity of school examinations required for
+different reasons produces confusion in our secondary education
+(there is a growing tendency to admit equivalence of &ldquo;school-leaving&rdquo;
+and entrance examinations; thus entrance examinations
+of Oxford, Cambridge and London, and the Northern
+Universities Joint Board are interchangeable under certain
+conditions); (ix.) the multiplicity of examinations tends to
+&ldquo;underselling&rdquo; (the success of the London examinations in
+medicine proves that a high standard attracts candidates as
+well as a low one; possibly intermediate standards may be
+killed in the competition; it is by no means obvious that a
+uniform system of examinations would conduce to efficiency);
+(x.) examinations produce physical damage to health, especially
+in the case of women-students (on this point more statistical
+evidence is needed; see, however, Engelmann quoted by
+G. Stanley Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>, 1905, ii. 588 et seq.); (xi.) examinations
+have in England mechanically cast the education of women
+into the same mould as that of men, without reference to the
+different social functions of the two sexes (the remedy is
+obvious); (xii.) it is unjustifiable to give a man a university
+position on the results of his performance in the examination
+room, a practice common in England though almost unknown on
+the continent; a just estimate of a man&rsquo;s powers in research or for
+teaching can only be properly based on his performance. The
+present system merely leads to the transmission of the sterile art
+of passing examinations. (At Oxford and Cambridge many
+fellowships are now awarded on the results of examination; it is
+sometimes stated, in defence of this system, that young men cannot
+be expected to carry out research in classics or philosophy.)</p>
+
+<p>On the other hand, the defenders of examinations reply that
+(xiii.) examinations are necessary in order to test the efficiency
+of schools to which grants of public money are given (this
+argument has become somewhat out of date owing to the recent
+substitution of &ldquo;inspection&rdquo; for examination as a test of the
+efficiency of schools; a combination of inspection and examination
+is also sometimes used); (xiv.) they serve as a necessary
+incentive to steady and concentrated work<a name="fa4d" id="fa4d" href="#ft4d"><span class="sp">4</span></a> (the reply made to
+this is that the incentive is a bad one, and that with efficient
+teachers it is unnecessary); (xv.) they show both student and
+teacher where they have failed (unnecessary for efficient
+teachers); (xvi.) though possibly harmful to the highest class of
+men, they are good for the mass (reply: no system which
+damages the highest class of men is tolerable); (xvii.) they are
+indispensable as an impartial means of selecting men for the
+civil service; (xviii.) in a difficult examination like the first
+class civil service examination the qualities of quickness of comprehension,
+industry, concentration, power of rapidly passing
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page49" id="page49"></a>49</span>
+from one subject to another, good health, are necessary for success,
+though not tested directly, and these qualities are valuable
+in any kind of work (this appears to be incontrovertible);
+(xix.) examination records show that success in examinations
+is generally followed by success in after-life, and the test is
+therefore efficient (it does not follow that certain rejected
+candidates may not be extremely efficient); (xx.) as a plea for
+purely &ldquo;external examinations,&rdquo; teachers cannot be trusted
+to be impartial and it is better for a boy to &ldquo;cram&rdquo; than
+to curry favour with his teacher (Latham).</p>
+
+<p>The brief comments in brackets, appended above to the arguments,
+merely indicate what has been said or can be said on the
+other side. It can scarcely be doubted that in spite of the
+powerful objections that have been advanced against examinations,
+they are, in the view of the majority of English people,
+an indispensable element in the social organization of a highly
+specialized democratic state, which prefers to trust nearly all
+decisions to committees rather than to individuals. But in view
+of the extreme importance of the matter, and especially of the
+evidence that, for some cause or other (which may or may not
+be the examination system), intellectual interest and initiative
+seem to diminish in many cases very markedly during school
+and college life in England, the whole subject seems to call for
+a searching and impartial inquiry.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Sources of Information.</span>&mdash;The works mentioned above, and
+T.D. Acland, <i>Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the New
+Oxford Examinations for the Title of Associate in Arts</i> (London, 1858);
+Matthew Arnold, <i>Higher Schools and Universities in Germany</i> (1874);
+Graham Balfour, <i>The Educational Systems of Great Britain and
+Ireland</i> (2nd ed., Oxford, 1903); W.W. Rouse Ball, <i>Origin and
+History of the Mathematical Tripos</i> (Cambridge, 1880); Adolf Beier,
+<i>Die höheren Schulen in Preussen und ihre Lehrer</i> (1902-1906) (in
+progress); Cloudesley Brereton, &ldquo;A New Method of awarding
+Scholarships,&rdquo; <i>School World</i>, 1907, p. 409; G.C. Brodrick, <i>A
+History of the University of Oxford</i> (London, 1886); F. Buisson,
+<i>Dictionnaire de pédagogie</i> (1880-1887); Lord Curzon of Kedleston,
+<i>Principles and Methods of University Reform</i> (1909); J. Demogeot
+and H. Montucci, <i>De l&rsquo;enseignement supérieur en Angleterre et en
+Écosse</i> (1870); H. Denifle, <i>Die Universitäten des Mittelalters bis
+1400</i> (Berlin, 1885); F.Y. Edgeworth, &ldquo;The Statistics of Examinations,&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;The Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations,&rdquo;
+<i>Journal of the Statistical Society</i>, 1888 and 1890 respectively;
+H.W. Eve, Lecture &ldquo;On Marking,&rdquo; in <i>The Practice of Education</i>
+(Cambridge, 1883); Charles E. Fawsitt, <i>The Education of the Examiner</i>
+(Royal Philosophical Society of Glasgow) (Glasgow, 1905);
+J.G. Fitch, &ldquo;The Proposed Admission of Girls to the University
+Local Examination,&rdquo; <i>Education Miscellanies</i> (1865), vol. x.; W.
+Garnett, &ldquo;The Representation of certain Examination Results,&rdquo;
+<i>Journ. Statist. Soc.</i> (Jan. 1910); G. Stanley Hall, <i>Adolescence</i>
+(London, 1905); Sir W. Hamilton, <i>Discussions on Philosophy</i>
+(London, 1853); P.J. Hartog, &ldquo;Universities, Schools and Examinations&rdquo;
+in the <i>University Review</i> (July 1905); P.J. Hartog
+and Mrs A.H. Langdon, <i>The Writing of English</i> (1907); Auberon
+Herbert (edited by), <i>The Sacrifice of Education to Examination</i>,
+Letters from &ldquo;All Sorts and Conditions of Men&rdquo; (1889); <i>Influence
+of Examinations</i>, Report by a Committee, British Association
+Reports for 1903, p. 434. and for 1904, p. 360; John Jebb, <i>Remarks
+upon the Present Mode of Education in the University of Cambridge</i>
+(4th ed., 1774); Henry Latham, <i>On the Action of Examinations</i>
+(Cambridge, 1877); H.C. Maxwell Lyte, <i>A History of the University
+of Oxford to the Year 1530</i> (London, 1886); W.A.P. Martin, <i>The
+Lore of Cathay</i> (Edinburgh and London, 1901); J.B. Mullinger,
+<i>The University of Cambridge</i> (Cambridge, 1873); <i>How to pass
+Examinations successfully</i>, by an Oxford Coach; Mark Pattison,
+<i>Suggestions on Academical Organization</i> (Edinburgh, 1868);
+Friedrich Paulsen, <i>The German Universities and University Study</i>
+(London, 1906) and <i>Geschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts</i> (Leipzig,
+1896); George Peacock, <i>Observations on the Statutes of the University
+of Cambridge</i> (1841); <i>Programme des examens du nouveau baccalauréat
+de l&rsquo;enseignement secondaire</i>, Delalain frères, Paris; Hastings
+Rashdall, <i>The Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages</i> (Oxford, 1895);
+Rein&rsquo;s <i>Encyklopädisches Handbuch der Pädagogik</i> (2nd ed., 1902, &amp;c. ),
+articles &ldquo;Prüfungen&rdquo; (by F. Paulsen), &amp;c. ; Third Report of the
+Royal Commissioners on Scientific Instructions, 1873; J.E. Thorold
+Rogers, <i>Education in Oxford</i> (1861); M.E. Sadler, &ldquo;Memorandum
+on the Leaving Examinations ... in the Secondary Schools of
+Prussia,&rdquo; in Report of Royal Commission on Secondary Education,
+vol. v. p. 27 (1895); C.A. Schmid, <i>Geschichte der Erziehung</i> (Stuttgart,
+1884, &amp;c. ), and <i>Encyklopädie des gesammten Erziehungs- und
+Unterrichtswesens</i> (2nd ed., 1876-87), articles &ldquo;Prüfung,&rdquo; &ldquo;Schulprüfungen,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;Versetzungsprüfungen,&rdquo; &amp;c. ; Scholarships, various papers
+on, by H.B. Baker, A.A. David, H.A. Miers, M.E. Sadler and
+H. Bompas Smith, and others, British Association Report, 1907,
+pp. 707-718; Arthur Schuster, article on &ldquo;Universities and
+Examinations&rdquo; in the University Review (May 1905); W.H. Sharp,
+<i>The Educational System of Japan</i> (Office of the Director-General of
+Education in India) (Bombay, 1906); Special Educational Reports,
+issued by the Board of Education, <i>passim</i>; A.M.M. Stedman,
+<i>Oxford: its Life and Schools</i> (London, 1887); I. Todhunter, <i>Conflict
+of Studies</i> (1873); William Whewell, <i>Of a Liberal Education</i> (London,
+1845); Christopher Wordsworth, <i>Scholae academicae</i> (Cambridge,
+1877); Étienne Zi (or Siu or Seu), <i>Pratique des examens littéraires en
+Chine</i> (Shanghai, 1894). Private information from Professor M.E.
+Sadler and Mr A.E. Twentyman.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(P. J. H.; A. Wn.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1d" id="ft1d" href="#fa1d"><span class="fn">1</span></a> W.W. Rouse Ball in his <i>History of the Study of Mathematics at
+Cambridge</i> (1889), p. 193, states that he can find no record of any
+European examinations by means of written papers earlier than
+those introduced by R. Bentley at Trinity College, Cambridge, in
+1702.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2d" id="ft2d" href="#fa2d"><span class="fn">2</span></a> It should be mentioned that the professors of chemistry of a
+number of German, Austrian and Swiss universities, have, by agreement,
+instituted an intermediate examination in that subject which
+students are required to pass before beginning work on the doctoral
+thesis. The examination of the students is conducted by the teachers
+concerned.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3d" id="ft3d" href="#fa3d"><span class="fn">3</span></a> See E.E. Brown in <i>Monographs on Education in the United
+States</i> (ed. by N.M. Butler, 1900, i. 164), and T. Gregory Foster and
+H.R. Reichel, <i>Report of Mosely Educational Commission</i> (1904),
+pp. 117-119 and 288-289.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4d" id="ft4d" href="#fa4d"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The Oxford commissioners of 1852 reported that &ldquo;the examinations
+have become the chief instruments not only for testing
+the proficiency of the students but also for stimulating and directing
+the studies of the place&rdquo; (<i>Report</i>, p. 61).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXARCH<a name="ar44" id="ar44"></a></span> (<span class="grk" title="exarchos">&#7956;&#958;&#945;&#961;&#967;&#959;&#962;</span>, a chief person or leader), a title that has
+been conferred at different periods on certain chief officers or
+governors, both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Of these,
+the most important were the exarchs of Ravenna (<i>q.v.</i>). In
+the ecclesiastical organization the exarch of a <i>diocese</i> (the word
+being here used of the political division) was in the 4th and 5th
+centuries the same as primate. This dignity was intermediate
+between the patriarchal and the metropolitan, the name patriarch
+being restricted after <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 451 to the chief bishops of the most
+important cities (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Patriarch</a></span>). The title of Exarch was also
+formerly given in the Eastern Church to a general or superior
+over several monasteries, and to certain ecclesiastics deputed
+by the patriarch of Constantinople to collect the tribute payable
+by the Church to the Turkish government. In the modern
+Greek Church an exarch is a deputy, or legate <i>a latere</i>, of the
+patriarch, whose office it is to visit the clergy and churches in the
+provinces allotted to him. The title of exarch has been borne
+by the head of the Bulgarian Church (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bulgaria</a></span>), since
+in 1872 it repudiated the jurisdiction of the Greek patriarch
+of Constantinople. Hence the names of the politico-religious
+parties in the recent history of the Near East: &ldquo;Exarchists&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;Patriarchists.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCAMBION<a name="ar45" id="ar45"></a></span> (a word connected with a large class of Low Latin
+and Romance forms, such as <i>cambium</i>, <i>concambium</i>, <i>scambium</i>,
+from Lat. <i>cambire</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="kambein">&#954;&#940;&#956;&#946;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span> or <span class="grk" title="kamptein">&#954;&#940;&#956;&#960;&#964;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to bend, turn or
+fold), in Scots law, the exchange (<i>q.v.</i>) of one heritable subject
+for another. The modern Scottish excambion may consist in
+the exchange of any heritable subjects whatever, <i>e.g.</i> a patronage
+or, what often occurs, a portion of a glebe for servitude. Writing
+is not, by the law of Scotland, essential to an excambion. Chiefly
+in favour of the class of cottars and small feuars, and for convenience
+in straightening marches, the law will consider the most
+informal memoranda, and even a verbal agreement, if supported
+by the subsequent possession. The power to excamb was gradually
+conferred on entailed proprietors. The Montgomery Act,
+which was passed in 1770, to facilitate agricultural improvements,
+permitted 50 acres arable and 100 acres not fit for the plough
+to be excambed. This was enlarged by the Rosebery Act in
+1836, under which one-fourth of an entailed estate, not including
+the mansion-house, home farm and policies, might be excambed,
+provided the heirs took no higher grassum (O.E. <i>gersum</i>, fine)
+than £200. The power was applied to the whole estate by the
+Rutherford Act of 1848, and the necessary consents of substitute
+heirs are now regulated by the Entail (Scotland) Act 1882.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCELLENCY<a name="ar46" id="ar46"></a></span> (Lat. <i>excellentia</i>, excellence), a title or predicate
+of honour. The earliest records of its use are associated with
+the Frank and Lombard kings; <i>e.g.</i> Anastasius Bibliothecarius
+(d. c. 886) in his life of Pope Honorius refers to Charlemagne
+as &ldquo;his excellency&rdquo; (<i>ejus excellentia</i>); and during the middle
+ages it was freely applied to or assumed by emperors, kings and
+sovereign princes generally, though rather as a rhetorical flourish
+than as a part of their formal style. Its use is well illustrated in
+the various charters in the Red Book of the exchequer, where
+the addresses to the king vary between &ldquo;your excellency,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;your dignity&rdquo; (<i>vestra dignitas</i>), &ldquo;your sublimity&rdquo; (<i>vestra
+sublimitas</i>) and the like, according to the taste and inventiveness
+of the writers. Du Cange also gives examples of the style
+<i>excellentia</i> being applied to the pope and even to a bishop (in
+a charter of 1182). With the gradual stereotyping of titles of
+honour that of &ldquo;excellency&rdquo; was definitively superseded in the
+case of sovereigns of the highest rank, about the beginning of the
+15th century, by those of &ldquo;highness&rdquo; and &ldquo;grace,&rdquo; and later by
+&ldquo;majesty,&rdquo; first assumed in England by King Henry VIII.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page50" id="page50"></a>50</span>
+Dukes and counts of the Empire and the Italian reigning princes
+continued, however, to be &ldquo;excellencies&rdquo; for a while longer.
+In 1593 the bestowal of the title of <i>excellence</i> by Henry IV. of
+France on the duc de Nevers, his ambassador at Rome, set a
+precedent that was universally followed from the time of the
+treaty of Westphalia (1648). This, together with the reservation
+in 1640 of the title &ldquo;eminence&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) to the cardinals, led the
+Italian princes to adopt the style of &ldquo;highness&rdquo; (<i>altezza</i>) instead
+of &ldquo;excellency.&rdquo; In France, from 1654 onwards, the title of
+<i>excellence</i> was given to all high civil and military officials, and
+this example was followed in Germany in the 18th century.</p>
+
+<p>The subsequent fate of the title varies very greatly in different
+countries. In Great Britain it is borne by the viceroy of India,
+the lord-lieutenant of Ireland, all governors of colonies and
+ambassadors. In the United States it is part of the official style
+of the governors of states, but not of that of the president;
+though diplomatic usage varies in this respect, some states
+(<i>e.g.</i> France) conceding to him the style of &ldquo;excellency,&rdquo; others
+(<i>e.g.</i> Belgium) refusing it. The custom of other republics differs:
+in France the president is addressed as <i>excellence</i> by courtesy;
+in Switzerland the title is omitted; in the South American
+republics it is part of the official style (Pradier-Fodéré, <i>Cours de
+droit diplom.</i> i. 89). In Spain the title of <i>excelencia</i> properly
+belonged to the grandees and to those who had the right to be
+covered in the royal presence, but it was extended also to high
+officials, viceroys, ministers, captains-general, lieutenants-general,
+ambassadors and knights of the Golden Fleece. In Austria the
+title <i>Exzellenz</i> belongs properly to privy councillors. It has,
+however, gradually been extended by custom to all the higher
+military commands from lieutenant-field-marshal upwards.
+Ministers, even when not privy councillors, are styled <i>Exzellenz</i>.
+In Germany the title is borne by the imperial chancellor, the
+principal secretaries of state, ministers and <i>Oberpräsidenten</i> in
+Prussia, by generals from the rank of lieutenant-general upwards,
+by the chief court officials, and it is also sometimes bestowed
+as a title of honour in cases where it is not attached to the office
+held by its recipient. In Russia the title is very common, being
+borne by all officers from major-general upwards and by all
+officials above the rank of acting privy councillor. Officers
+and officials of the highest rank have the title of &ldquo;high excellency.&rdquo;
+Finally, in Italy, the title <i>eccelenza</i>, which had come
+to be used in the republics of Venice and Genoa as the usual
+form of address to nobles, has become as meaningless as the
+English title of &ldquo;esquire&rdquo; or the address of &ldquo;sir,&rdquo; being, especially
+in the south, the usual form of address to any stranger.</p>
+
+<p>In the diplomatic service the title of excellency is technically
+reserved to ambassadors, but in addressing envoys also this
+form is commonly used by courtesy.</p>
+<div class="author">(W. A. P.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCHANGE,<a name="ar47" id="ar47"></a></span> in general, the action of mutual giving and
+receiving objects, interests, benefits, rights, &amp;c.  The word comes
+through the French from the Late Lat. <i>excambium</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Excambion</a></span>).
+The present article deals with the theory and
+practice of exchange in monetary transactions, but this may
+conveniently be prefaced by a brief statement as to the law
+relating to the exchange of property and other matters. In
+English law exchange is defined as the mutual grant of equal
+interests, the one in consideration of the other. The ancient
+common law conveyance had certain restrictions, <i>e.g.</i> identity
+in quantity of interest, fee-simple for fee-simple, &amp;c. , entry to
+perfect the conveyance, and an implied warranty of title and
+right of entry by either party in case of eviction. Such exchanges
+are now effected by mutual conveyances with the usual covenants
+for title. Exchanges are also frequently made by order of the
+Board of Agriculture under the Inclosure Acts, and there are
+also statutes enabling ecclesiastical corporations to exchange
+benefices with the approval of the ecclesiastical commissioners.
+The international exchange of territories is effected by treaties.
+The exchange of prisoners of war is regulated by documents
+called &ldquo;cartels&rdquo; (Med. Lat. <i>cartellus</i>, diminutive of <i>carta</i>,
+paper, bill), which specify a certain agreed-on value for each
+rank of prisoners. The practice superseded the older one of
+ransom at the end of a war. By the Regimental Exchanges Act
+1875 the sovereign may by regulation authorize exchanges by
+officers from one regiment to another. (For &ldquo;labour exchanges&rdquo;
+see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Unemployment</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<p>Exchange in relation to money affairs denotes a species of
+barter not of goods but of the value of goods, a payment in one
+place being exchanged for a payment in another place. The
+popular statement of the theory of exchange represents four
+principals involved in two transactions. A and B are two persons
+residing in one place different from the domicile of C and D;
+A sells goods to C; B buys goods from D; A sells his claim
+on C to B, who remits it to D in satisfaction of his debt, and D
+receives the cash from C, so that, assuming the two transactions
+to be of equal value, one piece of paper satisfies the four parties
+to these two transactions, and the trouble, expense and risk of
+sending money from both places are avoided. The piece of paper
+which performs the service may be a telegraphic order, cheque
+or bill of exchange. In this elementary proposition there would
+be no difficulty of exchange, as the full value of A&rsquo;s claim on C
+would be paid for by B, who is under the necessity of sending
+in exactly similar amount of money to D; but it can be seen that
+in actual practice the claims of one place on another place would
+not be exactly balanced by the necessities of the one place to
+meet obligations in the other place; thus arises the complication
+of exchange, which may best be described as the price of monetary
+claims on distant debtors.</p>
+
+<p>Supposing, for example, that A in London had a claim on C in
+Edinburgh amounting to £100, and that B in London did not
+require to remit more than £90 to D in Edinburgh, it is evident
+that B in London must be offered some inducement to take over
+the whole of A&rsquo;s claim. B might give A £99:19:0, and could
+then, after satisfying his debt to D, have £10 to his credit in
+Edinburgh, which he could retain there at interest until he had
+incurred further liability to D, or he could have the balance of
+£10 returned him in coin at an expense, say, of sixpence; this
+would leave B with a profit of sixpence on the transaction, and,
+assuming that these figures are reasonable, exchange on Edinburgh
+in London would be one shilling discount per £100.
+Supposing the necessities of B induced him to offer A only
+£99 : 14 : 0 for his £100 claim, A would then prefer that C
+remitted him £100 in coin, which, on the above scale of expenses
+would cost 5s. and A would receive £99 : 15 : 0 net. On these
+premises, exchange on Edinburgh in London cannot fall below
+¼% discount, and the same circumstances prevent it from rising
+above ¼% premium, for B, in no case, would pay more for A&rsquo;s
+claim than £100 plus the cost of sending coin to Scotland. If
+this basis is appreciated, all exchange problems between different
+countries can be mastered, and the quotations in the daily
+papers of cable payments, sight drafts (cheques) and long bills
+are then understood and supply an interesting indication of the
+state of international financial relations. As shown above, the
+balance of indebtedness must eventually be remitted by coin,
+and consequently when exchange in any city is quoted at one or
+other of the limit points given in our example as ¼% discount
+or ¼% premium, this exchange immediately acquires a very
+serious importance, because with the development of modern
+monetary systems under which enormous trade is carried on
+with a most moderate foundation of actual coin the weakening
+or strengthening of that foundation is a very vital matter.</p>
+
+<p>While the understanding of the theory is essential for any
+facile interpretation of an exchange, there are of course innumerable
+details of practice which require to be known to identify
+the limit points of exchange in any particular city. The limit
+points can only be taken advantage of by banking experts, and,
+although we assume a trader remitting his indebtedness in coin
+when he is asked to pay too high a price for his bill of exchange,
+in actual affairs the banker will supply the cheque or bill and
+himself will do the professional business of sending away bullion.
+Similarly, we have represented one trader drawing on another
+trader and selling his draft to a third trader who remits the draft
+to a fourth. In actual practice, however, No. 1 draws on No. 2
+and disposes of his draft to a banker; No. 4 draws on No. 3 and
+sells his draft to a banker; because, speaking generally, whenever
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page51" id="page51"></a>51</span>
+goods are shipped, the shipper immediately requires his money;
+he draws a bill against the goods, and it is the function of a banker
+to help, as a sort of debt-collecting agency, by buying these
+drafts; and the bank, being a mart for all forms of remittance,
+gets an immense variety of demand for cable payments, cheques
+and bills on all centres. This does not affect the theory, for it
+must be remembered that the banker is a necessary link between
+the buyer and seller of exchange, because the seller can only
+sell what he has and the buyer must have exactly what he wants.</p>
+
+<p>To return to the question of limit points: if a universal
+currency system existed, with the same monetary standard
+that is used in England, and the coinage kept in a proper condition
+of weight and fineness, and the coin readily supplied
+to meet every reasonable claim&mdash;if, in fact, the pound sterling
+were the prevalent coin and the English banking system obtained
+everywhere, then we should find all exchange quotations as simple
+as our case of London and Edinburgh, that is to say, all exchanges
+would be quoted at par or a premium or a discount. The limit
+points in any place of the exchange on London would represent
+simply and obviously the cost of the transmission of the coin.
+These limit points would vary at each place according to the
+distance from London, the cost of freight, the risk involved
+in the transmission and the local rate of interest. On the continent
+of Europe some advance has been made in the direction
+of a universal coinage. Countries subscribing to the Latin
+Union have agreed on the franc as a common unit, and Belgium,
+Switzerland, France and Italy quote exchange between themselves
+at a premium or discount. Greece, Spain and other
+countries are also parties to the arrangement, but their currencies
+are in a bad state, and the exchange quotations involve a considerable
+element of speculation. We have, however, to deal with
+another factor in international finance, namely, the enormous
+variety of currency systems; and we have then to discover,
+in each case, the exchange which represents par and corresponds
+to our £100 for £100 in the London-Edinburgh example. The
+United States furnishes perhaps the easiest problem, and we must
+find out how many dollars in gold contain exactly the same
+amount of the precious metal as is contained in one hundred
+sovereigns. The answer is 486<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>, and the arithmetic is a question
+of the mint laws of the two countries. Gold coin in the United
+States contains one-tenth alloy and in England one-twelfth
+alloy. Ten dollars contain 258 grains of gold, nine-tenths fine.
+One pound contains 123.274 grains of gold, eleven-twelfths fine,
+consequently £100 is worth $486<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>, or, to be exact, $486<span class="spp">2</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>,
+and when cable payments between London and New York are
+quoted at 4.86<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> for the £1 sterling, exchange is about par. As
+a cable payment is an immediate transfer from one city to
+another, no question of interest or other charge is involved.
+Owing to the cost of sending gold as detailed above, the New
+York cable exchange varies from about 4.84 to 4.89½; at the
+former point gold leaves London for New York, and at the
+latter point gold comes to England. Besides insurance, freight,
+packing, commission and interest, there must also be considered
+the circumstance that coin taken in bulk is always a little worn
+and under full weight, and in the process of turning sovereigns
+into dollars, the result would not bear out the calculation based
+on the mint regulations: consequently, when taking gold from
+London, the demand would first fall on the raw metal as received
+from South Africa or Australia to be minted in the United States,
+then on any stock of American coin the Bank of England might
+have and be willing to sell by weight (which would be accounted
+by tale in New York), and lastly the demand would be satisfied
+by sovereigns taken by tale from the Bank of England and converted
+by weight in America.</p>
+
+<p>The instance of the American quotation may be further taken
+to explain some of the numerous points which the study of the
+exchange involves. In the first place, it will be noted that we
+have quoted the price in dollars. In London, business in bills,
+&amp;c. , on New York is quoted either in pence or in dollars, that is
+to say, payments are negotiated for so many dollars either at
+49<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span> pence per dollar, or at the equivalent rate $4.88 for the
+pound. In practice it is much more convenient to quote in
+London in the money of the foreign country, as it makes comparison
+with the foreign rate on London very simple. Some
+foreign countries quote exchange on London in pence, and then,
+of course, in relation to those countries the same practice will
+obtain in England, but the majority of the exchange quotations
+on London are in francs, marks, gulden, lire, kronen or other
+foreign money. Another point which must be explained is the
+reason why exchange varies between what we have called the
+limit points; why there is sometimes so much demand for bills
+on London and why at other times so many bills are being
+offered. Similar causes operate on other exchanges, and if we
+develop the New York case we shall provide explanations for
+exchange movements in other countries.</p>
+
+<p>At one time the financial relations between England and
+America were as follows. England was the principal creditor of
+the United States, and the latter country had to remit continually
+very large amounts in payment of interest on English money
+and profits on English investments, in payment for shipping
+freights, for banking commissions, insurance premiums and an
+immense variety of services, besides paying for the large imports
+which crossed the Atlantic from English ports. In the fall of
+the year these payments would be more than offset by the
+enormous exports of food-stuffs, cotton, tobacco, &amp;c. , so that
+during the first half of the year exchange would be at or about
+the limit of 4.89½ and gold would have to be sent from New York
+to supplement the deficient quantity of bills. In the autumn
+the produce bills would flood the exchange market and gold
+would be sent from London as exchange got to the other limit
+point of 4.84. These conditions are still very potent, but latterly
+another element has entered into the position, and the new
+development is so powerful as to reverse sometimes what we may
+call the natural and legitimate movement in the exchange. This
+new element is the more intimate banking and financial relationship
+which has been established between the two countries.
+As American conditions have become more stable, with better
+security for capital and an assured feeling about the currency
+of the United States, bankers in London have gladly allowed
+their banking friends in New York and other large cities to draw
+bills on London whenever there was a good demand for sterling
+remittances. We have, therefore, to consider a fresh type of
+bill of which the drawer has no claim on the drawee, but, on the
+other hand, incurs a debt to the drawee. To take a very usual
+method, a banker in Wall Street, New York, will advance money
+to stockbrokers, investors and speculators against bonds and
+shares with a 20% margin. He deposits this security with a trust
+company in New York which acts both for the American and
+English banker. The Wall Street banker then draws a bill at
+60 days&rsquo; sight or 90 days&rsquo; sight on the banker in Lombard Street
+and sells this draft to supply the money he lends the stockbroker.
+Two or three months hence the New York banker must send
+money to London with which to meet the bill, so that, whereas, in
+the case of a commercial bill, the produce is despatched and in due
+course the consignee must find the money for the bill, in the case
+of a finance bill, as it is called, the bill is drawn and in due course
+the drawer must send the value with which it is to be honoured.
+In any event the acceptor, the London banker, has to pay
+the bill, so that it will be easily understood that relations of
+the greatest confidence are necessary between the drawer and
+drawee before finance bills of this class can be created.</p>
+
+<p>The profit arising from the transaction we have sketched is
+realized by the separate parties in this way. The New York
+banker lends money for three months, say, at 5% per annum,
+he pays a commission of <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span>% to the trust company which has
+custody of the security, a charge equivalent to 1/8% interest per
+annum. He draws on London at 90 days&rsquo; sight and sells the bill
+at 4.83<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>, the cable rate being 4.87¾, the buyer of a three months&rsquo;
+bill making the allowance for the English bill stamp of ½ per
+mille and the London discount rate of 3%. The drawer of the
+bill must also pay a commission of <span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>% to the London banker
+who accepts the draft; this is equivalent to another ¾% per
+annum in the rate of discount, so that money raised in this way
+costs <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>% for the trust company, 3% the London discount rate,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page52" id="page52"></a>52</span>
+about ¼% for bill stamps, and ¾% for London commission&mdash;altogether,
+4<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>%; and, as the money is loaned at 5%, there
+appears to be <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>% profit to the drawer of the bill. This, however,
+is on the assumption that the cable rate is still 4.87¾ when the
+bill falls due for payment and that the drawer would have to
+pay that price to telegraph the money to meet the draft. But
+exchange on London can go up or down between 4.84 and 4.89½,
+and if at the end of the three months the cable rate is 4.84 the
+New York banker will be able to cover his bill at almost the same
+rate at which he sold it and will only be out of pocket to the
+extent of the commissions and stamps, so that the accommodation
+will only cost him 1½% and his profit will be 3½%. If he has
+to pay more than 4.87¾ for his cable at the maturity of the bill
+his profit will be less than <span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>%, and he may even be a loser on the
+transaction.</p>
+
+<p>It is obvious, then, that a high rate of interest in New York,
+with a high rate of exchange on London and a low rate of discount
+in England, would induce the creation of these finance
+bills. The supply of these bills would prevent New York exchange
+reaching the limit point at which gold leaves the United
+States, and the maturity of these bills in the autumn would
+ensure a demand for the produce bills and possibly prevent
+exchange from falling to the other limit point at which London
+has to send gold to New York.</p>
+
+<p>We have pointed out the essential difference between these
+finance bills and what we have called produce bills, but there is
+another very striking difference, that of the question of supply.
+These finance bills are obviously very difficult to limit in their
+amounts; produce bills are, of course, limited by the extent of
+the surplus crops of the United States and by the demand for
+the produce in Europe, but so long as it is mutually satisfactory
+to the big finance houses in both countries to draw on credit
+granted in London, so long may these accommodation bills be
+created, and the pressure of the bills in New York may depress
+exchange so much that gold leaves London at a time when it is
+required in other directions. In such a case the embarrassment
+caused by this artificial drain of the gold reserve would much
+more than offset the amount of the commission earned by the
+accepting houses. The Bank of England may have to raise its
+rate of discount at the expense of the entire home trade; probably,
+also, with the rise in the value of money, consequent on the
+diminished resources, all investment securities fall in value and
+more onerous terms must be submitted to by the government,
+corporations and colonies, in the issue of any loans they may
+require. It will, therefore, be appreciated that, although these
+finance bills may be perfectly safe, their excessive creation is
+viewed with great disfavour, and considerable apprehension is
+felt when the adventures of speculators in New York make
+great demands for loans against stocks and shares, and, through
+the instrumentality of these finance bills, shift the burden on to
+the shoulders of the London discount market. The effect of
+this is to level money rates as between New York and London,
+and in the process the pressure falls on London and the relief
+goes to America. Eventually, of course, the bills must be met
+and funds sent for that purpose from across the Atlantic, but in
+the meanwhile the disturbance of the gold supply is an inconvenience.</p>
+
+<p>We have explained the process of employing credits granted
+in London to finance Wall Street; there are, also, many other
+types of bill to which the acceptor lends his name on the assurance
+that he will in due course be supplied with the funds required
+to meet the acceptance. In the case of the produce bills, a
+London banker will accept the bills in order that they may be
+more easily marketable than if they were drawn direct on the
+actual consignee of the cotton, tobacco or wheat. The consignees
+in Liverpool, &amp;c. , pay a commission for this assistance and
+reimburse the London bank as the produce is gradually disposed
+of. The transaction appears slightly more complicated when
+English bankers accept bills for produce shipped from the
+United States to merchants living in Hamburg, Genoa, Singapore
+and all other great ports, but the principle is the same, and the
+influence of such business on the exchange affects, in the first
+instance, the quotation between America and London, but afterwards,
+when money must be sent to London with which to honour
+the bills, the exchanges with Germany, Italy or the Straits
+Settlements bear their share in the eventual adjustment, the
+spinners, tobacco manufacturers and corn factors requiring
+drafts on London where so much of the trade of the world is
+financed.</p>
+
+<p>We shall have to consider later the reasons which ensure to
+London this peculiar and predominant position. We have so
+far used the American exchange as an example to explain causes
+which produce fluctuations in all the principal exchanges on
+London and to show the points between which fluctuations are
+limited. The fact that America is still developing at a much
+greater rate than the Old World makes an important distinction
+between the financial position in New York and the financial
+position of the big capitals in Europe. There is not in America
+the huge accumulation of savings and investment money which
+the Old World has collected, so that whereas Europe helps to
+finance the United States, the latter country has so many home
+enterprises that she can spare none of her funds to assist Europe.
+It would not be possible for London to draw on New York such
+bills as we have described as finance bills, for they could never be
+discounted there except on the most onerous terms, and there is
+nothing in America which corresponds to the London money
+market.</p>
+
+<p>We have to deal with dollars and cents in America, with francs
+in France, with marks in Germany, and different money units in
+nearly every country; but, given the mint regulations, the
+theoretical par of exchange and the theoretical limit points are
+arrived at by simple arithmetic. An exhaustive statement with
+reference to every country would involve an amount of tedious
+repetition, so that for the purposes of this article it is more
+instructive to consider the essential differences between the
+important exchanges than to go into the details of coinage,
+which would appeal rather to the numismatist than to the exchange
+expert.</p>
+
+<p>The United States, offering as it does a vast field for profitable
+investment, must annually remit huge amounts for interest
+on bonds and shares held by Europeans; coupons and dividend
+warrants payable in America are offered for sale daily in London,
+and at the end of the quarters the amount of these claims,
+coupons and drawn bonds is very large, and a considerable set
+off to the indebtedness of Europe for American produce. It is
+often asserted that the United States is rapidly getting sufficiently
+wealthy to repurchase all these bonds and shares; but whenever
+trade conditions are exceptionally good in the States, fresh evidence
+is forthcoming that assistance from London and Europe
+is essential to finance the commercial development of the United
+States. This illustrates a feature common to all new countries,
+and the effect is that they make annual payments to the older
+countries and especially to England.</p>
+
+<p>A government loan or other large borrowing arranged abroad
+will immediately move the exchange in favour of the borrowing
+country. A tendency adverse to the United States results from
+the drafts and letters of credit of the large number of holiday
+makers who cross the Atlantic and spend so much money in
+Europe. When remittance is made of the incomes of Americans
+who have taken up their residence in the Old World the exchange
+is affected in a similar manner.</p>
+
+<p>In one respect the United States stands far superior to most
+of the older countries. There are no restrictions on the free
+export of gold when exchange reaches the limit point showing
+that the demand for bills on London exceeds the supply. New
+York (with London and India) is a free gold market, and this is
+undoubtedly one of the reasons why money is so readily advanced
+to the United States, and the finance bills, to which we referred
+above, would not be allowed to the same extent were it not for
+the fact that New York will remit gold when other forms of
+remittance are insufficient to satisfy foreign creditors. When
+exchange between Paris and London reaches the theoretical limit
+point of 25.32 (25 francs 32 centimes for the £1 sterling), gold
+does not leave Paris for London unless the Bank of France is
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page53" id="page53"></a>53</span>
+willing to allow it. By law, silver is also legal tender in France,
+and if the State Bank is pressed for gold a premium will be
+charged for it if it is supplied. Gold may be collected on cheaper
+terms in small amounts from the great trading corporations
+or from the offices of the railways, but a large shipment can only
+be made by special arrangement with the Bank of France.
+Similarly, in Germany, where a gold standard is supposed to
+obtain, if a banker requires a large amount of gold from the
+Reichsbank he is warned that he had better not take it, and if
+he persists he incurs the displeasure of the government institution
+to the prejudice of his business, so that the theoretical limit
+point of 20 marks 52 pf. to the pound sterling has no practical
+significance, and gold cannot be secured from Berlin when
+exchange is against that city, and Germany has, when put to the
+test, an inconvertible and sometimes a debased currency. There
+is no state bank in the United States, and no government interference
+with the natural course of paying debts. On the other
+hand, when monetary conditions in New York indicate a great
+shortage of funds, and rates of interest are uncomfortably high,
+the United States treasury has sometimes parted with some of
+its revenue accumulations to the principal New York bankers
+on condition that they at once engage a similar amount of gold
+for import from abroad, which shall be turned over to the treasury
+on arrival. As these advances are made free of interest the effect
+is to adjust the limit point of 484 to about 485, and the United
+States treasury seems to have taken a leaf out of the book of
+the German Reichsbank, which frequently offers similar facilities
+to gold importers and creates an artificial limit point in the
+Berlin Exchange. The Reichsbank gives credit in Berlin for
+gold that has only got as far as Hamburg, and sometimes gives
+so many days&rsquo; credit that the agent in London of German banking
+houses can afford an extravagant price for bar gold and even
+risk the loss in weight on a withdrawal of sovereigns, although
+the exchange may not have fallen to the other limit point of
+20.32. In England the only effort that is made to attract gold
+is some action by the Bank of England in the direction of raising
+discount rates; occasionally, also, the bank outbids other
+purchasers for the arrivals of raw gold from South Africa,
+Australia and other mining countries. Quite exceptionally, for
+instance during the Boer War, the Bank of England allowed
+advances free of interest against gold shipped to London.</p>
+
+<p>Many of the principal banking houses in all the important
+capitals receive continually throughout the day telegraphic
+information of the tendency and movement of all the exchanges,
+and on the smallest margin of profit a large business is done in
+what is called arbitrage (<i>q.v.</i>). For instance, cheques or bills
+on London will be bought by X in Paris and remitted to Y in
+London. X will recoup himself by selling a cable payment on
+Z in New York. Z will put himself in funds to meet the cable
+payment by selling 60 days&rsquo; sight drafts on Y, who pays the 60
+days&rsquo; drafts at maturity out of the proceeds of the cheques or
+bills received from Paris, and this complicated transaction,
+involving no outlay of capital, must show some minute profit
+after all expense of bill stamps, discount, cables and commissions
+has been allowed for. Such business is very difficult and very
+technical. The arbitrageur must be in first-class credit, must
+make the most exact calculation, and be prompt to take
+advantage of the small differences in exchange, differences
+which can be only temporary, as these operations soon bring
+about an adjustment.</p>
+
+<p>The European exchanges with which London is chiefly concerned
+are Paris and Berlin, through which centres most of the
+financial business of the rest of Europe is conducted; for example,
+Scandinavia, Russia and Austria bank more largely with Berlin
+than elsewhere. Italy, Switzerland, Belgium and Spain bank
+chiefly in Paris. European claims on London or debts to London
+are settled mostly through Germany or France, and consequently
+the German and French rates of exchange are affected by the
+relation of England with the rest of the Continent. The exchanges
+on Paris and Berlin are therefore most carefully watched
+by all those big interests which are concerned with the rate of
+discount and the value of money in London.</p>
+
+<p>If the Paris cheque falls to 25.12, gold arrivals in the London
+bullion market will be taken by French bankers unless the profit
+shown by the exchange on some other country enables other
+buyers to pay more for the gold than Paris can afford. If the
+Paris cheque falls still further, it would pay to take sovereigns
+from the Bank of England for export, and so much would be
+taken as would satisfy the demand to send money to France, or
+until the consequent scarcity of money in London made rates
+of interest so high in England that French bankers would prefer
+to leave money and perhaps increase their balances. As between
+London and Paris and Berlin the greatest factor operating the
+exchanges is the relative value of money in the three centres.
+There is no great excess of trade balance at any season in favour
+of Germany or France and against England. On the other hand
+the banking relations between those countries are very intimate,
+and if funds can be very profitably employed in one of these
+places, there will be a good demand for remittance, and exchange
+will move in favour of that place, that is to say, exchange will
+go towards that limit point at which gold will be sent. The
+great pastoral and agricultural countries like South America,
+Egypt and India are in a position to draw very largely on London
+when their crops or other products are ready for shipment.
+In the early months of the year gold goes freely to South America
+to pay for the cereals, hides and meat, and in the autumn Egypt
+and India send such quantities of cotton and wheat that exchange
+moves heavily in favour of those countries, and gold must go
+to adjust the trade balance. During the rest of the year the gold
+tends to return as these countries always require bills on London
+or some form of payment to meet interest and dividends on
+European money invested in their government debts, railways
+and trading enterprises, and to pay for the European manufactures
+which they import. Exchange then moves in favour
+of England, and the Bank of England can replenish its reserve.
+Over the greater part of the world the rate of exchange on London
+is an indication simply of the trade balance. The greater part of
+the world receives payment for food stuffs, and has to pay for
+European manufactures, shipping freights, banking services
+and professional commissions.</p>
+
+<p>The greatest complication in exchange questions arises when
+we have to deal with a country employing a silver standard, and,
+fortunately for the development of trade, this problem has
+disappeared of late years in the case of India, Ceylon, Japan,
+Mexico and the Straits Settlements, and now the only important
+country using silver as a standard is China. When the monetary
+standard in one country is only a commodity in another country
+we are as far removed from the ideal of an international currency
+as can be imagined. We can fix no limit points to the exchange
+and we cannot settle any theoretical par of exchange. The price
+of silver in the gold-using country may vary as much as the price
+of copper or tin, and in the silver-using country gold is dealt
+in just as any other metal. In both cases the only metal of
+constant price is the metal which is used as the money standard.
+The easiest method of explaining the position is to consider that
+any one in a gold-using country having a claim in currency on
+a silver-using country has to offer for sale so many ounces of
+silver, and vice versa the exporter in a silver-using country
+sending produce to London has to offer a draft representing so
+many ounces of gold. This introduces a very unsatisfactory
+element. To take a practical example:&mdash;a tea-grower in China
+has raised his crop in spite of the usual experience of weather and
+labour difficulties and the endless risks that a planter must face;
+the tea is then sent to London to take its chance of good or bad
+prices, and at the same time the planter has a draft to sell representing
+locally a certain weight of gold; now, in addition to all
+the risks of weather and trading conditions, and the chances of
+the fluctuations in the tea market, he is compelled to gamble
+in the metal market on the price of gold. Some years ago when
+a large number of important countries employed a silver standard
+it was seriously suggested that a fixed ratio should be agreed
+internationally at which gold and silver should be exchanged.
+This advocacy of bimetallism (<i>q.v.</i>) was especially persistent at
+a time when silver had suffered a very great fall in price and the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page54" id="page54"></a>54</span>
+prominent exponents could generally be identified either as
+extremely practical men who were interested in the price of
+silver, or as very inexperienced theorists. The difficulty of the
+two standards was successfully solved by discarding the use of
+silver, and the chief silver-using countries adopted a gold
+standard which has given greater security for the investment
+of foreign capital, has simplified business and brought about a
+large increase of trade.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of a country of which the government has been
+subject to great financial difficulties, gold has been shipped to
+satisfy foreign creditors so long as the supply held out, and the
+exchange with such a country will continue to move adversely
+with every fresh political embarrassment and any other economic
+cause reflecting on the national credit. With the collapse of the
+monarchy in Brazil the value of the milreis fell from 27d. to 5d.,
+and all the Spanish-American countries have from time to time
+afforded most distressing examples of the demoralizing effects on
+the currency of unstable and reckless administration. In Europe
+similar results have been shown by the mistrust inspired by the
+governments of Spain, Greece, Italy and some other states.
+The raising of revenue by the use of the printing press creates
+an inconvertible and depreciating paper currency which frightens
+foreign capital and severely taxes the unfortunate country which
+must make payment abroad for the service of debt and other
+obligations. With the tardy appreciation of the old proverb that
+&ldquo;honesty is the best policy&rdquo; nearly every country of importance
+has made strenuous efforts to improve the integrity of its money.</p>
+
+<p>Exchange quotations are not published from many of the
+British colonies, as their financial business is in the hands of a
+comparatively few excellently managed banks, which establish,
+by agreement, conventional exchanges fixed for a considerable
+period, notably in the case of Australia, New Zealand and South
+Africa. The Scottish and Irish banks supply similar examples
+of a monopoly in exchange.</p>
+
+<p>The following table taken from the money article of a London
+daily paper indicates the exchanges which are of most interest
+to England:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center"><i>Foreign Exchanges.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tcc allb">&nbsp;</td> <td class="tcc allb">June 14.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June 15.</td> <td class="tcc allb">June 16.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paris, cheques</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 f. 18 c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 f. 18 c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 f. 18 c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Paris, Mkt. discount</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½-<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> p.c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½-<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> p.c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2½-<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> p.c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Brussels, cheques</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 f. 23 c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 f. 23½ c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin, sight</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 m. 48¾ pf.</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 m. 48¾ pf.</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 m. 48 pf.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin, 8 days</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 m. 46½ pf.</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 m. 46¼ pf.</td> <td class="tcc rb">20 m. 45½ pf.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Berlin, Mkt. discount</td> <td class="tcc rb">3<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> p.c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> p.c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">3<span class="spp">7</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> p.c.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Vienna, sight</td> <td class="tcc rb">Holiday</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 kr. 02¼ h.</td> <td class="tcc rb">24 kr. 02¾ h.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Amsterdam, sight</td> <td class="tcc rb">12 fl. 13<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span> c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">12 fl. 13¼ c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Italy, sight</td> <td class="tcc rb">Holiday</td> <td class="tcc rb">25 lire 15 c.</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Madrid, sight</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">27 ps. 68</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Lisbon, sight</td> <td class="tcc rb">&rdquo;</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">St Petersburg, 3 ms.</td> <td class="tcc rb">94 r. 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">94 r. 10</td> <td class="tcc rb">..</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Bombay, T.T.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1s. 4d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1s. 4d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1s. 4d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Calcutta, T.T.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1s. 4d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1s. 4d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">1s. 4d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Hong-Kong, T.T.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 1<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Shanghai, T.T.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 10¾d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 10<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 10<span class="spp">5</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Singapore, T.T.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 4<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 4<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 4<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">Yokohama, T.T.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 0<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 0<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">2s. 0<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">*Rio de Jan&rsquo;ro, 90 days</td> <td class="tcc rb">16<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">16<span class="spp">9</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">16</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">16<span class="spp">17</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">32</span>d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb">*Valparaiso, 90 days Coml.</td> <td class="tcc rb">14<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">14<span class="spp">3</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb">14¼d.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl lb rb bb">*B. Ayres, 90 days</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48<span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">8</span>d.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48d.</td> <td class="tcc rb bb">48d.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl" colspan="4">* These rates are telegraphed on the day preceding their receipt.</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>In the case of Paris and Berlin it will be noticed that the
+local rate of discount is also given, as the value of money in these
+centres, in relation to the value of money in London, is the most
+important factor in a movement of the exchange. Vienna has
+become important owing to the improvement in the financial
+position of Austria, and still greater improvement is shown in
+the case of Italy, whose currency stands in the above list better
+even than that of France. Spain, which should stand at about
+the same rate, still has a depreciated paper currency. Lisbon
+stands also at a discount, as the milreis should be worth 53¼
+pence.</p>
+
+<p>In Russia the exchange showing 94.10 roubles to £10 is carefully
+and cleverly controlled in spite of the bad internal position.
+The India exchanges move slightly, as the currency is firmly
+established at the rate of 15 rupees to the £1. Hong-Kong quotes
+for the old Mexican dollar and a British trade dollar; Shanghai
+for the tael containing on an average 517½ grains of fine silver.
+The Straits Settlements have fixed their money on a gold basis
+at 2s. 4d. per dollar, on the lines of the arrangement made in
+India. In Japan there is a gold standard, and par of exchange
+is 2s. 0½d. for the yen. Brazil, Chile and Argentina have a
+depreciated paper currency, and the last quotation of 48d. is for
+the gold dollar equal to five francs, but there is a premium on
+gold in the River Plate of 127.27½% and for the present a gold
+standard is re-established on this basis. The letters T.T. with
+the eastern exchanges signify telegraphic transfer or the rate for
+payments made by cable. The very important New York rates
+are always given in another part of the daily paper with other
+details of American commercial interest.</p>
+
+<p>These rates are all quotations for payments in England, and
+all over the world the exchange on London is the exchange of
+the greatest importance. This unique position was gained
+originally, probably, through the geographical position of the
+United Kingdom, and has been maintained owing to several
+reasons which secure to London a peculiar position by comparison
+with any other capital. Britain&rsquo;s colossal trade ensures a supply
+of and a demand for English remittances. Even when goods
+or produce are dealt in between foreign countries a credit is opened
+in London, so that the shipper of the produce can offer in the
+local market a bill of exchange which is readily saleable. With
+the highly developed banking system a large amount of deposits
+is collected in London, and the result is that bills of any usance
+up to six months can be immediately discounted, and the proceeds,
+if required, can be handed over in gold. There are in
+London a great number of wealthy banks and banking houses
+whose reputation and solidity allow any one of them to accept
+bills for amounts varying from one to ten millions sterling,
+whereby large commissions are earned.</p>
+
+<p>These four advantages, namely, a free gold market, a huge
+trade, an enormous accumulation of wealth, and a discount
+market such as exists nowhere else, have made London an
+unrivalled financial centre, and consequently bills on London
+are an international money and the best medium of exchange.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;<i>A B C of the Foreign Exchanges</i>, by George
+Clare; <i>Foreign Exchanges</i>, by Goschen; <i>Arbitrage</i>, by Deutsch;
+<i>Arbitrages et Parités</i>, by Ottomar Haupt; Swoboda, <i>Arbitrage</i> (12th
+edition), by Max Fuerst.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. M. Ha.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCHEQUER.<a name="ar48" id="ar48"></a></span> The word &ldquo;exchequer&rdquo; is the English form
+of the Fr. <i>échiquier</i>, low Lat. <i>scaccarium</i>, and its primary meaning
+is a chess-board (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chess</a></span>). As the name of a government
+department dealing with accounts it is derived from the exchequer
+or the &ldquo;abacus&rdquo; by means of which such accounts were kept,
+such a contrivance being almost universally in use before the
+introduction of the Arabic notation. In England the department
+or court of accounts was named originally &ldquo;the tallies&rdquo; from
+the notched sticks or tallies which constituted the primitive
+means of account-keeping (which were only abolished in 1826),
+and was only subsequently, probably in the reign of Henry I.,
+named the exchequer from the use of the abacus. Both the name
+and the general features of the institution may reasonably be
+attributed to Norman influence, since we find both in Normandy
+and in the Norman kingdom of Sicily, as well as in Scotland and
+Ireland; the two latter cases being directly due to English
+example. As a court of law the exchequer owed its existence in
+England, as elsewhere, to the necessity of deciding legal questions
+arising from matters of account, and its secondary activities soon
+overshadowed its original functions.</p>
+
+<p>We cannot say whether the exchequer, as known in England,
+is older than the beginning of the 12th century. The treasury,
+which may be regarded as one of its constituents, dates from
+before the conquest, and the officers of the exchequer who were
+drawn from the treasury staff can be traced back to Domesday.
+But our earliest information about the exchequer itself, apart
+from that afforded by the pipe rolls (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Record</a></span>), rests on a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page55" id="page55"></a>55</span>
+treatise (<i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i>) written about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1179 by
+Richard, bishop of London and treasurer of England. His
+father, Nigel, bishop of Ely, had been treasurer of Henry I., and
+nephew to that king&rsquo;s great financial minister Roger, bishop of
+Salisbury. Nigel is said to have reconstituted the exchequer after
+the troubles of Stephen&rsquo;s reign upon the model which he inherited
+from his uncle. The Angevin, or rather the Norman, exchequer
+cannot be regarded in strictness as a permanent department.
+It consisted of two parts: the lower exchequer, which was
+closely connected with the permanent treasury and was an
+office for the receipt and payment of money; and the upper
+exchequer, which was a court sitting twice a year to settle
+accounts and thus nearly related to the Curia Regis (<i>q.v.</i>). We
+dare hardly say that either exchequer existed in vacation;
+indeed the word (like the word &ldquo;diet&rdquo;) seems to have been
+limited at first to the actual sitting of the king&rsquo;s court for financial
+purposes. The Michaelmas and Easter exchequers were the
+sessions of this court &ldquo;at the exchequer&rdquo; or chess-board as it
+had previously sat &ldquo;at the tallies.&rdquo; The constitution of the
+court was that of the normal Frankish curia. The king was the
+nominal president, and the court consisted of his great officers
+of state and his barons, or tenants-in-chief, and it is doubtless
+due to the fact that the exchequer was originally the curia itself
+sitting for a special purpose that its unofficial judges retained
+the name of &ldquo;barons&rdquo; until recent times. Of the great officers
+we may probably find the steward in the person of the justiciar,
+the normal president of the court. He sat at the head of the
+exchequer table. The butler was not represented. The chancellor
+sat on the justiciar&rsquo;s left; he was custodian <i>ex officio</i> of
+the seal of the court, and thus responsible for the issue of all writs
+and summonses, and moreover for the keeping of a duplicate roll
+of accounts embodying the judgments of the court. On the left
+of the chancellor, and thus clear of the table, since their services
+might be required elsewhere at any moment, sat the constable,
+the two chamberlains and the marshal. The constable was the
+chief of the outdoor service of the court, and was responsible
+for everything connected with the army, or with hunting and
+hawking. The two chamberlains were the lay colleagues of the
+treasurer, and shared with him the duty of receiving and paying
+money, and keeping safe the seal of the court, and all the records
+and other contents of the treasury. The marshal, who was
+subordinate to the constable, shared his duties, and was specially
+responsible for the custody of prisoners and of the vouchers
+produced by accountants. At the head of the table on the
+justiciar&rsquo;s right sat, in Henry II.&rsquo;s time, an extraordinary member
+of the court, the bishop of Winchester. The treasurer, like the
+chancellor a clerk, sat at the head of the right-hand side of the
+table. He charged the accountants with their fixed debts, and
+dictated the contents of the great roll of accounts (or pipe roll)
+which embodied the decisions of the court as to the indebtedness
+of the sheriffs and other accountants. These persons with certain
+subordinates constituted the court of accounts, or upper exchequer,
+whereas the lower exchequer, or exchequer of receipt,
+consisted almost exclusively of the subordinates of the
+treasurer and chamberlains. In the upper exchequer the
+justiciar appointed the calculator, who exhibited the state of
+each account by means of counters on the exchequer table, so
+that the proceedings of the court might be clear to the presumably
+illiterate sheriff. The calculator sat in the centre of the side of
+the table on the president&rsquo;s left. The chancellor&rsquo;s staff consisted
+of the <i>Magister Scriptorii</i> (probably the ancestor of the modern
+master of the rolls), whose duties are not stated; a clerk (the
+modern chancellor of the exchequer) who settled the form of all
+writs and summonses, charged the sheriff with all fines and
+amercements, and acted as a check on the treasurer in the composition
+of the great roll; and a scribe (afterwards the comptroller
+of the pipe), who wrote out the writs and summonses and
+kept a duplicate of the great roll, known as the chancellor&rsquo;s roll.
+The constable&rsquo;s subordinates were the marshal and a clerk, who,
+besides the duty of paying outdoor servants of the crown, had the
+special task of producing duplicates of all writs issued by the
+Curia Regis. The treasurer and chamberlains, being colleagues,
+had a joint staff, the clerical or literate members of which were
+servants of the treasurer, while the lay or illiterate members
+depended on the chamberlains. Hence while the treasurer and
+his clerks kept their accounts by means of rolls, the chamberlains
+and their serjeants duplicated them so far as possible by means
+of tallies. Thus the great roll was written by the treasurer&rsquo;s
+scribe (the engrosser, afterwards the clerk of the pipe), while the
+payments on account and other allowances to be credited to the
+sheriff were registered by the tally cutter of the chamberlains.</p>
+
+<p>In the exchequer of receipt the staff was similarly divided
+between the treasurer and chamberlains; the treasurer having
+a clerk who kept the issue and receipt rolls (the later clerk of the
+pells) and four tellers, while each of the chamberlains was represented
+by a knight (afterwards the deputy chamberlains), who
+controlled the clerk&rsquo;s account by means of tallies, and held their
+lands by this serjeanty; these three had joint control of the
+treasury, and could not act independently. The other serjeants
+were the knight or &ldquo;pesour&rdquo; who weighed the money, the melter
+who assayed it, and the ushers of the two exchequers. It should
+be noted that all the lay offices of the treasury in both exchequers
+were hereditary. Henry II. had also a personal clerk who
+supervised the proceedings personally in the upper, and by
+deputy in the lower, exchequer.</p>
+
+<p>The business of the ancient exchequer was primarily financial,
+although we know that some judicial business was done there and
+that the court of common pleas was derived from it rather than
+from the curia proper. The principal accountants were the
+sheriffs, who were bound, as the king&rsquo;s principal financial agents
+in each county, to give an account of their stewardship twice a
+year, at the exchequers of Easter and Michaelmas. Half the
+annual revenue was payable at Easter, and at Michaelmas the
+balance was exacted, and the accounts made up for the year,
+and formally enrolled on the pipe roll. The fixed revenue consisted
+of the farms of the king&rsquo;s demesne lands within the counties,
+of the county mints, and of certain boroughs (see BOROUGH)
+which paid annual sums as the price of their liberties. Danegeld
+was also regarded as fixed revenue, though after the accession of
+Henry II. it was not frequently levied. There were also rents
+of assarts and purprestures and mining and other royalties.
+The casual revenue consisted of the profits of the feudal incidents
+(escheat, wardship and marriage), of the profits of justice (amercements,
+and goods of felons and outlaws), and of fines, or payments
+made by the king&rsquo;s subjects to secure grants of land, wardships
+or marriages, and of immunities, as well as for the hastening
+and sometimes the delaying of justice. Besides this, there were
+the revenues arising from aids and scutages of the king&rsquo;s military
+tenants, tallages of the crown lands, customs of ports, and special
+&ldquo;gifts,&rdquo; or general assessments made on particular occasions.
+For the collection of all these the sheriff was primarily responsible,
+though in some cases the accountants dealt directly with the
+exchequer, and were bound to make their appearance in person
+on the day when the sheriff accounted.</p>
+
+<p>We gather both from tradition and from the example of the
+Scottish exchequer that the farms of demesne lands were originally
+paid in kind, by way of purveyance for the royal household,
+and although such farms are expressed even in Domesday Book
+in terms of money, the tradition that there was a system of
+customary valuation is a sufficient explanation, and not of itself
+incredible. At some date, possibly under the administration of
+Roger of Salisbury, the inconvenience of this arrangement led
+to the substitution of money payments at the exchequer. The
+rapid deterioration of a small silver coinage led to successive
+efforts to maintain the value of these payments, first by a &ldquo;scale&rdquo;
+deduction of 6d. in the £ for wear, then by the substitution of
+payment by weight for payment by tale, and finally by the
+reduction of most of such payments to their pure silver value
+by means of an assay, a process originally confined to payments
+from particular manors. Only the farms of counties, however,
+were so treated, and not all of those. The amount to be deducted
+in these cases was settled by the weighing and assaying of a
+specimen pound of silver in the presence of the sheriff by the
+pesour and the melter in the lower exchequer. The casual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page56" id="page56"></a>56</span>
+revenue was paid by tale, and for the determination of its
+amount it was necessary to have copies of all grants made in the
+chancery on which rents were reserved, or fines payable. These
+were known first as <i>contrabrevia</i> and later as <i>originalia</i>; the
+profits of justice were settled by the delivery of &ldquo;estreats&rdquo;
+from the justices, while for certain minor casualties the oath of
+the sheriff was at first the only security. At a later date many of
+them were determined by copies of inquisitions sent in from the
+chancery. All this business might be transacted anywhere in
+England, and though convenience placed the exchequer first at
+Winchester (where the treasury was), and afterwards usually
+at Westminster, it held occasional sessions at other towns even
+in the 14th century.</p>
+
+<p>The Angevin exchequer, described by Richard the Treasurer,
+remained the ideal of the institution throughout its history, and
+the lineaments of the original exemplar were never completely
+effaced; but the rapid increase both of financial and judicial
+business led to a multiplication of machinery and a growing
+complexity of constitution. Even in the time of Henry II. we
+gather that the great officers of state, except the treasurer and
+chancellor, commonly attended by deputy. In the reign of
+Henry III. the chancellor had also ceased to attend, and his clerk
+acquired the title of chancellor of the exchequer. To the same
+period belongs the institution of the king&rsquo;s and lord treasurer&rsquo;s
+remembrancers. These at first had common duties and kept
+duplicate rolls, but by the ordinance of 1323 their functions were
+differentiated. Henceforward the king&rsquo;s remembrancer was more
+particularly concerned with the casual, and the lord treasurer&rsquo;s
+remembrancer with the fixed revenue. The former put all debts
+in charge, while the latter saw to their recovery when they had
+found their way on to the great roll. Hence the preliminary
+stages of each account, the receiving and registering of the
+king&rsquo;s writs to the treasurer and barons, and the drawing up of
+all particulars of account, lay with the king&rsquo;s remembrancer, and
+he retained the corresponding vouchers. The lord treasurer&rsquo;s
+remembrancer exacted the &ldquo;remanets&rdquo; of such accounts as had
+been enrolled, as well as reserved rents and fixed revenue, and
+so became closely connected with the clerk of the pipe. Before
+the end of the 14th century these three offices had already
+crystallized into separate departments.</p>
+
+<p>In the meantime the increasing length and variety of accounts,
+as well as the growth of judicial business, had led to various efforts
+at reform. As early as 22 Henry II. it became necessary to
+remove from the great roll the debts which it seemed hopeless to
+levy, and further ordinances to the same end were made by
+statute in 54 Henry III. and in 12 Edward I. By this last a
+special &ldquo;exannual roll&rdquo; was established in which the
+&ldquo;desperate debts&rdquo; were recorded, in order that the sheriff
+might be reminded of them yearly without their overloading the
+great roll. But the largest accession of financial business arose
+from the &ldquo;foreign accounts,&rdquo; that is to say, the accounts of
+national services, which did not naturally form part of the
+account of any county. These did not in the reign of Henry II.
+form a part of the exchequer business. Such expenses as appear
+on the pipe roll were paid by the sheriffs, or by the bailiffs of
+&ldquo;honours&rdquo;; payments out of the treasury itself would only
+appear on the receipt and issue rolls, and the &ldquo;spending departments&rdquo;
+probably drew their supplies from the camera curie,
+and not directly from the exchequer. In the course of the 13th
+century the exchequer gradually acquired partial control of these
+national accounts. Even in 18 Henry II. there is an account for
+the forests of England, and soon the mint, the wardrobe and the
+escheators followed. The undated statute of the exchequer
+(probably about 1276) provides for escheators, the earldom of
+Chester, the Channel Islands, the customs and the wardrobe.
+During the reign of Edward I., the wardrobe account became
+unmanageable, since it not only financed the household, army,
+navy and diplomatic service, but raised money on the customs
+independently of the exchequer. The reform of 1323-1326, due
+to Walter de Stapledon, in remedying this state of things, greatly
+increased the number of &ldquo;foreign accounts&rdquo; by making the
+great wardrobe (the storekeeping department), the butler,
+purveyors, keepers of horses or of the stud, the clerk of the
+&ldquo;hamper&rdquo; of the chancery (who took the fees for the great
+seal), and the various ambassadors, directly accountable to the
+exchequer. At the same time the sheriffs&rsquo; accounts were expedited
+by the further simplification of the great roll, and by
+appointing a special officer, the &ldquo;foreign apposer,&rdquo; to take the
+account of the &ldquo;green wax,&rdquo; or estreats, so that two accounts
+could go on at once. Another baron (the 5th or cursitor baron)
+was appointed, and the whole business of foreign accounts was
+transferred to a separate building where one baron and certain
+auditors spent their whole time in settling the balances due on
+the accounts already mentioned, as well as those of castles, &amp;c. ,
+not let to farm, Wales, Gascony, Ireland, aids (clerical and lay),
+temporalities of vacant bishoprics, abbeys, priories and dignities,
+mines of silver and tin, ulnage and so forth. These balances
+were accounted for in the exchequer itself, and entered on the
+pipe roll, but the preliminary accounts were filed by the king&rsquo;s
+remembrancer, and enrolled separately by the treasurer&rsquo;s
+remembrancer as a supplement to the pipe roll.</p>
+
+<p>The next important change, about the end of the 15th century,
+was the gradual substitution of special auditors appointed by the
+crown, known as the auditors of the prests (the predecessors
+of the commissioners for auditing public accounts), for the
+auditors of the exchequer. Accounts when passed by them were
+presented in duplicate and &ldquo;declared&rdquo; before the treasurer,
+under-treasurer and chancellor. Of the two copies, one, on
+paper, was retained by the auditors, the other, on parchment,
+was successively enrolled by the king&rsquo;s and lord treasurer&rsquo;s
+remembrancers, and finally by the clerk of the pipe, to secure
+the levying of any &ldquo;remanets&rdquo; or &ldquo;supers&rdquo; by process of the
+exchequer.</p>
+
+<p>Besides the two great difficulties of the postponement of
+financial to legal business, and of preventing the sheriffs from
+exacting the same debt twice, the exchequer was, as has been
+seen, hampered in its functions by the interference of other
+departments in financial matters. Its own branches even
+acquired a certain independence. The exchequer of the Jews,
+which came to an end in 18 Edward I., was such a branch. In
+27 Henry VIII. the court of augmentations was established to
+deal with forfeited lands of monasteries. This was followed in
+32 &amp; 33 Henry VIII. by the courts of first-fruits and tenths
+and of general surveyors. These were reabsorbed by the exchequer
+in 1 Mary, but remained as separate departments
+within it. But the development of the treasury, which succeeded
+to the functions of the camera curie or the king&rsquo;s chamber,
+ultimately reduced the administrative functions of the exchequer
+to unimportance, and the audit office took over its duties with
+regard to public accounts. So that when the statute of 3 &amp; 4
+William IV. cap. 99, removed the sheriff&rsquo;s accounts also from
+its competence, and brought to an end the series of pipe rolls
+which begins in 1130, the ancient exchequer may be said to have
+come to an end.</p>
+<div class="author">(C. J.)</div>
+
+<p>In 1834 an act was passed abolishing the old offices of the
+exchequer, and creating a new exchequer under a comptroller-general,
+the detailed business of payments formerly made at
+the exchequer being transferred to the paymaster-general,
+whose office was further enlarged in 1836 and 1848. And in
+1866, as the result of a select committee reporting unfavourably
+on the system of exchequer control as established in
+1834, the exchequer was abolished altogether as a distinct
+department of state, and a new exchequer and audit department
+established.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient term exchequer now survives mainly as the
+official title of the national banking account of the United
+Kingdom. This central account is commonly called the exchequer,
+and its statutory title is &ldquo;His Majesty&rsquo;s Exchequer.&rdquo;
+It may also be described with statutory authority as &ldquo;The
+Account of the Consolidated Fund of Great Britain and Ireland.&rdquo;
+This account is, in fact, divided between the Banks of England
+and Ireland. At the head office of each of these institutions
+receipts are accepted and payments made on account of the
+exchequer; but in published documents the two accounts are
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page57" id="page57"></a>57</span>
+consolidated into one, the balances only at the two banks being
+shown separately.</p>
+
+<p>Operations affecting the exchequer are regulated by the
+Exchequer and Audit Departments Act 1866. Section 10 prescribes
+that the gross revenue of the United Kingdom (less
+drawbacks and repayments, which are not really revenue) is
+payable, and must sooner or later be paid into the exchequer.
+Section 11 directs that payments should be made from the
+fund so formed to meet the current requirements of spending
+departments. Sections 13, 14, 15 lay down the conditions
+under which money can be drawn from the exchequer. Drafts on
+the exchequer require the approval of an officer independent
+of the executive government, the comptroller and auditor-general.
+But the description of the formal procedure required
+by statute cannot adequately express the actual working of
+the system, or the part it plays in the national finance. The
+simplicity of the system laid down by the act of 1866 has been
+disturbed by the diversion of certain branches or portions of
+revenue from the exchequer to &ldquo;Local Taxation Accounts,&rdquo;
+under a system initiated by the Local Government Act 1888,
+and much extended since.</p>
+
+<p>While the exchequer is, as already stated, the central account,
+it is not directly in contact with the details of either revenue
+or expenditure. As regards revenue, the produce of taxes and
+other sources of income passes, in the first instance, into the
+separate accounts of the respective receiving departments&mdash;mainly,
+of course, those of the customs, inland revenue and post
+office. A not inconsiderable portion is received in the provinces,
+and remitted to London or Dublin by bills or otherwise, and the
+ultimate transfers to the exchequer are made (in round sums)
+from the accounts of the receiving departments in London or in
+Dublin. Thus, there are always considerable sums due to the
+exchequer by the revenue departments; on the other hand, as
+floating balances are (for the sake of economy) used temporarily
+for current expenses, there are generally amounts due by the
+exchequer to the receiving departments; such cross claims
+are adjusted periodically, generally once a month. The finance
+accounts of the United Kingdom show the gross amounts due
+to the exchequer from the departments, and likewise the amounts
+payable out of the gross revenue in priority to the claim of the
+exchequer. On the expenditure side a similar system prevails.
+No detailed payments are made direct from the exchequer, but
+round sums are issued from it to subsidiary accounts, from
+which the actual drafts for the public services are met. For
+instance, the interest on the national debt is paid by the Bank
+of England from a separate account fed by transfers of round
+sums from the exchequer as required. Similarly, payments for
+army, navy and most civil services are met by the paymaster-general
+out of an account of his own, fed by daily transfers from
+the exchequer.</p>
+
+<p>This system has two noticeable effects. Firstly, it secures the
+simplicity and finality of the exchequer accounts, and therefore
+of all ordinary statements of national finance. Every evening
+the chancellor of the exchequer can tell his position so far as the
+exchequer is concerned; on the first day of every quarter the
+press is able to comment on the national income and expenditure
+up to the evening before. The annual account is closed on the
+evening of the 31st of March, and there can be no reopening of
+the budget of a past year such as may occur under other financial
+systems. The second effect of the system is to introduce a certain
+artificiality into the financial statements. Actual facts cannot be
+reduced to the simplicity of exchequer figures; there is always
+(as already explained) revenue received by government which
+has not yet reached the exchequer; and there must always
+be a considerable outstanding liability in the form of cheques
+issued but not yet cashed. The suggested criticism is, however,
+met if it can be shown that, on the whole, the differences
+between the true revenue and the exchequer receipts, or
+between the true (or audited) expenditure and the exchequer
+issues, are not, taking one year with another, relatively considerable.
+The following figures (000&rsquo;s omitted) illustrate this
+point:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Expenditure.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exchequer<br />Issues.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Audited<br />Expenditure.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Difference.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888-1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">£85,674</td> <td class="tcr rb">£86,070</td> <td class="tcr rb">£+396</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889-1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,083</td> <td class="tcr rb">86,033</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 50</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890-1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">87,732</td> <td class="tcr rb">87,638</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 94</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891-1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,928</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,125</td> <td class="tcr rb">+197</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892-1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,375</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,164</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;211</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893-1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,303</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,530</td> <td class="tcr rb">+227</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894-1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,919</td> <td class="tcr rb">93,818</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;101</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895-1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">97,764</td> <td class="tcr rb">97,667</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 97</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896-1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">101,477</td> <td class="tcr rb">101,543</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 66</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897-1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,936</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,010</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 74</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total for<br />10 years</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£927,191</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£927,598</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£+407</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Revenue.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exchequer<br />Receipts.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Actual<br />Revenue.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Difference.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888-1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">£88,473</td> <td class="tcr rb">£88,038</td> <td class="tcr rb">£&minus;435</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889-1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,304</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,416</td> <td class="tcr rb">+112</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890-1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,489</td> <td class="tcr rb">89,282</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;207</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891-1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,995</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,428</td> <td class="tcr rb">+433</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892-1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,395</td> <td class="tcr rb">90,181</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;214</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893-1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,133</td> <td class="tcr rb">91,265</td> <td class="tcr rb">+132</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894-1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">94,684</td> <td class="tcr rb">94,873</td> <td class="tcr rb">+189</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895-1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">101,974</td> <td class="tcr rb">102,031</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 57</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896-1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">103,960</td> <td class="tcr rb">104,089</td> <td class="tcr rb">+129</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897-1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,614</td> <td class="tcr rb">106,691</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 77</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total for<br />10 years</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£947,011</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£947,294</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£+273</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p class="center pt2"><i>Surplus.</i></p>
+
+<table class="ws f90" summary="Contents">
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Year.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Exchequer<br />Accounts.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Diff. between<br />Actual Rev.<br />and Aud. Exp.</td> <td class="tccm allb">Difference.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1888-1889</td> <td class="tcr rb">£2,799</td> <td class="tcr rb">£1,968</td> <td class="tcr rb">£&minus;831</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1889-1890</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,221</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,383</td> <td class="tcr rb">+162</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1890-1891</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,757</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,644</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;113</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1891-1892</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,067</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,303</td> <td class="tcr rb">+236</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1892-1893</td> <td class="tcr rb">20</td> <td class="tcr rb">17</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;&emsp;3</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1893-1894</td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;<i>170</i></td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus;<i>265</i></td> <td class="tcr rb">&minus; 95</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1894-1895</td> <td class="tcr rb">765</td> <td class="tcr rb">1,055</td> <td class="tcr rb">+290</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1895-1896</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,210</td> <td class="tcr rb">4,364</td> <td class="tcr rb">+154</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1896-1897</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,473</td> <td class="tcr rb">2,546</td> <td class="tcr rb">+ 73</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcc lb rb">1897-1898</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,678</td> <td class="tcr rb">3,681</td> <td class="tcr rb">+&emsp;3</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tccm allb">Total for<br />10 years</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£19,820</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£19,696</td> <td class="tcrm allb">£&minus;124</td></tr>
+</table>
+
+<p>The third column in the above shows the price which has to be
+paid (in the form of discrepancies between facts and figures)
+for the simplicity secured to statements and records of the national
+finance by the present system embodied in the term exchequer.
+Probably few will think the price too high in consideration of
+the advantages secured.</p>
+
+<p>The principal official who derives a title from the exchequer
+in its living sense is, of course, the chancellor of the exchequer.
+He is the person named second in the patent appointing commissions
+for executing the office of lord high treasurer of Great
+Britain and Ireland; but he is appointed chancellor of the
+exchequer for Great Britain and chancellor of the exchequer
+for Ireland by two additional patents. Although, in fact, the
+finance minister of the United Kingdom, he has no <i>statutory</i>
+power over the exchequer apart from his position as second
+commissioner of the treasury; but in virtue of his office he is
+by statute master of the mint, senior commissioner for the
+reduction of the national debt, a trustee of the British Museum,
+an ecclesiastical commissioner, a member of the board of agriculture,
+a commissioner of public works and buildings, local
+government, and education, a commissioner for regulating the
+offices of the House of Commons, and has certain functions
+connected with the office of the secretary of state for India.
+The only other exchequer officer requiring mention is the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page58" id="page58"></a>58</span>
+comptroller and auditor-general, whose functions as
+comptroller-general of the exchequer have been already described.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient name of the national banking account has been
+attached to two of the forms of unfunded national debt. Exchequer
+bills, which date from the reign of William and Mary
+(they took the place of the tallies, previously used for the same
+purpose), became extinct in 1897, but exchequer bonds (first
+issued by Mr Gladstone in 1853) still possess a practical importance.
+An exchequer bond is a promise by government to pay a
+specified sum after a specified period, generally three or five years,
+and meanwhile to pay interest half-yearly at a specified rate
+on that sum. Government possesses no general power to issue
+exchequer bonds; such power is only conferred by a special act,
+and for specified purposes; but when the power has been
+created, exchequer bonds issued in pursuance of it are governed
+by general statutory provisions contained in the Exchequer Bills
+and Bonds Act 1866, and amending acts. These acts create
+machinery for the issue of exchequer bonds and for the payment
+of interest thereon, and protect them against forgery.</p>
+
+<p>Some traces may be mentioned of the ancient uses of the
+name exchequer which still remain. The chancellor of the
+exchequer still presides at the ceremony of &ldquo;pricking the list
+of sheriffs,&rdquo; which is a quasi-judicial function; and on that
+occasion he wears a robe of black silk with gold embroidery,
+which suggests a judicial costume. In England the last judge
+who was styled baron of the exchequer (Baron Pollock) died
+in 1897. In Scotland the jurisdiction of the barons of the
+exchequer was transferred to the court of session in 1856, but the
+same act requires the appointment of one of the judges as &ldquo;lord
+ordinary in exchequer causes,&rdquo; which office still exists. In
+Ireland Lord Chief Baron Palles was the last to retain the old
+title. A street near Dublin Castle is called Exchequer Street,
+recalling the separate Irish exchequer, which ceased in 1817.
+The old term also survives in the full title of the treasury representative
+in Scotland, which is &ldquo;The King&rsquo;s and the Lord
+Treasurer&rsquo;s Remembrancer in Exchequer,&rdquo; while his office in the
+historic Parliament Square is styled &ldquo;Exchequer Chambers.&rdquo;</p>
+<div class="author">(S. E. S.-R.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;For the early exchequer Thomas Madox&rsquo;s
+<i>History and Antiquities of the Exchequer</i> (London, 1711) remains the
+standard authority, and in it the <i>Dialogus de Scaccario</i> of Richard
+the Treasurer (1179) was first printed (edited since by A. Hughes,
+C.G. Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). The publications of
+the Pipe Roll Society (London, 1884 et seq.), the Pipe Rolls and
+Chancellor&rsquo;s Roll, printed by the Record Commission (London, 1833
+and 1844), and H. Hall&rsquo;s edition of the <i>Receipt Roll of the Exchequer
+31 Henry II.</i> (London, 1899) should also be consulted. A popular
+account is in H. Hall&rsquo;s <i>Court Life under the Plantagenets</i> (London,
+1901), and a careful study in Dr Parow&rsquo;s thesis, <i>Compotus Vicecomitis</i>
+(Berlin, 1906). For the 13th and 14th centuries H. Hall&rsquo;s
+edition of the <i>Red Book of the Exchequer</i> (London, Rolls Series, 1896)
+is essential, as also the Public Record Office <i>List of Foreign Accounts</i>
+(London, 1900). Later practice may be gathered from the similar
+<i>List and Index of Declared Accounts</i> (London, 1893), and from such
+books as Sir T. Fanshawe&rsquo;s <i>Practice of the Exchequer Court</i>, written
+about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1600 (London, 1658); Christopher Vernon&rsquo;s <i>The Exchequer
+Opened</i> (London, 1661), or Sir Geoffrey Gilbert&rsquo;s <i>Treatise on the
+Court of Exchequer</i> (London, 1758), as well as from the statutes
+abolishing various offices in the exchequer. H. Hall&rsquo;s <i>Antiquities
+of the Exchequer</i> (London, 1891) gives many interesting details of
+various dates. For the Scottish exchequer <i>The Exchequer Rolls of
+Scotland</i> (Edinburgh, 1878 et seq.) should be consulted, while
+Gilbert&rsquo;s book noted above gives some details on that of Ireland.
+See also Appendix 13 to the great account of <i>Public Income and
+Expenditure from 1688 to 1869</i>, in three volumes, prepared for
+parliament by H.W. Chisholm (1869); and for sidelights on the
+working of the office from 1825 to 1866 the reminiscences of the
+same author (the last chief clerk of the exchequer) in <i>Temple Bar</i>
+(January to April 1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCISE<a name="ar49" id="ar49"></a></span> (derived through the Dutch, <i>excijs</i> or <i>accijs</i>, possibly
+from Late Lat. <i>accensare</i>,&mdash;<i>ad</i>, to, and <i>census</i>, tax; the word
+owes something to a confusion with <i>excisum</i>, cut out), a term now
+well known in public finance, signifying a duty charged on home
+goods, either in the process of their manufacture, or before their
+sale to the home consumers. This form of taxation implies a
+commonwealth somewhat advanced in manufactures, markets
+and general riches; and it interferes so directly with the
+industry and liberty of the subject that it has seldom been
+introduced save in some supreme financial exigency, and has as
+seldom been borne, even after long usage, with less than the
+ordinary impatience of taxation. Yet excise duties can boast
+a respectable antiquity, having a distinct parallel in the <i>vectigal
+rerum venalium</i> (or toll levied on all commodities sold by
+auction, or in public market) of the Romans. But the Roman
+excise was mild compared with that of modern nations, having
+never been more than <i>centesima</i>, or 1%, of the value; and it
+was much shorter lived than the modern examples, having been
+first imposed by Augustus, reduced for a time one-half by
+Tiberius, and finally abolished by Caligula, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 38, so that the
+Roman excise cannot have had a duration of much more than
+half a century. Its remission must have been deemed a great
+boon in the marts of Rome, since it was commemorated by the
+issue of small brass coins with the legend <i>Remissis Centesimis</i>,
+specimens of which are still to be found in collections.</p>
+
+<p>The history of this branch of revenue in the United Kingdom
+dates from the period of the civil wars, when the republican
+government, following the example of Holland, established,
+as a means of defraying the heavy expenditure of the time,
+various duties of excise, which the royalists when restored to
+power found too convenient or too necessary to be abandoned,
+notwithstanding their origin and their general unpopularity.
+On the contrary, they were destined to be steadily increased
+both in number and in amount. It is curious that the
+first commodities selected for excise were those on which this
+branch of taxation, after great extension, had again in the period
+of reform and free trade been in a manner permanently reduced,
+viz. malt liquors, and such kindred beverages as cider perry
+and spruce beer. The other excise duties remaining are chiefly
+in the form of licences, such as to kill game and to use and carry
+guns, to sell gold and silver plate, to pursue the business of
+appraisers or auctioneers, hawkers or pedlars, pawnbrokers
+or patent-medicine vendors, to manufacture tobacco or snuff,
+to deal in sweets or in foreign wines, to make vinegar, to roast
+malt, or to use a still in chemistry or otherwise. It may be
+presumed that the policy of the licence duties was at first not so
+much to collect revenue, though in the aggregate they yielded a
+large sum, as to guard the main sources of excise, and to place
+certain classes of dealers, by registration and an annual payment
+to the exchequer, under a direct legal responsibility. The excise
+system of the United Kingdom as now pruned and reformed,
+however, while still the most prolific of all the sources of revenue,
+is simple in process, and is contentedly borne as compared with
+what was the case in the 18th, and the beginning of the 19th
+century. The wars with Bonaparte strained the government
+resources to the uttermost, and excise duties were multiplied
+and increased in every practicable form. Bricks, candles, calico
+prints, glass, hides and skins, leather, paper, salt, soap, and other
+commodities of home manufacture and consumption were placed,
+with their respective industries, under excise surveillance and fine.
+When the duties could no longer be increased in number, they
+were raised in rate. The duty on British spirits, which had
+begun at a few pence per gallon in 1660, rose step by step to
+11s. 8¼d. per gallon in 1820; and the duty on salt was augmented
+to three or fourfold its value.</p>
+
+<p>The old unpopularity of excise, though now somewhat out of
+date, must have had real enough grounds. It breaks out in
+English literature, from songs and pasquinades to grave political
+essays and legal commentaries. Blackstone, in quoting the
+declaration of parliament in 1649 that &ldquo;excise is the most easy
+and indifferent levy that can be laid upon the people,&rdquo; adds on
+his own authority that &ldquo;from its first original to the present time
+its very name has been odious to the people of England&rdquo; (book i.
+cap. 8, tenth edition, 1786); while the definition of &ldquo;excise&rdquo;
+gravely inserted by Dr Johnson in the <i>Dictionary</i>, at the imminent
+risk of subjecting the eminent author to a prosecution for libel&mdash;viz.
+&ldquo;a hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not
+by the common judges of property, but wretches hired by those
+to whom excise is paid&rdquo;&mdash;can hardly be ever forgotten.</p>
+
+<p>The duties of excise in the United Kingdom were, until the
+passing of the Finance Act 1908, under the control of the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page59" id="page59"></a>59</span>
+commissioners of inland revenue; they are now under the control
+of the commissioners of customs; the amount raised, apart from
+changes in the rate, shows a fairly constant tendency to increase,
+and is usually regarded as one of the best tests of the prosperity
+of the working classes.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>spirit duty</i> is levied according to the quantity of &ldquo;proof
+spirit&rdquo; contained in the product of distillation, and the charge
+is taken at three different points in the process of manufacture,
+the trader being liable for the result of the highest of the three
+calculations. What is known as &ldquo;proof spirit&rdquo; is obtained
+by mixing nearly equal weights of pure alcohol and water, the
+quantity of pure alcohol being in bulk about 57% of the whole.
+Owing to the high rate of duty as compared with the volume
+and intrinsic value of the spirits, the whole process of manufacture
+is carried on under the close supervision of revenue officials.
+All the vessels used are measured by them and are secured with
+revenue locks; the premises are under constant survey; and
+notice has to be given by the distiller of the materials used and
+of the several stages of his operations. Though the charge for
+duty is raised at the time when the process of distillation is
+completed, the duty is not actually paid until the spirits are
+required for consumption. In the meanwhile they may be
+retained in an approved &ldquo;warehouse,&rdquo; which is also subject to
+close supervision.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>beer duty</i> dates from 1880, in which year it was substituted
+for the duty on malt. The specific gravity of the worts depends
+chiefly on the amount of sugar which they contain, and is
+ascertained by the saccharometer.</p>
+
+<p>Excise <i>licences</i> may be divided into&mdash;(<i>a</i>) licences for the sale
+or manufacture of excisable liquors, (<i>b</i>) licences for other trades,
+such as tobacco dealers or manufacturers, auctioneers, pawnbrokers,
+&amp;c. , (<i>c</i>) licences for male servants, carriages, motors
+and armorial bearings, and (<i>d</i>) gun, game and dog licences.
+Nearly the whole of the licence duties is paid over to the local
+taxation account.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>railway passenger duty</i>, which was made an excise duty
+by the Railway Passenger Duty Act 1847, applies only to Great
+Britain. It is levied on all passenger fares exceeding 1d. per mile,
+the rate being 2% on urban and 5% on other traffic.</p>
+
+<p>The other items which go to make up the excise revenue
+are the charges on deliveries from bonded warehouses, and the
+duties on coffee mixture labels and on chicory.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For more detailed information reference should be made to
+Highmore&rsquo;s <i>Excise Laws</i>, and the annual reports of the commissioners
+of inland revenue, especially those issued in 1870 and 1885. See
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Taxation</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">English Finance</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCOMMUNICATION<a name="ar50" id="ar50"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ex</i>, out of, away from; <i>communis</i>,
+common), the judicial exclusion of offenders from the rights
+and privileges of the religious community to which they belong.
+The history of the practice of excommunication may be traced
+through (1) pagan analogues, (2) Hebrew custom, (3) primitive
+Christian practice, (4) medieval and monastic usage, (5) modern
+survivals in existing Christian churches.</p>
+
+<p>1. Among pagan analogues are the Gr. <span class="grk" title="chernibôn eirgesthai">&#967;&#949;&#961;&#957;&#943;&#946;&#969;&#957; &#949;&#7988;&#961;&#947;&#949;&#963;&#952;&#945;&#953;</span>
+(Demosth. 505, 14), the exclusion of an offender from purification
+with holy water. This exclusion was enforced in the case of
+persons whose hands were defiled with bloodshed. Its consequences
+are described Aesch. <i>Choëph.</i> 283, <i>Eum.</i> 625 f., Soph.
+<i>Oed. Tyr.</i> 236 ff. The Roman <i>exsecratio</i> and diris <i>devotio</i> was a
+solemn pronouncement of a religious curse by priests, intended
+to call down the divine wrath upon enemies, and to devote them
+to destruction by powers human and divine. The Druids claimed
+the dread power of excluding offenders from sacrifice (Caes.
+<i>B.G.</i> vi. 13). Primitive Semitic customs recognize that when
+persons are laid under a ban or taboo (<i>&#7717;erem</i>) restrictions are
+imposed on contact with them, and that the breach of these
+involves supernatural dangers. Impious sinners, or enemies
+of the community and its god, might be devoted to utter
+destruction.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Hebrew Custom.</i>&mdash;In a theocracy excommunication is
+necessarily both a civil and a religious penalty. The word used
+in the New Testament to describe an excommunicated person,
+<span class="grk" title="anathema">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#952;&#949;&#956;&#945;</span>(1 Cor. xvi. 22, Gal. i. 8-9, Rom. ix. 3), is the
+Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew <i>&#7717;erem</i>. The word means
+&ldquo;set apart&rdquo; (cf. harem), and does not distinguish originally
+between things set apart because devoted to God and things
+devoted to destruction. Lev. xxvii. 16-34 defines the law for
+dealing with &ldquo;devoted&rdquo; things; according to v. 28 &ldquo;No
+devoted thing that a man shall devote unto the Lord, of all that
+he hath, whether of man or beast, or of the field of his possession,
+shall be sold or redeemed. None devoted shall be ransomed,
+he shall surely be put to death.&rdquo; As in Greece and Rome whole
+cities or nations might be devoted to destruction by pronouncement
+of a ban (Numbers xxi. 2, 3, Deut. ii. 34, iii. 6, vii. 2).
+Occasionally Israelites as well as aliens fall under the curse
+(Judg. xxi. 5, 11). A milder form of penalty was the temporary
+separation or seclusion (<i>niddah</i>) prescribed for ceremonial uncleanness.
+This was the ordinary form of religious discipline. In
+the time of Ezra the Jewish &ldquo;magistrates and judges&rdquo; among
+their ecclesiastico-civil functions have the right of pronouncing
+sentence whether it be unto death, or to &ldquo;rooting out,&rdquo; or to
+confiscation of goods, or to imprisonment (Ezra vii. 26). There
+is also a lighter form of excommunication which &ldquo;devotes&rdquo;
+the goods of an offender, but only separates him from the
+congregation. Both major and minor kinds of excommunication
+are recognized by the Talmud. The lesser (<i>niddah</i>) involved
+exclusion from the synagogue for thirty days, and other penalties,
+and might be renewed if the offender remained impenitent.
+The major excommunication (<i>&#7717;erem</i>) excluded from the Temple
+as well as the synagogue and from all association with the faithful.
+Spinoza was excommunicated (July 16, 1656) for contempt of
+the law. Seldon (<i>De jure nat. et gen.</i>, iv. 7) gives the text of the
+curse pronounced on the culprit. The <i>Exemplar Humanae Vitae</i>
+of Uriel d&rsquo;Acosta also deserves reference. The practice of the
+Jewish courts in New Testament times may be inferred from
+certain passages in the Gospels. Luke vi. 22, John ix. 22, xii. 42
+indicate that exclusion from the synagogue was a recognized
+penalty, and that it was probably inflicted on those who confessed
+Jesus as the Christ. John xvi. 2 (&ldquo;Whosoever killeth you,&rdquo; &amp;c. )
+may point to the power of inflicting the major penalty. The
+Talmud itself says that the judgment of capital cases was taken
+away from Israel forty years before the destruction of the Temple.
+&ldquo;Forty&rdquo; is probably a round number without historical value,
+but the circumstance recorded by this tradition and confirmed
+by the evangelist&rsquo;s account of the trial of Jesus is historical,
+and is to be regarded as one of several restrictions imposed on
+the Jewish courts in the time of the Roman procurators.</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Primitive Christian Practice.</i>&mdash;The use of excommunication
+as a form of Christian discipline is based on the precept of Christ
+and on apostolic practice. The general principles which govern
+the exclusion of members from a religious community may be
+gathered from the New Testament writings. Matt. xviii. 15-17
+prescribes a threefold admonition, first privately, then in the
+presence of witnesses (cf. Titus iii. 10), then before the church.
+This is a graded procedure as in the Jewish synagogue and makes
+exclusion a last resort. Nothing is said as to the nature and
+effects of excommunication. The tone of the passage when
+compared with the disciplinary methods of the synagogue indicates
+that its purpose was to introduce elements of reason and
+moral suasion in place of sterner methods. Its object is rather
+the protection of the church than the punishment of the sinner.
+The offender is only treated as a heathen and publican when the
+purity and safety of the church demand it. In the <i>locus classicus</i>
+on this subject (1 Cor. v. 5) Paul refers to a formal meeting of the
+Corinthian church at which the incestuous person is &ldquo;delivered
+unto Satan for the destruction of the flesh that the spirit may be
+saved in the day of the Lord Jesus.&rdquo; These are mysterious
+words implying (1) a formal ecclesiastical censure, (2) a physical
+penalty, (3) the hope of a spiritual result. The form of penalty
+which would meet these conditions is not explained. There is a
+reference in 2 Cor. ii. 6-11 to a case of discipline which may or
+may not be the same. If it be the same it indicates that the excommunication
+had not been final; the offender had been
+received back. If it be not the same it shows the Corinthian
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page60" id="page60"></a>60</span>
+church exercising discipline independently of apostolic advice.
+Up to this point there is no established formal practice. 1 Tim.
+i. 20 (&ldquo;Hymenaeus and Alexander whom I delivered unto Satan
+that they might be taught not to blaspheme&rdquo;) seems to refer
+to an excommunication, but it does not appear whether the
+apostle had acted as representing a church, nor is there anything
+to explain the exact consequences or limits of the deliverance
+to Satan. 1 Cor. xvi. 22, Gal. i. 8, 9, Rom. ix. 3 refer to the
+practice of regarding a person as anathema. Taking these
+passages as a whole they seem to point to an exclusion from
+church fellowship rather than to a final cutting off from the hope
+of salvation. In the pastoral letters there is already a formal
+and recognized method of procedure in cases of church discipline.
+1 Tim. v. 19, 20 requires two or three witnesses in the case of
+an accusation against an elder, and a public reproof. Tit. iii. 20
+recognizes a factious spirit as a reason for excommunication
+after two admonitions (cf. Tim. vi. and 2 John v. 10). In 3 John
+v. 9-10 Diotrephes appears to have secured an excommunication
+by the action of a party in the church. It is clear from these
+illustrations that within the New Testament there is development
+from spontaneous towards strictly regulated methods; also
+that the use of excommunication is chiefly for disciplinary and
+protective rather than punitive purposes. A process which is
+intended to produce penitence and ultimate restoration cannot
+at the same time contemplate handing the offender over to
+eternal punishment.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Medieval and Monastic Usage.</i>&mdash;The writings of the church
+Fathers give sufficient evidence that two degrees of excommunication,
+the <span class="grk" title="aphorismos">&#7936;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#972;&#962;</span> and the <span class="grk" title="aphorismos pantelês">&#7936;&#966;&#959;&#961;&#953;&#963;&#956;&#8056;&#962; &#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#942;&#962;</span>, as they
+were generally called, were in use during, or at least soon after,
+the apostolic age. The former, which involved exclusion from
+participation in the eucharistic service and from the eucharist
+itself, though not from the so-called &ldquo;service of the catechumens,&rdquo;
+was the usual punishment of comparatively light offences;
+the latter, which was the penalty for graver scandals, involved
+&ldquo;exclusion from all church privileges,&rdquo;&mdash;a vague expression
+which has sometimes been interpreted as meaning total exclusion
+from the very precincts of the church building (<i>inter hiemantes
+orare</i>) and from the favour of God (Bingham, <i>Antiquities of
+Christian Church</i>, xvi. 2. 16). For some sins, such as adultery,
+the sentence of excommunication was in the 2nd century regarded
+as <span class="grk" title="pantelês">&#960;&#945;&#957;&#964;&#949;&#955;&#942;&#962;</span> in the sense of being irrevocable. Difference of
+opinion as to the absolutely &ldquo;irremissible&rdquo; character of mortal
+sins led to the important controversy associated with the names
+of Zephyrinus, Tertullian, Calistus, Hippolytus, Cyprian and
+Novatian, in which the stricter and more montanistic party held
+that for those who had been guilty of such sins as theft, fraud,
+denial of the faith, there should be no restoration to church
+fellowship even in the hour of death. On this point the
+provincial synods of Illiberis (Elvira) in 305 and of Ancyra in
+315 subsequently came to conflicting decisions, the council of
+Elvira forbidding the reception of offenders into communion
+during life, and the council of Ancyra fixing a limit to the penalty
+in the same cases. But the excommunication was on all hands
+regarded as being &ldquo;medicinal&rdquo; in its character. It is noteworthy
+that the word <span class="grk" title="anathema">&#7936;&#957;&#940;&#952;&#949;&#956;&#945;</span> had fallen into disuse about the
+beginning of the 4th century, and that, throughout the same
+period, no instance of the judicial use of the phrase <span class="grk" title="paradounai tô Satana">&#960;&#945;&#961;&#945;&#948;&#959;&#8166;&#957;&#945;&#953; &#964;&#8183; &#931;&#945;&#964;&#945;&#957;&#8119;</span>
+can be found.</p>
+
+<p>A new chapter in the history of the church censure may be
+said to have begun with the publication of those imperial edicts
+against heresy, the first of which, <i>De summa trinitate et fide
+catholica</i>, dates from 380. Till then exclusion from church
+privileges had been a spiritual discipline merely; thenceforward
+it was to expose a man to serious temporal risks. Excommunication
+still continued to be occasionally used in the spirit of genuine
+Christian fidelity, as by Ambrose in the case of Theodosius
+himself (390); but the temptation to wield it as an instrument
+of secular tyranny too often proved to be irresistible. The church
+fell back on carnal weapons in her warfare and invoked the
+secular powers to uphold the ecclesiastical. In the formula used
+by Synesius (410) which is to be found in Bingham&rsquo;s <i>Antiquities</i>,
+we already find the attention of magistrates specially called to
+the censured person. The history of the next thousand years
+shows that the magistrates were seldom slow to respond to the
+appeal. Even the hastiest survey of that long and interesting
+period enables the student to notice a marked development in
+the theory and practice of excommunication. One or two points
+may be specially noted. (1) When the Empire became nominally
+Christian and the quality of the church life was sacrificed to the
+quantity of its adherents, the original character of excommunication
+was lost. The power of excommunication was transferred
+from the community to the bishop, and was liable to abuse from
+personal motives: Gregory the Great rebukes a bishop for using
+for private ends power conferred for the public good (<i>Epist.</i> ii.
+34). Excommunication became a common penalty applied in
+numberless cases (see the <i>Penitential</i> of Archbishop Theodosius:
+Haddan and Stubbs, <i>Councils and Documents</i>, iii. 1737), and was
+invested with superstitious terrors. (2) While it had been held
+as an undoubted principle by the ancient church that this
+sentence could only be passed on living individuals whose fault
+had been distinctly stated and fully proved, we find the medieval
+church on the one hand sanctioning the practice of excommunication
+of the dead (Morinus, <i>De poenit.</i> x. c. 9), and, on the other
+hand, by means of the papal interdict, excluding whole countries
+and kingdoms at once from the means of grace. The earliest
+well-authenticated instance of such an interdict is that which
+was passed (998) by Pope Gregory V. on France, in consequence
+of the contumacy of King Robert the Wise. Other instances are
+those laid respectively on Germany in 1102 by Gregory VII.
+(Hildebrand), on England in 1208 by Innocent III., on Rome
+itself in 1155 by Adrian IV. (3) While in the ancient church the
+language used in excommunicating had been carefully measured,
+we find an amazing recklessness in the phraseology employed
+by the medieval clergy. The curse of Ernulphus or Arnulphus
+of Rochester (<i>c.</i> 1100), often quoted by students of English
+literature, is a very fair specimen of that class of composition.
+With it may be compared the formula transcribed by Dr Burton
+in his <i>History of Scotland</i> (iii. 317 ff.). To the spoken word was
+added the language of symbol. By means of lighted candles
+violently dashed to the ground and extinguished the faithful
+were graphically taught the meaning of the greater excommunication&mdash;though
+in a somewhat misleading way, for it is a
+fundamental principle of the canon law that <i>disciplina est
+excommunicatio, non eradicatio</i>. The first instance, however, of
+excommunication by &ldquo;bell, book and candle&rdquo; is comparatively
+late (<i>c.</i> 1190).</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Modem Survivals in Existing Christian Churches.</i>&mdash;At the
+Reformation the necessity for church discipline did not cease to
+be recognized; but the administration of it in many Reformed
+churches has passed through a period of some confusion. In
+some instances the old episcopal power passed more or less into
+the hands of the civil magistrate (a state of matters which was
+highly approved by Erastus and his followers), in other cases it
+was conceded to the presbyterial courts. In the Anglican Church
+the bishops (subject to appeal to the sovereign) have the right
+of excommunicating, and their sentence, if sustained, may in
+certain cases carry with it civil consequences. But this right
+is in practice never exercised. In the law of England sentence
+of excommunication, upon being properly certified by the
+bishop, was followed by the writ <i>de excommunicato capiendo</i>
+for the arrest of the offender. The statute 5 Eliz. c. 23 provided
+for the better execution of this writ. By the 53 Geo. III.
+c. 127 (which does not, however, extend to Ireland) it was enacted
+that &ldquo;excommunication, together with all proceedings following
+thereupon, shall in all cases, save those hereafter to be specified,
+be discontinued.&rdquo; Disobedience to or contempt of the ecclesiastical
+courts is to be punished by a new writ, <i>de contumace
+capiendo</i>, to follow on the certificate of the judge that the
+defender is contumacious and in contempt. Sect. 2 provides
+that nothing shall prevent &ldquo;any ecclesiastical court from
+pronouncing or declaring persons to be excommunicate on
+definite sentences pronounced as spiritual censures for offences
+of ecclesiastical cognizance.&rdquo; No persons so excommunicated
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page61" id="page61"></a>61</span>
+shall incur any civil penalty or incapacity whatever, save such
+sentence of imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the
+court shall direct and certify to the king in chancery.</p>
+
+<p>In the churches which consciously shaped their polity at or
+after the Reformation the principle of excommunication is
+preserved in the practice of church discipline. Calvin devotes a
+chapter in the <i>Institutes</i> (bk. iv. chap. xii.) to the &ldquo;Discipline of
+the Church; its Principal Use in Censure and Excommunication.&rdquo;
+The three ends proposed by the church in such discipline are
+there stated to be, (1) that those who lead scandalous lives may
+not to the dishonour of God be numbered among Christians,
+seeing that the church is the body of Christ; (2) that the good
+may not be corrupted by constant association with the wicked;
+(3) that those who are censured or excommunicated, confounded
+with shame, may be led to repentance. He differentiates
+decisively between excommunication and anathema. &ldquo;When
+Christ promises that what his ministers bind on earth shall be
+bound in heaven, he limits the power of binding to the censure of
+the church; by which those who are excommunicated are not
+cast into eternal ruin and condemnation, but by having their
+life and conduct condemned are also certified of their final
+condemnation unless they repent. For excommunication differs
+from anathema: anathema which ought to be very rarely, or
+never, resorted to, in precluding all pardon, execrates a person,
+and devotes him to eternal perdition: whereas excommunication
+rather censures and punishes his conduct. Yet in such a manner
+by warning him of his future condemnation it recalls him to
+salvation&rdquo; (<i>Inst.</i> bk. iv. chap. xii. 10). The Reformed churches
+in England and America accepted the distinction between public
+and private offences. The usual provision is that private
+offences are to be dealt with according to the rule in Matt. v.
+23-24, xviii. 15-17; public offences are to be dealt with according
+to the rule in 1 Cor. v. 3-5, 13. The public expulsion or suspension
+of the offender is necessary for the good repute of the church,
+and its influence over the faithful members. The expelled
+member may be readmitted on showing the fruits of repentance.</p>
+
+<p>In Scotland three degrees of church censure are recognized&mdash;admonition,
+suspension from sealing ordinances (which may be
+called temporary excommunication), and excommunication
+properly so-called. Intimation of the last-named censure may
+occasionally (but very rarely) be given by authority of a presbytery
+in a public and solemn manner, according to the following
+formula:&mdash;&ldquo;Whereas thou N. hast been by sufficient proof
+convicted (here mention the sin) and after due admonition and
+prayer remainest obstinate without any evidence or sign of true
+repentance: Therefore in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ,
+and before this congregation, I pronounce and declare thee N.
+excommunicated, shut out from the communion of the faithful,
+debar thee from privileges, and deliver thee unto Satan for the
+destruction of thy flesh, that thy spirit may be saved in the day
+of the Lord Jesus.&rdquo; This is called the greater excommunication.
+The congregation are thereafter warned to shun all unnecessary
+converse with the excommunicate (see <i>Form of Process</i>, c. 8).
+Formerly excommunicated persons were deprived of feudal
+rights in Scotland; but in 1690 all acts enjoining civil pains
+upon sentences of excommunication were finally repealed
+(Burton&rsquo;s <i>History</i>, vii. 435).</p>
+
+<p>The question whether the power of excommunication rests
+in the church or in the clergy has been an important one in the
+history of English and American churches. Hooker lays down
+(<i>Survey</i>, pt. 3, pp. 33-46) four necessary conditions for the
+execution of a sentence involving church discipline. &ldquo;(1) The
+cause exactly recorded is fully and nakedly to be presented to the
+consideration of the congregation. (2) The elders are to go
+before the congregation in laying open the rule so far as reacheth
+any particular now to be considered, and to express their judgment
+and determination thereof, so far as appertains to themselves.
+(3) Unless the people be able to convince them of errors
+and mistakes in their sentence, they are bound to joyn their
+judgment with theirs to the compleating of the sentence. (4) The
+sentence thus compleatly issued is to be solemnly passed and
+pronounced upon the delinquent by the ruling Elder whether
+it be of censure or excommunication.&rdquo; In this passage it is clear
+that the effective power of discipline is regarded as being wholly
+in the power of the individual church or congregation. Hooker
+expressly denies the power of synods to excommunicate: &ldquo;that
+there should be Synods, which have <i>potestatem juridicam</i> is
+nowhere proved in Scripture because it is not a truth&rdquo; (<i>Survey</i>,
+pt. 4, pp. 48, 49).</p>
+
+<p>The confession of faith issued by the London-Amsterdam
+church (the original of the Pilgrim Fathers&rsquo; churches) in 1596
+declares that the Christian congregation having power to elect
+its minister has also power to excommunicate him if the case
+so require (Walker, <i>Creeds and Platforms of Congregationalism</i>,
+p. 66). In 1603 the document known as &ldquo;Points of Difference&rdquo;
+(<i>i.e.</i> from the established Anglicanism) submitted to James I.
+sets forth: &ldquo;That all particular Churches ought to be so constituted
+as, having their owne peculiar Officers, the whole body
+of every Church may meet together in one place, and jointly
+performe their duties to God and one towards another. And that
+the censures of admonition and excommunication be in due
+manner executed, for sinne, convicted, and obstinately stood
+in. This power also to be in the body of the Church whereof
+the partyes so offending and persisting are members.&rdquo; The
+<i>Cambridge Platform</i> of 1648 by which the New England churches
+defined their practice, devotes ch. xiv. to &ldquo;excommunication and
+other censures.&rdquo; It follows in the main the line of Hooker and
+Calvin, but adds (§ 6) an important definition: &ldquo;Excommunication
+being a spirituall punishment it doth not prejudice the excommunicate
+in, nor deprive him of his <i>civil</i> rights, therfore
+toucheth not princes, or other magistrates, in point of their civil
+dignity or authority. And, the excommunicate being but as a
+publican and a heathen, heathen being lawfully permitted to
+come to hear the word in church assemblyes; wee acknowledg
+therfore the like liberty of hearing the word, may be permitted
+to persons excommunicate, that is permitted unto heathen.
+And because wee are not without hope of his recovery, wee are not
+to account him as an enemy but to admonish him as a brother.&rdquo;
+The Savoy Declaration of 1658 defines the theory and practice
+of the older English Nonconformist churches in the section on
+the &ldquo;Institution of Churches and the Order appointed in them
+by Jesus Christ&rdquo; (xix.). The important article is as follows:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+Censures so appointed by Christ, are Admonition and
+Excommunication; and whereas some offences are or may be
+known onely to some, it is appointed by Christ, that those to
+whom they are so known, do first admonish the offender in
+private: in publique offences where any sin, before all; or in
+case of non-amendment upon private admonition, the offence
+being related to the Church, and the offender not manifesting
+his repentance, he is to be duely admonished in the Name of
+Christ by the whole Church, by the Ministery of the Elders of the
+Church, and if this Censure prevail not for his repentance, then
+he is to be cast out by Excommunication with the consent of
+the Church.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In contemporary English Free Churches the purity of the
+church is commonly secured by the removal of persons unsuitable
+for membership from the church books by a vote of the responsible
+authority.</p>
+<div class="author">(D. Mn.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXCRETION<a name="ar51" id="ar51"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ex</i>, out of, <i>cernere</i>, <i>cretum</i>, to separate),
+in plant and animal physiology, the separation from an organ of
+some substance, also the substance separated. The term usually
+refers to the separation of waste or harmful products, as distinguished
+from &ldquo;secretion,&rdquo; which refers to products that
+play a useful or necessary part in the functions of the organism.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXECUTION<a name="ar52" id="ar52"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>ex-sequor</i>, <i>exsecutus</i>, follow or carry
+out), the carrying into effect of anything, whether a rite, a piece
+of music, an office, &amp;c. ; and so sometimes involving a notion of
+skill in the performance. Technically, the word is used in law
+in the <i>execution</i> of a deed (its formal signing and sealing), an
+<i>execution</i> (see below) by the sheriff&rsquo;s officers under a &ldquo;writ of
+execution&rdquo; (the enforcement of a judgment on a debtor&rsquo;s goods);
+and <i>execution of death</i> has been shortened to the one word to
+denote <span class="sc">Capital Punishment</span> (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><i>Civil Execution</i> may be defined as the process by which the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page62" id="page62"></a>62</span>
+judgments or orders of courts of law are made effectual. In
+Roman law the earliest mode of execution was the seizure,
+legalized by the <i>actio per manus injectionem</i>, of the debtor as a
+slave of the creditor. During the later Republic, imprisonment
+took the place of slavery. Under the régime of the <i>actio per
+manus injectionem</i>, the debtor might dispute the debt&mdash;the issue
+being raised by his finding a substitute (<i>vindex</i>) to conduct the
+case for him. By the time of Gaius (iv. 25) the <i>actio per manus
+injectionem</i> had been superseded by the <i>actio judicati</i>, the object
+of which was to enable the creditor to take payment of the debt
+or compel the debtor to find security (<i>pignus in causa judicati
+captum: Cautio judicatum solvi</i>), and in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 320 Constantine
+abolished imprisonment for debt, unless the debtor were contumacious.
+The time allowed for payment of a judgment debt
+was by the XII. Tables 30 days; it was afterwards extended
+to two months, and ultimately, by Justinian, to four months.
+The next stage in the Roman law of execution was the recognition
+of bankruptcy either against the will of the bankrupt (<i>missio
+in bona</i>) or on the application of the bankrupt (<i>cessio bonorum</i>;
+and see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>). Lastly, in the time of Antoninus Pius,
+judgment debts were directly enforced by the seizure and sale
+of the debtor&rsquo;s property. Slaves, oxen and implements of
+husbandry were privileged; and movable property was to be
+exhausted before recourse was had to land (see Hunter, <i>Roman
+Law</i>, 4th ed. pp. 1029 et seq., Sohm, <i>Inst. Rom. Law</i>, 2nd ed.
+pp. 302-305).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Great Britain.</span>&mdash;The English law of execution is very complicated,
+and only a statement of the principal processes can here be
+attempted.</p>
+
+<p><i>High Court.&mdash;Fieri Facias.</i> A judgment for the recovery of money
+or costs is enforced, as a rule, by writ of <i>fieri facias</i> addressed to the
+sheriff, and directing him to cause to be made (<i>fieri facias</i>) of the
+goods and chattels of the debtor a levy of a sum sufficient to satisfy
+the judgment and costs, which carry interest at 4% per annum.
+The seizure effected by the sheriff or his officer, under this writ,
+of the property of the debtor, is what is popularly known as &ldquo;the
+putting-in&rdquo; of an execution. The seizure should be carried out
+with all possible despatch. The sheriff or his officer must not break
+open the debtor&rsquo;s house in effecting a seizure, for &ldquo;a man&rsquo;s house
+is his castle&rdquo; (<i>Semayne&rsquo;s Case</i> [1604], 5 Coke Rep. 91); but this
+principle applies only to a dwelling-house, and a barn or outhouse
+unconnected with the dwelling-house may be broken into. The
+sheriff on receipt of the writ endorses on it the day, hour, month
+and year when he received it; and the writ binds the debtor&rsquo;s goods
+as at the date of its delivery, except as regards goods sold before
+seizure in market overt, or purchased for value, without notice
+before actual seizure (Sale of Goods Act 1893, s. 26, which supersedes
+s. 16 of the Statute of Frauds and s. 1 of the Mercantile Law Amendment
+Act 1856). This rule is limited to goods, and does not apply
+to the money or bank notes of the debtor which are not bound by
+the writ till seized under it (<i>Johnson</i> v. <i>Pickering</i>, Oct. 14, 1907, C.A.).
+The mere seizure of the goods, however, although, subject to such
+exceptions as those just stated, it binds the interest of the debtor,
+and gives the sheriff such an interest in the goods as will enable
+him to sue for the recovery of their possession, does not pass the
+property in the goods to the sheriff. The goods are in the custody
+of the law. But the property remains in the debtor who may get
+rid of the execution on payment of the claim and fees of the sheriff
+[as to which see Sheriffs Act 1887, s. 20, and order of 21st of August
+1888, <i>Annual Practice</i> (1908), vol. ii. p. 278]. The wearing apparel,
+bedding, tools, &amp;c. , of the debtor to the value of £5 are protected.
+Competing claims as to the ownership of the goods seized are brought
+before the courts by the procedure of &ldquo;interpleader.&rdquo; After
+seizure, the sheriff must retain possession, and, in default of payment
+by the execution debtor, proceed to sell. Where the judgment debt,
+including legal expenses, exceeds £20, the sale must be by public
+auction, unless the Court otherwise orders, and must be publicly
+advertised. The proceeds of sale, after deduction of the sheriff&rsquo;s
+fees and expenses, become the property of the execution creditor
+to the extent of his claim. The Bankruptcy Act 1890 (53 &amp; 54
+Vict. c. 71, s. 11 [2]) requires the sheriff in case of sale under a
+judgment for a sum exceeding £20 to hold the proceeds for 14
+days in case notice of bankruptcy proceedings should be served upon
+him (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bankruptcy</a></span>). The form of the writ of <i>fieri facias</i> requires
+the sheriff to make a return to the writ. In practice this is seldom
+done unless the execution has been ineffective or there has been
+delay in the execution of the writ; but the judgment creditor may
+obtain an order calling on the sheriff to make a return. A sheriff
+or his officer, who is guilty of extortion in the execution of the writ,
+is liable to committal for contempt, and to forfeit £200 and pay all
+damages suffered by the person aggrieved (Sheriffs Act 1887 [50
+&amp; 51 Vict. c. 55], s. 29 [2]), besides being civilly liable to such
+person. Imprisonment for debt in execution of civil judgments is
+now abolished except in cases of default in the nature of contempt,
+unsatisfied judgments for penalties, defaults by persons in a fiduciary
+character, and defaults by judgment debtors (Debtors Act 1869 [32
+&amp; 33 Vict. c. 62]; Bankruptcy Act 1883 [46 &amp; 47 Vict. c. 52],
+ss. 53, 103). Imprisonment for debt has been abolished within
+similar limits in Scotland (Debtors [Scotland] Act 1880 [43 &amp; 44
+Vict. c. 34] and Ireland, Debtors [Ireland] Act 1872, 35 &amp; 36
+Vict. c. 57). There may still be imprisonment in England, under
+the writ&mdash;rarely used in practice&mdash;<i>ne exeat regno</i>, which issues to
+prevent a debtor from leaving the <span class="correction" title="amended from kindgom">kingdom</span>.</p>
+
+<p><i>Writ of Elegit.</i>&mdash;The writ of <i>elegit</i> is a process enabling the creditor
+to satisfy his judgment debt out of the lands of the debtor. It
+derives its name from the election of the creditor in favour of this
+mode of recovery. It is founded on the Statute of Westminster
+(1285, 13 Ed. I. c. 18), under which the sheriff was required to deliver
+to the creditor all the chattels (except oxen and beasts of the plough)
+and <i>half</i> the lands of the debtor until the debt was satisfied. By the
+Judgments Act 1838 the remedy was extended to <i>all</i> the debtor&rsquo;s
+lands, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 the writ no longer extends
+to the debtor&rsquo;s goods. The writ is enforceable against legal interests
+whether in possession or remainder (<i>Hood-Barrs</i> v. <i>Cathcart</i>, 1895,
+2 Ch. 411), but not against equitable interests in land (<i>Earl of Jersey</i>
+v. <i>Uxbridge Rural Sanitary Authority</i>, 1891, 3 Ch. 183). When the
+debtor&rsquo;s interest is equitable, recourse is had to equitable execution
+by the appointment of a receiver or to bankruptcy proceedings.</p>
+
+<p>The writ is directed to the sheriff, who, after marking on it the
+date of its receipt, at once in pursuance of its directions holds an
+inquiry with a jury as to the nature and value of the interest of the
+debtor in the lands extended under the writ, and delivers to the
+creditor at a reasonable price and extent in accordance with the
+writ, the lands of which the debtor was possessed in the bailiwick.
+When the sheriff has returned and filed a record (in the central
+office of the High Court) of the writ and the execution thereof, the
+execution creditor becomes &ldquo;tenant to the elegit.&rdquo; Where the
+land is freehold the creditor acquires only a chattel interest in it;
+where the land is leasehold he acquires the whole of the debtor&rsquo;s
+interest (<i>Johns</i> v. <i>Pink</i>, 1900, 1 Ch. 296). The creditor is entitled
+to hold the land till his debt is satisfied, or enough to satisfy it is
+tendered to him, and under the Judgments Act 1864 the creditor
+may obtain an order for sale. Until the land is delivered on execution
+and the writs which have effected the delivery are registered
+in the Land Registry, the judgment does not create any charge on
+the land so as to fetter the debtor&rsquo;s power of dealing with it. Land
+Charges Registration Acts 1888 and 1900. (See R.S.C., O. xliii.)</p>
+
+<p><i>Writs of Possession and Delivery.</i>&mdash;Judgments for the recovery or
+for the delivery of the possession of land are enforceable by writ of
+possession. The recovery of specific chattels is obtained by writ
+of delivery (R.S.C., O. xlvii., xlviii.).</p>
+
+<p><i>Writ of Sequestration.</i>&mdash;Where a judgment directing the payment
+of money into court, or the performance by the defendant of any
+act within a limited time, has not been complied with, or where a
+corporation has wilfully disobeyed a judgment, a writ of sequestration
+is issued, to not less than four sequestrators, ordering them to
+enter upon the real estate of the party in default, and &ldquo;sequester&rdquo;
+the rents and profits until the judgment has been obeyed (R.S.C.,
+O. xliii. r. 6).</p>
+
+<p><i>Equitable Execution.</i>&mdash;Where a judgment creditor is otherwise
+unable to reach the property of his debtor he may obtain equitable
+execution, usually by the appointment of a receiver, who collects
+the rents and profits of the debtor&rsquo;s land for the benefit of the
+creditor (R.S.C., O. l. rr. 15<span class="sc">a</span>-22). But receivers may be appointed
+of interests in personal property belonging to the debtor by virtue
+of the Judicature Act 1873, s. 25 (8).</p>
+
+<p><i>Attachment.</i>&mdash;A judgment creditor may &ldquo;attach&rdquo; debts due by
+third parties to his debtor by what are known as garnishee proceedings.
+Stock and shares belonging to a judgment debtor may be
+charged by a charging order, so as, in the first instance, to prevent
+transfer of the stock or payment of the dividends, and ultimately to
+enable the judgment creditor to realise his charge. A writ of
+attachment of the person of a defaulting debtor or party may be
+obtained in a variety of cases akin to contempt (<i>e.g.</i> against a person
+failing to comply with an order to answer interrogatories, or against
+a solicitor not entering an appearance in an action, in breach of his
+written undertaking to do so), and in the cases where imprisonment
+for debt is still preserved by the Debtors Act 1869 (R.S.C., O. xliv.).
+<span class="sc">Contempt of Court</span> (<i>q.v.</i>) in its ordinary forms is also punishable
+by summary committal.</p>
+
+<p><i>County Courts.</i>&mdash;In the county courts the chief modes of execution
+are &ldquo;warrant of execution in the nature of a writ of <i>fieri facias</i>&rdquo;;
+garnishee proceedings; equitable execution; warrants of possession
+and delivery, corresponding to the writs of possession and delivery
+above mentioned; committal, where a judgment debtor has, or,
+since the date of the judgment has had, means to pay his debt;
+and attachment of the person for contempt of court. If the judgment
+debtor assaults the bailiff or his officer or rescues the goods,
+he is liable to a fine not exceeding £5.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Scotland.</span>&mdash;The principal modes of execution or &ldquo;diligence&rdquo; in
+Scots law are (i.) Arrestment and furthcoming, which corresponds
+to the English garnishee proceedings; (ii.) arrestment <i>jurisdictionis
+fundandae causa</i>, <i>i.e.</i> the seizure of movables within the jurisdiction
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page63" id="page63"></a>63</span>
+to found jurisdiction against their owner, being a foreigner; this
+precedure, which is not, however, strictly a &ldquo;diligence,&rdquo; as it does
+not bind the goods, is analogous to the French <i>saisie-arrêt</i>, and
+to the obsolete practice in the mayor&rsquo;s court of London known as
+&ldquo;foreign attachment&rdquo; (see Glyn and Jackson, <i>Mayor&rsquo;s Court
+Practice</i>, 2nd ed., vii. 260); (iii.) arrestment under <i>meditatione fugae</i>
+warrant, corresponding to the old English writ of <i>ne exeat regno</i>,
+and applicable in the case of a debtor who intends to leave Scotland
+to evade an action; (iv.) arrestment on dependence, <i>i.e.</i> of funds in
+security; (v.) poinding, <i>i.e.</i> valuation and sale of the debtor&rsquo;s
+goods; (vi.) sequestration, <i>e.g.</i> of tenant&rsquo;s effects under a landlord&rsquo;s
+hypothec for rent; (vii.) action of adjudication, by which a debtor&rsquo;s
+&ldquo;heritable&rdquo; (<i>i.e.</i> real) estate is transferred to his judgment creditor
+in satisfaction of his debt or security therefor. In Scots law
+&ldquo;multiplepoinding&rdquo; is the equivalent of &ldquo;interpleader.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Ireland.</span>&mdash;The law of execution in Ireland (see R.S.C., 1905,
+Orders xli.-xlviii.) is practically the same as in England.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">British Possessions.</span>&mdash;The Judicature Acts of most of the
+Colonies have also adopted English Law. Parts of the French <i>Code
+de procédure civile</i> are still in force in Mauritius. But its provisions
+have been modified by local enactment (No. 19 of 1868) as regards
+realty, and the rules of the Supreme Court 1903 have introduced the
+English forms of writs. Quebec and St Lucia, where French law
+formerly prevailed, have now their own codes of Civil Procedure.
+The law of execution under the Quebec Code resembles the French,
+that under the St Lucia Code the English system. In British
+Guiana and Ceylon, in which Roman Dutch law in one form or
+another prevailed, the English law of execution has now in substance
+been adopted (British Guiana Rules of Court, 1900, Order xxxvi.).,
+Ceylon (Code of Civil Procedure, No. 2 of 1889); the modes of execution
+in the South African Colonies are also the subject of local
+enactment, largely influenced by English law (cf. the Sheriffs&rsquo;
+Ordinance, 1902, No. 9 of 1902), (Orange River Colony) and (Proclamation
+17 of 1902), Transvaal (Nathan, <i>Common Law of South
+Africa</i>, vol. iv. p. 2206); and generally, Van Zyl, <i>Judicial Practice
+of South Africa</i>, pp. 198 et seq.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">United States.</span>&mdash;Execution in the United States is founded
+upon English law, which it closely resembles. Substantially the
+same forms of execution are in force. The provisions of the Statute
+of Frauds making the lien of execution attach only on delivery to
+the sheriff were generally adopted in America, and are still law in
+many of the states. The law as to the rights and duties of sheriffs
+is substantially the same as in England. The &ldquo;homestead laws&rdquo;
+(<i>q.v.</i>) which are in force in nearly all the American States exempt
+a certain amount or value of real estate occupied by a debtor as
+his homestead from a forced sale for the payment of his debts.
+This homestead legislation has been copied in some British colonies,
+<i>e.g.</i> Western Australia (No. 37 of 1898, Pt. viii.), Quebec (Rev. Stats.,
+ss. 1743-1748), Manitoba (Rev. Stats., 1902, c. 58, s. 29, c. 21, s. 9),
+Ontario (Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 29), British Columbia (Rev. Stats.,
+1897, c. 93), New South Wales (Crown Lands Act 1895, Pt. iii.),
+New Zealand (Family Homes Protection Act 1895, No. 20 of 1895).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">France.</span>&mdash;Provisional execution (<i>saisie-arrêt</i>) with a view to
+obtain security has been already mentioned. Execution against
+personalty (<i>saisie-exécution</i>) is preceded by a <i>commandement</i> or
+summons, personally served upon, or left at the domicile of the debtor
+calling on him to pay. The necessary bedding of debtors and of
+their children residing with them, and the clothes worn by them,
+cannot be seized in execution under any circumstances. Objects
+declared by law to be immovable by destination (<i>immeubles par
+destination</i>), such as beasts of burden and agricultural implements,
+books relating to the debtor&rsquo;s profession, to the value of 300 francs,
+workmen&rsquo;s tools, military equipments, provisions and certain cattle
+cannot be seized, even for a debt due to Government, unless in respect
+of provisions furnished to the debtor, or amounts due to the manufacturers
+or vendors of protected articles or to parties who advanced
+moneys to purchase, manufacture or repair them. Growing fruits
+cannot be seized except during the six weeks preceding the ordinary
+period when they become ripe. Execution against immovable
+property (<i>la saisie immobilière</i>) is preceded also by a summons to
+pay, and execution cannot issue until the expiry of 30 days after
+service of such summons (see further Code Proc. Civ., Arts. 673-689).
+Imprisonment for debt was abolished in all civil and commercial
+matters by the law of 22nd of July 1867, which extends to foreigners.
+It still subsists in favour of the State for non-payment of fines, &amp;c.
+The French system is in substance in force in Belgium (Code Civ.
+Proc., Arts. 51 et seq.), the Netherlands (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 430 et
+seq.), Italy (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 553 et seq., 659 et seq.), and Spain.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Germany.</span>&mdash;Under the German Code of Civil <span class="correction" title="amended from Prodecure">Procedure</span> (Arts.
+796 et seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer adequate
+security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the process is called
+<i>arrest</i>) as a guarantee of payment. The debtor&rsquo;s goods cannot be
+sold except in pursuance of a judgment notified to the debtor either
+before or within a prescribed period after the execution (Art. 809
+[3], and law of 30th of April 1886). Imprisonment for debt in civil
+and commercial matters has been abolished or limited on the lines
+of the French law of 1867 in many countries (<i>e.g.</i> Italy, law of the
+6th of December 1877; Belgium, law of the 27th of July 1871;
+Greece, law of the 9th of March 1900; Russia, decree of the 7th of
+March 1879).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Anderson, <i>Execution</i> (London, 1889); <i>Annual
+Practice</i> (London, 1908); Johnston Edwards, <i>Execution</i> (London,
+1888); Mather, <i>Sheriff Law</i> (London, 1903). As to Scots law,
+Mackay, <i>Manual of Practice</i> (Edinburgh, 1893). As to American
+law, Bingham, <i>Judgments and Executions</i> (Philadelphia, 1836);
+A.C. Freeman, <i>Law of Execution</i>, Civil Cases (3rd ed., San Francisco,
+1900); H.M. Herman, <i>Law of Executions</i> (New York, 1875); American
+Notes to <i>tit.</i> &ldquo;Execution,&rdquo; in <i>Ruling Cases</i> (London and Boston,
+1897); Bouvier, <i>Law Dict.</i>, ed. Rawle (1897), <i>s.v.</i> &ldquo;Execution.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS,<a name="ar53" id="ar53"></a></span> in English law, those
+persons upon whom the property of a deceased person both real
+and personal devolves according as he has or has not left a will.
+Executors differ from administrators both in the mode of their
+creation and in the date at which their estate vests. An executor
+can only be appointed by the will of his testator; such appointment
+may be express or implied, and in the latter case he is said
+to be an executor &ldquo;according to the tenor.&rdquo; The estate of an
+executor vests in him from the date of the testator&rsquo;s death. An
+administrator on the other hand is appointed by the probate
+division of the High Court, and his estate does not vest till such
+appointment, the title to the property being vested till then in
+the judge of the probate division. As to whom the court will
+appoint administrators and the various kinds of administrators
+see under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Administration</a></span>. Apart from these two points the
+rights and liabilities of executors and administrators are the
+same, and they may be indifferently referred to as the representative
+of the deceased. As to their appointment before the
+establishment of the court of probate see articles <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Will</a></span> and
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Intestacy</a></span>. Before the Land Transfer Act 1897, the real estate
+of the deceased did not devolve upon the representative but
+vested directly in the devisee or heir-at-law, but by that act
+it was provided that the personal representative should be also
+the real representative, and therefore it may now be said broadly
+that the representative takes the whole estate of the deceased.
+There are, however, a few minor exceptions to this rule, of which
+the most important are lands held in joint tenancy and copyhold
+lands. As the representative stands in the shoes of the deceased
+he is entitled to sue upon any contract or for any debt which the
+deceased might have sued in his lifetime.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The duties of a representative are as follows: 1. To bury the
+deceased in a manner suitable to the estate he leaves behind him;
+and the expenses of such funeral take precedence of any duty or
+debt whatever; but extravagant expenses will not be allowed.
+No rule can be laid down as to what is a reasonable allowance for
+this purpose, as it is impossible to know at the time of the funeral
+what the estate of the deceased may amount to. The broad rule
+is that the representative must allow such sum as seems reasonable,
+having regard to all the circumstances of the case and the conditions
+in life of the deceased, remembering that if he should exceed this he
+will be personally liable for such excess in the event of the estate
+proving insolvent.</p>
+
+<p>2. He must obtain probate or letters of administration to the
+deceased within six months of the death, or, if such grant be disputed,
+within two months of the determination of such suit. The
+penalty for not doing so is fixed by the Stamp Act 1815, § 37, at
+£100, and an additional stamp duty at the rate of 10%. As to
+the formalities of <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Probate</a></span> see that article.</p>
+
+<p>3. Strictly speaking, he must compile an inventory of all the
+estate of the deceased, whether in possession or outstanding, and he
+is to deliver it to the court on oath. He is to collect all the goods so
+inventoried and to commence actions to get in all those outstanding,
+and he is responsible to creditors for the whole of such estate,
+whether in possession or in action. This duty is thrown upon the
+representative by an act of 1529, but it is not the modern practice
+to exhibit such inventory unless he be cited for it in the spiritual
+court at the instance of a party interested. It is, however, necessary
+to file an affidavit setting out the value of the estate of the deceased
+upon applying for a grant of probate or letters of administration.</p>
+
+<p>4. The representative must pay the debts of the deceased according
+to their priority. Next to the legitimate funeral expenses come
+the costs of proving and administering the estate; in the event,
+however, of the funeral and testamentary expenses being charged
+by the will upon any particular fund, they will be primarily payable
+out of that fund. The representative must be careful to pay the
+debts according to the rules of priority, otherwise he will become
+personally liable to the creditors of one degree if he has exhausted
+the estate in paying creditors of a lesser degree. First of all, a
+solicitor has a lien for his costs upon any fund or duty which he has
+recovered for the deceased; next in order come debts due to the
+crown by record or speciality; then debts given a priority by
+statute, as, for example, by the Poor Relief Act 1743, money due
+by an overseer of the poor to his parish. Next, debts of record, <i>i.e.</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page64" id="page64"></a>64</span>
+judgment recovered against the deceased in any court of record;
+all such debts are equal among themselves, but a judgment creditor
+who has sued out execution is preferred to one who has not; another
+class of debts of record are statutes merchant and staple, or recognizances
+in the nature of statute staple, <i>i.e.</i> bonds of record acknowledged
+before the lord mayor of London or the mayor of the staple.
+Last in the order of debts come specialty and simple contract debts,
+which by Hinde Palmer&rsquo;s Act (the Executors Act 1869) are of equal
+degree, though as between specialty debts bonds given for value
+rank before voluntary bonds unless assigned for value, and as
+between simple contract debts those due to the crown have priority.
+Though the creditors can if necessary take all the estate of the
+deceased to satisfy their claims, yet as between the various classes
+of assets the representative must pay the debts out of assets in the
+following order: (i.) General personal estate not specifically bequeathed
+nor exempted from payment of debts; (ii.) real estate
+appropriated to debts; (iii.) real estate descended; (iv.) real estate
+devised charged with payment of debts; (v.) general pecuniary
+legacies <i>pro rata</i>; (vi.) specific legacies and devises; (vii.) real
+estate over which a general power of appointment has been exercised
+by will; (viii.) the widow&rsquo;s paraphernalia.</p>
+
+<p>5. The debts of the deceased being satisfied, the representative
+must next proceed to satisfy the legacies and devises left by the
+testator. In order to enable him to do this with safety to himself,
+it is provided that he cannot be compelled to divide the estate
+among the legatees or next of kin until twelve months from the
+death of the deceased (this is commonly known as &ldquo;the executor&rsquo;s
+year&rdquo;), though if there is no doubt as to the solvency of the estate
+he may do so at once. As a further protection the representative
+may give notice by advertisement for creditors to send in their
+claims against the estate, and on expiration of the notices he may
+proceed to divide the estate, though even then the creditor may
+follow the assets to the person who has received them and recover
+for his debt. As between legatees the following priorities must be
+observed: (1) Specific legatees and devisees, (2) demonstrative
+legatees, and (3) general legatees; and as to this last class the testator
+can give priority to one over another. If there are not sufficient
+assets to pay the general legatees they must abate rateably. Legacies
+were not payable out of the real estate prior to the Land Transfer
+Act 1897, unless the testator charged the realty with them. Even
+then unless the testator exonerates his personalty from payment of
+the legacies the personalty will be the first fund chargeable. It
+has been suggested that the effect of the act is to make the realty
+chargeable <i>pro rata</i> with the personalty, but this is doubtful.</p>
+
+<p>6. The residue, after all legacies and devises are satisfied, must,
+if there be a will, be paid to the residuary legatee therein named,
+and if there be no will the real estate will go to the heir (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Inheritance</a></span>)
+and the personalty to the next of kin (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Intestacy</a></span>).
+It was held at one time that in default of a residuary legatee the
+residue fell to the executor himself, but now nothing less than the
+expressed intention of the testator can give it to him.</p>
+
+<p>The liabilities of the representative may be shortly stated. He is
+liable in his representative capacity in all cases where the deceased
+would be liable were he alive. To this general rule there are some
+exceptions. The representative cannot be sued for breach of a
+contract for personal services which can be performed only in the
+lifetime of the person contracting, nor again can he be sued in a
+case where unliquidated damages only could have been recovered
+against the deceased. He is liable in his personal capacity in the
+following cases: if he contracts to pay a debt due by the deceased,
+or if having admitted that he had assets in his hands sufficient to
+pay a debt or legacy he has misapplied such assets so that he cannot
+satisfy them; or lastly, if by mismanaging the estate and effects
+of the deceased he has made himself liable for a <i>devastavit</i>. Shortly
+stated, a representative is bound to exercise the ordinary care of a
+business man in administering the estate of the deceased, and he
+will be liable for the loss to the estate caused by his own negligence,
+or by the negligence of a co-representative which his act or neglect
+has rendered possible. Though the general rule of <i>delegatus non
+potest delegari</i> holds good of a representative, yet in certain cases he
+may &ldquo;rely upon skilled persons in matters in which he cannot be
+expected to be experienced,&rdquo; <i>e.g.</i> he must employ solicitors to
+conduct a lawsuit.</p>
+
+<p>The privileges of the representative are these: he may prefer one
+creditor to another of equal degree; he may retain a debt owing
+to him from the deceased as against other creditors of equal degree
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Retainer</a></span>); he may reimburse himself out of the estate all
+expenses incurred in the execution of his trust.</p>
+
+<p>An executor <i>de son tort</i> is one who, without any title to do so,
+wrongfully intermeddles with the assets of the deceased, dealing
+with them in such a way as to hold himself out as executor. In
+such a case he is subject to all the liabilities of an executor, and can
+claim none of the privileges. He may be treated by the creditor as
+the executor, and, if he is really assuming to act as executor, creditors
+and legatees will get a good title from him, but he is liable to be sued
+by the rightful representative for damages for interfering with the
+property of the deceased.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scotland.</i>&mdash;Executor in Scots law is a more extensive term than in
+English. He is either nominative or dative, the latter appointed
+by the court and corresponding in most respects to the English
+administrator. Caution is required from the latter, not from the
+former. By the common law doctrine of passive representation the
+heir or executor was liable to be sued for implement of the deceased&rsquo;s
+obligations. The Roman principle of <i>beneficium inventarii</i> was first
+introduced by an act of 1695. As the law at present stands, the heir
+or executor is liable only to the value of the succession, except
+where there has been vitious intromission in movables, and in
+<i>gestio pro haerede</i> (behaviour as heir) and other cases in heritables.
+The present inventory duty on succession to movables and
+heritables depends on the Finance Acts 1894-1909 (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Estate Duty</a></span>).
+In England the executor is bound to pay the debts of the deceased
+in a certain order, but in Scotland they all rank <i>pari passu</i> except
+privileged debts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Privilege</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;R.L. Vaughan Williams, <i>The Law of Executors
+and Administrators</i>; W.G. Walker, <i>Compendium on the Law of
+Executors and Administrators</i>; James Schouler, <i>Law of Executors
+and Administrators</i> (3rd ed., Boston, 1901).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXEDRA,<a name="ar54" id="ar54"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Exhedra</span> (from Gr. <span class="grk" title="ex">&#7952;&#958;</span>, out, and <span class="grk" title="hedra">&#7957;&#948;&#961;&#945;</span>, a seat),
+an architectural term originally applied to a seat or recess out
+of doors, intended for conversation. Such recesses were generally
+semicircular, as in the important example built by Herodes
+Atticus at Olympia. In the great Roman thermae (baths) they
+were of large size, and like apses were covered with a hemispherical
+vault. An example of these exists at Pompeii in the Street
+of the Tombs. From Vitruvius we learn that they were often
+covered over, and they are described by him (v. 11) as places
+leading out of porticoes, where philosophers and rhetoricians
+could debate or harangue.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXELMANS, RENÉ JOSEPH ISIDORE,<a name="ar55" id="ar55"></a></span> <span class="sc">Count</span> (1775-1852),
+marshal of France, was born at Bar-le-Duc on the 13th of
+November 1775. He volunteered into the 3rd battalion of the
+Meuse in 1791, became a lieutenant in 1797, and in 1798 was aide-de-camp
+to General Éblé, and in the following year to General
+Broussier. In his first campaign in Italy he greatly distinguished
+himself; and in April 1799 he was rewarded for his services by
+the grade of captain of dragoons. In the same year he took
+part with honour in the conquest of Naples and was again promoted,
+and in 1801 he became aide-de-camp to General Murat.
+He accompanied Murat in the Austrian, Prussian and Polish
+campaigns of 1805, 1806 and 1807. At the passage of the
+Danube, and in the action of Wertingen, he specially distinguished
+himself; he was made colonel for the valour which he
+displayed at Austerlitz, and general of brigade for his conduct
+at Eylau in 1807. In 1808 he accompanied Murat to Spain,
+but was there made prisoner and conveyed to England.
+On regaining his liberty in 1811 he went to Naples, where
+King Joachim Murat appointed him grand-master of horse.
+Exelmans, however, rejoined the French army on the eve of the
+Russian campaign, and on the field of Borodino won the rank of
+general of division. In the retreat from Moscow his steadfast
+courage was conspicuously manifested on several occasions.
+In 1813 he was made, for services in the campaign of Saxony
+and Silesia, grand-officer of the Legion of Honour, and in 1814
+he reaped additional glory by his intrepidity and skill in the
+campaign of France. When the Bourbons were restored,
+Exelmans retained his position in the army. In January 1815
+he was tried on an accusation of having treasonable relations
+with Murat, but was acquitted. Napoleon on his return from
+Elba made Exelmans a peer of France and placed him in
+command of the II. cavalry corps, which he commanded in
+the Waterloo campaign, the battle of Ligny and Grouchy&rsquo;s
+march on Wavre. In the closing operations round Paris
+Exelmans won great distinction. After the second Restoration
+he denounced, in the House of Peers, the execution of
+Marshal Ney as an &ldquo;abominable assassination&rdquo;; thereafter he
+lived in exile in Belgium and Nassau for some years, till 1819,
+when he was recalled to France. In 1828 he was appointed
+inspector-general of cavalry; and after the July revolution of
+1830 he received from Louis Philippe the grand cross of the Legion
+of Honour, and was reinstated as a peer of France. At the
+revolution of 1848 Exelmans was one of the adherents of Louis
+Napoleon; and in 1851 he was, in recognition of his long and
+brilliant military career, raised to the dignity of a marshal of
+France. His death, which took place on the 10th of July 1852,
+was the result of a fall from his horse.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page65" id="page65"></a>65</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXEQUATUR,<a name="ar56" id="ar56"></a></span> the letter patent, issued by a foreign office
+and signed by a sovereign, which guarantees to a foreign consul
+the rights and privileges of his office, and ensures his recognition
+in the state in which he is appointed to exercise them. If a
+consul is not appointed by commission he receives no exequatur;
+and a notice in the <i>Gazette</i> in this case has to suffice. The exequatur
+may be withdrawn, but in practice, where a consul is
+obnoxious, an opportunity is afforded to his government to
+recall him.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF.<a name="ar57" id="ar57"></a></span> These
+English titles have been borne at different times by members
+of the families of Holand or Holland, Beaufort, Courtenay and
+Cecil. The earls of Devon of the family of de Redvers were
+sometimes called earls of Exeter; but the 1st duke of Exeter
+was John (<i>c.</i> 1355-1400), a younger son of Thomas Holand,
+earl of Kent (d. 1360). John&rsquo;s mother, Joan (d. 1385), a descendant
+of Edward I., married for her third husband Edward the
+Black Prince, by whom she was the mother of Richard II., and
+her son John was thus the king&rsquo;s half-brother, a relationship
+to which he owed his high station at the English court. He
+married Elizabeth (d. 1426), a daughter of John of Gaunt, duke
+of Lancaster, and was constantly in Richard&rsquo;s train until 1385,
+when his murder of Ralph Stafford disturbed these friendly
+relations. John then went to Spain as constable of the English
+army under John of Gaunt; but after his return to England in
+1387 he was created earl of Huntingdon, was made admiral of
+the fleet and chamberlain of England, and was again high in the
+king&rsquo;s favour. He was Richard&rsquo;s chief helper in the proceedings
+against the lords appellant in 1397, was created duke of Exeter
+in September of this year, and went with the king to Ireland in
+1399. After the accession of his brother-in-law, Henry IV.,
+Holand was tried for his share in the events of 1397, and was
+reduced to his earlier rank of earl of Huntingdon. He was
+soon plotting against Henry&rsquo;s life, and after the projected
+rising in 1400 had failed he was captured and was probably
+beheaded at Pleshey in Essex on the 16th of January 1400.<a name="fa1e" id="fa1e" href="#ft1e"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+He was afterwards attainted and his titles and lands were
+forfeited.</p>
+
+<p>In 1416 <span class="sc">Thomas Beaufort</span>, earl of Dorset, was created duke
+of Exeter; but this dignity was only granted for his life, and
+consequently it expired on his death in 1426.</p>
+
+<p>In 1416 <span class="sc">John</span> (1395-1447), son of John Holand, the former
+duke of Exeter, was allowed to take his father&rsquo;s earldom of
+Huntingdon. This nobleman rendered great assistance to
+Henry V. in his conquest of France, fighting both on sea and
+on land. He was marshal of England, admiral of England and
+governor of Aquitaine under Henry VI.; was one of the king&rsquo;s
+representatives at the conference of Arras in 1435; and in 1443
+was created duke of Exeter. When he died on the 5th of August
+1447 his titles passed to his son <span class="sc">Henry</span> (1430-1473), who,
+although married to Anne (d. 1476), daughter of Richard, duke of
+York, fought for Henry VI. during the Wars of the Roses. After
+having been imprisoned by York at Pontefract, he was present
+at the battle of Towton, sailed with Henry&rsquo;s queen, Margaret
+of Anjou, to Flanders in 1463, and was wounded at Barnet in
+1471. In 1461 he had been attainted and his dukedom declared
+forfeited, and he died without sons, probably in 1473.</p>
+
+<p>Coming to the family of Courtenay the title of marquess of
+Exeter was borne by <span class="sc">Henry Courtenay</span> (<i>c.</i> 1496-1538), earl of
+Devon, who was made a marquess in 1525. A grandson of
+Edward IV., Courtenay was a prominent figure at the court of
+Henry VIII. until Thomas Cromwell rose to power, when his
+high birth, his great wealth and his independent position made
+him an object of suspicion. Some slight discontent in the west
+of England gave the occasion for his arrest, and he was tried and
+beheaded on the 9th of December 1538. A few days later he
+was declared a traitor and his titles were forfeited; although
+his only son, <span class="sc">Edward</span> (<i>c.</i> 1526-1556), who was restored to the
+earldom of Devon in 1553 and was a suitor for the hand of Queen
+Mary, is sometimes called marquess of Exeter.</p>
+
+<p>The title of earl of Exeter was first bestowed upon the Cecils
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cecil</a></span>: <i>Family</i>) in 1605 when <span class="sc">Thomas</span>, 2nd Lord Burghley
+(1542-1623), the eldest son of William Cecil, Lord Burghley,
+was made earl of Exeter by James I. Thomas had been a
+member of parliament during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, who
+knighted him in 1575, and had fought under the earl of Leicester
+in the Netherlands. After his father&rsquo;s death in 1598 he became
+president of the Council of the North and was made a knight of
+the Garter. He died on the 7th or 8th of February 1623. His
+direct descendants continued to bear the title of earl of Exeter,
+and in 1801 <span class="sc">Henry</span> (1754-1804), the 10th earl, was advanced to
+the dignity of marquess of Exeter, the present marquess being
+his lineal descendant. It may be noted that the 1st marquess
+is Tennyson&rsquo;s &ldquo;lord of Burghley.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See G.E. C(okayne), <i>Complete Peerage</i> (1887-1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1e" id="ft1e" href="#fa1e"><span class="fn">1</span></a> There is some difference of opinion about the place and manner
+of the earl&rsquo;s death, and this question has an important bearing upon
+the privilege of trial by peers of the realm. See L.W. Vernon-Harcourt,
+<i>His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers</i> (1907).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXETER,<a name="ar58" id="ar58"></a></span> a city and county of a city, municipal, county and
+parliamentary borough, and the county town of Devonshire,
+England, 172 m. W.S.W. of London, on the London &amp; South
+Western and the Great Western railways. Pop. (1901) 47,185.
+The ancient city occupies a broad ridge of land, which rises
+steeply from the left bank of the Exe. At the head of the ridge
+is the castle, on the site of a great British earthwork. The High
+Street and its continuation, called Fore Street, are narrow, but
+very picturesque, with many houses of the 16th and 17th
+centuries. There is a maze of lesser streets within the ancient
+walls, the line of which may be traced. All the gates have
+disappeared. The suburbs, which have greatly extended since
+the beginning of the 19th century, contain many good streets,
+terraces and detached villas. The surrounding country is rich,
+fertile and of great beauty. Extensive views are commanded in
+the direction of Haldon, a stretch of high moorland which may
+be regarded as an outlier of Dartmoor. The lofty mound of the
+castle is laid out as a promenade, with fine trees and broad walks.</p>
+
+<p>The cathedral, although not one of the largest in England, is
+unsurpassed in the beauty of its architecture and the richness
+of its details. With the exception of the Norman transeptal
+towers, the general character is Decorated, ranging from about
+1280 to 1369. Transeptal towers occur elsewhere in England
+only in the collegiate church of Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire,
+for which Exeter cathedral served as a model. The west front
+is of later date than the rest (probably 1369-1394), and the
+porch is wholly covered with statues. Within, the most noteworthy
+features are the long unbroken roof, extending throughout
+nave and choir, with no central tower or lantern; the beautiful
+sculpture of bosses and corbels; the minstrel&rsquo;s gallery, projecting
+from the north triforium of the nave; and the remarkable
+manner in which the several parts of the church are made to
+correspond. The window tracery is much varied; but each
+window answers to that on the opposite side of nave or choir;
+pier answers to pier, aisle to aisle, and chapel to chapel, while
+the transeptal towers complete the balance of parts. A complete
+restoration under Sir G.G. Scott was carried out between 1870
+and 1877. The modern stall work, the reredos, the choir pavement
+of tiles, rich marbles and porphyries, the stained glass and
+the sculptured pulpits in choir and nave are meritorious. The
+episcopal throne, a sheaf of tabernacle work in wood, was erected
+by Bishop Stapeldon about 1320, and in the north transept is
+an ancient clock. The most interesting monuments are those of
+bishops of the 12th and 13th centuries, in the choir and lady
+chapel. Some important MSS., including the famous book of
+Saxon poetry given by Leofric to his cathedral, are preserved
+in the chapter-house. The united sees of Devonshire and
+Cornwall were fixed at Exeter from the installation there of
+Leofric (1050) by the Confessor, until the re-erection of the
+Cornish see in 1876. The bishop&rsquo;s palace embodies Early
+English portions. The diocese covers the greater part of Devonshire,
+with a very small part of Dorsetshire.</p>
+
+<p>The guildhall in the High Street is a picturesque Elizabethan
+building, which contains some interesting portraits; among
+them being one of General Monk, who was a native of Devon,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page66" id="page66"></a>66</span>
+and another of Henrietta, duchess of Orleans, given by her
+brother Charles II. Both are by Sir Peter Lely. The assize
+hall and sessions house dates from 1774. The Albert Memorial
+Museum contains a school of art, an excellent free library, a
+reading-room, and a museum of natural history and antiquities.
+There is a good collection of local birds, and some remarkable
+pottery and bronze relics extracted from barrows near Honiton
+or found in various parts of Devonshire. Of the castle, called
+Rougemont, the chief architectural remnant is a portion of a
+gateway tower which may be late Norman. Traces are also
+seen of the surrounding earthworks, which may have belonged
+to the original British stronghold. Beneath the castle wall is
+the pleasant promenade of Northernhay. The churches of
+Exeter are of little importance, being mostly small, and closely
+beset with buildings, but the modern church of St Michael (1860)
+deserves notice. The Devon and Exeter Institution, founded
+in 1813, contains a large and valuable library, and among
+educational establishments may be noticed the technical and
+university extension college, the diocesan training college and
+school; and the grammar school, which was founded under a
+scheme of Walter de Stapeldon, bishop of Exeter and founder of
+Exeter College, Oxford, in 1332, and refounded in 1629, but
+occupies modern buildings (1886) outside the city. It is endowed
+with a large number of leaving exhibitions, and about 150 boys
+are educated. There are two market-houses in the city, many
+hospitals and many charitable institutions, including the picturesque
+hospital or almshouse of William Wynard, recorder of
+Exeter (1439).</p>
+
+<p>Exeter is one of the principal railway centres in the south-west,
+and it also has some shipping trade, communicating with the
+sea by way of the Exeter ship-canal, originally cut in the reign
+of Elizabeth (1564), and enlarged in 1675 and 1827. This canal
+is an interesting work, being the first canal carried out in the
+United Kingdom for the purpose of enabling sea-going vessels to
+pass to an inland port. The river Exe was very early utilized
+by small craft trading to Exeter, parliament having granted
+powers for the improvement of the navigation by the construction
+of a canal 3 m. long from Exeter to the river; at a later
+date this canal was extended lower down to the tidal estuary of
+the Exe. Previous to the year 1820 it was only available for
+vessels of a draft not exceeding 9 ft., but by deepening it, raising
+the banks, and constructing new locks, vessels drawing 14 ft. of
+water were enabled to pass up to a basin and wharves at Exeter.
+These works were carried out under the advice of Thomas
+Telford. A floating basin is accessible to vessels of 350 tons.
+Larger vessels lie at Topsham, at the junction of the canal with
+the estuary of the Exe; while at the mouth of the estuary is
+the port of Exmouth. Imports are miscellaneous, while paper,
+grain, cider and other goods are exported. Brewing, paper-making
+and iron-founding are carried on, and the city is an
+important centre of agricultural trade. The parliamentary
+borough returns one member. The city is governed by a
+mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3158 acres.
+The eastern suburb of Heavitree, where is the Exeter city
+asylum, is an urban district with a population (1901) of 7529.</p>
+
+<p>Exeter was the Romano-British country town of <i>Isca Damnoniorum</i>&mdash;the
+most westerly town in the south-west of Roman
+Britain. Mosaic pavements, potsherds, coins and other relics
+have been found, and probably traces of the Roman walls survive
+here and there in the medieval walls. It is said to be the <i>Caer
+Isce</i> of the Britons, and its importance as a British stronghold is
+shown by the great earthwork which the Britons threw up to
+defend it, on the site of which the castle was afterwards built, and
+by the number of roads which branch from it. Exeter is famous
+for the number of sieges which it sustained as the chief town
+in the south-west of England. In 1001 it was unsuccessfully
+besieged by the Danes, but in the following year was given by
+King Æthelred to Queen Emma, who appointed as reeve, Hugh, a
+Frenchman, owing to whose treachery it was taken and destroyed
+by Sweyn in 1003. By 1050, however, it had recovered, and
+was chosen by Leofric as the new seat of the bishops of Devon.
+In 1068, after a siege of eighteen days, Exeter surrendered to
+the Conqueror, who threw up a castle which was called Rougemont,
+from the colour of the rock on which it stood. Again in
+1137 the town was held for Matilda by Baldwin de Redvers for
+three months and surrendered, at last, owing to lack of water.
+Three times subsequently Exeter held out successfully for the king&mdash;in
+1467 against the Yorkists, in 1497 against Perkin Warbeck,
+and in 1549 against the men of Cornwall and Devon, who rose
+in defence of the old religion. During the civil wars the city
+declared for parliament, but was in 1643 taken by the royalists,
+who held it until 1646. The only other historical event of
+importance is the entry of William, prince of Orange, in 1688,
+shortly after his arrival in England. Exeter was evidently a
+borough by prescription some time before the Conquest, since
+the burgesses are mentioned in the Domesday Survey. Its
+first charter granted by Henry I. gave the burgesses all the free
+customs which the citizens of London enjoyed, and was confirmed
+and enlarged by most of the succeeding kings. By 1227 government
+by a reeve had given place to that by a mayor and four
+bailiffs, which continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835.
+Numerous trade gilds were incorporated in Exeter, one of the
+first being the tailors&rsquo; gild, incorporated in 1466. This by 1482
+had become so powerful that it interfered with the government
+of the town, and was dissolved on the petition of the burgesses.
+Another powerful gild was that of the merchant adventurers,
+incorporated in 1559, which is said to have dictated laws to which
+the mayor and bailiffs submitted. From 1295 to 1885 Exeter
+was represented in parliament by two members, but in the latter
+year the number of representatives was reduced to one. Exeter
+was formerly noted for the manufacture of woollen goods,
+introduced in Elizabeth&rsquo;s reign, and the value of its exports
+at one time exceeded half a million sterling yearly. The trade
+declined partly owing to the stringent laws of the trade gilds,
+and by the beginning of the 19th century had entirely disappeared,
+although at the time of its greatest prosperity it
+had been surpassed in value and importance only by that of
+Leeds.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Victoria County History</i>, <i>Devon</i>; Richard Izacke, <i>Antiquities
+of the City of Exeter</i> (1677); George Oliver, <i>The History of the City
+of Exeter</i> (1861); and E.A. Freeman, <i>Exeter</i> (&ldquo;Historic Towns&rdquo;
+series) (London, 1887), in the preface to which the names of earlier
+historians of the city are given.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXETER,<a name="ar59" id="ar59"></a></span> a town and one of the county-seats of Rockingham
+county, New Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Squamscott river,
+about 12 m. S.W. of Portsmouth and about 51 m. N. by E. of
+Boston, Mass. Pop. (1890) 4284; (1900) 4922 (1066 foreign-born);
+(1910) 4897; area, about 17 sq. m. It is served by the
+Western Division of the Boston &amp; Maine railway. The town
+has a public library and some old houses built in the colonial
+period, and is the seat of Phillips Exeter Academy (incorporated
+in 1781 and opened in 1783). In its charter this institution is
+described as &ldquo;an academy for the purpose of promoting piety
+and virtue, and for the education of youth in the English, Latin
+and Greek languages, in writing, arithmetic, music and the art
+of speaking, practical geometry, logic and geography, and such
+other of the liberal arts and sciences or languages, as opportunity
+may hereafter permit.&rdquo; It was founded by Dr John Phillips
+(1719-1795), a graduate of Harvard College, who acquired
+considerable wealth as a merchant at Exeter and gave nearly
+all of it to the cause of education. The academy is one of the
+foremost secondary schools in the country, and among its
+<i>alumni</i> have been Daniel Webster, Edward Everett, Lewis
+Cass (born in Exeter in a house still standing), John Parker Hale,
+George Bancroft, Jared Sparks, John Gorham Palfrey, Richard
+Hildreth and Francis Bowen. The government of the academy
+is vested in a board of six trustees, regarding whom the founder
+provided that a majority should be laymen and not inhabitants
+of Exeter. In 1909-1910 the institution had 20 buildings, 32
+acres of recreation grounds, 16 instructors and 488 students,
+representing 38 states and territories of the United States and
+4 foreign countries. At Exeter also is the Robinson female
+seminary (1867), with 14 instructors and 272 students in 1906-1907.
+The river furnishes water-power, and among the manufactures
+of the town are shoes, machinery, cottons, brass, &amp;c.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page67" id="page67"></a>67</span>
+The town is one of the oldest in the state; it was founded in
+1638 by Rev. John Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who
+with a number of followers settled here after his banishment
+from Massachusetts. For their government the settlers adopted
+(1639) a plantation covenant. There was disagreement from the
+first, however, with regard to the measure of loyalty to the king,
+and in 1643, when Massachusetts had asserted her claim to this
+region and the other three New Hampshire towns had submitted
+to her jurisdiction, the majority of the inhabitants of Exeter
+also yielded, while the minority, including the founder, removed
+from the town. In 1680 the town became a part of the newly
+created province of New Hampshire. During the French and
+Indian wars it was usually protected by a garrison, and some
+of the garrison houses are still standing. From 1776 to 1784
+the state legislature usually met at Exeter.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.H. Bell, <i>History of the Town of Exeter</i> (Exeter, 1888).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXETER BOOK<a name="ar60" id="ar60"></a></span> [<i>Codex Exoniensis</i>], an anthology of Anglo-Saxon
+poetry presented to Exeter cathedral by Leofric,<a name="fa1f" id="fa1f" href="#ft1f"><span class="sp">1</span></a> bishop
+of Exeter, England, from 1050 to 1071, and still in the possession
+of the dean and chapter. It contains some legal documents, the
+poems entitled <i>Crist</i>, <i>Guthlac</i>, <i>Phoenix</i>, <i>Juliana</i>, <i>The Wanderer</i>
+and others, and concludes with between eighty and ninety
+riddles. It was first described in Humphrey Wanley&rsquo;s <i>Catalogus</i>
+... (1705) in detail but with many inaccuracies; subsequently
+by J.J. Conybeare, <i>Account of a Saxon Manuscript</i>
+(a paper read in 1812; printed with some extracts from the
+MS. in <i>Archaeologia</i>, vol. xvii. pp. 180-197, 1814). A complete
+transcript made (1831) by Robert Chambers is in the British
+Museum (Addit. MS. 9067). It was first printed in 1842 by
+Benjamin Thorpe for the Soc. of Antiq., London, as <i>Codex
+Exoniensis ... with an English Translation, Notes and Indexes</i>.
+More recent editions, chiefly based on Thorpe&rsquo;s text, are:&mdash;in
+Chr. Grein&rsquo;s <i>Bibliothek der A.S. Poesie</i> (vol. iii. part 1, ed.
+R. Wülker, Leipzig, 1897, with a bibliography), J. Schipper in
+Pfeiffer&rsquo;s <i>Germania</i>, vol. xix. pp. 327-339, and Israel Gollancz,
+<i>The Exeter Book</i>, pt. i. (1895), with English translation, for the
+Early English Text Society.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A detailed account, with bibliographies of the separate poems, is
+given by R. Wülker, in <i>Grundriss ... der A.S. Literatur</i>, pp. 218-236
+(Leipzig, 1885); see also the introduction to <i>The Crist of Cynewulf</i> ...,
+edited by Prof. A.S. Cook, with introduction, notes and a glossary
+(Boston, U.S.A., 1900). For the poems contained in the MS. see
+also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cynewulf</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Riddles</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1f" id="ft1f" href="#fa1f"><span class="fn">1</span></a> For Leofric, see F.E. Warren, <i>The Leofric Missal</i> (1883).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXHIBITION,<a name="ar61" id="ar61"></a></span> a term, meaning in general a public display,<a name="fa1g" id="fa1g" href="#ft1g"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+which has a special modern sense as applied to public shows of
+goods for the promotion of trade (Fr. <i>exposition</i>). The first
+exhibition in this sense of which there is any account, in either
+sacred or profane history, was that held by King Ahasuerus,
+who, according to the Book of Esther, showed in the third year
+of his reign &ldquo;the riches of his glorious kingdom, and the honour
+of his excellent majesty, many days, even a hundred and fourscore
+days.&rdquo; The locale of this function was Shushan, the
+palace and the exhibits consisted of &ldquo;white, green and blue
+hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver
+rings and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver,
+upon a pavement of red, and blue, and white and black marble.
+And they gave them drink in vessels of gold, the vessels being
+diverse one from another.&rdquo; The first exhibition since the
+Christian era was at Venice during the dogeship of Lorenzo
+Tiepolo, in 1268. On that occasion there was a grand display,
+consisting of a water fête, a procession of the trades and an
+industrial exhibition. The various gilds of the Queen City of the
+Seas marched through the narrow streets to the great square of
+St Mark, and their leaders asked the dogaressa to inspect the
+products of their industry. Other medieval exhibitions were
+the fairs held at Leipzig and Nizhni Novgorod in Europe, at
+Tanta in Egypt, and in 1689 that by the Dutch at Leiden.</p>
+
+<p>The first modern exhibition was held at London in 1756 by
+the Society of Arts, which offered prizes for improvements in
+the manufacture of tapestry, carpets and porcelain, the exhibits
+being placed side by side. Five years afterwards, in 1761, the
+same society gave an exhibition of agricultural machinery.
+In 1797 a collective display of the art factories of France, including
+those of Sèvres, the Gobelins and the Savonnerie, was made
+in the palace of St Cloud, and the exhibition was repeated during
+the following year in the rue de Varennes, Paris. This experiment
+was so successful that in the last three days of the same year an
+exhibition under official auspices, at which private exhibitors
+were allowed to compete, was held in the Champ de Mars. Four
+years later, in 1801, there was a second official exhibition in
+the grand court of the Louvre. Upon that occasion juries of
+practical men examined the objects shown, and the winners of a
+gold medal were invited to dine with Napoleon, who was at
+that time First Consul. In the report of the jury the following
+remarkable sentence appeared:&mdash;&ldquo;There is not an artist or
+inventor who, once obtaining thus a public recognition of
+his ability, has not found his reputation and his business
+largely increased.&rdquo; The third Paris Exhibition, held in 1802,
+was the first to publish an official catalogue. There were 540
+exhibitors, including J.E. Montgolfier, the first aëronaut, and
+J.M. Jacquard, the inventor of the loom which bears his name.
+The fourth exhibition was held in 1806 in the esplanade in front
+of the Hôtel des Invalides, and attracted 1422 exhibitors. There
+were no more exhibitions till after the fall of the empire, but in
+1819 the fifth was held during the reign of Louis XVIII., with
+1622 exhibitors. Others were held at Paris at various intervals,
+that in 1849 having 4500 exhibitors.</p>
+
+<p>Other exhibitions, though on a smaller scale, were held in
+Dublin, London, and in various parts of Germany and Austria
+during the first half of the 19th century&mdash;that in 1844, held at
+Berlin, having 3040 exhibitors. Switzerland, Holland, Belgium,
+Sweden, Russia, Poland, Italy, Spain and Portugal all held
+exhibitions, and there was a Free Trade Bazaar of British
+Manufactures at Covent Garden theatre in 1845, which at
+the time created a great deal of interest. But all these
+exhibitions were confined to the products of the country
+in which they took place, and the first great International
+Exhibition was held in London in 1851 by the Society of Arts,
+under the presidency of the prince consort. All nations were
+invited to compete; a site was obtained in Hyde Park, and a
+building 20 acres in extent was erected, after the design of Sir
+Joseph Paxton, at a cost of £193,168. The exhibition was open
+for five months and fifteen days. The receipts amounted to
+£506,100, and the surplus was £186,000. The number of visitors
+was 6,039,195, and the money taken at the doors was £423,792.
+The total, number of exhibitors was 13,937, of which Great
+Britain contributed 6861, the British colonies 520 and foreign
+countries 6556. The International Exhibition of 1851 was
+followed by those of New York and Dublin in 1853, Melbourne
+and Munich in 1854, and Paris in 1855&mdash;this latter was held in
+the Palais d&rsquo;Industrie, which remained in existence until pulled
+down to make room for the two Palais des Beaux Arts, which
+formed one of the attractions of the 1900 exhibition. The
+exhibitors numbered 20,839 and the visitors 5,162,330. There
+were national exhibitions during the following years in several
+European countries, but the next great world&rsquo;s fair was held at
+London in 1862. The total space roofed in amounted to 988,000
+sq. ft., 22.65 acres, the number of visitors was 6,211,103, and
+the amount received at the doors £408,530. The death of the
+prince consort had a depressing effect upon the enterprise.
+In 1865 an exhibition was held at Dublin, the greater proportion
+of the funds being supplied by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness.
+The number of attendances during six months was 900,000, and
+the exhibition was opened at night. An Italian exhibition was
+held at Rome in 1862.</p>
+
+<p>The Paris Exhibition of 1867 was upon a far larger scale than
+that of 1855. It was held, like those that preceded and succeeded
+it, at the Champ de Mars, and covered 41 acres. The building
+resembled an exaggerated gasometer. The external ring was
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page68" id="page68"></a>68</span>
+devoted to machinery, the internal to the gradual development
+of civilization, commencing with the stone age and continuing
+to the present era. A great feature of the exhibition was
+the park, which was studded with specimens of every style of
+modern architecture&mdash;Turkish mosques, Swedish cottages,
+English lighthouses, Egyptian palaces and Swiss châlets. The
+number of attendances was 6,805,969. The exhibitors numbered
+43,217, and the total amount received for entrances, concessions,
+&amp;c. , was £420,735. This was the first exhibition at which there
+were international restaurants. The cost of the exhibition was
+defrayed partly by the state and partly by private subscriptions.</p>
+
+<p>Small exhibitions were held in various parts of Europe between
+1867 and 1870, and in the latter year a series of international
+exhibitions, confined to one or two special descriptions of
+produce or manufactures, was inaugurated in London at South
+Kensington. These continued till 1874, but they failed to attract
+any very large attendance of the public and were abandoned.
+A medal was given to each exhibitor, and reports on the various
+exhibits were published, but there was no examination of the
+exhibits by jurors. In 1873 there was an International Exhibition
+at Vienna. The main building, a rotunda, was erected in
+the beautiful park of the Austrian capital. There were halls
+for machinery and agricultural products, and hundreds of
+buildings, erected by different nations, were scattered amongst
+the woodlands of the Prater. Unfortunately, an outbreak
+of cholera diminished the attendance of visitors, and the receipts
+were only £206,477, although the visitors were said to have
+reached 6,740,500, and the number of exhibitors was 25,760.</p>
+
+<p>None of the International Exhibitions held between 1857
+and 1873 had attracted as many as 7,000,000 visitors, but the
+gradual extension of education amongst the masses, and the
+greater facilities for locomotion, brought about by the growth
+of the railway system in all portions of the civilized world,
+largely increased the attendances at subsequent World&rsquo;s Fairs.
+The Centennial Exhibition of 1876, to celebrate the one-hundredth
+anniversary of American Independence, was held at Fairmount
+Park, Philadelphia. The funds were raised partly by private
+subscriptions, and partly by donations from the city of Philadelphia,
+from Pennsylvania and some of the neighbouring states.
+The central government at Washington made a large loan,
+which was subsequently repaid. The principal buildings, five in
+number, occupied an area of 48½ acres, and there were several
+smaller structures, which in the aggregate must have filled half
+as much space more, the largest being that devoted to the exhibits
+of the various departments of the United States government,
+which covered 7 acres. Several novelties in exhibition
+management were introduced at Philadelphia. Instead of gold,
+silver and bronze medals, only one description, bronze, was
+issued, the difference between the merits of the different exhibits
+being shown by the reports. Season tickets were not issued,
+and the price of admission, the same on all occasions, was half
+a dollar, or about 2s. 1d. The exhibition was not open at night
+or on Sundays, thus following the British, and not the continental,
+precedent. The number of visitors was 9,892,625, of
+whom 8,004,214 paid for admission, the balance being exhibitors,
+officials and attendants. The total receipts amounted to
+£763,899. Upon one occasion, the Pennsylvania day, 274,919
+persons&mdash;the largest number that had visited any exhibition
+up to that date&mdash;passed through the turnstiles. The display
+of machinery was the finest ever made, that of the United States
+occupying 480,000 sq. ft. The motive-power was obtained from
+a Corliss engine of 1600 horse-power. At this exhibition the
+United Kingdom and the British Colonies of Canada, Victoria,
+New South Wales, New Zealand, Cape Colony and Tasmania
+made a very fine display, which was only excelled by that of the
+United States.</p>
+
+<p>The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was upon a far larger scale in
+every respect than any which had been previously held in any
+part of the world. The total area covered not less than 66 acres,
+the main building in the Champ de Mars occupying 54 acres.
+The French exhibits filled one-half the entire space, the remaining
+moiety being occupied by the other nations of the world. The
+United Kingdom, British India, Canada, Victoria, New South
+Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Cape Colony and some
+of the British crown colonies occupied nearly one-third of the
+space set aside for nations outside France. Germany was the
+only great country which was not represented, but there were a
+few German paintings. The display of fine arts and machinery
+was upon a very large and comprehensive scale, and the Avenue
+des Nations, a street 2400 ft. in length, was devoted to specimens
+of the domestic architecture of nearly every country in Europe,
+and of several in Asia, Africa and America. The palace of the
+Trocadero, on the northern bank of the Seine, was erected for
+the exhibition. It was a handsome structure, with towers 250 ft.
+in height and flanked by two galleries. The rules for admission
+were the same as those at Philadelphia, and every person&mdash;exhibitor,
+journalist or official&mdash;who had the right of entrance
+was compelled to forward two copies of his or her photograph,
+one of which was attached to the card of entry. The ordinary
+tickets were not sold at the doors, but were obtainable at various
+government offices and shops, and from numerous pedlars in
+all parts of the city and suburbs. The buildings were somewhat
+unfinished upon the opening day, political complications having
+prevented the French government and the French people from
+paying much attention to the exhibition till about six months
+before it was opened; but the efforts made in April were prodigious,
+and by June 1st, a month after the opening, the exhibition
+was complete, and afforded an object-lesson of the recovery
+of France from the calamities of 1870-1871. The decisions
+arrived at by the international juries were accompanied by
+medals of gold, silver and bronze. The expenditure by the
+United Kingdom was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue,
+each British colony defraying its own expenses. The display of
+the United Kingdom was under the control of a royal commission,
+of which the prince of Wales was president. The number of
+paying visitors to the exhibition was 13,000,000, and the cost
+of the enterprise to the French government, which supplied all
+the funds, was a little less than a million sterling, after allowing
+for the value of the permanent buildings and the Trocadero
+Palace, which were sold to the city of Paris. The total number
+of persons who visited Paris during the time the exhibition was
+open was 571,702, or 308,974 more than came to the French
+metropolis during the year 1877, and 46,021 in excess of the
+visitors during the previous exhibition of 1867. It was stated
+at the time that, in addition to the impetus given to the trade of
+France, the revenue of the Republic and of the city of Paris
+from customs and octroi duties was increased by nearly three
+millions sterling as compared with the previous year.</p>
+
+<p>Exhibitions on a scale of considerable magnitude were held at
+Sydney and Melbourne in 1879 and 1880, and many continental
+and American manufacturers took advantage of them in order
+to bring the products of their industry directly under the notice
+of Australian consumers, who had previously purchased their
+supplies through the instrumentality of British merchants.
+The United Kingdom and India made an excellent display at
+both cities, but the effect of the two great Australian exhibitions
+was to give a decided impetus to German, American, French and
+Belgian trade. One of the immediate results was that lines of
+steamers to Melbourne and Sydney commenced to run from
+Marseilles and Bremen; another, that for the first time in the
+history of the Australian colonies, branches of French banks
+were opened in the two principal cities. The whole cost of these
+exhibitions was defrayed by the local governments.</p>
+
+<p>Exhibitions were held at Turin and Brussels during 1880,
+and smaller ones at Newcastle, Milan, Lahore, Adelaide, Perth,
+Moscow, Ghent and Lille during 1881 and 1882, and at Zürich,
+Bordeaux and Caraccas in Venezuela during 1883. The next
+of any importance was held at Amsterdam in the latter year.
+On that occasion a new departure in exhibition management
+was made. The government of the Netherlands was to a certain
+extent responsible for the administration of the exhibition,
+but the funds were obtained from private sources, and a charge
+was made to each nation represented for the space it occupied.
+The United Kingdom, India, Victoria and New South Wales
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page69" id="page69"></a>69</span>
+took part in the exhibition, but there was no official representation
+of the mother country. Exhibitions on somewhat similar
+lines were held at Nice and Calcutta in the winter of 1883 and
+1884, and at Antwerp in 1895.</p>
+
+<p>A series of exhibitions, under the presidency of the then prince
+of Wales, and managed by Sir Cunliffe Owen, was commenced at
+South Kensington in 1883. The first was devoted to a display of
+the various industries connected with fishing; the second, in
+1884, to objects connected with hygiene; the third, in 1885, to
+inventions; and the fourth, in 1886, to the British Colonies and
+India. These exhibitions attracted a large number of visitors
+and realized a substantial profit. They might have been continued
+indefinitely if it had not been that the buildings in which
+they were held had become very dilapidated, and that the ground
+covered by them was required for other purposes. There was
+no examination of the exhibits by juries, but a tolerably liberal
+supply of instrumental music was supplied by military and
+civil bands. The Crystal Palace held a successful International
+Exhibition in 1884, and there was an Italian Exhibition at Turin,
+and a Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh, during the same year.
+A World&rsquo;s Industrial Fair was held at New Orleans in 1884-1885,
+and there were universal Exhibitions at Montenegro and Antwerp
+in 1885, at Edinburgh in 1886, Liverpool, Adelaide, Newcastle
+and Manchester in 1887, and at Glasgow, Barcelona and Brussels
+in 1888. Melbourne held an International Exhibition in 1888-1889
+to celebrate the Centenary of Australia. Great Britain,
+Germany, France, Austria and the United States were officially
+represented, and an expenditure of £237,784 was incurred by the
+local government.</p>
+
+<p>The Paris Exhibition of 1889 marked an important change
+in the policy which had previously characterized the management
+of these gatherings. The funds were contributed partly by the
+state, which voted 17,000,000 francs, and by the municipality of
+Paris, which gave 8,000,000. A guarantee fund amounting to
+23,124,000 francs was raised, and on this security a sum of
+18,000,000 francs was obtained and paid into the coffers of the
+administration. The bankers who advanced this sum recouped
+themselves by the issue of 1,200,000 &ldquo;bons,&rdquo; each of 25 francs,
+Every bon contained 25 admissions, valued at 1 franc, and
+certain privileges in the shape of participation in a lottery, the
+grand prix being £20,000. The calculations of the promoters
+were tolerably accurate. The attendances reached the then
+unprecedented number of 32,350,297, of whom 25,398,609 paid
+in entrance tickets and 2,723,366 entered by season tickets. A
+sum of 2,307,999 francs was obtained by concessions for
+restaurants and &ldquo;side-shows,&rdquo; upon which the administration
+relied for much of the attractiveness of the exhibition. The
+total expenditure was 44,000,000 francs, and there was a small
+surplus. The space covered in the Champ de Mars, the Trocadero,
+the Palais d&rsquo;Industrie, the Invalides and the Quai d&rsquo;Orsay was
+72 acres, as compared with 66 acres in 1878 and 41 acres in 1867.
+Amongst the novelties was the Eiffel Tower, 1000 ft. in height,
+and a faithful reproduction of a street in Cairo. The system of
+international juries was continued, but instead of gold, silver
+and copper medals, diplomas of various merits were granted,
+each entitling the holder to a uniform medal of bronze. Some
+of the &ldquo;side-shows,&rdquo; although perhaps pecuniary successes,
+did not add to the dignity of the exhibition. The date at which
+it was held, the Centenary of the French Revolution, did not
+commend it to several European governments. Austria,
+Hungary, Belgium, China, Egypt, Spain, Great Britain, Italy,
+Luxemburg, Holland, Peru, Portugal, Rumania and Russia
+took part, but not officially, while Germany, Sweden, Turkey
+and Montenegro were conspicuous by their absence. On the
+other hand, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the United States, Greece,
+Guatemala, Morocco, Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, Paraguay,
+Salvador, the South African Republic, Switzerland, Uruguay
+and Venezuela sent commissioners, who were accredited to the
+government of the French Republic. The total number of
+exhibitors was 61,722, of which France contributed 33,937, and
+the rest of the world 27,785. The British and colonial section
+was under the management of the Society of Arts, which obtained
+a guarantee fund of £16,800, and, in order to recoup itself for its
+expenditure, made a charge to exhibitors of 5s. per sq. ft. for the
+space occupied. There were altogether 1149 British exhibitors,
+of whom 429 were in the Fine Arts section. One of the features
+of the exhibition was the number of congresses and conferences
+held in connexion with it.</p>
+
+<p>During the year 1890 there was a Mining Exhibition at the
+Crystal Palace, and a Military Exhibition in the grounds of
+Chelsea Hospital; in 1891 a Naval Exhibition at Chelsea and
+an International at Jamaica. In 1891-1892 there were exhibitions
+at Palermo and at Launceston in Tasmania; in 1892, a
+Naval Exhibition at Liverpool, and one of Electrical Appliances
+at the Crystal Palace. A series of small national exhibitions
+under private management was held at Earl&rsquo;s Court between
+1887 and 1891. The first of the series was that of the United
+States&mdash;Italy followed in 1888, Spain in 1889, France in 1890
+and Germany in 1891.</p>
+
+<p>The next exhibition of the first order of magnitude was at
+Chicago in 1893, and was held in celebration of the 400th anniversary
+of the discovery of America by Columbus. The financial
+arrangements were undertaken by a company, with a capital of
+£2,000,000. The central government at Washington allotted
+£20,000 for the purposes of foreign exhibits, and £300,000 for
+the erection and administration of a building for exhibits from
+the various government departments. The exhibition was held
+at Jackson Park, a place for public recreation, 580 acres in extent,
+situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, on the southern side of
+the city, with which it was connected by railways and tramways.
+Special provision was made for locomotion in the grounds
+themselves by a continuous travelling platform and an elevated
+electric railway. The proximity of the lake, and of some artificial
+canals which had been constructed, rendered possible the service
+of electric and steam launches; The exhibition remained open
+from the 1st of May to the 30th of October, and was visited by
+21,477,212 persons, each of whom paid half a dollar (about
+2s. 1d.) for admission. The largest number of visitors on any
+one day was 716,881. In addition to its direct vote of £320,000,
+Congress granted £500,000 to the exhibition in a special coinage,
+which sold at an enhanced price. The receipts from admissions
+were £2,120,000; from concessions, £750,000; and the miscellaneous
+receipts, £159,000: total, £3,029,000. The total
+expenses were £5,222,000. Of the sums raised by the Company,
+£400,000 was returned to the subscribers. Speaking roughly, it
+may be said that the total outlay on the Chicago Exhibition was
+six millions sterling, of which three millions were earned by the
+Fair, two millions subscribed by Chicago and a million provided
+by the United States government. The sums expended by the
+participating foreign governments were estimated at £1,440,000.
+The total area occupied by buildings at Chicago was as nearly as
+possible 200 acres, the largest building, that devoted to manufactures,
+being 1687 ft. by 787, and 30.5 acres. The funds for
+the British commission, which was under the control of the
+Society of Arts, were provided by the imperial government,
+which granted £60,000. The number of British exhibitors was
+2236, of whom 597 were Industrial, 501 Fine Arts and 1138
+Women&rsquo;s work. In this total were included 18 Indian exhibitors.
+The space occupied by Great Britain was 306,285 sq. ft.;
+and, in addition, separate buildings were erected in the grounds.
+These were Victoria House, the headquarters of the British
+commission; the Indian Pavilion, erected by the Indian Tea
+Association; the Kiosk of the White Star Steamship Company;
+and the structure set up by the Maxim-Nordenfelt Company.
+Canada and New South Wales had separate buildings, which
+covered 100,140 and 50,951 sq. ft. respectively; and Cape
+Colony occupied 5250, Ceylon 27,574, British Guiana 3367,
+Jamaica 4250, Trinidad 3400 and India 3584, sq. ft. in the
+several buildings. The total space occupied by the British
+Colonies was therefore 193,660 sq. ft. The system of awards
+was considered extremely unsatisfactory. Instead of international
+juries, a single judge was appointed for each class, and
+the recompenses were all of one grade, a bronze medal and a
+diploma, on which was stated the reasons which induced the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page70" id="page70"></a>70</span>
+judge to make his decision. Some judges took a high standard,
+and refused to make awards except to a small proportion of
+selected exhibits; others took a low one, and gave awards
+indiscriminately. About 1183 awards were made to British
+exhibitors. The French refused to accept any awards. The
+value of the British goods exhibited was estimated, exclusive
+of Fine Arts, at £430,000, and the expenses of showing them at
+£200,000. A large expenditure was incurred in the erection of
+buildings, which were more remarkable for their beauty and
+grandeur than for their suitableness to the purposes for which
+they were intended. Considerable areas were devoted to &ldquo;side-shows,&rdquo;
+and the Midway Plaisance, as it was termed, resembled
+a gigantic fair. Every country in the world contributed something.
+There were sights and shows of every sort from everywhere.
+The foreign countries represented were Argentina,
+Austria, Belgium, Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia,
+Costa Rica, Cuba, Curaçoa, Denmark, Danish West Indies,
+Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece, Guatemala, Honduras,
+Hayti, Japan, Johore, Korea, Liberia, Mexico, Monaco, Netherlands,
+Norway, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Persia, Portugal,
+Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom and
+Colonies, Uruguay and Venezuela.</p>
+
+<p>Exhibitions were held at Antwerp, Madrid and Bucharest
+in 1894; Hobart in 1894-1895; Bordeaux, 1895; Nizhni
+Novgorod, Berlin and Buda-Pest in 1896; Brussels and Brisbane
+in 1897. A series of exhibitions, under the management of the
+London Exhibitions Company, commenced at Earl&rsquo;s Court in
+1895 and continued in successive years.</p>
+
+<p>The Paris Exhibition of 1900 was larger than any which had
+been previously held in Europe. The buildings did not cover
+so much ground as those at Chicago, but many of those at Paris
+had two or more floors. In addition to the localities occupied
+in 1889, additional space was obtained at the Champs Elysées,
+the park of Vincennes, on the north bank of the Seine between
+the Place de la Concorde, and at the Trocadero. The total
+superficial area occupied was as follows: Champ de Mars,
+124 acres; Esplanade des Invalides, 30 acres; Trocadero
+Gardens, 40 acres; Champs Elysées, 37 acres; quays on left
+bank of Seine, 23 acres; quays on right bank of Seine, 23 acres;
+park at Vincennes, 270 acres: total, 549 acres. The space occupied
+by buildings and covered in amounted to 4,865,328 sq. ft., 111½
+acres. The French section covered 2,691,000 sq. ft., the foreign
+1,829,880, and those at the park of Vincennes 344,448 sq. ft.
+About one hundred French and seventy-five foreign pavilions and
+detached buildings were erected in the grounds in addition to
+the thirty-six official pavilions, which were for the most part
+along the Quai d&rsquo;Orsay. Funds were raised upon the same
+system as that adopted in 1889. The French government granted
+£800,000, and a similar sum was contributed by the municipality
+of Paris. £2,400,000 was raised by the issue of 3,250,000
+&ldquo;bons,&rdquo; each of the value of 20 francs, and containing 20
+tickets of admission to the exhibition of the face value of one
+franc each, and a document which gave its holder a right either
+to a reduced rate for admission to the different &ldquo;side-shows&rdquo;
+or else to a diminution in the railway fare to and from Paris,
+together with a participation in the prizes, amounting to six
+million francs, drawn at a series of lotteries. Permission to
+erect restaurants, and to open places of amusement in buildings
+erected for that purpose, were sold at high prices, and for these
+privileges, which only realised 2,307,999 francs in 1889, the
+concessionaires agreed to pay 8,864,442 francs in 1900. The
+results did not justify the expectations which had been formed,
+and the administration finally consented to receive a much
+smaller sum. The administration calculated that they would
+have 65,000,000 paying visitors, though there were only 13,000,000
+in 1878 and 25,398,609 in 1889. A very few weeks after the
+opening day, April 15th, it became evident that the estimated
+figures would not be reached, since a large number of holders
+of &ldquo;bons&rdquo; threw them on the market, and the selling price of
+an admission ticket declined from the par value of one franc to
+less than half that amount, or from 30 to 50 centimes. The
+proprietors of the restaurants and &ldquo;side-shows&rdquo; discovered
+that they had paid too much for their concessions, that the
+buildings they had erected were far too handsome and costly
+to be profitable, and that the public preferred the exhibition
+itself to the so-called attractions. The exhibition was largely
+visited by foreigners, but various causes kept away many
+persons of wealth and position. Although many speculators were
+ruined, the exhibition itself was successful. The attendance
+was unprecedentedly large, and during the seven months the
+exhibition was open, 39,000,000 persons paid for admission with
+47,000,000 tickets, since from two to five tickets were demanded
+at certain times of the day and on certain occasions. The entries
+of exhibitors, attendants and officials totalled 9,000,000. The
+receipts were 114,456,213 francs (£4,578,249), and the expenditure
+116,500,000 (£4,660,000), leaving a deficiency of rather
+more than two millions of francs (£80,000). It was calculated
+that the expenditure of the foreign nations which took part in
+the exhibition was six millions sterling, and of the French
+exhibitors and concessionaires three millions sterling.</p>
+
+<p>A new plan of classifying exhibits was adopted at Paris, all
+being displayed according to their nature, and not according to
+their country of origin, as had been the system at previous
+exhibitions. One-half the space in each group was allotted to
+France, so that the exhibitors of that nation were enabled to
+overwhelm their rivals by the number and magnitude of the
+objects displayed by them. All the agricultural implements,
+whatever their nationality, were in one place, all the ceramics
+in another, so that there was no exclusively British and no
+exclusively German court. The only exception to this rule was
+in the Trocadero, where the French, British, Dutch, and Portuguese
+Colonies, Algeria, Tunis, Siberia, the South African
+Republic, China and Japan were allowed to erect at their own
+cost separate pavilions. The greater number of the nationalities
+represented had palaces of their own in the rue des Nations along
+the Quai d&rsquo;Orsay, in which thoroughfare were to be seen the
+buildings erected by Italy, Turkey, the United States, Denmark,
+Portugal, Austria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Peru, Hungary, the
+United Kingdom, Persia, Belgium, Norway, Luxemburg,
+Finland, Germany, Spain, Bulgaria, Monaco, Sweden, Rumania,
+Greece, Servia and Mexico. Scattered about the grounds, in
+addition to those in the Trocadero, were the buildings of San
+Marino, Morocco, Ecuador and Korea. Nearly every civilized
+country in the world was represented at the exhibition, the most
+conspicuous absentees being Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and some
+other South and Central American Republics, and a number
+of the British colonies. The most noteworthy attractions of the
+exhibition were the magnificent effects produced by electricity
+in the palace devoted to it in the Chateau d&rsquo;Eau and in the Hall
+of Illusions, the two palaces of the Fine Arts in the Champs
+Elysées, and the Bridge over the Seine dedicated to the memory
+of Alexander II. These permanent Fine Art palaces were
+devoted, the one to modern painting and sculpture, the
+other to the works of French artists and art workmen who
+flourished from the dawn of French art up to the end of the 18th
+century.</p>
+
+<p>The United Kingdom was well but not largely represented
+both in Fine Arts and Manufactures, the administration of the
+section being in the hands of a royal commission, presided over
+by the prince of Wales. The British pavilion contained an
+important collection of paintings of the British school, chiefly
+by Reynolds, Gainsborough and their contemporaries, and by
+Turner and Burne-Jones. Special buildings had been erected
+by the British colonies and by British India. Canada, West
+Australia and Mauritius occupied the former, India and Ceylon
+the latter. For the first time since the war of 1870 Germany
+took part in a French International Exhibition, and the exhibits
+showed the great industrial progress which had been made since
+the foundation of the empire in 1870. The United States made
+a fine display, and fairly divided the honours with Germany. Remarkable
+progress was manifested in the exhibits of Canada and
+Hungary. France maintained her superiority in all the objects
+in which good taste was the first consideration, but the more
+utilitarian exhibits were more remarkable for their number than
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page71" id="page71"></a>71</span>
+their quality, except those connected with electrical work and
+display, automobiles and iron-work. The number of exhibitors
+in the industrial section from the British empire, including India
+and the colonies, was 1250, who obtained 1647 awards, as many
+persons exhibited in several classes. There were, in addition,
+465 awards for &ldquo;collaborateurs,&rdquo; that is, assistants, engineers,
+foremen, craftsmen and workmen who had co-operated in the
+production of the exhibits. In the British Fine Arts section
+there were 429 exhibits by 282 exhibitors and 175 awards.</p>
+
+<p>In later years, important international exhibitions have been
+held at Glasgow, and at Buffalo, New York, in 1901, at St Louis
+(commemorating the Louisiana purchase) in 1904, at Liége in
+1905, at Milan in 1906, at Dublin in 1907, and in London (Franco-British),
+1908. In the artistic taste and magnificence of their
+buildings and the interest of their exhibits these took their cue
+from the great Paris Exhibition, and even in some cases went
+beyond it, notably at Buffalo (<i>q.v.</i>), St Louis (<i>q.v.</i>) and London.
+And it might well be thought that the evolution of this type of
+public show had reached its limits.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. C. L.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1g" id="ft1g" href="#fa1g"><span class="fn">1</span></a> An &ldquo;exhibition,&rdquo; in the sense of a minor scholarship, or annual
+payment to a student from the funds of a school or college, is a
+modern survival from the obsolete meaning of &ldquo;maintenance&rdquo; or
+&ldquo;endowment&rdquo; (cf. Late Lat. <i>exhibitio et tegumentum</i>, <i>i.e.</i> food and
+raiment).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXHUMATION<a name="ar62" id="ar62"></a></span> (from Med. Lat. <i>exhumare</i>; <i>ex</i>, out of, and
+<i>humus</i>, ground), the act of digging up and removing an object
+from the ground. The word is particularly applied to the
+removal of a dead body from its place of burial. For the offence
+of exhuming a body without legal authority, and the process of
+obtaining such authority, see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Burial and Burial Acts</a></span>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXILARCH,<a name="ar63" id="ar63"></a></span> in Jewish history, &ldquo;Chief or Prince of the
+Captivity.&rdquo; The Jews of Babylonia, after the fall of the first
+temple, were termed by Jeremiah and Ezekiel the people of the
+&ldquo;Exile.&rdquo; Hence the head of the Babylonian Jews was the
+exilarch (in Aramaic <i>Resh Galutha</i>). The office was hereditary
+and carried with it considerable power. Some traditions regarded
+the last king of Davidic descent (Jehoiachin) as the first exilarch,
+and all the later holders of the dignity claimed to be scions of the
+royal house of Judah. Under the Arsacids and Sassanids the
+office continued. In the 6th century an attempt was made to
+secure by force political autonomy for the Jews, but the exilarch
+who led the movement (Mar Zutra) was executed. For some time
+thereafter the office was in abeyance, but under Arabic rule there
+was a considerable revival of its dignity. From the middle of
+the 7th till the 11th centuries the exilarchs were all descendants
+of Bostanai, through whom &ldquo;the splendour of the office was
+renewed and its political position made secure&rdquo; (Bacher). The
+last exilarch of importance was David, son of Zakkai, whose
+contest with Seadiah (<i>q.v.</i>) had momentous consequences.
+Hezekiah (<i>c.</i> 1040) was the last Babylonian exilarch, though
+the title left its traces in later ages. Benjamin of Tudela
+(<i>Itinerary</i>, p. 61) names an exilarch Daniel b. Hisdai in the 12th
+century. Petahiah (<i>Travels</i>, p. 17) records that this Daniel&rsquo;s
+nephew succeeded to the office jointly with a R. Samuel. The
+latter, according to Petahiah, had a learned daughter who
+&ldquo;gave instruction, through a window, remaining in the house
+while the disciples were below, unable to see her.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Our chief knowledge of the position and function of the
+exilarch concerns the period beginning with the Arabic rule in
+Persia. In the age succeeding the Mahommedan conquest the
+exilarch was noted for the stately retinue that accompanied him,
+the luxurious banquets given at his abode, and the courtly
+etiquette that prevailed there. A brilliant account has come
+down of the ceremonies at the installation of a new exilarch.
+Homage was paid to him by the rabbinical heads of the colleges
+(each of whom was called Gaon, <i>q.v.</i>); rich gifts were presented;
+he visited the synagogue in state, where a costly canopy had
+been erected over his seat. The exilarch then delivered a discourse,
+and in the benediction or doxology (<i>Qaddish</i>) his name
+was inserted. Thereafter he never left his house except in a
+carriage of state and in the company of a large retinue. He
+would frequently have audiences of the king, by whom he was
+graciously received. He derived a revenue from taxes which he
+was empowered to exact. The exilarch could excommunicate,
+and no doubt had considerable jurisdiction over the Jews. A
+spirited description of the glories of the exilarch is given in
+D&rsquo;Israeli&rsquo;s novel <i>Alroy</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Neubauer, <i>Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles</i>, ii. 68 seq.; Zacuto,
+<i>Yuhasin</i>; Graetz, <i>Geschichte</i>, vols. iv.-vi.; Benjamin of Tudela,
+<i>Itinerary</i>, ed. Adler, pp. 39 seq.; Bacher, <i>Jewish Encyclopaedia</i>,
+vol. v. 288.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXILE<a name="ar64" id="ar64"></a></span> (Lat. <i>exsilium</i> or <i>exilium</i>, from <i>exsul</i> or exul, which is
+derived from <i>ex</i>, out of, and the root <i>sal</i>, to go, seen in <i>salire</i>, to
+leap, <i>consul</i>, &amp;c. ; the connexion with <i>solum</i>, soil, country is now
+generally considered wrong), banishment from one&rsquo;s native
+country by the compulsion of authority. In a general sense
+exile is applied to prolonged absence from one&rsquo;s country either
+through force of circumstances or when undergone voluntarily.
+Among the Greeks, in the Homeric age, banishment (<span class="grk" title="phugê">&#966;&#965;&#947;&#942;</span>) was
+sometimes inflicted as a punishment by the authorities for
+crimes affecting the general interests, but is chiefly known in
+connexion with cases of homicide. With these the state had
+nothing to do; the punishment of the murderer was the duty
+and privilege of the relatives of the murdered man. Unless the
+relatives could be induced to accept a money payment by way
+of compensation (<span class="grk" title="poinê">&#960;&#959;&#953;&#957;&#942;</span>, weregeld; see especially Homer, <i>Iliad</i>,
+xviii. 497), in which case the murderer was allowed to remain in
+the country, his only means of escaping punishment was flight
+to a foreign land. If, during his self-imposed exile, the relatives
+expressed their willingness to accept the indemnity, he was at
+liberty to return and resume his position in society.</p>
+
+<p>In later times banishment is (1) a legal punishment for
+particular offences; (2) voluntary.</p>
+
+<p>1. Banishment for life with confiscation of property was
+inflicted upon those who destroyed or uprooted the sacred olives
+at Athens; upon those who remained neutral during a sedition
+(by a law of Solon, which subsequently fell into abeyance); upon
+those who gave refuge to or received on board ship a man who
+had fled to avoid punishment; upon those who wounded with
+intent to kill and those who prompted them to such an act (it is
+uncertain whether in this case exile was for life or temporary);
+upon any one who wilfully murdered an alien; for impiety.
+Certain political crimes were also similarly punished&mdash;treason,
+laconism, sycophancy (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sycophant</a></span>), attempts to subvert
+existing decrees. For the peculiar form of banishment called
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ostracism</a></span>, see separate article.</p>
+
+<p>In cases of voluntary homicide the punishment was death;
+but (except in cases of parricide) the murderer could leave the
+country unmolested after the first day of the trial. He was
+bound to remain outside Attica, and when on foreign soil was
+not allowed to appear at the public games, to enter the temples
+or take part in sacrifices; but provided that he adhered to the
+prescribed regulations, he was accorded a certain amount of
+protection. Even when a general amnesty was proclaimed,
+he was not allowed to return; if he did so, he might at once be
+put to death.</p>
+
+<p>Temporary exile (the period of which is uncertain) without
+confiscation, was the punishment for involuntary homicide. As
+soon as the relatives of the deceased became reconciled to the
+man who had slain him, the latter was permitted to return;
+further, since banishment was only temporary, it is reasonable to
+suppose that the law insisted upon such reconciliation.</p>
+
+<p>2. Citizens sometimes voluntarily left the country for other
+reasons (debt, inability to pay a fine). Since extradition was
+only demanded in cases of high treason or other serious offences
+against the state, the fugitive was not interfered with. He was
+at liberty to return after a certain time had elapsed.</p>
+
+<p>Little is known about exile as it affected Sparta and other
+Greek towns, but it is probable that the same conditions prevailed
+as at Athens.</p>
+
+<p>At Rome, in early times, exile was not a punishment, but rather
+a means of escaping punishment. Before judgment had been
+finally pronounced it was open to any Roman citizen condemned
+to death to escape the penalty by voluntary exile (<i>solum vertere
+exsilii causa</i>). To prevent his return, he was interdicted from
+the use of fire and water; if he broke the interdict and returned,
+any one had the right to put him to death. The <i>aquae et ignis</i>
+(to which <i>et tecti</i> &ldquo;shelter&rdquo; is sometimes added) <i>interdictio</i> is
+variously explained as exclusion from the necessaries of life,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page72" id="page72"></a>72</span>
+from the symbols of civic communion, or from &ldquo;the marks of
+a pure society, which the criminal would defile by his further
+use of them.&rdquo; Subsequently (probably at the time of the
+Gracchi) it became a recognized legal penalty, practically
+equivalent to &ldquo;exile,&rdquo; taking the place of capital punishment.
+The criminal was permitted to withdraw from the city <i>after</i>
+sentence was pronounced; but in order that this withdrawal
+might as far as possible bear the character of a punishment, his
+departure was sanctioned by a decree of the people which
+declared his exile permanent. Authorities are not agreed
+whether this exile by interdiction entailed loss of <i>civitas</i>; according
+to some this did not ensue until (as in earlier times) the
+criminal had assumed the citizenship of the state in which he
+had taken refuge and thereby lost his rights as a citizen of Rome,
+while others hold that it was not until the time of Tiberius
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 23) that <i>capitis deminutio media</i> became the direct consequence
+of trial and conviction. <i>Interdictio</i> was the punishment
+for treason, murder, arson and other serious offences which came
+under the cognizance of the <i>quaestiones perpetuae</i> (permanent
+judicial commissions for certain offences); confiscation of
+property was only inflicted in extreme cases.</p>
+
+<p>Under the Empire <i>interdictio</i> gradually fell into disuse and a
+new form of banishment, introduced by Augustus, called <i>deportatio</i>,
+generally <i>in insulam</i>, took its place. For some time the two
+probably existed side by side. <i>Deportatio</i> consisted in transportation
+for life to an island (or some place prescribed on the
+mainland, not of Italy), accompanied by loss of <i>civitas</i> and all
+civil rights, and confiscation of property. The most dreaded
+places of exile were the islands of Gyarus, Sardinia, an oasis in the
+desert (<i>quasi in insulam</i>) of Libya; Crete, Cyprus and Rhodes
+were considered more tolerable. Large bodies of persons were
+also transported in this manner; thus Tiberius sent 4000
+freedmen to Sardinia for Jewish or Egyptian superstitious
+practices. <i>Deportatio</i> was originally inflicted upon political
+criminals, but in course of time became more particularly a
+means of removing those whose wealth and popularity rendered
+them objects of suspicion. It was also a punishment for the
+following offences: adultery, murder, poisoning, forgery, embezzlement,
+sacrilege and certain cases of immorality.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relegatio</i> was a milder form of <i>deportatio</i>. It either excluded
+the person banished from one specified district only, with
+permission to choose a residence elsewhere, or the place of exile
+was fixed. <i>Relegatio</i> could be either temporary or for life, but
+it did not in either case carry with it loss of <i>civitas</i> or property,
+nor was the exile under military surveillance, as in the case of
+<i>deportatio</i>. Thus, Ovid, when in exile at Tomi, says (<i>Tristia</i>,
+v. ii): &ldquo;he (<i>i.e.</i> the emperor) has not deprived me of life, nor of
+wealth, nor of the rights of a citizen ... he has simply ordered
+me to leave my home.&rdquo; He calls himself <i>relegatus</i>, not <i>exsul</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In later writers the word <i>exsilium</i> is used in the sense of all its
+three forms&mdash;<i>aquae et ignis interdictio</i>, <i>deportatio</i> and <i>relegatio</i>.</p>
+
+<p>In England the first enactment legalizing banishment dates
+from the reign of Elizabeth (39 Eliz. c. 4), which gave power
+to banish from the realm &ldquo;such rogues as are dangerous to the
+inferior people.&rdquo; A statute of Charles II. (18 Car. II. c. 3) gave
+power to execute or to transport to America for life the mosstroopers
+of Cumberland and Northumberland. Banishment or
+transportation for criminal offences was regulated by an act of
+1824 (5 Geo. IV. s. 84) and finally abolished by the Penal Servitude
+Acts 1853 and 1857 (see further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Deportation</a></span>). The word
+exile has sometimes, though wrongly, been applied to the sending
+away from a country of those who are not natives of it, but who
+may be temporary or even permanent residents in it (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alien</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Expatriation</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Expulsion</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;J.J. Thonissen, <i>Le Droit pénal de la république
+athénienne</i> (Brussels, 1875); G.F. Schömann, <i>Griechische Altertümer</i>
+(4th ed., 1897), p. 46; T. Mommsen, <i>Rönmisches Strafrecht</i>
+(1899), pp. 68, 964, and <i>Römisches Staatsrecht</i> (1887), iii. p. 48;
+L.M. Hartmann, <i>De exilio apud Rumanos</i> (Berlin, 1887); F. von
+Holtzendorff-Vietmansdorf, <i>Die Deportationsstrafe im römischen
+Alterthum</i> (Leipzig, 1859); articles in Smith&rsquo;s <i>Dict. of Greek and
+Roman Antiquities</i> (3rd ed., 1890) and Daremberg and Saglio&rsquo;s <i>Dict.
+des antiquités</i> (C. Lécrivain and G. Humbert).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXILI,<a name="ar65" id="ar65"></a></span> an Italian chemist and poisoner in the 17th century.
+His real name was probably Nicolo Egidi or Eggidio. Few
+authentic details of his life exist. Tradition, however, credits him
+with having been originally the salaried poisoner at Rome of
+Olympia Maidalchina, the mistress of Pope Innocent X. Subsequently
+he became a gentleman in waiting to Queen Christina
+of Sweden, whose taste for chemistry may have influenced this
+appointment. In 1663 his presence in France aroused the
+suspicions of the French government, and he was imprisoned in
+the Bastille. Here he is said to have made the acquaintance
+of Godin de Sainte-Croix, the lover of the marquise de Brin-villiers
+(<i>q.v.</i>). After three months&rsquo; imprisonment, powerful
+influences secured Exili&rsquo;s release, and he left France for England.
+In 1681 he was again in Italy, where he married the countess
+Fantaguzzi, second cousin of Duke Francis of Modena.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXMOOR FOREST,<a name="ar66" id="ar66"></a></span> a high moorland in Somersetshire and
+Devonshire, England. The uplands of this district are bounded
+by the low alluvial plain of Sedgemoor on the east, by the lower
+basin of the Exe on the south, by the basin of the Taw (in part)
+on the west, and by the Bristol Channel on the north. The area
+thus defined, however, includes not only Exmoor but the Brendon
+and Quantock Hills east of it. Excluding these, the total area in
+the district lying at an elevation exceeding 1000 ft. is about
+120 sq. m. The geological formation is Devonian. The ancient
+forest had an area of about 20,000 acres, and was enclosed in
+1815. Large tracts are still uncultivated; and the wild red
+deer and native Exmoor pony are characteristic of the district.
+The highest point is Dunkery Beacon in the east (1707 ft.), but
+Span Head in the south-west is 1618 ft., and a height of 1500 ft.
+is exceeded at several points. The Exe, Barle, Lyn and other
+streams, traversing deep picturesque valleys except in their
+uppermost courses, are in favour with trout fishermen. The few
+villages, such as Exford, Withypool and Simonsbath, with
+Lynton and Lynmouth on the coast, afford centres for tourists
+and sportsmen. Exmoor is noted for its stag hunting. The
+district has a further fame through Richard Blackmore&rsquo;s novel,
+<i>Lorna Doone</i>.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW,<a name="ar67" id="ar67"></a></span> <span class="sc">1st Viscount</span> (1757-1833),
+English admiral, was descended from a family which came
+originally from Normandy, but had for many centuries been
+settled in the west of Cornwall. He was born at Dover, on the
+19th of April 1757. At the age of thirteen he entered the navy,
+and even then his smartness and activity, his feats of daring, and
+his spirit of resolute independence awakened remark, and pointed
+him out as one specially fitted to distinguish himself in his profession.
+He had, however, no opportunity of active service till
+1776, when, at the battle of Lake Champlain, his gallantry,
+promptitude and skill, not only saved the &ldquo;Carleton&rdquo;&mdash;whose
+command had devolved upon him during the progress of the
+battle&mdash;from imminent danger, but enabled her to take a
+prominent part in sinking two of the enemy&rsquo;s ships. For his
+services on this occasion he obtained a lieutenant&rsquo;s commission,
+and the command of the schooner in which he had so bravely
+done his duty. The following year, in command of a brigade of
+seamen, he shared in the hardships and perils of the American
+campaign of General Burgoyne. In 1782, in command of the
+&ldquo;Pelican,&rdquo; he attacked three French privateers inside the
+Île de Batz, and compelled them to run themselves on shore&mdash;a
+feat for which he was rewarded by the rank of post-captain.
+On the outbreak of the French War in 1793, he was appointed to
+the &ldquo;Nymphe,&rdquo; a frigate of 36 guns; and, notwithstanding
+that for the sake of expedition she was manned chiefly by
+Cornish miners, he captured, after a desperate conflict, the
+French frigate &ldquo;La Cléopâtre,&rdquo; a vessel of equal strength. For
+this act he obtained the honour of knighthood. In 1794 he
+received the command of the &ldquo;Arethusa&rdquo; (38), and in a fight
+with the French frigate squadron off the Île de Batz he compelled
+the &ldquo;Pomona&rdquo; (44) to surrender. The same year the
+western squadron was increased and its command divided, the
+second squadron being given to Sir Edward Pellew in the &ldquo;Indefatigable&rdquo;
+(44). While in command of this squadron he, on
+several occasions, performed acts of great personal daring;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page73" id="page73"></a>73</span>
+and for his bravery in boarding the wrecked transport &ldquo;Dutton,&rdquo;
+and his promptitude and resolution in adopting measures so as
+to save the lives of all on board, he was in 1796 created a baronet.
+In 1798 he joined the channel fleet, and in command of the
+&ldquo;Impétueux&rdquo; (74) took part in several actions with great
+distinction. In 1802 Sir Edward Pellew was elected member
+of parliament for Dunstable, and during the time that he sat in
+the Commons he was a strenuous supporter of Pitt. In 1804
+he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and appointed commander-in-chief
+in India, where, by his vigilance and rapidity of movement,
+he entirely cleared the seas of French cruisers, and secured
+complete protection to English commerce. He returned to
+England in 1809, and in 1810 was appointed commander-in-chief
+in the North Sea, and in 1811 commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean.
+In 1814 he was created Baron Exmouth of Canonteign,
+and in the following year was made K.C.B., and a little later
+G.C.B. When the dey of Algiers, in 1816, violated the treaty for
+the abolition of slavery, Exmouth was directed to attack the
+town. Accordingly, on the 26th of August, he engaged the Algerine
+battery and fleet, and after a severe action of nine hours&rsquo; duration,
+he set on fire the arsenal and every vessel of the enemy&rsquo;s fleet, and
+shattered the sea defences into ruins. At the close of the action
+the dey apologized for his conduct, and agreed to a renewal of
+the treaty, at the same time delivering up over three thousand
+persons of various nationalities who had been Algerine slaves.
+For this splendid victory Exmouth was advanced to the dignity
+of viscount. Shortly before his death, which took place on the
+23rd of January 1833, he was made vice-admiral.</p>
+
+<p>He had married Susan (d. 1837), daughter of James Frowde
+of Knoyle, Wiltshire, who bore him four sons and two daughters.
+His eldest son, Pownoll Bastard Pellew (1786-1833), became
+2nd Viscount Exmouth, and his descendant, Edward Addington
+Hargreaves Pellew (b. 1890), became the 5th viscount in 1899.</p>
+
+<p>Exmouth&rsquo;s second son, Sir Fleetwood Broughton Reynolds
+Pellew (1789-1861), was like his father an admiral. The third
+son was George Pellew (1793-1866), author and divine, who
+married Frances (d. 1870), daughter of the prime minister,
+Lord Sidmouth, and wrote his father-in-law&rsquo;s life (<i>The Life and
+Correspondence of Henry Addington, 1st Viscount Sidmouth</i>, 1847).</p>
+
+<p>Exmouth had a brother, Sir Israel Pellew (1758-1832), also
+an admiral, who was present at the battle of Trafalgar.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A <i>Life</i> of the 1st viscount, by Edward Osler, was published in
+1835.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXMOUTH,<a name="ar68" id="ar68"></a></span> a market-town, seaport and watering-place in
+the Honiton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England,
+at the mouth of the river Exe, 10½ m. S.E. by S. of Exeter by
+the London &amp; South-Western railway. Pop. of urban district
+(1901) 10,485. In the 18th century it consisted of a primitive
+fishing village at the base of Beacon Hill, a height commanding
+fine views over the estuary and the English Channel. After its
+more modern terraces were built up the hillside, Exmouth became
+the first seaside resort in Devon. Its excellent bathing and the
+beauty of its coast and moorland scenery attract many visitors
+in summer, while it is frequented in winter by sufferers from
+pulmonary disease. The climate is unusually mild, as a range of
+hills shelters the town on the east. A promenade runs along the
+sea wall; there are golf links and public gardens, and the port
+is a favourite yachting centre, a regatta being held annually.
+Near the town is a natural harbour called the Bight. The local
+industries include fishing, brick-making and the manufacture of
+Honiton lace. Exmouth was early a place of importance, and
+in 1347 contributed 10 vessels to the fleet sent to attack Calais.
+It once possessed a fort or &ldquo;castelet,&rdquo; designed to command
+the estuary of the Exe. This fort, which was garrisoned for the
+king during the Civil War, was blockaded and captured by
+Colonel Shapcoate in 1646.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXODUS, BOOK OF,<a name="ar69" id="ar69"></a></span> in the Bible, a book of the Old Testament
+which derives its name, through the Greek, from the event
+which forms the most prominent feature of the history it
+narrates, viz. the deliverance of Israel from Egypt. Strictly
+speaking, however, this title is applicable to the first half only,
+the historical portion of the book, and takes no account of those
+chapters which describe the giving of the Law on Mt. Sinai, nor
+of those which deal with the Tabernacle and its furniture. By
+the Jews it is usually styled after its opening words <span title="We&rsquo;eleh Shemoth">&#1493;&#1488;&#1500;&#1492; &#1513;&#1502;&#1493;&#1514;</span>
+(<i>We&rsquo;&#275;leh Sh&#277;m&#333;th</i>) or, more briefly, <span title="Shemoth">&#1513;&#1502;&#1493;&#1514;</span> (<i>Sh&#277;m&#333;th</i>).</p>
+
+<p>In its present form the book sets forth (<i>a</i>) the oppression of
+the Israelites in Egypt (ch. i.), (<i>b</i>) the birth and education of
+Moses, and his flight to the land of Midian (ch. ii.), (<i>c</i>) the theophany
+at Mt. Horeb (the Burning Bush), and the subsequent
+commission of Moses and Aaron (iii. 1-iv. 17), (<i>d</i>) the return of
+Moses to Egypt, and his appeal to Pharaoh which results in the
+further oppression of Israel (iv. 18-vii. 7), (<i>e</i>) the plagues of
+Egypt (vii. 8-xi. 10), (<i>f</i>) the institution of the Passover and of
+the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the last plague, and Israel&rsquo;s
+departure from Egypt (xii. 1-xiii. 16), (<i>g</i>) the crossing of the
+Red Sea and the discomfiture of the Egyptians, the Song of
+Triumph, the sending of the manna and other incidents of the
+journeying through the wilderness (xiii. 17-xviii. 27), (<i>h</i>) the
+giving of the Law, including the Decalogue and the so-called
+Book of the Covenant, on Sinai-Horeb (xix.-xxiv.), (<i>i</i>) directions
+for the building of the Tabernacle and for the consecration of
+the priests (xxv.-xxxi.), (<i>j</i>) the sin of the Golden Calf, and
+another earlier version of the first legislation (xxxii.-xxxiv.),
+(<i>k</i>) the construction of the Tabernacle and its erection (xxxv.-xl.).
+The book of Exodus, however, like the other books of the Hexateuch,
+is a composite work which has passed, so to speak, through
+many editions; hence the order of events given above cannot
+lay claim to any higher authority than that of the latest editor.
+Moreover, the documents from which the book has been compiled
+belong to different periods in the history of Israel, and each of
+them, admittedly, reflects the standpoint of the age in which it
+was written. Hence it follows that the contents of the book are
+not of equal historical value; and though the claim of a passage
+to be considered historical is not necessarily determined by the
+age of the source from which it is derived, yet, in view of the
+known practice of Hebrew writers, greater weight naturally
+attaches to the earlier documents in those cases in which the
+sources are at variance with one another. Any attempt, therefore,
+at restoring the actual course of history must be preceded
+by an inquiry into the source of the various contents of the book.</p>
+
+<p>The sources from which the book of Exodus has been compiled
+are the same as those which form the basis of the book of Genesis,
+while the method of composition is very similar. Here, too, the
+strongly marked characteristics of P, or the Priestly Document,
+as opposed to JE, enable us to determine the extent of that
+document with comparative ease; but the absence, in some
+cases, of conclusive criteria prevents any final judgment as to
+the exact limits of the two strands which have been united in
+the composite JE. The latter statement applies especially to
+the legislative portions of the book: in the historical sections
+the separation of the two sources gives rise to fewer difficulties.
+It does not, however, lie within the scope of the present article
+to examine the various sources underlying the narrative with
+any minuteness, but rather to sum up those results of modern
+criticism which have been generally accepted by Old Testament
+scholars. To this end it will be convenient to treat the subject-matter
+of the book under three main heads: (<i>a</i>) the historical
+portion (ch. i.-xviii.), (<i>b</i>) the sections dealing with the giving of
+the Law (xix.-xxiv., xxxii.-xxxiv.), and (<i>c</i>) the construction of
+the Tabernacle and its furniture (xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl.).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>Israel in Egypt and the Exodus</i> (ch. i.-xviii.). (1) i. 1-vii. 13.&mdash;The
+analysis of these chapters shows that the history, in the main,
+has been derived from the two sources J and E, chiefly the former,
+and that a later editor has included certain passages from P, besides
+introducing a slight alteration of the original order and other redactional
+changes. The combined narrative of JE sets forth the
+rise of a new king in Egypt, who endeavoured to check the growing
+strength of the children of Israel; it thus prepares the way for the
+birth of Moses, his early life in Egypt, his flight to Midian and
+marriage with Zipporah, the theophany at Mt. Horeb, and his divine
+commission to deliver Israel from Egypt.</p>
+
+<p>At the very outset the two sources betray their divergent origin
+and point of view. According to J (i. 6, 8-12, 20<i>b</i>) the Israelites
+dwell apart in the province of Goshen, and their numbers become
+so great as to call for severe measures of repression, the method
+employed being that of forced labour. E, on the other hand (i. 15-20<i>a</i>,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page74" id="page74"></a>74</span>
+21, 22), represents them as living among the Egyptians, and so
+few in number that two midwives satisfy their requirements. It is
+to this latter source that we owe the account of the birth of Moses
+and of his education at the court of Pharaoh (ii. 1-10). On reaching
+manhood Moses openly displays his sympathy with his brethren by
+slaying an Egyptian, and has, in consequence, to flee to Midian,
+where he marries Zipporah, the daughter of the priest of Midian
+(ii. 11-22). In this section the editor has undoubtedly made use of
+the parallel narrative of J, though it is impossible to determine the
+exact point at which J&rsquo;s account is introduced: certainly ii. 15<i>b</i>-22
+belong to that source.<a name="fa1h" id="fa1h" href="#ft1h"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The narrative of the call of Moses is by no
+means uniform, and shows obvious traces of twofold origin (J iii.
+2-4<i>a</i>, 5, 7, 8, 16-18; iv. 1-12 (13-16), 29-31; E iii. 1, 4<i>b</i>, 6, 9-14,
+21, 22; iv. 17, 18, 20<i>b</i>, 27, 28). These two sources present striking
+points of difference, which reappear in the subsequent narrative.
+According to E, Moses with Aaron is to demand from Pharaoh the
+release of Israel, which will be effected in spite of his opposition;
+in assurance thereof the promise is given that they shall serve God
+upon this mountain; moreover, the people on their departure are
+to borrow raiment and jewels from their Egyptian neighbours.
+According to J, on the other hand, the spokesmen are to be Moses
+and the elders; and their request is for a temporary departure only,
+viz. &ldquo;three days&rsquo; journey into the wilderness&rdquo;; their departure
+from Egypt is a hurried one. Yet another difficulty, which disappears
+as soon as the composite character of the narrative is recognized,
+is that of the signs. In J three signs are given for the purpose
+of reassuring Moses, only one of which is wrought with the rod (iv.
+1-9), but in iv. 17 (E) the reference is clearly to entirely different
+signs, probably the plagues of Egypt, which according to E were
+invariably wrought by &ldquo;the rod of God.&rdquo; Further, it is questionable
+if the passage iv. 13-16 really forms part of the original narrative
+of J, and is not rather to be ascribed to the redactor of JE. The
+name of Aaron has certainly been introduced by a later hand in J&rsquo;s
+account of the plague of frogs (viii. 12), and the only passage in J
+in which Aaron is represented as taking an active part is iv. 29-31,
+where the mention of his name causes no little difficulty.<a name="fa2h" id="fa2h" href="#ft2h"><span class="sp">2</span></a> In E,
+on the other hand, Aaron is sent by God to meet Moses at Mt.
+Horeb, after the latter had taken leave of Jethro, and, later on,
+accompanies him into the presence of Pharaoh. The succeeding
+narrative (v. 1-vi. 1) is mainly taken from J, though E&rsquo;s account
+of the first interview with Pharaoh has been partially retained in
+v. 1, 2, 4. Moses and the elders ask leave to go three days&rsquo; journey
+into the wilderness to sacrifice to Yahweh, a request which is met by
+an increase of the burdensome work of brick-making: henceforward
+the Israelites have to provide their own straw. The people complain
+bitterly to Moses, who appeals to Yahweh and is assured by him
+of the future deliverance of Israel &ldquo;by a strong hand.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>With the exception of the genealogical list (i. 1-5) and the brief
+notices of the increase of Israel (i. 7) and of its oppression at the
+hands of the Egyptians (i. 13, 14; ii. 23<i>b</i>-25), the narrative so far
+exhibits no traces of P<a name="fa3h" id="fa3h" href="#ft3h"><span class="sp">3</span></a>. But in vi. 2-vii. 13 we are confronted
+with a narrative which carries us back to ii. 23<i>b</i>-25 and gives practically
+a parallel account to that of JE in ch. iii.-v. Thus the revelation
+of the divine name, vi. 2f., finds its counterpart in iii. 10f., the message
+to be delivered to Israel (vi. 6f.) is very similar to that of ch. iii. 16f.,
+while the demand which is to be addressed to Pharaoh is identical
+with that which had been already refused in ch. v. No allusion,
+however, is made by Moses to this previous demand; he merely
+urges the same objection as that put forward in iv. 10f. With the
+resumption<a name="fa4h" id="fa4h" href="#ft4h"><span class="sp">4</span></a> of the story in vi. 28f. Moses reiterates his objection,
+and is told that Aaron shall be his &ldquo;prophet&rdquo; and speak for him,
+and shall also perform the sign of the rod (cf. iv. 2-4). The sign,
+however, has no effect on Pharaoh (vii. 13), and we thus reach the
+same point in the narrative as at vi. 1. Apart from the literary
+characteristics which clearly differentiate this narrative from the
+preceding accounts of J and E, the following points of variation are
+worthy of consideration: (1) The people refuse to listen to Moses;
+(2) Aaron is appointed to be Moses&rsquo; spokesman, not with the <i>people</i>,
+but with Pharaoh; (3) <i>one</i> sign is given (not <i>three</i>) and performed
+before Pharaoh; (4) the rod is turned into a reptile (<i>tann&#299;n</i>), not a
+serpent (<i>n&#257;h&#257;sh</i>).</p>
+
+<p>(2) vii. 14-xi. 10. <i>The First Plagues of Egypt.</i>&mdash;In this section the
+analysis again reveals three main sources, which are clearly marked
+off from one another both by their linguistic features and by their
+difference of representation. The principal source is J, from which
+are derived six plagues, viz. killing of the fish in the river (vii. 14,
+16, 17<i>a</i>, 18, 21<i>a</i>, 24, 25), frogs (viii. 1-4, 8-150), insects (viii. 20-32),
+murrain (ix. 1-7), hail (ix. 13-18, 23<i>b</i>, 24<i>b</i>, 25b-34), locusts (x. 1<i>a</i>,
+3-11, 13<i>b</i>, 14<i>b</i>, 15<i>a</i>, <i>c</i>-19, 24-26, 28, 29), the threat to slay all the
+first-born (xi. 4-8). The most striking characteristic of this narrative
+is that the plagues are represented as mainly due to natural causes
+and follow a natural sequence. Thus Yahweh smites the river so
+that the fish die and render the water undrinkable. This is succeeded
+by a plague of frogs. The swarms of flies and insects, which
+next appear, are the natural outcome of the decaying masses of
+frogs, and these, in turn, would form a natural medium for the
+spread of cattle disease. Destructive hailstorms, again, though rare,
+are not unknown in Egypt, while the locusts are definitely stated
+to have been brought by a strong east wind. Other distinctive
+features of J&rsquo;s narrative are: (1) Moses alone is bidden to interview
+Pharaoh (vii. 14 f.; viii. 1 f., 20 f.; ix. 1 f., 13 f.; x. 1 f.); (2) on
+each occasion he makes a formal demand; (3) on Pharaoh&rsquo;s refusal
+the plague is announced, and takes place at a fixed time without any
+human intervention; (4) when the plague is sent, Pharaoh sends for
+Moses and entreats his intercession, promising in most cases to
+accede in part to his request; when the plague is removed, however,
+the promise is left unfulfilled, the standing phrase being &ldquo;and
+Pharaoh&rsquo;s heart was heavy (<span title="kaved">&#1499;&#1489;&#1491;</span>),&rdquo; or &ldquo;and Pharaoh made heavy
+(<span title="hihbid">&#1492;&#1499;&#1489;&#1497;&#1491;</span>) his heart&rdquo;; (5) the plagues do not affect the children of Israel
+in Goshen. E&rsquo;s account (water turned into blood, vii. 15, 17<i>b</i>, 20<i>b</i>,
+23; hail, ix. 22, 23<i>a</i>, 24<i>a</i>, 25<i>a</i>, 35; locusts, x. 12, 13<i>a</i>, 14<i>a</i>, 15<i>b</i>)
+is more fragmentary, having been doubtless superseded in most cases
+by the fuller and more graphic narrative of J, but the plague of
+darkness (x. 20-23, 27) is found only in this source. As contrasted
+with J the narrative emphasizes the miraculous character of the
+plagues. They are brought about by &ldquo;the rod of God,&rdquo; which
+Moses wields, the effect being instantaneous and all-embracing.
+The Israelites are represented as living among the Egyptians, and
+enjoy no immunity from the plagues, except that of darkness.
+Their departure from Egypt is deliberate; the people have time to
+borrow raiment and jewels from their neighbours. E regularly
+uses the phrase &ldquo;and Pharaoh&rsquo;s heart was strong (<span title="hazak">&#1495;&#1494;&#1511;</span>),&rdquo; or &ldquo;and
+Yahweh made strong (<span title="hizek">&#1495;&#1497;&#1494;&#1511;</span>) Pharaoh&rsquo;s heart&rdquo; and &ldquo;he would not
+let the children of Israel (or, them) go.&rdquo; In the priestly narrative
+(P) the plagues assume the form of a trial of skill between Aaron,
+who acts at Moses&rsquo; command, and the Egyptian magicians, and thus
+connect with vii. 8-13. The magicians succeed in turning the Nile
+water into blood (vii. 19, 20<i>a</i>, 21<i>b</i>, 22), and in bringing up frogs
+(viii. 5-7), but they fail to bring forth lice (viii. 15<i>b</i>-19), and are
+themselves smitten with boils (ix. 8-12): the two last-named plagues
+have no parallel either in J or E. Throughout the P sections
+Aaron is associated with Moses, and the regular command given to
+the latter is &ldquo;Say unto Aaron&rdquo;: no demand is ever made to
+Pharaoh, and the description of the plague is quite short. The
+formula employed by P is &ldquo;and Pharaoh&rsquo;s heart was strong (<span title="hazak">&#1495;&#1494;&#1511;</span>),&rdquo;
+or, &ldquo;and Pharaoh made strong (<span title="hizek">&#1495;&#1497;&#1494;&#1511;</span>) his heart,&rdquo; as in E, but it is
+distinguished from E&rsquo;s phrase by the addition of &ldquo;and he hearkened
+not unto them as Yahweh had spoken.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>(3) xii. i-xiii. 16. <i>The Last Plague, the Deliverance from Egypt,
+the Institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes,
+the Consecration of the First-born.</i>&mdash;This section presents the usual
+phenomena of a composite narrative, viz. repetitions and inconsistencies.
+Thus J&rsquo;s regulations for the Passover (xii. 21-23, 27<i>b</i>) seem
+at first sight simply to repeat the commands given to Moses and
+Aaron in xii. 1-13 (P), but in reality they are a parallel and divergent
+account. In <i>vv.</i> 1-13 the choice of the lamb and the manner in
+which it is to be eaten constitute the essential feature, the smearing
+with the blood being quite secondary; in <i>vv.</i> 21 f. the latter point
+is all-important, and no regulations are given for the paschal meal
+(which, possibly, formed no part of J&rsquo;s original account). Similarly
+the institution of the Feast of <i>Mazzoth</i>, or Unleavened Cakes (xiii.
+3-10J), does not form the sequel to the regulations laid down in xii.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page75" id="page75"></a>75</span>
+14-20 (P), but is independent of them: it omits all reference to
+the &ldquo;holy convocations&rdquo; and to the abstinence from labour, and is
+obviously simpler and more primitive. J&rsquo;s account, again, makes
+important exceptions (xiii. 11-13) to the severe enactment of P with
+reference to the first-born (xiii. 1). The description of the smiting
+of the first-born of Egypt is derived from J (xii. 29-34, 37-39), who
+clearly sees in the Feast of <i>Mazzoth</i> a perpetual reminder of the
+haste with which the Israelites fled from Egypt; the editor of JE,
+however, has included some extracts from E (xii. 31, 35, 36), which
+point to a more deliberate departure. The section has been worked
+over by a Deuteronomistic editor, whose hand can be clearly traced
+in the additions xii. 24-27<i>a</i>; xiii. 3<i>b</i>, 5, 8, 9, 14-16.</p>
+
+<p>(4) xiii. 17-xv. 21. <i>The Crossing of the Red Sea.</i>&mdash;According to J
+the children of Israel departed from Egypt under the guidance of
+Yahweh, who leads them by day in a pillar of cloud and by night in a
+pillar of fire (xiii. 21, 22). On hearing of their flight Pharaoh at
+once starts in pursuit. The Israelites, terrified by the approach of
+the Egyptians, upbraid Moses, who promises them deliverance by
+the hand of Yahweh (xiv. 5, 6,-7<i>b</i>, 10<i>a</i>, 11-14, 19<i>b</i>). Yahweh then
+causes a strong east wind to blow all that night, which drives back
+the waters from the shallows, and so renders it possible for the host
+of Israel to cross over. The Egyptians follow, but the progress of
+their chariots is hindered by the soft sand, and in the morning they
+are caught by the returning waters (xiv. 21<i>b</i>, 24, 25, 27<i>b</i>, 28<i>b</i>, 30).
+The story, however, has been combined with the somewhat different
+account of E, which doubtless covered the same ground, and also
+with that of P. According to the former, Elohim did not permit the
+Israelites to take the shorter route to Canaan by the Mediterranean
+coast, for fear of the Philistines, but led them southwards to the
+Red Sea, whither they were pursued by the Egyptians (xiii. 17-19).
+The remainder of E&rsquo;s account has only been preserved in a fragmentary
+form (xiv. 7<i>aa</i>, 10<i>b</i>, 15<i>a</i>, 19<i>a</i>, 20<i>a</i>), from which it may be
+gathered that Moses divided the waters by stretching out his rod,
+thus presupposing that the crossing took place by day, and that
+the dark cloud which divided the two hosts was miraculously caused
+by the angel of God. P also represents the sea as divided by means
+of Moses&rsquo; rod, but heightens the effect by describing the crossing as
+taking place between walls of water (xiii. 20; xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 15<i>b</i>,
+16<i>b</i>-18, 21<i>a</i>, <i>c</i>, 22, 23, 26, 27<i>a</i>, 28<i>a</i>, 29).</p>
+
+<p>J&rsquo;s version of the Song of Moses probably does not extend beyond
+xv. 1, and has its counterpart in the very similar song of Miriam (E),
+in <i>vv.</i> 20, 21. The rest of the song (<i>vv.</i> 2-18) is probably the work
+of a later writer; for these verses set forth not only the deliverance
+from Egypt, but also the entrance of Israel into Canaan (<i>vv.</i> 13-17),
+and further presuppose the existence of the temple (<i>vv.</i> 13<i>b</i>, 17<i>b</i>).
+These phenomena have been explained as due to later expansion,
+but the poem has all the appearance of being a unity, and the
+language, style and rhythm all point to a later age. Verse 19 is
+probably the work of the redactor (R<span class="sp">P</span>) who inserted the song.</p>
+
+<p>(5) xv. 22-xviii. 27. <i>Incidents in the Wilderness.</i>&mdash;The narrative
+of the first journeying in the wilderness (xv. 22-xvii. 7) presents a
+series of difficulties which probably owe their origin to the editorial
+activity of R<span class="sp">P</span>, who appears to have transferred to the beginning
+of the wanderings a number of incidents which rightly belong to the
+end. The concluding verses of ch. xv. contain J&rsquo;s account of the
+sweetening of the waters of Marah, with which has been incorporated
+a fragment of E&rsquo;s story of Massah (xv. 25<i>b</i>) and a Deuteronomic
+expansion in v. 26. Then follows (ch. xvi.) P&rsquo;s version of the sending
+of the manna and quails. In its present form, this narrative contains
+a number of conflicting elements, which can only be the result
+of editorial activity. Thus <i>vv.</i> 6, 7 must originally have preceded
+vv. 11, 12, though the redactor has attempted to evade the difficulty
+by inserting v. 8. Again, the account of the quails, which is obviously
+incomplete, is undoubtedly derived from Num. xi.; but the latter
+account, which admittedly belongs to JE, places the incident at
+the end of the wanderings. Closer examination also of P&rsquo;s narrative
+of the manna shows that its true-position is <i>after</i> the departure
+from Mt. Sinai; cf. the expressions used in <i>vv.</i> 9, 10, 33, 34, implying
+the existence of the ark and the tabernacle. P&rsquo;s account of the
+manna, however, can hardly have stood originally in close juxtaposition
+with his account of the quails (cf. Num. xi. 6), but the two
+narratives were probably combined by R<span class="sp">P</span> before they were transferred
+to their present position. The same redactor doubtless added
+v. 8 (and possibly <i>vv.</i> 17, 18) by way of explanation, and <i>vv.</i> 5 and
+22-30, which imply that the law of the Sabbath was already known,
+and introduce a fresh element into the story. A plausible explanation
+of R<span class="sp">P</span>&rsquo;s action is supplied by the theory that an earlier
+account of the giving of the manna already existed at this point of
+the narrative. We know from Deuteronomy viii. 2 f., 16 that JE
+contained an account of the manna, which included the explanation
+of Ex. xvi. 15, and also emphasized, as the motive for the gift,
+Yahweh&rsquo;s desire &ldquo;to prove thee (<i>i.e.</i> test thy disposition) ...
+whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or no.&rdquo; Fragments
+of this early story of Massah (testing) were incorporated by R<span class="sp">P</span>
+in his story of the manna and the quails, viz. xv. 25<i>b</i>; xvi. 4, 15,
+16<i>a</i>, 19<i>b</i>-21. These verses must be assigned to E, for in xvii. 3, 2c
+(wherefore do ye tempt the Lord?), 7<i>a</i> (to <i>Massah</i>), <i>c</i> (because they
+tempted ..., &amp;c. ), we find yet another version (J) of the same
+incident, according to which the people tempted (tested) Yahweh.
+It was owing to the combination of this latter account with E&rsquo;s
+further description of the striving of the people for water at Meribah
+that the double name Massah-Meribah arose, xvii. 1<i>b</i>-7 (1a belongs
+to P), though Deut. xxxiii. 8 makes it clear that Massah and Meribah
+were separate localities (cf. Deut. ix. 22, 2 f., 16, where Massah
+occurs alone): P&rsquo;s version of striving at Meribah, in which traces of
+J&rsquo;s account have been preserved, is given at Num. xx. 1-13.</p>
+
+<p>xvii. 8-16. <i>The Battle with Amalek at Rephidim.</i>&mdash;This incident is
+derived from E, but is clearly out of place in its present context.
+Its close connexion with the end of the wanderings is shown by (<i>a</i>)
+the description of Moses as an infirm old man; (<i>b</i>) the rôle played
+by Joshua in contrast with xxiv. 13, xxxiii. 11, where he is introduced
+as a young man and Moses&rsquo; minister; and (<i>c</i>) the references
+elsewhere to the home of the Amalekites: according to Num. xiii.
+29, xiv. 25, xliii. 45, they dwelt in the S. or S.W. of Judah near
+Kadesh (cf. 1 Sam. xv. 6 f., 30; Gen. xiv. 7; xxxvi. 12).</p>
+
+<p>Ch. xviii. <i>The visit of Jethro to Moses and the appointment of judges.</i>&mdash;This
+story, like the preceding one, is mainly derived from E and is
+also out of place. Allusions in the chapter itself point unmistakably
+to a time just before the departure from Sinai-Horeb, and this date
+is confirmed both by Deut. i. 9-16 and by the parallel account of J
+in Num. x. 29-32. The narrative, however, displays signs of compilation,
+and it is not improbable that R<span class="sp">JE</span> has incorporated in vv.
+7-11 part of J&rsquo;s account of the visit of Moses&rsquo; father-in-law (cf. the
+use of Yahweh).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) Ch. xix.-xxiv., xxxii., xxxiv.&mdash;The contents of these chapters,
+which, owing to their contents, form the most important section in
+the book of Exodus, may be briefly analysed as follows. In ch. xix.
+we have a twofold description of the theophany on Mt. Sinai (or
+Horeb), followed by the Decalogue in xx. 1-17. Alongside of this
+code we find another, dealing in part with the civil and social (xxi.
+2-xxii. 17), in part with the religious life of Israel, the so-called
+Book of the Covenant, xx. 22-xxiii. 19. Ch. xxiv. contains a composite
+narrative of the ratification of the covenant. In chs. xxxii.
+and xxxiii. we have again two narratives of the sin of the people
+and of Moses&rsquo; intercession, while in ch. xxxiv. we are confronted
+with yet another early code, which is practically identical with the
+religious enactments of xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii. 10-19.</p>
+
+<p>With but few exceptions the <i>provenance</i> of the individual sections
+may be said to have been finally determined by the labours of the
+critics, but even a cursory examination of their contents makes it
+evident that the sequence of events, which they now present, cannot
+be original, but is rather the outcome of a long process of revision,
+during which the text has suffered considerably from alterations,
+omissions, dislocations and additions. Yet owing to the method of
+composition employed by Hebrew editors, or revisers, it is possible
+in this case, as in others, not only to determine the source of each
+individual passage, but also to trace with considerable confidence
+the various stages in the process by which it reached its final form
+and position. It must, however, be admitted that the evidence
+at our disposal is, in some cases, capable of more than one interpretation.
+Hence a final conclusion can hardly be expected, but with
+certain modifications in detail the following solution of the problem
+may be accepted as representing the point of view of recent criticism.</p>
+
+<p>Ch. xix. contains two parallel accounts of the theophany on
+Horeb-Sinai, from E and J respectively, which differ materially
+from one another. According to the former, Moses is instructed by
+God (Elohim) to sanctify the <i>people</i> against the third day (<i>vv.</i> 9<i>a</i>,
+10, 11<i>a</i>). This is done and the people are brought by Moses to the
+foot of the mountain (Horeb), where they hear the divine voice
+(14-17, 19). A noticeable feature of this narrative, of which xx.
+18-21 forms a natural continuation, is the fact that the theophany
+is addressed to the <i>people</i>, who are too frightened to remain near
+the mountain itself. In J, on the other hand, it is the <i>priests</i> who
+are sanctified, and great care must be taken to prevent the people
+from &ldquo;breaking through to gaze&rdquo; (20-22). In this account the
+mountain is called &ldquo;Sinai&rdquo; throughout, and &ldquo;Yahweh&rdquo; appears
+instead of &ldquo;Elohim&rdquo; (11<i>b</i>, 18, 20 f.). Moreover, Moses and Aaron
+and the priests are summoned to the top of the mount (in v. 24b
+render &ldquo;thou and Aaron with thee, and the priests: but let not the
+people,&rdquo; &amp;c. ). <i>Vv</i>. 3<i>b</i>-8, which have been expanded by a Deuteronomic
+editor, have been transferred from their original context after
+xx. 21; the introductory verses 1, 2<i>a</i> form part of P&rsquo;s itinerary.</p>
+
+<p>Of the succeeding legislation in xx.-xxiii., xxxii.-xxxiv., undoubtedly
+the earlier sections are xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii.
+10-19, and xxxiv. 10-26, which contain regulations with regard to
+worship and religious festivals, and form the basis of the covenant
+made by Yahweh with Israel on Sinai-Horeb, as recorded by E and J
+respectively. The narrative which introduces the covenant laws
+of J has been preserved partly in its present context, ch. xxxiv.,
+partly in xxiv. 1, 2, 9-11; the narrative of E, on the other hand,
+has in part disappeared owing to the interpolation of later material,
+in part has been retained in xxiv. 3-8. J&rsquo;s narrative xxiv. 1 f.,
+9-11 clearly forms the continuation of xix. 20 f., 11<i>b</i>, 13, 25, but the
+introductory words of <i>v.</i> 1, &ldquo;and unto Moses he said,&rdquo; point to some
+omission. Originally, no doubt, it included the recital of the divine
+instructions to the people in accordance with xix. 21 f., 11<i>b</i>-13,
+the statement that Yahweh came down on the third day, and that a
+long blast was blown on the trumpet (or ram&rsquo;s horn [<span title="yovel">&#1497;&#1489;&#1500;</span>, as opposed
+to <span title="shofar">&#1513;&#1508;&#1512;</span> E]). From xxiv. 1 f. we learn that Moses and Aaron, Nadab
+and Abihu, and seventy of the elders were summoned to the top
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page76" id="page76"></a>76</span>
+of the mountain, but that Moses alone was permitted to approach
+Yahweh. Then followed the theophany, and, as the text stands,
+the sacrificial meal (9-11).<a name="fa5h" id="fa5h" href="#ft5h"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The conclusion of J&rsquo;s narrative is given
+in ch. xxxiv.,<a name="fa6h" id="fa6h" href="#ft6h"><span class="sp">6</span></a> which describes how Moses hewed two tables of stone
+at Yahweh&rsquo;s command, and went up to the top of the mountain,
+where he received the words of the covenant and wrote them on the
+tables. As it stands, however, this chapter represents the legislation
+which it contains as a renewal of a former covenant, also written
+on tables of stone, which had been broken (1<i>b</i>, 4<i>a</i>). But the document
+from which the chapter, as a whole, is derived, is certainly J,
+while the previous references to tables of stone and to Moses&rsquo; breaking
+them belong to the parallel narrative of E. Moreover, the covenant
+here set forth (<i>v.</i> 10 f.) is clearly a new one, and contains no hint
+of any previous legislation, nor of any breach of it by the people.
+In view of these facts we are forced to conclude that 1<i>b</i> (&ldquo;like unto
+the first ... brakest&rdquo;), 4<i>a</i> (&ldquo;and he hewed ... the first&rdquo;) and
+<i>v.</i> 28 (&ldquo;the ten words&rdquo;) formed no part of the original narrative,<a name="fa7h" id="fa7h" href="#ft7h"><span class="sp">7</span></a>
+but were inserted by a later Deuteronomic redactor. In the view
+of this editor the Decalogue alone formed the basis of the covenant
+at Sinai-Horeb, and in order to retain J&rsquo;s version, he represented it
+as a renewal of the tables of stone which Moses had broken.<a name="fa8h" id="fa8h" href="#ft8h"><span class="sp">8</span></a></p>
+
+<p>The legislation contained in xxxiv. 10-26, which may be described
+as the oldest legal code of the Hexateuch, is almost entirely religious.
+It prohibits the making of molten images (<i>v.</i> 17), the use of leaven
+in sacrifices (25<i>a</i>), the retention of the sacrifice until the morning
+(25<i>b</i>),<a name="fa9h" id="fa9h" href="#ft9h"><span class="sp">9</span></a> and the seething of a kid in its mother&rsquo;s milk (26<i>b</i>); and
+enjoins the observance of the three annual feasts and the Sabbath
+(18<i>a</i>, 21-23), and the dedication of the first-born (19, 20, derived
+from xiii. 11-13) and of the first-fruits (26<i>a</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The parallel collection of E is preserved in xx. 24-26, xxiii. 10-19,
+to which we should probably add xxii. 29-31 (for which xxiii. 19<i>a</i>
+was afterwards substituted). The two collections resemble one
+another so closely, both in form and extent, that they can only be
+regarded as two versions of the same code. E has, however, preserved
+certain additional regulations with regard to the building of
+altars (xx. 24-26) and the observance of the seventh year (xxiii.
+10, 11), and omits the prohibition of molten images (xx. 22, 23,
+appear to be the work of a redactor); xxiii. 20-33, the promises
+attached to the observance of the covenant, probably formed no
+part of the original code, but were added by the Deuteronomic
+redactor; cf. especially <i>vv.</i> 23-25<i>a</i>, 27, 28, 31<i>b</i>-33. The narrative of
+E relative to the delivery of these laws has disappeared,<a name="fa10h" id="fa10h" href="#ft10h"><span class="sp">10</span></a> but xxiv.
+3-8 (which manifestly have no connexion with their immediate
+context) clearly point back to some such narrative. These verses
+describe how Moses wrote all the words of the Lord in a book and
+recited them to the <i>people</i> (<i>v.</i> 7) as the basis of a covenant, which
+was solemnly ratified by the sprinkling of the blood of the accompanying
+sacrifices.</p>
+
+<p>In the existing text the covenant laws of E (xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31,
+xxiii. 10-19) are combined with a mass of civil and other legislation;
+hence the title &ldquo;Book of the Covenant&rdquo; (referred to above, xxiv. 7)
+has usually been applied to the whole section, xx. 22-xxiii. 33. But
+this section includes three distinct elements: (<i>a</i>) the &ldquo;words&rdquo;
+(<span title="hadvarim">&#1492;&#1491;&#1489;&#1512;&#1497;&#1501;</span>) found in xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31, xxiii. 1-10; (<i>b</i>) the &ldquo;judgments&rdquo;
+(<span title="hamishpatim">&#1492;&#1502;&#1513;&#1508;&#1496;&#1497;&#1501;</span>), xxi. 2-xxii. 17; and (<i>c</i>) a group of moral and
+ethical enactments, xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9; and an examination of
+their contents makes it evident that, though the last two groups are
+unmistakably derived from E, they cannot have formed part of the
+original &ldquo;Book of the Covenant&rdquo;; for the &ldquo;judgments,&rdquo; which
+are expressed in a hypothetical form, consist of a number of legal
+decisions on points of civil law. The cases dealt with fall into five
+divisions: (1) The rights of slaves, xxi. 2-11; (2) capital offences,
+xxi. 12-16 (<i>v.</i> 17 has probably been added later); (3) injuries inflicted
+by man or beast, xxi. 18-32; (4) losses incurred by culpable
+negligence or theft, xxi. 33-xxii. 6; (5) cases arising out of deposits,
+loans, seduction, xxii. 7-17. It is obvious, from their very nature,
+that these legal precedents could not have been included in the
+covenant which the <i>people</i> (xxiv. 3) promised to observe, and it is
+now generally admitted that the words &ldquo;and the judgments&rdquo;
+(which are missing in c. 1 <i>b</i>) have been inserted in xxiv. 3<i>a</i> by the
+redactor to whom the present position of the &ldquo;judgments&rdquo; is due.<a name="fa11h" id="fa11h" href="#ft11h"><span class="sp">11</span></a>
+The majority of critics, therefore, adopt Kuenen&rsquo;s conjecture that
+the &ldquo;judgments&rdquo; were originally delivered by Moses on the borders
+of Moab, and that when D&rsquo;s revised version of Ex. xxi.-xxiii. was
+combined with JE, the older code was placed alongside of E&rsquo;s other
+legislation at Horeb. The third group of laws (xxii. 18-28, xxiii.
+1-9) appears to have been added somewhat later than the bulk of
+xxi.-xxiii. Some of the regulations are couched in hypothetical form,
+but their contents are of a different character to the &ldquo;judgments,&rdquo;
+<i>e.g.</i> xxii. 25 f., xxiii. 4 f.; others, again, are of a similar nature, but
+differ in form, <i>e.g.</i> xxii. 18 f. Lastly, xxii. 20-24, xxiii. 1-3 set forth
+a number of moral injunctions affecting the individual, which cannot
+have found place in a civil code. At the same time, these additions
+must for the most part be prior to D, since many of them are included in
+Deut. xii.-xxvi., though there are traces of Deuteronomic revision.</p>
+
+<p>Now it is obvious that the results obtained by the foregoing
+analysis of J and E have an important bearing on the history of the
+remaining section of E&rsquo;s legislation, viz. the Decalogue (<i>q.v.</i>), Ex.
+xx. 1-17 (= Deut. v. 6-21). At present the &ldquo;Ten Words&rdquo; stand
+in the forefront of E&rsquo;s collection of laws, and it is evident that they
+were already found in that position by the author of Deuteronomy,
+who treated them as the sole basis of the covenant at Horeb. The
+evidence, however, afforded (<i>a</i>) by the parallel version of Deuteronomy
+and (<i>b</i>) by the literary analysis of J and E not only fails
+to support this tradition, but excites the gravest suspicions as to
+the originality both of the <i>form</i> and of the <i>position</i> in which the
+Decalogue now appears. For when compared with Ex. xx. 1-17
+the parallel version of Deut. v. 6 ff. is found to exhibit a number
+of variations, and, in particular, assigns an entirely different reason
+for the observance of the Sabbath. But these variations are
+practically limited to the explanatory comments attached to the
+2nd, 4th, 5th and 10th commandments; and the majority of critics
+are now agreed that these comments were added at a later date,
+and that all the commandments, like the 1st and the 6th to the
+9th, were originally expressed in the form of a single short sentence.
+This view is confirmed by the fact that the additions, or comments,
+bear, for the most part, a close resemblance to the style of D. They
+can scarcely, however, have been transferred from Deuteronomy to
+Exodus (or vice versa), owing to the variations between the two
+versions: we must rather regard them as the work of a Deuteronomic
+redactor. But the expansion and revision of the Decalogue were
+not limited to the Deuteronomic school. Literary traces of J and E
+in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 10th commandments point to earlier activity
+on the part of R<span class="sp">JE</span>, while the addition of <i>v.</i> 11, which bases the
+observance of the Sabbath on P &rsquo;s narrative of the Creation (Gen. ii.
+1-3), can only be ascribed to a priestly writer: its absence from
+Deut. v. 6 ff. is otherwise inexplicable. Thus the Decalogue, as
+given in Exodus, would seem to have passed through at least three
+stages before it assumed its present form. But even in its original
+form it could hardly have formed part of E&rsquo;s Horeb legislation;
+for (<i>a</i>) both J and E have preserved a different collection of laws
+(or &ldquo;words&rdquo;) inscribed by Moses, which are definitely set forth
+as the basis of the covenant at Sinai-Horeb (Ex. xxxiv. 10, xxiv.
+3 f.), and (<i>b</i>) the further legislation of E in ch. xx.-xxiii. affords
+close parallels to all the commandments (except the 7th and the
+10th), and a comparison of the two leaves no doubt as to which is
+the more primitive. Hence we can only conclude that the Decalogue,
+in its original short form, came into existence during the period after
+the completion of E, but before the promulgation of Deuteronomy.
+Its present position is, doubtless, to be ascribed to a redactor who
+was influenced by the same conception as the author of Deuteronomy.
+This redactor, however, did not limit the Horeb covenant to the
+Decalogue, but retained E&rsquo;s legislation alongside of it. The insertion
+of the Decalogue, or rather the point of view which prompted its
+insertion, naturally involved certain consequential changes of the
+existing text. The most important of these, viz. the harmonistic
+additions to ch. xxxiv., by means of which J&rsquo;s version of the covenant
+was represented as a renewal of the Decalogue, has already been discussed;
+other passages which show traces of similar revision are
+xxiv. 12-15<i>a</i>, 18<i>b</i>, and xxxiv. 1-6.</p>
+
+<p>The confusion introduced into the legislation by later additions,
+with the consequent displacement of earlier material, has not been
+without effect on the narratives belonging to the different sources.
+Hence the sequence of events after the completion of the covenant
+on Sinai-Horeb is not always easy to trace, though indications are
+not wanting in both J and E of the probable course of the history.
+The two main incidents that precede the departure of the children
+of Israel from the mountain (Num. x. 29 ff.) are (1) the sin of the
+people, and (2) the intercession of Moses, of both of which a double
+account has been preserved.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page77" id="page77"></a>77</span></p>
+
+<p>(1) <i>The Sin of the People.</i>&mdash;According to J (xxxii. 25-29) the
+people, during the absence of Moses, &ldquo;break loose,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> mutiny.
+Their behaviour excites the anger of Moses on his return, and in
+response to his appeal the sons of Levi arm themselves and slay a
+large number of the people: as a reward for their services they are
+bidden to consecrate themselves to Yahweh. The fragmentary form
+of the narrative&mdash;we miss especially a fuller account of the &ldquo;breaking
+loose&rdquo;&mdash;is doubtless due to the latter editor, who substituted the
+story of the golden calf (xxxii. 1-6, 15-24, 35), according to which the
+sin of the people consisted in direct violation of the 2nd commandment.
+At the instigation of the people Aaron makes a molten calf
+out of the golden ornaments brought from Egypt; Moses and Joshua,
+on their return to the camp, find the people holding festival in honour
+of the occasion; Moses in his anger breaks the tables of the covenant
+which he is carrying: he then demolishes the golden calf, and administers
+a severe rebuke to Aaron. The punishment of the people
+is briefly recorded in <i>v.</i> 35. This latter narrative, which is obviously
+inconsistent with the story of J, shows unmistakable traces of E.
+In its present form, however, it can hardly be original, but must
+have been revised in accordance with the later Deuteronomic
+conception which represented the sin committed by the people as
+a breach of the 2nd commandment. Possibly <i>vv.</i> 7-14 are also to be
+treated as a Deuteronomic expansion (cf. Deut. ix. 12-14). Though
+they show clear traces of J, it is extremely difficult to fit them
+into that narrative in view of Moses&rsquo; action in <i>vv.</i> 25-29 and of his
+intercession in ch. xxxiii.; in any case, <i>vv.</i> 8 and 13 must be regarded
+as redactional.</p>
+
+<p>(2) <i>Moses&rsquo; Intercession.</i>&mdash;The time for departure from the Sacred
+Mount had now arrived, and Moses is accordingly bidden to lead
+the people to the promised land. Yahweh himself refuses to accompany
+Israel owing to their disobedience, but in response to Moses&rsquo;
+passionate appeal finally consents to let his presence go with them.
+The account of Moses&rsquo; intercession has been preserved in J, though
+the narrative has undergone considerable dislocation. The true
+sequence of the narrative appears to be as follows: Moses is commanded
+to lead the people to Canaan (xxxiii. 1-3); he pleads that
+he is unequal to the task (Num. xi. 10<i>c</i>, 11, 12, 14, 15), and, presumably,
+asks for assistance, which is promised (omitted). Moses then
+asks for a fuller knowledge of Yahweh and his ways (xxxiii. 12, 13):
+this request also is granted (<i>v.</i> 17), and he is emboldened to pray that
+he may see the glory of Yahweh; Yahweh replies that his prayer
+can only be granted in part, for &ldquo;man shall not see me and live&rdquo;;
+a partial revelation is then vouchsafed to Moses (xxxiii. 18-23,
+xxxiv. 6-8): finally, Moses beseeches Yahweh to go in the midst
+of his people, and is assured that Yahweh&rsquo;s presence shall accompany
+them (xxxiv. 9, xxxiii. 14-16). The passage from Numbers xi.,
+which is here included, is obviously out of place in its present context
+(the story of the quails), and supplies in part the necessary antecedent
+to Ex. xxxiii. 12, 13; the passage is now separated from
+Ex. xxxiii. by Ex. xxxiv. (J), which has been wrongly transferred to
+the close of the Horeb-Sinai incidents (see above), and by the priestly
+legislation of Ex. xxxv.-xl., Leviticus and Num. i.-x.; but originally
+it must have stood in close connexion with that chapter. A similar
+displacement has taken place with regard to Ex. xxxiv. 6-9, which
+clearly forms the sequel to xxxiii. 17-23. The latter passage, however,
+can hardly represent the conclusion of the interview, which
+is found more naturally in xxxiii. 14-16. E&rsquo;s account of Moses&rsquo;
+intercession seems to have been retained, in part, in xxxii. 30-34,
+but the passage has probably been revised by a later hand; in any
+case its position <i>before</i> instead of <i>after</i> the dismissal would seem to
+be redactional.</p>
+
+<p>It is a plausible conjecture that the original narratives of J and E
+also contained directions for the construction of an ark,<a name="fa12h" id="fa12h" href="#ft12h"><span class="sp">12</span></a> as a substitute
+for the personal presence of Yahweh, and also for the erection
+of a &ldquo;tent of meeting&rdquo; outside the camp, and that these commands
+were omitted by R<span class="sp">P</span> in favour of the more elaborate instructions
+given in ch. xxv.-xxix. (P). The subsequent narrative of J (Num.
+x. 33-36, xiv. 44) implies an account of the making of the ark, while
+the remarkable description in Ex. xxxiii. 7-11 (E) of Moses&rsquo; practice
+in regard to the &ldquo;tent of meeting&rdquo; points no less clearly to some
+earlier statement as to the making of this tent.</p>
+
+<p>The history of Exodus in its original form doubtless concluded
+with the visit of Moses&rsquo; father-in-law and the appointment of judges
+(ch. xviii.), the departure from the mountain and the battle with
+Amalek (xvii. 8-16).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) <i>The Construction of the Tabernacle and its Furniture</i> (ch. xxv.-xxxi.,
+xxxv.-xl.).&mdash;It has long been recognized that the elaborate
+description of the Tabernacle and its furniture, and the accompanying
+directions for the dress and consecration of the priests, contained in
+ch. xxv.-xxxi., have no claim to be regarded as an historical presentment
+of the Mosaic Tabernacle and its service. The language,
+style and contents of this section point unmistakably to the hand of
+P; and it is now generally admitted that these chapters form
+part of an ideal representation of the post-exilic ritual system,
+which has been transferred to the Mosaic age. According to this
+representation, Moses, on the seventh day after the conclusion of
+the covenant, was summoned to the top of the mountain, and there
+received instructions with regard to (<i>a</i>) the furniture of the sanctuary,
+viz. the ark, the table and the lamp-stand (ch. xxv.); (<i>b</i>) the Tabernacle
+(ch. xxvi.); (<i>c</i>) the court of the Tabernacle and the altar of burnt-offering
+(ch. xxvii.); (<i>d</i>) the dress of the priests (ch. xxviii.); (<i>e</i>) the
+consecration of Aaron and his sons (xxix. 1-37); and (<i>f</i>) the daily
+burnt-offering (xxix. 38-42): the section ends with a formal conclusion
+(xxix. 43-46). The two following chapters contain further
+instructions relative to the altar of incense (xxx. 1-10), the payment
+of the half-shekel (11-16), the brazen laver (17-21), the anointing oil
+(22-33), the incense (34-38), the appointment of Bezaleel and Oholiab
+(xxxi. 1-11) and the observance of the Sabbath (12-17). It is hardly
+doubtful, however, that these two chapters formed no part of P&rsquo;s
+original legislation, but were added by a later hand.<a name="fa13h" id="fa13h" href="#ft13h"><span class="sp">13</span></a> For (1) the
+altar of incense is here mentioned for the first time, and was apparently
+unknown to the author of ch. xxv.-xxix. Had he known of its
+existence, he could hardly have failed to include it with the rest of
+the Tabernacle furniture in ch. xxvi., and must have mentioned it at
+xxvi. 34 f., where the relative positions of the contents of the Tabernacle
+are defined: further, the ritual of the Day of Atonement (Lev.
+xvi. referred to in xxx. 10) ignores this altar, and mentions only <i>one</i>
+altar (cf. &ldquo;<i>the</i> altar,&rdquo; xxvii. 1), viz. that of burnt-offering; (2) the
+command as to the half-shekel presupposes the census of Num. i.,
+and appears to have been unknown in the time of Nehemiah (Neh.
+x. 32) (Heb. 33); (3) the instructions as to the brazen laver would
+naturally be expected alongside of those for the altar of burnt-offering
+in ch. xxvii.; (4) the following section relating to the anointing
+oil presupposes the altar of incense (<i>v.</i> 28), and further extends
+the ceremony of anointing to Aaron&rsquo;s sons, though, elsewhere, the
+ceremony is confined to Aaron (xxix. 7, Lev. viii. 12), cf. the title
+&ldquo;anointed priest&rdquo; applied to the high priest (Lev. iv. 3, &amp;c. );
+(5) the directions for compounding the incense connect naturally
+with xxx. 1-10, while (6) the appointment of Bezaleel and Oholiah
+cannot be separated from the rest of ch. xxx.-xxxi. The concluding
+section on the Sabbath (xxxi. 12-17) shows marks of resemblance to
+H (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), especially in <i>vv.</i> 12-14<i>a</i>, which appear to have
+been expanded, very possibly by the editor who inserted the passage.
+The continuation of P&rsquo;s narrative is given in xxxiv. 29-35, which
+describe Moses&rsquo; return from the mount. The subsequent chapters
+(xxxv.-xl.), however, can hardly belong to the original stratum of P,
+if only because they presuppose ch. xxx., xxxi., and were probably
+added at a later stage than the latter chapters. They narrate how
+the commands of ch. xxv.-xxxi. were carried out, and practically
+repeat the earlier chapters <i>verbatim</i>, merely the tenses being changed,
+the most noticeable omissions being xxvii. 20 f. (oil for the lamps),
+xxviii. 30 (Urim and Thummim), xxix. 1-37 (the consecration of the
+priests, which recurs in Lev. viii.) and xxix. 38-42 (the daily burnt-offering).
+Apart from the omissions the most striking difference
+between the two sections is the variation in order, the different
+sections of ch. xxv.-xxxi. being here set forth in their natural sequence.
+The secondary character of these concluding chapters receives considerable
+confirmation from a comparison of the Septuagint text.
+For this version exhibits numerous cases of variation, both as regards
+<i>order</i> and <i>contents</i>, from the Hebrew text; moreover the translation,
+more particularly of many technical terms, differs from that of ch.
+xxv.-xxxi., and seems to be the work of different translators. Hence
+it is by no means improbable that the final recension of these chapters
+had not been completed when the Alexandrine version was made.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;In addition to the various English and German
+commentaries on Exodus included under the head of the Pentateuch,
+the following English works are especially worthy of mention:
+S.R. Driver, <i>Introd. to the Literature of the O.T.</i>, and &ldquo;Exodus&rdquo; in
+the <i>Camb. Bible</i>; B.W. Bacon, <i>The Triple Tradition of the Exodus</i>
+(Hartford, U.S.A., 1894), and A.H. McNeile, <i>The Book of Exodus</i>
+(Westminster Commentaries) (1908); also the articles on &ldquo;Exodus&rdquo;
+by G. Harford-Battersby (Hastings, <i>Dict. Bib.</i> vol. i.) and by G.F.
+Moore, <i>Ency. Biblica</i>, vol. ii.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. F. St.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1h" id="ft1h" href="#fa1h"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The fact that the father-in-law of Moses is called Reuel in v. 18,
+as contrasted with the name Jethro, which occurs in iii. 1 f. and in
+all subsequent passages from E, cannot be taken as conclusive on
+this point, since critics are agreed that &ldquo;Reuel&rdquo; in this verse is a
+later addition: had it been original we should have expected the
+name to be given at v. 16 rather than at v. 18. But, if no argument
+can be based on the discrepancy between the two names, we may at
+least assume that the namelessness of the priest in v. 16 f. points to
+a different source for those verses from that of iii. 1 f. Elsewhere J
+speaks of &ldquo;Hobab, the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses&rsquo; father-in-law&rdquo;
+(Num. x. 29); the addition, &ldquo;the priest of Midian,&rdquo; only occurs
+in the (secondary) passages iii. 1, xviii. 1 (E). Probably RJE
+omitted the name in ii. 16 and added &ldquo;the priest of Midian&rdquo; in
+iii. 1, xviii 1, from harmonizing motives. Further, vv. 15<span class="sp">B</span>-22
+speak of <i>one</i> son being born to Moses at this period, a statement
+which is borne out by iv. 20, 25 (&ldquo;sons&rdquo; in iv. 20 is obviously a
+correction), whereas ch. xviii. (E) mentions <i>two</i> sons.</p>
+
+<p>The original order of events in J seems to have been as follows:
+after the death of Pharaoh (ii. 23<i>a</i>; the Septuagint repeats this
+notice before iv. 19) Moses returns to Egypt with his wife and son
+(iv. 19, 20) in obedience to Yahweh&rsquo;s command. On the way he is
+seized with a sudden illness, which Zipporah attributes to the fact
+that he has not been circumcised and seeks to avert by circumcising
+her son (iv. 24-26). The scene of the theophany, therefore, according
+to J, is to be placed on the way from Midian to Goshen. Probably
+the displacement of iv. 19, 20, 24-26 is due to the editor of JE, who
+was thus enabled to combine the two narratives of the theophany.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2h" id="ft2h" href="#fa2h"><span class="fn">2</span></a> Cf. iv. 30; Aaron had received no command to do the signs,
+and the words &ldquo;and he did the signs&rdquo; are most naturally referred
+to Moses.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3h" id="ft3h" href="#fa3h"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The expansion in iii. 8c, 15, 17b; iv. 22, 23, are probably the
+work of a Deuteronomistic redactor.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4h" id="ft4h" href="#fa4h"><span class="fn">4</span></a> The genealogy of Moses and Aaron (vv. 14-27) appears to be a
+later addition.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5h" id="ft5h" href="#fa5h"><span class="fn">5</span></a> Unless we follow Riedel and read simply &ldquo;and worshipped&rdquo;
+(<span title="vaishtahavu">&#1493;&#1497;&#1513;&#1514;&#1495;&#1493;&#1493;</span>) instead of &ldquo;and drank&rdquo; (<span title="vaishtu">&#1493;&#1497;&#1513;&#1514;&#1493;</span>), treating &ldquo;and ate&rdquo;
+(<span title="vaiohlu">&#1493;&#1497;&#1488;&#1499;&#1500;&#1493;</span>) as a later addition; cf. HDB, extra vol. p. 631 note.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6h" id="ft6h" href="#fa6h"><span class="fn">6</span></a> Vv. 6-9 are out of place here: they belong to the story of Moses&rsquo;
+intercession in ch. xxxiii.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7h" id="ft7h" href="#fa7h"><span class="fn">7</span></a> This view is confirmed by (<i>a</i>) a comparison of v. lb (&ldquo;and I will
+write&rdquo;) with vv. 27, 28; according to the latter, <i>Moses</i> wrote the
+words of the covenant; and (<i>b</i>) the tardy mention of Moses in 4b;
+the name would naturally be given at the beginning of the verse.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8h" id="ft8h" href="#fa8h"><span class="fn">8</span></a> Others suppose that the present position of ch. xxxiv. is due, in
+the first instance, to RJE, but in view of the other Deuteronomic
+expansions in vv. 10b-16, 23, 24, it is more probable that J&rsquo;s version
+was discarded by RJE in favour of E&rsquo;s, and was afterwards restored
+by RD.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9h" id="ft9h" href="#fa9h"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Reading &ldquo;the sacrifice of my feasts&rdquo; for &ldquo;the sacrifice of the
+feast of the Passover.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10h" id="ft10h" href="#fa10h"><span class="fn">10</span></a> Unless, with Bacon, we are to regard xxiv. 12-14, 18b as original.
+More probably a later editor has worked up old material of E (of
+which there are unmistakable traces) in order to include the whole
+of xx.-xxiii. in the covenant: xxiv. 15-18a are an addition from P.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft11h" id="ft11h" href="#fa11h"><span class="fn">11</span></a> The present text of xxiv. 12 also has probably been transposed
+in accordance with the view that the &ldquo;judgment&rdquo; formed part of
+the covenant, cf. Deut. v. 31. Originally the latter part of the verse
+must have run, &ldquo;That I may give thee the tables of stone which I
+have written, and may teach thee the law and the commandment.&rdquo;
+For further details see Bacon, <i>Triple Tradition of Exodus</i>, pp.
+111 f., 132 f.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft12h" id="ft12h" href="#fa12h"><span class="fn">12</span></a> According to Deut. x. 1 f., which is in the main a <i>verbal</i> excerpt
+from Ex. xxxiv. 1 f., Yahweh ordered Moses to make an ark of acacia
+wood <i>before</i> he ascended the mountain.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft13h" id="ft13h" href="#fa13h"><span class="fn">13</span></a> To the same hand are to be ascribed also xxvii. 6, 20, 21;
+xxviii. 41; xxix. 21, 38-41.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXODUS, THE,<a name="ar70" id="ar70"></a></span> the name given to the journey (Gr. <span class="grk" title="exodos">&#7956;&#958;&#959;&#948;&#959;&#962;</span>) of
+the Israelites from Egypt into Palestine, under the leadership
+of Moses and Aaron, as described in the books of the Bible from
+Exodus to Joshua. These books contain the great national epic
+of Judaism relating the deliverance of the people from bondage
+in Egypt, the overthrow of the pursuing Pharaoh and his army,
+the divinely guided wanderings through the wilderness and the
+final entry into the promised land. Careful criticism of the
+narratives<a name="fa1i" id="fa1i" href="#ft1i"><span class="sp">1</span></a> has resulted in the separation of later accretions
+from the earliest records, and the tracing of the elaboration of
+older traditions under the influence of developing religious and
+social institutions. In the story of the Exodus there have been
+incorporated codes of laws and institutions which were to be
+observed by the descendants of the Israelites in their future
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page78" id="page78"></a>78</span>
+home, and these, really of later origin, have thus been thrown
+back to the earlier period in order to give them the stamp of
+authority. So, although a certain amount of the narrative
+<i>could</i> date from the days of Moses, the Exodus story has been
+made the vehicle for the aims and ideals of subsequent ages,
+and has been adapted from time to time to the requirements
+of later stages of thought. The work of criticism has brought
+to light important examples of fluctuating tradition, singular
+lacunae in some places and unusual wealth of tradition in others,
+and has demonstrated that much of that which had long been
+felt to be impossible and incredible was due to writers of the
+post-exilic age many centuries after the presumed date of the
+events.</p>
+
+<p>The book of Genesis closes with the migration of Jacob&rsquo;s
+family into Egypt to escape the famine in Canaan. Jacob died
+and was buried in Canaan by his sons, who, however, returned
+again to the pastures which the Egyptian king had granted
+them in Goshen. Their brother Joseph on his death-bed promised
+that God would bring them to the land promised to their forefathers
+and solemnly adjured them to carry up his bones (Gen. 1.).
+In the book of Exodus the family has become a people.<a name="fa2i" id="fa2i" href="#ft2i"><span class="sp">2</span></a> The
+Pharaoh is hostile, and Yahweh, the Israelite deity, is moved
+to send a deliverer; on the events that followed see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exodus,
+Book of</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moses</a></span>. It has been thought that dynastic changes
+occasioned the change in Egyptian policy (<i>e.g.</i> the expulsion of
+the Hyksos), but if the Israelites built Rameses and Pithom
+(Ex. i. 11), cities which, as excavation has shown, belong to the
+time of Rameses II. (13th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), earlier dates are inadmissible.
+On these grounds the Exodus may have taken
+place under one of his successors, and since Mineptah or
+Merneptah (son of Rameses), in relating his successes in Palestine,
+boasts that <i>Ysiraal</i> is desolated, it would seem that the Israelites
+had already returned. On the other hand, it has been suggested
+that when Jacob and his family entered Egypt, some Israelite
+tribes had remained behind and that it is to these that Mineptah&rsquo;s
+inscription refers. The problem is complicated by the fact that,
+from the Egyptian evidence, not only was there at this time
+no remarkable emigration of oppressed Hebrews, but Bedouin
+tribes were then receiving permission to enter Egypt and to
+feed their flocks upon Egyptian soil. It might be assumed that
+the Israelites (or at least those who had not remained behind
+in Palestine) effected their departure at a somewhat later date,
+and in the time of Mineptah&rsquo;s successor, Seti II., there is an
+Egyptian report of the pursuit of some fugitive slaves over the
+eastern frontier. The value of all such evidence will naturally
+depend largely upon the estimate formed of the biblical narratives,
+but it is necessary to observe that these have not yet
+found Egyptian testimony to support them. Although the
+information which has been brought to bear upon Egyptian life
+and customs substantiates the general accuracy of the local
+colouring in some of the biblical narratives, the latter contain
+several inherent improbabilities, and whatever future research
+may yield, no definite trace of Egyptian influence has so far
+been found in Israelite institutions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>No allusions to Israelites in Egypt have yet been found on the
+monuments; against the view that the Aperiu (or Apury) of the
+inscriptions were Hebrews, see S.R. Driver in D.G. Hogarth,
+<i>Authority and Archaeology</i>, pp. 56 sqq.; H.W. Hogg, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col.
+1310. The plagues of Egypt have been shown to be those to which
+the land is naturally subject (R. Thomson, <i>Plagues of Egypt</i>), but
+the description of the relations of Moses and Aaron to the court
+raises many difficult questions (H.P. Smith, <i>O.T. Hist.</i> pp. 57-60).
+Those who reject Ex. i. 11 and hold that 480 years elapsed between
+the Exodus and the foundation of the temple (I Kings vi. 1, see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>: Chronology) place the former about the time of Tethmosis
+(Thothmes) III., and suppose that the hostile &#7716;abiri (Khabiri) who
+troubled Palestine in the 15th century are no other than Hebrews
+(the equation is philologically sound), <i>i.e.</i> the invading Israelites.<a name="fa3i" id="fa3i" href="#ft3i"><span class="sp">3</span></a>
+But although the evidence of the Amarna tablets might thus support
+the biblical tradition in its barest outlines, the view in question, if
+correct, would necessitate the rejection of a great mass of the biblical
+narratives as a whole.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>In the absence of external evidence the study of the Exodus
+of the Israelites must be based upon the Israelite records, and
+divergent or contradictory views must be carefully noticed.
+Regarded simply as a journey from Egypt into Palestine it is the
+most probable of occurrences: the difficulty arises from the
+actual narratives. The first stage is the escape from the land of
+Goshen (<i>q.v.</i>), the district allotted to the family of Jacob (Gen.
+xlvi. 28-34, xlvii. 1, 4, 6).<a name="fa4i" id="fa4i" href="#ft4i"><span class="sp">4</span></a> As to the route taken across the
+Red Sea (<i>Yam S&#363;ph</i>) scholars are not agreed (see W.M. Müller,
+<i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1436 sqq.); it depends upon the view held
+regarding the second stage of the journey, the road to the
+mountain of Sinai or Horeb and thence to Kadesh. The last-mentioned
+place is identified with Ain Kad&#299;s, about 50 m. south
+of Beersheba; but the identification of the mountain is uncertain,
+and it is possible that tradition confused two distinct places.
+According to one favourite view, the journey was taken across
+the Sinaitic peninsula to Midian, the home of Jethro. Others
+plead strongly for the traditional site Jebel M&#363;s&#257; or Serb&#257;l in
+the south of the peninsula (see J.R. Harris, <i>Dict. Bible</i>, iv.
+pp. 536 sqq.; H. Winckler, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 4641). The latter
+view implies that the oppressed Israelites left Egypt for one
+of its dependencies, and both theories find only conjectural
+identifications in the various stations recorded in Num. xxxiii.
+But this list of forty names, corresponding to the years of
+wandering, is from a post-exilic source, and may be based
+merely upon a knowledge of caravan-routes; even if it be of
+older origin, it is of secondary value since it represents a tradition
+differing notably from that in the earlier narratives themselves,
+and these on inspection confirm Judg. xi. 16 seq., where the
+Israelites proceed immediately to Kadesh.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Ex. xvi.-xviii. presuppose a settled encampment and a law-giving,
+and thus belong to a stage <i>after</i> Sinai had been reached (Ex.
+xix. sqq.). They are closely related, as regards subject matter, &amp;c. ,
+to the narratives in Num. x. 29-xi., xx. 1-13 (Sinai to Kadesh),
+and the initial step is the recognition that the latter is their original
+context (see G.F. Moore, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1443 [v.]). Further,
+internal peculiarities associating events now at Sinai-Horeb with
+those at Kadesh support the view that Kadesh was their true scene,
+and it is to be noticed that in Ex. xv. 22 seq. the Israelites already
+reach the wilderness of Shur and accomplish the three days&rsquo; journey
+which had been their original aim (cf. Ex. iii. 18, v. 3, viii. 27).
+The wilderness of Shur (Gen. xvi. 7, xx. 1; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8)
+is the natural scene of conflicts with Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8 sqq.),
+and its sanctuary of Kadesh or En Mishpat (&ldquo;well of judgment,&rdquo;
+Gen. xiv. 7) was doubtless associated with traditions of the giving
+of statutes and ordinances. The détour to Sinai-Horeb appears to
+belong to a later stage of the tradition, and is connected with the
+introduction of laws and institutions of relatively later form. It is
+foreshadowed by the injunction to avoid the direct way into Palestine
+(see Ex. xiii. 17-19), since on reaching Kadesh the Israelites would
+be within reach of hostile tribes, and the conflicts which it was proposed
+to avoid actually ensued.<a name="fa5i" id="fa5i" href="#ft5i"><span class="sp">5</span></a> The forty years of wandering in
+the wilderness is characteristic of the Deuteronomic and post-exilic
+narratives; in the earlier sources the fruitful oasis of Kadesh is the
+centre, and even after the tradition of a détour to Sinai-Horeb was
+developed, only a brief period is spent at the holy mountain.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>From Kadesh spies were sent into Palestine, and when the
+people were dismayed at their tidings and incurred the wrath
+of Yahweh, the penalty of the forty years&rsquo; delay was pronounced
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page79" id="page79"></a>79</span>
+(Num. xiii. seq.). Originally Caleb alone was exempt and for
+his faith received a blessing; later tradition adds Joshua and
+in Deut. i. 37 seq. alludes to some unknown offence of Moses.
+According to Num. xxi. 1-3 the Israelites (a generalizing amplification)
+captured Hormah, on the way to Beersheba, and
+subsequently the clan Caleb and the Kenites (the clan of Moses&rsquo;
+father-in-law) are found in Judah (Judg. i. 16). Although the
+traditions regard their efforts as part of a common movement
+(from Gilgal, see below), it is more probable that these (notably
+Caleb) escaped the punishment which befell the rest of the
+Israelites, and made their way direct from Kadesh into the
+south of Palestine.<a name="fa6i" id="fa6i" href="#ft6i"><span class="sp">6</span></a> On the other hand, according to the prevailing
+tradition, the attempt to break northwards was frustrated
+by a defeat at Hormah (Num. xiv. 40-45), an endeavour to pass
+Edom failed, and the people turned back to the <i>Yam S&#363;ph</i> (here
+at the head of the Gulf of Akabah) and proceeded up to the
+east of Edom and Moab. Conflicting views are represented (on
+which see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moab</a></span>), but at length Shittim was reached and preparations
+were made to cross the Jordan into the promised land.
+This having been effected, Gilgal became the base for a series of
+operations in which the united tribes took part. But again the
+representations disagree, and to the overwhelming campaigns
+depicted in the book of Joshua most critics prefer the account
+of the more gradual process as related in the opening chapter of
+the book of Judges (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § 8).</p>
+
+<p>Thus, whatever evidence may be supplied by archaeological
+research, the problem of the Exodus must always be studied in
+the light of the biblical narratives. That the religious life of
+Israel as portrayed therein dates from this remote period cannot
+be maintained against the results of excavation or against the
+later history, nor can we picture a united people in the desert
+when subsequent vicissitudes represent the union as the work of
+many years, and show that it lasted for a short time only under
+David and Solomon. During the centuries in which the narratives
+were taking shape many profound changes occurred to affect
+the traditions. Developments associated with the Deuteronomic
+reform and the reorganization of Judaism in post-exilic days
+can be unmistakably recognized, and it would be unsafe to
+assume that other vicissitudes have not also left their mark.
+Allowance must be made for the shifting of boundaries or of
+spheres of influence (Egypt, Edom, Moab), for the incorporation
+of tribes and of their own tribal traditions, and in particular
+for other movements (<i>e.g.</i> from Arabia).<a name="fa7i" id="fa7i" href="#ft7i"><span class="sp">7</span></a> If certain clans
+moved direct from Kadesh into Judah, it is improbable that
+others made the lengthy détour from Kadesh by the Gulf of
+Akabah, but this may well be an attempt to fuse the traditions
+of two distinct migrations. Among the Joseph-tribes (Ephraim
+and Manasseh), the most important of Israelite divisions, the
+traditions of an ancestor who had lived and died in Egypt
+would be a cherished possession, but although most writers
+agree that not all the tribes were in Egypt, it is impossible to
+determine their number with any certainty. At certain
+periods, intercourse with Egypt was especially intimate, and
+there is much in favour of the view that the name Mizraim
+(Egypt) extended beyond the borders of Egypt proper. Reference
+has already been made to other cases of geographical
+vagueness, and one must recognize that in a body of traditions
+such as this there was room for the inclusion of the most diverse
+elements which it is almost hopeless to separate, in view of the
+scantiness of relevant evidence from other sources, and the
+literary intricacy of the extant narratives. That many different
+beliefs have influenced the tradition is apparent from what has
+been said above, and is especially noticeable from a study of the
+general features. Thus, although the Israelites possessed cattle
+(Ex. xvii. 3, xix. 13, xxiv. 5, xxxii. 6, xxxiv. 3; Num. xx. 19),
+allusion is made to their lack of meat in order to magnify the
+wonders of the journey, and among divinely sent aids to guide
+and direct the people upon the march not only does Moses
+require the assistance of a <i>human</i> helper (Jethro or Hobab),
+but the angel, the ark, the pillar of cloud and of fire and the
+mysterious hornet are also provided.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the references already given, see J.W. Colenso,
+<i>Pentateuch and Book of Joshua</i> (on internal difficulties); A. Jeremias,
+<i>Alte Test. im Lichte d. alt. Orients</i><span class="sp">2</span> (pp. 402 sqq., on later references
+in Manetho, &amp;c. , with which cf. also R.H. Charles, <i>Jubilees</i>, p.
+245 seq.); art. &ldquo;Exodus&rdquo; in <i>Ency. Bib.</i>; Ed. Meyer, <i>Israëliten</i>
+(<i>passim</i>); Bönhoff, <i>Theolog. Stud. u. Krit.</i> (1907), pp. 159-217;
+the histories of Israel and commentaries on the book of Exodus.
+Among the numerous special works, mention may be made of
+G. Ebers, <i>Durch Gosen zum Sinai</i>; E.H. Palmer, <i>Desert of the
+Exodus</i>; O.A. Toffteen, <i>The Historic Exodus</i>; fuller information is
+given in L.B. Paton, <i>Hist. of Syria and Palestine</i>, p. 34 (also ch. viii.);
+and C.F. Kent, <i>Beginnings of Heb. Hist.</i> p. 355 seq.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1i" id="ft1i" href="#fa1i"><span class="fn">1</span></a> See the articles on the books in question.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2i" id="ft2i" href="#fa2i"><span class="fn">2</span></a> There is a lacuna between the oldest traditions in Genesis and
+those in Exodus: the latter beginning simply &ldquo;and there arose a
+new king over Egypt which knew not Joseph.&rdquo; The interval between
+Jacob&rsquo;s arrival in Egypt and the Exodus is given varyingly as 400
+or 430 years (Gen. xv. 13, Ex. xii. 40 seq., Acts vii. 6); but the
+Samaritan and Septuagint versions allow only 215 years (Ex. loc. cit.),
+and a period of only four generations is presupposed in Gen. xv. 16
+(cf. the length of the genealogies between the contemporaries of
+Joseph and those of Moses in Ex. vi. 16-20).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3i" id="ft3i" href="#fa3i"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Sec, <i>e.g.</i>, J. Orr, <i>Problem of the O.T.</i> pp. 422 sqq.; Ed. Meyer, <i>Die
+Israëliten</i>, pp. 222 sqq. Some, too, find in the Amarna tablets
+the historical background for Joseph&rsquo;s high position at the Egyptian
+court (see Cheyne, <i>Ency. Bib.</i> art. &ldquo;Joseph&rdquo;).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4i" id="ft4i" href="#fa4i"><span class="fn">4</span></a> For the varying traditions regarding the number of the people
+and their residence (whether settled apart, cf., <i>e.g.</i>, Gen. xlvi. 34,
+Ex. viii. 22, ix. 26, x. 23, or in the midst of the Egyptians) see the
+recent commentaries.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5i" id="ft5i" href="#fa5i"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See further J. Wellhausen, <i>Prolegomena</i>, pp. 342 sqq.; G.F.
+Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 1443; S.A. Cook, <i>Jew. Quart. Rev.</i> (1906),
+pp. 741 sqq. (1907), p. 122, and art. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Moses</a></span>. Ex. xiii. 17-19 forbids
+the compromise which would place Sinai-Horeb in the neighbourhood
+of Kadesh (A.E. Haynes, <i>Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statem.</i>
+(1896), pp. 175 sqq.; C.F. Kent [see <i>Lit.</i> below], p. 381).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6i" id="ft6i" href="#fa6i"><span class="fn">6</span></a> So B. Stade, Steuernagel, Guthe, G.F. Moore, H.P. Smith,
+C.F. Kent, &amp;c.  See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Caleb</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jerahmeel</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Judah</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Kenites</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Levites</a></span>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>, §§ 5, 20 (end).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7i" id="ft7i" href="#fa7i"><span class="fn">7</span></a> An instructive parallel to the last-mentioned is afforded by
+Dissard&rsquo;s account of the migration of Arab tribes into Palestine in
+the 18th century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> (<i>Revue biblique</i>, July 1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXOGAMY<a name="ar71" id="ar71"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="exô">&#7956;&#958;&#969;</span>, outside; and <span class="grk" title="gamos">&#947;&#940;&#956;&#959;&#962;</span>, marriage), the term
+proposed by J.F. McLennan for the custom compelling marriage
+&ldquo;out of the tribe&rdquo; (or rather &ldquo;out of the totem&rdquo;); its converse
+is endogamy (<i>q.v.</i>). McLennan would find an explanation of
+exogamy in the prevalence of female infanticide, which, &ldquo;rendering
+women scarce, led at once to polyandry within the tribe,
+and the capturing of women from without.&rdquo; Infanticide of
+girls is, and no doubt ever has been, a very common practice
+among savages, and for obvious reasons. Among tribes in a
+primitive stage of social organization girl-children must always
+have been a hindrance and a source of weakness. They had to be
+fed and yet they could not take part in the hunt for food, and they
+offered a temptation to neighbouring tribes. Infanticide, however,
+is not proved to have been so universal as McLennan
+suggests, and it is more probable that the reason of exogamy is
+really to be found in that primitive social system which made
+the &ldquo;captured&rdquo; woman the only wife in the modern sense of
+the term. In the beginnings of human society children were
+related only to their mother; and the women of a tribe were
+common property. Thus no man might appropriate any female
+or attempt to maintain proprietary rights over her. With women
+of other tribes it would be different, and a warrior who captured
+a woman would doubtless pass unchallenged in his claim to
+possess her absolutely. Infanticide, the evil physical effects of
+&ldquo;in-and-in&rdquo; breeding, the natural strength of the impulse to
+possess on the man&rsquo;s part, and the greater feeling of security
+and a tendency to family life and affections on the woman&rsquo;s,
+would combine to make exogamy increase and marriages within
+the tribe decrease. A natural impulse would in a few generations
+tend to become a law or a custom, the violation of which would be
+looked on with horror. Physical capture, too, as soon as increasing
+civilization and tribal intercommunication removed the
+necessity for violence, became symbolic of the more permanent
+and individual relations of the sexes. An additional explanation
+of the prevalence of exogamy may be found in the natural
+tendency of exogamous tribes to increase in numbers and
+strength at the expense of those communities which moved
+towards decadence by in-breeding. Thus tradition would
+harden into a prejudice, strong as a principle of religion, and
+exogamy would become the inviolable custom it is found to be
+among many races. In Australia, Sir G. Grey writes: &ldquo;One
+of the most remarkable facts connected with the natives is that
+they are divided into certain great families, all the members of
+which bear the same name ... these family names are common
+over a great portion of the continent and a man cannot marry
+a woman of his own family name.&rdquo; In eastern Africa, Sir R.
+Burton says: &ldquo;The Somal will not marry one of the same, or
+even of a consanguineous family,&rdquo; and the Bakalahari have the
+same rule. Paul B. du Chaillu found exogamy the rule and blood
+marriages regarded as an abomination throughout western
+Equatorial Africa. In India the Khasias, Juangs, Waralis,
+Otaons, Hos and other tribes are strictly exogamous. The
+Kalmucks are divided into hordes, and no man may marry a
+woman of the same horde. Circassians and Samoyedes have
+similar rules. The Ostiaks regard endogamy (marriage within
+the clan) as a crime, as do the Yakuts of Siberia. Among
+the Indians of America severe rules prescribing exogamy prevail.
+The Tsimsheean Indians of British Columbia are divided into
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page80" id="page80"></a>80</span>
+tribes and totems, or &ldquo;crests which are common to all the tribes,&rdquo;
+says one writer. &ldquo;The crests are the whale, the porpoise, the
+eagle, the coon, the wolf and the frog.... The relationship
+existing between persons of the same crest is nearer than that
+between members of the same tribe.... Members of the same
+tribe may marry, but those of the same crest are not allowed to
+under any circumstances; that is, a whale may not marry a
+whale, but a whale may marry a frog, &amp;c.&rdquo; The Thlinkeets,
+the Mayas of Yucatan and the Indians of Guiana are exogamous,
+observing a custom which is thus seen to exist throughout Africa,
+in Siberia, China, India, Polynesia and the Americas.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;J.F. McLennan, <i>Primitive Marriage</i> (1865), and
+<i>Studies in Anc. Hist.</i> (1896); Lord Avebury, <i>Origin of Civilization</i>
+(1902); Westermarck, <i>History of Human Marriage</i> (1894); A. Lang,
+<i>Social Origins</i> (1903); L.H. Morgan, <i>Ancient Society</i> (1877); J.G.
+Frazer, <i>Totemism and Exogamy</i> (1910); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Totem</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXORCISM<a name="ar72" id="ar72"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="exorkizein">&#7952;&#958;&#959;&#961;&#954;&#943;&#950;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>, to conjure out), the expulsion
+of evil spirits from persons or places by incantations, magical
+rites or other means. As a corollary of the animistic theory of
+diseases and of belief in Possession (<i>q.v.</i>), we find widely spread
+customs whose object is to get rid of the evil influences. These
+customs may take the form of a general expulsion of evils,
+either once a year or at irregular intervals; the evils, which are
+often regarded as spirits, sometimes as the souls of the dead,
+may be expelled, according to primitive philosophy, either
+immediately by spells, purifications or some form of coercion;
+or they may be put on the back of a scapegoat or other material
+vehicle. Among the means of compelling the evil spirits are
+assaults with warlike weapons or sticks, the noise of musical
+instruments or of the human voice, the use of masks, the invocation
+of more powerful good spirits, &amp;c. ; both fire and water are
+used to drive them out, and the use of iron is a common means
+of holding them at bay.</p>
+
+<p>The term exorcism is applied more especially to the freeing
+of an individual from a possessing or disease-causing spirit;
+the means adopted are frequently the same as those mentioned
+above; in the East Indies the sufferer sometimes dances round
+a small ship, into which the spirit passes and is then set adrift.
+The patient may be beaten or means may be employed whose
+efficiency depends largely on their suggestive nature. Among
+the Dakota Indians the medicine-man chants <i>hi-le-li-lah!</i> at the
+bed of the sick man and accompanies his chant with the rattle;
+he then sucks at the affected part till the possessing spirit is
+supposed to come out and take its flight, when men fire guns at it
+from the door of the tent. The Zulus believe that they can get rid
+of the souls of the dead, which cause diseases, by sacrifices of
+cattle, or by expostulating with the spirits; so too the <i>shaman</i> or
+magician in other parts of the world offers the possessing spirit
+objects or animals.</p>
+
+<p>The professional exorcist was known among the Jews; in
+Greece the art was practised by women, and it is recorded that
+the mothers of Epicurus and Aeschines belonged to this class;
+both were bitterly reproached, the one by the Stoics, the other
+by Demosthenes, with having taken part in the practices in
+question. The prominence of exorcism in the early ages of the
+Christian church appears from its frequent mention in the
+writings of the fathers, and by the 3rd century there was an order
+of exorcists (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exorcist</a></span>). The ancient rite of exorcism in
+connexion with baptism is still retained in the Roman ritual, as
+is also a form of service for the exorcising of possessed persons.
+The exorcist signs the possessed person with the figure of the
+cross, desires him to kneel, and sprinkles him with holy water;
+after which the exorcist asks the devil his name, and abjures him
+by the holy mysteries of the Christian religion not to afflict the
+person possessed any more. Then, laying his right hand on the
+demoniac&rsquo;s head, he repeats the form of exorcism as follows:
+&ldquo;I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ;
+tremble, O Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind,
+who hast brought death into the world, who hast deprived men
+of life, and hast rebelled against justice, thou seducer of mankind,
+thou root of evil, thou source of avarice, discord and envy.&rdquo;
+Houses and other places supposed to be haunted by unclean
+spirits are likewise to be exorcised with similar rites, and in general
+exorcism has a place in all the ceremonies for consecrating and
+blessing persons or things (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Benediction</a></span>).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Tylor, <i>Primitive Culture</i>; Skeat, <i>Malay Magic</i>, p. 427 seq.;
+Frazer, <i>Golden Bough</i>, vol. iii. 189; Krafft, <i>Ausführliche Historie von
+Exorcismus</i>; Koldeweg, <i>Der Exorcismus im Herzogthum Braunschweig</i>;
+Brecher, <i>Das Transcendentale, Magie, etc. im Talmud</i>, pp. 195-203:
+<i>Zeitschr. für Assyriologie</i> (Dec. 1893, April 1894); Herzog,
+<i>Realencykl., s.v.</i> &ldquo;Exorcismus&rdquo;; Waldmeier, <i>Autobiography</i>, p.
+64; L.W. King, <i>Babylonian Magic</i>; Maury, <i>La Magie</i>; R.C.
+Thompson, <i>Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXORCIST<a name="ar73" id="ar73"></a></span> (Lat. <i>exorcista</i>, Gr. <span class="grk" title="exorkistês">&#7952;&#958;&#959;&#961;&#954;&#943;&#963;&#964;&#951;&#962;</span>), in the Roman
+Catholic church, the third grade in the minor orders of the clergy,
+between those of acolyte and reader. The office, which involves
+the right of ceremonially exorcising devils (see Exorcism), is
+actually no more than a preliminary stage of the priesthood.
+The earliest record of the special ordination of exorcists is the
+7th canon of the council of Carthage (<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 256). &ldquo;When they
+are ordained,&rdquo; it runs, &ldquo;they receive from the hand of the
+bishop a little book in which the exorcisms are written, receiving
+power to lay hands on the <i>energumeni</i>, whether baptized or catechumens.&rdquo;
+Whatever its present position, the office of exorcist
+was, until comparatively recent times, by no means considered
+a sinecure. &ldquo;The exorcist a terror to demons&rdquo; (Paulinus,
+<i>Epist.</i> 24) survived the Reformation among Protestants, with
+the belief, expressed by Firmilianus in his epistle to St Cyprian,
+that &ldquo;through the exorcists, by the voice of man and the power
+of God, the devil may be whipped, and burnt and tortured.&rdquo;</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXOTIC<a name="ar74" id="ar74"></a></span> (Gr. <span class="grk" title="exôtikos">&#7952;&#958;&#969;&#964;&#953;&#954;&#972;&#962;</span>, foreign, from <span class="grk" title="exô">&#7956;&#958;&#969;</span>, outside), of
+foreign origin, or belonging to another country. The term is
+now used in the restricted sense of something not indigenous
+or native, and is mostly applied to plants introduced from
+foreign countries, which have not become acclimatized. Figuratively,
+&ldquo;exotic&rdquo; is used to convey the sense of something rare,
+delicate or extravagant.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXPATRIATION<a name="ar75" id="ar75"></a></span> (from Late Lat. <i>expatriare</i>, to exile, and
+<i>patria</i>, native land), a term used in a general sense for the banishment
+of a person from his own country. In international
+law expatriation is the renunciation or change of allegiance to
+one&rsquo;s native or adopted country. It may take place either by a
+voluntary act or by operation of law. Some countries, as France
+and England, disclaim their subjects if they become naturalized
+in another country, others, again, passively permit expatriation
+whether a new nationality has been acquired or not; others,
+as Germany, make expatriation the consequence of continued
+absence from their territory. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alien</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Allegiance</a></span>;
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Naturalization</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXPERT<a name="ar76" id="ar76"></a></span> (Lat. <i>expertus</i>, from <i>experiri</i>, to try), strictly,
+skilled, or one who has special knowledge; as used in law, an
+expert is a person, selected by a court, or adduced by a party
+to a cause, to give his opinion on some point in issue with which
+he is peculiarly conversant. In Roman law questions of disputed
+handwriting were referred to experts; and in France,
+whenever the court considers that a report by experts is necessary,
+it is ordered by a judgment clearly setting forth the objects of
+the <i>expertise</i> (Code Proc. Civ. art. 302). Three experts are then
+to be appointed, unless the parties agree upon one only (art.
+303). The experts are required to take an oath (art. 305), but
+in practice this requirement is frequently dispensed with. They
+may be challenged on the same grounds as witnesses (art. 310).
+The necessary documentary and other evidence is laid before
+them (art. 317), and they make a single report to the court, even
+if they express different opinions: in that case the grounds only
+of the different opinions are to be stated, and not the personal
+opinion of each of the experts (art. 318). If the court is not
+satisfied with the report, new experts may be appointed (art.
+322); the judges are not bound to adopt the opinion of the
+experts (art. 323). &ldquo;This procedure in regard to experts is
+common to both the civil and commercial courts, but it is much
+more frequently resorted to in the commercial court than in
+the civil court, and the investigation is usually conducted by
+special experts officially attached to each of these courts&rdquo;
+(Bodington, <i>French Law of Evidence</i>, London, 1904, p. 102).
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page81" id="page81"></a>81</span>
+A similar system is to be found in force in many other European
+countries; see <i>e.g.</i> Codes of Civil Procedure of Holland, arts.
+222 et seq.; Belgium, arts. 302 et seq.; Italy, arts. 252 et seq.;
+as well as in those colonies where French law has been followed
+(Codes of Civil Procedure of Quebec, arts. 392 et seq.; St Lucia,
+arts. 286 et seq.). In Mauritius the articles of the French law,
+summarized above, are still nominally in force; but in practice
+each side calls its own expert evidence, as in England.</p>
+
+<p>There is some evidence that in England the courts were in early
+times in the habit of  summoning to their assistance, apparently
+as assessors, persons specially qualified to advise upon any
+scientific or technical question that required to be determined.
+Thus &ldquo;in an appeal of maihem (<i>i.e.</i> wounding) ... the court
+did not know how to adjudge because the wound was new, and
+then the defendant took issue and prayed the court that the
+maihem might be examined, on which a writ was sent to the
+sheriff to cause to come <i>medicos chirurgieos de melioribus London,
+ad informandum dominum regem el curiam de his quae eis ex parte
+domini regis injungerentur</i>&rdquo; (Year Book, 21 Hen. VII. pl. 30,
+p. 33). The practice of calling in expert assistance in judicial
+inquiries was not confined to medico-legal cases. &ldquo;If matters
+arise,&rdquo; said Justice Saunders in <i>Buckley</i> v. <i>Rice Thomas</i> (1554,
+Plowden, 124 a), &ldquo;which concern other faculties, we commonly
+apply for the aid of that science or faculty which it concerns.&rdquo;
+English procedure, however, being <i>litigious</i>, and not, like
+continental European procedure, <i>inquisitorial</i>, in its character,
+the expert soon became, and still is, simply a witness to speak
+to matters of opinion.</p>
+
+<p>There is a considerable body of law in England as to expert
+evidence. Only a few points can be touched upon here. (1)
+An expert is permitted to refresh his memory in regard to any
+fact by referring to anything written by himself or under his
+direction at the time when the fact occurred or at a time when
+it was fresh in his memory. This is also law generally in the
+United States (see <i>e.g.</i> New York Civil Code, s. 1843). In
+Scotland, medical and other scientific reports are lodged in
+process before the trial, and the witness reads them as part of his
+evidence and is liable to be examined or cross-examined on their
+contents. (2) In strictness, an expert will not be allowed, in
+cases of alleged insanity, to say that a litigating or incriminated
+party is insane or the reverse, and so to usurp the prerogative
+of the court or jury. But he may be asked whether certain facts
+or symptoms, <i>assuming them to be proved</i>, are or are not indicative
+of insanity. But in practice this rule is relaxed both in England
+and in Scotland, and (where it exists) to a still greater extent in
+America. (3) Foreign law can only be proved in English
+courts&mdash;and the same rule applies in Scotland&mdash;(<i>a</i>) by obtaining
+an opinion on the subject from a superior court of the country
+whose laws are in dispute under the Foreign Law Ascertainment
+Act 1861 or the British Law Ascertainment Act 1859, or (<i>b</i>) by
+the evidence of a lawyer of the country whose law is in question,
+or who has studied it <i>in that country</i>, or of an official whose
+position requires, and therefore presumes, a sufficient knowledge
+of that law. (4) The weight of authority both in England and in
+America supports the view that an expert is not bound to give
+evidence as to matters of opinion unless upon an undertaking
+by the party calling him to pay a reasonable remuneration for
+his evidence.</p>
+
+<p>Statutory provision has been made in England for the summoning
+of expert assistance by the legal tribunals in various cases.
+In the county courts the judge may, if he thinks fit, on the
+application of either party, call in as assessor one or more persons
+of skill and experience as to the matters in dispute (County
+Courts Act 1888, s. 103), and special provision is made for
+calling in an assessor in employers&rsquo; liability cases (act of 1880,
+s. 6) and admiralty matters (see County Courts Admiralty
+Jurisdiction Acts of 1868 and 1869). In the High Court and
+court of appeal one or more specially qualified assessors may be
+called in to assist in the hearing of any cause or matter except a
+criminal proceeding by the crown (Judicature Acts 1873, s. 56),
+and a like power is given to both these courts and the judicial
+committee of the privy council in patent cases (Patents, &amp;c. , Act
+1883., s. 28). Maritime causes, whether original or on appeal from
+county courts, are usually taken in the presence of Elder Brethren
+of the Trinity House, who advise the judge without having any
+right to control or any responsibility for his decision (see the
+&ldquo;Beryl,&rdquo; 1884, 9 P.D. 1), and on appeal in maritime causes
+nautical assessories are usually called in by the court of appeal,
+and may be called in by the House of Lords (Judicature Act
+1891, s. 3); a like provision is made as to maritime causes
+in Scottish courts (Nautical Assessors [Scotland] Act 1894).
+The judicial committee of the privy council, besides its power
+to call in assessors in patent cases, is authorized to call them
+in in ecclesiastical causes (Appellate Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Taylor, <i>Law of
+Evidence</i> (9th ed., London, 1895); J.D. Lawson, <i>Law of Expert and
+Opinion Evidence</i> (1900).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXPLOSIVES,<a name="ar77" id="ar77"></a></span> a general term for substances which by certain
+treatment &ldquo;explode,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> decompose or change in a violent
+manner so as to generate force. From the manner and degree of
+violence of the decomposition they are classified into &ldquo;propellants&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;detonators,&rdquo; but this classification is not capable
+of sharp delimitation. In some cases the same substance may be
+employed for either purpose under altered external conditions;
+but there are some substances which could not possibly be employed
+as propellants, and others which can scarcely be induced
+to explode in the manner known as &ldquo;detonation.&rdquo; A propellant
+may be considered as a substance that on explosion produces
+such a disturbance that neighbouring substances are thrown
+to some distance; a detonator or disruptor may produce an
+extremely violent disturbance within a limited area without
+projecting substances to any great distance. Time is an important,
+perhaps the most important, factor in this action. A
+propellant generally acts by <i>burning</i> in a more or less rapid and
+regular manner, producing from a comparatively small volume
+a large volume of gases; during this action heat is also developed,
+which, being expended mostly on the gaseous products, causes
+a further expansion. The noise accompanying an explosion is
+due to an air wave, and is markedly different in the case of
+a detonator from a real propellant. Some cases of ordinary
+combustion can be accelerated into explosions by increasing the
+area of contact between the combustible and the oxygen supplier,
+for instance, ordinary gas or dust explosions. Neither temperature
+nor quantity of heat energy necessarily gives an explosive
+action. Some metals, <i>e.g.</i> aluminium and magnesium, will,
+in oxidizing, produce a great thermal effect, but unless there be
+some gaseous products no real explosive action.</p>
+
+<p>Explosives may be mechanical mixtures of substances capable
+of chemical interaction with the production of large volumes of
+gases, or definite chemical compounds of a peculiar class known
+as &ldquo;endothermic,&rdquo; the decomposition of which is also attended
+with the evolution of gases in large quantity.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>All chemical compounds are either &ldquo;endothermic&rdquo; or &ldquo;exothermic.&rdquo;
+In endothermic compounds energy, in some form, has
+been taken up in the act of formation of the compound. Some of
+this energy has become potential, or rather the compound formed
+has been raised to a higher potential. This case occurs when two
+elements can be united only under some compulsion such as a very
+high temperature, by the aid of an electric current, or spark, or as a
+secondary product whilst some other reactions are proceeding.
+For example, oxygen and nitrogen combine only under the influence
+of an electric spark, and carbon and calcium in the electric furnace.
+The formation of chlorates by the action of chlorine on boiling potash
+is a good instance of a complex compound (potassium chlorate),
+being formed in small quantity as a secondary product whilst a
+large quantity of primary and simpler products (potassium chloride
+and water) is forming. In chlorate formation the greater part of the
+reaction represents a running down of energy and formation of
+exothermic compounds, with only a small yield of an endothermic
+substance. Another idea of the meaning of endothermic is obtained
+from acetylene. When 26 parts by weight of this substance are
+burnt, the heat produced will warm up 310,450 parts of water 1° C.
+Acetylene consists of 24 parts of carbon and 2 of hydrogen by weight.
+The 24 parts of carbon will, if in the form of pure charcoal, heat
+192,000 parts of water 1°, and the 2 parts of hydrogen will heat
+68,000 parts of water 1°, the total heat production being 260,000
+heat units. Thus 26 grams of acetylene give an excess of 50,450
+units over the amount given by the constituents. This excess of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page82" id="page82"></a>82</span>
+heat energy<a name="fa1j" id="fa1j" href="#ft1j"><span class="sp">1</span></a> is due to some form of potential energy in the compound
+which becomes actual heat energy at the moment of dissolution
+of the chemical union. The manner in which a substance
+is endothermic is of importance as regards the practical employment
+of explosives. Some particular endothermic state or form results
+from the mode of formation and the consequent internal structure
+of the molecule. Physical structure alone can be the cause of a
+relative endothermic state, as in the glass bulbs known as Rupert&rsquo;s
+drops, &amp;c. , or even in chilled steel. Rupert&rsquo;s drops fly in pieces
+on being scratched or cut to a certain depth. The cause is undoubtedly
+to be ascribed to the molecular state of the glass brought
+about by chilling from the melted state. The molecules have not
+had time to separate or arrange themselves in easy positions. In
+steel when melted the carbide of iron is no doubt diffused equally
+throughout the liquid. When cooled slowly some carbide separates
+out more or less, and the steel is soft or annealed. When chilled
+the carbides are retained in solid solution. The volume of chilled
+glass or steel differs slightly from that in the annealed state.</p>
+
+<p>Superfused substances are probably in a similar state of physical
+potential or strain. Many metallic salts, and organic compounds
+especially, will exhibit this state when completely melted and then
+allowed to cool in a clean atmosphere. On touching with a little
+of the same substance in a solid state the liquids will begin to
+crystallize, at the same time becoming heated almost up to their
+melting-points. The metal gallium shows this excellently well,
+keeping liquid for years until touched with the solid metal, when
+there is a considerable rise of temperature as solidification takes
+place.</p>
+
+<p>All carbon compounds, excepting carbon dioxide, and many if
+not all compounds of nitrogen, are endothermic. Most of the explosives
+in common use contain nitrogen in some form.</p>
+
+<p>Exothermic compounds are in a certain sense the reverse of
+endothermic; they are relatively inert and react but slowly or not
+at all, unless energy be expended upon them from outside. Water,
+carbon dioxide and most of the common minerals belong to this
+class.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The explosives actually employed at the present time include
+mixtures, such as gunpowders and some chlorate compositions,
+the ingredients of which separately may be non-explosive;
+compounds used singly, as guncotton, nitroglycerin (in the form
+of dynamite), picric acid (as lyddite or melinite), trinitrotoluene,
+nitrocresols, mercury fulminate, &amp;c. ; combinations of some
+explosive compounds, such as cordite and the smokeless propellants
+in general use for military purposes; and, finally,
+blasting and detonating or igniting compositions, some of
+which contain inert diluting materials as well as one or more
+high explosives. Many igniting compositions are examples
+of the last type, consisting of a high explosive diluted with a
+neutral substance, and frequently containing in addition a
+composition which is inflamed by the explosion of the diluted
+high explosive, the flame in turn igniting the actual propellant.</p>
+
+<p><i>Explosive Mixtures.</i>&mdash;The explosive mixture longest known
+is undoubtedly gunpowder (<i>q.v.</i>) in some form&mdash;that is, a mixture
+of charcoal with sulphur and nitre, the last being the oxygen
+provider. Besides the nitrates of metals and ammonium nitrate,
+there is a limited number of other substances capable of serving
+in a sufficiently energetic manner as oxygen providers. A few
+chlorates, perchlorates, permanganates and chromates almost
+complete the list. Of these the sodium, potassium and barium
+chlorates are best known and have been actually tried, in
+admixture with some combustible substances, as practical explosives.
+Most other metallic chlorates are barred from practical
+employment owing to instability, deliquescence or other
+property.</p>
+
+<p>Of the chlorates those of potassium and sodium are the most
+stable, and mixtures of either of these salts with sulphur or
+sulphides, phosphorus, charcoal, sugar, starch, finely-ground
+cellulose, coal or almost any kind of organic, <i>i.e.</i> carbon, compound,
+in certain proportions, yield an explosive mixture.
+In many cases these mixtures are not only fired or exploded by
+heating to a certain temperature, but also by quite moderate
+friction or percussion. Consequently there is much danger in
+manufacture and storage, and however these mixtures have
+been made up, they are quite out of the question as propellants on
+account of their great tendency to explode in the manner of a
+detonator. In addition they are not smokeless, and leave a
+considerable residue which in a gun would produce serious
+fouling.</p>
+
+<p>Mixtures of chlorates with aromatic compounds such as the
+nitro- or dinitro-benzenes or even naphthalene make very
+powerful blasting agents. The violent action of a chlorate
+mixture is due first to the rapid evolution of oxygen, and also
+to the fact that a chlorate can be detonated when alone. A
+drop of sulphuric acid will start the combustion of a chlorate
+mixture. In admixture with sulphur, sulphides and especially
+phosphorus, chlorates give extremely sensitive compositions,
+some of which form the basis of friction tube and firing mixtures.</p>
+
+<p>Potassium and sodium perchlorates and permanganates
+make similar but slightly less sensitive explosive mixtures with
+the above-mentioned substances. Finely divided metals such as
+aluminium or magnesium give also with permanganates, chlorates
+or perchlorates sensitive and powerful explosives. Bichromates,
+although containing much available oxygen, form but feeble
+explosive mixtures, but some compounds of chromic acid with
+diazo compounds and some acetylides are extremely powerful
+as well as sensitive. Ammonium bichromate is a self-combustible
+after the type of ammonium nitrate, but scarcely an
+explosive.</p>
+
+<p><i>Explosive Compounds.</i>&mdash;Nearly all the explosive compounds
+in actual use either for blasting purposes or as propellants are
+nitrogen compounds, and are obtained more or less directly from
+nitric acid. Most of the propellants at present employed consist
+essentially of nitrates of some organic compound, and may be
+viewed theoretically as nitric acid, the hydrogen of which has
+been replaced by a carbon complex; such compounds are
+expressed by M·O·NO<span class="su">2</span>, which indicates that the carbon group
+is in some manner united by means of oxygen to the nitrogen
+group. Guncotton and nitroglycerin are of this class. Another
+large class of explosives is formed by a more direct attachment
+of nitrogen to the carbon complex, as represented by M·NO<span class="su">2</span>.
+A number of explosives of the detonating type are of this class.
+They contain the same proportions of oxygen and nitrogen as
+nitrites, but are not nitrites. They have been termed nitro-derivatives
+for distinction. One of the simplest and longest-known
+members of this group is nitrobenzene, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NO<span class="su">2</span>, which
+is employed to some extent as an explosive, being one ingredient
+in rack-a-rock and other blasting compositions. The dinitro-benzenes,
+C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">4</span>(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">2</span>, made from it are solids which are somewhat
+extensively employed as constituents of some sporting
+powders, and in admixture with ammonium nitrate form a blasting
+powder of a &ldquo;flameless&rdquo; variety which is comparatively
+safe in dusty or &ldquo;gassy&rdquo; coal seams.</p>
+
+<p>Picric acid or trinitrophenol, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>·OH·(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span> is employed
+as a high explosive for shell, &amp;c.  It requires, however, either to
+be enclosed and heated, or to be started by a powerful detonator
+to develop its full effect. Its compounds with metals, such as
+the potassium salt, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>·OK·(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>, are when dry very easily
+detonated by friction or percussion and <i>always</i> on heating,
+whereas picric acid itself will burn very quietly when set fire
+to under ordinary conditions. Trinitrotoluene, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">2</span>·CH<span class="su">3</span>·(NO<span class="su">2</span>)<span class="su">3</span>,
+is a high explosive resembling picric acid in the manner of its explosion
+(to which in fact it is a rival), but differs therefrom in not
+forming salts with metals. The nitronaphthols, C<span class="su">10</span>H<span class="su">6</span>·OH·NO<span class="su">2</span>,
+and higher nitration products may be counted in the list. Their
+salts with metals behave much like the picrates.</p>
+
+<p>All these nitro compounds can be reduced by the action of
+nascent hydrogen to substances called amines (<i>q.v.</i>), which are
+not always explosive in themselves, but in some cases can form
+nitrates of a self-combustible nature. Aminoacetic acid, for
+instance, will form a nitrate which burns rapidly but quietly, and
+might be employed as an explosive. By the action of nitrous acid
+at low temperatures on aromatic amines, <i>e.g.</i> aniline, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>NH<span class="su">2</span>,
+diazo compounds are produced. These are all highly explosive,
+and when in a dry state are for the most part also extremely
+sensitive to friction, percussion or heat. As many of these diazo
+compounds contain no oxygen their explosive nature must be
+ascribed to the peculiar state of union of the nitrogen. This
+state is attempted to be shown by the formulae such as, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page83" id="page83"></a>83</span>
+instance, C<span class="su">6</span>H<span class="su">5</span>·N:N·X, which maybe some compound of diazobenzene.
+Probably the most vigorous high explosive at present
+known is the substance called hydrazoic acid or azoimide (<i>q.v.</i>).
+It forms salts with metals such as AgN<span class="su">3</span>, which explode in a
+peculiar manner. The ammonium compound, NH<span class="su">4</span>N<span class="su">3</span>, may
+become a practical explosive of great value.</p>
+
+<p>Mercuric fulminate, HgC<span class="su">2</span>N<span class="su">2</span>O<span class="su">2</span>, is one of the most useful
+high explosives known. It is formed by the action of a solution
+of mercurous nitrate, containing some nitrous acid, on alcohol.
+It is a white crystalline substance almost insoluble in cold water
+and requiring 130 times its weight of boiling water for solution.
+It may be heated to 180° C. before exploding, and the explosion
+so brought about is much milder than that produced by percussion.
+It forms the principal ingredient in cap compositions,
+in many fuses and in detonators. In many of these compositions
+the fulminate is diluted by mixture with certain quantities of
+inert powders so that its sensitiveness to friction or percussion
+is just so much lowered, or slowed down, that it will fire another
+mixture capable of burning with a hot flame. For detonating
+dynamite, guncotton, &amp;c. , it is generally employed without
+admixture of a diluent.</p>
+
+<p><i>Smokeless Propellants.</i>&mdash;Gunpowders and all other explosive
+mixtures or compounds containing metallic salts must form
+smoke on combustion. The solids produced by the resolution
+of the compounds are in an extremely finely-divided state, and on
+being ejected into the atmosphere become more or less attached
+to water vapour, which is so precipitated, and consequently adds
+to the smoke. The simplest examples of propellants of the smokeless
+class are compressed gases. Compressed air was the propellant
+for the Zalinski dynamite gun. Liquefied carbon dioxide
+has also been proposed and used to a slight extent with the same
+idea. It is scarcely practical, however, because when a quantity
+of a gas liquefied by pressure passes back again into the gaseous
+state, there is a great absorption of heat, and any remaining
+liquid, and the containing vessel, are considerably cooled. Steam
+guns were tried in the American Civil War in 1864; but a steam
+gun is not smokeless, for the steam escaping from the long tube
+or gun immediately condenses on expansion, forming white mist
+or smoke.</p>
+
+<p>At the earliest stage of the development of guncotton the
+advantage of its smokeless combustion was fully appreciated
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Guncotton</a></span>). That it did not at once take its position
+as <i>the</i> smokeless propellant, was simply due to its physical
+state&mdash;a fibrous porous mass&mdash;which burnt too quickly or even
+detonated under the pressure required in fire-arms of any kind.
+In the early eighties of the 19th century it was found that several
+substances would partly dissolve or at least gelatinize guncotton,
+and the moment when guncotton proper was obtained as a
+colloid or jelly was the real start in the matter of smokeless
+propellants.</p>
+
+<p>Guncotton is converted into a gelatinous form by several
+substances, such as esters, <i>e.g.</i> ethyl acetate or benzoate, acetone
+and other ketones, and many benzene compounds, most of which
+are volatile liquids. On contact with the guncotton a jelly is
+formed which stiffens as the evaporation of the gelatinizing
+agent proceeds, and finally hardens when the evaporation is
+complete. Whilst in a stiff pasty state it may be cut, moulded
+or pressed into any desired shape without any danger of ignition.
+In fact guncotton in the colloid state may be hammered on an
+anvil, and, as a rule, only the portion struck will detonate or fire.
+Guncotton alone makes a very hard and somewhat brittle mass
+after treatment with the gelatinizing agent and complete drying,
+and small quantities of camphor, vaseline, castor oil and other
+substances are incorporated with the gelatinous guncotton to
+moderate this hard and brittle state.</p>
+
+<p>All the smokeless powders, of which gelatinized guncottons
+or nitrated celluloses are the base, are moulded into some conveniently
+shaped grain, <i>e.g.</i> tubes, cords, rods, disks or tablets,
+so that the rate of burning may be controlled as desired. The
+Vieille powder, invented in 1887 and adopted in France for a
+magazine rifle, consisted of gelatinized guncotton with a little
+picric acid. Later a mixture of two varieties of guncotton
+gelatinized together was used. In addition to guncottons other
+explosive or non-explosive substances are contained in some of
+these powders. Guncotton alone in the colloid state burns very
+slowly if in moderate-sized pieces, and when subdivided or made
+into thin rods or strips it is still very mild as an explosive, partly
+from a chemical reason, viz. there is not sufficient oxygen in it
+to burn the carbon to dioxide. Many mixtures are consequently
+in use, and many more have been proposed, which contain some
+metallic salt capable of supplying oxygen, such as barium or
+ammonium nitrate, &amp;c. , the idea being to accelerate the rate of
+burning of the guncotton and if possible avoid the production
+of smoke.</p>
+
+<p>The discovery by A. Nobel that nitroglycerin could be incorporated
+with collodion cotton to form blasting gelatin (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Dynamite</a></span>) led more or less directly to the invention of ballistite,
+which differs from blasting gelatin only in the relative amounts of
+collodion, or soluble nitrated cotton, and nitroglycerin. Ballistite
+was adopted by the Italian government in 1890 as a military
+powder. Very many substances and mixtures have been
+proposed for smokeless powder, but the two substances, guncotton
+and nitroglycerin, have for the most part kept the field
+against all other combinations, and for several reasons. Nitroglycerin
+contains a slight excess of oxygen over that necessary to
+convert the whole of the carbon into carbon dioxide; it burns
+in a more energetic manner than guncotton; the two can be
+incorporated together in any proportion whilst the guncotton
+is in the gelatinous state; also all the liquids which gelatinize
+guncotton dissolve nitroglycerin, and, as these gelatinizing
+liquids evaporate, the nitroglycerin is left entangled in the guncotton
+jelly, and then shares more or less its colloidal character.
+In burning the nitroglycerin is protected from detonation by the
+gelatinous state of the guncotton, but still adds to the rate of
+burning and produces a higher temperature.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Desirable Qualities.</i>&mdash;Smokelessness is one only of the desirable
+properties of a propellant. All the present so-called smokeless
+powders produce a little fume or haze, mainly due to the condensation
+of the steam which forms one of the combustion products.
+There is often also a little vapour from the substances, such as oils,
+mineral jelly, vaseline or other hydrocarbon added for lubrication or
+to render the finished material pliable, &amp;c.  The gases produced
+should neither be very poisonous nor exert a corrosive action on
+metals, &amp;c.  The powder itself should have good keeping qualities,
+that is, not be liable to chemical changes within ordinary ranges of
+temperature or in different climates when stored for a few years.
+In these powders slight chemical changes are generally followed by
+noticeable ballistic changes. All the smokeless powders of the
+present day produce some oxide of nitrogen, traces of which hang
+about the gun after firing and change rapidly into nitrous and nitric
+acids. Nitrous acid is particularly objectionable in connexion with
+metals, as it acts as a carrier of oxygen. The fouling from modern
+smokeless powders is a slight deposit of acid grease, and the remedy
+consists in washing out the bore of the piece with an alkaline liquid.
+The castor oil, mineral jelly or camphor, and similar substances
+added to smokeless powders are supposed to act as lubricants to
+some extent. They are not as effective in this respect as mineral
+salts, and the rifling of both small-arms and ordnance using smokeless
+powders is severely gripped by the metal of the projectile. The
+alkaline fouling produced by the black and brown powders acted
+as a preventive of rusting to some extent, as well as a lubricant in
+the bore.</p>
+
+<p><i>Danger in Manufacture.</i>&mdash;In the case of the old gunpowders,
+the most dangerous manufacturing operation was incorporation.
+With the modern colloid propellants the most dangerous operations
+are the chemical processes in the preparation of nitroglycerin, the
+drying of guncotton, &amp;c.  After once the gelatinizing solvent has
+been added, all the mechanical operations can be conducted, practically,
+with perfect safety. This statement appears to be correct for
+all kinds of nitrated cellulose powders, whether mixed with nitroglycerin
+or other substances. Should they become ignited, which is
+possible by a rise of temperature (to say 180°) or contact with a
+flame, the mixture burns quickly, but does not detonate.</p>
+
+<p>As a rule naval and military smokeless powders are shaped into
+flakes, cubes, cords or cylinders, with or without longitudinal perforations.
+All the modifications in shape and size are intended to regulate
+the rate of burning. Sporting powders are often coloured for trade
+distinction. Some powders are blackleaded by glazing with pure
+graphite, as is done with black powders. One object of this glazing
+is to prevent the grains or pieces becoming joined by pressure;
+for rods or pieces of some smokeless powders might possibly unite
+under considerable pressure, producing larger pieces and thus
+altering the rate of burning. Most smokeless powders are fairly
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page84" id="page84"></a>84</span>
+insensitive to shock. All these gelatinized powders are a little less
+easily ignited than black powders. A slightly different cap composition
+is required for small-arm cartridges, and cannon cartridges
+generally require a small primer or starter of powdered black gunpowder.</p>
+
+<p>It is desired that a propellant shall produce the maximum velocity
+with the minimum pressure. The pressure should start gently so
+that the inertia of the projectile is overcome without any undue
+local strain on the breech near the powder chamber, and more
+especially that as more and more space is given to the gases by the
+movement of the projectile up the gun to the muzzle, gas should be
+produced with sufficient rapidity to keep the pressure nearly uniform
+or slightly increasing along the bore. The leading idea for improvements
+in relation to propellants is to obtain the greatest possible
+pressure regularly developed, and at the same time the lowest
+temperatures.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(W. R. E. H.)</div>
+
+<p><i>Law.</i>&mdash;In 1860 an act was passed in England &ldquo;to amend the
+law concerning the making, keeping and carriage of gunpowder
+and compositions of an explosive nature, and concerning the
+manufacture and use of fireworks&rdquo; (23 &amp; 24 Vict. c. 139),
+whereby previous acts on the same subject were repealed, and
+minute and stringent regulations introduced. Amending acts
+were passed in 1861 and 1862. In 1875 was passed the Explosives
+Act (38 &amp; 39 Vict. c. 17), which repealed the former
+acts, and dealt with the whole subject in a more comprehensive
+manner. This act, containing 122 sections, and applying to
+Scotland and Ireland, as well as to England, constitutes, with
+various orders in council and home office orders, a complete code.
+The act of 1875 was based on the report of a committee of the
+House of Commons, public opinion having been greatly excited
+on the subject by a terrible explosion on the Regent&rsquo;s Canal in
+1874. Explosives are thus defined: (1) Gunpowder, nitroglycerin,
+dynamite, guncotton, blasting powders, fulminate of
+mercury or of other metals, coloured fires, and every other
+substance, whether similar to those above-mentioned or not,
+used or manufactured with a view to produce a practical effect
+by explosion or a pyrotechnic effect, and including (2) fog-signals,
+fireworks, fuses, rockets, percussion caps, detonators, cartridges,
+ammunition of all descriptions, and every adaptation or preparation
+of an explosive as above defined. Part i. deals with gunpowder,
+providing that it shall be manufactured only at factories
+lawfully existing or licensed under the act; that it shall be kept
+(except for private use) only in existing or new magazines or
+stores, or in registered premises, licensed under the act. Private
+persons may keep gunpowder for their own use to the amount of
+thirty pounds. The act also prescribes rules for the proper keeping
+of gunpowder on registered premises. Part ii. deals with
+nitroglycerin and other explosives; part iii. with inspection,
+accidents, search, &amp;c. ; part iv. contains various supplementary
+provisions. By order in council the term &ldquo;explosive&rdquo; may be
+extended to any substance which appears to be specially dangerous
+to life or property by reason of its explosive properties, or to
+any process liable to explosion in the manufacture thereof, and
+the provisions of the act then extend to such substance just as
+if it were included in the term &ldquo;explosive&rdquo; in the act. The act
+lays down minute and stringent regulations for the sale of gunpowder,
+restricting the sale thereof in public thoroughfares or
+places, or to any child apparently under the age of thirteen;
+requiring the sale of gunpowder to be in closed packages labelled;
+it also lays down general rules for conveyance, &amp;c.  The act also
+gives power by order in council to define, from time to time, the
+composition, quality and character of any explosive, and to
+classify explosives, and such orders in council are frequently
+made including new substances; those in force will be found in
+the <i>Statutory Rules and Orders</i>, tit. &ldquo;explosive substance.&rdquo; The
+Merchant Shipping Act 1894 imposes restrictions on the carriage
+of dangerous goods in a British or foreign vessel, &ldquo;dangerous
+goods&rdquo; meaning aquafortis, vitriol, naphtha, benzine, gunpowder,
+lucifer matches, nitroglycerin, petroleum and any explosive
+within the meaning of the Explosives Act 1875. The act is
+administered by the home office, and an annual report is published
+containing the proceedings of the inspectors of explosives
+and an account of the working of the act. Each annual report
+gives a list of explosives at the time authorized for manufacture
+or importation, and appendices containing information as to
+accidents, experiments, &amp;c. </p>
+
+<p>Practically every European country has legislated on the lines
+of the English act of 1875, Austria taking the lead, in 1877, with
+an explosives ordinance almost identical with the English act.
+The United States and the various English colonies also have
+explosives acts regulating the manufacture, storage and importation
+of explosives. (See also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Petroleum</a></span>.)</p>
+<div class="author">(T. A. I.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;M. Berthelot, <i>Sur la force des matières explosives</i>
+(Paris, 1883); P.F. Chalon, <i>Les Explosifs modernes</i> (Paris, 1886);
+W.H. Wardell, <i>Handbook of Gunpowder and Guncotton</i> (London,
+1888); J.P. Cundill, <i>A Dictionary of Explosives</i> (London, 1889 and
+1897); M. Eissler, <i>A Handbook of Modern Explosives</i> (London, 1896,
+new ed. 1903); J.A. Longridge, <i>Smokeless Powder and its Influence
+on Gun Construction</i> (London, 1890); C. Napier Hake and W.
+Macnab, <i>Explosives and their Power</i> (London, 1892); G. Coralys,
+<i>Les Explosifs</i> (Paris, 1893); A. Ponteaux, <i>La Poudre sans fumée
+et les poudres anciennes</i> (Paris, 1893); F. Salvati, <i>Vocabolario di
+polveri ed explosivi</i> (Rome, 1893); C. Guttmann, <i>The Manufacture
+of Explosives</i> (London, 1895 and later); S.J. von Romocki, <i>Geschichte
+der Sprengstoffchemie, der Sprengtechnik und des Torpedowesens bis
+zum Beginn der neusten Zeit</i> (Berlin, 1895); <i>Geschichte der Explosivstoffe,
+die rauchschwachen Pulver</i> (Berlin, 1896); P.G. Sanford,
+<i>Nitro-explosives</i> (London, 1896); L. Gody, <i>Traité théorique et
+pratique des matières explosives</i> (Namur, 1896); R. Wille, <i>Der
+Plastomerite</i> (Berlin, 1898); E. Sarrau, <i>Introduction à la théorie
+des explosifs</i> (1893); <i>Théorie des explosifs</i> (1896); O. Guttmann,
+<i>Manufacture of Explosives</i> (London, 1895); E.M. Weaver, <i>Notes on
+Military Explosives</i> (New York, 1906); M. Eissler, <i>The Modern High
+Explosives</i> (New York, 1906); <i>Treatise on Service Explosives</i>,
+published by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907).
+Most of the literature on modern explosives, <i>e.g.</i> dynamite, &amp;c. ,
+is to be found in papers contributed to scientific journals and societies.
+An index to those which have appeared in the <i>Journal of the Society
+of Chemical Industry</i> is to be found in the decennial index (1908)
+compiled by F.W. Renant.</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1j" id="ft1j" href="#fa1j"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Not necessarily heat energy entirely. A number of substances&mdash;acetylides
+and some nitrogen compounds, such as nitrogen chloride&mdash;decompose
+with extreme violence, but <i>little heat</i> is produced.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXPRESS<a name="ar78" id="ar78"></a></span> (through the French from the past participle of the
+Lat. <i>exprimere</i>, to press out, by transference used of representing
+objects in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &amp;c.  in words), a
+word signifying that which is clearly and definitely set forth or
+represented, explicit, and thus used of a meaning, a law, a contract
+and the like, being specially contrasted with &ldquo;implied.&rdquo;
+Thus in law, malice, for which there is actual evidence, as apart
+from that which may be inferred from the acts of the person
+charged, is known as &ldquo;express.&rdquo; The word is most frequently
+used with the idea of something done with a definite purpose;
+the term &ldquo;express train,&rdquo; now meaning one that travels at a
+high speed over long distances with few intermediate stoppages,
+was, in the early days of railways, applied to what is now usually
+called a &ldquo;special,&rdquo; <i>i.e.</i> a train not running according to the
+ordinary time-tables of the railway company, but for some
+specific purpose, or engaged by a private person. About 1845
+this term became used for a train running to a particular place
+without stopping. Similarly in the British postal service,
+express delivery is a special and immediate delivery of a letter,
+parcel, &amp;c. , by an express messenger at a particular increased
+rate. The system was adopted in 1891.</p>
+
+<p>In the United States of America, express companies for the
+rapid transmission of parcels and luggage and light goods generally
+perform the function of the post office or the railways in
+the United Kingdom and the continent of Europe. Not only
+do they deliver goods, but by the cash on delivery system (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Cash</a></span>) the express companies act as agents both for the purchaser
+and seller of goods. They also serve as a most efficient agency
+for the transmission of money, the express money order being
+much more easily convertible than the postal money orders, as
+the latter can only be redeemed at offices in large and important
+towns. The system dates back to 1839, when one William
+Frederick Harnden (1813-1845), a conductor on the Boston and
+Worcester railway, undertook on his own account the carrying
+of small parcels and the performance of small commissions.
+Obliged to leave the company&rsquo;s service or abandon his enterprise,
+he started an &ldquo;express&rdquo; service between Boston and New
+York, carrying parcels, executing commissions and collecting
+drafts and bills. Alvin Adams followed in 1840, also between
+Boston and New York. From 1840 to 1845 the system was
+adopted by many others between the more important towns
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page85" id="page85"></a>85</span>
+throughout the States. The attempt to carry letters also was
+stopped by the government as interfering with the post office.
+In 1854 began the amalgamation of many of the companies.
+Thus under the name of the Adams Express Company the
+services started by Harnden and Adams were consolidated. The
+lines connecting the west and east by Albany, Buffalo and the
+lakes were consolidated in the American Express Company,
+under the direction of William G. Fargo (<i>q.v.</i>), Henry Wells and
+Johnston Livingston, while another company, Wells, Fargo &amp;
+Co., operated on the Pacific coast. The celebrated &ldquo;Pony
+Express&rdquo; was started in 1860 between San Francisco and St
+Joseph, Missouri, the time scheduled being eight days. The
+service was carried on by relays of horses, with stations
+25 m. apart. The charge made for the service was $2.50 per
+½ oz. The completion of the Pacific Telegraph Company line
+in 1861 was followed by the discontinuance of the regular
+service.</p>
+
+<p>The name &ldquo;express&rdquo; is applied to a rifle having high velocity,
+flat trajectory and long fixed-sight ranges; and an &ldquo;express-bullet&rdquo;
+is a light bullet with a heavy charge of powder used in
+such a rifle (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rifle</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXPROPRIATION,<a name="ar79" id="ar79"></a></span> the taking away or depriving of property
+(Late Lat. <i>expropriare</i>, to take away, <i>proprium</i>, <i>i.e.</i> that which
+is one&rsquo;s own). The term is particularly applied to the compulsory
+acquisition of private property by the state or other public
+authority.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXPULSION<a name="ar80" id="ar80"></a></span> (Lat. <i>expulsio</i>, from <i>expellere</i>), the act of driving
+out, or of removing a person from the membership of a body
+or the holding of an office, or of depriving him of the right of
+attending a meeting, &amp;c.  In the United Kingdom the House
+of Commons can by resolution expel a member. Such resolution
+cannot be questioned by any court of law. But expulsion is
+only resorted to in cases where members are guilty of offences
+rendering them unfit for a seat in the House, such as being in
+open rebellion, being guilty of forgery, perjury, fraud or breach
+of trust, misappropriation of public money, corruption, conduct
+unbecoming the character of an officer and a gentleman, &amp;c.  It
+is customary to order the member, if absent, to attend in his
+place, before an order is made for his expulsion (see May, <i>Parliamentary
+Practice</i>, 1906, p. 56 seq.). Municipal corporations or
+other local government bodies have no express power to expel
+a member, except in such cases where the law declares the
+member to have vacated his seat, or where power is given by
+statute to declare the member&rsquo;s seat vacant. In the cases of
+officers and servants of the crown, tenure varies with the nature
+of the office. Some officials hold their offices <i>ad vitam aut
+culpam or dum bene se gesserunt</i>, others can be dismissed at any
+time and without reason assigned and without compensation.
+In the case of membership of a voluntary association (club, &amp;c. )
+the right of expulsion depends upon the rules, and must be
+exercised in good faith. Courts of justice have jurisdiction to
+prevent the improper expulsion of the member of a voluntary
+association where that member has a right of property in the
+association. In the case of meetings, where the meeting is one
+of a public body, any person not a member of the body is
+entitled to be present only on sufferance, and may be expelled
+on a resolution of the body. In the case of ordinary public
+meetings those who convene the meeting stand in the position
+of licensors to those attending and may revoke the licence and
+expel any person who creates disorder or makes himself otherwise
+objectionable.</p>
+
+<p><i>Expulsion of Aliens.</i>&mdash;Under the Naturalization Act of 1870,
+the last of the civil disqualifications affecting aliens in England
+was removed. The political disqualifications which remained
+only applied to electoral rights. In the very exceptional cases
+in which it was retained in the statute book, expulsion was
+considered to have fallen into desuetude, but it has been revived
+by the Aliens Act of 1905 (5 Edw. VII. c. 13). Under this
+act powers are given to the secretary of state to make an order
+requiring an alien to leave the United Kingdom within a time
+fixed by the order and thereafter to remain outside the United
+Kingdom, subject to certain conditions, provided it is certified
+to him that the alien has been convicted of any felony or misdemeanour
+or other offence for which the court has power to
+impose imprisonment without the option of a fine, &amp;c. , or that
+he has been sentenced in a foreign country with which there is
+an extradition treaty, for a crime not being an offence of a
+political character. There are also provisions applicable within
+one year, after the alien has entered the United Kingdom in the
+case of pauper aliens. Precautions are taken to prevent, as
+far as possible, any abuse of the power of expulsion. Under the
+French law of expulsion (December 3, 1849) there are no such
+precautions, the minister of the interior having an absolute
+discretion to order any foreigner as a measure of public policy
+to leave French territory and in fact to have him taken immediately
+to the frontier.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTENSION<a name="ar81" id="ar81"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ex</i>, out; <i>tendere</i>, to stretch), in general,
+the action of straining or stretching out. It is usually employed
+metaphorically (cf. the phrase an &ldquo;extension of time,&rdquo; a period
+allowed in excess of what has been agreed upon). It is used
+as a technical term in logic to describe the total number of
+objects to which a given term may be applied; thus the meaning
+of the term &ldquo;King&rdquo; in &ldquo;extension&rdquo; means the kings of England,
+Italy, Spain, &amp;c.  (cf. <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Denotation</a></span>), while in &ldquo;intension&rdquo; it
+means the attributes which taken together make up the idea of
+kinghood (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Connotation</a></span>). In psychology the literal sense
+of extension is retained, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;spread-outness.&rdquo; The perception
+of space by the senses of sight and touch, as opposed to semi-spatial
+perceptions by smell and hearing, is that of &ldquo;continuous
+expanse composed of positions separated and connected by
+distances&rdquo; (Stout); to this the term &ldquo;extension&rdquo; is applied.
+The perception of separate objects involves position and distance,
+but these taken together are not extension, which necessarily
+implies continuity. To move one&rsquo;s finger along the keys of a
+piano gives both the position and the distance of the keys;
+to move it along the frame gives the idea of extension. By
+expanding this idea we obtain the conception of all space as
+an extended whole. To this perception are necessary both form
+and material. It should be observed the actual quality of a
+stimulus (rough, smooth, dry, &amp;c. ) has nothing to do with the
+spatial perception as such, which is concerned purely with what
+is known as &ldquo;local signature.&rdquo; The elementary undifferentiated
+sensation excited by the stimuli exerted by a continuous whole
+is known as its &ldquo;extensive quantity&rdquo; or &ldquo;extensity.&rdquo; The
+term has to do not with the kind of object which excites the
+sensation, but simply with the vague massiveness of the latter.
+As such it is distinguishable in thought from extension, though
+it is not easy to say whether and if so how far the quantitative
+aspect of space can exist apart from spatial order. Extensity
+as an element in the complex of extension must be carefully
+distinguished from intensity. Mere increase of pressure implies
+increase of intensity of sensation; to increase the extensity
+the <i>area</i>, so to speak, of the exciting stimulus must be increased.
+Thus the extensity (also called &ldquo;voluminousness,&rdquo; or &ldquo;massiveness&rdquo;)
+of the sensation produced by a roll of thunder is greater
+than that produced by a whistle or the bark of a dog. It should
+be observed that this application of the idea of extensity to
+sensation in general, rather than to the matter which is the
+exciting stimulus, is only an analogy, an attempt to explain
+a common psychic phenomenon by terminology which is intrinsically
+suitable to the physical. As a natural consequence
+the term represents different shades of meaning in different
+treatises, verging sometimes towards the physical, sometimes
+towards the psychic, meaning.</p>
+
+<p>In connexion with extension elaborate psycho-physical
+experiments have been devised,.<i>e.g.</i> with the object of comparing
+the accuracy of tactual and visual perception and discovering
+what are the least differences which each can observe. At a
+distance two lights appear as one, just as two stars distinguishable
+through a telescope are one to the naked eye (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vision</a></span>):
+again if the points of a compass are brought close together
+and pressed lightly on the skin the sensation, though vague and
+diffused, is a single one.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Psychology</a></span> and works there quoted; also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Space and Time</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page86" id="page86"></a>86</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES.<a name="ar82" id="ar82"></a></span> This expression is used
+in law with reference to crimes, to describe cases in which,
+though an offence has been committed without legal justification
+or excuse, its gravity, from the point of view of punishment or
+moral opprobrium, is mitigated or reduced by reason of the facts
+leading up to or attending the commission of the offence. According
+to English procedure, the jury has no power to determine
+the punishment to be awarded for an offence. The sentence,
+with certain exceptions in capital cases, is within the sole discretion
+of the judge, subject to the statutory prescriptions as to the
+kind and maximum of punishment. It is common practice for
+juries to add to their verdict, guilty or not guilty, a rider recommending
+the accused to mercy on the ground of grave provocation
+received, or other circumstances which in their view should
+mitigate the penalty. This form of rider is often added on a
+verdict of guilty of wilful murder, a crime as to which the judge
+has no discretion as to punishment, but the recommendation
+is sent to the Home Office for consideration in advising as to
+exercise of the prerogative of mercy. Quite independently of
+any recommendation by the jury, the judge is entitled to take
+into account matters proved during the trial, or laid before him
+after verdict, as a guide to him in determining the quantum
+of punishment.</p>
+
+<p>Under the French law (<i>Code d&rsquo;instruction criminelle</i>, art. 345),
+it is the sole right and the duty of a jury in a criminal case to
+pronounce whether or not the commission of the offence was
+attended by extenuating circumstances (<i>circonstances atténuantes</i>).
+They are not bound to say anything about the matter, but
+the whole or the majority may qualify the verdict by finding
+extenuation, and if they do, the powers of the court to impose
+the maximum punishment are taken away and the sentence to be
+pronounced is reduced in accordance with the scale laid down
+in art. 463 of the <i>Code pénal</i>. The most important result of this
+rule is to enable a jury to prevent the infliction of capital punishment
+for murder. In cases of what is termed &ldquo;crime passionel,&rdquo;
+French juries, when they do not acquit, almost invariably find
+extenuation; and a like verdict has become common even in the
+case of cold-blooded and sordid murders, owing to objections
+to capital punishment.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTERRITORIALITY,<a name="ar83" id="ar83"></a></span> a term of international law, used to
+denominate certain immunities from the application of the rule
+that every person is subject for all acts done within the boundaries
+of a state to its local laws. It is also employed to describe the
+quasi-extraterritorial position, to borrow the phrase of Grotius,
+of the dwelling-place of an accredited diplomatic agent, and of
+the public ships of one state while in the waters of another.
+Latterly its sense has been extended to all cases in which states
+refrain from enforcing their laws within their territorial jurisdiction.
+The cases recognized by the law of nations relate to:
+(1) the persons and belongings of foreign sovereigns, whether
+incognito or not; (2) the persons and belongings of ambassadors,
+ministers plenipotentiary, and other accredited diplomatic
+agents and their suites (but not consuls, except in some non-Christian
+countries, in which they sometimes have a diplomatic
+character); (3) public ships in foreign waters. Exterritoriality
+has also been granted by treaty to the subjects and citizens
+of contracting Christian states resident within the territory
+of certain non-Christian states. Lastly, it is held that when
+armies or regiments are allowed by a foreign state to cross
+its territory, they necessarily have exterritorial rights. &ldquo;The
+ground upon which the immunity of sovereign rulers from
+process in our courts,&rdquo; said Mr Justice Wills in the case of
+<i>Mighell</i> v. <i>Sultan of Johore</i>, 1804, &ldquo;is recognized by our law, is
+that it would be absolutely inconsistent with the status of an
+independent sovereign that he should be subject to the process of
+a foreign tribunal,&rdquo; unless he deliberately submits to its jurisdiction.
+It has, however, been held where the foreign sovereign
+was also a British subject (<i>Duke of Brunswick</i> v. <i>King of Hanover</i>,
+1844), that he is amenable to the jurisdiction of the English
+Courts in respect of transactions done by him in his capacity
+as a subject. A &ldquo;foreign sovereign&rdquo; may be taken to include
+the president of a republic, and even a potentate whose independence
+is not complete. Thus in the case, cited above, of
+<i>Mighell</i> v. <i>Sultan of Johore</i>, the sultan was ascertained to have
+abandoned all right to contract with foreign states, and to
+have placed his territory under British protection. The court
+held that he was, nevertheless, a foreign sovereign in so far as
+immunity from British jurisdiction was concerned. The immunity
+of a foreign diplomatic agent, as the direct representative
+of a foreign sovereign (or state), is based on the same grounds
+as that of the sovereign authority itself. The international
+practice in the case of Great Britain was confirmed by an act
+of parliament of the reign of Queen Anne, which is still in force.
+The preamble to this act states that &ldquo;turbulent and disorderly
+persons in a most outrageous manner had insulted the person
+of the then ambassador of his Czarish Majesty, emperor of Great
+Russia,&rdquo; by arresting and detaining him in custody for several
+hours, &ldquo;in contempt to the protection granted by Her Majesty,
+contrary to the law of nations, and in prejudice of the rights
+and privileges which ambassadors and other public ministers,
+authorized and received as such, have at all times been thereby
+possessed of, and ought to be kept sacred and inviolable.&rdquo; This
+preamble has been repeatedly held by our courts to be declaratory
+of the English common law. The act provides that all suits,
+writs, processes, against any accredited ambassador or public
+minister or his domestic servant, and all proceedings and judgments
+had thereupon, are &ldquo;utterly null and void,&rdquo; and that
+any person violating these provisions shall be punished for a
+breach of the public peace. Thus a foreign diplomatic agent
+cannot, like the sovereign he represents, waive his immunity
+by submitting to the British jurisdiction. The diplomatic immunity
+necessarily covers the residence of the diplomatic agent,
+which some writers describe as assimilated to territory of the
+state represented by the agent; but there is no consideration
+which can justify any extension of the immunity beyond the
+needs of the diplomatic mission resident within it. It is different
+with public ships in foreign waters. In their case the exterritoriality
+attaches to the vessel. Beyond its bulwarks
+captain and crew are subject to the ordinary jurisdiction of the
+state upon whose territory they happen to be. By a foreign public
+ship is now understood any ship in the service of a foreign state.
+It was even held in the case of the &ldquo;Parlement Belge&rdquo; (1880),
+a packet belonging to the Belgian government, that the character
+of the vessel as a public ship was not affected by its carrying
+passengers and merchandise for hire. In a more recent case an
+action brought by the owners of a Greek vessel against a vessel
+belonging to the state of Rumania was dismissed, though the
+agents of the Rumanian government had entered an appearance
+unconditionally and had obtained the release of the vessel on
+bail, on the ground that the Rumanian government had not
+authorized acceptance of the British jurisdiction (The &ldquo;Jassy,&rdquo;
+1906, 75 L.J.P. 93).</p>
+
+<p>Writers frequently describe the exterritoriality of both embassies
+and ships as absolute. There is, however, this difference,
+that the exterritoriality of the latter not being, like that
+of embassies, a derived one, there seems to be no ground for
+limitation of it. It was, nevertheless, laid down by the arbitrators
+in the &ldquo;Alabama&rdquo; case (Cockburn dissenting), that the privilege
+of exterritoriality accorded to vessels had not been admitted
+into the law of nations as an absolute right, but solely as a
+proceeding founded on the principle of courtesy and mutual
+deference between different nations, and that it could therefore
+&ldquo;never be appealed to for the protection of acts done in violation
+of neutrality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The exterritorial settlements in the Far East, the privileges
+of Christians under the arrangements made with the Ottoman
+Porte, and other exceptions from local jurisdictions, are subject
+to the conditions laid down in the treaties by which they have
+been created. There are also cases in which British communities
+have grown up in barbarous countries without the consent
+of any local authority. All these are regulated by orders in
+council, issued now in virtue of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act
+1890, an act enabling the crown to exercise any jurisdiction it
+may have &ldquo;within a foreign country&rdquo; in as ample a manner
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page87" id="page87"></a>87</span>
+as if it had been acquired &ldquo;by cession or conquest of territory.&rdquo;
+A very exceptional case of exterritoriality is that granted to the
+pope under a special Italian enactment.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. Ba.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTORTION<a name="ar84" id="ar84"></a></span> (Lat. <i>extorsio</i>, from <i>extorquere</i>, to twist out, to
+take away by force), in English law the term applied to the
+exaction by public officers of money or money&rsquo;s worth not due
+at all, or in excess of what is due, or before it is due. Such
+exaction, unless made in good faith (<i>i.e.</i> in honest mistake as
+to the sum properly payable), is a misdemeanour by the common
+law and is punishable by fine and (or) imprisonment. Besides
+the punishment above stated, an action for twice the value of
+the thing extorted lies against officers of the king (1275, 3 Edw. I.
+c. 26). There are numerous provisions for the punishment of
+particular officers who make illegal exactions or take illegal
+fees: <i>e.g.</i> sheriffs and their officers (Sheriffs Act 1887), county
+court bailiffs (County Courts Act 1888), clerks of courts of
+justice, and gaolers who exact fees from prisoners. A gaoler
+is also punishable for detaining the corpse of a prisoner as
+security for debt. The term &ldquo;public officer&rdquo; is not limited to
+offices under the crown; and there are old precedents of criminal
+proceedings for extortion against churchwardens, and against
+millers and ferrymen who demand tolls in excess of what is
+customary under their franchise.</p>
+
+<p>The term extortion is also applied to the exaction of money
+or money&rsquo;s worth by menaces of personal violence or by
+threats to accuse of crime or to publish defamatory matter
+about another person. These offences fall partly under the head
+of robbery and partly under blackmail, or what in French is
+termed <i>chantage</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Russell on Crimes</i> (6th ed., vol. i. p. 423; vol. iii. p. 348).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTRACT<a name="ar85" id="ar85"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>extrahere</i>, to draw out), in pharmacy,
+the name given to preparations formed by evaporating or concentrating
+solutions of active principles; <i>tinctures</i> are solutions
+which have not been subjected to any evaporation. &ldquo;Liquid
+extracts&rdquo; are those of a syrupy consistency, and are generally
+prepared by treating the drug with the solvent (water, alcohol,
+&amp;c.) and concentrating the solution until it attains the desired
+consistency. &ldquo;Ordinary extracts&rdquo; are thick, tenacious and
+sometimes even dry preparations; they are obtained by evaporating
+solutions as obtained above, or the juices expressed from
+the plants.</p>
+
+<p>Extraction, in chemical technology, is a process for separating
+one substance from another by taking advantage of the varying
+solubility of the components in some chosen solvent. The term
+&ldquo;lixiviation&rdquo; is used when water is the solvent. In laboratory
+practice all the common solvents are employed. With small quantities
+it may suffice to shake the substance with the solvent, the
+mixture being heated if necessary, filter and distil or otherwise
+remove the solvent from the distillate. For larger quantities
+continuous extraction is advisable. This may be carried out
+in many forms of apparatus; one of the most convenient is
+the Soxhlet extractor, in which the extract siphons into the
+flask containing the solvent, and so maintains the quantity of
+available solvent practically constant. Continuous extraction
+is generally the practice in technology. One of the most important
+applications is in the fat and gelatine industries.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTRADITION<a name="ar86" id="ar86"></a></span> (Lat. <i>ex</i>, out, and <i>traditio</i>, handing over),
+the surrender of an alleged criminal for trial by a foreign state
+where he has taken refuge, to the state against which the alleged
+offence has been committed. When a person who has committed
+an offence in one country escapes to another, what is the duty
+of the latter with regard to him? Should the country of refuge
+try him in its own courts according to its own laws, or deliver
+him up to the country whose laws he has broken? To the
+general question international law gives no certain answer.
+Some jurists, Grotius among them, incline to hold that a state
+is bound to give up fugitive criminals, but the majority appear
+to deny the obligation as a matter of right, and prefer to put
+it on the ground of comity. And the universal practice of nations
+is to surrender criminals only in consequence of some special
+treaty with the country which demands them.</p>
+
+<p>There are two practical difficulties about extradition which
+have probably prevented the growth of any uniform rule on the
+subject. One is the variation in the definitions of crime adopted
+by different countries. The second is the possibility of the
+process of extradition being employed to get hold of a person
+who is wanted by his country, not really for a criminal, but for
+a political offence. In modern states, and more particularly
+in England, offences of a political character have always been
+carefully excluded from the operation of the law of extradition.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">United Kingdom.</span>&mdash;The Extradition Acts 1870-1873
+(33 &amp; 34 Vict. cc. 62, and 36 &amp; 37 Vict. c. 60) and the Fugitive
+Offenders Act 1881 (44 &amp; 45 Vict. c. 69) deal with different
+branches of the same subject, the recovery and surrender of
+fugitive criminals. The Extradition Acts apply in the case of
+countries with which Great Britain has extradition treaties.
+The Fugitive Offenders Act applies&mdash;(1) as between the United
+Kingdom and any British possession, (2) as between any two
+British possessions, and (3) as between the United Kingdom
+or a British possession and certain foreign countries, such as
+Turkey and China, in which the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conditions of Surrender.</i>&mdash;In spite of some earlier authorities
+it has long been settled that in English law there is no power to
+surrender fugitive criminals to a foreign country without express
+statutory authority. Such authority is now given by the
+Extradition Acts 1870-1873, but only in the case of the offences
+therein specified, and with regard to countries with which an
+arrangement has been entered into, and to which the acts have
+been applied by order in council. The acts are further to be
+applied, subject to such &ldquo;conditions, exceptions and qualifications
+as may be deemed expedient&rdquo; (s. 2); and these conditions,
+&amp;c. , are invariably to be found in the extradition treaty which
+is set out in the order in council applying the Extradition Acts
+to a particular country. To support a demand for extradition
+from Great Britain it is therefore necessary to show that the
+offence is one of those enumerated in the Extradition Acts, and
+also in the particular treaty, and that the acts charged amount
+to the offence according to the laws both of Great Britain and of
+the state demanding the surrender.</p>
+
+<p><i>Surrender of Subjects.</i>&mdash;A further question arises where a state
+is called on to surrender one of its own subjects. Some of the
+treaties, such as those with France and Germany, stipulate
+that neither contracting party shall surrender its own subjects,
+and in such cases a British subject cannot be surrendered by
+his own country. The treaties with Spain, Switzerland and
+Luxemburg provide for the surrender by Great Britain of her
+own subjects, but there is no reciprocity. Other treaties, such
+as those with Austria, Belgium, Russia and the Netherlands,
+give each party the option of surrendering or refusing to surrender
+its own subjects in each particular case. Under such treaties
+British subjects are surrendered unless the secretary of state
+intervenes to forbid it. Lastly, some treaties, such as that with
+the United States, contain no restriction of this kind, and the
+subjects of each power are freely surrendered to the other.
+Surrender by Great Britain is also subject to the following
+restrictions contained in s. 3 of the Extradition Act 1870:&mdash;(1)
+that the offence is not of a political character, and the requisition
+has not been made with a view to try and punish for an
+offence of a political character; (2) that the prisoner shall not
+be liable to be tried for any but the specified extradition offences;
+(3) that he shall not be surrendered until he has been tried and
+served his sentence for offences committed in Great Britain;
+and (4) that he shall not be actually given up until fifteen days
+after his committal for extradition, so as to allow of an application
+to the courts.</p>
+
+<p><i>Political Offences.</i>&mdash;The question as to what constitutes a
+political offence is one of some nicety. It was discussed in <i>In
+re Castioni</i> (1890, 1 Q.B. 149), where it was held, following the
+opinion of Mr Justice Stephen in his <i>History of the Criminal Law</i>,
+that to give an offence a political character it must be &ldquo;incidental
+to and form part of political disturbances.&rdquo; Extradition was
+accordingly refused for homicide committed in the course of an
+armed rising against the constituted authorities. In the more
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page88" id="page88"></a>88</span>
+recent case of <i>In re Meunier</i> (1894, 2 Q.B. 415), an Anarchist
+was charged with causing two explosions in Paris&mdash;one at the
+Café Véry resulting in the death of two persons, and the other
+at certain barracks. It was not contended that the outrage
+at the cafe was a political crime, but it was argued that the
+explosion at the barracks came within the description. The
+court, however, held that to constitute a political offence there
+must be two or more parties in the state, each seeking to impose
+a government of its own choice on the other, which was not the
+case with regard to Anarchist crimes. The party of anarchy
+was the enemy of all governments, and its effects were directed
+primarily against the general body of citizens. The test applied
+in the earlier case is perhaps the more satisfactory of the two.</p>
+
+<p>With regard to the provision that surrender shall not be
+granted if the requisition has in fact been made with a view to
+try and punish for an offence of a political character, it, was
+decided in the case of <i>Arton</i> (1896, 1 Q.B. 108) that a mere suggestion,
+that after his surrender for a non-political crime, the
+prisoner would be interrogated on political matters (his alleged
+complicity in the Panama scandal), and punished for his refusal
+to answer, was not enough to bring him within the provision.
+The court also held that it had no jurisdiction to entertain a
+suggestion that the request of the French government for his
+extradition was not made in good faith and in the interests of
+justice.</p>
+
+<p><i>Extradition Offences.</i>&mdash;The following is a list of crimes in
+respect of which extradition may be provided for under the
+Extradition Acts 1870-1873, and the Slave Trade Act 1873.
+<i>Extradition Act</i> 1870:&mdash;(1) Murder; (2) Attempt to murder;
+(3) Conspiracy to murder; (4) Manslaughter; (5) Counterfeiting
+and altering money, uttering counterfeit or altered money;
+(6) Forgery, counterfeiting, and altering and uttering what is
+forged or counterfeited or altered; (7) Embezzlement and
+larceny; (8) Obtaining money or goods by false pretences;
+(9) Crimes by bankrupts against bankruptcy law; (10) Fraud
+by a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trustee or director, or member
+or public officer of any company made criminal by any law for the
+time being in force; (11) Rape; (12) Abduction; (13) Child-stealing;
+(14) Burglary and housebreaking; (15) Arson; (16)
+Robbery with violence; (17) Threats by letter or otherwise with
+intent to extort; (18) Crimes committed at sea: (<i>a</i>) Piracy by
+the law of nations; (<i>b</i>) Sinking or destroying a vessel at sea, or
+attempting or conspiring to do so; (<i>c</i>) Assault on a ship on the
+high seas, with intent to destroy life or to do grievous bodily harm;
+(<i>d</i>) Revolt, or conspiring to revolt, by two or more persons on board
+a ship on the high seas against the authority of the master;
+(19) Bribery. <i>Extradition Act</i> 1873:-(20) Kidnapping and false
+imprisonment; (21) Perjury and subornation of perjury. This
+act also extends to indictable offences under 24 &amp; 25 Vict.
+cc. 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, and amending and substituted acts.
+Among such offences included in various extradition treaties
+are the following:&mdash;(22) Obtaining valuable securities by false
+pretences; (23) Receiving any money, valuable security or
+other property, knowing the same to have been stolen or unlawfully
+obtained; (24) Falsification of accounts (see <i>In re Arton</i>,
+1896, 1 Q.B. 509); (25) Malicious injury to property, if such
+offence be indictable;. (26) Knowingly making, without lawful
+authority, any instrument, tool or engine adapted and intended
+for the counterfeiting of coin of the realm; (27) Abandoning
+children; exposing or unlawfully detaining them; (28) Any
+malicious act done with intent to endanger the safety of any
+person in a railway train; (29) Wounding or inflicting grievous
+bodily harm; (30) Assault occasioning actual bodily harm;
+(31) Assaulting a magistrate or peace or public officer; (32)
+Indecent assault; (33) Unlawful carnal knowledge, or any
+attempt to have unlawful carnal knowledge, of a girl under age;
+(34) Bigamy; (35) Administering drugs or using instruments
+with intent to procure the miscarriage of women; (36) Any
+indictable offence under the laws for the time being in force in
+relation to bankruptcy. <i>Slave Trade Act</i> 1873 (36 &amp; 37 Vict.
+c. 88, s. 27):&mdash;(37) Dealing in slaves in such manner as to
+constitute a criminal offence against the laws of both states.</p>
+
+<p>The United Kingdom has extradition treaties with practically
+all civilized foreign countries; and though it is not practicable
+to state which of the statutory extradition offences are included
+in each, it may be said generally that crimes 1 to 17 inclusive
+are covered in all, though Rumania has reserved the right to
+refuse, and Portugal does refuse, to surrender for a crime punishable
+with death.</p>
+
+<p>The act of 1873 provides for the surrender of accessories
+before and after the fact to extradition crimes, and most of the
+treaties contain a clause by which extradition is to be granted
+for participation in any of the crimes specified in the treaty,
+provided that such participation is punishable by the laws of
+both countries. Several of the treaties also contain clauses,
+providing for optional surrender in respect of any crime not
+expressly mentioned for which extradition can be granted by
+the laws of both countries.</p>
+
+<p>It is further to be noted that the restrictions on surrender
+in the Extradition Acts apply only to surrenders by Great Britain.
+Foreign countries may surrender fugitives to Great Britain
+without any treaty, if they are willing to do so and their law
+allows of it, and such surrenders have not infrequently been
+made. But when surrendered for an extradition crime, the
+prisoner cannot be tried in England for any other crime committed
+before such surrender, until he has been restored, or has
+had an opportunity of returning, to the foreign state from which
+he was extradited.</p>
+
+<p><i>Procedure.</i>&mdash;To obtain from a foreign country the extradition of
+a fugitive from the United Kingdom, it is necessary to procure
+a warrant for his arrest, and to send it, or a certified copy, to the
+home secretary together with such further evidence as is required
+by the treaty with the country in question. In most, cases
+an information or deposition containing evidence which would
+justify a committal for trial in Great Britain will be required.
+The home secretary will then communicate through the foreign
+secretary and the proper diplomatic channels with the foreign
+authorities, and in case of urgency will ask them by telegraph for
+a provisional arrest. For the arrest in the United Kingdom of
+fugitive criminals whose extradition is requested by a foreign
+state, two procedures are provided in ss. 7 and 8 of the act of
+1870:&mdash;(1) On a diplomatic requisition supported by the warrant
+of arrest and documentary evidence, the home secretary, if he
+thinks the crime is not of a political character, will order the
+chief magistrate at Bow Street to proceed; and such magistrate
+will then issue a warrant of arrest on such evidence as would be
+required if the offence had been committed in the United Kingdom.
+(2) More summarily, any magistrate or justice of the peace
+may issue a provisional warrant of arrest on evidence which
+would support such a warrant if the crime had been committed
+within his jurisdiction. In practice a sworn information is required,
+but this may be based on a telegram from the foreign
+authorities. The magistrate or justice must then report the
+issue of the warrant to the home secretary, who may cancel it
+and discharge the prisoner. When arrested on the provisional
+warrant, the prisoner will be brought up before a magistrate
+and remanded to Bow Street, and will then be further remanded
+until the magistrate at Bow Street is notified that a formal
+requisition for surrender has been made; and unless such
+requisition is made in reasonable time the prisoner is entitled
+to be discharged. The examination of the prisoner prior to his
+committal for extradition ordinarily takes place at Bow Street.
+The magistrate is required to hear evidence that the alleged
+offence is of a political character or is not an extradition crime.
+If satisfied in these respects, and if the foreign warrant of arrest
+is duly authenticated, and evidence is given which according
+to English law would justify a committal for trial, if the prisoner
+has not yet been tried, or would prove a conviction if he has
+already been convicted, the magistrate will commit him for
+extradition. Under the Extradition Act, 1895 the home secretary,
+if of opinion that removal to Bow Street would be dangerous to
+the prisoner&rsquo;s life, or prejudicial to his health, may order the case
+to be taken by a magistrate at the place where the prisoner was
+apprehended, or then is, and the magistrate may order the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page89" id="page89"></a>89</span>
+prisoner to be detained in such place. After committal for extradition,
+every prisoner has fifteen days in which to apply for
+<i>habeas corpus</i>, and after such period, or at the close of the <i>habeas
+corpus</i> proceedings if they are unsuccessful, the home secretary
+issues his warrant for surrender, and the prisoner is handed over
+to the officers of the foreign government.</p>
+
+<p>The Extradition Acts apply to the British colonies, the
+governor being substituted for the secretary of state. Their
+operation may, however, be suspended by order in council, as
+in the case of Canada, where the colony has passed an Extradition
+Act of its own (see Statutory Rules and Orders).</p>
+
+<p><i>Fugitive Offenders Act.</i>&mdash;There are no extradition treaties
+with certain countries in which the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction,
+such as Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, China, Japan, Corea,
+Zanzibar, Morocco, Siam, Persia, Somali, &amp;c.  In these countries
+the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (44 &amp; 45 Vict. c. 69) has been
+applied, pursuant to s. 36 of that statute, and the measures for
+obtaining surrender of a fugitive criminal are the same as in a
+British colony. The act, however, only applies to persons over
+whom the crown has jurisdiction in these territories, and generally
+is expressly restricted to British subjects.</p>
+
+<p>Under this act a fugitive from one part of the king&rsquo;s dominions
+to another, or to a country where the crown exercises foreign
+jurisdiction, may be brought back by a procedure analogous to
+extradition, but applicable only to treason, piracy and offences
+punishable with twelve months&rsquo; imprisonment with hard labour
+or more. The original warrant of arrest must be endorsed by one
+of several authorities where the offenders happen to be,&mdash;in
+practice by the home secretary in the United Kingdom and by
+the governor in a colony. Pending the arrival of the original
+warrant a provisional arrest may be made, as under the Extradition
+Acts. The fugitive must then be brought up for
+examination before a local magistrate, who, if the endorsed
+warrant is duly authenticated, and evidence is produced &ldquo;which,
+according to the law administered by the magistrate, raises a
+strong or probable presumption that the offender committed the
+offence, and that the act applies to it,&rdquo; may commit him for return.
+An interval of fifteen days is allowed for <i>habeas corpus</i> proceedings,
+and (s. 10) the court has a large discretion to discharge
+the prisoner, or impose terms, if it thinks the case frivolous, or
+that the return would be unjust or oppressive, or too severe
+a punishment. The next step is for the home secretary in the
+United Kingdom, and the governor in a colony, to issue a
+warrant for the return of the prisoner. He must be removed
+within a month, in the absence of reasonable cause to the contrary.
+If not prosecuted within six months after arrival, or if
+acquitted, he is entitled to be sent back free of cost.</p>
+
+<p>In the case of fugitive offenders from one part of the United
+Kingdom to another, it is enough to get the warrant of arrest
+backed by a magistrate having jurisdiction in that part of
+the United Kingdom where the offender happens to be. A
+warrant issued by a metropolitan police magistrate may be
+executed, without backing, by a metropolitan police officer anywhere,
+and there are certain other exceptions, but as a rule a
+warrant cannot be executed without being backed by a local
+magistrate.</p>
+<div class="author">(J. E. P. W.)</div>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">United States.</span>&mdash;Foreign extradition is purely an affair of
+the United States, and not for the individual states themselves.
+Upon a demand upon the United States for extradition, there is
+a preliminary examination before a commissioner or judge before
+there can be a surrender to the foreign government (Revised
+Statutes, Title LXVI.; 22 Statutes at Large, 215). It is enough
+to show probable guilt (<i>Ornelas</i> v. <i>Ruiz</i>, 161 United States
+Reports, 502). An extradition treaty covers crimes previously
+committed. If a Power, with which the United States have
+such a treaty, surrenders a fugitive charged with a crime not
+included in the treaty, he may be tried in the United States for
+such crime. Inter-state extradition is regulated by act of Congress
+under the Constitution of the United States (Article IV. s.
+2; United States Revised Statutes, s. 5278). A surrender may
+be demanded of one properly charged with an act which constitutes
+a crime under the laws of the demanding state, although
+it be no crime in the other state. A party improperly surrendered
+may be released by writ of <i>habeas corpus</i>, either from a state or
+United States court (<i>Robb</i> v. <i>Conolly</i>, 111 U.S. Reports, 624). On
+his return to the state from which he fled, he is subject to prosecution
+for any crime, though on a foreign extradition the law is otherwise
+(<i>Lascelles</i> v. <i>Georgia</i>, 148 U.S. Reports, 537).</p>
+<div class="author">(S. E. B.)</div>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Sir E. Clarke, <i>Treatise upon the Law of Extradition</i> (4th ed.,
+1904); Biron and Chalmers, <i>Law and Practice of Extradition</i> (1903).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTRADOS<a name="ar87" id="ar87"></a></span> (<i>extra</i>, outside, Fr. <i>dos</i>, back), the architectural
+term for the outer boundary of the voussoirs of an arch (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EXTREME UNCTION,<a name="ar88" id="ar88"></a></span> a sacrament of the Roman Catholic
+Church. In James v. 14 it is ordained that, if any believer is
+sick, he shall call for the elders of the church; and they shall
+pray over him, anointing him with oil in the name of the Lord;
+and the prayer of faith shall save him that is sick, and the Lord
+shall raise him up; and if he have committed sins, it shall be
+forgiven him.</p>
+
+<p>Origen reprobated medical art on the ground that the prescription
+here cited is enough; modern faith-healers and Peculiar
+People have followed in his wake. The Catholic Church has more
+wisely left physicians in possession, and elevated the anointing
+of the sick into a sacrament to be used only in cases of mortal
+sickness, and even then not to the exclusion of the healing art.</p>
+
+<p>It has been general since the 9th century. The council of
+Florence <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 1439 thus defined it:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;The fifth sacrament is extreme unction. Its matter is olive
+oil, blessed by a bishop. It shall not be given except to a sick person
+whose death is apprehended. He shall be anointed in the following
+places: the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, feet, reins. The
+form of the sacrament, is this: Through this anointing of thee and
+through its most pious mercy, be forgiven all thy sins of sight, &amp;c.  ... and
+so in respect of the other organs. A priest can administer
+this sacrament. But its effect is to make whole the mind, and,
+so far as it is expedient, the body as well.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>This sacrament supplements that of penance (viz. remission
+of post-baptismal sin) in the sense that any guilt unconfessed or
+left over after normal penances imposed by confessors is purged
+thereby. It was discussed in the 12th century whether this
+sacrament is indelible like baptism, or whether it can be repeated;
+and the latter view, that of Peter Lombard, prevailed.</p>
+
+<p>It was a popular opinion in the middle ages that extreme
+unction extinguishes all ties and links with this world, so that he
+who has received it must, if he recovers, renounce the eating of
+flesh and matrimonial relations. A few peasants of Lombardy
+still believe that one who has received extreme unction ought to
+be left to die, and that sick people may be starved to death
+through the withholding of food on superstitious grounds. Such
+opinions, combated by bishops and councils, were due to the
+influence of the <i>consolamentum</i> of the Cathars (<i>q.v.</i>). In both
+sacraments the death-bed baptism of an earlier age seems to
+survive, and they both fulfil a deep-seated need of the human
+spirit.</p>
+
+<p>Some Gnostics sprinkled the heads of the dying with oil and
+water to render them invisible to the powers of darkness; but in
+the East generally, where the need to compete with the Cathar
+sacrament of <i>Consolatio</i> was less acutely felt, extreme unction
+is unknown. The Latinizing Armenians adopted it from Rome
+in the crusading epoch. At an earlier date, however, it was usual
+to anoint the dead.</p>
+
+<p>In the Roman Church the bishop blesses the oil of the sick
+used in extreme unctions on Holy Thursday at the Chrismal
+Mass,<a name="fa1k" id="fa1k" href="#ft1k"><span class="sp">1</span></a> using the following prayer of the sacramentaries of
+Gelasius and Hadrian:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Send forth, we pray Thee, O Lord, Thy holy spirit, the Paraclete
+from Heaven, into this fatness of oil, which Thou hast deigned to
+produce from the green wood for refreshment of mind and body;
+and through Thy holy benediction may it be for all that anoint, taste,
+touch, a protection of mind and body, of soul and spirit, unto the
+easing away of all pain, all weakness, all sickness of mind and body;
+wherefore Thou hast anointed priest, kings and prophets and martyrs
+with thy chrism, perfected by Thee, O Lord, blessed and abiding in
+our bowels in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>See L. Duchesne, <i>Origines du Culte Chrétien</i> (Paris, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. C. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1k" id="ft1k" href="#fa1k"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The oil left over from the year before is burnt.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page90" id="page90"></a>90</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYBESCHÜTZ, JONATHAN<a name="ar89" id="ar89"></a></span> (1690-1764), German rabbi,
+was from 1750 rabbi in Altona. He was a man of erudition,
+but he owed his fame chiefly to his personality. Few men of the
+period so profoundly impressed their mark on Jewish life. He
+became specially notorious because of a curious controversy
+that arose concerning the amulets which Eybeschütz was suspected
+of issuing. These amulets recognized the Messianic
+claims of Sabbatai Sebi (<i>q.v.</i>), and a famous rabbinic contemporary
+of Eybeschütz, Jacob Emden, boldly accused him
+of heresy. The controversy was a momentous incident in the
+Jewish life of the period, and though there is insufficient evidence
+against Eybeschütz, Emden may be credited with having
+crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some
+orthodox circles.</p>
+<div class="author">(I. A.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYCK, VAN,<a name="ar90" id="ar90"></a></span> the name of a family of Flemish painters in whose
+works the rise and mature development of art in western Flanders
+are represented. Though bred in the valley of the Meuse, they
+finally established their professional domicile in Ghent and in
+Bruges; and there, by skill and inventive genius, they changed
+the traditional habits of the earlier schools, remodelled the
+primitive forms of Flemish design, and introduced a complete
+revolution into the technical methods of execution familiar to
+their countrymen.</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Hubert</span> (Huybrecht) <span class="sc">van Eyck</span> (? 1366-1426) was the
+oldest and most remarkable of this race of artists. The date
+of his birth and the records of his progress are lost amidst the
+ruins of the earlier civilization of the valley of the Meuse. He
+was born about 1366, at Maeseyck, under the shelter or protection
+of a Benedictine convent, in which art and letters had been
+cultivated from the beginning of the 8th century. But after a
+long series of wars&mdash;when the country became insecure, and the
+schools which had flourished in the towns decayed&mdash;he wandered
+to Flanders, and there for the first time gained a name. As court
+painter to the hereditary prince of Burgundy, and as client to
+one of the richest of the Ghent patricians, Hubert is celebrated.
+Here, in middle age, between 1410 and 1420, he signalized
+himself as the inventor of a new method of painting. Here he
+lived in the pay of Philip of Charolais till 1421. Here he painted
+pictures for the corporation, whose chief magistrates honoured
+him with a state visit in 1424. His principal masterpiece,
+the &ldquo;Worship of the Lamb,&rdquo; commissioned by Jodocus Vijdts,
+lord of Pamele, is the noblest creation of the Flemish school, a
+piece of which we possess all the parts dispersed from St Bavon
+in Ghent to the galleries of Brussels and Berlin,&mdash;one upon which
+Hubert laboured till he died, leaving it to be completed by his
+brother. Almost unique as an illustration of contemporary
+feeling for Christian art, this great composition can only be
+matched by the &ldquo;Fount of Salvation,&rdquo; in the museum of Madrid.
+It represents, on numerous panels, Christ on the judgment seat,
+with the Virgin and St John the Baptist at His sides, hearing
+the songs of the angels, and contemplated by Adam and Eve,
+and, beneath him, the Lamb shedding His blood in the presence
+of angels, apostles, prophets, martyrs, knights and hermits.
+On the outer sides of the panels are the Virgin and the angel
+annunciate, the sibyls and prophets who foretold the coming
+of the Lord, and the donors in prayer at the feet of the Baptist and
+Evangelist. After this great work was finished it was placed,
+in 1432, on an altar in St Bavon of Ghent, with an inscription
+on the framework describing Hubert as &ldquo;maior quo nemo
+repertus,&rdquo; and setting forth, in colours as imperishable as the
+picture itself, that Hubert began and John afterwards brought
+it to perfection. John van Eyck certainly wished to guard
+against an error which ill-informed posterity showed itself
+but too prone to foster, the error that he alone had composed
+and carried out an altarpiece executed jointly by Hubert and
+himself. His contemporaries may be credited with full knowledge
+of the truth in this respect, and the facts were equally
+well known to the duke of Burgundy or the chiefs of the corporation
+of Bruges, who visited the painter&rsquo;s house in state in 1432,
+and the members of the chamber of rhetoric at Ghent, who
+reproduced the Agnus Dei as a <i>tableau vivant</i> in 1456. Yet
+a later generation of Flemings forgot the claims of Hubert,
+and gave the honours that were his due to his brother John
+exclusively.</p>
+
+<p>The solemn grandeur of church art in the 15th century never
+found, out of Italy, a nobler exponent than Hubert van Eyck.
+His representation of Christ as the judge, between the Virgin and
+St John, affords a fine display of realistic truth, combined with
+pure drawing and gorgeous colour, and a happy union of earnestness
+and simplicity with the deepest religious feeling. In contrast
+with earlier productions of the Flemish school, it shows a singular
+depth of tone and great richness of detail. Finished with surprising
+skill, it is executed with the new oil medium, of which
+Hubert shared the invention with his brother, but of which no
+rival artists at the time possessed the secret,&mdash;a medium which
+consists of subtle mixtures of oil and varnish applied to the
+moistening of pigments after a fashion, only kept secret for a
+time from gildsmen of neighbouring cities, but unrevealed to
+the Italians till near the close of the 15th century. When Hubert
+died on the 18th of September 1426 he was buried in the chapel
+on the altar of which his masterpiece was placed. According
+to a tradition as old as the 16th century, his arm was preserved
+as a relic in a casket above the portal of St Bavon of Ghent.
+During a life of much apparent activity and surprising successes
+he taught the elements of his art to his brother John, who survived
+him.</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">John</span> (Jan) <span class="sc">van Eyck</span> (? 1385-1440). The date of his
+birth is not more accurately known than that of his elder brother,
+but he was born much later than Hubert, who took charge of
+him and made him his &ldquo;disciple.&rdquo; Under this tuition John
+learnt to draw and paint, and mastered the properties of colours
+from Pliny. Later on, Hubert admitted him into partnership,
+and both were made court painters to Philip of Charolais. After
+the breaking up of the prince&rsquo;s household in 1421, John became
+his own master, left the workshop of Hubert, and took an
+engagement as painter to John of Bavaria, at that time resident
+at the Hague as count of Holland. From the Hague he returned
+in 1424 to take service with Philip, now duke of Burgundy, at a
+salary of 100 livres per annum, and from that time till his death
+John van Eyck remained the faithful servant of his prince,
+who never treated him otherwise than graciously. He was
+frequently employed in missions of trust; and following the
+fortunes of a chief who was always in the saddle, he appears for
+a time to have been in ceaseless motion, receiving extra pay for
+secret services at Leiden, drawing his salary at Bruges, yet
+settled in a fixed abode at Lille. In 1428 he joined the embassy
+sent by Philip the Good to Lisbon to beg the hand of Isabella
+of Portugal. His portrait of the bride fixed the duke&rsquo;s choice.
+After his return he settled finally at Bruges, where he married,
+and his wife bore him a daughter, known in after years as a nun
+in the convent of Maeseyck. At the christening of this child
+the duke was sponsor, and this was but one, of many distinctions
+by which Philip the Good rewarded his painter&rsquo;s merits. Numerous
+altarpieces and portraits now give proof of van Eyck&rsquo;s
+extensive practice. As finished works of art and models of
+conscientious labour they are all worthy of the name they
+bear, though not of equal excellence, none being better than
+those which were completed about 1432. Of an earlier period,
+a &ldquo;Consecration of Thomas à Becket&rdquo; has been preserved, and
+may now be seen at Chatsworth, bearing the date of 1421; no
+doubt this picture would give a fair representation of van Eyck&rsquo;s
+talents at the moment when he started as an independent
+master, but that time and accidents of omission and commission
+have altered its state to such an extent that no conclusive opinion
+can be formed respecting it. The panels of the &ldquo;Worship of
+the Lamb&rdquo; were completed nine years later. They show that
+John van Eyck was quite able to work in the spirit of his brother.
+He had not only the lines of Hubert&rsquo;s compositions to guide
+him, he had also those parts to look at and to study which
+Hubert had finished. He continued the work with almost
+as much vigour as his master. His own experience had been
+increased by travel, and he had seen the finest varieties of
+landscape in Portugal and the Spanish provinces. This enabled
+him to transfer to his pictures the charming scenery of lands
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page91" id="page91"></a>91</span>
+more sunny than those of Flanders, and this he did with accuracy
+and not without poetic feeling. We may ascribe much of the
+success which attended his efforts to complete the altarpiece
+of Ghent to the cleverness with which he [reproduced the varied
+aspect of changing scenery, reminiscent here of the orange
+groves of Cintra, there of the bluffs and crags of his native
+valley. In all these backgrounds, though we miss the scientific
+rules of perspective with which the van Eycks were not familiar,
+we find such delicate perceptions of gradations in tone, such
+atmosphere, yet such minuteness and perfection of finish, that our
+admiration never flags. Nor is the colour less brilliant or the
+touch less firm than in Hubert&rsquo;s panels. John only differs from
+his brother in being less masculine and less sternly religious.
+He excels in two splendid likenesses of Jodocus Vijdts and his
+wife Catherine Burluuts. The same vigorous style and coloured
+key of harmony characterizes the small &ldquo;Virgin and Child&rdquo; of
+1432 at Ince, and the &ldquo;Madonna,&rdquo; probably of the same date,
+at the Louvre, executed for Rollin, chancellor of Burgundy.
+Contemporary with these, the male portraits in the National
+Gallery, and the &ldquo;Man with the Pinks,&rdquo; in the Berlin Museum
+(1432-1434), show no relaxation of power; but later creations
+display no further progress, unless we accept as progress a more
+searching delicacy of finish, counterbalanced by an excessive
+softness of rounding in flesh contours. An unfaltering minuteness
+of hand and great tenderness of treatment may be found,
+combined with angularity of drapery and some awkwardness
+of attitude in the full length portrait couple (John Arnolfini and
+his wife) at the National Gallery (1434), in which a rare insight
+into the detail of animal nature is revealed in a study of a terrier
+dog. A &ldquo;Madonna with Saints,&rdquo; at Dresden, equally soft and
+minute, charms us by the mastery with which an architectural
+background is put in. The bold and energetic striving of earlier
+days, the strong bright tone, are not equalled by the soft blending
+and tender tints of the later ones. Sometimes a crude ruddiness
+in flesh strikes us as a growing defect, an instance of which
+is the picture in the museum of Bruges, in which Canon van der
+Paelen is represented kneeling before the Virgin under the
+protection of St George (1434). From first to last van Eyck
+retains his ability in portraiture. Fine specimens are the two
+male likenesses in the gallery of Vienna (1436), and a female, the
+master&rsquo;s wife, in the gallery of Bruges (1439). His death in
+1440/41 at Bruges is authentically recorded. He was buried
+in St Donat. Like many great artists he formed but few pupils.
+Hubert&rsquo;s disciple, Jodocus of Ghent, hardly does honour to his
+master&rsquo;s teaching, and only acquires importance after he has
+thrown off some of the peculiarities of Flemish teaching. Petrus
+Cristus, who was taught by John, remains immeasurably behind
+him in everything that relates to art. But if the personal
+influence of the van Eycks was small, that of their works was
+immense, and it is not too much to say that their example,
+taken in conjunction with that of van der Weyden, determined
+the current and practice of painting throughout the whole of
+Europe north of the Alps for nearly a century.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also Waagen, <i>Hubert and Johann van Eyck</i> (1822); Voll,
+<i>Werke des Jan van Eyck</i> (1900); L. Kämmerer on the two families in
+Knackfuss&rsquo;s <i>Künstler-Monographien</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. A. C.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYE,<a name="ar91" id="ar91"></a></span> a market-town and municipal borough in the Eye
+parliamentary division of Suffolk; England; 94½ m. N.E. from
+London by the Great Eastern railway, the terminus of a branch
+from the Ipswich-Norwich line. Pop. (1901) 2004. The church
+of St Peter and St Paul is mainly of Perpendicular flint work,
+with Early English portions and a fine Perpendicular rood
+screen. It was formerly attached to a Benedictine priory.
+Slight fragments of a Norman castle crown a mound of probably
+earlier construction. There are a town hall, corn exchange,
+and grammar school founded in 1566. Brewing is the chief
+industry. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and
+12 councillors. Area, 4410 acres.</p>
+
+<p>Eye (<i>Heya</i>, <i>Aye</i>) was once surrounded by a stream, from
+which it is said to have derived its name. Leland says it was
+situated in a marsh and had formerly been accessible by river
+vessels from Cromer, though the river was then only navigable
+to Burston, 12 m. from Eye. From the discovery of numerous
+bones and Roman urns and coins it has been thought that the
+place was once the cemetery of a Roman camp. William I.
+gave the lordship of Eye to Robert Malet, a Norman, who built a
+castle and a Benedictine monastery which was at first subordinate
+to the abbey of Bernay in Normandy. Eye is a borough by
+prescription. In 1205 King John granted to the townsmen a
+charter freeing them from various tolls and customs and from
+the jurisdiction of the shire and hundred courts. Later charters
+were granted by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1574, by James I. in
+1604, and by William III. in 1697. In 1574 the borough was
+newly incorporated under two bailiffs, ten chief and twenty-four
+inferior burgesses, and an annual fair on Whit-Monday and a
+market on Saturday were granted. Two members were returned
+to each parliament from 1571 till 1832, when the Reform Act
+reduced the membership to one. By the Redistribution Act of
+1885 the representation was merged in the Eye division of the
+county. The making of pillow-lace was formerly carried on
+extensively, but practically ceased with the introduction of
+machinery.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYE<a name="ar92" id="ar92"></a></span> (O. Eng. <i>eáge</i>, Ger. <i>Auge</i>); derived from an Indo-European
+root also seen in Lat. <i>oc-ulus</i>, the organ of vision (<i>q.v.</i>).</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Anatomy.</span>&mdash;The eye consists of the eyeball, which is the true
+organ of sight, as well as of certain muscles which move it, and
+of the lachrymal apparatus which keeps the front of it in a
+moist condition. The <i>eyeball</i> is contained in the front of the
+orbit and is a sphere of about an inch (24 mm.) in diameter.
+From the front of this a segment of a lesser sphere projects
+slightly and forms the <i>cornea</i> (fig. 1, <i>co</i>). There are three coats
+to the eyeball, an external (protective), a middle (vascular), and
+an internal (sensory). There are also three refracting media, the
+aqueous humour, the lens and the vitreous humour or body.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:381px; height:383px" src="images/img91.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 1.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic Section through the Eyeball.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>cj</i>, Conjunctiva.</p>
+<p><i>co</i>, Cornea.</p>
+<p><i>Sc</i>, Sclerotic.</p>
+<p><i>ch</i>, Choroid.</p>
+<p><i>pc</i>, Ciliary processes.</p>
+<p><i>mc</i>, Ciliary muscle.</p>
+<p><i>O</i>,  Optic nerve.</p>
+<p><i>R</i>,  Retina.</p>
+<p><i>I</i>,  Iris.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>aq</i>, Anterior chamber of aqueous humour.</p>
+<p><i>L</i>, Lens.</p>
+<p><i>V</i>, Vitreous body.</p>
+<p><i>Z</i>, Zonule of Zinn, the ciliary process being removed to show it.</p>
+<p><i>p</i>, Canal of Petit.</p>
+<p><i>m</i>, Yellow spot.</p>
+<p> &emsp;&emsp; The dotted line behind the cornea represents its posterior epithelium.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">The protective coat consists of the <i>sclerotic</i> in the posterior
+five-sixths and the cornea in the anterior sixth. The sclerotic
+(fig. 1, <i>Sc</i>) is a firm fibrous coat, forming the &ldquo;white of the eye,&rdquo;
+which posteriorly is pierced by the optic nerve and blends with
+the sheath of that nerve, while anteriorly it is continued into the
+cornea at the <i>corneo-scleral junction</i>. At this point a small canal,
+known as the <i>canal of Schlemm</i>, runs round the margin of the
+cornea in the substance of the sclerotic (see fig. 1). Between
+the sclerotic and the subjacent choroid coat is a lymph space
+traversed by some loose pigmented connective tissue,&mdash;the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page92" id="page92"></a>92</span>
+<i>lamina fusca</i>. The cornea is quite continuous with the sclerotic
+but has a greater convexity. Under the microscope it is seen to
+consist of five layers. Most anteriorly there is a layer of stratified
+epithelium, then an anterior elastic layer, then the <i>substantia
+propria</i> of the cornea which is fibrous with spaces in which the
+stellate <i>corneal corpuscles</i> lie, while behind this is the posterior
+elastic layer and then a delicate layer of endothelium. The
+transparency of the cornea is due to the fact that all these
+structures have the same refractive index.</p>
+
+<p>The middle or vascular coat of the eye consists of the <i>choroid</i>,
+the <i>ciliary processes</i> and the <i>iris</i>. The choroid (fig. 1, <i>ch</i>) does not
+come quite as far forward as the corneo-scleral junction: it is
+composed of numerous blood-vessels and pigment cells bound
+together by connective tissue and, superficially, is lined by a
+delicate layer of pigmented connective tissue called the <i>lamina
+suprachoroidea</i> in contact with the already-mentioned perichoroidal
+lymph space. On the deep surface of the choroid is
+a structureless basal lamina.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>ciliary processes</i> are some seventy triangular ridges,
+radially arranged, with their apices pointing backward (fig. 1, <i>pc</i>),
+while their bases are level with the corneo-scleral junction.
+They are as vascular as the rest of the choroid, and contain in their
+interior the <i>ciliary muscle</i>, which consists of radiating and circular
+fibres. The radiating fibres (fig. 1, <i>mc</i>) rise, close to the canal of
+Schlemm, from the margin of the posterior elastic lamina of the
+cornea, and pass backward and outward into the ciliary processes
+and anterior part of the choroid, which they pull forward when
+they contract. The circular fibres lie just internal to these and
+are few or wanting in short-sighted people.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>iris</i> (fig. 1, <i>I</i>) is the coloured diaphragm of the eye, the
+centre of which is pierced to form the pupil; it is composed of a
+connective tissue stroma containing blood-vessels, pigment cells
+and muscle fibres. In front of it is a reflection of the same layer
+of endothelium which lines the back of the cornea, while behind
+both it and the ciliary processes is a double layer of epithelium,
+deeply pigmented, which really belongs to the retina. The pigment
+in the substance of the iris is variously coloured in different
+individuals, and is often deposited after birth, so that, in newly-born
+European children, the colour of the eyes is often slate-blue
+owing to the black pigment at the back of the iris showing
+through. White, yellow or reddish-brown pigment is deposited
+later in the substance of the iris, causing the appearance, with
+the black pigment behind, of grey, hazel or brown eyes. In
+blue-eyed people very little interstitial pigment is formed, while
+in Albinos the posterior pigment is also absent and the blood vessels
+give the pink coloration. The muscle fibres of the iris
+are described as circular and radiating, though it is still uncertain
+whether the latter are really muscular rather than elastic. On
+to the front of the iris, at its margin, the posterior layer of the
+posterior elastic lamina is continued as a series of ridges called
+the <i>ligamentum pectinatum iridis</i>, while between these ridges are
+depressions known as the <i>spaces of Fontana</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The inner or sensory layer of the wall of the eyeball is the
+<i>retina</i>; it is a delicate transparent membrane which becomes
+thinner as the front of the eye is approached. A short distance
+behind the ciliary processes the nervous part of it stops and
+forms a scalloped border called the <i>ora serrata</i>, but the pigmented
+layer is continued on behind the ciliary processes and iris, as
+has been mentioned, and is known as the <i>pars ciliaris retinae</i>
+and <i>pars iridica retinae</i>. Under the microscope the posterior
+part of the retina is seen to consist of eight layers. In its passage
+from the lens and vitreous the light reaches these layers in the
+following order:&mdash;(1) Layer of nerve fibres; (2) Layer of ganglion
+cells; (3) Inner molecular layer; (4) Inner nuclear layer; (5)
+Outer molecular layer; (6) Outer nuclear layer; (7) Layer of
+rods and cones; (8) Pigmented layer.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The layer of nerve fibres (fig. 2, <i>2</i>) is composed of the axis-cylinders
+only of the fibres of the optic nerve which pierce the sclerotic, choroid
+and all the succeeding layers of the retina to radiate over its surface.</p>
+
+<p>The ganglionic layer (fig. 2, <i>3</i>) consists of a single stratum of large
+ganglion cells, each of which is continuous with a fibre of the preceding
+layer which forms its axon. Each also gives off a number of finer
+processes (dendrites) which arborize in the next layer.</p>
+
+<p>The inner molecular layer (fig. 2, <i>4</i>) is formed by the interlacement
+of the dendrites of the last layer with those of the cells of the inner
+nuclear layer which comes next.</p>
+
+<p>The inner nuclear layer (fig. 2, <i>5</i>) contains three different kinds
+of cells, but the most important and numerous are large bipolar
+cells, which send one process into the inner molecular layer, as has
+just been mentioned, and the other into the outer molecular layer,
+where they arborize with the ends of the rod and cone fibres.</p>
+
+<p>The outer molecular layer (fig. 2, <i>6</i>) is very narrow and is formed
+by the arborizations just described. The outer nuclear layer (fig.
+2, <i>7</i>), like the inner, consists of oval cells, which are of two kinds.
+The rod granules are transversely striped, and are connected externally
+with the rods, while internally processes pass into the outer
+molecular layer to end in a knob around which the arborizations
+of the inner nuclear cells lie. The cone granules are situated more
+externally, and are in close contact with the cones; internally their
+processes form a foot-plate in the outer molecular layer from which
+arborizations extend.</p>
+
+<p>The layer of rods and cones (fig. 2, <i>9</i>) contains these structures,
+the rods being more numerous than the cones. The rods are spindle-shaped
+bodies, of which the inner segment is thicker than the outer.
+The cones are thicker and shorter than the rods, and resemble Indian
+clubs, the handles of which are directed outward and are transversely
+striped. In the outer part of the rods the visual purple or rhodopsin
+is found.</p>
+
+<p>The pigmented layer consists of a single layer of hexagonal cells
+containing pigment, which is capable of moving towards the rods
+and cones when the eye is exposed to light and away from them in
+the dark.</p>
+</div>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:483px; height:152px" src="images/img92.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="tcl f90"><span class="sc">Fig. 2.</span>&mdash;Diagrammatic section through the retina to show the
+several layers, which are numbered as in the text. <i>Ct</i>, The radial
+fibres of the supporting connective tissue.</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2">Supporting the delicate nervous structures of the retina are
+a series of connective tissue rods known as the <i>fibres of Müller</i>
+(fig. 2, <i>Ct</i>); these run through the thickness of the retina at
+right angles to its surface, and are joined together on the inner
+side of the layer of nerve fibres to form the <i>inner limiting membrane</i>.
+More externally, at the bases of the rods and cones, they
+unite again to form the outer limiting membrane.</p>
+
+<p>When the retina is looked at with the naked eye from in front
+two small marks are seen on it. One of these is an oval depression
+about 3 mm. across, which, owing to the presence of pigment, is
+of a yellow colour and is known as the yellow spot (<i>macula
+lutea</i>); it is situated directly in the antero-posterior axis of the
+eyeball, and at its margin the nerve fibre layer is thinned and the
+ganglionic layer thickened. At its centre, however, both these
+layers are wanting, and in the layer of rods and cones only the
+cones are present. This central part is called the <i>fovea centralis</i>
+and is the point of acutest vision. The second mark is situated
+a little below and to the inner side of the yellow spot; it is a
+circular disk with raised margins and a depressed centre and is
+called the <i>optic disk</i>; in structure it is a complete contrast to the
+yellow spot, for all the layers except that of the nerve fibres are
+wanting, and consequently, as light cannot be appreciated here,
+it is known as the &ldquo;blind spot.&rdquo; It marks the point of entry of
+the optic nerve, and at its centre the retinal artery appears and
+divides into branches. An appreciation of the condition of the
+optic disk is one of the chief objects of the ophthalmoscope.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>crystalline lens</i> (fig. 1, <i>L</i>) with its ligament separates the
+aqueous from the vitreous chamber of the eye; it is a biconvex
+lens the posterior surface of which is more curved than the anterior.
+Radiating from the anterior and posterior poles are three
+faint lines forming a Y, the posterior Y being erect and the
+anterior inverted. Running from these figures are a series of
+lamellae, like the layers of an onion, each of which is made up of
+a number of fibrils called the lens fibres. On the anterior surface
+of the lens is a layer of epithelial cells, which, towards the margin
+or equator, gradually elongate into lens fibres. The whole lens
+is enclosed in an elastic structureless membrane, and, like the
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page93" id="page93"></a>93</span>
+cornea, its transparency is due to the fact that all its constituents
+have the same refractive index.</p>
+
+<p>The ligament of the lens is the thickened anterior part of the
+hyaloid membrane which surrounds the vitreous body; it is
+closely connected to the iris at the ora serrata, and then splits
+into two layers, of which the anterior is the thicker and blends
+with the anterior part of the elastic capsule of the lens, so that,
+when its attachment to the ora serrata is drawn forward by the
+ciliary muscle, the lens, by its own elasticity, increases its convexity.
+Between the anterior and posterior splitting of the
+hyaloid membrane is a circular lymph space surrounding the
+margin of the lens known as the <i>canal of Petit</i> (fig. 1, <i>p</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The <i>aqueous humour</i> (fig. 1, <i>aq</i>) is contained between the lens
+and its ligament posteriorly and the cornea anteriorly. It is
+practically a very weak solution of common salt (chloride of
+sodium 1.4%). The space containing it is imperfectly divided
+into a large anterior and a small posterior chamber by a perforated
+diaphragm&mdash;the iris.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>vitreous body</i> or <i>humour</i> is a jelly which fills all the
+contents of the eyeball behind the lens. It is surrounded by the
+hyaloid membrane, already noticed, and anteriorly is concave
+for the reception of the lens.</p>
+
+<p>From the centre of the optic disk to the posterior pole of the
+lens a lymph canal formed by a tube of the hyaloid membrane
+stretches through the centre of the vitreous body; this is the
+<i>canal of Stilling</i>, which in the embryo transmitted the hyaloid
+artery to the lens. The composition of the vitreous is practically
+the same as that of the aqueous humour.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>arteries of the eyeball</i> are all derived from the ophthalmic
+branch of the internal carotid, and consist of the retinal which
+enters the optic nerve far back in the orbit, the two long ciliaries,
+which run forward in the choroid and join the anterior ciliaries,
+from muscular branches of the ophthalmic, in the circulus iridis
+major round the margin of the iris, and the six to twelve short
+ciliaries which pierce the sclerotic round the optic nerve and
+supply the choroid and ciliary processes.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>veins of the eyeball</i> emerge as four or five trunks rather
+behind the equator; these are called from their appearance
+<i>venae vorticosae</i>, and open into the superior ophthalmic vein. In
+addition to these there is a retinal vein which accompanies its
+artery.</p>
+
+<p><i>Accessory Structures of the Eye.</i>&mdash;The <i>eyelids</i> are composed of
+the following structures from in front backward: (1) Skin; (2)
+Superficial fascia; (3) Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle; (4)
+<i>Tarsal plates</i> of fibrous tissue attached to the orbital margin by
+the superior and inferior <i>palpebral ligaments</i>, and, at the junction
+of the eyelids, by the external and internal <i>tarsal ligaments</i> of
+which the latter is also known as the <i>tendo oculi</i>; (5) <i>Meibomian
+glands</i>, which are large modified sebaceous glands lubricating the
+edges of the lids and preventing them adhering, and <i>Glands of
+Moll</i>, large sweat glands which, when inflamed, cause a &ldquo;sty&rdquo;;
+(6) the <i>conjunctiva</i>, a layer of mucous membrane which lines the
+back of the eyelids and is reflected on to the front of the globe,
+the reflection forming the fornix: on the front of the cornea the
+conjunctiva is continuous with the layer of epithelial cells already
+mentioned.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lachrymal</i> gland is found in the upper and outer part of
+the front of the orbit. It is about the size of an almond and
+has an upper (orbital) and a lower (palpebral) part. Its six to
+twelve ducts open on to the superior fornix of the conjunctiva.</p>
+
+<p>The <i>lachrymal canals</i> (canaliculi) (see fig. 3, <i>2</i> and <i>3</i>) are
+superior and inferior, and open by minute orifices (puncta) on to
+the free margins of the two eyelids near their inner point of
+junction. They collect the tears, secreted by the lachrymal
+gland, which thus pass right across the front of the eyeball, continually
+moistening the conjunctiva. The two ducts are bent
+round a small pink tubercle called the <i>caruncula lachrymalis</i>
+(fig. 3, <i>4</i>) at the inner angle of the eyelids, and open into the
+<i>lachrymal sac</i> (fig. 3, <i>5</i>), which lies in a groove in the lachrymal
+bone. The sac is continued down into the <i>nasal duct</i> (fig. 3, <i>6</i>),
+which is about ¾ inch long and opens into the inferior meatus of
+the nose, its opening being guarded by a valve.</p>
+
+<table class="pic" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter" colspan="2"><img style="width:329px; height:308px" src="images/img93a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption" colspan="2"><span class="sc">Fig. 3.</span>&mdash;Lachrymal Canals and Duct.</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>1</i>, Orbicular muscle.</p>
+<p><i>2</i>, Lachrymal canal.</p>
+<p><i>3</i>, Punctum.</p>
+<p><i>4</i>, Caruncula.</p></td>
+
+<td class="f90" style="width: 50%; vertical-align: top;">
+<p><i>5</i>, Lachrymal sac.</p>
+<p><i>6</i>, Lachrymal duct.</p>
+<p><i>7</i>, Angular artery.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The orbit contains seven muscles, six of which rise close to the
+optic foramen. The <i>levator palpebrae superioris</i> is the highest,
+and passes forward to the superior tarsal plate and fornix of the
+conjunctiva. The <i>superior</i> and <i>inferior recti</i> are inserted into the
+upper and lower surfaces
+of the eyeball respectively;
+they make
+the eye look inward as
+well as up or down.
+The external and internal
+recti are inserted
+into the sides of the
+eyeball and make it
+look outward or inward.
+The superior
+oblique runs forward
+to a pulley in the inner
+and front part of the
+roof of the orbit, round
+which it turns to be
+inserted into the outer
+and back part of the
+eyeball. It turns the
+glance downward and
+outward. The inferior
+oblique rises from the inner and front part of the floor of the
+orbit, and is also inserted into the outer and back part of the
+eyeball. It directs the glance upward and outward. Of all
+these muscles the superior oblique is supplied by the fourth
+cranial nerve, the external rectus by the sixth and the rest by the
+third.</p>
+
+<p>The posterior part of the eyeball and the anterior parts of the
+muscles are enveloped in a lymph space, known as the <i>capsule
+of Tenon</i>, which assists their movements.</p>
+
+<table class="nobctr" style="clear: both;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figcenter"><img style="width:106px; height:157px" src="images/img93b.jpg" alt="" /></td>
+<td class="figcenter"><img style="width:119px; height:156px" src="images/img93c.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 4.</span><br />
+Diagram of Developing<br />Eye (1st stage).</td>
+<td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 5.</span><br />
+Diagram of Developing<br />Eye (2nd stage).</td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="tcl f90">
+&alpha;, Forebrain.<br />
+&beta;, Optic vesicle.<br />
+&gamma;, Superficial ectoderm.<br />
+&delta;, Thickening for lens.<br /></td>
+
+<td class="tcl f90">
+&beta;, Optic cup.<br />
+&delta;, Invagination of lens.<br />
+&emsp; Other letters as in fig. 4.
+</td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="pt2"><span class="sc">Embryology.</span>&mdash;As is pointed out in the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Brain</a></span>, the
+<i>optic vesicles</i> grow out from the fore-brain, and the part nearest
+the brain becomes constricted and elongated to form the optic
+stalk (see figs. 4 and 5, &beta;). At the same time the ectoderm
+covering the side of the head thickens and becomes invaginated
+to form the lens vesicle (see figs. 4 and 5, &delta;), which later loses its
+connexion with the surface and approaches the optic vesicle,
+causing that structure to become cupped for its reception, so
+that what was the optic vesicle becomes the optic cup and consists
+of an external and an internal layer of cells (fig. 6 &beta; and &delta;). Of
+these the outer cells become the retinal pigment, while the
+inner form the other layers of the retina. The invagination of
+the optic cup extends, as the <i>choroidal fissure</i> (not shown in the
+diagrams), along the lower and back part of the optic stalk, and
+into this slit sinks some of the surrounding mesoderm to form
+the vitreous body and the hyaloid arteries, one of which persists.<a name="fa1l" id="fa1l" href="#ft1l"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+When this has happened the fissure closes up. The anterior
+epithelium of the lens vesicle remains, but from the posterior
+the lens fibres are developed and these gradually fill up the
+cavity. The superficial layer of head ectoderm, from which the
+lens has been invaginated and separated, becomes the anterior
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page94" id="page94"></a>94</span>
+epithelium of the cornea (fig. 6, &epsilon;), and between it and the lens
+the mesoderm sinks in to form the cornea, iris and anterior
+chamber of the eye, while surrounding the optic cup the mesoderm
+forms the sclerotic and choroid
+coats (fig. 7, &eta; and &zeta;). Up to the seventh
+month the pupil is closed by the <i>membrana
+pupillaris</i>, derived from the capsule
+of the lens which is part of the
+mesodermal ingrowth through the
+choroidal fissure already mentioned.
+The hyaloid artery remains, as a prolongation
+of the retinal artery to the
+lens, until just before birth, but after
+that its sheath forms the canal of
+Stilling. Most of the fibres of the
+optic nerve are centripetal and begin
+as the axons of the ganglionic cells of
+the retina; a few, however, are centrifugal
+and come from the nerve cells in
+the brain.</p>
+
+<table class="flt" style="float: right; width: 240px;" summary="Illustration">
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:143px; height:174px" src="images/img94a.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 6.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Diagram of Developing Eye (3rd stage).</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>&delta;, Solid lens.</p>
+<p>&epsilon;, Corneal epithelium.</p>
+<p> &emsp; Other letters as in figs. 4 and 5.</p></td></tr>
+
+<tr><td class="figright1"><img style="width:168px; height:132px" src="images/img94b.jpg" alt="" /></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption"><span class="sc">Fig. 7.</span></td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">Diagram of Developing Eye (4th stage). The mesodermal tissues are dotted.</td></tr>
+<tr><td class="caption1">
+<p>&zeta;, Choroid and Iris.</p>
+<p>&eta;, Sclerotic and Cornea.</p>
+<p>&theta;, Vitreous.</p>
+<p>&epsilon;, Aqueous.</p>
+<p>&kappa;, Eyelids.</p></td></tr></table>
+
+<p>The eyelids are developed as ectodermal
+folds, which blend with one
+another about the third month and
+separate again before birth in Man
+(fig. 7, &kappa;). The lachrymal sac and
+duct are formed from solid ectodermal
+thickenings which later become
+canalized.</p>
+
+<p>It will thus be seen that the optic
+nerve and retina are formed from the
+brain ectoderm; the lens, anterior epithelium
+of the cornea, skin of the eyelids,
+conjunctiva and lachrymal apparatus
+from the superficial ectoderm; while the
+sclerotic, choroid, vitreous and aqueous
+humours as well as the iris and cornea are derived from the
+mesoderm.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Human Embryology</i>, by C.S. Minot (New York); Quain&rsquo;s
+<i>Anatomy</i>, vol. i. (1908); &ldquo;Entwickelung des Auges der Wirbeltiere,&rdquo;
+by A. Froriep, in <i>Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen
+Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere</i> (O. Hertwig, Jena,
+1905).</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Comparative Anatomy.</span>&mdash;The Acrania, as represented by
+Amphioxus (the lancelet), have a patch of pigment in the fore
+part of the brain which is regarded as the remains of a degenerated
+eye. In the Cyclostomata the hag (Myxine) and larval lamprey
+(Ammocoetes) have ill-developed eyes lying beneath the skin and
+devoid of lens, iris, cornea and sclerotic as well as eye muscles.
+In the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) these structures are developed
+at the metamorphosis, and the skin becomes transparent, rendering
+sight possible. Ocular muscles are developed, but, unlike
+most vertebrates, the inferior rectus is supplied by the sixth
+nerve while all the others are supplied by the third. In all
+vertebrates the retina consists of a layer of senso-neural cells,
+the rods and cones, separated from the light by the other layers
+which together represent the optic ganglia of the invertebrates;
+in the latter animals, however, the senso-neural cells are nearer
+the light than the ganglia.</p>
+
+<p>In fishes the eyeball is flattened in front, but the flat cornea
+is compensated by a spherical lens, which, unlike that of other
+vertebrates, is adapted for near vision when at rest. The iris
+in some bony fishes (Teleostei) is not contractile. In the
+Teleostei, too, there is a process of the choroid which projects
+into the vitreous chamber and runs forward to the lens; it is
+known as the <i>processus falciformis</i>, and, besides nourishing the
+lens, is concerned in accommodation. This specialized group
+of fishes is also remarkable for the possession of a so-called
+<i>choroid gland</i>, which is really a <i>rete mirabile</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Arteries</a></span>)
+between the choroid and sclerotic. The sclerotic in fishes is
+usually chondrified and sometimes calcified or ossified. In the
+retina the rods and cones are about equal in number, and the
+cones are very large. In the cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchs)
+there is a silvery layer, called the <i>tapetum lucidum</i>, on the retinal
+surface of the choroid.</p>
+
+<p>In the Amphibia the cornea is more convex than in the fish,
+but the lens is circular and the sclerotic often chondrified. There
+is no processus falciformis or tapetum lucidum, but the class
+is interesting in that it shows the first rudiments of the ciliary
+muscle, although accommodation is brought about by shifting
+the lens. In the retina the rods outnumber the cones and these
+latter are smaller than in any other animals. In some Amphibians
+coloured oil globules are found in connexion with the cones,
+and sometimes two cones are joined, forming double or twin
+cones.</p>
+
+<p>In Reptilia the eye is spherical and its anterior part is often
+protected by bony plates in the sclerotic (Lacertilia and Chelonia).
+The ciliary muscle is striated, and in most reptiles accommodation
+is effected by relaxing the ciliary ligament as in higher vertebrates,
+though in the snakes (Ophidia) the lens is shifted as it is in the
+lower forms. Many lizards have a vascular projection of the
+choroid into the vitreous, foreshadowing the pecten of birds
+and homologous with the processus falciformis of fishes. In
+the retina the rods are scarce or absent.</p>
+
+<p>In birds the eye is tubular, especially in nocturnal and raptorial
+forms: this is due to a lengthening of the ciliary region, which is
+always protected by bony plates in the sclerotic. The pecten,
+already mentioned in lizards, is a pleated vascular projection
+from the optic disk towards the lens which in some cases it reaches.
+In Apteryx this structure disappears. In the retina the cones
+outnumber the rods, but are not as numerous as in the reptiles.
+The ciliary muscle is of the striped variety.</p>
+
+<p>In the Mammalia the eye is largely enclosed in the orbit, and
+bony plates in the sclerotic are only found in the monotremes.
+The cornea is convex except in aquatic mammals, in which it is
+flattened. The lens is biconvex in diurnal mammals, but in
+nocturnal and aquatic it is spherical. There is no pecten, but
+the numerous hyaloid arteries which are found in the embryo
+represent it. The iris usually has a circular pupil, but in some
+ungulates and kangaroos it is a transverse slit. In the Cetacea
+this transverse opening is kidney-shaped, the hilum of the kidney
+being above. In many carnivores, especially nocturnal ones,
+the slit is vertical, and this form of opening seems adapted to a
+feeble light, for it is found in the owl, among birds. The tapetum
+lucidum is found in Ungulata, Cetacea and Carnivora. The
+ciliary muscle is unstriped. In the retina the rods are more
+numerous than the cones, while the macula lutea only appears
+in the Primates in connexion with binocular vision.</p>
+
+<p>Among the accessory structures of the eye the retractor bulbi
+muscle is found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and many mammals;
+its nerve supply shows that it is probably a derivative of
+the external or posterior rectus. The nictitating membrane
+or third eyelid is well-developed in amphibians, reptiles, birds
+and some few sharks; it is less marked in mammals, and in
+Man is only represented by the little <i>plica semilunaris</i>. When
+functional it is drawn across the eye by special muscles derived
+from the retractor bulbi, called the <i>bursalis</i> and <i>pyramidalis</i>.
+In connexion with the nictitating membrane the Harderian
+gland is developed, while the lachrymal gland secretes fluid
+for the other eyelids to spread over the conjunctiva. These
+two glands are specialized parts of a row of glands which in the
+Urodela (tailed amphibians) are situated along the lower eyelid;
+the outer or posterior part of this row becomes the lachrymal
+gland, which in higher vertebrates shifts from the lower to the
+upper eyelid, while the inner or anterior part becomes the
+Harderian gland. Below the amphibians glands are not necessary,
+as the water keeps the eye moist.</p>
+
+<p>The lachrymal duct first appears in the tailed amphibians;
+in snakes and gecko lizards, however, it opens into the mouth.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For literature up to 1900 see R. Wiedersheim&rsquo;s <i>Vergleichende
+Anatomie der Wirbeltiere</i> (Jena, 1902). Later literature is noticed
+in the catalogue of the Physiological Series of the R. College of
+Surgeons of England Museum, vol. iii. (London, 1906).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. G. P.)</div>
+
+<p class="pt1"><span class="sc">Eye Diseases.</span>&mdash;The specially important diseases of the eye
+are those which temporarily or permanently interfere with
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page95" id="page95"></a>95</span>
+sight. In considering the pathology of the eye it may be remembered
+that (1) it is a double organ, while (2) either eye
+may have its own trouble.</p>
+
+<p>1. The two eyes act together, under normal conditions, for
+all practical purposes exactly as if there were but one eye placed
+in the middle of the face. All impressions made upon either
+retina, to the one side of a vertical line through the centre, the
+<i>fovea centralis</i>, before giving rise to conscious perception cause
+a stimulation of the same area in the brain. Impressions
+formed simultaneously, for instance, on the right side of the
+right retina and on corresponding areas of the right side of the
+left retina, are conveyed to the same spots in the right occipital
+lobe of the brain. Pathological processes, therefore, which are
+localized in the right or left occipital lobes, or along any part of
+the course of the fibres which pass from the right or left optic
+tracts to these &ldquo;visual centres,&rdquo; cause defects in function of
+the right or left halves of the two retinae. <i>Hemianopia</i>, or half-blindness,
+arising from these pathological changes, is of very
+varying degrees of severity, according to the nature and extent of
+the particular lesion. The blind areas in the two fields of vision,
+corresponding to the outward projection of the paralysed retinal
+areas, are always symmetrical both in shape and degree. The
+central lesion may for instance be very small, but at the same
+time destructive to the nerve tissue. This will be revealed as
+a sector-shaped or insular symmetrical complete blindness in
+the fields of vision to the opposite side. Or a large central area,
+or an area comprising many or all of the nerve fibres which pass
+to the visual centre on one side, may be involved in a lesion
+which causes impairment of function, but no actual destruction
+of the nerve tissue. There is thus caused a symmetrical weakening
+of vision (<i>amblyopia</i>) in the opposite fields. In such cases
+the colour vision is so much more evidently affected than the
+sense of form that the condition has been called <i>hemiachromatopsia</i>
+or half-colour blindness. Hemianopia may be caused
+by haemorrhage, by embolism, by tumour growth which either
+directly involves the visual nerve elements or affects them by
+compression and by inflammation. Transitory hemianopia
+is rare and is no doubt most frequently of toxic origin.</p>
+
+<p>The two eyes also act as if they were one in accommodating.
+It is impossible for the two eyes to accommodate simultaneously
+to different extents, so that where there is, as occasionally
+happens, a difference in focus between them, this difference
+remains the same for all distances for which they are adapted.
+In such cases, therefore, both eyes cannot ever be accurately
+adapted at the same time, though either may be alone. It
+often happens as a consequence that the one eye is used to receive
+the sharpest images of distant, and the other of near objects.
+Any pathological change which leads to an interference in the
+accommodating power of one eye alone must have its origin in a
+lesion which lies peripherally to the nucleus of the third cranial
+nerve. Such a lesion is usually one of the third nerve itself.
+Consequently, a unilateral accommodation paresis is almost
+invariably associated with pareses of some of the oculo-motor
+muscles. A bilateral accommodation paresis is not uncommon.
+It is due to a nuclear or more central cerebral disturbance.
+Unlike a hemianopia, which is mostly permanent, a double
+accommodation paresis is frequently transitory. It is often a
+post-diphtheritic condition, appearing alone or associated with
+other paresis.</p>
+
+<p>Both eyes are also normally intimately associated in their
+movements. They move in response to a stimulus or a combination
+of stimuli, emanating from different centres of the
+brain, but one which is always equally distributed to the corresponding
+muscles in both eyes, so that the two lines of fixation
+meet at the succession of points on which attention is directed.
+The movements are thus associated in the same direction, to
+the right or left, upwards or downwards, &amp;c.  In addition,
+owing to the space which separates the two eyes, convergent
+movements, caused by stimuli equally distributed between the
+two internal recti, are required for the fixation of nearer and
+nearer-lying objects. These movements would not be necessary
+in the case of a single eye. It would merely have to accommodate.
+The converging movements of the double eye occur in association
+with accommodation, and thus a close connexion becomes
+established between the stimuli to accommodation and convergence.
+All combinations of convergent and associated
+movements are constantly taking place normally, just as if a
+single centrally-placed eye were moved in all directions and
+altered its accommodation according to the distance, in any
+direction, of the object which is fixed.</p>
+
+<p>Associated and convergent movements may be interfered
+with pathologically in different ways. Cerebral lesions may
+lead to their impairment or complete abolition, or they may
+give rise to involuntary spasmodic action, as the result of
+paralysing or irritating the centres from which the various
+co-ordinated impulses are controlled or emanate. Lesions which
+do not involve the centres may prevent the response to associated
+impulses in one eye alone by interfering with the functional
+activity of one or more of the nerves along which the stimuli
+are conveyed. Paralysis of oculo-motor nerves is thus a common
+cause of defects of association in the movements of the double
+eye. The great advantage of simultaneous binocular vision&mdash;viz.
+the appreciation of depth, or stereoscopic vision&mdash;is thus
+lost for some, or it may be all directions of fixation. Instead
+of seeing singly with two eyes, there is then double-vision
+(<i>diplopia</i>). This persists so long as the defect of association
+continues, or so long as the habit of mentally suppressing the
+image of the faultily-directed eye is not acquired.</p>
+
+<p>In the absence of any nerve lesions, central or other, interfering
+with their associated movements, the eyes continue throughout
+life to respond equally to the stimuli which cause these movements,
+even when, owing to a visual defect of the one eye,
+binocular vision has become impossible. It is otherwise, however,
+with the proper co-ordination of convergent movements. These
+are primarily regulated by the unconscious desire for binocular
+vision, and more or less firmly associated with accommodation.
+When one eye becomes blind, or when binocular vision for other
+reasons is lost, the impulse is gradually, as it were, unlearnt.
+This is the cause of <i>divergent concomitant squint</i>. Under somewhat
+similar conditions a degree of convergence, which is in
+excess of the requirements of fixation, may be acquired from
+different causes. This gives rise to <i>convergent concomitant
+squint</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For <i>Astigmatism</i>, &amp;c., see the article <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Vision</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>2. Taking each eye as a single organ, we find it to be subject
+to many diseases. In some cases both eyes may be affected in
+the same way, <i>e.g.</i> where the local disease is a manifestation of
+some general disturbance. Apart from the fibrous coat of the
+eye, the sclera, which is little prone to disease, and the external
+muscles and other adnexa, the eye may be looked upon as
+composed of two elements, (<i>a</i>) the dioptric media, and (<i>b</i>) the
+parts more or less directly connected with perception. Pathological
+conditions affecting either of these elements may interfere
+with sight.</p>
+
+<p>The dioptric media, or the transparent portions which are concerned
+in the transmission of light to, and the formation of images
+upon, the retina, are the following: the <i>cornea</i>, the <i>aqueous
+humour</i>, the <i>crystalline lens</i> and the <i>vitreous humour</i>. Loss of
+transparency in any of these media leads to blurring of the retinal
+images of external objects. In addition to loss of transparency
+the cornea may have its curvature altered by pathological processes.
+This necessarily causes imperfection of sight. The
+crystalline lens, on the other hand, may be dislocated, and thus
+cause image distortion.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Cornea.</i>&mdash;The transparency of the cornea is mainly lost
+by imflammation (<i>keratitis</i>), which causes either an infiltration of
+its tissues with leucocytes, or a more focal, more destructive
+ulcerative process.</p>
+
+<p>Inflammation of the cornea may be primary or secondary,
+<i>i.e.</i> the inflammatory changes met with in the corneal tissue
+may be directly connected with one or more foci of inflammation
+in the cornea itself or the focus or foci may be in some other part
+of the eye. Only the very superficial forms of primary keratitis,
+those confined to the epithelial layer, leave no permanent change;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page96" id="page96"></a>96</span>
+there is otherwise always a loss of tissue resulting from the
+inflammation and this loss is made up for by more or less densely
+intransparent connective tissue (<i>nebula</i>, <i>leucoma</i>). These according
+to their site and extent cause greater or less visual disturbance.
+Primary keratitis may be ulcerative or non-ulcerative,
+superficial or deep, diffuse or circumscribed, vascularized or
+non-vascularized. It may be complicated by deeper inflammations
+of the eye such as iritis and cyclitis. In some cases the
+anterior chamber is invaded by pus (<i>hypopyon</i>). The healing
+of a corneal ulcer is characterized by the disappearance of pain
+where this has been a symptom and by the rounding off of its
+sharp margins as epithelium spreads over them from the surrounding
+healthy parts. Ulcers tend to extend either in depth or
+superficially, rarely in both manners at the same time. A deep
+ulcer leads to perforation with more or less serious consequences
+according to the extent of the perforation. Often an eye bears
+permanent traces of a perforation in adhesion of the iris to the
+back of a corneal scar or in changes in the lens capsule (capsular
+cataract). In other cases the ulcerated cornea may yield
+to pressure from within, which causes it to bulge forwards
+(<i>staphyloma</i>).</p>
+
+<p>The principal causes of primary keratitis are traumata and
+infection from the conjunctiva. Traumata are most serious when
+the body causing the wound is not aseptic or when micro-organisms
+from some other source, often the conjunctiva and
+tear-sac, effect a lodgment before healing of the wound has
+sufficiently advanced. In infected cases a complication with
+iritis is not uncommon owing to the penetration of toxines into
+the anterior chamber.</p>
+
+<p>Inflammations of the cornea are the most important diseases
+of the eye, because they are among the most frequent, because
+of the value of the cornea to vision and because much good can
+often be done by judicious treatment and much harm result
+from wrong interference and neglect. The treatment of primary
+keratitis must vary according to the cause. Generally speaking
+the aim should be to render the ulcerated portions as aseptic
+as possible without using applications which are apt to cause
+a great deal of irritation and thus interfere with healing. On
+this account it is important to be able to recognize when healing
+is taking place, for as soon as this is the case, rest, along with
+frequent irrigation of the conjunctiva with sterilized water at
+the body temperature, and occasionally mild antiseptic irrigation
+of the nasal mucous membrane is all that is required. It is a
+common and dangerous mistake to over treat.</p>
+
+<p>Of local antiseptics which are of use may be mentioned the
+actual cautery, chlorine water, freshly prepared silver nitrate or
+protargol, and the yellow oxide of mercury. These different
+agents are of course not all equally applicable in any given
+case; it depends upon the severity as well as upon the
+nature of the inflammation which is the most suitable. For
+instance, the actual cautery is employed only in the case of the
+deeper septic or malignant ulcers, in which the destruction of
+tissue is already considerable and tending to spread further.
+Again the yellow oxide of mercury should only be used in the
+more superficial, strumous forms of inflammation. Many other
+substances are also in use, but need not here be referred to.</p>
+
+<p><i>Secondary keratitis</i> takes the form of an interstitial deposit of
+leucocytes between the layers of the cornea as well as often of
+vascularization, sometimes intense, from the deeper network
+of vessels (anterior ciliary) surrounding the cornea. The duration
+of a secondary keratitis is usually prolonged, often lasting many
+months. More or less complete restoration of transparency is the
+rule, however, eventually.</p>
+
+<p>No local treatment is called for except the shading of the eyes
+and in most cases the use of a mydriatic to prevent synechiae
+when the iris is involved. Often it is advisable to do something
+for the general health. In young people there is probably nothing
+better than cod-liver oil and syrup of the iodide of iron. Inherited
+syphilis, tuberculous and other inflammations are the
+causes of secondary keratitis.</p>
+
+<p><i>Neuro-paralytic Keratitis.</i>&mdash;When the fifth nerve is paralysed
+there is a tendency for the cornea to become inflamed. Different
+forms of inflammation may then occur which all, besides anaesthesia,
+show a marked slowness in healing. The main cause of
+neuro-paralytic keratitis lies in the greater vulnerability of
+the cornea. The prognosis is necessarily bad. The treatment
+consists in as far as possible protecting the eye from external
+influences, by keeping it tied up, and by frequently irrigating
+with antiseptic lotions.</p>
+
+<p>Certain non-inflammatory and degenerative changes are met
+with in the cornea. Of these may be mentioned <i>keratoconus</i>
+or conical cornea, in which, owing to some disturbance of vitality,
+the nature of which has not been discovered, the normal curvature
+of the cornea becomes altered to something more of a hyberboloid
+of revolution, with consequent impairment of vision: <i>arcus
+senilis</i>, a whitish opacity due to fatty degeneration, extending
+round the corneal margin, varying in thickness in different
+subjects and usually only met with in old people: <i>transverse
+calcareous film</i>, consisting of a finely punctiform opacity extending,
+in a tolerably uniformly wide band, occupying the zone of
+the cornea which is left uncovered when the lids are half closed.</p>
+
+<p>Tumours of the cornea are not common. Those chiefly met
+with are dermoids, fibromata, sarcomata and epitheliomata.</p>
+
+<p><i>Scleritis.</i>&mdash;Inflammation of the sclera is confined to its anterior
+part which is covered by conjunctiva. Scleritis may occur in
+circumscribed patches or may be diffused in the shape of a belt
+round the cornea. The former is usually more superficial and
+uncomplicated, the latter deeper and complicated with corneal
+infiltration, irido-cyclitis and anterior choroiditis. Superficial
+scleritis or, as it is often called, <i>episcleritis</i>, is a long-continued
+disease which is associated with very varying degrees of discomfort.
+The chronic nature of the affection depends mainly
+upon the tendency that the inflammation has to recur in successive
+patches at different parts of the sclera. Often only one eye at a
+time is affected. Each patch lasts for a month or two and is
+succeeded by another after an interval of varying duration.
+Months or years may elapse between the attacks. The cicatricial
+site of a previous patch is rarely again attacked. The scleral
+infiltration causes a firm swelling, often sensitive to touch, over
+which the conjunctiva is freely movable. The overlying conjunctiva
+is always injected. The infiltration itself at the height
+of the process is densely vascularized. Seen through the conjunctiva
+its vessels have a darker, more purplish hue than the
+superficial ones. The swelling caused by the infiltration gradually
+subsides, leaving a cicatrix to which the overlying conjunctiva
+becomes adherent. The cicatrix has a slaty porcellanous-looking
+colour. Superficial scleritis occurs in both sexes with
+about equal frequency. No definite cause for the inflammation
+is known. The treatment on the whole is unsatisfactory.
+Burning down the nodules with the actual cautery, and subsequently
+a visit to such baths as Harrogate, Buxton, Homburg
+and Wiesbaden, may be recommended.</p>
+
+<p>Deep scleritis with its attendant complications is altogether
+a more serious disease. Etiologically it is equally obscure.
+Both eyes are almost always attacked. It more generally occurs
+in young people, mostly in young women. Deep scleritis is
+more persistent and less subject to periods of intermission than
+episcleritis. The deeper and more wide-spread inflammatory
+infiltrations of the sclera lead eventually to weakening of that
+coat, and cause it to yield to the intra-ocular pressure. Vision
+suffers from extension of the infiltration to the cornea, or from
+iritis with its attendant synechiae, or from anterior choroiditis,
+and sometimes also from secondary glaucoma. The treatment
+is on the whole unsatisfactory. Iridectomy, especially if done
+early in the process, may be of use.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Aqueous Humour.</i>&mdash;Intransparency of the aqueous humour
+is always due to some exudation. This comes either from the
+iris or the ciliary processes, and may be blood, pus or fibrin.
+An exudation in this situation tends naturally to gravitate to
+the most dependent part, and, in the case of blood or pus, is
+known as <i>kyphaema</i> or <i>hypopyon</i>.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Crystalline Lens Cataract.</i>&mdash;Intransparency of the crystalline
+lens is technically known as <i>cataract</i>. Cataract may be
+idiopathic and uncomplicated, or traumatic, or secondary to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page97" id="page97"></a>97</span>
+disease in the deeper parts of the eye. The modified epithelial
+structure of which the lens is composed is always being added to
+throughout life. The older portions of the lens are consequently
+the more central. They are harder and less elastic. This
+arrangement seems to predispose to difficulties of nutrition.
+In many people, in the absence altogether of general or local
+disease, the transparency of the lens is lost owing to degeneration
+of the incompletely-nourished fibres. This idiopathic cataract
+mostly occurs in old people; hence the term <i>senile cataract</i>.
+So-called <i>senile</i> cataract is not, however, necessarily associated
+with any general senile changes. An idiopathic uncomplicated
+cataract is also met with as a congenital defect due to faulty
+development of the crystalline lens. A particular and not
+uncommon form of this kind of cataract, which may also develop
+during infancy, is <i>lamellar</i> or <i>zonular cataract</i>. This is a partial
+and stationary form of cataract in which, while the greater part
+of the lens retains its transparency, some of the lamellae are
+intransparent. Traumatic cataract occurs in two ways: by
+laceration or rupture of the lens capsule, or by nutritional changes
+consequent upon injuries to the deeper structures of the eye.
+The transparency of the lens is dependent upon the integrity
+of its capsule. Penetrating wounds of the eye involving the
+capsule, or rupture of the capsule from severe blows on the eye
+without perforation of its coats, are followed by rapidly developing
+cataract. Severe non-penetrating injuries, which do not
+cause rupture of the capsule, are sometimes followed, after a
+time, by slowly-progressing cataract. Secondary cataract is
+due to abnormalities in the nutrient matter supplied to the lens
+owing to disease of the ciliary body, choroid or retina. In some
+diseases, as diabetes, the altered general nutrition tells in the
+same way on the crystalline lens. Cataract is then rapidly
+formed. All cases of cataract in diabetes are not, however,
+necessarily true diabetic cataracts in the above sense. <i>Dislocations
+of the lens</i> are traumatic or congenital. In old-standing
+disease of the eye the suspensory ligament may yield in part,
+and thus lead to lens dislocation. The lens is practically always
+cataractous before this takes place.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Vitreous Humour.</i>&mdash;The vitreous humour loses its transparency
+owing to exudation from the inflamed ciliary body or
+choroid. The exudation may be fibrinous or purulent; the
+latter only as a result of injuries by which foreign bodies or
+septic matter are introduced into the eye or in metastatic
+choroiditis. Blood may also be effused into the vitreous from
+rupture of retinal, ciliary or choroidal vessels. The pathological
+significance of the various effusions into the vitreous depends
+greatly upon the cause. In many cases effusion and absorption
+are constantly taking place simultaneously. The extent of
+possible clearing depends greatly upon the preponderance of
+the latter process.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Iris and Ciliary Body.</i>&mdash;Inflammation of the
+iris, iritis, arises from different causes. The various idiopathic
+forms have relations to constitutional disturbances such as
+rheumatism, gout, albuminuria, tuberculosis, fevers, syphilis,
+gonorrhoea and others, or they may come from cold alone.
+Traumatic and infected cases are attributable to accidents,
+the presence of foreign bodies, operations, &amp;c.  In addition,
+iritis may be secondary to keratitis, scleritis or choroiditis.
+The beginning of an attack of inflammation of the iris is characterized
+by alterations in its colour due to hyperaemia and by
+circumcorneal injection. Later on, exudation takes place into
+the substance of the iris, causing thickening and also a loss of
+gloss of its surface. According to the nature and severity of
+the exudation there may be deposits formed on the back of the
+cornea, attachments between the iris and lens capsule (synechiae),
+or even gelatinous-looking coagulations or pus in the anterior
+chamber.</p>
+
+<p>The subjective symptoms to which the inflammation may
+give rise are dread of light (<i>photophobia</i>), pain, generally most
+severe at night and often very great, also more or less impairment
+of sight. Along with the pain and photophobia there is lacrymation.
+An acute attack of iritis usually lasts about six weeks.
+Some cases become chronic and last much longer. Others are
+chronic from the first, and in one clinical type of iritis, in which
+the ciliary body is also at the same time affected, viz. <i>iritis
+serosa</i>, there is usually comparatively little injection of the eye
+or pain, so that the patient&rsquo;s attention may only be directed to
+the eye owing to the gradual impairment of sight which results.
+In some cases, and more particularly in men, there is a tendency
+to the recurrence at longer or shorter intervals of attacks of
+iritis (<i>recurrent iritis</i>). In these cases, as well as in all cases of
+plastic iritis which have not been properly treated, serious
+consequences to sight are apt to follow from the binding down
+of the iris to the lens capsule and the occlusion of the pupil by
+exudation.</p>
+
+<p>Inflammation of the ciliary body, <i>cyclitis</i>, is frequently associated
+with iritis. This association is probable in all cases where
+there are deposits on the posterior surface of the cornea. It is
+certain where there are changes in the intra-ocular tension.
+Often in cyclitis there is a very marked diminution in tension.
+Cyclitis is also present when the degree of visual disturbance
+is greater than can be accounted for by the visible changes in
+the pupil and anterior chamber. The exudation may, as in
+iritis, be serous, plastic or purulent. It passes from the two
+free surfaces of the ciliary body into the posterior aqueous, and
+into the vitreous, chambers. This produces, what is a constant
+sign of cyclitis, more or less intransparency of the vitreous
+humour. Where there has been excessive exudation into the
+vitreous, subsequent shrinking and liquefaction take place,
+leading to detachment of the retina and consequent blindness.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of iritis necessarily differs to some extent
+according to the cause. The general treatment applicable to
+all cases need only be here considered. What should be aimed
+at, at the time of the inflammation, is to put the eye as far as
+possible at rest, to prevent the formation of synechiae and
+alleviate the pain. An attempt should be made to get the pupil
+thoroughly dilated with atropine. The dilatation should be kept
+up as long as any circumcorneal injection lasts. If a case of
+iritis be left to itself or treated without the use of a mydriatic,
+posterior synechiae almost invariably form. Some fibrinous
+exudation may even organize into a membrane stretching
+across, and more or less completely occluding, the pupil.
+Synechiae, though not of themselves causing impairment of
+vision, increase the risk that the eye runs from subsequent
+attacks of iritis. It should however be remembered that as
+the main call for a mydriatic is to prevent synechiae, the <i>raison
+d&rsquo;être</i> for its use no longer exists when, having been begun too
+late, the pupil cannot properly be dilated by it. Under these
+conditions it may even do harm. The eyes should also be kept
+shaded from the light by the use of a shade or neutral-tinted
+glasses. During an attack any use of the eyes for reading or
+sewing or work of any kind calling for accommodation must be
+prohibited. This applies equally to the case of inflammation
+in one eye alone and in both.</p>
+
+<p>Pain is best relieved by hot fomentations, cocain, and in
+many cases the internal use of salicin or phenacetin. The
+treatment sometimes required for cases of old iritis is iridectomy.
+The operation is called for in two different classes of cases.
+In the first place, to improve vision where the pupil is small, and
+to a great extent occluded, though the condition has not so far
+led to serious nutritive changes; and in the second place, with
+the object as well of preventing the complete destruction of
+vision which either the existing condition or the danger of
+recurrence of the inflammation has threatened. Iridectomy
+for iritis should be performed when the inflammation has
+entirely subsided. The portion of iris excised should be large.
+The operation is urgently called for where the condition of <i>iris
+bombans</i> exists.</p>
+
+<p>Iris tumours, either simple or malignant, are of rare occurrence.</p>
+
+<p>A frequent result of a severe blow on the eye is a separation
+of a portion of the iris from its peripheral attachment (<i>iridodialysis</i>).
+Of congenital anomalies the most commonly met with
+are coloboma and more or less persistence of the foetal pupillary
+membrane. The most serious form of irido-cyclitis is that which
+may follow penetrating wounds of the eye. Under certain
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page98" id="page98"></a>98</span>
+conditions this leads to a similar inflammation in the other eye.
+This so-called <i>sympathetic ophthalmitis</i> is of a malignant type,
+causing destruction of the sympathizing eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>The Retina.</i>&mdash;Choroidal inflammations are generally patchy,
+various foci of inflammation being scattered over the choroid.
+These patches may in course of time become more or less confluent.
+The effect upon vision depends upon the extent to which
+the external or percipient elements of the retina become involved.
+It is especially serious when the more central portions of the
+retina, are thus affected (<i>choroido-retinitis centralis</i>).</p>
+
+<p>A peculiar and grave pathological condition of the eye is what
+is known as <i>glaucoma</i>. A characteristic of this condition is
+increase of the intra-ocular tension, which has a deleterious
+effect on the optic nerve end and its ramifications in the retina.
+The cause of the rise of tension is partly congestive, partly
+mechanical. The effect of glaucoma, when untreated, is to cause
+ever-increasing loss of sight, although the time occupied by the
+process before it leads to complete blindness varies within such
+extraordinary wide limits as from a few hours to many years.
+The uveal tract may be the site of <i>sarcoma</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The retina is subject to inflammation, to detachment from the
+choroid, to haemorrhages from the blood-vessels and to tumour.
+Retinal inflammation may primarily affect either the nerve
+elements or the connective tissue framework. The former is
+usually associated with some general disease such as albuminuria
+or diabetes and is bilateral. The tissue changes are oedema, the
+formation of exudative patches, and haemorrhage. Where the
+connective tissue elements are primarily affected, the condition
+is a slow one, similar to <i>sclerosis</i> of the central nervous system.
+The gradual blindness which this causes is due to compression
+of the retinal nerve elements by the connective tissue hyperplasia,
+which is always associated with characteristic changes in the
+disposition of the retinal pigment. This retinal sclerosis is
+consequently generally known as <i>retinitis pigmentosa</i>, a disease
+to which there is a hereditary predisposition. Besides occurring
+during inflammation, haemorrhages into the retina are met with
+in phlebitis of the central retinal vein, which is almost invariably
+unilateral, and in certain conditions of the blood, as pernicious
+anaemia, when they are always bilateral.</p>
+
+<p>The optic nerve is subject to inflammation (optic neuritis)
+and atrophy. Double optic neuritis, affecting, however, only
+the intra-ocular ends of the nerves, is an almost constant
+accompaniment of brain tumour. Unilateral neuritis has a
+different causation, depending upon an inflammation, mainly
+perineuritic, of the nerve in the orbit. It is analogous to
+peripheral inflammation of other nerves, such as the third,
+fourth, sixth and seventh cranial nerves.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diseases of the Conjunctiva.</i>&mdash;These are the most frequent
+diseases of the eye with which the surgeon has to deal. They
+generally lead to more or less interference with the functional
+activity of the eye and often indeed to great impairment of vision
+owing to the tendency which there is for the cornea to become
+implicated.</p>
+
+<p>Many different micro-organisms are of pathogenetic importance
+in connexion with the conjunctiva. Microbes exist in the normal
+conjunctival sac. These are mostly harmless, though it is usual
+to find at any rate a small proportion of others which are known
+to be pyogenetic. This fact is of great importance in connexion
+both with problems of etiology and the practical question of
+operations on the eye.</p>
+
+<p><i>Hyperaemia.</i>&mdash;When the conjunctiva becomes hyperaemic
+its colour is heightened and its transparency lessened. Sometimes
+too it becomes thickened and its surface altered in appearance.
+The often marked heightening of colour is due to the very
+superficial position of the dilated vessels. This is specially the
+case with that part of the membrane which forms the transition
+fold between the palpebral and the ocular conjunctiva. Consequently
+it is there that the redness is most marked, while it is
+seen to diminish towards the cornea. An important diagnostic
+mark is thus furnished between purely conjunctival hyperaemia
+and what is called circumcorneal congestion, which is always
+an indication of more deep-seated vascular dilatation. It also
+differs materially from a scleral injection, in which there is a
+visible dilatation of the superficial scleral vessels.</p>
+
+<p>When a conjunctival hyperaemia has existed for some time
+the papillae become swollen, and small blebs form on the surface
+of the membrane: sometimes too, lymph follicles begin to show.
+The enlargement and compression of adjacent papillae give
+rise to a velvety appearance of the surface.</p>
+
+<p>Hyperaemia of the conjunctiva where not followed by inflammation
+causes more or less lacrymation but no alteration
+in the character of its secretion. The hyperaemia may be acute
+and transitory or chronic. Much depends upon the cause as well
+as upon the persistence of the irritation which sets it up.</p>
+
+<p>Traumata, the presence of foreign bodies in the conjunctival
+sac, or the irritations of superficial chalky infarcts in the
+Meibomian ducts, cause more or less severe transitory congestion.
+Continued subjection to irritating particles such as flour, stones,
+dust, &amp;c. , causes a more continued hyperaemia which is often
+circumscribed and less pronounced. Bad air in schools, barracks,
+workhouses, &amp;c. , also causes a chronic hyperaemia in which it is
+common to find a follicular hyperplasia. Long exposure to too
+intense light, astigmatism and other ocular defects which cause
+asthenopia lead also to chronic hyperaemia. Anaemic individuals
+are often subject to discomfort from hyperaemia of this nature.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment of conjunctival hyperaemia consists first in
+the removal of the cause when it can be discovered. Often
+this is difficult. In addition the application of hot sterilized
+water is useful and soothing.</p>
+
+<p><i>Conjunctivitis.</i>&mdash;When the conjunctiva is actually inflamed
+the congested membrane is brought into a condition of heightened
+secreting action. The secretions become more copious and more
+or less altered in character. A sufficiently practical though by
+no means sharply defined clinical division of cases of conjunctivitis
+is arrived at by taking into consideration the character of
+the secretion from the inflamed membrane and the visible tissue
+alterations which the membrane undergoes. The common
+varieties of conjunctivitis which may thus be distinguished are the
+following: (&alpha;) Catarrhal conjunctivitis, (&beta;) Purulent conjunctivitis,
+(&gamma;) Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, (&delta;) Granular conjunctivitis
+and (&epsilon;) Diphtheritic conjunctivitis.</p>
+
+<p>However desirable a truly etiological classification might
+appear to be, it is doubtful whether such could satisfactorily
+be made. So much is certain at all events, that not only can
+identically the same clinical appearance result from the actions
+of quite different pathogenetic organisms, but that various
+concomitant circumstances may lead to very different clinical
+signs being set up by one and the same microbe. As regards
+<i>contagion</i> there is no doubt that the secretion in the case of a
+true conjunctivitis (<i>i.e.</i> not merely a hyperaemia) is always more
+or less contagious. The degree of virulence varies not only in
+different cases, but the effect of contagion from the same source
+may be different in different individuals. Healthy conjunctivae
+may thus react differently, not only as regards the degree of
+severity, but even according to different clinical types, when
+infected by secretion from the same source. There are no doubt
+different reasons for this, such as the stage at which the inflammation
+has arrived in the eye from which the secretion is derived,
+differences in the surroundings and in the susceptibility of the
+infected individuals, the presence of dormant microbes of a
+virulent type in the healthy conjunctiva which has been infected,
+&amp;c.  Many points in this connexion are very difficult to investigate
+and much remains to be elucidated. Contagion usually
+takes place directly and not through the air. Often in this
+way one eye is first affected and may in some cases, when
+sufficient care is afterwards taken, be the only one to suffer.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment in all severer forms of conjunctivitis should be
+undertaken with the primary object in view of preventing any
+implication of the cornea.</p>
+
+<p><i>Catarrhal conjunctivitis</i>, which is characterized by an increased
+mucoid secretion accompanying the hyperaemia, is usually
+bilateral and may be either acute or chronic. Acute conjunctivitis
+lasts as a rule only for a week or two: the chronic type
+may persist, with or without occasional exacerbations, for
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page99" id="page99"></a>99</span>
+years. The subjective symptoms vary in intensity with the
+severity of the inflammation. There is always more or less
+troublesome &ldquo;burning&rdquo; in the eyes with a tired heavy feeling
+in the lids. This is aggravated by reading, which is most distressing
+in a close or smoky atmosphere and by artificial light.
+In acute cases, indeed, reading is altogether impossible. In all
+cases of catarrhal conjunctivitis the symptoms are also more
+marked if the eyes have been tied up, even though this may
+produce a temporary relief.</p>
+
+<p>A curious variety of acute catarrhal conjunctivitis, in which
+the hyperaemia and lacrymation are the predominant features,
+is the so-called <i>hay-fever</i>. In this condition the mucous membrane
+of the nose and throat are similarly affected, and there
+is at the same time more or less constitutional disturbance.
+Hay-fever is due to irritation from the pollen of many plants, but
+principally from that of the different grasses. Some people are
+so susceptible to it that they invariably suffer every year during
+the early summer months. Here it is difficult to remove the
+cause, but many cases can be cured and almost all are alleviated
+be means of a special antitoxin applied locally.</p>
+
+<p>Other ectogenetic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis which
+have been studied are mostly microbic. Of these the most
+common are the Morax-Axenfeld and the Koch-Weeks conjunctivitis.</p>
+
+<p>The Morax-Axenfeld bacillus sets up a conjunctivitis which
+affects individuals of all ages and conditions and which is contagious.
+The inflammation is usually chronic, at most subacute.
+It is often sufficiently characteristic to be recognized without a
+microscopical examination of the secretions. In typical cases
+the lid margin, palpebral conjunctiva, and it may be a patch
+of ocular conjunctiva at the outer or inner angle are alone
+hyperaemic: the secretion is not copious and is mostly found
+as a greyish coagulum lying at the inner lid-margin. The
+subjective symptoms are usually slight. Complications with
+other varieties of catarrhal conjunctivitis are not uncommon.
+This mild form of conjunctivitis generally lasts for many months,
+subject to more or less complete disappearance followed by
+recurrences. It can be rapidly cured by the use of an oxide of
+zinc ointment, which should be continued for some time after
+the appearances have altogether passed off.</p>
+
+<p>The conjunctivitis caused by the Koch-Weeks microbe is
+still more common. It is a more acute type, affects mostly
+children, and is very contagious and often epidemic. Here the
+hyperaemia involves both the ocular and the palpebral conjunctiva,
+and usually there is considerable swelling of the lids
+and a copious secretion. Both eyes are always affected.
+Occasionally the engorged conjunctival vessels give way, causing
+numerous small extravasations (ecchymoses). Complications
+with phlyctenulae (<i>vide infra</i>) are common in children. The
+acute symptoms last for a week or ten days, after which the
+course is more chronic. Treatment with nitrate of silver in
+solution is generally satisfactory. Other less frequent microbic
+causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis yield to the same treatment.</p>
+
+<p>A form of <i>epidemic muco-purulent conjunctivitis</i> is not uncommon,
+in which the swelling of the conjunctival folds and lids
+is much more marked and the secretions copious. It is less
+amenable to treatment and also apt to be complicated by
+corneal ulceration. The microbe which gives rise to this condition
+has not been definitely established. This inflammation is
+also known as <i>school ophthalmia</i>. This is extremely contagious,
+so that isolation of cases becomes necessary. The treatment
+with weak solutions of sub-acetate of lead during the acute
+stage, provided there be no corneal complication, and subsequently
+with a weak solution of tannic acid, may be recommended.</p>
+
+<p><i>Purulent Conjunctivitis.</i>&mdash;Some of the severer forms of
+catarrhal conjunctivitis are accompanied not only by a good
+deal of swelling of both conjunctiva and lids but also by a
+decidedly muco-purulent secretion. Nevertheless there is a
+sufficiently sharply-defined clinical difference between the
+catarrhal and purulent types of inflammation. In purulent
+conjunctivitis the oedema of the lids is always marked, often
+excessive, the hyperaemia of the whole conjunctiva is intense:
+the membrane is also infiltrated and swollen (chemosis), the
+papillae enlarged and the secretion almost wholly purulent.
+Although this variety of conjunctivitis is principally due to
+infection by gonococci, other microbes, which more frequently
+set up a catarrhal type, may lead to the purulent form.</p>
+
+<p>All forms are contagious, and transference of the secretion
+to other eyes usually sets up the same type of severe inflammation.
+The way in which infection mostly takes place is by
+direct transference by means of the hands, towels, &amp;c. , of
+secretions containing gonococci either from the eye or from
+some other mucous membrane. The poison may also sometimes
+be carried by flies. The dried secretion loses its virulence.</p>
+
+<p>In new-born children (<i>ophthalmia neonatorum</i>) infection
+takes place from the maternal passages during birth. Notwithstanding
+the great changes which occur during the progress
+of a purulent conjunctivitis, there is on recovery a complete
+<i>restitutio ad integrum</i> so far as the conjunctiva is concerned.
+Owing to the tendency to severe ulceration of the cornea, more
+or less serious destructions of that membrane, and consequently
+more or less interference with sight, may result before the
+inflammation has passed off. This is a special danger in the
+case of adults. For this reason when only one eye is affected
+the first point to be attended to in the treatment is to secure the
+second eye from contagion by efficient occlusion. The appliance
+known as Buller&rsquo;s shield, a watch-glass strapped down by plaster,
+is the best for this purpose. It not only admits of the patient
+seeing with the sound eye, but allows the other to remain under
+direct observation. The treatment otherwise consists in frequent
+removal of the secretions from the affected eye, and the use
+of nitrate of silver solution as a bactericide applied directly
+to the conjunctival surface; sometimes it is necessary to cut
+away the chemotic conjunctiva immediately surrounding the
+cornea. When the cornea has become affected efforts may be
+made with the thermo-cautery or otherwise to limit the area of
+destruction and thus admit of something being done to improve
+the vision after all inflammation has subsided. The greatest
+cleanliness as well as proper antiseptic precautions should of
+course be observed by every one in any way connected with the
+treatment of such cases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Phlyctenular conjunctivitis</i> is an acute inflammation of the
+ocular conjunctiva, in which little blebs or phlyctenules form,
+more particularly in the vicinity of the corneal margin, as well as
+on the epithelial continuation of the conjunctiva which covers
+the cornea. The inflammation is characterized by being distributed
+in little circumscribed foci and not diffused as in all
+other forms of conjunctivitis. In it the conjunctival secretion
+is not altered, unless there should exist at the same time a complication
+with some other form of conjunctivitis. This condition
+is most frequent in children, particularly such as are ill-nourished
+or are recovering from some illness, <i>e.g.</i> measles. The susceptibility
+occurs in fact mainly where there exists what used to be
+called a &ldquo;strumous&rdquo; diathesis. In many cases, therefore, there
+is some kind of tubercular basis for the manifestations. This
+basis has to do with the susceptibility only, at all events to begin
+with. The local changes are not tuberculous; their exact origin
+has not been clearly established. They are in all probability
+produced by staphylococci.</p>
+
+<p>Many children suffering from phlyctenular conjunctivitis get
+after a short time an eczematous excoriation of the skin of the
+nostrils. This excoriated, scabby area contains crowds of
+staphylococci which find a nidus here, where the copious tear-flow
+down the nostrils has excoriated and irritated the skin.
+Lacrymation is indeed a very common concomitant of phlyctenular
+conjunctivitis. Another frequently distressing symptom
+is a pronounced dread of light (<i>photophobia</i>), which often leads
+to convulsive and very persistent closing of the lids (<i>blepharospasm</i>).
+Indeed the relief of the photophobia is often the most
+important point to be considered in the treatment of phlyctenular
+conjunctivitis. The photophobia may be very severe
+when the local changes are slight. The eyes should be shaded
+but not bandaged. Cocain may be freely used. The best
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page100" id="page100"></a>100</span>
+local application is the yellow oxide of mercury used as an
+ointment.</p>
+
+<p>Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, and the corneal complications
+with which it is so often associated, constitute a large proportion
+(from ¼ to <span class="spp">1</span>&frasl;<span class="suu">3</span>) of all eye affections with which the surgeon has to
+deal.</p>
+
+<p><i>Granular Conjunctivitis.</i>&mdash;This disease, which also goes by the
+name of <i>trachoma</i>, is characterized by an inflammatory infiltration
+of the adenoid tissue of the conjunctiva. The inflammation
+is accompanied by the formation of so-called <i>granules</i>, and at the
+same time by a hyperplasia of the papillae. The changes further
+lead in the course of time to cicatricial transformations, so that
+a gradual and progressive atrophy of the conjunctiva results.
+The disease takes its origin most frequently in the conjunctival
+fold of the upper lid, but eventually as a rule involves
+the corna and the deeper tissues of the lid, particularly the
+tarsus.</p>
+
+<p>The etiology of trachoma is unknown. Though a perfectly
+distinctive affection when fully established, the differential
+diagnosis from other forms of conjunctivitis, particularly those
+associated with much follicular enlargement or which have begun
+as purulent inflammation, may be difficult. Trachoma is mostly
+chronic. When occurring in an acute form it is more amenable
+to treatment and less likely to end in cicatricial changes. Fully
+half the cases of trachoma which occur are complicated by
+<i>pannus</i>, which is the name given to the affection when it has
+spread to the cornea. Pannus is a superficial vascularized infiltration
+of the cornea. The veiling which it produces causes
+more or less defect of sight.</p>
+
+<p>Various methods of treatment are in use for trachoma. Expression
+by means of roller-forceps or repeated grattage are
+amongst the more effective means of surgical treatment, while
+local applications of copper sulphate or of alum are certainly
+useful in suitable cases.</p>
+
+<p><i>Diphtheritic conjunctivitis</i> is characterized by an infiltration
+into the conjunctival tissues which, owing to great coagulability,
+rapidly interferes with the nutrition of the invaded area and
+thus leads to necrosis of the diphtheritic membrane. Conjunctival
+diphtheria may or may not be associated with
+diphtheria of the throat. It is essentially a disease of early
+childhood, not more than 10% of all cases occurring after
+the age of four. The cornea is exposed to great risk, more
+particularly during the first few days, and may be lost by
+necrosis. Subsequent ulceration is not uncommon, but may
+often be arrested before complete destruction has taken place.
+The disease is generally confined to one eye, and complicated by
+swelling of the preauricular glands of that side. It may prove
+fatal. In true conjunctival diphtheria the exciting cause is the
+Klebs-Löffler bacillus. The inflammation occurs in very varying
+degrees of severity. The secretion is at first thin and scant,
+afterwards purulent and more copious. In severe cases there is
+great chemosis with much tense swelling of the lids, which are
+often of an ashy-grey colour. A streptococcus infection produces
+somewhat similar and often quite as disastrous results.</p>
+
+<p>The treatment must be both general with antitoxin and local
+with antiseptics. Of rarer forms of conjunctivitis may be
+mentioned Parinaud&rsquo;s conjunctivitis and the so-called spring
+catarrh.</p>
+
+<p><i>Non-inflammatory Conjunctival Affections.</i>&mdash;These are of less
+importance than conjunctivitis, either on account of their comparative
+infrequency or because of their harmlessness. The
+following conditions may be shortly referred to.</p>
+
+<p><i>Amyloid degeneration</i>, in which waxy-looking masses grow
+from the palpebral conjunctiva of both lids, often attaining very
+considerable dimensions. The condition is not uncommon in
+China and elsewhere in the East.</p>
+
+<p><i>Essential Shrinking of the Conjunctiva.</i>&mdash;This is the result of
+pemphigus, in which the disease has attacked the conjunctiva
+and led to its atrophy.</p>
+
+<p><i>Pterygium</i> is a hypertrophic thickening of the conjunctiva of
+triangular shape firmly attached by its apex to the superficial
+layers of the cornea. It is a common condition in warm climates
+owing to exposure to sun and dust, and often calls for operative
+interference.</p>
+
+<p><i>Tumours of the Conjunctiva.</i>&mdash;These may be malignant or
+benign, also syphilitic and tubercular.</p>
+<div class="author">(G. A. Be.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1l" id="ft1l" href="#fa1l"><span class="fn">1</span></a> Some embryologists regard the vitreous body as formed from
+the ectoderm (see Quain&rsquo;s <i>Anatomy</i>, vol. i., 1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYEMOUTH,<a name="ar93" id="ar93"></a></span> a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop.
+(1901) 2436. It is situated at the mouth of the Eye, 7½ m.
+N.N.W. of Berwick-on-Tweed by the North British railway via
+Burnmouth. Its public buildings are the town hall, library
+and masonic hall. The main industry is the fishing and allied
+trades. The harbour was enlarged in 1887, and the bay is easily
+accessible and affords good anchorage. Owing to the rugged
+character of the coast and its numerous ravines and caves the
+whole district was once infested with smugglers. The promontory
+of St Abb&rsquo;s Head is 3 m. to the N.W.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYLAU<a name="ar94" id="ar94"></a></span> (<i>Preussisch-Eylau</i>), a town of Germany, in east
+Prussia, on the Pasmar, 23 m. S. by E. of Königsberg by rail on
+the line Pillau-Prostken. It has an Evangelical church, a teachers&rsquo;
+seminary, a hospital, foundries and saw mills. Pop. 3200.
+Eylau was founded in 1336 by Arnolf von Eilenstein, a knight
+of the Teutonic Order. It is famous as the scene of a battle
+between the army of Napoleon and the Russians and Prussians
+commanded by General Bennigsen, fought on the 8th of February
+1807.</p>
+
+<p>The battle was preceded by a severe general engagement on
+the 7th. The head of Napoleon&rsquo;s column (cavalry and infantry),
+advancing from the south-west, found itself opposed at the outlet
+of the Grünhöfchen defile by a strong Russian rearguard which
+held the (frozen) lakes on either side of the Eylau road, and
+attacked at once, dislodging the enemy after a sharp conflict.
+The French turned both wings of the enemy, and Bagration,
+who commanded the Russian rearguard, retired through Eylau
+to the main army, which was now arrayed for battle east of
+Eylau. Barclay de Tolly made a strenuous resistance in Eylau
+itself, and in the churchyard, and these localities changed hands
+several times before remaining finally in possession of the French.
+It is very doubtful whether Napoleon actually ordered this
+attack upon Eylau, and it is suggested that the French soldiers
+were encouraged to a premature assault by the hope of obtaining
+quarters in the village. There is, however, no reason to suppose
+that this attack was prejudicial to Napoleon&rsquo;s chance of
+success, for his own army was intended to pin the enemy in front,
+while the outlying &ldquo;masses of manoeuvre&rdquo; closed upon his
+flanks and rear (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Napoleonic Campaigns</a></span>). In this case the
+vigour of the &ldquo;general advanced guard&rdquo; was superfluous, for
+Bennigsen stood to fight of his own free will.</p>
+
+<p>The foremost line of the French bivouacs extended, from
+Rothenen to Freiheit, but a large proportion of the army spent
+the night in quarters farther back. The Russian army on the
+other hand spent the night bivouacked in order of battle, the
+right at Schloditten and the left at Serpallen. The cold was
+extreme, 2° F. being registered in the early morning, and food
+was scarce in both armies. The ground was covered at the time
+of battle with deep snow, and all the lakes and marshes were
+frozen, so that troops of all arms could pass everywhere, so far
+as the snow permitted. Two of Napoleon&rsquo;s corps (Davout and
+Ney) were still absent, and Ney did not receive his orders until
+the morning of the 8th. His task was to descend upon the
+Russian right, and also to prevent a Prussian corps under
+Lestocq from coming on to the battlefield. Davout&rsquo;s corps
+advancing from the south-east on Mollwitten was destined for
+the attack of Bennigsen&rsquo;s left wing about Serpallen and Klein
+Sausgarten. In the meantime Napoleon with his forces at and
+about Eylau made the preparations for the frontal attack.
+His infantry extended from the windmill, through Eylau, to
+Rothenen, and the artillery was deployed along the whole front;
+behind each infantry corps and on the wings stood the cavalry.
+The Guard was in second line south of Eylau, and an army
+reserve stood near the Waschkeiten lake. Bennigsen&rsquo;s army
+was drawn up in line from Schloditten to Klein Sausgarten, the
+front likewise covered by guns, in which arm he was numerically
+much superior. A detachment occupied Serpallen.</p>
+
+<p>The battle opened in a dense snowstorm. About 8 <span class="scs">A.M.</span>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page101" id="page101"></a>101</span>
+Bennigsen&rsquo;s guns opened fire on Eylau, and after a fierce but
+undecided artillery fight the French delivered an infantry
+attack from Eylau. This was repulsed with heavy losses, and the
+Russians advanced towards the windmill in force. Thereupon
+Napoleon ordered his centre, the VII. corps of Augéreau to move
+forward from the church against the Russian front, the division
+of St Hilaire on Augéreau&rsquo;s right participating in the attack.
+If we conceive of this first stage of the battle as the action of
+the &ldquo;general advanced guard,&rdquo; Augéreau must be held to have
+overdone his part. The VII. corps advanced in dense masses,
+but in the fierce snowstorm lost its direction. St Hilaire attacked
+directly and unsupported; Augéreau&rsquo;s corps was still less
+fortunate. Crossing obliquely the front of the Russian line, as
+if making for Schloditten, it came under a <i>feu d&rsquo;enfer</i> and was
+practically annihilated. In the confusion the Russian cavalry
+charged with the utmost fury downhill and with the wind behind
+them. Three thousand men only out of about fourteen thousand
+appeared at the evening parade of the corps. The rest were
+killed, wounded, prisoners or dispersed. The marshal and every
+senior officer was amongst the killed and wounded, and one
+regiment, the 14th of the Line, cut off in the midst of the Russians
+and refusing to surrender, fell almost to a man. The Russian
+counterstroke penetrated into Eylau itself and Napoleon himself
+was in serious danger. With the utmost coolness, however, he
+judged the pace of the Russian advance and ordered up a
+battalion of the Guard at the exact moment required. In the
+streets of Eylau the Guard had the Russians at their mercy,
+and few escaped. Still the situation for the French was desperate
+and the battle had to be maintained at all costs. Napoleon now
+sent forward the cavalry along the whole line. In the centre
+the charge was led by Murat and Bessières, and the Russian
+horsemen were swept off the field. The Cuirassiers under
+D&rsquo;Hautpoult charged through the Russian guns, broke through
+the first line of infantry and then through the second, penetrating
+to the woods of Anklappen.</p>
+
+<div class="center pt2"><img style="width:522px; height:476px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img101b.jpg" alt="" /></div>
+
+<p class="pt2">The shock of a second wave of cavalry broke the lines again,
+and though in the final retirement the exhausted troopers lost
+terribly, they had achieved their object. The wreck of Augéreau&rsquo;s
+and other divisions had been reformed, the Guard brought up
+into first line, and, above all, Davout&rsquo;s leading troops had occupied
+Serpallen. Thence, with his left in touch with Napoleon&rsquo;s
+right (St Hilaire), and his right extending gradually towards
+Klein Sausgarten, the marshal pressed steadily upon the Russian
+left, rolling it up before him, until his right had reached
+Kutschitten and his centre Anklappen. By that time the
+troops under Napoleon&rsquo;s immediate command, pivoting their left
+on Eylau church, had wheeled gradually inward until the general
+line extended from the church to Kutschitten. The Russian
+army was being driven westward, when the advance of Lestocq
+gave them fresh steadiness. The Prussian corps had been
+fighting a continuous flank-guard action against Marshal Ney
+to the north-west of Althof, and Lestocq had finally succeeded
+in disengaging his main body, Ney being held up at Althof by
+a small rearguard, while the Prussians, gathering as they went the
+fugitives of the Russian army, hastened to oppose Davout.
+The impetus of these fresh troops led by Lestocq and his staff-officer
+Scharnhorst was such as to check even the famous
+divisions of Davout&rsquo;s corps which had won the battle of Auerstädt
+single-handed. The French were now gradually forced back
+until their right was again at Sausgarten and their centre on
+the Kreege Berg.</p>
+
+<p>Both sides were now utterly exhausted, for the Prussians
+also had been marching and fighting all day against Ney. The
+battle died away at nightfall, Ney&rsquo;s corps being unable effectively
+to intervene owing to the steadiness of the Prussian detachment
+left to oppose him, and the extreme difficulty of the roads.
+A severe conflict between the Russian extreme right and Ney&rsquo;s
+corps which at last appeared on the field at Schloditten ended
+the battle. Bennigsen retreated during the night through Schmoditten,
+Lestocq through Kutschitten. The numbers engaged
+in the first stage of the battle may be taken as&mdash;Napoleon, 50,000,
+Bennigsen, 67,000, to which later were added on the one side
+Ney and Davout, 29,000, on the other Lestocq, 7000. The losses
+were roughly, 15,000 men to the French, 18,000 to the Allies, or
+21 and 27% respectively of the troops actually engaged. The
+French lost 5 eagles and 7 other colours, the Russians 16 colours
+and 24 guns..</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYRA<a name="ar95" id="ar95"></a></span> (<i>Felis eyra</i>), a South American wild cat, of weasel-like
+build, and uniform coloration, varying in different individuals
+from reddish-yellow to chestnut. It is found in Brazil, Guiana
+and Paraguay, and extends its range to the Rio del Norte, but
+is rare north of the isthmus of Panama. Little is known of its
+habits in a wild state, beyond the fact that it is a forest-dweller,
+active in movement and fierce in disposition. Several have
+been exhibited in the London Zoological Gardens, and some have
+grown gentle in captivity. Don Felix de Azara wrote of one
+which he kept on a chain that it was &ldquo;as gentle and playful as
+any kitten could be.&rdquo; The name is sometimes applied to the
+jaguarondi.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYRE, EDWARD JOHN<a name="ar96" id="ar96"></a></span> (1815-1901), British colonial governor,
+the son of a Yorkshire clergyman, was born on the 5th of August
+1815. He was intended for the army, but delays having arisen
+in producing a commission, he went out to New South Wales,
+where he engaged in the difficult but very necessary undertaking
+of transporting stock westward to the new colony of South
+Australia, then in great distress, and where he became magistrate
+and protector of the aborigines, whose interests he warmly
+advocated. Already experienced as an Australian traveller,
+he undertook the most extensive and difficult journeys in the
+desert country north and west of Adelaide, and after encountering
+the greatest hardships, proved the possibility of land communication
+between South and West Australia. In 1845 he returned
+to England and published the narrative of his travels. In 1846
+he was appointed lieutenant-governor of New Zealand, where he
+served under Sir George Grey. After successively governing St
+Vincent and Antigua, he was in 1862 appointed acting-governor
+of Jamaica and in 1864 governor. In October 1865 a negro
+insurrection broke out and was repressed with laudable vigour,
+but the unquestionable severity and alleged illegality of Eyre&rsquo;s
+subsequent proceedings raised a storm at home which induced
+the government to suspend him and to despatch a special
+commission of investigation, the effect of whose inquiries,
+declared by his successor, Sir John Peter Grant, to have been
+&ldquo;admirably conducted,&rdquo; was that he should not be reinstated
+in his office. The government, nevertheless, saw nothing in
+Eyre&rsquo;s conduct to justify legal proceedings; indictments preferred
+by amateur prosecutors at home against him and military
+officers who had acted under his direction, resulted in failure,
+and he retired upon the pension of a colonial governor. As an
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page102" id="page102"></a>102</span>
+explorer Eyre must be classed in the highest rank, but opinions
+are always likely to differ as to his action in the Jamaica rebellion.
+He died on the 30th of November 1901.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYRE, SIR JAMES<a name="ar97" id="ar97"></a></span> (1734-1799), English judge, was the son of
+the Rev. Thomas Eyre, of Wells, Somerset. He was educated at
+Winchester College and at St John&rsquo;s College, Oxford, which,
+however, he left without taking a degree. He was called to the
+bar at Gray&rsquo;s Inn in 1755, and commenced practice in the lord
+mayor&rsquo;s and sheriffs&rsquo; courts, having become by purchase one of
+the four counsel to the corporation of London. He was appointed
+recorder of London in 1763. He was counsel for the plaintiff in
+the case of <i>Wilkes</i> v. <i>Wood</i>, and made a brilliant speech in condemnation
+of the execution of general search warrants. His refusal to
+voice the remonstrances of the corporation against the exclusion
+of Wilkes from parliament earned him the recognition of the
+ministry, and he was appointed a judge of the exchequer in 1772.
+From June 1792 to January 1793 he was chief commissioner of
+the great seal. In 1793 he was made chief justice of the common
+pleas, and presided over the trials of Horne Tooke, Thomas
+Crosfield and others, with great ability and impartiality. He
+died on the 1st of July 1799 and was buried at Ruscombe,
+Berkshire.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Howell, <i>State Trials</i>, xix. (1154&mdash;1155); Foss, <i>Lives of the
+Judges</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EYRIE,<a name="ar98" id="ar98"></a></span> the alternative English form of the words Aerie or
+Aery, the lofty nest of a bird of prey, especially of an eagle,
+hence any lofty place of abode; the term is also used of the
+brood of the bird. The word derives from the Fr. <i>aire</i>, of the
+same meaning, which comes from the Lat. <i>area</i>, an open space,
+but was early connected with <i>aërius</i>, high in the air, airy, a
+confusion that has affected the spelling of the word. The
+forms &ldquo;eyrie&rdquo; or &ldquo;eyry&rdquo; date from a 17th century attempt
+to derive the word from the Teutonic <i>ey</i>, an egg.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZEKIEL<a name="ar99" id="ar99"></a></span> (<span title="Ihezkel">&#1497;&#1495;&#1494;&#1511;&#1488;&#1500;</span>, &ldquo;God strengthens&rdquo; or &ldquo;God is strong&rdquo;;
+Sept. <span class="grk" title="Iezekiel">&#7992;&#949;&#950;&#949;&#954;&#953;&#942;&#955;</span>; Vulg. Ezechiel), son of Buzi, one of the most
+vigorous and impressive of the older Israelite thinkers. He
+was a priest of the Jerusalem temple, probably a member of
+the dominant house of Zadok, and doubtless had the literary
+training of the cultivated priesthood of the time, including
+acquaintance with the national historical, legal and ritual
+traditions and with the contemporary history and customs
+of neighbouring peoples. In the year 597 (being then, probably,
+not far from thirty years of age) he was carried off
+to Babylonia by Nebuchadrezzar with King Jehoiachin and
+a large body of nobles, military men and artisans, and there, it
+would seem, he spent the rest of his life. His prophecies are
+dated from this year (&ldquo;our captivity,&rdquo; xl. 1), except in i. 1,
+where the meaning of the date &ldquo;thirtieth year&rdquo; is obscure;
+it cannot refer to his age (which would be otherwise expressed
+in Hebrew), or to the reform of Josiah, 621 (which is not elsewhere
+employed as an epoch); possibly the reference is to the
+era of Nabopolassar (626 according to the Canon of Ptolemy),
+if chronological inexactness be supposed (34 or 33 years instead
+of 30), a supposition not at all improbable. That the word
+&ldquo;thirtieth&rdquo; is old, appears from the fact that a scribe has added
+a gloss (<i>vv.</i> 2, 3) to bring this statement into accord with the
+usual way of reckoning in the book: the &ldquo;thirtieth&rdquo; year,
+he explains, is the fifth year of the captivity of Jehoiachin. The
+exiles dwelt at Tell-abib (&ldquo;Hill of the flood&rdquo;), one of the mounds
+or ruins made by the great floods that devastated the country,<a name="fa1m" id="fa1m" href="#ft1m"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+near the &ldquo;river&rdquo; Chebar (Kebar), probably a large canal not
+far south of the city of Babylon. Here they had their own
+lands, and some form of local government by elders, and appear
+to have been prosperous and contented; probably the only
+demand made on them by the Babylonian government was the
+payment of taxes.</p>
+
+<p>Ezekiel was married (xxiv. 18), had his own house, and comported
+himself quietly as a Babylonian subject. But he was a
+profoundly interested observer of affairs at home and among
+the exiles: as patriot and ethical teacher he deplored alike the
+political blindness of the Jerusalem government (King Zedekiah
+revolted in 588) and the immorality and religious superficiality
+and apostasy of the people. He, like Jeremiah, was friendly to
+Nebuchadrezzar, regarding him as Yahweh&rsquo;s instrument for the
+chastisement of the nation. Convinced that opposition to
+Babylonian rule was suicidal, and interpreting historical events,
+in the manner of the times, as indications of the temper of the
+deity, he held that the imminent political destruction of the
+nation was proof of Yahweh&rsquo;s anger with the people on account
+of their moral and religious depravity; Jerusalem was hopelessly
+corrupt and must be destroyed (xxiv.). On the other
+hand, he was equally convinced that, as his predecessors had
+taught (Hos. xi. 8, 9; Isa. vii. 3 <i>al.</i>), Yahweh&rsquo;s love for his people
+would not suffer them to perish utterly&mdash;a remnant would be
+saved, and this remnant he naturally found in the exiles in
+Babylonia, a little band plucked from the burning and kept safe
+in a foreign land till the wrath should have passed (xi. 14 ff.).
+This conception of the exiles as the kernel of the restored nation
+he further set forth in the great vision of ch. i., in which Yahweh
+is represented as leaving Jerusalem and coming to take up his
+abode among them in Babylonia for a time, intending, however,
+to return to his own city (xliii. 7).</p>
+
+<p>This, then, was Ezekiel&rsquo;s political creed&mdash;destruction of Jerusalem
+and its inhabitants, restoration of the exiles, and meantime
+submission to Babylon. His arraignment of the Judeans is
+violent, almost malignant (vi. xvi. <i>al.</i>). The well-meaning but weak
+king Zedekiah he denounces with bitter scorn as a perjured traitor
+(xvii). He does not discuss the possibility of successful resistance
+to the Chaldeans; he simply assumes that the attempt is foolish
+and wicked, and, like other prophets, he identifies his political
+programme with the will of God. Probably his judgment of the
+situation was correct; yet, in view of Sennacherib&rsquo;s failure at
+Jerusalem in 701 and of the admitted strength of the city, the
+hope of the Jewish nobles could not be considered wholly unfounded,
+and in any case their patriotism (like that of the national
+party in the Roman siege) was not unworthy of admiration. The
+prophet&rsquo;s predictions of disaster continued, according to the
+record, up to the investment of the city by the Chaldean army in
+588 (i.-xxiv.); after the fall of the city (586) his tone changed to
+one of consolation (xxxiii.-xxxix.)&mdash;the destruction of the wicked
+mass accomplished, he turned to the task of reconstruction. He
+describes the safe and happy establishment of the people in their
+own land, and gives a sketch of a new constitution, of which the
+main point is the absolute control of public religion by the priesthood
+(xl.-xlviii.).</p>
+
+<p>The discourses of the first period (i.-xxiv.) do not confine themselves
+to political affairs, but contain much interesting ethical and
+religious material. The picture given of Jerusalemite morals is
+an appalling one. Society is described as honeycombed with
+crimes and vices; prophets, priests, princes and the people
+generally are said to practise unblushingly extortion, oppression,
+murder, falsehood, adultery (xxii.). This description is doubtless
+exaggerated. It may be assumed that the social corruption in
+Jerusalem was such as is usually found in wealthy communities,
+made bolder in this case, perhaps, by the political unrest and the
+weakness of the royal government under Zedekiah. No such
+charges are brought by the prophet against the exiles, in whose
+simple life, indeed, there was little or no opportunity for flagrant
+violation of law. Ezekiel&rsquo;s own moral code is that of the prophets,
+which insists on the practice of the fundamental civic virtues.
+He puts ritual offences, however, in the same category with
+offences against the moral law, and he does not distinguish
+between immorality and practices that are survivals of old
+recognized customs: in ch. xxii. he mentions &ldquo;eating with the
+blood&rdquo;<a name="fa2m" id="fa2m" href="#ft2m"><span class="sp">2</span></a> along with murder, and failure to observe ritual regulations
+along with oppression of the fatherless and the widow; the
+old customary law permitted marriage with a half-sister (father&rsquo;s
+daughter), with a daughter-in-law, and with a father&rsquo;s wife (Gen.
+xx. 12, xxxviii. 26; 2 Sam. xvi. 21, 22), but the more refined
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page103" id="page103"></a>103</span>
+feeling of the later time frowned on the custom, and Ezekiel
+treats it as adultery.<a name="fa3m" id="fa3m" href="#ft3m"><span class="sp">3</span></a> However, notwithstanding the insistence
+on ritual, natural in a priest, his moral standard is high; following
+the prescription of Ex. xxii. 21 [20] he regards oppression of
+resident aliens (a class that had not then received full civil rights)
+as a crime (xxii. 7), and in his new constitution (xlvii. 22, 23)
+gives them equal rights with the homeborn. His strongest
+denunciation is directed against the religious practices of the
+time in Judea&mdash;the worship of the Canaanite local deities (the
+Baals), the Phoenician Tammuz, and the sun and other Babylonian
+and Assyrian gods (vi., viii., xvi., xxiii.); he maintained
+vigorously the prophetic struggle for the sole worship of Yahweh.
+Probably he believed in the existence of other gods, though he
+does not express himself clearly on this point; in any case he
+held that the worship of other deities was destructive to Israel.
+His conception of Yahweh shows a mingling of the high and the
+low. On the one hand, he regards him as supreme in power,
+controlling the destinies of Babylonia and Egypt as well as those
+of Israel, and as inflexibly just in dealing with ordinary offences
+against morality. But he conceives of him, on the other hand,
+as limited locally and morally&mdash;as having his special abode in.
+the Jerusalem temple, or elsewhere in the midst of the Israelite
+people, and as dealing with other nations solely in the interests
+of Israel. The bitter invectives against Ammon, Moab, Edom,
+Philistia, Tyre, Sidon and Egypt, put into Yahweh&rsquo;s mouth, are
+based wholly on the fact that these peoples are regarded as
+hostile and hurtful to Israel; Babylonia, though nowise superior
+to Egypt morally, is favoured and applauded because it is
+believed to be the instrument for securing ultimately the prosperity
+of Yahweh&rsquo;s people. The administration of the affairs of
+the world by the God of Israel is represented, in a word, as
+determined not by ethical considerations but by personal preferences.
+There is no hint in Ezekiel&rsquo;s writings of the grandiose
+conception of Isa. xl.-lv., that Israel&rsquo;s mission is to give the
+knowledge of religious truth to the other nations of the world;
+he goes so far as to say that Yahweh&rsquo;s object in restoring the
+fortunes of Israel is to establish his reputation among the nations
+as a powerful deity (xxxvi. 20-23, xxxvii. 28, xxxix. 23). The
+prophet regards Yahweh&rsquo;s administrative control as immediate:
+he introduces no angels or other subordinate supernatural
+agents&mdash;the cherubs and the &ldquo;men&rdquo; of ix. 2 and xl. 3 are merely
+imaginative symbols or representations of divine activity. His
+high conception of God&rsquo;s transcendence, it may be supposed, led
+him to ignore intermediary agencies, which are common in the
+popular literature, and later, under the influence of this same
+conception of transcendence, are freely employed.</p>
+
+<p>The relations between the writings of Ezekiel and those of
+Jeremiah is not clear. They have so much in common that they
+must have drawn from the same current bodies of thought, or
+there must have been borrowing in one direction or the other.
+In one point, however,&mdash;the attitude toward the ritual&mdash;the two
+men differ radically. The finer mind of the nation, represented
+mainly by the prophets from Amos onward, had denounced
+unsparingly the superficial non-moral popular cult. The
+struggle between ethical religion and the current worship became
+acute toward the end of the 7th century. There were two
+possible solutions of the difficulty. The ritual books of our
+Pentateuch were not then in existence, and the sacrificial cult
+might be treated with contempt as not authoritative. This is
+the course taken by Jeremiah, who says boldly that God requires
+only obedience (Jer. vii. 21 ff.). On the other hand the better
+party among the priests, believing the ritual to be necessary,
+might undertake to moralize it; of such a movement, begun
+by Deuteronomy, Ezekiel is the most eminent representative.
+Priest and prophet, he sought to unify the national religious
+consciousness by preserving the sacrificial cult, discarding its
+abuses and vitalizing it ethically. The event showed that he
+judged the situation rightly&mdash;the religious scheme announced
+by him, though not accepted in all its details, became the
+dominant policy of the later time, and he has been justly called
+&ldquo;the father of Judaism.&rdquo; He speaks as a legislator, citing
+no authority; but he formulates, doubtless, the ideas and
+perhaps the practices of the Jerusalem priesthood. His ritual
+code (xliii.-xlvi.), which in elaborateness stands midway between
+that of Deuteronomy and that of the middle books of the Pentateuch
+(resembling most nearly the code of Lev. xvii.-xxvi.)
+shows good judgment. Its most noteworthy features are two.
+Certain priests of idolatrous Judean shrines (distinguished by
+him as &ldquo;Levites&rdquo;) he deprives of priestly functions, degrading
+them to the rank of temple menials; and he takes from the
+civil ruler all authority over public religion, permitting him
+merely to furnish material for sacrifices. He is, however, much
+more than a ritual reformer. He is the first to express clearly the
+conception of a sacred nation, isolated by its religion from all
+others, the guardian of divine law and the abode of divine
+majesty. This kingdom of God he conceives of as moral:
+Yahweh is to put his own spirit into the people,<a name="fa4m" id="fa4m" href="#ft4m"><span class="sp">4</span></a> creating in
+them a disposition to obey his commandments, which are moral
+as well as ritual (xxxvi. 26, 27). The conception of a sacred
+nation controlled the whole succeeding Jewish development;
+if it was narrow in its exclusive regard for Israel, its intensity
+saved the Jewish religion to the world.</p>
+
+<p><i>Text and Authorship</i>.&mdash;The Hebrew text of the book of Ezekiel
+is not in good condition&mdash;it is full of scribal inaccuracies and
+additions. Many of the errors may be corrected with the aid
+of the Septuagint (<i>e.g.</i> the 430&mdash;390 + 40&mdash;of iv. 5, 6 is to be
+changed to 190), and none of them affect the general thought.
+The substantial genuineness of the discourses is now accepted by
+the great body of critics. The Talmudic tradition (<i>Baba Bathra</i>
+14<i>b</i>) that the men of the Great Synagogue &ldquo;wrote&rdquo; Ezekiel,
+may refer to editorial work by later scholars.<a name="fa5m" id="fa5m" href="#ft5m"><span class="sp">5</span></a> There is no
+validity in the objections of Zunz (<i>Gottesdienstl. Vortr.</i>) that
+the specific prediction concerning Zedekiah (xii. 12 f.) is non-Prophetic,
+and that the drawing-up of a new constitution soon
+after the destruction of the city and the mention of Noah,
+Daniel, Job and Persia are improbable. The prediction in
+question was doubtless added by Ezekiel after the event; the
+code belongs precisely in his time, and the constitution was natural
+for a priest; Noah, Daniel and Job are old legendary Hebrew
+figures; and it is not probable that the prophet&rsquo;s &ldquo;Paras&rdquo; is
+our &ldquo;Persia.&rdquo; Havet&rsquo;s contention (in <i>La Modernité des prophètes</i>)
+that Gog represents the Parthians (40 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) has little or
+nothing in its support. There are additions made <i>post eventum</i>,
+as in the case mentioned above and in xxix. 17-20, and the
+description of the commerce of Tyre (xxvii. 9<i>b</i>-25<i>a</i>), which
+interrupts the comparison of the city to a ship, looks like an
+insertion whether by the prophet or by some other; but there is
+no good reason to doubt that the book is substantially the work
+of Ezekiel. Ezekiel&rsquo;s style is generally impetuous and vigorous,
+somewhat smoother in the consolatory discourses (xxxiv.,
+xxxvi., xxxvii.); he produces a great effect by the cumulation
+of details, and is a master of invective; he is fond of symbolic
+pictures, proverbs and allegories; his &ldquo;visions&rdquo; are elaborate
+literary productions, his prophecies show less spontaneity than
+those of any preceding prophet (he receives his revelations in
+the form of a book, ii. 9), and in their present shape were hardly
+pronounced in public&mdash;a fact that seems to be hinted at in the
+statement that he was &ldquo;dumb&rdquo; till the fall of Jerusalem (iii. 26,
+xxxiii. 22); in private interviews the people did not take him
+seriously (xxxiii. 30-33). His book was accepted early as part
+of the sacred literature: Ben-Sira (<i>c</i>. 180 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) mentions him
+along with Isaiah and Jeremiah (Ecclus. xlix. 8); he is not
+quoted directly in the New Testament, but his imagery is
+employed largely in the Apocalypse and elsewhere. His divergencies
+from the Pentateuchal code gave rise to serious doubts,
+but, after prolonged study, the discrepancies were explained,
+and the book was finally canonized (Shab. 13<i>b</i>). According to
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page104" id="page104"></a>104</span>
+Jerome (Preface to <i>Comm. on Ezek.</i>) the Jewish youth were
+forbidden to read the mysterious first chapter (called the <i>markaba</i>,
+the &ldquo;chariot&rdquo;) and the concluding section (xl.-xlviii.) till they
+reached the age of thirty years.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The book divides itself naturally into three parts: the arraignment
+of Jerusalem (i.-xxiv.); denunciation of foreign enemies (xxv.-xxxii.);
+consolatory construction of the future (xxxiii.-xlviii.).
+The opening &ldquo;vision&rdquo; (i.), an elaborate symbolic picture, is of the
+nature of a general preface, and was composed probably late in the
+prophet&rsquo;s life. Out of the north (the Babylonian sacred mountain)
+comes a bright cloud, wherein appear four Creatures (formed on the
+model of Babylonian composite figures), each with four faces (man,
+lion, bull, eagle) and attended by a wheel; the wheels are full of
+eyes, and move straight forward, impelled by the spirit dwelling
+in the Creatures (the spirit of Yahweh). Supported on their heads
+is something like a crystalline firmament, above which is a form like
+a sapphire throne (cf. Ex. xxiv. 10), and on the throne a man-like
+form (Yahweh) surrounded by a rainbow brightness. The wheels
+symbolize divine omniscience and control, and the whole vision
+represents the coming of Yahweh to take up his abode among the
+exiles. The prophet then receives his call (ii., iii.) in the shape of a
+roll of a book, which he is required to eat (an indication of the
+literary form now taken by prophecy). He is informed that the
+people to whom he is sent are rebellious and stiff-necked (this indicates
+his opinion of the people, and gives the keynote of the following
+discourses); he is appointed watchman to warn men when they
+sin, and is to be held responsible for the consequences if he fail in
+this duty. To this high conception of a preacher&rsquo;s function the
+prophet was faithful throughout his career. Next follow minatory
+discourses (iv.-vii.) predicting the siege and capture of Jerusalem-perhaps
+revised after the event. There are several symbolic acts
+descriptive of the siege. One of these (iv. 4 ff.) gives the duration
+of the national punishment in loose chronological reckoning: 40
+years (a round number) for Judah, and 150 more (according to the
+corrected text) for Israel, the starting-point, probably, being the
+year 722, the date of the capture of Samaria; the procedure described
+in <i>v.</i> 8 is not to be understood literally. In vi. the idolatry of the
+nation is pictured in darkest colours. Next follows (viii.-xi.) a
+detailed description, in the form of a vision, of the sin of Jerusalem:
+within the temple-area elders and others are worshipping beast-forms,
+Tammuz and the sun (probably actual cults of the time); <a name="fa6m" id="fa6m" href="#ft6m"><span class="sp">6</span></a>
+men approach to defile the temple and slay the inhabitants of the
+city (ix.). In ch. x. the imagery of ch. i. reappears, and the Creatures
+are identified with the cherubs of Solomon&rsquo;s temple. This appears
+to be an independent form of the vision, which has been brought
+into connexion with that of i. by a harmonizing editor. There
+follow a symbolic prediction of the exile (xii.) and a denunciation
+of non-moral prophets and prophetesses (xiii.)&mdash;though Yahweh
+deceive a prophet, yet he and those who consult him will be punished;
+and so corrupt is the nation that the presence of a few eminently
+good men will not save it (xiv.).<a name="fa7m" id="fa7m" href="#ft7m"><span class="sp">7</span></a> After a comparison of Israel
+to a worthless wild vine (xv.) come two allegories, one portraying
+idolatrous Jerusalem as the unfaithful spouse of Yahweh (xvi.),
+the other describing the fate of Zedekiah (xvii.). The fine insistence
+on individual moral responsibility in xviii. (cf. Deut. xxiv. 16, Jer.
+xxxi. 29 f.), while it is a protest against a superficial current view,
+is not to be understood as a denial of all moral relations between
+successive generations. This latter question had not presented
+itself to the prophet&rsquo;s mind; his object was simply to correct the
+opinion of the people that their present misfortunes were due not
+to their own faults but to those of their predecessors. A more
+sympathetic attitude appears in two elegies (xix.), one on the kings
+Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin, the other on the nation. These are
+followed by a scathing sketch of Israel&rsquo;s religious career (xx. 1-26),
+in which, contrary to the view of earlier prophets, it is declared that
+the nation had always been disobedient. From this point to the
+end of xxiv. there is a mingling of threat and promise.<a name="fa8m" id="fa8m" href="#ft8m"><span class="sp">8</span></a> The allegory
+of xxiii. is similar to that of xvi., except that in the latter Samaria
+is relatively treated with favour, while in the former it (Aholah) is
+involved in the same condemnation as that of Jerusalem. At this
+point is introduced (xxv.-xxxii.) the series of discourses directed
+against foreign nations. The description of the king of Tyre (xxviii.
+11-19) as dwelling in Eden, the garden of God, the sacred mountain,
+under the protection of the cherub, bears a curious resemblance to
+the narrative in Gen. ii., iii., of which, however, it seems to be independent,
+using different Babylonian material; the text is corrupt.
+The section dealing with Egypt is one of remarkable imaginative
+power and rhetorical vigour: the king of Egypt is compared to a
+magnificent cedar of Lebanon (in xxxi. 3 read: &ldquo;there was a cedar
+in Lebanon&rdquo;) and to the dragon of the Nile, and the picture of his
+descent into Sheol is intensely tragic. Whether these discourses
+were all uttered between the investment of Jerusalem and its fall,
+or were here inserted by Ezekiel or by a scribe, it is not possible to
+say. In xxxiii. the function of the prophet as watchman is described
+at length (expansion of the description in iii.) and the news of the
+capture of the city is received. The following chapters (xxxiv.-xxxix.)
+are devoted to reconstruction: Edom, the detested enemy
+of Israel, is to be crushed; the nation, politically raised from the
+dead, with North and South united (xxxvii.), is to be established
+under a Davidide king; a final assault, made by Gog, is to be successfully
+met,<a name="fa9m" id="fa9m" href="#ft9m"><span class="sp">9</span></a> and then the people are to dwell in their own land in
+peace for ever; this Gog section is regarded by some as the beginning
+of Jewish apocalyptic writing. In the last section (xl.-xlviii.), put
+as a vision, the temple is to be rebuilt, in dimensions and arrangements
+a reproduction of the temple of Solomon (cf. I Kings vi., vii.),
+the sacrifices and festivals and the functions of priests and prince
+are prescribed, a stream issuing from under the temple is to vivify
+the Dead Sea and fertilize the land (this is meant literally), the land
+is divided into parallel strips and assigned to the tribes. The
+prophet&rsquo;s thought is summed up in the name of the city: <i>Yahweh
+Shammah</i>, &ldquo;Yahweh is there,&rdquo; God dwelling for ever in the midst
+of his people.</p>
+
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;For the older works see the <i>Introductions</i> of J.G.
+Carpzov (1757) and C.H.H. Wright (1890). For <i>legends</i>: Pseud.-Epiphan.,
+<i>De vit. prophet.</i>; Benjamin of Tudela, Itin.; Hamburger,
+<i>Realencycl.</i>; <i>Jew. Encycl.</i> On the Hebrew text; C.H. Cornill,
+<i>Ezechiel</i> (1886) (very valuable for text and ancient versions);
+H. Graetz, <i>Emendationes</i> (1893).; C.H. Toy, &ldquo;Text of Ezek.&rdquo;
+(1899) in Haupt&rsquo;s <i>Sacred Books of the Old Test.</i> Commentaries:
+F. Hitzig (1847); H. Ewald (1868); E. Reuss (French ed., 1876;
+Germ, ed., 1892); Currey (1876) in <i>Speaker&rsquo;s Comm.</i>; R. Smend
+(revision of Hitzig) (1880) in <i>Kurzgefasst. exeget. Handbuch</i>; A.B.
+Davidson (1882) in Cambr. <i>Bible for Schools</i>; J. Skinner (1895) in
+<i>Expos. Bible</i>; A. Bertholet (1897) in Marti&rsquo;s <i>Kurz. Hand-Comm.</i>;
+C.H. Toy (1899) in Haupt&rsquo;s <i>Sacr. Bks.</i> (Eng. ed.); R. Kraetzschmar
+(1900) in W. Nowack&rsquo;s <i>Handkommentar</i>. See also Duhm, <i>Theol. d.
+Propheten</i> (1875); A. Kuenen, <i>Prophets and Prophecy</i> (1877);
+Gautier, <i>La Mission du prophète Ezéchiel</i> (1891); Montefiore, <i>Hibbert
+Lectures</i> (1892); A. Bertholet, <i>Der Verfassungsentwurf des Hesekiel</i>
+(1896); articles in Herzog-Hauck, <i>Realencykl.</i>; Hastings, <i>Bibl.
+Dict.</i>; Cheyne, <i>Encycl. Bibl., Jew. Encycl.</i>; F. Bleek, <i>Introd.</i> (Eng.
+tr., 1875), and Bleek-Wellhausen (Germ.) (1878); Wildeboer,
+<i>Letterkunde d. Oud. Verbonds</i> (1893), and Germ, transl., <i>Litt. d. Alt.
+Test.</i>; Perrot and Chipiez, <i>Hist. de l&rsquo;art</i>, &amp;c. , in which, however, the
+restoration of Ezekiel&rsquo;s temple (by Chipiez) is probably untrustworthy.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. H. T.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1m" id="ft1m" href="#fa1m"><span class="fn">1</span></a> The Assyrian term <i>abubu</i> is used of the great primeval deluge
+(in the Gilgamesh epic), and also of the local floods common in the
+country.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2m" id="ft2m" href="#fa2m"><span class="fn">2</span></a> So we must read (as Robertson Smith has pointed out) in xxii. 9
+and xviii. 6, instead of &ldquo;eating on the mountains.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3m" id="ft3m" href="#fa3m"><span class="fn">3</span></a> The stricter marriage law is formulated in Lev. xviii. 8-15,
+xx. 11 ff.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4m" id="ft4m" href="#fa4m"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Yahweh&rsquo;s spirit, thought of as Yahweh&rsquo;s vital principle, as
+man&rsquo;s spirit is man&rsquo;s vital principle, is to be breathed into them, as,
+in Gen. ii. 7, Yahweh breathes his own breath into the lifeless body.
+The spirit in the Old Testament is a refined material thing that may
+come or be poured out on men.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5m" id="ft5m" href="#fa5m"><span class="fn">5</span></a> The &ldquo;Great Synagogue&rdquo; is semi-mythical.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6m" id="ft6m" href="#fa6m"><span class="fn">6</span></a> In viii. 17 the unintelligible expression &ldquo;they put the branch
+to their nose&rdquo; is the rendering of a corrupt Hebrew text; a probable
+emendation is: &ldquo;they are sending a stench to my nostrils.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7m" id="ft7m" href="#fa7m"><span class="fn">7</span></a> The legendary figure of Daniel (xiv. 14) is later taken by the
+author of the book of Daniel as his hero.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8m" id="ft8m" href="#fa8m"><span class="fn">8</span></a> For a reconstruction of the poem in xxi. 10, 11, see the English
+Ezekiel in Haupt&rsquo;s <i>Sacred Books</i>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9m" id="ft9m" href="#fa9m"><span class="fn">9</span></a> Gog probably represents a Scythian horde (though such an
+invasion never took place)&mdash;certainly not Alexander the Great, who
+would have been called &ldquo;king of Greece,&rdquo; and would have been
+regarded not as an enemy but as a friend.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZRA<a name="ar100" id="ar100"></a></span> (from a Hebrew word meaning &ldquo;help&rdquo;), in the Bible,
+the famous scribe and priest at the time of the return of the
+Jews in the reign of the Persian king Artaxerxes I. (458 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+His book and that of Nehemiah form one work (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra and
+Nehemiah, Books of</a></span>), apart from which we have little trustworthy
+evidence as to his life. Even in the beginning of the
+2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when Ben Sira praises notable figures of the
+exilic and post-exilic age (Zerubbabel, Jeshua and Nehemiah),
+Ezra is passed over (Ecclesiasticus xlix. 11-13), and he is not
+mentioned in a still later and somewhat fanciful description of
+Nehemiah&rsquo;s work (2 Macc. i. 18-36). Already well known as a
+scribe, Ezra&rsquo;s labours were magnified by subsequent tradition.
+He was regarded as the father of the scribes and the founder of
+the Great Synagogue. According to the apocryphal fourth
+book of Ezra (or 2 Esdras xiv.) he restored the law which had
+been lost, and rewrote all the sacred records (which had been
+destroyed) in addition to no fewer than seventy apocryphal
+works. The former theory recurs elsewhere in Jewish tradition,
+and may be associated with the representation in Ezra-Nehemiah
+which connects him with the law. But the story of his many
+literary efforts, like the more modern conjecture that he closed
+the canon of the Old Testament, rests upon no ancient basis.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span>, sect. Old Testament (Canon and Criticism); <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>
+(history, §21 seq.). The apocryphal books, called 1 and 2 Esdras
+(the Greek form of the name) in the English Bible, are dealt with
+below as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra, Third Book of</a></span>, and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra, Fourth Book of</a></span>,
+while the canonical book of Ezra is dealt with under <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra and
+Nehemiah</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF<a name="ar101" id="ar101"></a></span> [1 <i>Esdras</i>]. The titles of the various
+books of the Ezra literature are very confusing. The Greek,
+the Old Latin, the Syriac, and the English Bible from 1560
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page105" id="page105"></a>105</span>
+onwards designate this book as 1 Esdras, the canonical books
+Ezra and Nehemiah being 2 Esdras in the Greek. In the Vulgate,
+however, our author was, through the action of Jerome, degraded
+into the third place and called 3 Esdras, whereas the canonical
+books <i>Ezra</i> and <i>Nehemiah</i> (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra and Nehemiah, Books of</a></span>,
+below) were called 1 and 2 Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Ezra
+4 Esdras. Thus the nomenclature of our book follows, and
+possibly wrongly, the usage of the Vulgate.<a name="fa1n" id="fa1n" href="#ft1n"><span class="sp">1</span></a> In the Ethiopic
+version a different usage prevails. The <span class="correction" title="amended from Apocalyspe">Apocalypse</span> is called
+1 Esdras, our author 2 Esdras, and Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras,
+or 3 and 4 Esdras. Throughout this article we shall use the best
+attested designation of this book, <i>i.e.</i> 1 Esdras.</p>
+
+<p><i>Contents</i>.&mdash;With the exception of one original section, namely,
+that of Darius and the three young men, our author contains
+essentially the same materials as the canonical Ezra and some
+sections of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. To the various explanations
+of this phenomenon we shall recur later. The book may
+be divided as follows (the verse division is that of the Cambridge
+LXX):&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Chap. i. = 2 Chron. xxxv. 1-xxxvi. 21.&mdash;Great passover of Josiah;
+his death at Megiddo. His successors down to the destruction of
+Jerusalem and the Captivity. (Verses i. 21-22 are not found elsewhere,
+though the LXX of 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 exhibits a very
+distant parallel.)</p>
+
+<p>Chap. ii. 1-14 = Ezra i.&mdash;The edict of Cyrus. Restoration of the
+sacred vessels through Sanabassar to Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p>Chap. ii. 15-25 = Ezra iv. 6-24.&mdash;First attempt to rebuild the
+Temple: opposition of the Samaritans. Decree of Artaxerxes:
+work abandoned till the second year of Darius.</p>
+
+<p>Chap. iii. 1-v. 6.&mdash;This section is peculiar to our author. The
+contest between the three pages waiting at the court of Darius and
+the victory of the Jewish youth &ldquo;Zerubbabel,&rdquo; to whom as a reward
+Darius decrees the return of the Jews and the restoration of the
+Temple and worship. Partial list of those who returned with
+&ldquo;Joachim, son of Zerubbabel.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Chap. v. 7-70 = Ezra ii.-iv. 5.&mdash;List of exiles who returned with
+Zerubbabel. Work on the Temple begun. Offer of the Samaritans&rsquo;
+co-operation rejected. Suspension of the work through their
+intervention till the reign of Darius.</p>
+
+<p>Chap. vi. 1-vii. 9 = Ezra v. 1-vi. 18.&mdash;Work resumed in the second
+year of Darius. Correspondence between Sisinnes and Darius with
+reference to the building of the Temple. Darius&rsquo; favourable decree.
+Completion of the work by Zerubbabel.</p>
+
+<p>Chap. vii. 10-15 =Ezra vi. 19-22.&mdash;Celebration of the completion
+of the Temple.</p>
+
+<p>Chap. viii. 1-ix. 36 = Ezra vii.-x.&mdash;Return of the exiles under
+Ezra. Mixed marriages forbidden.</p>
+
+<p>Chap. ix. 37-55 = Nehemiah vii. 73-viii. 12.&mdash;The reading of the
+Law.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>Thus, apart from iii. 1-v. 3, which gives an account of the
+pages&rsquo; contest, the contents of the book are doublets of the
+canonical Ezra and portions of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah.
+The beginning of the book seems imperfect, with its abrupt
+opening &ldquo;And Josiah held the passover&rdquo;: its conclusion is
+mutilated, as it breaks off in the middle of a sentence. As
+Thackeray suggests, it probably continued the history of the
+feast of Tabernacles described in Neh. viii.&mdash;a view that is
+supported by Joseph. <i>Ant</i>. xi. 5. 5, &ldquo;who describes that feast
+using an Esdras word <span class="grk" title="epanorthôsis">&#7952;&#960;&#945;&#957;&#972;&#961;&#952;&#969;&#963;&#953;&#962;</span> and ... having hitherto
+followed Esdras as his authority passes on to the Book of
+Nehemiah.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>Claims to Canonicity</i>.&mdash;It would seem that even greater value
+was attached to 1 Esdras than to the Hebrew Ezra. (1) For
+in the best MSS. (BA) it stands before 2 Esdras&mdash;the verbal
+translation of the Hebrew Ezra and Nehemiah. (2) It is used by
+Josephus, who in fact does not seem aware of the existence
+of 2 Esdras. (3) 1 Esdras is frequently quoted by the Greek
+fathers&mdash;Clem. Alex., Origen, Eusebius, and by the Latin&mdash;Tertullian,
+Cyprian, Augustine. The adverse judgment of the
+church is due to Jerome, who, from his firm attachment to the
+Hebrew Old Testament, declined to translate the &ldquo;dreams&rdquo;
+of 3 and 4 Esdras. This judgment influenced alike the Council
+of Trent and the Lutheran church in Germany; for Luther
+also refused to translate Esdras and the Apocalypse of Ezra.</p>
+
+<p><i>Origin and Relation to the Canonical Ezra.</i>&mdash;Various theories
+have been given as to the relation of the book and the canonical
+Ezra.</p>
+
+<p>1. Some scholars, as Keil, Bissell and formerly Schürer, regarded
+1 Esdras as a free compilation from the Greek of 2 Esdras (2 Chron.
+and Ezra-Nehemiah). This theory has now given place to others
+more accordant with the facts of the case.</p>
+
+<p>2. Others, as Ewald, <i>Hist. of Isr.</i> v. 126-128, and Thackeray
+in Hastings&rsquo; <i>Bible Dictionary</i>, assume a lost Greek version of
+Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah, from which were derived
+1 Esdras&mdash;a free redaction of the former and 2 Esdras.
+Thackeray claims that we have &ldquo;a satisfactory explanation
+of the coincidences in translation and deviation from the Hebrew
+in 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, if we suppose both are to some extent
+dependent on a lost Greek original.&rdquo; But later in the same
+article Thackeray is compelled to modify this view and admit
+that 1 Esdras is not a mere redaction of a no longer extant
+version of the canonical books, but shows not only an independent
+knowledge of the Hebrew text but also of a Hebrew text superior
+in not a few passages to the Massoretic text, where 2 Esdras
+gives either an inaccurate version or a version reproducing the
+secondary Massoretic text.</p>
+
+<p>3. Others like Michaelis, Trendelenburg, Pohlmann, Herzfeld,
+Fritzsche hold it to be a direct and independent translation of
+the Hebrew. There is much to be said in favour of this view.
+It presupposes in reality two independent recensions of the
+Hebrew text, such as we cannot reasonably doubt existed at
+one time of the Book of Daniel. Against this it has been urged
+that the story of the three pages was written originally in Greek
+(Ewald, Schürer, Thackeray). The only grounds for this theory
+are the easiness of the Greek style and the paronomasia in
+iv. 62 <span class="grk" title="hanesin kai haphesin">&#7940;&#957;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#957; &#954;&#945;&#8054; &#7940;&#966;&#949;&#963;&#953;&#957;</span>. But the former is no real objection,
+and the latter may be purely accidental. On the other hand
+there are several undoubted Semiticisms. Thus we have two
+instances Of the split relative <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#8023;</span> ... <span class="grk" title="autou">&#945;&#8016;&#964;&#959;&#8166;</span> iii. 5; <span class="grk" title="ou">&#959;&#8023;</span> ... <span class="grk" title="ep&rsquo; autô">&#7952;&#960;&#8125; &#945;&#8016;&#964;&#8183;</span>
+iv. 63 and the phrase pointed out by Fritzsche <span class="grk" title="ta dikaia poiei
+apo pantôn">&#964;&#8048; &#948;&#943;&#954;&#945;&#953;&#945; &#960;&#959;&#953;&#949;&#8150; &#7936;&#960;&#8056; &#960;&#940;&#957;&#964;&#969;&#957;</span> = <span title="asa mishpat min">&#1506;&#1513;&#1492; &#1502;&#1513;&#1508;&#1496; &#1502;&#1503;</span>. It must, however, be admitted that
+there are fewer Hebraisms in this section of the book than in the
+rest.</p>
+
+<p>4. Sir H.H. Howorth in the treatises referred to at the close
+of this article has shown cogent grounds for regarding 1 Esdras
+as the original and genuine Septuagint translation, and 2 Esdras
+as probably that of Theodotion. For this view he adduces
+among others the following grounds: (i.) Its use by Josephus,
+who apparently was not acquainted with 2 Esdras. (ii.) Its
+precedence of 2 Esdras in the great uncials. (iii.) Its origin at a
+time when Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah formed a single work.
+(iv.) Its preservation of a better Hebrew text in many instances
+than 2 Esdras. (v.) The fact that 1 Esdras and the Septuagint
+of Daniel go back to one and the same translator, as Dr Gwynn
+(<i>Dict. Christ. Biog.</i> iv. 977) has pointed out (cf. 1 Esdr. vi. 31,
+and Dan. ii. 5).</p>
+
+<p>This contention of Howorth has been accepted by Nestle,
+Cheyne, Bertholet, Ginsburg and other scholars, though they
+regard the question of an Aramaic original of chapters iii. 1-v. 6
+as doubtful. Howorth&rsquo;s further claim that he has established
+the historical credibility of the book as a whole and its chronological
+accuracy as against the canonical Ezra has not as yet
+met with acceptance; but his arguments have not been fairly
+met and answered.</p>
+
+<p>5. Volz (<i>Encyc. Bibl.</i> ii. 1490) thinks that the solution of the
+problem is to be found in a different direction. The text is of
+unequal value, and the inequalities are so great as to exclude
+the supposition that the Greek version was produced <i>aus einem
+Guss.</i> iii. 1-v. 3 is an independent narrative written originally in
+Greek and itself a composite production, the praise of truth
+being an addition, vi. 1-vii. 15, ii. 15-25<i>a</i> is a fragment of an
+Aramaic narrative. Some in Josephus (<i>Ant.</i> xi. 4. 9) an account
+of Samaritan intrigues is introduced immediately after 1 Esdras
+vii. 15, it is natural to infer that something of the same kind
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page106" id="page106"></a>106</span>
+has fallen out between vi. and ii. 15-25. The Aramaic text
+behind 1 Esdras here is better than that behind the canonical
+Ezra. Next, viii.-ix. is from the Ezra document (= Ezra vii.-x.;
+Neh. vii. 73, viii. 1 sqq.), though implying a different Hebrew text.
+ii. 1-15; v. 7-73; vii. 2-4, 6-15 are from the Chronicles: likewise
+i. is from 2 Chron. xxxv.-vi., 2 Esdras being at the same time
+before the translator.</p>
+
+<p><i>Date</i>.&mdash;The book must be placed between 300 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> and <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100,
+when it was used by Josephus. It is idle to attempt any nearer
+limits until definite conclusions have been reached on the chief
+problems of the book.</p>
+
+<p><i>MSS. and Versions</i>.&mdash;The book is found in B and A. The
+latter seems to have preserved the more ancient form of the
+text, as it is generally that followed by Josephus. The Old
+Latin in two recensions is published by Sabatier, <i>Bibliorum
+sacrorum Latinae versiones antiquae</i>, iii. Another Latin translation
+is given in Lagarde (<i>Septuag. Studien</i>, ii., 1892). In Syriac
+the text is found only in the Syro-Hexaplar of Paul of Tella
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 616). See Walton&rsquo;s Polyglott. There is also an Ethiopic
+version edited by Dillmann (<i>Bibl. Vet. Test. Aeth</i>. v., 1894)
+and an Armenian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature</span>.&mdash;Exegesis: Fritzsche, <i>Exeget. Handb. zu den Apokr.</i>
+(1851); Zöckler, <i>Die Apokryphen</i>, 155-161 (1891); Bissell in Lange-Schaff&rsquo;s
+<i>Comm</i>. (1880); Lupton in <i>Speaker&rsquo;s Comm</i>. (1888); Ball,
+notes to 1 Esdr. in the <i>Variorum Apocrypha</i>. Introduction and
+critical Inquiries: Trendelenburg, &ldquo;Apocr. Esra,&rdquo; in Eichhorn&rsquo;s
+<i>Allgem. Bibl. der bibl. Litt.</i> i. 178-232 (1787); Pohlmann, &ldquo;Über
+das Ansehen der apokr. dritten Buchs Esras,&rdquo; in <i>Tübingen Theol.
+Quartalschrift</i>, 257-275 (1859); Sir H. Howorth, &ldquo;Character and
+Importance of 1 Esdras,&rdquo; in the <i>Academy</i> (1893), pp. 13, 60, 106,
+174, 326, 524; and further studies entitled &ldquo;Some Unconventional
+Views on the Text of the Bible,&rdquo; in the <i>Proceedings of the Society of
+Biblical Archaeology</i>, 1901, pp. 147-159; 306-330, 1902, June and
+November.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1n" id="ft1n" href="#fa1n"><span class="fn">1</span></a> &ldquo;At the Council of Trent (when the Septuagint Canon was
+virtually accepted as authoritative), by a most curious aberration,
+Esdras iii. and iv. and the Epistle of Manasseh were alone excluded
+from the canon and remitted to our appendix.&rdquo;&mdash;Howorth, &ldquo;Unconventional
+Views on the Text of the Bible,&rdquo; in the <i>P.S.B.A.</i>,
+1901, p. 149.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZRA, FOURTH BOOK<a name="ar102" id="ar102"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Apocalypse</span>) <b>OF</b>. This is the
+most profound and touching of the Jewish Apocalypses. It
+stands in the relation of a sister work to the Apocalypse of
+Baruch, but though the relation is so close, they have many
+points of divergence. Thus, whereas the former represents the
+ordinary Judaism of the 1st century of the Christian era, the
+teaching of 4 Ezra on the Law, Works, Justification, Original
+Sin and Free Will approximates to the school of Shammai and
+serves to explain the Pauline doctrines on those subjects; but
+to this subject we shall return.</p>
+
+<p><i>Original Language and Versions</i>.&mdash;In the Latin version our
+book consists of sixteen chapters, of which, however, only
+iii.-xiv. are found in the other versions. To iii.-xiv., accordingly,
+the present notice is confined. After the example of most of the
+Latin MSS. we designate the book 4 Ezra (see Bensly-James,
+<i>Fourth Book of Ezra</i>, pp. xxiv-xxvii). In the First Arabic and
+Ethiopic versions it is called 1 Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in
+the English Authorized Version it is 2 Ezra, and in the Armenian
+3 Ezra. Chapters i.-ii. are sometimes called 3 Ezra, and xv.-xvi.
+5 Ezra. All the versions go back to a Greek text. This is shown
+by the late Greek apocalypse of Ezra (Tischendorf, <i>Apocalypses
+Apocryphae</i>, 1866, pp. 24-33), the author of which was acquainted
+with the Greek of 4 Ezra; also by quotations from it in Barn,
+iv. 4; xii. 1 = 4 Ezra xii. 10 sqq., v. 5; Clem. Alex. <i>Strom</i>. iii. 16
+(here first expressly cited) = 4 Ezra v. 35, &amp;c.  (see Bensly-James,
+<i>op. cit.</i> pp. xxvii-xxxviii). The derivation of the Latin version
+from the Greek is obvious when we consider its very numerous
+Graecisms. Thus the genitive is found after the comparative
+(v. 13) <i>horum majora</i>; xi. 29 <i>duorum capitum majus</i>, even the
+genitive absolute as in x. 9, the double negative, <i>de</i> and <i>ex</i> with
+the genitive. Peculiar genders can only be accounted for by the
+influence of the original forms in Greek, as x. 23 <i>signaculum</i>
+(<span class="grk" title="sphragis">&#963;&#966;&#961;&#945;&#947;&#943;&#962;</span>) . . . <i>tradita est</i>; xi. 4 <i>caput</i> (<span class="grk" title="kephalê">&#954;&#949;&#966;&#945;&#955;&#942;</span>) ... <i>sed et ipsa</i>.
+In vi. 25 we have the Greek attraction of the relative&mdash;<i>omnibus</i>
+<i>istis quibus praedixi tibi</i>. In his <i>Messias Judaeorum</i> (1869),
+pp. 36-110, Hilgenfeld has given a reconstruction of the Greek
+text. Till 1896 only Ewald believed that 4 Ezra was written
+originally in Hebrew. In that year Wellhausen (<i>Gött. Gel. Anz.</i>
+pp. 12-13) and Charles (<i>Apoc. Bar.</i> p. lxxii) pointed out that
+a Hebrew original must be assumed on various grounds; and
+this view the former established in his <i>Skizzen u. Vorarbeiten</i>,
+vi. 234-240 (1899). Of the numerous grounds for this assumption
+it will be necessary only to adduce such constructions as &ldquo;de quo
+me interrogas de eo,&rdquo; iv. 28, and xiii. 26, &ldquo;qui per semet ipsum
+liberabit&rdquo; (= <span title="asher-bo">&#1488;&#1513;&#1512;-&#1489;&#1493;</span>) = &ldquo;through whom he will deliver,&rdquo; or to
+point to such a mistranslation as vii. 33, &ldquo;longanimitas congregabitur,&rdquo;
+where for &ldquo;congregabitur&rdquo; (= <span title="yeasef">&#1497;&#1488;&#1505;&#1507;</span>) we require
+&ldquo;evanescet,&rdquo; which is another and the actual meaning of the
+Hebrew verb in this passage. The same mistranslation is found
+in the Vulgate in Hosea iv. 3. Gunkel has adopted this view
+in his German translation of the book in Kautzsch&rsquo;s <i>Apok. und
+Pseud, des A. Testaments</i>, ii. 332-333, and brought forward in
+confirmation the following remarkable instance in viii. 23,
+where though the Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic and Armenian
+Versions read <i>testificatur</i>, the Second Arabic version and the
+Apostolic Constitutions have <span class="grk" title="menei eis ton aiôna">&#956;&#941;&#957;&#949;&#953; &#949;&#7984;&#962; &#964;&#8056;&#957; &#945;&#7984;&#8182;&#957;&#945;</span>, which are to be
+explained as translations of <span title="(lieh) emdat la&rsquo;ad">&#1506;&#1502;&#1491;&#1514; &#1500;&#1506;&#1491; (&#1500;&#1506;</span>. Another interesting
+case is found in xiv. 3, where the Latin and all other versions
+but Arabic[2] read <i>super rubum</i> and the Arabic[2] <i>in monte Sinai</i>.
+Here there is a corruption of <span title="sneh">&#1505;&#1504;&#1492;</span> &ldquo;bush&rdquo; into <span title="sinai">&#1505;&#1497;&#1504;&#1497;</span> &ldquo;Sinai.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Latin Version.</i>&mdash;All the older editions of this version, as those
+of Fabricius, Sabatier, Volkmar, Hilgenfeld, Fritzsche, as well as
+in the older editions of the Bible, are based ultimately on only
+one MS., the Codex Sangermanensis (written <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 822), as Gildemeister
+proved in 1865 from the fact that the large fragment between
+verses 36 and 37 in chapter vii., which is omitted in all the above
+editions, originated through the excision of a leaf in this MS. A
+splendid edition of this version based on MSS. containing the missing
+fragment, which have been subsequently discovered, has been published
+by Bensly-James, <i>op. cit.</i> This edition has taken account
+of all the important MSS. known, save one at Leon in Spain.</p>
+
+<p><i>Syriac Version.</i>&mdash;This version, found in the Ambrosian Library
+in Milan, was translated into Latin by Ceriani, <i>Monumenta sacra
+et profana</i>, II. ii. pp. 99-124 (1866). Two years later this scholar
+edited the Syriac text, <i>op. cit.</i> V. i. pp. 4-111, and in 1883 reproduced
+the MS. by photo-lithography (<i>Translatio Syra Peshitto V.T.</i>
+II. iv. pp. 553-572). Hilgenfeld incorporated Ceriani&rsquo;s Latin translation
+in his <i>Messias Judaeorum</i>. This translation needs revision
+and correction.</p>
+
+<p><i>Ethiopic Version.</i>&mdash;First edited and translated by Laurence,
+<i>Primi Ezrae libri versio Aethiopica</i> (1820). Laurence&rsquo;s Latin
+translation was corrected by Praetorius and reprinted in Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s
+<i>Messias Judaeorum</i>. In 1894 Dillmann&rsquo;s text based on ten
+MSS. was published&mdash;<i>V.T. Aeth. libri apocryphi</i>, v. 153-193.</p>
+
+<p><i>Arabic Versions.</i>&mdash;The First Arabic version was translated from a
+MS. in the Bodleian Library into English by Ockley (in Whiston&rsquo;s
+Primitive Christianity, vol. iv. 1711). This was done into Latin
+and corrected by Steiner for Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s <i>Mess. Jud.</i> The Second
+Arabic version, which is independent of the first, has been edited
+from a Vatican MS. and translated into Latin by Gildemeister, 1877.</p>
+
+<p><i>Armenian Version.</i>&mdash;First printed in the Armenian Bible (1805).
+Translated into Latin by Petermann for Hilgenfeld&rsquo;s Mess. Jud.;
+next with Armenian text and English translation by Issaverdens in
+the <i>Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament</i>, pp. 488 sqq. (Venice,
+1901).</p>
+
+<p><i>Georgian Version.</i>&mdash;According to F.C. Conybeare an accurate
+Georgian version made from the Greek exists in an 11th-century MS.
+at Jerusalem.</p>
+
+<p><i>Relation of the above Versions.</i>&mdash;These versions stand in the order
+of worth as follows: Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic. The remaining
+versions are paraphrastic and less accurate, and are guilty of additions
+and omissions. All the versions, save the Second Arabic one,
+go back to the same Greek version. The Second Arabic version
+presupposes a second Greek version.</p>
+
+<p><i>Modern Versions.</i>&mdash;All the English versions are now antiquated,
+except those in the Variorum Apocrypha and the Revised Version
+of the Apocrypha, and even these are far from satisfactory. Similarly,
+all the German versions are behindhand, except the excellent
+version of Gunkel in <i>Apok. u. Pseud.</i> ii. 252-401, which, however,
+needs occasional correction.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Contents.</i>&mdash;The book (iii.-xiv.) consists of seven visions or
+parts, like the apocalypse of Baruch. They are: (1) iii. 1-v. 19;
+(2) v. 20-vi. 34; (3) vi. 35-ix. 25; (4) ix. 26-x. 60; (5) xi. 1-xii.
+51; (6) xiii.; (7) xiv. These deal with (1) religious problems
+and speculations and (2) eschatological questions. The first
+three are devoted to the discussion of religious problems affecting
+in the main the individual. The presuppositions underlying
+these are in many cases the same as those in the Pauline Epistles.
+The next three visions are principally concerned with eschatological
+problems which relate to the nation. The seventh vision
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page107" id="page107"></a>107</span>
+is a fragment of the Ezra Saga recounting the rewriting of the
+Scriptures, which had been destroyed. This has no organic
+connexion with what precedes.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>First Vision.</i> iii.-v. 19.&mdash;&ldquo;In the thirtieth year after the ruin
+of the city I Salathiel (the same is Ezra) was in Babylon and lay
+troubled upon my bed.&rdquo; In a long prayer Ezra asks how the desolation
+of Sion and the prosperity of Babylon can be in keeping with
+the justice of God. The angel Uriel answers that God&rsquo;s ways are
+unsearchable and past man&rsquo;s understanding. When Ezra asks
+when the end will be and what are the signs of it, the angel answers
+that the end is at hand and enumerates the signs of it.</p>
+
+<p><i>Second Vision.</i> v. 14-vi. 34.&mdash;Phaltiel, chief of the people,
+reproaches Ezra for forsaking his flock. Ezra fasts, and in his
+prayer asks why God had given up his people into the hands of the
+heathen. Uriel replies: &ldquo;Lovest thou that people better than
+He that made them?&rdquo; Man cannot find out God&rsquo;s judgment.
+The end is at hand; its signs are recounted.</p>
+
+<p><i>Third Vision.</i> vi. 35-ix. 25.&mdash;Ezra recounts the works of creation,
+and asks why Israel does not possess the world since the world
+was made for Israel. The answer is that the present state is a
+necessary stage to the coming one. Then follows an account of
+the Messianic age and the resurrection: the punishment of the
+wicked and the blessings of the righteous. There can be no intercession
+for the departed. Few will be saved&mdash;only as it were a
+grape out of a cluster or a plant out of a forest.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fourth Vision.</i> ix. 26-x. 60.&mdash;Ezra eats of herbs in the field of
+Ardat, and sees in a vision a woman mourning for her only son.
+Ezra reminds her of the greater desolation of Sion. Suddenly she
+is transfigured and vanishes, and in her place appears a city. The
+woman, Uriel explains, represents Sion.</p>
+
+<p><i>Fifth Vision.</i> xi. i-xii. 39.&mdash;Vision of an eagle with three heads,
+twelve wings and eight winglets, which is rebuked by a lion and
+destroyed. The eagle is the fourth kingdom seen by Daniel, and
+the lion is the Messiah.</p>
+
+<p><i>Sixth Vision.</i> xiii.&mdash;Vision of a man (<i>i.e.</i> the Messiah) arising
+from the sea, who destroys his enemies who assemble against him,
+and gathers to him another multitude, <i>i.e.</i> the lost Ten Tribes.</p>
+
+<p><i>Seventh Vision.</i> xiv.&mdash;Ezra is told of his approaching translation.
+He asks for the restoration of the Law, and is enabled by God to
+dictate in forty days ninety-four books (the twenty-four canonical
+books of the Old Testament that were lost, and seventy secret books
+for the wise among the people).</p>
+
+<p>Ezra&rsquo;s translation is found in the Canon only in the Oriental
+Versions. In the Latin it was omitted when xv.-xvi. were added.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><i>Integrity.</i>&mdash;According to Gunkel (<i>Apok. u. Pseud.</i> ii. 335-352)
+the whole book is the work of one writer. Thus down to vii.
+16 he deals with the problem of the origin of suffering in the
+world, and from vii. 17 to ix. 25 with the question who is worthy
+to share in the blessedness of the next world. As regards the
+first problem the writer shows, in the first vision, that suffering
+and death come from sin&mdash;no less truly on the part of Israel
+than of all men, for God created man to be immortal; that the
+end is nigh, when wrongs will be righted; God&rsquo;s rule will then
+be recognized. In the second he emphasizes the consolation to
+be found in the coming time, and in the third he speaks solely of
+the next world, and then addresses himself to the second problem.
+The fourth, fifth and sixth visions are eschatological. In these
+the writer turns aside from the religious problems of the first
+three visions and concerns himself only with the future national
+supremacy of Israel. Zion&rsquo;s glory will certainly be revealed
+(vision four), Israel will destroy Rome (five) and the hostile
+Gentiles (six). Then the book is brought to a close with the
+legend of Ezra&rsquo;s restoration of the lost Old Testament Scriptures.</p>
+
+<p>In the course of the above work there are many inconsistencies
+and contradictions. These Gunkel explains by admitting that
+the writer has drawn largely on tradition, both oral and written,
+for his materials. Thus he concedes that eschatological materials
+in v. 1-13, vi; 18-28, vii. 26 sqq., also ix. 1 sqq., are from this
+source, and apparently from an originally independent work, as
+Kabisch urges, but that it is no longer possible to separate the
+borrowed elements from the text. Again, in the four last visions
+he is obliged to make the same concession on a very large scale.
+Vision four is based on a current novel, which the author has
+taken up and put into an allegorical form. Visions five and six
+are drawn from oral or written tradition, and relate only to the
+political expectations of Israel, and seven is a reproduction of a
+legend, for the independent existence of which evidence is
+furnished by the quotations in Bensly-James pp. xxxvii-xxxviii.
+Thus the chief champion of the unity of the book makes so
+many concessions as to its dependence on previously existing
+sources that, to the student of eschatology, there is little to
+choose between his view and that of Kabisch. In fact, if the
+true meaning of the borrowed materials is to be discovered, the
+sources must be disentangled. Hence the need of some such
+analysis as that of Kabisch (<i>Das vierte Buck Ezra</i>, 1889): S = an
+Apocalypse of Salathiel, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100, preserved in a fragmentary
+condition, iii. 1-31, iv. 1-51, v. 13<i>b</i>-vi. 10, 30-vii. 25, vii. 45-viii.
+62, ix. 13-x. 57, xii. 40-48, xiv. 28-35. E = an Ezra Apocalypse,
+<i>c.</i> 31 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, iv. 52-v. 13a, vi. 13-28, vii. 26-44, viii. 63-ix. 12.
+A = an Eagle Vision, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 90, x. 60-xii. 35. M = a Son-of-Man
+Vision, xiii. E<span class="sp">2</span> = an Ezra fragment, <i>c.</i> <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 100, xiv. 1-17<i>a</i>,
+18-27, 36-47. All these, according to Kabisch, were edited by a
+Zealot, <i>c.</i> 120, who supplied the connecting links and made
+many small additions. In the main this analysis is excellent.
+If we assume that the editor was also the author of S, and that
+such a vigorous stylist, as he shows himself to be, recast to some
+extent the materials he borrowed, there remains but slight
+difference between the views of Kabisch and Gunkel. Neither
+view, however, is quite satisfactory, and the problem still awaits
+solution. Other attempts, such as Ewald&rsquo;s (<i>Gesch. d. Volkes
+Israel</i>[3], vii. 69-83) and De Faye&rsquo;s (<i>Apocalypses juives</i>, 155-165),
+make no contribution.</p>
+
+<p><i>School of the Author.</i>&mdash;The author or final redactor of the book
+was a pessimist, and herein his book stands in strong contrast
+with the Apocalypse of Baruch. Thus to the question propounded
+in the New Testament&mdash;&ldquo;Are there few that be saved?&rdquo;
+he has no hesitation in answering, &ldquo;There be many created, but
+few that be saved&rdquo; (viii. 3): &ldquo;An evil heart hath grown up in
+us which hath led us astray ... and that not a few only but
+wellnigh all that have been created&rdquo; (vii. 48). In the Apocalypse
+of Baruch on the other hand it is definitely maintained that not
+a few shall be saved (xxi. 11). Moreover, the sufferings of the
+wicked are so great in the next world it were better, according
+to 4 Ezra (as also to the school of Shammai), that man had not
+been born. &ldquo;It is much better (for the beasts of the field) than
+for us; for they expect not a judgment and know not of
+torments&rdquo; (vii. 66): yet &ldquo;it would have been best not to have
+given a body to Adam, or that being done, to have restrained
+him from sin; for what profit is there that man should in the
+present life live in heaviness and after death look for punishment&rdquo;
+(vii. 116, 117). In iv. 12 the nexus of life, sin and suffering just
+referred to, is put still more strongly: &ldquo;It were better we had
+not been at all than that we should be born and sin and suffer.&rdquo;<a name="fa1o" id="fa1o" href="#ft1o"><span class="sp">1</span></a>
+The different attitude of these two writers towards this question
+springs from their respective views on the question of free will.
+The author of Baruch declares (iv. 15, 19): &ldquo;For though Adam
+sinned and brought untimely death upon all, yet of those who
+were born from him each one of them prepared for his own soul
+torment to come, and again each one of them has chosen for
+himself glories to come ... each one of us has been the Adam
+of his own soul,&rdquo; Though the writer of Ezra would admit the
+possibility of a few Israelites attaining to salvation through the
+most strenuous endeavour, yet he holds that man is all but
+predoomed through his original evil disposition or through the
+fall of Adam (vii. 118). &ldquo;O Adam, what hast thou done: for
+though it was thou that sinned, the evil is not fallen on thee
+alone, but upon all of us that come of thee.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>Another contrast between the two books is that while Baruch
+shows some mercy to the Gentiles (lxxii. 4-6) in the Messianic
+period, none according to 4 Ezra and the Shammaites (Toseph.
+<i>Sanh.</i> xiii. 2) will be extended to them, (iii. 30, ix. 22 sq., xii. 34,
+xiii. 37 sq.).</p>
+
+<p>On the above grounds it is not unreasonable to conclude that
+whereas the Apocalypse of Baruch owes its leading characteristics
+to a pupil of Hillel&rsquo;s school, 4 Ezra shows just as clearly
+its derivation from that of Shammai. Kohler (<i>Jewish Encyc.</i>
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page108" id="page108"></a>108</span>
+v. 221) points out that the view of 4 Ezra that the Ten
+Tribes will return was held by the Shammaites, whereas it was
+denied by Aqiba. The Apocalypse of Baruch is silent on this
+point.</p>
+
+<p><i>Time and Place.</i>&mdash;The work was written towards the close of
+the 1st century (iii. 1, 29), and somewhere in the east.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Literature.</span>&mdash;In addition to the authorities mentioned above,
+see Dillmann, Herzog&rsquo;s <i>Real-Encyk.</i>[2] xii. 353 sqq.; Schürer, <i>Gesch.
+des jüd. Volkes</i>[3], iii. 246 sqq.; and the articles on 4 Esdras in
+Hastings&rsquo; <i>Bible Dictionary</i> and the <i>Encyclopaedia Biblica</i> by Thackeray
+and James respectively.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(R. H. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1o" id="ft1o" href="#fa1o"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In the Apocalypse of Baruch, x. 6, we find a similar expression:
+&ldquo;Blessed is he who was not born, or being born has died.&rdquo; But
+here death is said to be preferable to witnessing the present woes of
+Jerusalem.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF,<a name="ar103" id="ar103"></a></span> in the Old Testament.
+The two canonical books entitled Ezra and Nehemiah in the
+English Bibie<a name="fa1p" id="fa1p" href="#ft1p"><span class="sp">1</span></a> correspond to the 1 and 2 Esdras of the Vulgate,
+to the 2 Esdras of the Septuagint, and to the Ezra and
+Nehemiah of the Massoretic (Hebrew) text. Though for many
+centuries they have thus been treated as separate compositions,
+we have abundant evidence that they were anciently regarded as
+forming but one book, and a careful examination proves that
+together with the book of Chronicles they constitute one single
+work. The two books may therefore be conveniently treated
+together.</p>
+
+<p>1. <i>Position and Date.</i>&mdash;Origen (Euseb, <i>H.E.</i> vi. 25), expressly
+enumerating the twenty-two books of the old covenant as
+acknowledged by the Jews and accepted by the Christian church,
+names &ldquo;the First and Second Ezra in one book&rdquo;; Melito of
+Sardis (Euseb. <i>H.E.</i> iv. 26) in like manner mentions the book
+of Ezra only. So also the Talmud (in <i>B&#257;b&#257; bathr&#257;</i>, 14. 2), nor
+can it be supposed that Josephus in his enumeration (<i>c.</i> <i>Ap.</i>
+i. 8) reckoned Nehemiah as apart from Ezra. That the Jews
+themselves recognized no real separation is shown by the fact
+that no Massoretic notes are found after Ezra x., but at the end
+of Nehemiah the contents of both are reckoned together, and it
+is stated that Neh. iii. 22 is the middle verse of the book. Their
+position in the Hebrew Bible <i>before</i> the book of Chronicles
+is, however, illogical. The introductory verses of Ezra i. are
+identical with the conclusion of 2 Chron. xxxvi., whilst in the
+version of 1 Esdras no less than two chapters (2 Chron. xxxv. sq.)
+overlap. The cause of the separation is probably to be found
+in the late reception of Chronicles into the Jewish canon. Further
+proof of the unity of the three is to be found in the general similarity
+of style and treatment. The same linguistic criteria recur,
+and the interest in lists and genealogies, in priests and Levites,
+and in the temple service point unmistakably to the presence
+of the same hand (the so-called &ldquo;chronicler&rdquo;) in Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah.
+See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Bible</a></span> (sect. <i>Canon</i>); <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Chronicles</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p>The period of history covered by the books of Ezra and
+Nehemiah extends from the return of the exiles under Zerubbabel
+in 537-536 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> to Nehemiah&rsquo;s second visit to Jerusalem in 432
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span> In their present form, however, the books are considerably
+later, and allusions to Nehemiah in the past (Neh. xii. 26, 47),
+to the days of Jaddua (the grandson of Nehemiah&rsquo;s contemporary
+Joiada; <i>ib.</i> xii. 11), to Darius (Nothus 423 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> or rather
+Codomannus 336 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, <i>ib. v.</i> 22), and the use of the term &ldquo;king
+of Persia,&rdquo; as a distinctive title after the fall of that empire
+(332 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), are enough to show that, as a whole, they belong to
+the same age as the book of Chronicles.</p>
+
+<p>2. <i>Contents.</i>&mdash;Their contents may be divided into four parts:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) The events preceding the mission of Ezra (i.-vi.).&mdash;In the
+first year of his reign Cyrus was inspired to grant a decree permitting
+the Jews to return to build the temple in Jerusalem
+(i.); a list of families is given (ii.). The altar of burnt-offering
+was set up, and in the second year of the return the foundations
+of the new temple were laid with great solemnity (iii.). The
+&ldquo;adversaries of Judah and Benjamin&rdquo; offered to assist but
+were repulsed, and they raised such opposition to the progress
+of the work that it ceased until the second year of Darius (521-520
+<span class="scs">B.C.</span>). Aroused by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah the
+building was then resumed, and despite fresh attempts to
+hinder the work it was completed, consecrated and dedicated
+in the sixth year of that king (vi.). The event was solemnized
+by the celebration of the Passover (cf. 2 Chron. xxx., Hezekiah;
+xxxv. Josiah).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) An interval of fifty-eight years is passed over in silence,
+and the rest of the book of Ezra comprises his account of his
+mission to Jerusalem (vii.-x.). Ezra, a scribe of repute, well
+versed in the laws of Moses, returns with a band of exiles in
+order to reorganize the religious community. A few months
+after his arrival (seventh year of Artaxerxes, 458 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) he instituted
+a great religious reform, viz. the prohibition of intermarriage
+with the heathen of the land (cf. already vi. 21).
+In spite of some opposition (x. 15 obscurely worded) the reform
+was accepted, and the foundations of a new community were
+laid.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>c</i>) Twelve years elapse before the return of Nehemiah, whose
+description of his work is one of the most interesting pieces of
+Old Testament narrative (Neh. i.-vi.). In the twentieth year of
+Artaxerxes (445 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), Nehemiah the royal cup-bearer at Shushan
+(Susa, the royal winter palace) was visited by friends from Judah
+and was overcome with grief at the tidings of the miserable condition
+of Jerusalem and the pitiful state of the Judaean remnant
+which had escaped the captivity. He obtained permission to
+return, and on reaching the city made a secret survey of the ruins
+and called upon the nobles and rulers to assist in repairing them.
+Much opposition was caused by Sanballat the Horonite (<i>i.e.</i> of
+the Moabite Horonaim or Beth-horon, about 15 m. N.W. of
+Jerusalem), Tobiah the Ammonite, Geshem (or Gashmu) the
+Arabian, and the Ashdodites, whose virulence increased as the
+rebuilding of the walls continued. But notwithstanding attempts
+upon the city and upon the life of Nehemiah, and in spite of
+intrigues among certain members of the Judaean section, in
+fifty-two days the city walls were complete (Neh. vi. 15). The
+hostility, however, did not cease, and measures were taken to
+ensure the safety of the city (vi. 16-vii. 4). A valuable account
+is given of Nehemiah&rsquo;s economical reforms, illustrating the
+internal social conditions of the period and the general character
+of the former governors who had been placed in charge (v., cf.
+the laws codified in Lev. xxv. 35 sqq.).</p>
+
+<p>(<i>d</i>) The remaining chapters carry on the story of the labours
+of <i>both</i> Ezra, and Nehemiah. The list of those who returned
+under the decree of Cyrus is repeated (Neh. vii.), and leads up to
+the reading of the Law by Ezra, a great national confession of
+guilt, and a solemn undertaking to observe the new covenant, the
+provisions of which are detailed (x. 28-39). After sundry lists of
+the families dwelling in Jerusalem and its neighbourhood (xi. 1
+sqq., apparently a sequel to vii. 1-4),<a name="fa2p" id="fa2p" href="#ft2p"><span class="sp">2</span></a> and of various priests and
+Levites, an account is given of the dedication of the walls (xii.
+27-43), the arrangements for the Levitical organization (<i>vv.</i> 44-47),
+and a fresh separation from the heathen (Moabites and
+Ammonites, xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3 seq.). The book concludes
+with another extract from Nehemiah&rsquo;s memoirs dealing with
+the events of a second visit, twelve years later (xiii. 4-31). On
+this occasion he vindicated the sanctity of the temple by
+expelling Tobiah, reorganized the supplies for the Levites, took
+measures to uphold the observance of the Sabbath, and protested
+energetically against the foreign marriages. In the course
+of his reforms he thrust out a son of Joiada (son of Eliashib,
+the high-priest), who had married the daughter of Sanballat, an
+incident which had an important result (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Samaritans</a></span>).</p>
+
+<p>That these books are the result of compilation (like the book
+of Chronicles itself) is evident from the many abrupt changes;
+the inclusion of certain documents written in an Aramaic dialect
+(Ezr. iv. 8-vi. 18, vii. 12-26)<a name="fa3p" id="fa3p" href="#ft3p"><span class="sp">3</span></a>; the character of the name-lists;
+the lengthy gaps in the history; the use made of two distinct
+sources, attributed to Ezra and Nehemiah respectively, and
+from the varying form in which the narratives are cast. The
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page109" id="page109"></a>109</span>
+chronicler&rsquo;s hand can usually be readily recognized. There
+are relatively few traces of it in Nehemiah&rsquo;s memoirs and in
+the Aramaic documents, but elsewhere the sources are largely
+coloured, if not written from the standpoint of his age. Examples
+of artificial arrangement appear notably in Ezr. ii.-iii. 1
+compared with Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 (first clause); in the present
+position of Ezr. iv. 6-23; and in the dislocation of certain
+portions of the two memoirs in Neh. viii.-xiii. (see below). It
+should be noticed that the present order of the narratives involves
+the theory that some catastrophe ensued after Ezr. x. and before
+Neh. i.; that the walls had been destroyed and the gates burnt
+down; that some external opposition (with which, however, Ezra
+did not have to contend) had been successful; that the main
+object of Ezra&rsquo;s mission was delayed for twelve years, and,
+finally, that only through Nehemiah&rsquo;s energy was the work of
+social and religious reorganization successful. These topics
+raise serious historical problems (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>, § 21).</p>
+
+<p>3. <i>Criticism of Ezra i.-vi.</i>&mdash;The chronicler&rsquo;s account of the
+destruction of Jerusalem, the seventy years&rsquo; interval (2 Chron.
+xxxvi. 20 sq.; cf. Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10, also Is. xxiii. 17), and the
+return of 42,360 of the exiles (Ezr. ii. 64 sqq.) represent a
+special view of the history of the period. The totals, as also the
+detailed figures, in Ezr., Neh. and 1 Esdr. v. vary considerably;
+the number is extremely large (contrast Jer. lii. 30); it includes
+the common people (contrast 2 Kings xxiv. 14, xxv. 12), and
+ignores the fact that Judah was not depopulated, that the Jews
+were carried off to other places besides Babylon and that many
+remained behind in Babylon. According to this view, Judah
+and Jerusalem were practically deserted until the return. The
+list in Ezr. ii. is that of families which returned &ldquo;every man unto
+his city&rdquo; under twelve leaders (including Nehemiah, Azariah
+[cf. Ezra], Zcrubbabel and Jeshua); it recurs with many variations
+in a different and apparently more original context in Neh.
+vii., and in 1 Esdr. v. is ascribed to the time of Darius. The
+families (to judge from the northwards extension of Judaean
+territory) are probably those of the population in the later
+Persian period, hardly those who returned to the precise homes
+of their ancestors (see C.F. Kent, Israel&rsquo;s <i>Hist. and Biogr.
+Narratives</i>, p. 379). The offerings which are for the temple-service
+in Neh. vii. 70-72 (cf. 1 Chron. xxix. 6-8) are for the
+building of the temple in Ezr. ii. 68-70; and since the walls are
+not yet built, the topographical details in Neh. viii. 1 (see 1 Esdr.
+v. 47) are adjusted, and the event of the seventh month is not the
+reading of the Law amid the laments of the people (Neh. viii.;
+see <i>vv.</i> 9-11) but the erection of the altar by Jeshua and Zerubbabel
+under inauspicious circumstances (cf. Ezr. iii. 3 with 1
+Esdr. v. 50).</p>
+
+<p>The chronologically misplaced account of the successful opposition
+in the time of Ahasuerus (<i>i.e.</i> Xerxes) and Artaxerxes (the
+son and grandson of Darius respectively) breaks the account of
+the <i>temple</i> under Cyrus and Darius, and is concerned with the
+city walls (iv. 6-23)<a name="fa4p" id="fa4p" href="#ft4p"><span class="sp">4</span></a>; there is some obscurity in <i>vv.</i> 7-9: Rehum
+and Shimshai evidently take the lead, Tabeel may be an Aramaized
+equivalent of Tobiah. A recent return is implied (iv. 12)
+and the record hints that a new decree may be made (<i>v.</i> 21).
+The account of the unsuccessful opposition to the <i>temple</i> in the
+time of Darius (v. sq.; for another account see Jos. <i>Ant.</i> xi. 4, 9)
+is independent of iv. 7-23, and throws another light upon the
+decree of Cyrus (vi. 3-5, contrast i. 2-4). It implies that Sheshbazzar,
+who had been sent with the temple vessels in the time of
+Cyrus, had laid the foundations and that the work had continued
+without cessation (v. 16, contrast iv. 5, 24). The beginning of
+the reply of Darius is wanting (vi. 6 sqq.), and the decree which
+had been sought in Babylon is found at Ecbatana. Chap. vi. 15
+sqq. follow more naturally upon v. 1-2, but <i>v.</i> 14 with its difficult
+reference to Artaxerxes now seems to presuppose the decree in
+iv. 21 and looks forward to the time of Ezra or Nehemiah. As
+regards this section (Ezr. i.-vi.) as a whole, there is little doubt
+that i. iii. 1-iv. 5, vi. 15-22 are from the chronicler, whose free
+treatment of his material is seen in the use he has made of ch. ii.
+Notwithstanding the unimpeachable evidence for the tolerant
+attitude of Persian kings and governors towards the religion of
+subject races, it is probable that the various decrees incorporated
+in the book (cf. also 1 Esdr. iv. 42 sqq.) have been reshaped from
+a Jewish standpoint. A noteworthy example appears in the
+account of the unique powers entrusted to Ezra (vii. 11-26), the
+introduction to whose memoirs, at all events, is quite in the style
+of the chronicler.</p>
+
+<p>4. <i>Memoirs of Nehemiah and Ezra.</i>&mdash;The memoirs of Ezra
+and Nehemiah do not appear to have been incorporated without
+some adjustment. The lapse of time between Neh. i. 1 and ii. 1
+is noteworthy, and with the prayer in i. 5-11 cf. Ezr. ix. 6-15,
+Dan. ix. 4 sqq. (also parallels in Deuteronomy); chap. i. in its
+present form may be a compiler&rsquo;s introduction. The important
+topographical list in ch. iii. is probably from another source;
+the styie is different, Nehemiah is absent, and the high-priest
+is unusually prominent.<a name="fa5p" id="fa5p" href="#ft5p"><span class="sp">5</span></a> Chap, v., where Nehemiah reviews his
+<i>past</i> conduct as governor, turns aside to economic reforms and
+scarcely falls within the fifty-two days of the building of the
+walls. The chapter is closely associated with the contents of
+xiii. and breaks the account of the opposition. Anticipated
+already in ii. 10, the hostility partly arises from the repudiation
+of Samaritan religious claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezr. iv. 3) and is partly
+political. It is difficult to follow its <span class="correction" title="amended from progrees">progress</span> clearly, and the
+account ceases abruptly in. vi. 17-19 with the notice of the
+conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of Judah. The chronicler&rsquo;s
+style can be recognized in vii. 1-5 (in its present form), where
+steps are taken to protect and to people Jerusalem; the older
+sequel is now found in ch. xi. Whilst the account of the dedication
+of the walls is marked by the use of the pronoun &ldquo;I&rdquo;
+(xii. 31, 38, 40), it is probably now due as a whole to the chronicler,
+and when the more trustworthy memoirs of Nehemiah are
+resumed (xiii. 4 sqq.) the episodes, although placed twelve
+years later (ver. 6), are intimately connected with the preceding
+reforms (cf. xii. 44-xiii. 3 with xiii. 10 sqq., 23 sqq.).<a name="fa6p" id="fa6p" href="#ft6p"><span class="sp">6</span></a> Nehemiah&rsquo;s
+attitude towards intermarriage is markedly moderate in contrast
+to the drastic measures of Ezra, whose mission and work the
+simpler and perhaps earlier narratives of Nehemiah originally
+ignored, and the relation between the two is complicated further
+by the literary character of the memoir of Ezra.</p>
+
+<p>To the last mentioned are prefixed (<i>a</i>) the scribe&rsquo;s genealogy,
+which traces him back to Aaron and names as his immediate
+ancestor, Seraiah, who had been slain 130 years previously
+(Ezr. vii. 1-5), and (<i>b</i>) an independent account of the return
+(<i>vv.</i> 6-10) with a reference to Ezra&rsquo;s renown, obviously not
+from the hand of Ezra himself. Whatever the original prelude
+to Ezra&rsquo;s thanksgiving may have been (vii. 27 seq.), we now
+have the essentially Jewish account of the letter of Artaxerxes
+with its unusual concessions.<a name="fa7p" id="fa7p" href="#ft7p"><span class="sp">7</span></a> The list of those who returned
+amounts to the moderate total of 1496 males (viii., but 1690 in
+1 Esdr. viii. 30 sqq.). Ezra&rsquo;s mission was obviously concerned
+with the Law and Temple service (vii. 6, 10, 14 sqq., 25; viii. 17,
+24-30, 33 sq.), but four months elapse between his return in the
+fifth month (vii. 9) and the preparations for the marriage reforms
+in the ninth (x. 9), and there is a delay of twelve years before the
+Law is read (Neh. viii.). The Septuagint version (1 Esdr. ix.; cf.
+Josephus, <i>Antiq.</i> xi. 5. 5 and some modern scholars) would place
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page110" id="page110"></a>110</span>
+the latter after Ezr. x., but more probably this event (dated in
+the seventh month) should precede the great undertaking in
+Ezr. ix.<a name="fa8p" id="fa8p" href="#ft8p"><span class="sp">8</span></a> That the adjustment was attended with considerable
+revision of the passages appears from a careful comparison of
+Neh. viii. sq. with Ezr. ix. sq. With Ezra&rsquo;s confession (ix. 6 sqq.)
+compare the prayer in Neh. ix. 5 sqq., which the Septuagint
+ascribes to him. In Ezr. x. (written in the third person) the
+number of those that had intermarried with the heathen is
+relatively small considering the general trend of the preliminaries,
+and the list bears a marked resemblance to that in ch. ii. It
+ends abruptly and obscurely (x. 44; cf. 1 Esdr. ix. 36), and whilst
+as a whole the memoirs of Ezra point to ideas later than those of
+Nehemiah, the present close literary connexion between them
+is seen in the isolated reference to Johanan the son of Eliashib
+in Ezra x. 6, which seems to be connected with Neh. xiii. 7, and
+(after W.R. Smith) in the suitability of <i>ib.</i> xiii. 1, 2 between
+Ezr. x. 9 and 10. The list of signatories in Neh. x. 1-27 should
+be compared with the names in xii. and 1 Chron. xxiv.; the true
+connexion of ix. 38 is very obscure, and the relation to Ezr. ix.
+seq. is complicated by the reference to the separation from the
+heathen in Neh. ix. 2. The description of the covenant (Neh. x.
+28 sqq., marked by the use of &ldquo;we&rdquo;) is closely connected with
+xii. 43-xiii. 3 (from the same or an allied source), and anticipates
+the parallel though somewhat preliminary measures detailed
+in the more genuine memoirs (Neh. xiii. 4 sqq.). Finally, the
+specific allusion in xiii. 1-3 to Ammon and Moab is possibly
+intended as an introduction to the references to Tobiah and
+Sanballat respectively (<i>vv.</i> 4 seq., 28).</p>
+
+<p>5. <i>Summary.</i>&mdash;The literary and historical criticism of Ezra-Nehemiah
+is closely bound up with that of Chronicles, whose
+characteristic features it shares. Although the three formed
+a unit at one stage it may seem doubtful whether two so closely
+related chapters as 1 Chron. ix. and Neh. xi. would have appeared
+in one single work, while the repetition of Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 in
+Ezr. ii.-iii. 1 is less unnatural if they had originally appeared in
+distinct sources. Thus other hands apart from the compiler of
+Chronicles may have helped to shape the narratives, either
+before their union with that book or after their separation.<a name="fa9p" id="fa9p" href="#ft9p"><span class="sp">9</span></a>
+The present intricacy is also due partly to specific historical
+theories regarding the post-exilic period. Here the recension in
+1 Esdras especially merits attention for its text, literary structure
+and for its variant traditions.<a name="fa10p" id="fa10p" href="#ft10p"><span class="sp">10</span></a> Its account of a return in the
+time of Darius scarcely arose <i>after</i> Ezr. i.-iii. (Cyrus); the reverse
+seems more probable, and the possibility of some confusion or
+of an intentional adjustment to the earlier date is emphasized
+by the relation between the popular feeling in Ezr. iii. 12 (Cyrus)
+and Hag. ii. 3 (Darius), and between the grant by Cyrus in iii. 7
+(it is not certain that he held Phoenicia) and the permit of
+Darius in 1 Esdr. iv. 47-57 (see <i>v.</i> 48). To the latter context
+belongs the list of names which reappears in Ezr. ii. (Cyrus).
+But from the independent testimony of Haggai and Zechariah it
+is doubtful whether the chronicler&rsquo;s account of the return under
+Cyrus is at all trustworthy. The list in 1 Esdr. v., Ezr. ii.,
+as already observed, appears to be in its more original context
+in Neh. vii., <i>i.e.</i> in the time of Artaxerxes, and it is questionable
+whether the earliest of the surviving detailed traditions in
+Ezra-Nehemiah went back before this reign. It is precisely at
+this age that there is evidence for a return, apparently other
+than that of Ezra or Nehemiah (see Ezr. iv. 12), yet no account
+seems to be preserved unless the records were used for the
+history of earlier periods (cf. generally Ezr. iii. 12 sq. with Neh.
+viii. 9-11; Ezr. iii. 7 with the special favour enlisted on behalf
+of the Jews in vi. 7 sq., 13, vii. 21; Neh. ii. 7 sq.). But the
+account of the events in the reign of Artaxerxes is extremely
+perplexing. Since the building of the walls of Jerusalem
+must have begun early in the fifth month (Neh. vi. 15), an
+allowance of three days (ii. 11) makes the date of Nehemiah&rsquo;s
+arrival practically the anniversary of Ezra&rsquo;s return (Ezr. vii. 9,
+viii. 32). Considering the close connexion between the work
+of the two men this can hardly be accidental. The compiler,
+however, clearly intends Neh. vi. 15 (25th of sixth month) to be
+the prelude to the events in Neh. vii. 73, viii. (seventh month),
+but the true sequence of Neh. vi. sqq. is uncertain, and the
+possibility of artificiality is suggested by the unembellished
+statement of Josephus that the building of the walls occupied,
+not fifty-two days, but two years four months (<i>Ant</i>. xi. 5. 8).
+The present chronological order of Nehemiah&rsquo;s work is confused
+(cf. §4, n. 3), and the obscure interval of twelve years in his work
+corresponds very closely to that which now separates the records
+of Ezra&rsquo;s labours. However, both the recovery of the compilers&rsquo;
+aims and attempted reconstructions are precluded from finality
+by the scantiness of independent historical evidence. (See
+further <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Jews</a></span>: <i>History</i>, §21 seq.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;S.R. Driver, <i>Lit. of the O.T.</i> (1909), pp. 540 sqq.
+and the commentaries of H.E. Ryle (<i>Camb. Bible</i>, 1893), C. Siegfried
+(1901), A. Bertholet (1902), and T.W. Davies (<i>Cent. Bible</i>, 1909).
+Impetus to recent criticism of these books starts with Van Hoonacker
+(<i>Neh. et Esd</i>. [1890]; see also <i>Expos. Times</i> [1897], pp. 351-354, and
+M.-J. Lagrange, <i>Rev. biblique</i>, iii. 561-585 [1894], iv. 186-202 [1895])
+and W.H. Kosters (Germ. ed., <i>Wiederherstellung Israëls</i>, 1895).
+The latter&rsquo;s important conclusions (for which see his article with
+Cheyne&rsquo;s additions in <i>Ency. Bib</i>. col. 1473 sqq., 3380 sqq.) have been
+adversely criticized, especially by J. Wellhausen (<i>Nachrichten</i> of the
+Univ. of Göttingen, 1895, pp. 166-186), E. Meyer (<i>Entstehung d.
+Judentums</i>, 1896), J. Nikel (<i>Wiederherstellung d. jüd. Gemein.</i>,
+1900), and S. Jampel in <i>Monatsschrift f. Gesch. u. Wissens. d.
+Judentums</i>, vols. xlvi.-xlvii. (1902-1903). The negative criticisms
+of Kosters have, however, been strengthened by his replies (in the
+Dutch <i>Theolog. Tijdschrift</i>), and by the discussions of C.C. Torrey
+and C.F. Kent (<i>op. cit</i>) and of G. Jahn (<i>Esra u. Neh.</i> pp. i-lxxviii;
+1909), and his general position appears to do more justice to the
+biblical evidence as a whole.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(S. A. C.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1p" id="ft1p" href="#fa1p"><span class="fn">1</span></a> References to 1 Esdras in this article are to the book discussed
+above as <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ezra, Third Book of</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft2p" id="ft2p" href="#fa2p"><span class="fn">2</span></a> With Neh. xi. 4-19 cf. 1 Chron. ix. 3-17; with the list xii. 1-7 cf.
+<i>vv.</i> 12-21 and x. 3-9; and with xii. 10 sq. cf. 1 Chron. vi. 3-13 (to
+which it forms the sequel). See further Smend, <i>Listen d. Esra u.
+Neh.</i> (1881).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft3p" id="ft3p" href="#fa3p"><span class="fn">3</span></a> Sometimes wrongly styled Chaldee (<i>q.v.</i>); see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Semitic Languages</a></span>.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft4p" id="ft4p" href="#fa4p"><span class="fn">4</span></a> Its real position in the history of this period is not certain.
+Against the supposition that the names refer to Cambyses and
+Pseudo-Smerdis who reigned after Cyrus and before Darius, see
+H.E. Ryle, <i>Camb. Bible</i>, &ldquo;Ezra and Neh.,&rdquo; p. 65 sq. Against the
+view that Darius is D. ii. Nothus of 423-404 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, see G.A. Smith,
+<i>Minor Prophets</i>, ii. 191 sqq. The ignorance of the compiler regarding
+the sequence of the kings finds a parallel in that of the author of the
+book of Daniel (<i>q.v.</i>); see C.C. Torrey, <i>Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lang.</i>
+(1907), p. 178, n. 1.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft5p" id="ft5p" href="#fa5p"><span class="fn">5</span></a> See further H.G. Mitchell, <i>Journ. of Bibl. Lit.</i> (1903), pp. 88 sqq.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft6p" id="ft6p" href="#fa6p"><span class="fn">6</span></a> The chronological difficulties will be seen from xiii. 6 (&ldquo;before
+this&rdquo;), which would imply that the dedication of the walls was on
+the occasion of Nehemiah&rsquo;s later visit (see G.A. Smith, <i>Expositor</i>,
+July 1906, p. 12). His previous departure is perhaps foreshadowed
+in vii. 2.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft7p" id="ft7p" href="#fa7p"><span class="fn">7</span></a> See <i>Ency. Bib.</i> col. 1480. Papyri from a Jewish colony in
+Elephantine (407 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>) clearly show the form which royal permits
+could take, and what the Jews were prepared to give in return; the
+points of resemblance are extremely interesting, but compared with
+the biblical documents the papyri reveal some striking differences.</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft8p" id="ft8p" href="#fa8p"><span class="fn">8</span></a> C.C. Torrey, <i>Comp. and Hist. Value of Ezra-Neh.</i> (Beihefte of
+<i>Zeit. f. alttest. Wissens.</i>, 1896), pp. 30-34; C.F. Kent, <i>Israel&rsquo;s Hist.
+and Biog. Narratives</i>, pp. 32, 369. Since Neh. vii. 70-73 is closely
+joined to viii., the suggested transposition would place its account
+of the contributions to the temple in a more appropriate context
+(cf. Ezr. viii. 24-30, 33 sq.).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft9p" id="ft9p" href="#fa9p"><span class="fn">9</span></a> For linguistic evidence reference should be made to J. Geissler,
+<i>Die litterarischen Beziehungen d. Esramemoiren</i> (Chemnitz, 1899).</p>
+
+<p><a name="ft10p" id="ft10p" href="#fa10p"><span class="fn">10</span></a> See especially Sir Henry Howorth, <i>Proc. of Society of Bibl. Arch.</i>
+(1901-1904), <i>passim</i>; C.C. Torrey, <i>Ezra Studies</i> (Chicago, 1910).
+For the text, see A. Klostermann, <i>Real-Ency. f. prot. Theol.</i> v. 501
+sqq.; H. Guthe in Haupt&rsquo;s <i>Sacred Books of Old Testament</i> (1899);
+and S.A. Cook in R.H. Charles, <i>Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZZO,<a name="ar104" id="ar104"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Ehrenfried</span> (<i>c.</i> 954-1024), count palatine in Lorraine,
+was the son of a certain Hermann (d. <i>c.</i> 1000), also a count
+palatine in Lorraine who had possessions in the neighbourhood
+of Bonn. Having married Matilda (d. 1025), a daughter of the
+emperor Otto II., Ezzo came to the front during the reign of his
+brother-in-law, the emperor Otto III. (983-1002); his power was
+increased owing to the liberal grant of lands in Thuringia and
+Franconia which he received with his wife, and some time later
+his position as count palatine was recognized as an hereditary
+dignity. Otto&rsquo;s successor, the emperor Henry II., was less
+friendly towards the powerful count palatine, though there was
+no serious trouble between them until 1011; but some disturbances
+in Lorraine quickly compelled the emperor to come to terms,
+and the assistance of Ezzo was purchased by a gift of lands.
+Henceforward the relations between Henry and his vassal appear
+to have been satisfactory. Very little is known about Ezzo&rsquo;s
+later life, but we are told that he died at a great age at Saalfeld
+on the 21st of March 1024. He left three sons, among them being
+Hermann, who was archbishop of Cologne from 1036 to 1056,
+and Otto, who was for a short time duke of Swabia; and seven
+daughters, six of whom became abbesses. Ezzo founded a
+monastery at Brauweiler near Cologne, the place where his
+marriage had been celebrated. This was dedicated in 1028 by
+Piligrim, archbishop of Cologne, and here both Ezzo and his wife
+were buried.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">EZZOLIED,<a name="ar105" id="ar105"></a></span> or <span class="sc">Anegenge</span>, an old German poem, written by
+Ezzo, a scholar of Bamberg. It was written about 1060, but not,
+as one authority asserts, composed while the author was making
+a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The subject of the poem is the life of
+Christ. Very popular during the later middle ages, the <i>Ezzolied</i>
+had a great influence on the poetry of south Germany, and is
+valuable as a monument of the poetical literature of the time.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The text is printed in the <i>Denkmäler deutscher Poesie und Prosa
+aus dem 8-12. Jahrhundert</i> (Berlin, 1892) of C.V. Müllenhoff and W.
+Scherer.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page111" id="page111"></a>111</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold f150">F<a name="ar106" id="ar106"></a></span> This is the sixth letter of the English alphabet as it was
+of the Latin. In the ordinary Greek alphabet the symbol
+has disappeared, although it survived far into historical
+times in many Greek dialects as <img style="width:16px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111a.jpg" alt="" />, the digamma, the
+use of which in early times was inductively proved by Bentley,
+when comparatively little was known of the local alphabets
+and dialects of Greece. The so-called <i>stigma</i> &#962;, which serves
+for the numeral 6, is all that remains to represent it. This
+symbol derives its name from its resemblance in medieval MSS.
+to the abbreviation for <span class="grk" title="st">&#963;&#964;</span>. The symbol occupying the same position
+in the Phoenician alphabet was Vau (<img style="width:58px; height:29px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111b.jpg" alt="" />), which seems
+to be represented by the Greek &Upsilon;, the Latin <img style="width:16px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111c.jpg" alt="" />, at the end of
+the early alphabet. Many authorities therefore contend that
+<img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111d.jpg" alt="" /> is only a modification of the preceding symbol E and has
+nothing to do with the symbol Vau. In some early Latin
+inscriptions <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111d.jpg" alt="" /> is represented by |<span class="sp">|</span>, as E is by ||. It must be
+admitted that the resemblance between the sixth symbol of
+the Phoenician alphabet and the corresponding symbol of the
+European alphabet is not striking. But the position of the
+limbs of symbols in early alphabets often varies surprisingly.
+In Greek, besides <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111d.jpg" alt="" /> we find for <i>f</i> in Pamphylia (the only Greek
+district in Asia which possesses the symbol) <img style="width:16px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111e.jpg" alt="" />, and in Boeotia,
+Thessaly, Tarentum, Cumae and on Chalcidian vases of Italy the
+form <img style="width:16px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111f.jpg" alt="" />, though except at Cumae and on the vases the form <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111d.jpg" alt="" />
+exists contemporaneously with <img style="width:16px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111f.jpg" alt="" /> or even earlier. At the little
+town of Falerii (Civita Castellana), whose alphabet is undoubtedly
+of the same origin as the Latin, <img style="width:16px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111a.jpg" alt="" /> takes the form <img style="width:17px; height:21px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111g.jpg" alt="" />. Though
+uncertain, therefore, it seems not impossible that the original
+symbol of the Phoenician alphabet, which was a consonant like
+the English <i>w</i>, may have been differentiated in Greek into two
+symbols, one indicating the consonant value <i>w</i> and retaining
+the position of the Phoenician consonant Vau, the other having
+the vowel value <i>u</i>, which ultimately most dialects changed to
+a modified sound like French <i>u</i> or German <i>ü</i>. Be this as it may,
+the value of the symbol <img style="width:16px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111a.jpg" alt="" /> in Greek was <i>w</i>, a bilabial voiced
+sound, not the labio-dental unvoiced sound which we call <i>f</i>.
+When the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet they took over
+the symbols with their Greek values. But Greek had no sound
+corresponding to the Latin <i>f</i>, for &phi; was pronounced <i>p-h</i>, like the
+final sound of <i>lip</i> in ordinary English or the initial sound of <i>pig</i>
+in Irish English. Consequently in the very old inscription
+on a gold fibula found at Praeneste and published in 1887 (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alphabet</a></span>) the Latin <i>f</i> is represented by <img style="width:27px; height:16px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111h.jpg" alt="" />. Later, as Latin
+did not use <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111d.jpg" alt="" /> for the consonant written as <i>v</i> in <i>vis</i>, &amp;c. , <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111i.jpg" alt="" /> was
+dropped and <img style="width:15px; height:18px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111d.jpg" alt="" /> received a new special value in Latin as representative
+of the unvoiced labio-dental spirant. In the Oscan
+and Umbrian dialects, whose alphabet was borrowed from
+Etruscan, a special form appears for <i>f</i>, viz. <img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111j.jpg" alt="" />, the old form <img style="width:16px; height:19px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111f.jpg" alt="" />
+being kept for the other consonant <i>v</i> (<i>i.e.</i> English <i>w</i>). The
+<img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111j.jpg" alt="" /> has generally been asserted to be developed out of the second
+element in the combination <img style="width:27px; height:16px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111h.jpg" alt="" />, its upper and lower halves
+being first converted into lozenges, <img style="width:13px; height:25px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111k.jpg" alt="" />, which naturally changed
+to <img style="width:13px; height:17px; vertical-align: middle;" src="images/img111j.jpg" alt="" /> when inscribed without lifting the writing or incising implement.
+Recent discoveries, however, make this doubtful
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Alphabet</a></span>).</p>
+<div class="author">(P. Gi.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABBRONI, ANGELO<a name="ar107" id="ar107"></a></span> (1732-1803), Italian biographer, was
+born at Marradi in Tuscany on the 25th of September 1732.
+After studying at Faenza he entered the Roman college founded
+for the education of young Tuscans. On the conclusion of his
+studies he continued his stay in Rome, and having been introduced
+to the celebrated Jansenist Bottari, received from him the canonry
+of Santa Teresa in Trastevere. Some time after this he was
+chosen to preach a discourse in the pontifical chapel before
+Benedict XIV. and made such a favourable impression that the
+pontiff settled on him an annuity, with the possession of which
+Fabbroni was able to devote his whole time to study. He was
+intimate with Leopold I., grand-duke of Tuscany, but the Jesuits
+disliked him on account of his Jansenist views. Besides his
+other literary labours he began at Pisa in 1771 a literary journal,
+which he continued till 1796. About 1772 he made a journey to
+Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Condorcet, Diderot,
+d&rsquo;Alembert, Rousseau and most of the other eminent Frenchmen
+of the day. He also spent four months in London. He died at
+Pisa on the 22nd of September 1803.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The following are his principal works:&mdash;<i>Vitae Italorum doctrina
+excellentium qui saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt</i> (20 vols.,
+Pisa, 1778-1799, 1804-1805), the last two vols., published posthumously,
+contain a life of the author; <i>Laurentii Medicei Magnifici
+Vita</i> (2 vols., Pisa, 1784), a work which served as a basis for H.
+Roscoe&rsquo;s <i>Life of Lorenzo dei Medici</i>; <i>Leonis X. pontificis maximi
+Vita</i> (Pisa, 1797); and <i>Elogi di Dante Alighieri, di Angelo Poliziano,
+di Lodovico Ariosto, e di Torq. Tasso</i> (Parma, 1800).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABER,<a name="ar108" id="ar108"></a></span> the name of a family of German lead-pencil manufacturers.
+Their business was founded in 1760 at Stein, near
+Nuremberg, by Kaspar Faber (d. 1784). It was then inherited by
+his son Anton Wilhelm (d. 1819). Georg Leonhard Faber succeeded
+in 1810 (d. 1839), and the business passed to Johann Lothar
+von Faber (1817-1896), the great-grandson of the founder. At
+the time of his assuming control about twenty hands were employed,
+under old-fashioned conditions, and owing to the invention
+of the French <i>crayons Contés</i> of Nicolas Jacques Conté (<i>q.v.</i>)
+competition had reduced the entire Nuremberg industry to a low
+ebb (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Pencil</a></span>). Johann introduced improvements in machinery
+and methods, brought his factory to the highest state of efficiency,
+and it became a model for all the other German and Austrian manufacturers.
+He established branches in New York, Paris, London
+and Berlin, and agencies in Vienna, St Petersburg and Hamburg,
+and made his greatest <i>coup</i> in 1856, when he contracted for the
+exclusive control of the graphite obtained from the East Siberian
+mines. Faber had also branched out into the manufacture of
+water-colour and oil paints, inks, slates and slate-pencils, and
+engineers&rsquo; and architects&rsquo; drawing instruments, and built
+additional factories to house his various industries at New York
+and at Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, and had his own cedar mills
+in Florida. For his services to German industry he received a
+patent of nobility and an appointment as councillor of state.
+After the death of his widow (1903) the business was inherited
+by his grand-daughter Countess Otilie von Faber-Castell and her
+husband, Count Alexander.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABER, BASIL<a name="ar109" id="ar109"></a></span> (1520&mdash;<i>c.</i> 1576), Lutheran schoolmaster and
+theologian, was born at Sorau, in lower Lusatia, in 1520. In
+1538 he entered the university of Wittenberg, studying as
+<i>pauper gratis</i> under Melanchthon. Choosing the schoolmaster&rsquo;s
+profession, he became successively rector of the schools at
+Nordhausen, Tennstadt (1555), Magdeburg (1557) and Quedlinburg
+(1560). From this last post he was removed in December
+1570 as a Crypto-Calvinist. In 1571 he was appointed to the
+Raths-gymnasium at Erfurt, not as rector, but as director
+(<i>Vorsteher</i>). In this situation he remained till his death in 1575
+or 1576. His translation of the first twenty-five chapters of
+Luther&rsquo;s commentary on Genesis was published in 1557; in other
+ways he promoted the spread of Lutheran views. He was a
+contributor to the first four of the <i>Magdeburg Centuries</i>. He is
+best known by his <i>Thesaurus eruditionis scholasticae</i> (1571;
+last edition, improved by J.H. Leich, 1749, folio, 2 vols.); this
+was followed by his <i>Libellus de disciplina scholastica</i> (1572).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Wagenmann and G. Müller in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i>
+(1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM<a name="ar110" id="ar110"></a></span> (1814-1863), British hymn
+writer and theologian, was born on the 28th of June 1814 at
+Calverley, Yorkshire, of which place his grandfather, Thomas
+Faber, was vicar. He attended the grammar school of Bishop
+Auckland for a short time, but a large portion of his boyhood
+was spent in Westmorland. He afterwards went to Harrow
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page112" id="page112"></a>112</span>
+and to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1835 he obtained a scholarship
+at University College; and in 1836 he gained the Newdigate
+prize for a poem on &ldquo;The Knights of St John,&rdquo; which elicited
+special praise from Keble. Among his college friends were Dean
+Stanley and Roundell Palmer, 1st earl of Selborne. In January
+1837 he was elected fellow of University College. Meanwhile he
+had given up the Calvinistic views of his youth, and had become
+an enthusiastic follower of John Henry Newman. In 1841 a
+travelling tutorship took him to the continent; and on his
+return a book appeared called <i>Sights and Thoughts in Foreign
+Churches and among Foreign Peoples</i> (London, 1842), with a
+dedication to his friend the poet Wordsworth. He accepted the
+rectory of Elton in Huntingdonshire, but soon after went again
+to the continent, in order to study the methods of the Roman
+Catholic Church; and after a prolonged mental struggle he
+joined the Roman Catholic communion in November 1845. He
+founded a religious community at Birmingham, called Wilfridians,
+which was ultimately merged in the oratory of St Philip Neri,
+with John Henry Newman as Superior. In 1849 a branch of the
+oratory&mdash;subsequently independent&mdash;was established in London,
+first in King William Street, and afterwards at Brompton, over
+which Faber presided till his death on the 26th of September
+1863. In spite of his weak health, an almost incredible amount of
+work was crowded into those years. He published a number of
+theological works, and edited the <i>Oratorian Lives of the Saints</i>.
+He was an eloquent preacher, and a man of great charm of
+character. It is mainly as a hymn-writer, however, that Faber
+is remembered. Among his best-known hymns are:&mdash;&ldquo;The
+Greatness of God,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Will of God,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Eternal Father,&rdquo;
+&ldquo;The God of my Childhood,&rdquo; &ldquo;Jesus is God,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Pilgrims
+of the Night,&rdquo; &ldquo;The Land beyond the Sea,&rdquo; &ldquo;Sweet Saviour,
+bless us ere we go,&rdquo; &ldquo;I was wandering and weary,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The
+Shadow of the Rock.&rdquo; The hymns are largely used in Protestant
+collections. In addition to many pamphlets and translations,
+Faber published the following works: <i>All for Jesus</i>; <i>The
+Precious Blood</i>; <i>Bethlehem</i>; <i>The Blessed Sacrament</i>; <i>The
+Creator and the Creature</i>; <i>Growth of Holiness; Spiritual Conferences</i>;
+<i>The Foot of the Cross</i> (8 vols., London, 1853-1860).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See his <i>Life and Letters</i>, by Father J.E. Bowden (London, 1869),
+and <i>A Brief Sketch of the Early Life of the late F.W. Faber</i>, D.D., by
+his brother the Rev. F.A. Faber (London, 1869).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABER,<a name="ar111" id="ar111"></a></span> Fabri or Fabry (surnamed <span class="sc">Stapulensis</span>), <b>JACOBUS</b>
+[Jacques Lefèvre d&rsquo;Étaples] (<i>c.</i> 1455&mdash;<i>c.</i> 1536), a pioneer of the
+Protestant movement in France, was born of humble parents at
+Étaples, in Pas de Calais, Picardy, about 1455. He appears to
+have been possessed of considerable means. He had already been
+ordained priest when he entered the university of Paris for higher
+education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his master in Greek.
+He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures of Argyropulus,
+who died in that year; he formed a friendship with
+Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy,
+studying in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar
+with the writings of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the
+Platonic philosophy. Returning to Paris, he became professor in
+the college of Cardinal Lemoine. Among his famous pupils were
+F.W. Vatable and Farel; his connexion with the latter drew him
+to the Calvinistic side of the movement of reform. At this time he
+began the publication, with critical apparatus, of Boëtius (<i>De
+Arithmetica</i>), and Aristotle&rsquo;s <i>Physics</i> (1492), <i>Ethics</i> (1497), <i>Metaphysics</i>
+(1501) and <i>Politics</i> (1506). In 1507 he took up his
+residence in the Benedictine Abbey of St Germain des Prés, near
+Paris; this was due to his connexion with the family of Briçonnet
+(one of whom was the superior), especially with William Briçonnet,
+cardinal bishop of St Malo (Meaux). He now began to
+give himself to Biblical studies, the first-fruit of which was his
+<i>Quintuplex Psalterium: Gallicum, Romanum, Hebraicum, Vetus,
+Conciliatum</i> (1509); the <i>Conciliatum</i> was his own version. This
+was followed by <i>S. Pauli Epistolae xiv. ex vulgata editione, adjecta
+intelligentia ex Graeco cum commentariis</i> (1512), a work of great
+independence and judgment. His <i>De Maria Magdalena et
+triduo Christi disceptatio</i> (1517) provoked violent controversy
+and was condemned by the Sorbonne (1521). He had left Paris
+during the whole of 1520, and, removing to Meaux, was appointed
+(May 1, 1523) vicar-general to Bishop Briçonnet, and published
+his French version of the New Testament (1523). This (contemporary
+with Luther&rsquo;s German version) has been the basis of
+all subsequent translations into French. From this, in the same
+year, he extracted the versions of the Gospels and Epistles &ldquo;à
+l&rsquo;usage du diocèse de Meaux.&rdquo; The prefaces and notes to both
+these expressed the view that Holy Scripture is the only rule of
+doctrine, and that justification is by faith alone. He incurred
+much hostility, but was protected by Francis I. and the princess
+Margaret. Francis being in captivity after the battle of Pavia
+(February 25, 1525), Faber was condemned and his works suppressed
+by commission of the parlement; these measures were
+quashed on the return of Francis some months later. He issued
+<i>Le Psautier de David</i> (1525), and was appointed royal librarian at
+Blois (1526); his version of the Pentateuch appeared two years
+later. His complete version of the Bible (1530), on the basis of
+Jerome, took the same place as his version of the New Testament.
+Margaret (now queen of Navarre) led him to take refuge (1531) at
+Nérac from persecution. He is said to have been visited (1533)
+by Calvin on his flight from France. He died in 1536 or 1537.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.H. Graf, <i>Essai sur la vie et les écrits</i> (1842); G. Bonet-Maury,
+in A. Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABER<a name="ar112" id="ar112"></a></span> (or <span class="sc">Lefèvre</span>), <b>JOHANN</b> (1478-1541), German theologian,
+styled from the title of one of his works &ldquo;Malleus
+Haereticorum,&rdquo; son of one Heigerlin, a smith (<i>faber</i>), was born
+at Leutkirch, in Swabia, in 1478. His early life is obscure; the
+tradition that he joined the Dominicans is untenable. He studied
+theology and canon law at Tübingen and at Freiburg im Breisgau,
+where he matriculated on the 26th of July 1509, and graduated
+M.A. and doctor of canon law. He was soon appointed vicar
+of Lindau and Leutkirch, and shortly afterwards canon of Basel.
+In 1518 Hugo von Landenberg, bishop of Constance, made him
+one of his vicars-general, and Pope Leo X. appointed him papal
+protonotary. He was an advocate of reforms, in sympathy with
+Erasmus, and corresponded (1519-1520) with Zwingli. While
+he defended Luther against Eck, he was as little inclined to adopt
+the position of Luther as of Carlstadt. His journey to Rome
+in the autumn of 1521 had the result of estranging him from the
+views of the Protestant leaders. He published <i>Opus adversus
+nova quaedam dogmata Lutheri</i> (1522), and appeared as a disputant
+against Zwingli at Zürich (1523). Then followed his <i>Malleus in
+haeresin Lutheranam</i> (1524). Among his efforts to stem the tide
+of Protestant innovation was the establishment of a training-house
+for the maintenance and instruction of popular preachers,
+drawn from the lower ranks, to compete with the orators of reform.
+In 1526 he became court preacher to the emperor Ferdinand, and
+in 1527 and 1528 was sent by him as envoy to Spain and England.
+He approved the death by burning of Balthasar Hubmeier, the
+Baptist, at Vienna on the 10th of March 1528. In 1531 he was
+consecrated bishop of Vienna, and combined with this (till 1538)
+the administration of the diocese of Neustadt. He died at Vienna
+on the 21st of May 1541. His works were collected in three
+volumes, 1537, 1539 and 1541.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See C.E. Kettner, <i>Diss. de J. Fabri Vita Scriptisque</i> (1737);
+Wagenmann and Egli in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s <i>Realencyklopädie</i> (1898).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(A. Go.*)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABERT, ABRAHAM DE<a name="ar113" id="ar113"></a></span> (1599-1660), marshal of France,
+was the son of Abraham Fabert, seigneur de Moulins (d. 1638),
+a famous printer who rendered great services, civil and military,
+to Henry IV. At the age of fourteen he entered the <i>Gardes
+françaises</i>, and in 1618 received a commission in the Piedmont
+regiment, becoming major in 1627. He distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the constant wars of the period, notably in La
+Rochelle and at the siege of Exilles in 1630. His bravery and
+engineering skill were again displayed in the sieges of Avesnes and
+Maubeuge in 1637, and in 1642 Louis XIII. made him governor
+of the recently-acquired fortress of Sedan. In 1651 he became
+lieutenant-general, and in 1654 at the siege of Stenay he introduced
+new methods of siegecraft which anticipated in a measure
+the great improvements of Vauban. In 1658 Fabert was made
+a marshal of France, being the first commoner to attain that rank.
+He died at Sedan on the 17th of May 1660.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page113" id="page113"></a>113</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>Histoire du maréchal de Fabert</i> (Amsterdam, 1697); P. Barre,
+<i>Vie de Fabert</i> (Paris, 1752); A. Feillet, <i>Le Premier Maréchal de
+France plébéien</i> (Paris, 1869); Bourelly, <i>Le Maréchal Fabert</i> (Paris,
+1880).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABIAN<a name="ar114" id="ar114"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Fabianus</span>], <b>SAINT</b> (d. 250), pope and martyr, was
+chosen pope, or bishop of Rome, in January 236 in succession to
+Anteros. Eusebius (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> vi. 29) relates how the Christians,
+having assembled in Rome to elect a new bishop, saw a dove
+alight upon the head of Fabian, a stranger to the city, who was
+thus marked out for this dignity, and was at once proclaimed
+bishop, although there were several famous men among the
+candidates for the vacant position. Fabian was martyred during
+the persecution under the emperor Decius, his death taking place
+on the 20th of January 250, and was buried in the catacomb of
+Calixtus, where a memorial has been found. He is said to have
+baptized the emperor Philip and his son, to have done some building
+in the catacombs, to have improved the organization of the
+church in Rome, to have appointed officials to register the deeds
+of the martyrs, and to have founded several churches in France.
+His deeds are thus described in the <i>Liber Pontificalis</i>: &ldquo;Hic
+regiones dividit diaconibus et fecit vii subdiacones, qui vii
+notariis imminerent, ut gestas martyrum integro fideliter colligerent,
+et multas fabricas per cymiteria fieri praecepit.&rdquo;
+Although there is very little authentic information about Fabian,
+there is evidence that his episcopate was one of great importance
+in the history of the early church. He was highly esteemed by
+Cyprian, bishop of Carthage; Novatian refers to his <i>nobilissimae
+memoriae</i>, and he corresponded with Origen. One authority
+refers to him as Flavian.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See the article on &ldquo;Fabian&rdquo; by A. Harnack in Herzog-Hauck&rsquo;s
+<i>Realencyklopädie</i>, Band v. (Leipzig, 1898).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABIUS,<a name="ar115" id="ar115"></a></span> the name of a number of Roman soldiers and
+statesmen. The Fabian gens was one of the oldest and most
+distinguished patrician families of Rome. Its members claimed
+descent from Hercules and a daughter of the Arcadian Evander.
+From the earliest times it played a prominent part in Roman
+history, and was one of the two gentes exclusively charged with
+the management of the most ancient festival in Rome&mdash;the
+Lupercalia (Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 375). The chief family names of the
+Fabian gens or clan, in republican times, were Vibulanus, Ambustus,
+Maximus, Buteo, Pictor, Dorso, Labeo; with surnames
+Verrucosus, Rullianus, Gurges, Aemilianus, Allobrogicus (all
+of the Maximus branch). The most important members of the
+family are the following:&mdash;</p>
+
+<p>1. <span class="sc">Marcus Fabius Ambustus</span>, pontifex maximus in the year
+of the capture of Rome by the Gauls (390). His three sons,
+Quintus, Numerius and Caeso, although they had been sent as
+ambassadors to the Gauls when they were besieging Clusium,
+subsequently took part in hostilities (Livy v. 35). The Gauls
+thereupon demanded their surrender, on the ground that they
+had violated the law of nations; the Romans, by way of reply,
+elected them consular tribunes in the following year. The result
+was the march of the Gauls upon Rome, the battle of the Allia,
+and the capture of the city (Livy vi. 1).</p>
+
+<p>2. <span class="sc">Q. Fabius Maximus</span>, surnamed <i>Rullianus</i> or <i>Rullus</i>,
+master of the horse in the second Samnite War to L. Papirius
+Cursor, by whom he was degraded for having fought the Samnites
+contrary to orders (Livy viii. 30), in spite of the fact that he
+gained a victory. In 315, when dictator, he was defeated by the
+Samnites at Lautulae (Livy ix. 23). In 310 he defeated the
+Etruscans at the Vadimonian Lake. In 295, consul for the fifth
+time, he defeated, at the great battle of Sentinum, the combined
+forces of the Etrurians, Umbrians, Samnites and Gauls (see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Rome</a></span>: <i>History</i>, II. &ldquo;The Republic&rdquo;). As censor (304) he
+altered the arrangement of Appius Claudius Caecus, whereby the
+freedmen were taken into all the tribes, and limited them to the
+four city tribes. For this he is said to have received the title of
+<i>Maximus</i>, as the deliverer of the comitia from the rule of the mob
+(Livy ix. 46), but there is reason to think that this title was first
+conferred on his grandson. It is probable that his achievements
+are greatly exaggerated by historians favourable to the Fabian
+house.</p>
+
+<p>3. <span class="sc">Quintus Fabius Maximus</span>, surnamed <i>Verrucosus</i> (from a
+wart on his lip), <i>Ovicula</i> (&ldquo;the lamb,&rdquo; from his mild disposition),
+and <i>Cunctator</i> (&ldquo;the delayer,&rdquo; from his cautious tactics in the
+war against Hannibal), grandson of the preceding. He served his
+first consulship in Liguria (233 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), was censor (230) and consul
+for the second time (228). In 218 he was sent to Carthage to
+demand satisfaction for the attack on Saguntum (Livy xxi. 18).
+According to the well-known story, he held up a fold of his toga
+and offered the Carthaginians the choice between peace and war.
+When they declared themselves indifferent, he let fall his toga
+with the words, &ldquo;Then take war.&rdquo; After the disastrous campaign
+on the Trebia, and the defeat on the banks of the Trasimene
+Lake, Fabius was named dictator (Livy calls him pro-dictator,
+since he was nominated, not by the consul, but by the people)
+in 217, and began his tactics of &ldquo;masterly inactivity.&rdquo; Man&oelig;uvring
+among the hills, where Hannibal&rsquo;s cavalry were useless, he
+cut off his supplies, harassed him incessantly, and did everything
+except fight. His steady adherence to his plan caused dissatisfaction
+at Rome and in his own camp, and aroused the suspicion that
+he was merely endeavouring to prolong his command. Minucius
+Rufus, his master of the horse, seized the opportunity, during the
+absence of Fabius at Rome, to make an attack upon the enemy
+which proved successful. The people, more than ever convinced
+that a forward movement was necessary, divided the command
+between Minucius and Fabius (Livy xxii. 15. 24; Polybius iii. 88).
+Minucius was led into an ambuscade by Hannibal, and his army
+was only saved by the opportune arrival of Fabius. Minucius
+confessed his mistake and henceforth submitted to the orders of
+Fabius (Livy xxiii. 32). At the end of the legal time of six months
+Fabius resigned the dictatorship and the war was carried on by
+the consuls. The result of the abandonment of Fabian tactics
+was the disaster of Cannae (216). In 215 and 214 (as consul for
+the third and fourth times) he was in charge of the operations
+against Hannibal together with Claudius Marcellus (Livy xxiii.
+39). He laid siege to Capua, which had gone over to Hannibal
+after Cannae, and captured the important position of Casilinum;
+in his fifth consulship (209) he retook Tarentum, which had been
+occupied by Hannibal for three years (Livy xxvii. 15; Polybius
+xiii. 4; Plutarch, <i>Fabius</i>). He died in 203. Fabius was a
+strenuous opponent of the new aggressive policy, and did all he
+could to prevent the invasion of Africa by Scipio. He was
+distinguished for calmness and prudence, while by no means
+lacking in courage when it was required. In his later years,
+however, he became morose, and showed jealousy of rising young
+men, especially Scipio (<i>Life</i> by Plutarch; Livy xx.-xxx.; Polybius
+iii. 87-106).</p>
+
+<p>4. <span class="sc">Q. Fabius Maximus Aemilianus</span>, eldest son of L. Aemilius
+Paullus, adopted by Fabius Cunctator. He served in the last
+Macedonian War (168), and, as consul, defeated Viriathus in
+Spain (Livy, <i>Epit</i>. 52). He was the pupil and patron of Polybius
+(Polybius xviii., xxix. 6, xxxii. 8-10; Livy xliv. 35).</p>
+
+<p>5. <span class="sc">Q. Fabius Maximus Allobrogicus</span>, son of the above,
+consul 121 in Gaul. He obtained his surname from his victory
+over the Allobroges and Arverni in that year (Vell. Pat. ii. 10;
+Eutropius iv. 22). As censor (108) he erected the first triumphal
+arch.</p>
+
+<p>6. <span class="sc">Q. Fabius Vibulanus</span>, with his brothers Caeso and Marcus,
+filled the consulship for seven years in succession (485-479 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>).
+In the last year there was a reaction against the family, in consequence
+of Caeso espousing the cause of the plebeians. Thereupon
+the Fabii&mdash;to the number, it is said, of 306 patricians, with some
+5000 dependents&mdash;emigrated from Rome under the leadership of
+Caeso, and settled on the banks of the Cremera, a few miles above
+Rome. For two years the exiles continued to be the city&rsquo;s chief
+defence against the Veientes, until at last they were surprised and
+cut off. The only survivor of the gens was Quintus, the sen of
+Marcus, who apparently took no part in the battle. The story
+that he had been left behind at Rome on account of his youth cannot
+be true, as he was consul ten years afterwards. This Quintus
+was consul in 467, 465 and 459, and a member of the second
+decemvirate in 450, on the fall of which he went into voluntary
+exile (Livy ii. 42, 48-50, iii. 1, 9, 41, 58, vi. 1; Dion. Halic.
+viii. 82-86, ix. 14-22: Ovid, <i>Fasti</i>, ii. 195).</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page114" id="page114"></a>114</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The Fabian name is met with as late as the 2nd century <span class="scs">A.D.</span> A
+complete list of the Fabii will be found in de Vit&rsquo;s <i>Onomasticon</i>;
+see also W.N. du Rieu, <i>Disputatio de Gente Fabia</i> (1856), containing
+an account of 57 members of the family.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS,<a name="ar116" id="ar116"></a></span> the father of Roman history,
+was born about 254 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> He was the grandson of Gaius Fabius,
+who received the surname <i>Pictor</i> for his painting of the temple
+of Salus (302). He took an active part in the subjugation of the
+Gauls in the north of Italy (225), and after the battle of Cannae
+(216) was employed by the Romans to proceed to Delphi in order
+to consult the oracle of Apollo. He was the earliest prose writer
+of Roman history. His materials consisted of the <i>Annales
+Maximi</i>, <i>Commentarii Consulares</i>, and similar records; the
+chronicles of the great Roman families; and his own experiences
+in the Second Punic War. He is also said to have made much use
+of the Greek historian Diodes of Peparethus. His work, which
+was written in Greek, began with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy,
+and ended with the Hannibalic war. Although Polybius and
+Dionysius of Halicarnassus frequently find fault with him, the
+first uses him as his chief authority for the Second Punic War.
+A Latin version of the work was in existence in the time of Cicero,
+but it is doubtful whether it was by Fabius Pictor or by a later
+writer with whom he was confused&mdash;Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus
+(consul 142); or there may have been two annalists of
+the name of Fabius Pictor.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fragments in H. Peter, <i>Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta</i>
+(1883); see also <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Annalists</a></span> and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Livy</a></span>, and Teuffel-Schwabe, <i>History
+of Roman Literature</i>, § 116.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABLE<a name="ar117" id="ar117"></a></span> (Fr. <i>fable</i>, Lat. <i>fabula</i>). With certain restrictions,
+the necessity of which will be shown in the course of the article,
+we may accept the definition of &ldquo;fable&rdquo; which Dr Johnson proposes
+in his <i>Life of Gay</i>: &ldquo;A <i>fable</i> or <i>apologue</i> seems to be, in its
+genuine state, a narrative in which beings irrational, and sometimes
+inanimate (<i>arbores loquuntur, non tantum ferae</i>), are, for the
+purpose of moral instruction, feigned to act and speak with human
+interests and passions.&rdquo; The description of La Fontaine, the
+greatest of fabulists, is a poetic rendering of Johnson&rsquo;s definition:</p>
+
+<table class="reg f90" summary="poem"><tr><td> <div class="poemr">
+<p>&ldquo;Fables in sooth are not what they appear;</p>
+<p class="i05">Our moralists are mice, and such small deer.</p>
+<p class="i05">We yawn at sermons, but we gladly turn</p>
+<p class="i05">To moral tales, and so amused we learn.&rdquo;</p>
+</div> </td></tr></table>
+
+<p class="noind">The fable is distinguished from the myth, which grows and is not
+made, the spontaneous and unconscious product of primitive
+fancy as it plays round some phenomenon of natural or historical
+fact. The literary myth, such as, for instance, the legend of
+Pandora in Hesiod or the tale of Er in the <i>Republic</i> of Plato, is
+really an allegory, and differs from the fable in so far as it is
+self-interpreting; the story and the moral are intermingled
+throughout. Between the parable and the fable there is no clear
+line of demarcation, and theologians like Trench have unwarrantably
+narrowed their definition of a parable to fit those of the
+New Testament. The soundest distinction is drawn by Neander.
+In the fable human passions and actions are attributed to beasts;
+in the parable the lower creation is employed only to illustrate
+the higher life and never transgresses the laws of its kind. But
+whether Jotham&rsquo;s apologue of the trees choosing a king, perhaps
+the first recorded in literature, should be classed as a fable or a
+parable is hardly worth disputing. Lastly, we may point out
+the close affinity between the fable and the proverb. A proverb
+is often a condensed or fossilized fable, and not a few fables are
+amplified or elaborated proverbs.</p>
+
+<p>The history of the fable goes back to the remotest antiquity,
+and Aesop has even less claim to be reckoned the father of the
+fable than has Homer to be entitled the father of poetry. The
+fable has its origin in the universal impulse of men to express their
+thoughts in concrete images, and is strictly parallel to the use of
+metaphor in language. It is the most widely diffused if not the
+most primitive form of literature. Though it has fallen from its
+high place it still survives, as in J. Chandler Harris&rsquo;s <i>Uncle Remus</i>
+and Rudyard Kipling&rsquo;s <i>Jungle Book</i>. The Arab of to-day will
+invent a fable at every turn of the conversation as the readiest
+form of argument, and in the <i>Life</i> of Coventry Patmore it is
+told how an impromptu fable of his about the pious dormouse
+found its way into Catholic books of devotion.</p>
+
+<p>With the fable, as we know it, the moral is indispensable.
+As La Fontaine puts it, an apologue is composed of two parts,
+body and soul. The body is the story, the soul the morality.
+But if we revert to the earliest type we shall find that this is no
+longer the case. In the primitive beast-fable, which is the direct
+progenitor of the Aesopian fable, the story is told simply for its
+own sake, and is as innocent of any moral as the fairy tales of
+Little Red Riding-Hood and Jack and the Beanstalk. Thus,
+in a legend of the Flathead Indians, the Little Wolf found in
+cloud-land his grandsires the Spiders with their grizzled hair and
+long crooked nails, and they spun balls of thread to let him down
+to earth; when he came down and found his wife the Speckled
+Duck, whom the Old Wolf had taken from him, she fled in confusion,
+and this is why she lives and dives alone to this very day.
+Such animal myths are as common in the New World as in the Old,
+and abound from Finland and Kamtchatka to the Hottentots and
+Australasians. From the story invented, as the one above
+quoted, to account for some peculiarity of the animal world,
+or told as a pure exercise of the imagination, just as a sailor spins
+a yarn about the sea-serpent, to the moral apologue the transition
+is easy; and that it has been effected by savages unaided by
+the example of higher races seems sufficiently proved by the tales
+quoted by E.B. Tylor (<i>Primitive Culture</i>, vol. i. p. 411). From
+the beast-fables of savages we come next to the Oriental apologues,
+which we still possess in their original form. The East, the land
+of myth and legend, is the natural home of the fable, and Hindustan
+was the birthplace, if not of the original of these tales, at
+least of the oldest shape in which they still exist. The <i>Pancha
+Tantra</i> (2nd century <span class="scs">B.C.</span>), or fables of the Brahma Vishnu
+Sarman, have been translated from Sanskrit into almost every
+language and adapted by most modern fabulists. The <i>Kalilah</i>
+and <i>Dimna</i> (names of two jackals), or fables of Bidpai (or Pilpai),
+passed from India to western Europe through the successive
+stages of Pahlavi (ancient Persian), Arabic, Greek, Latin. By
+the end of the 16th century there were Italian, French and English
+versions. There is an excellent Arabic edition (Paris, 1816) with
+an introduction by Sylvestre de Sacy. The <i>Hitopadesa</i>, or
+&ldquo;friendly instruction,&rdquo; is a modernized form of the same work,
+and of it there are three translations into English by Dr Charles
+Wilkins, Sir William Jones and Professor F. Johnson. The
+<i>Hitopadesa</i> is a complete chaplet of fables loosely strung together,
+but connected so as to form something of a continuous story,
+with moral reflections freely interspersed, purporting to be written
+for the instruction of some dissolute young princes. Thus, in the
+first fable a flock of pigeons see the grains of rice which a fowler
+has scattered, and are about to descend on them, when the king
+of the pigeons warns them by telling the fable of a traveller who
+being greedy of a bracelet was devoured by a tiger. They neglect
+his warning and are caught in the net, but are afterwards delivered
+by the king of the mice, who tells the story of the Deer, the Jackal
+and the Crow, to show that no real friendship can exist between
+the strong and the weak, the beast of prey and his quarry, and so
+on to the end of the volume. Another book of Eastern fables is
+well worthy of notice, <i>Buddhaghosha&rsquo;s Parables</i>, a commentary
+on the <i>Dhammapada</i> or <i>Buddha&rsquo;s Paths of Virtue</i>. The original
+is in Pali, but an English translation of the Burmese version
+was made by Captain T. Rogers, R.E.</p>
+
+<p>From Hindustan the Sanskrit fables passed to China, Tibet
+and Persia; and they must have reached Greece at an early age,
+for many of the fables which passed under the name of Aesop
+are identical with those of the East. Aesop to us is little more
+than a name, though, if we may trust a passing notice in Herodotus
+(ii. 134), he must have lived in the 6th century <span class="scs">B.C.</span> Probably
+his fables were never written down, though several are ascribed
+to him by Xenophon, Aristotle, Plutarch and other Greek writers,
+and Plato represents Socrates as beguiling his last days by
+versifying such as he remembered. Aristophanes alludes to
+them as merry tales, and Plato, while excluding the poets from
+his ideal republic, admits Aesop as a moral teacher. Of the
+various versions of <i>Aesop&rsquo;s Fables</i>, by far the most trustworthy
+is that of Babrius or Babrias, a Greek probably of the 3rd
+century <span class="scs">A.D.</span>, who rendered them in choliambic verse. These,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page115" id="page115"></a>115</span>
+which were long known in fragments only, were recovered in a
+MS. found by M. Minas in a monastery on Mount Athos in 1842,
+now in the British Museum.<a name="fa1q" id="fa1q" href="#ft1q"><span class="sp">1</span></a> An inferior version of the same in
+Latin iambics was made by Phaedrus, a slave of Thracian origin,
+brought to Rome in the time of Augustus and manumitted by him.
+Phaedrus professes to polish in senarian verse the rough-hewn
+blocks from Aesop&rsquo;s quarry; but the numerous allusions to
+contemporary events, as, for example, his hit at Sejanus in the
+Frogs and the Sun, which brought upon the author disgrace and
+imprisonment, show that many of them are original or free adaptations.
+For some time scholars doubted as to the genuineness of
+Phaedrus&rsquo;s fables, but their doubts have been lately dispelled
+by a closer examination of the MSS. and by the discovery of two
+verses of a fable on a tomb at Apulum in Dacia. Phaedrus&rsquo;s
+style is simple, clear and brief, but dry and unpoetical; and,
+as Lessing has pointed out, he often falls into absurdities when
+he deserts his original. For instance, in Aesop the dog with the
+meat in his mouth sees his reflection in the water as he passes
+over a bridge; Phaedrus makes him see it as he swims across the
+river.</p>
+
+<p>To sum up the characteristics of the Aesopian fable, it is
+artless, simple and transparent. It affects no graces of style, and
+we hardly need the text with which each concludes, <span class="grk" title="ho mythos dêloi hoti, k.t.l.">&#8001; &#956;&#8166;&#952;&#959;&#962; &#948;&#951;&#955;&#959;&#8150; &#8005;&#964;&#953;, &#954;.&#964;.&#955;.</span>
+The moral inculcated is that of <i>Proverbial Philosophy</i>
+and <i>Poor Richard&rsquo;s Almanacks</i>. Aesop is no maker of phrases, but
+an orator who wishes to gain some point or induce some course of
+action. It is the Aesopian type that Aristotle has in view when
+he treats of the fable as a branch of rhetoric, not of poetry.</p>
+
+<p>The Latin race was given to moralizing, and the language lent
+itself to crisp and pointed narrative, but they lacked the free
+play of fancy, the childlike &ldquo;make-believe,&rdquo; to produce a national
+body of fables. With the doubtful exception of Phaedrus, we
+possess nothing but solitary examples, such as the famous
+apologue of Menenius Agrippa to the Plebs and the exquisite
+Town Mouse and Country Mouse of Horace&rsquo;s <i>Satires</i>.</p>
+
+<p>The fables of the rhetorician Aphthonius about <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 400 in
+Greek prose, and those in Latin elegiac verse by Avianus, used
+for centuries as a text-book in schools, form in the history of
+the apologue a link between classical and medieval times. In a
+Latin dress, sometimes in prose, sometimes in regular verse,
+and sometimes in rhymed stanzas, the fable contributed, with
+other kinds of narratives, to make up the huge mass of stories
+which has been bequeathed to us by the monastic libraries.
+These served more uses than one. They were at once easier and
+safer reading than the classics. To the lazy monk they stood in
+place of novels; to the more industrious and gifted they furnished
+an exercise on a par with Latin verse composition in our
+public schools; the more original transformed them into <i>fabliaux</i>,
+or embodied them in edifying stories, as in the <i>Gesta Romanorum</i>.
+It is not in the <i>Speculum Doctrinale</i> of Vincent de Beauvais, a
+Dominican of the 12th century, nor in the collection of his
+contemporary Odo de Cerinton, an English Cistercian, nor in
+Planudes of the 14th century, whose one distinction is to have
+added to the fables a life of Aesop, that the direct lineage of La
+Fontaine must be traced. It is the <i>fabliaux</i> that inspired some
+of his best fables&mdash;the Lion&rsquo;s Court, the Young Widow, the Coach
+and the Fly.</p>
+
+<p>As the supremacy of Latin declined and modern languages began
+to be turned to literary uses, the fable took a new life. Not only
+were there numerous adaptations of Aesop, known as Ysopets,
+but Marie de France in the 13th century composed many original
+fables, some rivalling La Fontaine&rsquo;s in simplicity and gracefulness.
+Later, also, fables were not wanting, though not numerous, in
+the English tongue. Chaucer has given us one, in his Nonne
+Preste&rsquo;s Tale, which is an expansion of the fable <i>Don Coc et don
+Werpil</i> of Marie de France; another is Lydgate&rsquo;s tale of The
+Churl and the Bird.</p>
+
+<p>Several of Odo&rsquo;s tales, like Chaucer&rsquo;s story, can be ultimately
+traced to the History of Reynard the Fox. This great beast-epic
+has been referred by Grimm as far back as the 10th century, and
+is known to us in three forms, each with independent episodes,
+but all woven upon a common basis. The Latin form is probably
+the earliest, and the poems <i>Reinardus</i> and <i>Ysengrinus</i> date from
+the 10th or 11th century. Next come the German versions.
+The most ancient, that of a minnesinger Heinrich der Glichesaere
+(probably a Swabian), was analysed and edited by Grimm in 1840.
+The French poem of more than 30,000 lines, the <i>Roman du
+Rénard</i>, belongs probably to the 13th century. In 1498 appeared
+<i>Reynke de Voss</i>, almost a literal version in Low Saxon of the
+Flemish poem of the 12th century, <i>Reinaert de Vos</i>. Hence
+the well-known version of Goethe into modern German hexameters
+was taken. The poem has been well named &ldquo;an unholy
+world Bible.&rdquo; In it the Aesopian fable received a development
+which was in several respects quite original. We have here no
+short and unconnected stories. Materials, partly borrowed from
+older apologues, but in a much greater proportion new, are
+worked up into one long and systematic tale. The moral, so
+prominent in the fable proper, shrinks so far into the background,
+that the epic might be considered a work of pure fiction, an animal
+romance. The attempts to discover in it personal satire have
+signally failed; some critics deny even the design to represent
+human conduct at all; and we can scarcely get nearer to its
+signification than by regarding it as being, in a general way, what
+Carlyle has called &ldquo;a parody of human life.&rdquo; It represents a
+contest maintained successfully, by selfish craft and audacity,
+against enemies of all sorts, in a half-barbarous and ill-organized
+society. With his weakest foes, like Chaunteclere the Cock,
+Reynard uses brute-force; over the weak who are protected, like
+Kiward the Hare and Belin the Ram, he is victorious by uniting
+violence with cunning; Bruin, the dull, strong, formidable Bear,
+is humbled by having greater power than his own enlisted against
+him; and the most dangerous of all the fox&rsquo;s enemies, Isengrim,
+the obstinate, greedy and implacable Wolf, after being baffled
+by repeated strokes of malicious ingenuity, forces Reynard to a
+single combat, but even thus is not a match for his dexterous
+adversary. The knavish fox has allies worthy of him in Grimbart
+the watchful badger, and in his own aunt Dame Rukenawe, the
+learned She-ape; and he plays at his pleasure on the simple
+credulity of the Lion-King, the image of an impotent feudal
+sovereign. The characters of these and other brutes are kept
+up with a rude kind of consistency, which gives them great
+liveliness; many of the incidents are devised with much force
+of humour; and the sly hits at the weak points of medieval
+polity and manners and religion are incessant and palpable.</p>
+
+<p>It is needless to trace the fable, or illustrations borrowed from
+fables, that so frequently occur as incidental ornaments in the
+older literature of England and other countries. It has appeared
+in every modern nation of Europe, but has nowhere become very
+important, and has hardly ever exhibited much originality either
+of spirit or of manner. In English, Prior transplanted from France
+some of La Fontaine&rsquo;s ease of narration and artful artlessness,
+while Gay took as his model the <i>Contes</i> rather than the <i>Fables</i>.
+Gay&rsquo;s fables are often political satires, but some, like the Fox on
+his Deathbed, have the true ring, and in the Hare with many
+Friends there is genuine pathos. To Dryden&rsquo;s spirited remodellings
+of old poems, romances and <i>fabliaux</i>, the name of fables,
+which he was pleased to give them, is quite inapplicable. In
+German, Hagedorn and Gellert, both famous in their day and
+the latter extolled by Goethe, are quite forgotten; and even
+Lessing&rsquo;s fables are read by few but schoolboys. In Spanish,
+Yriarte&rsquo;s fables on literary subjects are sprightly and graceful,
+but the critic is more than the fabulist. A spirited version of the
+best appeared in <i>Blackwood&rsquo;s Magazine</i>, 1839. Among Italians
+Pignotti is famous for versatility and command of rhythm, as
+amongst Russians is Kriloff for his keen satire on Russian society.
+He has been translated into English by Ralston.</p>
+
+<p>France alone in modern times has attained any pre-eminence in
+the fable, and this distinction is almost entirely owing to one
+author. Marie de France in the 13th century, Gilles Corrozet,
+Guillaume Haudent and Guillaume Gueroult in the 16th, are now
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page116" id="page116"></a>116</span>
+studied mainly as the precursors of La Fontaine, from whom
+he may have borrowed a stray hint or the outline of a story.
+The unique character of his work has given a new word to the
+French language: other writers of fables are called <i>fabulistes</i>,
+La Fontaine is named <i>le fablier</i>. He is a true poet; his verse
+is exquisitely modulated; his love of nature often reminds us of
+Virgil, as do his tenderness and pathos (see, for instance, The
+Two Pigeons and Death and the Woodcutter). He is full of sly
+fun and delicate humour; like Horace he satirizes without
+wounding, and &ldquo;plays around the heart.&rdquo; Lastly, he is a keen
+observer of men. The whole society of the 17th century, its
+greatness and its foibles, its luxury and its squalor, from <i>Le
+grand monarque</i> to the poor <i>manant</i>, from his majesty the lion
+to the courtier of an ape, is painted to the life. To borrow his
+own phrase, La Fontaine&rsquo;s fables are &ldquo;une ample comédie
+à cent actes divers.&rdquo; Rousseau did his best to discredit the
+<i>Fables</i> as immoral and corruptors of youth, but in spite of <i>Émile</i>
+they are studied in every French school and are more familiar
+to most Frenchmen than their breviary. Among the successors
+of La Fontaine the most distinguished is Florian. He justly
+estimates his own merits in the pretty apologue that he prefixed
+to his <i>Fables</i>. He asks a sage whether a fabulist writing after
+La Fontaine would not be wise to consign his work to the flames.
+The sage replies by a question: &ldquo;What would you say did some
+sweet, ingenuous Maid of Athens refuse to let herself be seen
+because there was once a Helen of Troy?&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>The fables of Lessing represent the reaction against the French
+school of fabulists. &ldquo;With La Fontaine himself,&rdquo; says Lessing,
+&ldquo;I have no quarrel, but against the imitators of La Fontaine I
+enter my protest.&rdquo; His attention was first called to the fable
+by Gellert&rsquo;s popular work published in 1746. Gellert&rsquo;s fables were
+closely modelled after La Fontaine&rsquo;s, and were a vehicle for lively
+railings against the fair sex, and hits at contemporary follies.
+Lessing&rsquo;s early essays were in the same style, but his subsequent
+study of the history and theory of the fable led him to discard his
+former model as a perversion of later times, and the &ldquo;Fabeln,&rdquo;
+published in 1759, are the outcome of his riper views. Lessing&rsquo;s
+fables, like all that he wrote, display his vigorous common sense.
+He has, it is true, little of La Fontaine&rsquo;s <i>curiosa felicitas</i>, his sly
+humour and lightness of touch; and Frenchmen would say that
+his criticism of La Fontaine is an illustration of the fable of the
+sour grapes. On the other hand, he has the rare power of looking
+at both sides of a moral problem; he holds a brief for the stupid
+and the feeble, the ass and the lamb; and in spite of his formal
+protest against poetical ornament, there is in not a few of his
+fables a vein of true poetry, as in the Sheep (ii. 13) and Jupiter
+and the Sheep (ii. 18). But the monograph which introduced the
+<i>Fabeln</i> is of more inportance than the fables themselves.
+According to Lessing the ideal fable is that of Aesop. All the
+elaborations and refinements of later authors, from Phaedrus
+to La Fontaine, are perversions of this original. The fable is
+essentially a moral precept illustrated by a single example,
+and it is the lesson thus enforced which gives to the fable its
+unity and makes it a work of art. The illustration must be either
+an actual occurrence or represented as such, because a fictitious
+case invented <i>ad hoc</i> can appeal but feebly to the reader&rsquo;s
+judgment. Lastly, the fable requires a story or connected chain
+of events. A single fact will not make a fable, but is only an
+emblem. We thus arrive at the following definition:&mdash;&ldquo;A fable
+is a relation of a series of changes which together form a whole.
+The unity of the fable consists herein, that all the parts lead up to
+an end, the end for which the fable was invented being the moral
+precept.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>We may notice in passing a problem in connexion with the
+fable which had long been debated, but never satisfactorily
+resolved till Lessing took it in hand&mdash;Why should animals
+have been almost universally chosen as the chief <i>dramatis
+personae</i>? The reason, according to Lessing, is that animals
+have distinct characters which are known and recognized by all.
+The fabulist who writes of Britannicus and Nero appeals to the
+few who know Roman history. The Wolf and the Lamb comes
+home to every one whether learned or simple. But, besides this,
+human sympathies obscure the moral judgment; hence it follows
+that the fable, unlike the drama and the epos, should abstain
+from all that is likely to arouse our prejudices or our passions.
+In this respect the Wolf and the Lamb of Aesop is a more perfect
+fable than the Rich Man and the Poor Man&rsquo;s Ewe Lamb of Nathan.</p>
+
+<p>Lessing&rsquo;s analysis and definition of the fable, though he seems
+himself unconscious of the scope of his argument, is in truth its
+death-warrant. The beast-fable arose in a primitive age when
+men firmly believed that beasts could talk and reason, that any
+wolf they met might be a were-wolf, that a peacock might be a
+Pythagoras in disguise, and an ox or even a cat a being worthy of
+their worship. To this succeeded the second age of the fable,
+which belongs to the same stage of culture as the Hebrew proverbs
+and the gnomic poets of Greece. That honesty is the best policy,
+that death is common to all, seemed to the men of that day
+profound truths worthy to be embalmed in verse or set off by the
+aid of story or anecdote. Last comes an age of high literary
+culture which tolerates the trite morals and hackneyed tales for
+the sake of the exquisite setting, and is amused at the wit which
+introduces topics and characters of the day under the transparent
+veil of animal life. Such an artificial product can be nothing more
+than the fashion of a day, and must, like pastoral poetry, die a
+natural death. A serious moralist would hardly choose that form
+to inculcate, like Mandeville in his <i>Fable of the Bees</i>, a new
+doctrine in morals, for the moral of the fable must be such that
+he who runs may read. A true poet will not care to masquerade
+as a moral teacher, or show his wit by refurbishing some old-world
+maxim. Yet Taine in France, Lowell in America, and J.A.
+Froude in England have proved that the fable as one form of
+literature is not yet extinct, and is capable of new and unexpected
+developments.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;<i>Pantschatantrum</i>, ed. Kosegarten (Bonn, 1848);
+<i>Hitopadesa</i>, ed. Max Müller (1864); Silvestre de Sacy, <i>Calilah et
+Dimna, ou Fables de Bidpai, en Arabe, précédées d&rsquo;un mémoire sur
+l&rsquo;origine de ce livre</i> (Paris, 1816), translated by the Rev. Wyndham
+Knatchbull (Oxford, 1819); Comparetti, <i>Ricerche intorno al Libro
+di Sindeb&#257;d</i> (Milan, 1869); Max Müller, &ldquo;Migration of Fables,&rdquo;
+<i>Chips from a German Workshop</i>, vol. iv. (1875); Keller, <i>Untersuchungen
+über die Geschichte der griechischen Fabel</i> (Leipzig, 1862);
+<i>Babrius</i>, ed. W.G. Rutherford, with excursus on Greek fables
+(1883); L. Hervieux, <i>Les Fabuiistes latins</i> (1884); Jakob Grimm,
+<i>Reinhart Fuchs</i> (Berlin, 1834); A.C.M. Robert, <i>Fables inédites des
+XII<span class="sp">e</span>, XIII<span class="sp">e</span>, et XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècles</i>, &amp;c.  (Paris, 1825); Taine, <i>Essai
+sur les fables de La Fontaine</i> (1853); Saint-Marc Girardin, <i>La
+Fontaine et les fabulistes</i> (Paris, 1867).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(F. S.)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1q" id="ft1q" href="#fa1q"><span class="fn">1</span></a> M. Minas professed to have discovered under the same circumstances
+another collection of ninety-four fables by Babrius. This
+second part was accepted by Sir G.C. Lewis, but J. Conington
+conclusively proved it spurious, and probably a forgery. See
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Babrius</a></span>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABLIAU.<a name="ar118" id="ar118"></a></span> The entertaining tales in eight-syllable rhymed
+verse which form a marked section of French medieval literature
+are called <i>fabliaux</i>, the word being derived by Littré from
+<i>fablel</i>, a diminutive of <i>fable</i>. It is a mistake to suppose, as is
+frequently done, that every legend of the middle ages is a fabliau.
+In a poem of the 12th century a clear distinction is drawn
+between songs of chivalry, war or love, and <i>fabliaux</i>, which are
+recitals of laughter. A fabliau always related an event; it was
+usually brief, containing not more than 400 lines; it was neither
+sentimental, religious nor supernatural, but comic and gay.
+MM. de Montaiglon and Raynaud, who have closely investigated
+this class of literature, consider that about 150 fabliaux have
+come down to us more or less intact; a vast number have
+doubtless disappeared. It appears from a phrase in the writings
+of the trouvère, Henri d&rsquo;Andeli, that the fabliau was not thought
+worthy of being copied out on parchment. The wonder, then,
+is that so many of these ephemeral compositions have been
+preserved. Arguments brought forward by M. Joseph Bédier,
+however, tend to show that we need not regret the disappearance
+of the majority of the fabliaux, as those which were copied into
+MSS. were those which were felt to be of the greatest intrinsic
+value. As early as the 8th century fabliaux must have existed,
+since the faithful are forbidden to take pleasure in these <i>fabulas
+inanes</i> by the <i>Paenitentiale</i> of Egbert. But it appears that all the
+early examples are lost.</p>
+
+<p>In the opinion of the best scholars, the earliest surviving
+fabliau is that of <i>Richeut</i>, which dates from 1159. This is a
+rough and powerful study of the coarse life of the day, with
+little plot, but engaged with a realistic picture of manners.
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page117" id="page117"></a>117</span>
+Such poems, but of a more strictly narrative nature, continued
+to be produced, mainly in the north and north-east of France,
+until the middle of the 14th century. Much speculation has been
+expended on the probable sources of the tales which the trouvères
+told. The Aryan theory, which saw in them the direct influence
+of India upon Europe, has now been generally abandoned. It
+does not seem probable that any ancient or exotic influences were
+brought to bear upon the French jongleurs, who simply invented
+or adapted stories of that universal kind which springs unsown
+from every untilled field of human society. More remarkable
+than the narratives themselves is the spirit in which they are
+told. This is full of the national humour and the national irony,
+the true <i>esprit gaulois</i>. A very large section of these popular
+poems deals satirically with the pretensions of the clergy. Such
+are the famous <i>Prêtre aux mûres</i>, the <i>Prêtre qui dit la Passion</i>
+and <i>Les Perdrix</i>. Some of these are innocently merry; others are
+singularly depraved and obscene. Another class of fabliaux is
+that which comprises jests against the professions; in this,
+the most prominent example is <i>Le Vilain Mire</i>, a satire on
+doctors, which curiously predicts the <i>Médecin malgré lui</i> of
+Molière. There are also tales whose purpose is rather voluptuous
+than witty, and whose aim is to excuse libertinage and render
+marriage ridiculous. Among these are prominent <i>Court Mantel</i>
+and <i>Le Dit de Berenger</i>. Yet another class repeated, with a
+strain of irony or oddity, such familiar classical stories as those
+of Narcissus, and Pyramus and Thisbe. It is rarely that any
+elevation of tone raises these poems above a familiar and even
+playful level, but there are some that are almost idealistic.
+Among these the story of a sort of Sisyphus errant, <i>Le Chevalier
+de Barizel</i>, offers an ethical interest which lifts it in certain
+respects above all other surviving fabliaux. An instance of the
+pathetic fabliau is <i>Housse Partie</i>, a kind of primitive version of
+the story of King Lear.</p>
+
+<p>In composing these pieces, of very varied character, the
+jongleurs have practised an art which was in many respects
+rudimentary, but sincere and simple. The student of language
+finds the rich vocabulary of the fabliaux much more attractive
+to him than the conventionality of the serious religious and
+amatory poems of the same age. The object of the writers was
+the immediate amusement of their audience; by reference to
+familiar things, they hoped to arouse a quick and genuine
+merriment. Hence their incorrectness and their negligence
+are balanced by a delightful ease and absence of pedantry, and
+in the fabliaux we get closer than elsewhere to the living diction
+of medieval France. It is true that if we extend too severe a
+judgment to these pieces, we may find ourselves obliged to
+condemn them altogether. An instructed French critic, vexed
+with their faults, has gone so far as to say that &ldquo;the subjects
+of these tales are degrading, their inspiration nothing better
+than flat and cruel derision, their distinguishing features rascality,
+vulgarity and platitude of style.&rdquo; From one point of view, this
+condemnation of the fabliau is hardly too severe. But such
+scholars as Gaston Paris and Paul Meyer have not failed to
+emphasize other sides to the question. They have praised, in
+the general laxity of style and garrulity of the middle ages,
+the terseness of the jongleurs; in the period of false ornament,
+their fidelity to nature; in a time of general vagueness, the
+sharp and picturesque outlines of their art. One feature of the
+fabliaux, however, cannot be praised and yet must not be overlooked.
+In no other section of the world&rsquo;s literature is the scorn
+and hatred of women so prominent. It is difficult to account
+for the anti-feminine rage which pervades the fabliaux, and takes
+hideous shapes in such examples as <i>Le Valet aux deux femmes</i>,
+<i>Le Pêcheur de Pont-sur-Seine</i> and <i>Chicheface et Bigorne</i>. Probably
+this was a violent reaction against the extravagant cult of
+woman as expressed in the contemporary <i>lais</i> as well as in the
+legends of saints. The exaggeration was not greater in the one
+case than in the other, and it is probable that the exaltation was
+made endurable to those who listened to the trouvères by the
+corresponding degradation. We must remember, too, that
+those who listened were not nobles or clerks, they were the
+common people. The fabliaux were <i>fabellae ignobilium</i>, little
+stories told to amuse persons of low degree, who were irritated
+by the moral pretensions of their superiors.</p>
+
+<p>The names of about twenty of the authors of fabliaux have
+been preserved, although in most cases nothing is known of their
+personal history. The most famous poet of this class of writing
+is the man whose name, or more probably pseudonym, was
+Rutebeuf. He wrote <i>Frère Denyse</i> and <i>Le Sacristain</i>, while to
+him is attributed the <i>Dit d&rsquo;Aristote</i>, in the course of which Aristotle
+gives good advice to Alexander. Fabliaux, however, form but a
+small part of the work of Rutebeuf, who was a satirical poet of
+wide accomplishment and varied energy. Most of the jongleurs
+who wrote these merry and indecent tales in octosyllabic verse
+were persons of less distinction. Henri d&rsquo;Andeli was an ecclesiastic,
+attached, it is supposed, to the cathedral of Rouen. Jean
+de Condé, who flourished in the court of Hainaut from 1310 to
+1340, and who is the latest of the genuine writers of fabliaux,
+lived in comfort and security, but most of the professional
+jongleurs seem to have spent their years in a Bohemian existence,
+wandering among the clergy and the merchant class, alternately
+begging for money and food and reciting their mocking verses.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The principal authorities for the fabliaux are MM. Anatole de
+Montaiglon and Gaston Raynaud, who published the text, in 6 vols.,
+between 1872 and 1890. This edition corrected and supplemented
+the very valuable labours of Méon (1808-1823) and Jubinal (1839-1842).
+The works of Henri d&rsquo;Andeli were edited by M.A. Héron
+in 1880, and those of Rutebeuf were made the subject of an exhaustive
+monograph by M. Léon Clédat in 1891. See also the
+editions of separate fabliaux by Gaston Paris, Paul Meyer, Ebeling,
+August Schéler and other modern scholars. M. Joseph Bedier&rsquo;s <i>Les
+Fabliaux</i> (1895) is a useful summary of critical opinion on the
+entire subject.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRE, FERDINAND<a name="ar119" id="ar119"></a></span> (1830-1898), French novelist, was born
+at Bédarieux, in Hérault, a very picturesque district of the
+south of France, which he made completely his own in literature.
+He was the son of a local architect, who failed in business, and
+Ferdinand was brought up by his uncle, the Abbé Fulcran Fabre,
+at Camplong among the mulberry woods. Of his childhood and
+early youth he has given a charming account in <i>Ma Vocation</i>
+(1889). He was destined to the priesthood, and was sent for
+that purpose to the seminary of St Pons de Thomières, where, in
+1848, he had, as he believed, an ecstatic vision of Christ, who
+warned him &ldquo;It is not the will of God that thou shouldst be a
+priest.&rdquo; He had now to look about for a profession, and, after
+attempting medicine at Montpellier, was articled as a lawyer&rsquo;s
+clerk in Paris. In 1853 he published a volume of verses, <i>Feuilles
+de lierre</i>, broke down in health, and crept back, humble and
+apparently without ambition, to his old home at Bédarieux.
+After some eight or nine years of country life he reappeared in
+Paris, with the MS. of his earliest novel, <i>Les Courbezon</i> (1862),
+in which he treated the subject which was to recur in almost all
+his books, the daily business of country priests in the Cevennes.
+This story enjoyed an immediate success with the literary class
+of readers; George Sand praised it, Sainte-Beuve hailed in its
+author &ldquo;the strongest of the disciples of Balzac,&rdquo; and it was
+crowned by the French Academy. From this time forth Fabre
+settled down to the production of novels, of which at the time of
+his death he had published about twenty. Among these the
+most important were <i>Le Chevrier</i> (1868), unique among his
+works as written in an experimental mixture of Cevenol patois
+and French of the 16th century; <i>L&rsquo;Abbé Tigrane, candidat à la
+papauté</i> (1873), by common consent the best of all Fabre&rsquo;s
+novels, a very powerful picture of unscrupulous priestly ambition;
+<i>Mon Oncle Célestin</i> (1881), a study of the entirely single and
+tender-hearted country abbé; and <i>Lucifer</i> (1884), a marvellous
+gallery of serious clerical portraits. In 1883 Fabre was appointed
+curator of the Mazarin Library, with rooms in the Institute,
+where, on 11th February 1898, he died after a brief attack of
+pneumonia. Ferdinand Fabre occupies in French literature a
+position somewhat analogous to that of Mr Thomas Hardy
+amongst English writers of fiction. He deals almost exclusively
+with the population of the mountain villages of Hérault, and
+particularly with its priests. He loved most of all to treat of
+the celibate virtues, the strictly ecclesiastical passions, the
+enduring tension of the young soul drawn between the spiritual
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page118" id="page118"></a>118</span>
+vocation and the physical demands of nature. Although never
+a priest, he preserved a comprehension of and a sympathy with
+the clerical character, and he always indignantly denied that he
+was hostile to the Church, although he stood just outside her
+borders. Fabre possessed a limited and a monotonous talent,
+but within his own field he was as original as he was wholesome
+and charming.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See also J. Lemaître, <i>Les Contemporains</i>, vol. ii.; G. Pellissier,
+<i>Études de littérature contemporaine</i> (1898); E.W. Gosse, <i>French
+Profiles</i> (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(E. G.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRE D&rsquo;ÉGLANTINE, PHILIPPE FRANÇOIS NAZAIRE<a name="ar120" id="ar120"></a></span>
+(1750-1794), French dramatist and revolutionist, was born at
+Carcassonne on the 28th of July 1750. His real name was
+simple Fabre, the &ldquo;d&rsquo;Églantine&rdquo; being added in commemoration
+of his receiving the golden eglantine of Clémence Isaure from
+the academy of the floral games at Toulouse. After travelling
+through the provinces as an actor, he came to Paris, and produced
+an unsuccessful comedy entitled <i>Les Gens de lettres, ou le provincial
+à Paris</i> (1787). A tragedy, <i>Augusta</i>, produced at the
+<i>Théâtre Français</i>, was also a failure. One only of his plays,
+<i>Philinte, ou la suite du Misanthrope</i> (1790), still preserves its
+reputation. It professes to be a continuation of Molière&rsquo;s
+<i>Misanthrope</i>, but the hero of the piece is of a different character
+from the nominal prototype&mdash;an impersonation, indeed, of
+pure and simple egotism. On its publication the play was
+introduced by a preface, in which the author mercilessly satirizes
+the <i>Optimiste</i> of his rival J.F. Collin d&rsquo;Harleville, whose <i>Châteaux
+en Espagne</i> had gained the applause which Fabre&rsquo;s <i>Présomptueux</i>
+(1789) had failed to win. The character of Philinte had much
+political significance. Alceste received the highest praise, and
+evidently represents the citizen patriot, while Philinte is a
+dangerous aristocrat in disguise. Fabre was president and
+secretary of the club of the Cordeliers, and belonged also to the
+Jacobin club. He was chosen by Danton as his private secretary,
+and sat in the National Convention. He voted for the king&rsquo;s
+death, supporting the <i>maximum</i> and the law of the suspected,
+and he was a bitter enemy of the Girondins. After the death of
+Marat he published a <i>Portrait de l&rsquo;Ami du Peuple</i>. On the
+abolition of the Gregorian calendar he sat on the committee
+entrusted with the formation of the republican substitute,
+and to him was due a large part of the new nomenclature, with
+its poetic <i>Prairial and Floréal</i>, its prosaic <i>Primidi</i> and <i>Duodi</i>.
+The report which he made on the subject, on the 24th of October,
+has some scientific value. On the 12th of January 1794 he was
+arrested by order of the committee of public safety on a charge
+of malversation and forgery in connexion with the affairs of the
+Compagnie des Indes. Documents still existing prove that the
+charge was altogether groundless. During his trial Fabre showed
+the greatest calmness and sang his own well-known song of
+<i>Il pleut, il pleut, bergère, rentre tes blancs moutons</i>. He was
+guillotined on the 5th of April 1794. On his way to the scaffold
+he distributed his manuscript poems to the people.</p>
+
+<p>A posthumous play, <i>Les Précepteurs</i>, steeped with the doctrines
+of Rousseau&rsquo;s <i>Émile</i>, was performed on the 17th of September
+1794, and met with an enthusiastic reception. Among Fabre&rsquo;s
+other plays are the gay and successful <i>Convalescent de qualité</i>
+(1791), and <i>L&rsquo;Intrigue épistolaire</i> (1791). In the latter play
+Fabre is supposed to have drawn a portrait of the painter Jean
+Baptiste Greuze.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The author&rsquo;s <i>&OElig;uvres mêlées et posthumes</i> were published at Paris
+1802, 2 vols. See Albert Maurin, <i>Galerie hist. de la Révolution
+française</i>, tome 11; Jules Janin, <i>Hist. de la litt. dram.</i>; Chénier,
+<i>Tableau de la litt. française</i>; F.A. Aulard in the <i>Nouvelle Revue</i>
+(July 1885).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRETTI, RAPHAEL<a name="ar121" id="ar121"></a></span> (1618-1700), Italian antiquary, was
+born in 1618 at Urbino in Umbria. He studied law at Cagli and
+Urbino, where he took the degree of doctor at the age of eighteen.
+While in Rome he attracted the notice of Cardinal Lorenzo
+Imperiali, who employed him successively as treasurer and
+auditor of the papal legation in Spain, where he remained
+thirteen years. Meanwhile, his favourite classical and antiquarian
+studies were not neglected; and on his return journey
+he made important observations of the relics and monuments of
+Spain, France and Italy. At Rome he was appointed judge of
+appellation of the Capitol, which post he left to be auditor of the
+legation at Urbino. After three years he returned to Rome, on
+the invitation of Cardinal Carpegna, vicar of Innocent XI.,
+and devoted himself to antiquarian research, examining with
+minute care the monuments and inscriptions of the Campagna.
+He always rode a horse which his friends nicknamed &ldquo;Marco
+Polo,&rdquo; after the Venetian traveller. By Innocent XII. he was
+made keeper of the archives of the castle St Angelo, a charge
+which he retained till his death. He died at Rome on the 7th of
+January 1700. His collection of inscriptions and monuments
+was purchased by Cardinal Stoppani, and placed in the ducal
+palace at Urbino, where they may still be seen.</p>
+
+<p>His work <i>De Aquis et Aquae-ductibus veteris Romae</i> (1680),
+three dissertations on the topography of ancient Latium, is
+inserted in Graevius&rsquo;s <i>Thesaurus</i>, iv. (1677). His interpretation
+of certain passages in Livy and other classical authors involved
+him in a dispute with Gronovius, which bore a strong resemblance
+to that between Milton and Salmasius, Gronovius addressing
+Fabretti as <i>Faber Rusticus</i>, and the latter, in reply, speaking of
+<i>Grunnovius</i> and his <i>titivilitia</i>. In this controversy Fabretti
+used the pseudonym Iasitheus, which he afterwards took as his
+pastoral name in the Academy of the Arcadians. His other
+works, <i>De Columna Trajani Syntagma</i> (Rome, 1683), and
+<i>Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio</i> (Rome, 1699), throw much
+light on Roman antiquity. In the former is to be found his
+explication of a bas-relief, with inscriptions, now in the Capitol
+at Rome, representing the war and taking of Troy, known as the
+Iliac table. Letters and other shorter works of Fabretti are to
+be found in publications of the time, as the <i>Journal des Savants</i>.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See Crescimbeni, <i>Le Vite degli Arcadi illustri</i>; Fabroni, <i>Vitae
+Italorum</i>, vi. 174; Niceron, iv. 372; J. Lamius, <i>Memorabilia
+Italorum eruditione praestantium</i> (Florence, 1742-1748).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRIANI, SEVERINO<a name="ar122" id="ar122"></a></span> (1792-1849), Italian author and
+teacher, was born at Spilamberto, Italy, on the 7th of January
+1792. Entering the Church, he took up educational work, but
+in consequence of complete loss of voice he resolved to devote
+himself to teaching deaf mutes, and founded a small school
+specially for them. This school the duke of Modena made into
+an institute, and by a special authority from the pope a teaching
+staff of nuns was appointed. Fabriani&rsquo;s method of instruction
+is summed up in his <i>Logical Letters on Italian Grammar</i> (1847).
+He died on the 27th of April 1849.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRIANO,<a name="ar123" id="ar123"></a></span> a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province
+of Ancona, from which it is 44 m. S.W. by rail, 1066 ft. above
+sea-level. Pop. (1901) town 9586, commune 22,996. It has
+been noted since the 13th century for its paper mills, which still
+produce the best paper in Italy. A school of painting arose here,
+one of the early masters of which is Allegretto Nuzi (1308-1385);
+and several of the churches contain works by him and other local
+masters. His pupil, Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1428), was a
+painter of considerably greater skill and wider knowledge; but
+there are no important works of his at Fabriano. The sacristy
+of S. Agostino also contains some good frescoes by Ottaviano
+Nelli of Gubbio. The municipal picture gallery contains a
+collection of pictures, and among them are some primitive
+frescoes, attributable to the 12th century, which still retain
+traces of Byzantine influence. The Archivio Comunale contains
+documents on watermarked paper of local manufacture going
+back to the 13th century. The Ponte dell&rsquo; Acra, a bridge of the
+15th century, is noticeable for the ingenuity and strength of its
+construction. The hospital of S. Maria Buon Gesu is a fine work
+of 1456, attributed to Rossellino.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Zonghi, <i>Antiche Carte Fabrianesi</i>.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS<a name="ar124" id="ar124"></a></span> (<i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;the one-eyed&rdquo;), Roman
+general, was the first member of the Fabrician gens who settled in
+Rome. He migrated to Rome from Aletrium (Livy ix. 43),
+one of the Hernican towns which was allowed to retain its
+independence as a reward for not having revolted. In 285 he
+was one of the ambassadors sent to the Tarentines to dissuade
+them from making war on the Romans. In 282 (when consul)
+he defeated the Bruttians and Lucanians, who had besieged
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page119" id="page119"></a>119</span>
+Thurii (Livy, <i>Epit.</i> 12). After the defeat of the Romans by
+Pyrrhus at Heraclea (280), Fabricius was sent to treat for the
+ransom and exchange of the prisoners. All attempts to bribe
+him were unsuccessful, and Pyrrhus is said to have been so
+impressed that he released the prisoners without ransom
+(Plutarch, <i>Pyrrhus</i>, 18). The story that Pyrrhus attempted to
+frighten Fabricius by the sight of an elephant is probably a
+fiction. In 278 Fabricius was elected consul for the second time,
+and was successful in negotiating terms of peace with Pyrrhus,
+who sailed away to Sicily. Fabricius afterwards gained a series
+of victories over the Samnites, the Lucanians and the Bruttians,
+and on his return to Rome received the honour of a triumph.
+Notwithstanding the offices he had filled he died poor, and provision
+had to be made for his daughter out of the funds of the
+state (Val. Max. iv. 4, 10). Fabricius was regarded by the
+Romans of later times as a model of ancient simplicity and
+incorruptible integrity.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRICIUS, GEORG<a name="ar125" id="ar125"></a></span> (1516-1571), German poet, historian
+and archaeologist, was born at Chemnitz in upper Saxony on
+the 23rd of April 1516, and educated at Leipzig. Travelling in
+Italy with one of his pupils, he made an exhaustive study of the
+antiquities of Rome. He published the results in his <i>Roma</i> (1550),
+in which the correspondence between every discoverable relic
+of the old city and the references to them in ancient literature
+was traced in detail. In 1546 he was appointed rector of the
+college of Meissen, where he died on the 17th of July 1571. In
+his sacred poems he affected to avoid every word with the slightest
+savour of paganism; and he blamed the poets for their allusions
+to pagan divinities.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Principal works: editions of Terence (1548) and Virgil (1551);
+<i>Poëmatum sacrorum libri xxv.</i> (1560); <i>Poëtarum veterum ecclesiasticorum
+opera Christiana</i> (1562); <i>De Re Poëtica libri septem</i> (1565);
+<i>Rerum Misnicarum libri septem</i> (1569); (posthumous) <i>Originum
+illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae libri septem</i> (1597); <i>Rerum Germaniae
+magnae et Saxoniae universae memorabilium mirabiliumque volumina
+duo</i> (1609). A life of Georg Fabricius was published in 1839 by
+D.C.W. Baumgarten-Crusius, who in 1845 also issued an edition of
+Fabricius&rsquo;s <i>Epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios aequales</i>, with a short
+sketch <i>De Vita Ge. Fabricii et de gente Fabriciorum</i>; see also F.
+Wachter in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine Encyclopädie</i>.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS<a name="ar126" id="ar126"></a></span> [<span class="sc">Fabrizio, Geronimo</span>] (1537-1619),
+Italian anatomist and embryologist, was surnamed
+Acquapendente from the episcopal city of that name, where he
+was born in 1537. At Padua, after a course of philosophy, he
+studied medicine under G. Fallopius, whose successor as teacher
+of anatomy and surgery he became in 1562. From the senators
+of Venice he received numerous honours, and an anatomical
+theatre was built by them for his accommodation. He died at
+Venice on the 21st of May 1619. His works include <i>De visione,
+voce et auditu</i> (1600), <i>De formato foetu</i> (1600), <i>De venarum
+ostiolis</i> (1603), <i>De formatione ovi et pulli</i> (1621). His collected
+works were published at Leipzig in 1687 as <i>Opera omnia Anatomica
+et Physiologica</i>, but the Leiden edition, published by
+Albinus in 1738, is preferred as containing a life of the author
+and the prefaces of his treatises. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Embryology</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT<a name="ar127" id="ar127"></a></span> (1668-1736), German classical
+scholar and bibliographer, was born at Leipzig on the 11th of
+November 1668. His father, Werner Fabricius, director of music
+in the church of St Paul at Leipzig, was the author of several
+works, the most important being <i>Deliciae Harmonicae</i> (1656).
+The son received his early education from his father, who on his
+death-bed recommended him to the care of the theologian
+Valentin Alberti. He studied under J.G. Herrichen, and afterwards
+at Quedlinburg under Samuel Schmid. It was in Schmid&rsquo;s
+library, as he afterwards said, that he found the two books,
+F. Barth&rsquo;s <i>Adversaria</i> and D.G. Morhof&rsquo;s <i>Polyhistor Literarius</i>,
+which suggested to him the idea of his <i>Bibliothecae</i>, the works on
+which his great reputation was founded. Having returned to
+Leipzig in 1686, he published anonymously (two years later)
+his first work, <i>Scriptorum recentiorum decas</i>, an attack on ten
+writers of the day. His <i>Decas Decadum, sive plagiariorum et
+pseudonymorum centuria</i> (1689) is the only one ot his works to
+which be signs the name Faber. He then applied himself to the
+study of medicine, which, however, he relinquished for that
+of theology; and having gone to Hamburg in 1693, he proposed
+to travel abroad, when the unexpected tidings that the expense
+of his education had absorbed his whole patrimony, and even left
+him in debt to his trustee, forced him to abandon his project.
+He therefore remained at Hamburg in the capacity of librarian
+to J.F. Mayer. In 1696 he accompanied his patron to Sweden;
+and on his return to Hamburg, not long afterwards, he became
+a candidate for the chair of logic and philosophy. The suffrages
+being equally divided between Fabricius and Sebastian Edzardus,
+one of his opponents, the appointment was decided by lot in
+favour of Edzardus; but in 1699 Fabricius succeeded Vincent
+Placcius in the chair of rhetoric and ethics, a post which he held
+till his death, refusing invitations to Greifswald, Kiel, Giessen
+and Wittenberg. He died at Hamburg on the 30th of April 1736.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Fabricius is credited with 128 books, but very many of them
+were only books which he had edited. One of the most famed and
+laborious of these is the <i>Bibliotheca Latina</i> (1697, republished in an
+improved and amended form by J.A. Ernesti, 1773). The divisions
+of the compilation are&mdash;the writers to the age of Tiberius; thence
+to that of the Antonines; and thirdly, to the decay of the language;
+a fourth gives fragments from old authors, and chapters on early
+Christian literature. A supplementary work was <i>Bibliotheca Latina
+mediae et infimae Aetatis</i> (1734-1736; supplementary volume by
+C. Schöttgen, 1746; ed. Mansi, 1754). His <i>chef-d&rsquo;&oelig;uvre</i>, however,
+is the <i>Bibliotheca Graeca</i> (1705-1728, revised and continued by
+G.C. Harles, 1790-1812), a work which has justly been denominated
+<i>maximus antiquae eruditionis thesaurus</i>. Its divisions are marked
+off by Homer, Plato, Christ, Constantine, and the capture of Constantinople
+in 1453, while a sixth section is devoted to canon law,
+jurisprudence and medicine. Of his remaining works we may
+mention:&mdash;<i>Bibliotheca Antiquaria</i>, an account of the writers whose
+works illustrated Hebrew, Greek, Roman and Christian antiquities
+(1713); <i>Centifolium Lutheranum</i>, a Lutheran bibliography (1728);
+<i>Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica</i> (1718). His <i>Codex Apocryphus</i> (1703) is
+still considered indispensable as an authority on apocryphal Christian
+literature.</p>
+
+<p>The details of the life of Fabricius are to be found in <i>De Vita et
+Scriptis J.A. Fabricii Commentarius</i>, by his son-in-law, H.S.
+Reimarus, the well-known editor of Dio Cassius, published at
+Hamburg, 1737; see also C.F. Bähr in Ersch and Gruber&rsquo;s <i>Allgemeine
+Encyclopädie</i>, and J.E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> iii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN<a name="ar128" id="ar128"></a></span> (1745-1808), Danish
+entomologist and economist, was born at Tondern in Schleswig
+on the 7th of January 1745. After studying at Altona and
+Copenhagen, he was sent to Upsala, where he attended the
+lectures of Linnaeus. He devoted his attention professionally
+to political economy, and, after lecturing on that subject in 1769,
+was appointed in 1775 professor of natural history, economy
+and finance at Kiel, in which capacity he wrote various works,
+chiefly referring to Denmark, and of no special interest. He
+also published a few other works on general and natural history,
+botany and travel (including <i>Reise nach Norwegen</i>, 1779), and,
+although his professional stipend was small, he extended his
+personal researches into every town in northern and central
+Europe where a natural history museum was to be found.
+It is as an entomologist that his memory survives, and for many
+years his great scientific reputation rested upon the system of
+classification which he founded upon the structure of the mouth-organs
+instead of the wings. He had a keen eye for specific
+differences, and possessed the art of terse and accurate description.
+He died on the 3rd of March 1808.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>A complete list of his entomological publications (31) will be
+found in Hagen&rsquo;s <i>Bibliotheca Entomologiae</i>; the following are the
+chief:&mdash;<i>Systema Entomologiae</i> (1775); <i>Genera Insectorum</i> (1776);
+<i>Philosophia Entomologica</i> (1778); <i>Species insectorum</i> (1781); <i>Mantissa
+Insectorum</i> (1787); <i>Entomologia Systematica</i> (1792-1794), with
+a supplement (1798); <i>Systema Eleutheratorum</i> (1801), <i>Rhyngotorum</i>
+(1803), <i>Piezatorum</i> (1804), and <i>Antliatorum</i> (1805). Full particulars
+of his life will be found, with a portrait, in the <i>Transactions of the
+Entomological Society of London</i> (1845), 4, pp. i-xvi, where his autobiography
+is translated from the Danish.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABRIZI, NICOLA<a name="ar129" id="ar129"></a></span> (1804-1885), Italian patriot, was born at
+Modena on the 4th of April 1804. He took part in the Modena
+insurrection of 1831, and attempted to succour Ancona, but was
+arrested at sea and taken to Toulon, whence he proceeded to
+Marseilles. Afterwards he organized with Mazzini the ill-fated
+Savoy expedition. Taking refuge in Spain, he fought against the
+Carlists, and was decorated for valour on the battlefield (18th
+July 1837). At the end of the Carlist War he established a
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page120" id="page120"></a>120</span>
+centre of conspiracy at Malta, endeavoured to dissuade Mazzini
+from the Bandiera enterprise, but aided Crispi in organizing the
+Sicilian revolution of 1848. With a company of volunteers he
+distinguished himself in the defence of Venice, afterwards
+proceeding to Rome, where he took part in the defence of San
+Pancrazio. Upon the fall of Rome he returned to Malta, accumulating
+arms and stores; which he conveyed to Sicily; after having,
+in 1859, worked with Crispi to prepare the Sicilian revolution of
+1860. While Garibaldi was sailing from Genoa towards Marsala
+Fabrizi landed at Pizzolo, and, after severe fighting, joined
+Garibaldi at Palermo. Under the Garibaldian Dictatorship he
+was appointed governor of Messina and minister of war. Returning
+to Malta after the Neapolitan plebiscite, which he had
+vainly endeavoured to postpone, he was recalled to aid Cialdini
+in suppressing brigandage. While on his way to Sicily in 1862,
+to induce Garibaldi to give up the Aspromonte enterprise,
+he was arrested at Naples by Lamarmora. During the war of
+1866 he became Garibaldi&rsquo;s chief of staff, and in 1867 fought at
+Mentana. In parliament he endeavoured to promote agreement
+between the chiefs of the Left, and from 1878 onwards worked to
+secure the return of Crispi to power, but died on the 31st of
+March 1885, two years before the realization of his object. His
+whole life was characterized by ardent patriotism and unimpeachable
+integrity.</p>
+<div class="author">(H. W. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL<a name="ar130" id="ar130"></a></span> (1580-1659), French jurisconsult,
+was born at Aix in Provence on the 15th of September
+1580. At an early age he made great progress in the ancient
+languages and in the civil and the canon law; and in 1602 he
+received the degree of doctor of law, and was made avocat to
+the parlement of Aix. In 1609 he obtained a professorship in
+the university of his native town. He is best known by his
+translation of the <i>Basilica</i>, which may be said to have formed
+the code of the Eastern empire till its destruction. This work was
+published at Paris in 1647 in 7 vols. fol., and obtained for its
+author a considerable pension from the chancellor, Pierre Seguier,
+to whom it was dedicated. Fabrot likewise rendered great service
+to the science of jurisprudence by his edition of Cujas, which
+comprised several treatises of that great jurist previously unpublished.
+He also edited the works of several Byzantine
+historians, and was besides the author of various antiquarian
+and legal treatises. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1659.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FABYAN, ROBERT<a name="ar131" id="ar131"></a></span> (d. 1513), English chronicler, belonged to
+an Essex family, members of which had been connected with
+trade in London. He was a member of the Drapers company,
+alderman of Farringdon Without, and served as sheriff in 1493-1494.
+In 1496 he was one of those appointed to make representations
+to the king on the new impositions on English cloth
+in Flanders. Next year he was one of the aldermen employed
+in keeping watch at the time of the Cornish rebellion. He
+resigned his aldermanry in 1502, on the pretext of poverty,
+apparently in order to avoid the expense of mayoralty. He
+had, however, acquired considerable wealth with his wife
+Elizabeth Pake, by whom he had a numerous family. He spent
+his latter years on his estate of Halstedys at Theydon Garnon in
+Essex. He died on the 28th of February 1513 (<i>Inquisitiones
+post mortem for London</i>, p. 29, edited by G.S. Fry, 1896); his
+will, dated the 11th of July 1511, was proved on the 12th of July
+1513. Fabyan&rsquo;s Chronicle was first published by Richard
+Pynson in 1516 as <i>The new chronicles of England and of France</i>.
+In this edition it ends with the reign of Richard III., and this
+probably represents the work as Fabyan left it, though with
+the omission of an autobiographical note and some religious
+verses, which form the <i>Envoi</i> of his history. The note and verses
+are first found in the second edition, printed by John Rastell in
+1533 with continuations down to 1509. A third edition appeared
+in 1542, and a fourth in 1559 with additions to that year. The
+only modern edition is that of Sir Henry Ellis, 1811.</p>
+
+<p>In the note above mentioned Fabyan himself says: &ldquo;and
+here I make an ende of the vii. parte and hole werke, the vii.
+day of November in the yere of our Lord Jesu Christes Incarnacion
+M. vc. and iiij.&rdquo; This seems conclusive that in 1504
+he did not contemplate any extension of his chronicles beyond
+1485. The continuations printed by Rastell are certainly not
+Fabyan&rsquo;s work. But Stow in his <i>Collections</i> (ap. <i>Survey of
+London</i>, ii. 305-306, ed. C.L. Kingsford) states that Fabyan wrote
+&ldquo;a Chronicle of London, England and of France, beginning at the
+creation and endynge in the third year of Henry VIII., which
+both I have in written hand.&rdquo; In his <i>Survey of London</i> (i. 191,
+209, ii. 55, 116) Stow several times quotes Fabyan as his authority
+for statements which are not to be found in the printed continuations
+of Rastell. Some further evidence may be found in other
+notes of Stow&rsquo;s (ap. <i>Survey of London</i>, ii. 280, 283, 365-366),
+and in the citation by Hakluyt of an unprinted work of Fabyan
+as the authority for his note of Cabot&rsquo;s voyages. That Fabyan
+had continued his Chronicle to 1511 may be accepted as certain,
+but no trace of the manuscript can now be found.</p>
+
+<p>It is only the seventh part of Fabyan&rsquo;s Chronicle, from the
+Norman Conquest onwards, that possesses any historical value.
+For his French history he followed chiefly the <i>Compendium super
+Francorum gestis</i> of Robert Gaguin, printed at Paris in 1497.
+For English history his best source was the old <i>Chronicles of
+London</i>, from which he borrowed also the arrangement of his
+work in civic form. From 1440 to 1485 he follows, as a rule
+with great fidelity, the original of the London Chronicle in
+Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XVI. (printed in <i>Chronicles of London</i>,
+1905, pp. 153-264).</p>
+
+<p>Fabyan&rsquo;s own merits are little more than those of an industrious
+compiler, who strung together the accounts of his different
+authorities without any critical capacity. He says expressly
+that his work was &ldquo;gaderyd without understandynge,&rdquo; and
+speaks of himself as &ldquo;of cunnynge full destitute.&rdquo; Nevertheless
+he deserves the praise which he has received as an early worker,
+and for having made public information which through Hall and
+Holinshed has become the common property of later historians,
+and has only recently been otherwise accessible. Bale alleges
+that the first edition was burnt by order of Cardinal Wolsey
+because it reflected on the wealth of the clergy; this probably
+refers to his version of the Lollards Bill of 1410, which Fabyan
+extracted from one of the London Chronicles.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See further Ellis&rsquo; <i>Introduction</i>; W. Busch, <i>England under the
+Tudors</i> (trans. A.M. Todd, 1895), i. 405-410; and C.L. Kingsford,
+<i>Chronicles of London</i>, pp. xxvi-xxxii (1905).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(C. L. K.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAÇADE,<a name="ar132" id="ar132"></a></span> a French architectural term signifying the external
+face of a building, but more generally applied to the principal
+front.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACCIOLATI, JACOPO<a name="ar133" id="ar133"></a></span> (1682-1769), Italian philologist, was
+born at Torriglia, in the province of Padua, in 1682. He owed
+his admission to the seminary of Padua to Cardinal Barberigo,
+who had formed a high opinion of the boy&rsquo;s talents. As professor
+of logic, and regent of the schools, Facciolati was the ornament
+of the Paduan university during a period of forty-five years.
+He published improved editions of several philological works,
+such as the <i>Thesaurus Ciceronianus</i> of Nizolius, and the polyglot
+vocabulary known under the name of Calepino. The latter work,
+in which he was assisted by his pupil Egidio Forcellini, he
+completed in four years&mdash;1715 to 1719. It was written in seven
+languages, and suggested to the editor the idea of his <i>opus
+magnum</i>, the <i>Tolius Latinitatis Lexicon</i>, which was ultimately
+published at Cardinal Priole&rsquo;s expense, 4 vols. fol., Padua, 1771
+(revised ed. by de Vit, 1858-1887). In the compilation of this
+work the chief burden seems to have been borne by Facciolati&rsquo;s
+pupil Forcellini, to whom, however, the lexicographer allows a
+very scanty measure of justice. Perhaps the best testimony to
+the learning and industry of the compiler is the well-known
+observation that the whole body of Latinity, if it were to perish,
+might be restored from this lexicon. Facciolati&rsquo;s mastery of
+Latin style, as displayed in his epistles, has been very much
+admired for its purity and grace. In or about 1739 Facciolati
+undertook the continuation of Papadopoli&rsquo;s history of the
+university of Padua, carrying it on to his own day. Facciolati
+was known over all Europe as one of the most enlightened and
+zealous teachers of the time; and among the many flattering
+invitations which he received, but always declined, was one from
+the king of Portugal, to accept the directorship of a college at
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page121" id="page121"></a>121</span>
+Lisbon for the young nobility. He died in 1769. His history of
+the university was published in 1757, under the name <i>Fasti
+Gymnasii Patavini</i>. In 1808 a volume containing nine of his
+Epistles, never before published, was issued at Padua.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See J.E. Sandys, <i>Hist. Class. Schol.</i> ii. (1908).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACE<a name="ar134" id="ar134"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>facies</i>, derived either from <i>facere</i>, to make,
+or from a root <i>fa-</i>, meaning &ldquo;appear&rdquo;; cf. Gr. <span class="grk" title="phainein">&#966;&#945;&#943;&#957;&#949;&#953;&#957;</span>), a word
+whose various meanings of surface, front, expression of countenance,
+look or appearance, are adaptations of the application
+of the word to the external part of the front portion of the head,
+usually taken to extend from the top of the forehead to the
+point of the chin, and from ear to ear (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Anatomy</a></span>: <i>Superficial
+and Artistic</i>; and <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Physiognomy</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACTION<a name="ar135" id="ar135"></a></span> (through the French, from Lat. <i>factio</i>, a company
+of persons combined for action, <i>facere</i>, to do; from the other
+French derivative <i>façon</i> comes &ldquo;fashion&rdquo;), a term, used especially
+with an opprobrious meaning, for a body of partisans who
+put their party aims and interests above those of the state or
+public, and employ unscrupulous or questionable means; it is
+thus a common term of reciprocal abuse between parties. In the
+history of the Roman and Later Roman empires the factions
+(<i>factiones</i>) of the circus and hippodrome, at Rome and Constantinople,
+played a prominent part in politics. The <i>factiones</i> were
+properly the four companies into which the charioteers were
+divided, and distinguished by the colours they wore. Originally
+at Rome there were only two, white (<i>albata</i>) and red (<i>russata</i>),
+when each race was open to two chariots only; on the increase
+to four, the green (<i>prasina</i>) and blue (<i>veneta</i>) were added. At
+Constantinople the last two absorbed the red and white factions.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>For a brilliant description of the factions at Constantinople under
+Justinian, and the part they played in the celebrated Nika riot in
+January 532, see Gibbon&rsquo;s <i>Decline and Fall</i>, ch. xl.; and J.B.
+Bury&rsquo;s <i>Appendix</i> 10 in vol. iv. of his edition (1898), for a discussion
+of the relationship between the <i>factiones</i> and the demes of
+Constantinople.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACTOR<a name="ar136" id="ar136"></a></span> (from Lat. <i>facere</i>, to make or do), strictly &ldquo;one who
+makes&rdquo;; thus in ordinary parlance, anything which goes to the
+composition of anything else is termed one of its &ldquo;factors,&rdquo;
+and in mathematics the term is used of those quantities which,
+when multiplied together, produce a given product. In a special
+sense, however&mdash;and that to which this article is devoted&mdash;&ldquo;factor&rdquo;
+is the name given to a mercantile agent (of the class
+known as &ldquo;general agents&rdquo;) employed to buy or sell goods
+for a commission. When employed to sell, the possession of the
+goods is entrusted to him by his principal, and when employed
+to buy it is his duty to obtain possession of the goods and to
+consign them to his principal. In this he differs from a broker
+(<i>q.v.</i>), who has not such possession, and it is this distinguishing
+characteristic which gave rise in England to the series of statutes
+known as the Factors Acts. By these acts, consolidated and
+extended by the act of 1889, third parties buying or taking
+pledges from factors are protected as if the factor were in reality
+owner; but these enactments have in no way affected the
+contractual relations between the factor and his employer,
+and it will be convenient to define them before discussing the
+position of third parties as affected by the act.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">I. Factor and Principal</p>
+
+<p>A factor is appointed or dismissed in the same way as any
+other agent. He may be employed for a single transaction or to
+transact all his principal&rsquo;s business of a certain class during a
+limited period or till such time as his authority may be determined.
+A factor&rsquo;s duty is to sell or buy as directed; to carry out
+with care, skill and good faith any instructions he may receive;
+to receive or make payment; to keep accounts, and to hand over
+to his principal the balance standing to his principal&rsquo;s credit,
+without any deduction save for commission and expenses. All
+express instructions he must carry out to the full, provided they
+do not involve fraud or illegality. On any point not covered by
+his express instructions he must follow the usual practice of his
+particular business, if not inconsistent with his instructions or
+his position as factor. Many usages of businesses in which
+factors are employed have been proved in court, and may now
+be regarded as legally established. For instance, he may, unless
+otherwise directed, sell in his own name, give warranties as to
+goods sold by him, sell by sample (in most businesses), give such
+credit as is usual in his business, receive payment in cash or as
+customary; and give receipts in full discharge, sell by indorsement
+of bills of lading; and insure the goods. It is his duty to clear the
+goods at the customs, take charge of them and keep them
+safely, give such notices to his principal and others as may be
+required, and if necessary take legal proceedings for the protection
+of the goods. On the other hand, he has not authority to delegate
+his employment, or to barter; and as between himself and his
+principal he has no right to pledge the goods, although as between
+the principal and the pledgee, an unauthorized pledge made by
+the factor may by virtue of the Factors Act 1889 be binding
+upon the principal. It is, moreover, inconsistent with his
+employment as agent that he should buy or sell on his own
+account from or to his principal. A factor has no right to follow
+any usage which is inconsistent with the ordinary duties and
+authority of a factor unless his principal has expressly or impliedly
+given his consent.</p>
+
+<p>On the due performance of his duties the factor is entitled to
+his commission, which is usually a percentage on the value of the
+goods sold or bought by him on account of his principal, regulated
+in amount by, the usages of each business. Sometimes the factor
+makes himself personally responsible for the solvency of the
+persons with whom he deals, in order that his principal may
+avoid the risk entailed by the usual trade credit. In such a case
+the factor is said to be employed on <i>del credere</i> terms, and is
+entitled to a higher rate of commission, usually 2½% extra.
+Such an arrangement is not a contract of guarantee within the
+Statute of Frauds, and therefore need not be in writing. Besides
+his remuneration, the factor is entitled to be reimbursed by his
+principal for any expenses, and to be indemnified against any
+liabilities which he may have properly incurred in the execution
+of his principal&rsquo;s instructions. For the purpose of enforcing his
+rights a factor has, without legal proceedings, two remedies.
+Firstly, by virtue of his general <i>lien</i> (<i>q.v.</i>) he may hold any of his
+principal&rsquo;s goods which come to his hands as security for the
+payment to him of any commission, out-of-pocket expenses,
+or even general balance of account in his favour. Although he
+cannot sell the goods, he may refuse to give them up until he is
+paid. Secondly, where he has consigned goods to his principal
+but not been paid, he may &ldquo;<i>stop in transit</i>&rdquo; subject to the same
+rules of law as an ordinary vendor; that is to say, he must exercise
+his right before the transit ends; and his right may be
+defeated by his principal transferring the document of title to
+the goods to some third person, who takes it in good faith and
+for valuable consideration (Factors Act 1889, section 10). If the
+factor does not carry out his principal&rsquo;s instructions, or carries
+them out so negligently or unskilfully that his principal gets no
+benefit thereby, the factor loses his commission and his right
+to reimbursement and indemnity. If by such failure or negligence
+the principal suffers any loss, the latter may recover it as
+damages. So too if the factor fails to render proper accounts his
+principal may by proper legal proceedings obtain an account
+and payment of what is found due; and threatened breaches
+of duty may be summarily stopped by an injunction. Criminal
+acts by the factor in relation to his principal&rsquo;s goods are dealt
+with by section 78 of the Larceny Act 1860.</p>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">II. Principal and Third Party</p>
+
+<p>(<i>a</i>) <i>At Common Law.</i>&mdash;The actual authority of a factor is
+defined by the same limits as his duty, the nature of which has
+been just described; <i>i.e.</i> firstly, by his principal&rsquo;s express
+instructions; secondly, by the rules of law and usages of trade,
+in view of which those instructions were expressed. But his
+power to bind his principal as regards third parties is often wider
+than his actual authority; for it would not be reasonable that
+third parties should be prejudiced by secret instructions, given
+in derogation of the authority ordinarily conferred by the custom
+of trade; and, as regards them, the factor is said to have
+&ldquo;<i>apparent</i>&rdquo; or &ldquo;<i>ostensible</i>&rdquo; authority, or to be <i>held out</i> as having
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page122" id="page122"></a>122</span>
+authority to do what is customary, even though he may in fact
+have been expressly forbidden so to do by his principal. But
+this rule is subject to the proviso that if the third party have
+notice of the factor&rsquo;s actual instructions, the &ldquo;apparent&rdquo;
+authority will not be greater than the actual. &ldquo;The general
+principle of law,&rdquo; said Lord Blackburn in the case of <i>Cole</i> v.
+<i>North-Western Bank</i>, 1875, L.R. 10, C.P. 363, &ldquo;is that when the
+true owner has clothed any one with apparent authority to act
+as his agent, he is bound to those who deal with the agent on
+the assumption that he really is an agent with that authority,
+to the same extent as if the apparent authority were real.&rdquo;
+Under such circumstances the principal is for reasons of common
+fairness precluded, or, in legal phraseology, <i>estopped</i>, from
+denying his agent&rsquo;s authority. On the same principle of estoppel,
+but not by reason of any trade usages, a course of dealing which
+has been followed between a factor and a third party with the
+assent of the principal will give the factor apparent authority
+to continue dealing on the same terms even after the principal&rsquo;s
+assent has been withdrawn; provided that the third party has no
+notice of the withdrawal.</p>
+
+<p>Such apparent authority binds the principal both as to acts
+done in excess of the actual authority and also when the actual
+authority has entirely ceased. For instance, A. B. receives goods
+from C.D. with instructions not to sell below 1s. per &#8468;; A. B.
+sells at 10½d., the market price; the buyer is entitled to the goods
+at 10½d., because A. B. had apparent authority, although he
+exceeded his actual authority. On the same principle the buyer
+would get a good title by buying from A. B. goods entrusted to
+him by C. D., even though at the time of the sale C. D. had
+revoked A. B.&rsquo;s authority and instructed him not to sell at all.
+In either case the factor is held out as having authority to sell,
+and the principal cannot afterwards turn round and say that his
+factor had no such authority. As in the course of his business
+the factor must necessarily make representations preliminary
+to the contracts into which he enters, so the principal will be
+bound by any such representations as may be within the factor&rsquo;s
+actual or apparent authority to the same degree as by the
+factor&rsquo;s contracts.</p>
+
+<p>(<i>b</i>) <i>Under the Factors Act 1889.</i>&mdash;The main object of the
+Factors Acts, in so far as they relate to transactions carried
+out by factors, has been to add to the number of cases in which
+third parties honestly buying or lending money on the security
+of goods may get a good title from persons in whose possession
+the goods are with the consent, actual or apparent, of the real
+owners, thus calling in aid the principle of French law that
+&ldquo;<i>possession vaut titre</i>&rdquo; as against the doctrine of the English
+common law that &ldquo;<i>nemo dat quod non habet</i>.&rdquo; The chief change
+in the law relating specially to factors has been to put pledges
+by factors on the same footing as sales, so as to bind a principal
+to third parties by his factor&rsquo;s pledge as by his factor&rsquo;s sale.
+The Factors Act 1889 in part re-enacts and in part extends the
+provisions of the earlier acts of 1823, 1825, 1842 and 1877;
+and is, so far as it relates to sales by factors, in large measure
+merely declaratory of the law as it previously existed. Its most
+important provisions concerning factors are as follows:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Section I., s.s. 1. The expression mercantile agent shall mean a
+mercantile agent having in the customary course of his business
+as such agent authority either to sell goods, or to consign goods
+for the purpose of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the
+security of goods;</p>
+
+<p>2. A person shall be deemed to be in possession of goods or of
+the documents or title to goods when the goods or documents are
+in his actual custody or are held by any other person subject to his
+control or for him on his behalf.</p>
+
+<p>4. The expression &ldquo;document of title&rdquo; shall include any bill of
+lading, dock warrant, warehouse keeper&rsquo;s certificate, and warrant
+or order for the delivery of goods, and any other document used in
+the ordinary course of business as proof of the possession or control
+of goods, or authorizing or purporting to authorize, either by indorsement
+or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer
+or receive goods thereby represented.</p>
+
+<p>Section II., s.s. 1. Where a mercantile agent is, with the consent
+of the owner, in possession of goods or of the documents or title to
+goods, any sale, pledge or other disposition of the goods made by
+him when acting in the ordinary course of business of a mercantile
+agent shall, subject to the provisions of this act, be as valid as if
+he were expressly authorized by the owner of the goods to make
+the same; provided that the person taking under the disposition
+acts in good faith, and has not at the time of the disposition notice
+that the person making the disposition has not authority to make
+the same.</p>
+
+<p>2. Where a mercantile agent has, with the consent of the owner,
+been in possession of goods or of the documents of title to goods,
+any sale, pledge or other disposition which would have been valid
+if the consent had continued shall be valid notwithstanding the
+determination of the consent; provided that the person taking
+under the disposition has not at the time thereof notice that the
+consent has been determined.</p>
+
+<p>3. Where a mercantile agent has obtained possession of any
+documents of title to goods by reason of his being or having been,
+with the consent of the owner, in possession of the goods represented
+thereby, or of any other documents of title to the goods, his
+possession of the first-mentioned documents shall, for the purposes
+of the act, be deemed to be with the consent of the owner.</p>
+</div>
+
+<p class="pt2 center sc">III. Enforcement of Contracts</p>
+
+<p>1. Where a factor makes a contract in the name of his
+principal and himself signs as agent only, he drops out as soon
+as the contract is made, and the principal and third party alone
+can sue or be sued upon it. As factors usually contract in their
+own name this is not a common case. It is characteristic of
+brokers rather than of factors.</p>
+
+<p>2. Where a factor makes a contract for the principal without
+disclosing his principal&rsquo;s name, the third party may, on discovering
+the principal, elect whether he will treat the factor or
+his principal as the party to the contract; provided that if the
+factor contract expressly as factor, so as to exclude the idea that
+he is personally responsible, he will not be liable. The principal
+may sue upon the contract, so also may the factor, unless the
+principal first intervene.</p>
+
+<p>3. Where a factor makes a contract in his own name without
+disclosing the existence of his principal, the third party may,
+on discovering the existence of the principal, elect whether he
+will sue the factor or the principal. Either principal or factor
+may sue the third party upon the contract. But if the factor
+has been permitted by the principal to hold himself out as the
+principal, and the person dealing with the factor has believed
+that the factor was the principal and has acted on that belief
+before ascertaining his mistake, then in an action by the principal
+the third party may set up any defences he would have had
+against the factor if the factor had brought the action on his own
+account as principal.</p>
+
+<p>4. Where a factor has a lien upon the goods and their proceeds
+for advances made to the principal it will be no defence to an
+action by him for the third party to plead that he has paid the
+principal, unless the factor by his conduct led the third party to
+believe that he agreed to a settlement being made with his
+principal.</p>
+
+<p>5. The factor who acts for a foreign principal will always be
+personally liable unless it is clear that the third party has agreed
+to look only to the principal.</p>
+
+<p>6. If a factor contract by deed under seal he alone can sue
+or be sued upon the contract; but mercantile practice makes
+contracts by deed uncommon.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Authorities.</span>&mdash;Story, <i>Commentaries on the Law of Agency</i>
+(Boston, 1882); Boyd and Pearson, <i>The Factors Acts 1823 to
+1877</i> (London, 1884); Blackwell, <i>The Law relating to Factors</i>
+(London, 1897).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(L. F. S.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACTORY ACTS,<a name="ar137" id="ar137"></a></span> the name given generally to a long series
+of acts constituting one of the most important chapters in the
+history of English labour legislation (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Labour Legislation</a></span>);
+the term &ldquo;factory&rdquo; itself being short for manufactory, a building
+or collection of buildings in which men or women are employed
+in industry.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACULA<a name="ar138" id="ar138"></a></span> (diminutive of <i>fax</i>, Lat. for &ldquo;torch&rdquo;), in astronomy,
+a minute shining spot on the sun&rsquo;s disk, markedly brighter than
+the photosphere in general, usually appearing in groups. Faculae
+are most frequent in the neighbourhood of spots. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Sun</a></span>.)</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FACULTY<a name="ar139" id="ar139"></a></span> (through the French, from the Lat. <i>facultas</i>,
+ability to do anything, from <i>facilis</i>, easy, <i>facere</i>, to do; another
+form of the word in Lat. <i>facilitas</i>, facility, ease, keeps the original
+meaning), power or capacity of mind or body for particular kinds
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page123" id="page123"></a>123</span>
+of activity, feeling, &amp;c.  In the early history of psychology the
+term was applied to various mental processes considered as
+causes or conditions of the mind&mdash;a treatment of &ldquo;class concepts
+of mental phenomena as if they were real forces producing these
+phenomena&rdquo; (G.F. Stout, <i>Analytic Psychology</i>, vol. i. p. 17).
+In medieval Latin <i>facultas</i> was used to translate <span class="grk" title="dunamis">&#948;&#973;&#957;&#945;&#956;&#953;&#962;</span> in the
+Aristotelian application of the word to a branch of learning or
+knowledge, and thus it is particularly applied to the various
+departments of knowledge as taught in a university and to the
+body of teachers of the particular art or science taught. The
+principal &ldquo;faculties&rdquo; in the medieval universities were theology,
+canon and civil law, medicine and arts (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Universities</a></span>). A
+further extension of this use is to the body of members of any
+particular profession.</p>
+
+<p>In law, &ldquo;faculty&rdquo; is a dispensation or licence to do that
+which is not permitted by the common law. The word in this
+sense is used only in ecclesiastical law. A faculty may be granted
+to be ordained deacon under twenty-three years of age; to
+hold two livings at once (usually called a licence or dispensation,
+but granted under the seal of the office of faculties; see
+<span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Benefice</a></span>); to be married at any place or time (usually called a
+special licence; see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Marriage</a></span>; <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Licence</a></span>); to act as a notary
+public (<i>q.v.</i>). Any alteration in a church, such as an addition
+or diminution in the fabric or the utensils or ornaments of the
+church, cannot strictly be made without the legal sanction of the
+ordinary, which can only be expressed by the issue of a faculty.
+So a faculty would be required for a vault, for the removal of a
+body, for the purpose of erecting monuments, for alterations
+in a parsonage house, for brick graves, for the apportionment
+of a seat, &amp;c.  Cathedrals, however, are exempt from the necessity
+for a faculty before making alterations in the fabric, utensils or
+ornaments.</p>
+
+<p>The court of faculties is the court of the archbishop for granting
+faculties. It is a court in which there is no litigation or holding
+of pleas. Its chief officer is called the master of faculties, and
+he is one and the same with the judge of the court of arches.
+Attached to the court of faculties are a registrar and deputy
+registrars, a chief clerk and record-keeper, and a seal keeper.
+In Scotland the society of advocates of the court of session, and
+local bodies of legal practitioners, are described as faculties.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAED, THOMAS<a name="ar140" id="ar140"></a></span> (1826-1900), British painter, born in Kirkcudbrightshire,
+was the brother of John Faed, R.S.A., and
+received his art education in the school of design, Edinburgh.
+He was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish Academy in
+1849, came to London three years later, was elected an associate
+of the Royal Academy in 1861, and academician in 1864, and
+retired in 1893. He had much success as a painter of domestic
+genre, and had considerable executive capacity. Three of his
+pictures, &ldquo;The Silken Gown,&rdquo; &ldquo;Faults on Both Sides,&rdquo; and &ldquo;The
+Highland Mother,&rdquo; are in the National Gallery of British Art.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See William D. McKay, <i>The Scottish School of Painting</i> (1906).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAENZA<a name="ar141" id="ar141"></a></span> (anc. <i>Faventia</i>), a city and episcopal see of Emilia,
+Italy, in the province of Ravenna, from which it is 31 m. S.W.
+by rail, 110 ft. above sea-level. It is 31 m. S.E. of Bologna by
+rail, on the line from Bologna to Rimini, and it is the junction
+of a line to Florence through the Apennines. Pop. (1901)
+21,809 (town), 39,757 (commune). The town is surrounded by
+walls which date from 1456. The cathedral of S. Costanzo
+stands in the spacious Piazza Vittorio Emanuele in the centre
+of the town. It was begun in 1474 by Giuliano da Maiano;
+the façade is, however, incomplete. In the interior is the
+beautiful early Renaissance tomb of S. Savinus with reliefs
+showing scenes from his life, of fine and fresh execution, by
+Benedetto da Maiano; and later tombs by P. Bariloto, a local
+sculptor. Opposite the cathedral is a fountain with bronze
+ornamentation of 1583-1621. The clock tower alongside the
+cathedral belongs to the 17th century. Beyond it is the Palazzo
+Comunale, formerly the residence of the Manfredi, but entirely
+reconstructed. The other churches of the town have been mostly
+restored, but S. Michele (and the Palazzo Manfredi opposite it)
+are fine early Renaissance buildings in brickwork. The municipal
+art gallery contains an altar-piece by Girolamo da Treviso (who
+also painted a fresco in the Chiesa della Commenda), a wooden
+St Jerome by Donatello, and a bust of the young St John by
+Antonio Rossellino (?), and some fine specimens of majolica,
+a variety of which, faience, takes its name from the town. It
+was largely manufactured in the 15th and 16th centuries, and
+the industry has been revived in modern times with success.</p>
+
+<p>The ancient Faventia, on the Via Aemilia, was obviously
+from its name founded by the Romans and had the citizenship
+before the Social War. It was the scene of the defeat of C.
+Papirius Carbo and C. Norbanus by Q. Caecilius Metellus Pius
+in 82 <span class="scs">B.C.</span> In the census of Vespasian a woman of Faventia is
+said to have given her age as 135. Pliny speaks of the whiteness
+of its linen, and the productiveness of its vines is mentioned.
+It is noticeable that some of the fields in the territory of the
+ancient Faventia still preserve the exact size of the ancient
+Roman <i>centuria</i> of 200 <i>iugeri</i> (E. Bormann in <i>Corp. Inscr. Lat.</i>
+xi., Berlin, 1888, p. 121). When the exarchate was established,
+the town became part of it, and in 748 it was taken by Liutprand.
+Desiderius gave it to the church with the duchy of Ferrara.
+In the 11th century it began to increase in importance. In the
+wars of the 12th and 13th centuries it at first took the imperial
+side, but in 1240 it stood a long siege from Frederick II. and
+was only taken after eight months. After further struggles
+between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Manfredi made themselves
+masters of the place early in the 14th century, and remained in
+power until 1501, when the town was taken by Caesar Borgia
+and the last legitimate members of the house of the Manfredi
+were drowned in the Tiber; and, after falling for a few years
+into the hands of the Venetians, it became a part of the states
+of the church in 1509.</p>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAEROE<a name="ar142" id="ar142"></a></span> (also written <span class="sc">Faroe</span> or <span class="sc">The Faeroes</span>, Danish
+<i>Faeröerne</i> or <i>Färöerne</i>, &ldquo;the sheep islands&rdquo;), a group of islands
+in the North Sea belonging to Denmark. They are situated
+between Iceland and the Shetland Islands, about 200 m. N.W.
+of the latter, about the intersection of 7° E. with 62° N. The
+total land area of the group is 511 sq. m., and there are twenty-one
+islands (excluding small rocks and reefs), of which seventeen
+are inhabited. The population in 1880 amounted to 11,220,
+and in 1900 to 15,230. The principal islands are Strömö, on
+which is the chief town, Thorshavn, with a population of 1656;
+Osterö, Süderö, Vaagö, Sandö and Bordö. They consist throughout
+of rocks and hills, separated from each other by narrow valleys
+or ravines; but, though the hills rise abruptly, there are often
+on their summits, or at different stages of their ascent, plains of
+considerable magnitude. Almost everywhere they present to
+the sea perpendicular cliffs, broken into fantastic forms, affording
+at every turn, to those who sail along the coast, the most
+picturesque and varied scenery. The highest hills are Slättaretindur
+in Osterö, and Kopende and Skellingfjeld in Strömö,
+which rise respectively to 2894, 2592 and 2520 ft. The sea
+pierces the islands in deep fjords, or separates them by narrow
+inlets through which tidal currents set with great violence, at
+speeds up to seven or eight knots an hour; and, as communications
+are maintained almost wholly by boat, the natives have
+need of expert watermanship. There are several lakes in which
+trout are abundant, and char also occur; the largest is Sörvaag
+Lake in Vaagö, which is close to the sea, and discharges into it
+by a sheer fall of about 160 ft. Trees are scarce, and there is
+evidence that they formerly flourished where they cannot do
+so now.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>The fundamental formation is a series of great sheets of columnar
+basalt, 70 to 100 ft. thick, in which are intercalated thin beds of tuff.
+Upon the basalt rests the so-called Coal formation, 35 to 50 ft. thick;
+the lower part of this is mainly fireclay and sandstone, the upper
+part is weathered clay with thin layers of brown coal and shale.
+The coal is found in Süderö and in some of the other islands in
+sufficient quantity to make it a matter of exploitation. Above these
+beds there are layers of dolerite, 15 to 20 ft. thick, with nodular
+segregations and abundant cavities which are often lined with
+zeolites. As the rocks lie in a horizontal position, on most of the
+islands of the group only the basalts or dolerite are visible. The
+crater from which the volcanic rocks were outpoured probably lies
+off the Faeroe Bank some distance to the south-west of Süderö.
+The basalts are submarine flows which formed the basis of the land
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page124" id="page124"></a>124</span>
+upon which grew the vegetation which gave rise to the coals; the
+effusion of dolerite which covered up the Coal formation was subaerial.
+The existing land features, with the fjords, are due to ice
+erosion in the glacial period.<a name="fa1s" id="fa1s" href="#ft1s"><span class="sp">1</span></a></p>
+</div>
+
+<p>The climate is oceanic; fogs are common, violent storms are
+frequent at all seasons. July and August are the only true
+summer months, but the winters are not very severe. It seldom
+freezes for more than one month, and the harbours are rarely
+ice-bound. The methods of agriculture are extremely primitive
+and less than 3% of the total area is under cultivation. As the
+plough is ill-suited to the rugged surface of the land, the ground
+is usually turned up with the spade, care being taken not to
+destroy the roots of the grass, as hay is the principal crop.
+Horses and cows are few, and the cows give little milk, in consequence
+of the coarse hay upon which they are fed. The number
+of sheep, however, justifies the name of the islands, some individuals
+having flocks of from three to five hundred, and the total
+number in the islands considerably exceeds ten thousand.
+The northern hare (<i>Lepus alpinus</i>) is pretty abundant in Strömö
+and Osterö, having been introduced into the islands about
+1840-1850. The catching of the numerous sea-birds which build
+their nests upon the face of the cliffs forms an important source
+of subsistence to the inhabitants. Sometimes the fowler is let
+down from the top of the cliff; at other times he climbs the
+rocks, or, where possible, is pushed upwards by poles made for
+the purpose. The birds and the contents of the nests are taken
+in nets mounted on poles; shooting is not practised, lest it
+should permanently scare the birds away. Fowling has somewhat
+decreased in modern times, as the fisheries have risen in
+importance. The puffin is most commonly taken for its feathers.
+The cod fishery is especially important, dried fish being exported
+in large quantity, and the swim-bladders made into gelatine,
+and also used and exported for food. The whaling industry
+came into importance towards the close of the 19th century,
+and stations for the extraction of the oil and whalebone have
+been established at several points, under careful regulations
+designed to mitigate the pollution of water, the danger to live-stock
+from eating the blubber, &amp;c.  The finner whale is the species
+most commonly taken.</p>
+
+<p>The trade of the Faeroe Islands was for some time a monopoly
+in the hands of a mercantile house at Copenhagen, and this
+monopoly was afterwards assumed by the Danish government,
+but by the law of the 21st of March 1855 all restrictions were
+removed. The produce of the whaling and fishing industries,
+woollen goods, lamb skins and feathers, are the chief exports,
+while in Thorshavn the preserving of fish and the manufacture
+of carpets are carried on to some extent. Thorshavn is situated
+on the S.E. side of Strömö, upon a narrow tongue of land,
+having creeks on each side, where ships may be safely moored.
+It is the seat of the chief government and ecclesiastical officials,
+and has a government house and a hospital. The houses are
+generally built of wood and roofed with birch bark covered with
+turf. The character of the people is marked by simplicity of
+manners, kindness and hospitality. They are healthy, and the
+population increases steadily. The Faeroes form an <i>amt</i> (county)
+of Denmark. They have also a local parliament (<i>lagthing</i>),
+consisting of the <i>amtmann</i> and nineteen other members. Among
+other duties, this body elects a representative to the upper house
+of parliament (<i>landsthing</i>) in Denmark; the people choose by
+vote a representative in the lower house (<i>folkething</i>). The
+islands are included in the Danish bishopric of Zealand.</p>
+
+<p><i>History.</i>&mdash;The early history of the Faeroes is not clear. It
+appears that about the beginning of the 9th century Grim
+Kamban, a Norwegian emigrant who had left his country to
+escape the tyranny of Harold Haarfager, settled in the islands.
+It is said that a small colony of Irish and Scottish monks were
+found in Süderö and dispersed by him. The Faeroes then already
+bore their name of Sheep Islands, as these animals had been
+found to flourish here exceedingly. Early in the 11th century
+Sigmund or Sigismund Bresterson, whose family had flourished
+in the southern islands but had been almost exterminated by
+invaders from the northern, was sent from Norway, whither he
+had escaped, to take possession of the islands for Olaf Trygvason,
+king of Norway. He introduced Christianity, and, though he
+was subsequently murdered, Norwegian supremacy was upheld,
+and continued till 1386, when the islands were transferred to
+Denmark. English adventurers gave great trouble to the inhabitants
+in the 16th century, and the name of Magnus Heineson,
+a native of Strömö, who was sent by Frederick II. to clear the
+seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. There was
+formerly a bishopric at Kirkebö, S. of Thorshavn, where remains
+of the cathedral may be seen; but it was abolished at the
+introduction of Protestantism by Christian III. Denmark retained
+possession of the Faeroes at the peace of Kiel in 1815.
+The native literature of the islands consists of the <i>Faereyinga
+Saga</i>, dealing with the period of Sigmund Bresterson, and a
+number of popular songs and legends of early origin.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><span class="sc">Bibliography.</span>&mdash;Lucas Jacobson Debes, <i>Feroa Reserata</i> (Copenhagen,
+1673; Eng. transl. London, 1675); Torfaeus, <i>De rebus gestis
+Faereyensium</i> (Copenhagen, 1695); I. Landt, <i>Beskrivelse over
+Färöerne</i> (1800), and <i>Descriptions of the Feroe Islands</i> (London,
+1810); A.J. Symington, <i>Pen and Pencil Sketches of Faroe and Iceland</i>
+(1862); J. Russel-Jeaffreson, <i>The Faröe Islands</i> (1901); J. Falk
+Rönne, <i>Beskrivelse over Färöerne</i> (Copenhagen, 1902); C.H. Ostenfeld,
+E. Warming and others, <i>Botany of the Faeroes</i> (Copenhagen,
+1901-1903); Annandale, <i>The Faroes and Iceland</i> (Oxford, 1905).
+The <i>Faereyinga Saga</i> was translated by F. York Powell (London,
+1896); for folk-songs and legends see S. Kraeth, <i>Die färöischen
+Lieder von Sigurd</i> (Paderborn, 1877); V.U. Hammershaimb,
+<i>Faeröisk Anthologi</i> (Copenhagen, 1886-1891).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1s" id="ft1s" href="#fa1s"><span class="fn">$1</span></a> See Hans von Post, &ldquo;Om Färöarnes uppkomst,&rdquo; <i>Geologiska
+Föreningens i Stockholm Förhandlingar</i>, vol. xxiv. (1902).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAESULAE<a name="ar143" id="ar143"></a></span> (mod. <i>Fiesole</i>, <i>q.v.</i>), an ancient city of Etruria,
+on the height 3 m. to the N.E. of Florentia, 970 ft. above sea-level.
+Remains of its walls are preserved on all sides, especially
+on the N.E., in one place to a height of 12 to 14 courses. The
+blocks are often not quite rectangular, and the courses sometimes
+change; but the general tendency is horizontal and the walls
+are not of remote antiquity, the irregularities in them being
+rather due to the hardness of the material employed, the rock of
+the hill itself. The courses vary in height from 1 to 3 ft., and
+some blocks are as long as 12½ ft. In this portion of the wall are
+two drains, below one of which is a <i>phallus</i>. The site of an ancient
+gate, and the road below it, can be traced; a little farther E.
+was an archway, conjectured by Dennis to be a gate of the Roman
+period, destroyed in 1848. The whole circuit of the walls extended
+for about 1-2/3 m. The Franciscan monastery (1130 ft.) occupies
+the site of the acropolis, once encircled by a triple wall, of which
+no traces are now visible. Here was also the <i>Capitolium</i> of
+Roman times, as an inscription found here in 1879 records (<i>Corpus
+Inscr. Lat.</i> xi., Berlin, 1888, No. 1545). The Roman theatre,
+below the cathedral to the N.E., has 19 tiers of stone seats and is
+37 yds. in diameter. Above it is an embanking wall of irregular
+masonry, and below it some remains of Roman baths, including
+five parallel vaults of concrete. Just outside the town on the E.
+a reservoir, roofed by the convergence of its sides, which were of
+large regular blocks, was discovered in 1832, but filled in again.
+Over 1000 silver denarii, all coined before 63 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, were found
+at Faesulae in 1829. A small museum contains the objects found
+in the excavations of the theatre.</p>
+
+<p>Though Faesulae was an Etruscan city, we have no record of
+it in history until 215 <span class="scs">B.C.</span>, when the Gauls passed near it in
+their march on Rome. Twelve years later Hannibal seems to
+have taken this route in his march south after the victory of the
+Trebia. It appears to have suffered at the hands of Rome in the
+Social War, and Sulla expelled some of the inhabitants from
+their lands to make room for his veterans, but some of the latter
+were soon driven out in their turn by the former occupiers.
+Both the veterans, who soon wasted what they had acquired,
+and the dispossessed cultivators joined the partisans of Catiline,
+and Manlius, one of his supporters, made his headquarters at
+Faesulae. Under the empire we hear practically nothing of it;
+in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 405 Radagaisus was crushed in the neighbouring hills,
+and Belisarius besieged and took it in <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 539.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See L.A. Milani, <i>Rendiconti dei Lincei</i>, ser. vi. vol. ix. (1900),
+289 seq., on the discovery of an archaic altar of the <i>Locus sacer</i> of
+Florence, belonging to Ancharia (Angerona), the goddess of Fiesole.</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(T. As.)</div>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page125" id="page125"></a>125</span></p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAFNIR,<a name="ar144" id="ar144"></a></span> in Scandinavian mythology, the son of the giant
+Hreidmar. He was the guardian of the hoard of the Nibelungs
+and was killed by Sigurd.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAGGING<a name="ar145" id="ar145"></a></span> (from &ldquo;fag,&rdquo; meaning &ldquo;weary&rdquo;; of uncertain
+etymology), in English public schools, a system under which,
+generally with the full approval of the authorities, a junior boy
+performs certain duties for a senior. In detail this custom
+varies slightly in the different schools, but its purpose&mdash;the
+maintenance of discipline among the boys themselves&mdash;is the
+same. Dr Arnold of Rugby defined fagging as &ldquo;the power
+given by the supreme authorities of the school to the Sixth Form,
+to be exercised by them over the lower boys, for the sake of
+securing a regular government among the boys themselves,
+and avoiding the evils of anarchy; in other words, of the lawless
+tyranny of brute force.&rdquo; Fagging was a fully established system
+at Eton and Winchester in the 16th century, and is probably a
+good deal older. That the advantages of thus granting the
+boys a kind of autonomy have stood the test of time is obvious
+from the fact that in almost all the great public schools founded
+during the 19th century, fagging has been deliberately adopted
+by the authorities. The right to fag carries with it certain
+well-defined duties. The fag-master is the protector of his
+fags, and responsible for their happiness and good conduct. In
+cases of bullying or injustice their appeal is to him, not to the
+form or house master, and, except in the gravest cases, all such
+cases are dealt with by the fag-master on his own responsibility
+and without report to the master. Until recent years a fag&rsquo;s
+duties included such humble tasks as blacking boots, brushing
+clothes, and cooking breakfasts, and there was no limit as to
+hours; almost all the fag&rsquo;s spare time being so monopolized.
+This is now changed. Fagging is now restricted to such light
+tasks as running errands, bringing tea to the &ldquo;master&rsquo;s&rdquo; study,
+and fagging at cricket or football. At Eton there is no cricket
+fagging, and at most schools it is made lighter by all the fags
+taking their turn in regular order for one hour, so that each boy
+has to &ldquo;fag&rdquo; but once in so many weeks. At Rugby there is
+&ldquo;study-fagging&rdquo;&mdash;two fags being assigned to each Sixth Form
+boy and made responsible for the sweeping out and tidying up
+of his study alternately each week,&mdash;and &ldquo;night-fagging&rdquo;&mdash;running
+errands for the Sixth between 8.30 and 9.30 every
+evening,&mdash;and each boy can choose whether he will be a study-fag
+or night-fag. The right to fag is usually restricted to the
+Sixth Form, but at Eton the privilege is also granted the Fifth,
+and at Marlborough and elsewhere the Eleven have a right to
+fag at cricket, whether in the Sixth or not.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAGGOT,<a name="ar146" id="ar146"></a></span> a bundle of sticks used for firewood. The word
+is adapted from the Fr. <i>fagot</i>, and appears in Italian as <i>fagotto</i>,
+the name given to the bassoon (<i>q.v.</i>). &ldquo;Faggot&rdquo; is frequently
+used with reference to the burning of heretics, and recanted
+heretics wore an embroidered faggot on the arm as a symbol
+of the punishment they had escaped. In the 18th century the
+word is used of a &ldquo;dummy&rdquo; soldier, appearing on the rolls of a
+regiment. It is this use, coupled with the idea of a bundle of
+sticks as being capable of subdivision, that appears in the
+expression &ldquo;faggot-vote,&rdquo; a vote artificially created by the
+minute splitting up of property so as to give a bare qualification
+for the franchise.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES<a name="ar147" id="ar147"></a></span> (1842-&emsp;&emsp;), French historian
+and economist, was born in Paris on the 6th of October 1842.
+Trained at the École des Chartes and the École des Hautes
+Études, he made his first appearance in the world of scholarship
+as the author of an excellent book called <i>Études sur l&rsquo;industrie
+et la classe industrielle à Paris au XIII<span class="sp">e</span> et au XIV<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (1877).
+This work, composed almost entirely from documents, many
+unpublished, opened a new field for historical study. Twenty
+years later he supplemented this book by an interesting collection
+of <i>Documents relatifs à l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;industrie et du commerce en
+France</i> (2 vols., 1898-1900), and in 1897 he published <i>L&rsquo;Économie
+sociale de la France sous Henri IV</i>, a volume containing the
+results of very minute research. He did not, however, confine
+himself to economic history. His <i>Le Père Joseph et Richelieu</i>
+(1894), though somewhat frigid and severe, is based on a mass
+of unpublished information, and shows remarkable psychologic
+grasp. In 1878 his <i>Journal parisien de Jean de Maupoint, prieur
+de Ste Catherine-de-la-Couture</i> was published in vol. iv. of the
+<i>Mémoires de la sociêtê de l&rsquo;histoire de Paris et de l&rsquo;Île de France</i>.
+He wrote numerous articles in the <i>Revue historique</i> (of which
+he was co-director with Gabriel Monod for some years) and in
+other learned reviews, such as the <i>Revue des questions historiques</i>
+and the <i>Journal des savants</i>. In 1901 he was elected member of
+the Académie des Sciences Morales et Politiques.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAGUET, ÉMILE<a name="ar148" id="ar148"></a></span> (1847-&emsp;&emsp;), French critic and man of
+letters, was born at La Roche sur Yon on the 17th of December
+1847. He was educated at the normal school in Paris, and after
+teaching for some time in La Rochelle and Bordeaux he came to
+Paris. After acting as assistant professor of poetry in the university
+he became professor in 1897. He was elected to the
+academy in 1900, and received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour
+in the next year. He acted as dramatic critic to the <i>Soleil</i>;
+from 1892 he was literary critic to the <i>Revue bleue</i>; and in 1896
+took the place of M. Jules Lemaître on the <i>Journal des débats</i>.
+Among his works are monographs on <i>Flaubert</i> (1899), <i>André
+Chénier</i> (1902), <i>Zola</i> (1903); an admirably concise <i>Histoire de la
+littérature française depuis le XVII<span class="sp">e</span> siècle jusqu&rsquo;à nos jours</i>;
+series of literary studies on the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries;
+<i>Questions politiques</i> (1899); <i>Propos littéraires</i> (3 series, 1902-1905);
+<i>Le Libéralisme</i> (1902); and <i>L&rsquo;Anticléricalisme</i> (1906).</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See A. Séché, <i>Émile Faguet</i> (1904).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FA-HIEN<a name="ar149" id="ar149"></a></span> (fl. <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 399-414), Chinese Buddhist monk, pilgrim-traveller,
+and writer, author of one of the earliest and most
+valuable Chinese accounts of India. He started from Changgan
+or Si-gan-fu, then the capital of the Tsin empire, and passing the
+Great Wall, crossed the &ldquo;River of Sand&rdquo; or Gobi Desert beyond,
+that home of &ldquo;evil demons and hot winds,&rdquo; which he vividly
+describes,&mdash;where the only way-marks were the bones of the
+dead, where no bird appeared in the air above, no animal on the
+ground below. Arriving at Khotan, the traveller witnessed a
+great Buddhist festival; here, as in Yarkand, Afghanistan and
+other parts thoroughly Islamized before the close of the middle
+ages, Fa-Hien shows us Buddhism still prevailing. India was
+reached by a perilous descent of &ldquo;ten thousand cubits&rdquo; from the
+&ldquo;wall-like hills&rdquo; of the Hindu Kush into the Indus valley (about
+<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 402); and the pilgrim passed the next ten years in the
+&ldquo;central&rdquo; Buddhist realm,&mdash;making journeys to Peshawur and
+Afghanistan (especially the Kabul region) on one side, and to the
+Ganges valley on another. His especial concern was the exploration
+of the scenes of Buddha&rsquo;s life, the copying of Buddhist
+texts, and converse with the Buddhist monks and sages whom
+the Brahmin reaction had not yet driven out. Thus we find him
+at Buddha&rsquo;s birthplace on the Kohana, north-west of Benares;
+in Patna and on the Vulture Peak near Patna; at the Jetvana
+monastery in Oudh; as well as at Muttra on the Jumna, at
+Kanauj, and at Tamluk near the mouth of the Hugli. But now
+the narrative, which in its earlier portions was primarily historical
+and geographical, becomes mystical and theological; miracle-stories
+and meditations upon Buddhist moralities and sacred
+memories almost entirely replace matters of fact. From the
+Ganges delta Fa-Hien sailed with a merchant ship, in fourteen
+days, to Ceylon, where he transcribed all the sacred books, as yet
+unknown in China, which he could find; witnessed the festival
+of the exhibition of Buddha&rsquo;s tooth; and remarked the trade of
+Arab merchants to the island, two centuries before Mahomet.
+He returned by sea to the mouth of the Yangtse-Kiang, changing
+vessels at Java, and narrowly escaping shipwreck or the fate
+of Jonah.</p>
+
+<p>Fa-Hien&rsquo;s work is valuable evidence to the strength, and in
+many places to the dominance, of Buddhism in central Asia
+and in India at the time of the collapse of the Roman empire in
+western Europe. His tone throughout is that of the devout,
+learned, sensible, rarely hysterical pilgrim-traveller. His record
+is careful and accurate, and most of his positions can be identified;
+his devotion is so strong that it leads him to depreciate
+China as a &ldquo;border-land,&rdquo; India the home of Buddha being the
+true &ldquo;middle kingdom&rdquo; of his creed.</p>
+
+<p><span class="pagenum"><a name="page126" id="page126"></a>126</span></p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See James Legge, <i>Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, being an account
+by the Chinese Monk Fâ-hien of his travels in India and Ceylon</i>;
+translated and edited, with map, &amp;c.  (Oxford, 1886); S. Beal,
+<i>Travels of Fah-Hian and Sung-Yun, Buddhist pilgrims from China
+to India, 400 and 518 <span class="scs">A.D.</span></i>, translated, with map, &amp;c.  (1869);
+C.R. Beazley, <i>Dawn of Modern Geography</i>, vol. i. (1897), pp. 478-485.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK<a name="ar150" id="ar150"></a></span> (1790-1866), Swedish
+author, was born at Stora Tuna in Sweden on the 30th of August
+1790. His brothers, Carl Johan (1774-1861), the landscape-painter,
+and Axel Magnus (1780-1854), the sculptor, became
+hardly less distinguished than himself. In 1804 he entered the
+university of Upsala; in 1821 he became tutor in Arabic, and
+in 1825 professor of Oriental languages. In 1828 he entered the
+church, but earlier than this, in 1825, he published his <i>Noachs
+Ark</i>, a successful satire on the literary and social life of his time,
+followed in 1826 by a second part. In 1835 Fahlcrantz brought
+out the first part of his epic of <i>Ansgarius</i>, which was completed
+in 1846, in 14 cantos. In 1842 he was made a member of the
+Swedish Academy, and in 1849 he was made bishop of Vesterås,
+his next literary work being an archaeological study on the
+beautiful ancient cathedral of his diocese. In the course of the
+years 1858-1861 appeared the five volumes of his <i>Rom förr och
+nu</i> (<i>Rome as it was and is</i>), a theological polemic, mainly directed
+against the Jesuits. He died on the 6th of August 1866. His
+complete works (7 vols., Örebro, 1863-1866) were issued mainly
+under his own superintendence.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL<a name="ar151" id="ar151"></a></span> (1686-1736), German
+physicist, was born at Danzig on the 14th of May 1686. For the
+most part he lived in England and Holland, devoting himself
+to the study of physics and making a living, apparently, by the
+manufacture of meteorological instruments. He was the author
+of important improvements in the construction of thermometers,
+and he introduced the thermometric scale known by his name
+and still extensively used in Great Britain and the United States
+(see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Thermometry</a></span>). He also invented an improved form of
+hygrometer, a description of which, together with accounts of
+various observations and experiments made by him, was published
+in the <i>Phil. Trans.</i> for 1724. He died in Holland on the
+16th of September 1736.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LÉON CÉSAR<a name="ar152" id="ar152"></a></span> (1818-1889), French
+general and colonial administrator, was born on the 3rd of
+June 1818, at Lille, received his military education at the École
+Polytechnique and at Metz, and entered the engineers in 1840.
+From 1844 to 1847 he served in Algeria, then two years in the
+West Indies, and again in Algeria, taking part in many expeditions
+against the Arabs. In 1852 he was transferred to Senegal
+as sub-director of engineers, and in 1854 was promoted <i>chef de
+bataillon</i> and appointed governor of the colony. He held this
+post with one brief interval until July 1865. The work he
+accomplished in West Africa constitutes his most enduring
+monument. At that time France possessed in Senegal little else
+than the town of St Louis and a strip of coast. Explorers had,
+however, made known the riches and possibilities of the Niger
+regions, and Faidherbe formed the design of adding those
+countries to the French dominions. He even dreamed of creating
+a French African empire stretching from Senegal to the Red Sea.
+To accomplish even the first part of his design he had very
+inadequate resources, especially in view of the aggressive action
+of Omar Al-Hadji, the Moslem ruler of the countries of the
+middle Niger. By boldly advancing the French outposts on the
+upper Senegal Faidherbe stemmed the Moslem advance, and by
+an advantageous treaty with Omar in 1860 brought the French
+possessions into touch with the Niger. He also brought into
+subjection the country lying between the Senegal and Gambia.
+When he resigned his post French rule had been firmly established
+over a very considerable and fertile area and the foundation
+laid upon which his successors built up the predominant position
+occupied now by France in West Africa. In 1863 he became
+general of brigade. From 1867 to the early part of 1870 he
+commanded the subdivision of Bona in Algeria, and was commanding
+the Constantine division at the commencement of the
+Franco-German War. Promoted general of division in November
+1870, he was on the 3rd of December appointed by the Government
+of National Defence to be commander-in-chief of the army
+of the North. In this post he showed himself to be possessed
+of the highest military talents, and the struggle between the I.
+German army and that commanded by Faidherbe, in which were
+included the hard-fought battles of Pont Noyelles, Bapaume and
+St Quentin, was perhaps the most honourable to the French army
+in the whole of the People&rsquo;s War. Even with the inadequate
+force of which he disposed he was able to maintain a steady
+resistance up to the end of the war. Elected to the National
+Assembly for the department of the Nord, he resigned his seat
+in consequence of its reactionary proceedings. For his services
+he was decorated with the grand cross, and made chancellor
+of the order of the Legion of Honour. In 1872 he went on a
+scientific mission to Upper Egypt, where he studied the monuments
+and inscriptions. An enthusiastic geographer, philologist
+and archaeologist, he wrote numerous works, among which may
+be mentioned <i>Collection des inscriptions numidiques</i> (1870),
+<i>Épigraphie phénicienne</i> (1873), <i>Essai sur la langue poul</i> (1875),
+and <i>Le Zénaga des tribes sénégalaises</i> (1877), the last a study of
+the Berber language. He also wrote on the geography and
+history of Senegal and the Sahara, and <i>La Campagne de l&rsquo;armée du
+Nord</i> (1872). He was elected a senator in 1879, and, in spite of
+failing health, continued to the last a close student of his favourite
+subjects. He died on the 29th of September 1889, and received
+a public funeral. Statues and monuments to his memory were
+erected at Lille, Bapaume, St Quentin and St Louis, Senegal.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAIENCE<a name="ar153" id="ar153"></a></span>, properly the French term for the <i>porzellana di
+Faenza</i>, a fine kind of glazed and painted earthenware made at
+Faenza in Italy, hence a term applied generally to all kinds of
+pottery other than unglazed pottery or porcelain. It is often
+particularly applied to the translucent earthenware made in
+Persia (see <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Ceramics</a></span>).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE<a name="ar154" id="ar154"></a></span> (1810-1892), French
+general, was born at Rozoy-sur-Serre (Aisne) on the 21st of
+January 1810, and entered the army from St Cyr in 1828. In
+1851 he had risen to the rank of colonel, and Napoleon III.,
+with whom he was a favourite, made him general of brigade in
+1854 and general of division in 1855, after which for a time De
+Failly was his aide-de-camp. In the war of 1859 De Failly
+commanded a division, and in 1867 he defeated Garibaldi at
+Mentana, this action being the first in which the chassepot was
+used. In 1870 De Failly commanded the V. corps. His inactivity
+at Bitsch on the 6th of August while the I. corps on his
+right and the II. corps on his left were crushed at Wörth and
+Spicheren respectively, gave rise to the greatest indignation in
+France, and his military career ended, after the V. corps had been
+severely handled at Beaumont on the 30th of August, with the
+catastrophe of Sedan. The rest of his life was spent in retirement.
+De Failly wrote <i>Campaigne de 1870, Opérations et marche du 5<span class="sp">me</span>
+corps jusqu&rsquo;au 30 août</i> (Brussels, 1871).</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANÇOIS<a name="ar155" id="ar155"></a></span> (1778-1837), French
+historian, was born in Paris on the 11th of January 1778. Having
+gained admittance to the offices of the Directory, he became
+head of a department. Under the Consulate he entered the
+office of the secretary of state, in the department of the archives.
+In 1806 he was appointed secretary and archivist to the <i>cabinet
+particulier</i> of the emperor, whom he attended on his campaigns
+and journeys. He was created a baron of the empire in 1809,
+and, on the fall of Napoleon, was first secretary of the cabinet
+and confidential secretary. Compelled by the second Restoration
+to retire into private life, he devoted his leisure to writing the
+history of his times, an occupation for which his previous employments
+well fitted him. He published successively <i>Manuscrit de
+1814, contenant l&rsquo;histoire des six derniers mois du règne de Napoléon</i>
+(1823; new edition with illustrations, 1906); <i>Manuscrit de
+1813, contenant le précis des événements de cette année pour servir
+à l&rsquo;histoire de l&rsquo;empereur Napoléon</i> (1824); <i>Manuscrit de 1812</i>
+(1827); and <i>Manuscrit de l&rsquo;an iii. (1794-1795), contenant les
+premières transactions de l&rsquo;Europe avec la république française et
+le tableau des derniers événements du régime conventionnel</i> (1828),
+all of which are remarkable for accuracy and wide range of
+knowledge, and are a very valuable source for the history of
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page127" id="page127"></a>127</span>
+Napoleon I. Of still greater importance for the history of
+Napoleon are Fain&rsquo;s <i>Mémoires</i>, which were published posthumously
+in 1908; they relate more particularly to the last five
+years of the empire, and give a detailed picture of the emperor at
+work on his correspondence among his confidential secretaries.
+Immediately after the overthrow of Charles X., King Louis
+Philippe appointed Fain first secretary of his cabinet (August
+1830). Fain was a member of the council of state and deputy
+from Montargis from 1834 until his death, which occurred in
+Paris on the 16th of September 1837.</p>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAIR,<a name="ar156" id="ar156"></a></span> a commercial institution, defined as a &ldquo;greater species
+of market recurring at more distant intervals&rdquo;: both &ldquo;fair&rdquo;
+and &ldquo;market&rdquo; (<i>q.v.</i>) have been distinguished by Lord Coke
+from &ldquo;mart,&rdquo; which he considers as a greater species of fair;
+and all three may be defined as periodic gatherings of buyers and
+sellers in an appointed place, subject to special regulation by
+law or custom. Thus in England from a strictly legal point of
+view there can be no fair or market without a franchise; and a
+franchise of fair or market can only be exercised by right of a
+grant from the crown, or by the authority of parliament or by
+prescription presupposing a grant. In the earliest times periodical
+trading in special localities was necessitated by the difficulties of
+communication and the dangers of travel. Public gatherings,
+whether religious, military or judicial, which brought together
+widely scattered populations, were utilized as opportunities for
+commerce. At the festivals of Delos and at the Olympic games
+trade, it is said, found important outlets, while in Etruria the
+annual general assembly at the temple of Voltumna served at
+the same time as a fair and was regularly attended by Roman
+traders. Instances of a similar nature might be multiplied;
+but it was above all with religious festivals which recurred with
+regularity and convoked large numbers of persons that fairs,
+as distinguished from markets, are most intimately associated.</p>
+
+<p>The most commonly accepted derivation of the word &ldquo;fair&rdquo;
+is from the Latin <i>feria</i>, a name which the church borrowed from
+Roman custom and applied to her own festivals. A fair was
+generally held during the period of a saint&rsquo;s feast and in the
+precincts of his church or abbey, but in England this desecration
+of church or churchyard was first forbidden by the Statute of
+Winton (<i>c.</i> Edward I.). Most of the famous fairs of medieval
+England and Europe, with their tolls or other revenues, and,
+within certain limits of time and place, their monopoly of trade,
+were grants from the sovereign to abbots, bishops and other
+ecclesiastical dignitaries. Their &ldquo;holy day&rdquo; associations are
+preserved in the German word for fairs, <i>Messen</i>; as also in the
+<i>kirmiss</i>, &ldquo;church mass,&rdquo; of the people of Brittany. So very
+intimate was the connexion between the fair and the feast of the
+saint that the former has very commonly been regarded as an
+off-shoot or development of the latter. But there is every reason
+to suppose that fairs were already existing national institutions,
+long before the church turned or was privileged to turn them to
+her own profit.</p>
+
+<p>The first charter of the great fair of Stourbridge, near
+Cambridge, was granted by King John for the maintenance of
+a leper hospital; but the origin of the fair itself is ascribed
+to Carausius, the rebel emperor of Britain, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 207. At all
+events, it may be seen from the <i>data</i> given in Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s
+<i>Descriptive Sociology</i> that the country had then arrived at the
+stage of development where fairs might have been recognized as
+a necessity. The Romans also appear to have elaborated a
+market-law similar to that in force throughout medieval Europe&mdash;though
+it must be observed that the Roman <i>nundinae</i>, which
+some have regarded as fairs, were weekly markets. It has also
+been supposed that the ancient fairs of Lyons were a special
+privilege granted by the Roman conquerors; and Sidonius
+Apollinaris, <span class="scs">A.D.</span> 427, alludes to the fairs of the district afterwards
+known as the county of Champagne, as if they were then familiarly
+known institutions. Fairs, in a word, would not only have arisen
+naturally, wherever the means of communication between individual
+centres of production and consumption were felt to be
+inadequate to the demand for an interchange of commodities;
+but, from their very nature, they might be expected to show
+some essential resemblances, even in points of legislation, and
+where no international transmission of custom could have been
+possible. Thus, the fair courts of pre-Spanish Mexico corresponded
+very closely to those of the Beaucaire fair. They
+resembled the English courts of piepowder. The Spaniards,
+when first they saw the Mexican fairs, were reminded of the like
+institutions in Salamanca and Granada. The great fair or market
+at the city of Mexico is said to have been attended by about
+40,000 or 50,000 persons, and is thus described by Prescott:&mdash;</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>&ldquo;Officers patrolled the square, whose business it was to keep the
+peace, to collect the dues imposed on the various kinds of merchandise,
+to see that no false measures or fraud of any kind were used,
+and to bring offenders at once to justice. A court of twelve judges
+sat in one part of the <i>tianguez</i> clothed with those ample and
+summary powers which, in despotic countries, are often delegated
+even to petty tribunals. The extreme severity with which they
+exercised those powers, in more than one instance, proves that they
+were not a dead letter.&rdquo;</p>
+</div>
+
+<p>But notwithstanding the great antiquity of fairs, their charters
+are comparatively modern&mdash;the oldest known being that of St
+Denys, Paris, which Dagobert, king of the Franks, granted
+(<span class="scs">A.D.</span> 642) to the monks of the place &ldquo;for the glory of God, and
+the honour of St Denys at his festival.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p>In England it was only after the Norman conquest that fairs
+became of capital importance. Records exist of 2800 grants of
+franchise markets and fairs between the years 1199 and 1483.
+More than half of these were made during the reigns of John and
+Henry III., when the power of the church was in ascendancy.
+The first recorded grant, however, appears to be that of William
+the Conqueror to the bishop of Winchester, for leave to hold
+an annual &ldquo;free fair&rdquo; at St Giles&rsquo;s hill. The monk who had been
+the king&rsquo;s jester received his charter of Bartholomew fair,
+Smithfield, in the year 1133. And in 1248 Henry III. granted
+a like privilege to the abbot of Westminster, in honour of the
+&ldquo;translation&rdquo; of Edward the Confessor. Sometimes fairs were
+granted to towns as a means for enabling them to recover from
+the effects of war and other disasters. Thus, Edward III.
+granted a &ldquo;free fair&rdquo; to the town of Burnley in Rutland, just
+as, in subsequent times, Charles VII. favoured Bordeaux after
+the English wars, and Louis XIV. gave fair charters to the
+towns of Dieppe and Toulon. The importance attached to
+these old fairs may be understood from the inducements which,
+in the 14th century, Charles IV. held out to traders visiting the
+great fair of Frankfort-on-Main. The charter declared that
+both during the continuance of the fair, and for eighteen days
+before and after it, merchants would be exempt from imperial
+taxation, from arrest for debt, or civil process of any sort, except
+such as might arise from the transactions of the market itself
+and within its precincts. Philip of Valois&rsquo;s regulations for the
+fairs of Troyes in Champagne might not only be accepted as
+typical of all subsequent fair-legislation of the kingdom, but
+even of the English and German laws on the subject. The fair
+had its staff of notaries for the attestation of bargains, its court
+of justice, its police officers, its sergeants for the execution of the
+market judges&rsquo; decrees, and its visitors&mdash;of whom we may mention
+the <i>prud&rsquo;hommes</i>,&mdash;whose duty it was to examine the quality of
+goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate those found unfit for
+consumption. The confiscation required the consent of five or
+six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
+The effect of these great &ldquo;free fairs&rdquo; of England and the
+continent on the development of society was indeed great.
+They helped to familiarize the western and northern countries
+with the banking and financial systems of the Lombards and
+Florentines, who resorted to them under the protection of the
+sovereign&rsquo;s &ldquo;firm peace,&rdquo; and the ghostly terrors of the pope.
+They usually became the seat of foreign agencies. In the names
+of her streets Provins preserved the memory of her 12th-century
+intercourse with the agents and merchants of Germany and the
+Low Countries, and long before that time the Syrian traders at
+St Denys had established their powerful association in Paris.
+Like the church on the religious side, the free fairs on the commercial
+side evoked and cherished the international spirit. And
+during long ages, when commercial &ldquo;protection&rdquo; was regarded
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page128" id="page128"></a>128</span>
+as indispensable to a nation&rsquo;s wealth, and the merchant was
+compelled to &ldquo;fight his way through a wilderness of taxes,&rdquo;
+they were the sole and, so far as they went, the complete substitute
+for the free trade of later days.</p>
+
+<p>Their privileges, however, were, from their very nature,
+destined to grow more oppressive and intolerable the more
+the towns were multiplied and the means of communication
+increased. The people of London were compelled to close their
+shops during the days when the abbot of Westminster&rsquo;s fair was
+open. But a more curious and complete instance of such an
+ecclesiastical monopoly was that of the St Giles&rsquo;s fair, at first
+granted for the customary three days, which were increased by
+Henry III. to sixteen. The bishop of Winchester was, as we
+have seen, the lord of this fair. On the eve of St Giles&rsquo;s feast
+the magistrates of Winchester surrendered the keys of the city
+gates to the bishop, who then appointed his own mayor, bailiff
+and coroner, to hold office until the close of the fair. During the
+same period, Winchester and Southampton also&mdash;though it was
+then a thriving trading town&mdash;were forbidden to transact their
+ordinary commercial business, except within the bishop&rsquo;s fair,
+or with his special permission. The bishop&rsquo;s officers were posted
+along the highways, with power to forfeit to his lordship all goods
+bought and sold within 7 m. of the fair&mdash;in whose centre stood
+&ldquo;the pavilion,&rdquo; or bishop&rsquo;s court. It is clear, from the curious
+record of the <i>Establishment and Expenses of the Household</i> of
+Percy, 5th earl of Northumberland, that fairs were the chief
+centres of country traffic even as late as the 16th century. They
+began to decline rapidly after 1759, when good roads had been
+constructed and canal communication established between Liverpool
+and the towns of Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire. In
+the great towns their extinction was hastened in consequence of
+their evil effects on public morals. All the London fairs were
+abolished as public nuisances before 1855&mdash;the last year of the
+ever famous fair of St Bartholomew; and the fairs of Paris were
+swept away in the storm of the Revolution.</p>
+
+<p><i>English Fairs and Markets.</i>&mdash;For the general reasons apparent
+from the preceding sketch, fairs in England, as in France and
+Germany, have very largely given way to markets for specialities.
+Even the live-stock market of the metropolis is being superseded
+by the dead-meat market, a change which has been encouraged
+by modern legislation on cattle disease, the movements of home
+stock and the importation of foreign animals. Agricultural
+markets are also disappearing before the &ldquo;agencies&rdquo; and the
+corn exchanges in the principal towns. Still there are some
+considerable fairs yet remaining. Of the English fairs for live
+stock, those of Weyhill in Hampshire (October 10), St Faith&rsquo;s,
+near Norwich (October 17), as also several held at Devizes,
+Wiltshire, are among the largest in the kingdom. The first named
+stands next to none for its display of sheep. Horncastle, Lincolnshire,
+is the largest horse fair in the kingdom, and is regularly
+visited by American and continental dealers. The other leading
+horse fairs in England are Howden in Yorkshire (well known for
+its hunters), Woodbridge (on Lady Day) for Suffolk horses, Barnet
+in Hertfordshire, and Lincoln. Exeter December fair has a
+large display of cattle, horses and most kinds of commodities.
+Large numbers of Scotch cattle are also brought to the fairs of
+Carlisle and Ormskirk. Nottingham has a fair for geese. Ipswich
+has a fair for lambs on the 1st of August, and for butter and
+cheese on the 1st of September. Gloucester fair is also famous
+for the last-named commodity. Falkirk fair, or tryst, for cattle
+and sheep, is one of the largest in Scotland; and Ballinasloe,
+Galway, holds a like position among Irish fairs. The Ballinasloe
+cattle are usually fed for a year in Leinster before they are
+considered fit for the Dublin or Liverpool markets.</p>
+
+<p><i>French Fairs.</i>&mdash;In France fairs and markets are held under
+the authority of the prefects, new fairs and markets being established
+by order of the prefects at the instance of the commune
+interested. Before the Revolution fairs and markets could only
+be established by <i>seigneurs justiciers</i>, but only two small markets
+have survived the law of 1790 abolishing private ownership of
+market rights, namely, the <i>Marché Ste Catherine</i> and the <i>Marché
+des enfants rouges</i>, both in Paris. Under the present system
+markets and fairs are held in most of the towns and villages in
+France; and at all such gatherings entertainments form an
+important feature. The great fair of Beaucaire instituted in
+1168 has steadily declined since the opening of railway communication,
+and now ranks with the fairs of ordinary provincial
+towns. Situated at the junction of the Rhone and the Canal du
+Midi, and less than 40 m. from the sea, it at one time attracted
+merchants from Spain, from Switzerland and Germany, and
+from the Levant and Mediterranean ports, and formed one of the
+greatest temporary centres of commerce on the continent. One
+trade firm alone, it is said, rarely did less than 1,000,000 francs
+worth of business during the fortnight that the fair lasted.</p>
+
+<p><i>German Fairs.</i>&mdash;In Germany the police authorities are considered
+the market authorities, and to them in most cases is
+assigned the duty of establishing new fairs and markets, subject
+to magisterial decision. The three great fairs of Germany are
+those of Frankfort-on-Main, Frankfort-on-Oder and Leipzig,
+but, like all the large fairs of Europe, they have declined rapidly
+in importance. Those of Frankfort-on-Main begin on Easter
+Tuesday and on the nearest Monday to September 8 respectively,
+and their legal duration is three weeks, though the limit is regularly
+extended. The fairs of the second-named city are <i>Reminiscere</i>,
+February or March; <i>St Margaret</i>, July; <i>St Martin</i>,
+November. Ordinarily they last fifteen days, which is double the
+legal term. The greatest of the German fairs are those of Leipzig,
+whose display of books is famous all over the world. Its three
+fairs are dated January 1, Easter, Michaelmas. The Easter one
+is the book fair, which is attended by all the principal booksellers
+of Germany, and by many more from the adjoining countries.
+Most German publishers have agents at Leipzig. As many as
+5000 new publications have been entered in a single Leipzig
+catalogue. As in the other instances given, the Leipzig fairs last
+for three weeks, or nearly thrice their allotted duration. Here no
+days of grace are allowed, and the holder of a bill must demand
+payment when due, and protest, if necessary, on the same day,
+otherwise he cannot proceed against either drawer or endorser.</p>
+
+<p><i>Russian Fairs.</i>&mdash;In Russia fairs are held by local authorities.
+Landed proprietors may also hold fairs on their estates subject
+to the sanction of the local authorities; but no private tolls
+may be levied on commodities brought to such fairs. In Siberia
+and the east of Russia, where more primitive conditions foster
+such centres of trade, fairs are still of considerable importance.
+Throughout Russia generally they are very numerous. The
+most important, that of Nijni Novgorod, held annually in July
+and August at the confluence of the rivers Volga and Kama,
+was instituted in the 17th century by the tsar Michael Fedorovitch.
+In 1881 it was calculated that trade to the value of
+246,000,000 roubles was carried on within the limits of the fair.
+It still continues to be of great commercial importance, and is
+usually attended by upwards of 100,000 persons from all parts
+of Asia and eastern Europe. Other fairs of consequence are
+those of Irbit in Perm, Kharkoff (January and August), Poltava
+(August and February), Koreunais in Koursk, Ourloupinsknia
+in the Don Cossack country, Krolevetz in Tchernigoff, and a
+third fair held at Poltava on the feast of the Ascension.</p>
+
+<p><i>Indian Fairs.</i>&mdash;The largest of these, and perhaps the largest
+in Asia, is that of Hurdwar, on the upper course of the Ganges.
+The visitors to this holy fair number from 200,000 to 300,000;
+but every twelfth year there occurs a special pilgrimage to the
+sacred river, when the numbers may amount to a million or
+upwards. Those who go solely for the purposes of trade are
+Nepalese, Mongolians, Tibetans, central Asiatics and Mahommedan
+pedlars from the Punjab, Sind and the border states.
+Persian shawls and carpets, Indian silks, Kashmir shawls, cottons
+(Indian and English), preserved fruits, spices, drugs, &amp;c. , together
+with immense numbers of cattle, horses, sheep and camels, are
+brought to this famous fair.</p>
+
+<p><i>American Fairs.</i>&mdash;The word &ldquo;fair,&rdquo; as now used in the United
+States, appears to have completely lost its Old World meaning.
+It seems to be exclusively applied to industrial exhibitions and
+to what in England are called fancy bazaars. Thus, during the
+Civil War, large sums were collected at the &ldquo;sanitary fairs,&rdquo;
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page129" id="page129"></a>129</span>
+for the benefit of the sick and wounded. To the first-named class
+belong the state and county fairs, as they are called. Among the
+first and best-known of these was the &ldquo;New York World&rsquo;s Fair,&rdquo;
+opened in 1853 by a company formed in 1851. (See <span class="sc"><a href="#artlinks">Exhibition</a></span>.)</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p><i>Law of Fairs.</i>&mdash;As no market or fair can be held in England
+without a royal charter, or right of prescription, so any person
+establishing a fair without such sanction is liable to be sued under
+a writ of <i>Quo warranto</i>, by any one to whose property the said
+market may be injurious. Nor can a fair or market be legally held
+beyond the time specified in the grant; and by 5 Edward III. c. 5
+(1331) a merchant selling goods after the legal expiry of the fair
+forfeited double their value. To be valid, a sale must take place in
+&ldquo;market-overt&rdquo; (open market); &ldquo;it will not be binding if it carries
+with it a presumption of fraudulence.&rdquo; These regulations satisfied,
+the sale &ldquo;transfers a complete property in the thing sold to the
+vendee; so that however injurious or illegal the title of the vendor
+may be, yet the vendee&rsquo;s is good against all men except the king.&rdquo;
+(In Scottish law, the claims of the real owner would still remain
+valid.) However, by 21 Henry VIII. c. 2 (1529) it was enacted that,
+&ldquo;if any felon rob or take away money, goods, or chattels, and be
+indicted and found guilty, or otherwise attainted upon evidence
+given by the owner or party robbed, or by any other by their procurement,
+the owner or party robbed shall be restored to his money,
+goods or chattels,&rdquo; but only those goods were restored which were
+specified in the indictment, now could the owner recover from a
+<i>bona fide</i> purchaser in market-overt who had sold the goods before
+conviction. For obvious reasons the rules of market-overt were
+made particularly stringent in the case of horses. Thus, by 2
+Philip &amp; Mary c. 7 (1555) and 31 Eliz. c. 12 (1589) no sale of a
+horse was legal which had not satisfied the following conditions;&mdash;Public
+exposure of the animal for at least an hour between sunrise
+and sunset; identification of the vendor by the market officer, or
+guarantee for his honesty by &ldquo;one sufficient and credible person&rdquo;;
+entry of these particulars, together with a description of the animal,
+and a statement of the price paid for it, in the market officer&rsquo;s book.
+Even if his rights should have been violated in spite of all these
+precautions, the lawful owner could recover, if he claimed within
+six months, produced witnesses, and tendered the price paid to the
+vendor. Tolls were not a &ldquo;necessary incident&rdquo; of a fair&mdash;<i>i.e.</i> they
+were illegal unless specially granted in the patent, or recognized by
+custom. As a rule, they were paid only by the vendee, and to the
+market clerk, whose record of the payment was an attestation to
+the genuineness of the purchase. By 2 &amp; 3 Philip &amp; Mary c. 7
+every lord of a fair entitled to exact tolls was bound to appoint a
+clerk to collect and enter them. It was also this functionary&rsquo;s
+business to test measures and weights. Tolls, again, are sometimes
+held to include &ldquo;stallage&rdquo; and &ldquo;picage,&rdquo; which mean respectively
+the price for permission to erect stalls and to dig holes for posts in
+the market grounds. But toll proper belongs to the lord of the
+market, whereas the other two are usually regarded as the property
+of the lord of the soil. The law also provided that stallage might
+be levied on any house situated in the vicinity of a market, and kept
+open for business during the legal term of the said market. Among
+modern statutes, one of the chief is the Markets and Fairs Clauses
+Act 1847, the chief purpose of which was to consolidate previous
+measures. By the act no proprietors of a new market were permitted
+to let stallages, take tolls, or in any way open their ground
+for business, until two justices of the peace certified to the completion
+of the fair or market. After the opening of the place for public use,
+no person other than a licensed hawker may sell anywhere within
+the borough, his own house or shop excepted, any articles in respect
+of which tolls are legally exigible in the market. A breach of this
+provision entails a penalty of forty shillings. Vendors of unwholesome
+meat are liable to a penalty of £5 for each offence; and the
+&ldquo;inspectors of provisions&rdquo; have full liberty to seize the goods and
+institute proceedings against the owners. They may also enter &ldquo;at
+all times of the day, with or without assistance,&rdquo; the slaughter-house
+which the undertaker of the market may, by the special act, have
+been empowered to construct. For general sanitary reasons,
+persons are prohibited from killing animals anywhere except in
+these slaughter-houses. Again, by the Fairs Act 1873, times of
+holding fairs are determined by the secretary of state; while the
+Fairs Act 1871 empowers him to abolish any fair on the representation
+of the magistrate and with the consent of the owner. The
+preamble of the act states that many fairs held in England and Wales
+are both unnecessary and productive of &ldquo;grievous immorality.&rdquo;</p>
+
+<p><i>The Fair Courts.</i>&mdash;The piepowder courts, the lowest but most
+expeditious courts of justice in the kingdom, as Chitty calls them,
+were very ancient. The Conqueror&rsquo;s law <i>De Emporiis</i> shows their
+pre-existence in Normandy. Their name was derived from <i>pied
+poudreux</i>, <i>i.e.</i> &ldquo;dusty-foot.&rdquo;<a name="fa1r" id="fa1r" href="#ft1r"><span class="sp">1</span></a> The lord of the fair or his representative
+was the presiding judge, and usually he was assisted by a jury
+of traders chosen on the spot. Their jurisdiction was limited by
+the legal time and precincts of the fair, and to disputes about
+contracts, &ldquo;slander of wares,&rdquo; attestations, the preservation of
+order, &amp;c.</p>
+
+<p><i>Authorities.</i>&mdash;See Herbert Spencer&rsquo;s <i>Descriptive Sociology</i> (1873),
+especially the columns and paragraphs on &ldquo;Distribution&rdquo;; Prescott&rsquo;s
+<i>History of Mexico</i>, for descriptions of fairs under the Aztecs;
+Giles Jacob&rsquo;s <i>Law Dictionary</i> (London, 1809); Joseph Chitty&rsquo;s
+<i>Treatise on the Law of Commerce and Manufactures</i>, vol. ii. chap. 9
+(London, 1824); Holinshed&rsquo;s and Grafton&rsquo;s <i>Chronicles</i>, for lists, &amp;c. ,
+of English fairs; Meyer&rsquo;s <i>Das grosse Conversations-Lexicon</i> (1852),
+under &ldquo;Messen&rdquo;; article &ldquo;Foire&rdquo; in Larousse&rsquo;s <i>Dictionnaire
+universelle du XIX<span class="sp">e</span> siècle</i> (Paris, 1866-1874), and its references
+to past authorities; and especially, the second volume, commercial
+series, of the <i>Encyclopédie méthodique</i> (Paris, 1783); M&rsquo;Culloch&rsquo;s
+<i>Dictionary of Commerce</i> (1869-1871); Wharton&rsquo;s <i>History of English
+Poetry</i>, pp. 185, 186 of edition of 1870 (London, Murray &amp; Son), for
+a description of the Winchester Fair, &amp;c. ; a note by Professor Henry
+Morley in p. 498, vol. vii. <i>Notes and Queries</i>, second series; the same
+author&rsquo;s unique <i>History of the Fair of St Bartholomew</i> (London, 1859);
+Wharton&rsquo;s <i>Law Lexicon</i> (Will&rsquo;s edition, London, 1876); P. Huvelin&rsquo;s
+<i>Essai historique sur le droit des marchés et des foires</i> (Paris, 1897);
+<i>Report of the Royal Commission on Market Rights and Tolls</i>, vols. i.
+(1889), xiv. (1891); <i>Final Report</i> (1891); Walford&rsquo;s <i>Fairs, Past
+and Present</i> (1883); <i>The Law relating to Markets and Fairs</i>, by
+Pease and Chitty (London, 1899).</p>
+</div>
+<div class="author">(J. Ma.; Ev. C.*)</div>
+
+<hr class="foot" /> <div class="note">
+
+<p><a name="ft1r" id="ft1r" href="#fa1r"><span class="fn">1</span></a> In Med. Lat. <i>pede-pulverosus</i> meant an itinerant merchant or
+pedlar. In Scots borough law &ldquo;marchand travelland&rdquo; and &ldquo;dusty
+fute&rdquo; are identical.</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN<a name="ar157" id="ar157"></a></span> (1838-&emsp;&emsp;), British Nonconformist
+divine, was born near Edinburgh on the 4th of
+November 1838. He was educated at the universities of Edinburgh
+and Berlin, and at the Evangelical Union Theological
+Academy in Glasgow. He entered the Congregational ministry
+and held pastorates at Bathgate, West Lothian and at Aberdeen.
+From 1877 to 1886 he was principal of Airedale College, Bradford,
+a post which he gave up to become the first principal of Mansfield
+College, Oxford. In the transference to Oxford under that name
+of Spring Hill College, Birmingham, he took a considerable part,
+and he has exercised influence not only over generations of his
+own students, but also over a large number of undergraduates
+in the university generally. He was granted the degree of M.A.
+by a decree of Convocation, and in 1903 received the honorary
+degree of doctor of literature. He was also given the degrees of
+doctor of divinity of Edinburgh and Yale, and doctor of laws
+of Aberdeen. His activities were not limited to his college work.
+He delivered the Muir lectures at Edinburgh University (1878-1882),
+the Gifford lectures at Aberdeen (1892-1894), the Lyman
+Beecher lectures at Yale (1891-1892), and the Haskell lectures
+in India (1898-1899). He was a member of the Royal Commission
+of Secondary Education in 1894-1895, and of the Royal
+Commission on the Endowments of the Welsh Church in 1906. In
+1883 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England
+and Wales. He is a prolific writer on theological subjects. He
+resigned his position at Mansfield College in the spring of 1909.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>Among his works are:&mdash;<i>Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and
+History</i> (1876); <i>Studies in the Life of Christ</i> (1881); <i>Religion in
+History and in Modern Life</i> (1884; rev. 1893); <i>Christ in Modern
+Theology</i> (1893); <i>Christ in the Centuries</i> (1893); <i>Catholicism Roman
+and Anglican</i> (1899); <i>Philosophy of the Christian Religion</i> (1902);
+<i>Studies in Religion and Theology</i> (1909).</p>
+</div>
+
+
+<hr class="art" />
+<p><span class="bold">FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM<a name="ar158" id="ar158"></a></span>, Bart. (1789-1874), Scottish
+engineer, was born on the 19th of February 1789 at Kelso,
+Roxburghshire, where his father was a farm-bailiff. In 1803
+he obtained work at three shillings a week as a mason&rsquo;s labourer
+on the bridge then being built by John Rennie at Kelso; but
+within a few days he was incapacitated by an accident. Later
+in the same year, his father having been appointed steward on a
+farm connected with Percy Main Colliery near North Shields,
+he obtained employment as a carter in connexion with the
+colliery. In March 1804 he was bound an apprentice to a millwright
+at Percy Main, and then found time to supplement the
+deficiencies of his early education by systematic private study.
+It was at Percy Main that he made the acquaintance of George
+Stephenson, who then had charge of an engine at a neighbouring
+colliery. For some years subsequent to the expiry of his apprenticeship
+in 1811, he lived a somewhat roving life, seldom remaining
+long in one place and often reduced to very hard straits before
+he got employment. But in 1817 he entered into partnership
+with a shopmate, James Lillie, with whose aid he hired an old
+shed in High Street, Manchester, where he set up a lathe and
+began business. The firm quickly secured a good reputation,
+<span class="pagenum"><a name="page130" id="page130"></a>130</span>
+and the improvements in mill-work and water-wheels introduced
+by Fairbairn caused its fame to extend beyond Manchester to
+Scotland and even the continent of Europe. The partnership
+was dissolved in 1832.</p>
+
+<p>In 1830 Fairbairn had been employed by the Forth and Clyde
+Canal Company to make experiments with the view of determining
+whether it were possible to construct steamers capable of
+traversing the canal at a speed which would compete successfully
+with that of the railway; and the results of his investigation
+were published by him in 1831, under the title <i>Remarks on Canal
+Navigation</i>. His plan of using iron boats proved inadequate
+to overcome the difficulties of this problem, but in the development
+of the use of this material both in the case of merchant
+vessels and men-of-war he took a leading part. In this way
+also he was led to pursue extensive experiments in regard to
+the strength of iron. In 1835 he established, in connexion with
+his Manchester business, a shipbuilding yard at Millwall, London,
+where he constructed several hundred vessels, including many
+for the royal navy; but he ultimately found that other engagements
+prevented him from paying adequate attention to the
+management, and at the end of fourteen years he disposed of the
+concern at a great loss. In 1837 he was consulted by the sultan
+of Turkey in regard to machinery for the government workshops
+at Constantinople. In 1845 he was employed, in conjunction
+with Robert Stephenson, in constructing the tubular railway
+bridges across the Conway and Menai Straits. The share he had
+in the undertaking has been the subject of some dispute; his
+own version is contained in a volume he published in 1849, <i>An
+Account of the Construction of the Britannia and Conway Tubular
+Bridges</i>. In 1849 he was invited by the king of Prussia to submit
+designs for the construction of a bridge across the Rhine, but
+after various negotiations, another design, by a Prussian engineer,
+which was a modification of Fairbairn&rsquo;s, was adopted. Another
+matter which engaged much of Fairbairn&rsquo;s attention was steam
+boilers, in the construction of which he effected many improvements.
+Amid all the cares of business he found time for varied
+scientific investigation. In 1851 his fertility and readiness of
+invention greatly aided an inquiry carried out at his Manchester
+works by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) and J.P. Joule,
+at the instigation of William Hopkins, to determine the melting
+points of substances under great pressure; and from 1861 to
+1865 he was employed to guide the experiments of the government
+committee appointed to inquire into the &ldquo;application of
+iron to defensive purposes.&rdquo; He died at Moor Park, Surrey,
+on the 18th of August 1874. Fairbairn was a member of many
+learned societies, both British and foreign, and in 1861 served
+as president of the British Association. He declined a knighthood,
+in 1861, but accepted a baronetcy in 1869.</p>
+
+<p>His youngest brother, <span class="sc">Sir Peter Fairbairn</span> (1799-1861),
+founded a large machine manufacturing business in Leeds.
+Starting on a small scale with flax-spinning machinery, he
+subsequently extended his operations to the manufacture of
+textile machinery in general, and finally to that of engineering
+tools. He was knighted in 1858.</p>
+
+<div class="condensed">
+<p>See <i>The Life of Sir William Fairbairn</i>, partly written by himself
+and edited and completed by Dr William Pole (1877).</p>
+</div>
+
+<hr class="art" />
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+<pre>
+
+
+
+
+
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+</body>
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+
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+The Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition,
+Volume 10, Slice 1, by Various
+
+This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with
+almost no restrictions whatsoever.  You may copy it, give it away or
+re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included
+with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org
+
+
+Title: Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th Edition, Volume 10, Slice 1
+       "Evangelical Church Conference" to "Fairbairn, Sir William"
+
+Author: Various
+
+Release Date: July 14, 2011 [EBook #36735]
+
+Language: English
+
+Character set encoding: ASCII
+
+*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ENCYC. BRITANNICA, VOL 10, SL 1 ***
+
+
+
+
+Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
+Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+Transcriber's notes:
+
+(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
+      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
+      underscore, like C_n.
+
+(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.
+
+(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
+      paragraphs.
+
+(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
+      inserted.
+
+(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
+      letters.
+
+(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:
+
+    ARTICLE EVELYN, JOHN: "He was admitted to the Middle Temple in
+      February 1637, and in May he became a fellow commoner of Balliol
+      College, Oxford." 'he' amended from 'be'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "The supposition that sensation thus rests on a
+      material process of absorption from external bodies naturally led
+      up to the idea that plants and even inorganic substances are
+      precipient, and so to an indistinct recognition of organic life as
+      a scale of intelligence." 'substances' amended from 'subtances'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "The conception of evolution was henceforward
+      irrepressible, and it incessantly reappears, in one shape or
+      another, up to the year 1858, when Charles Darwin and A.R. Wallace
+      published their Theory of Natural Selection." 'irrepressible'
+      amended from 'irrespressible'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVOLUTION: "And those of the eighth group are not only
+      unintelligible without the assumption of evolution, but can be
+      proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in some
+      cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires."
+      'unintelligible' amended from 'unin-intelligible'.
+
+    ARTICLE EVORA: "From 1663 to 1665 it was held by the Spaniards. In
+      1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom Pedro, took refuge in Evora;
+      and here was signed the convention of Evora, by which he was
+      banished." 'From' amended from 'Fom'.
+
+    ARTICLE EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR: "From this time until her death
+      (13th May 1885), previously to which she had been a constant
+      invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming children's
+      stories." 'May' amended from 'may'.
+
+    ARTICLE EXAMINATIONS: "In many universities of the United States
+      there is a definite understanding that emoluments shall only be
+      accepted by those needing them." 'In' amended from 'It'.
+
+    ARTICLE EXECUTION: "There may still be imprisonment in England,
+      under the writ--rarely used in practice--ne exeat regno, which
+      issues to prevent a debtor from leaving the kingdom." 'kingdom'
+      amended from 'kindgom'.
+
+    ARTICLE EXECUTION: "Under the German Code of Civil Procedure (Arts.
+      796 et seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer
+      adequate security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the
+      process is called arrest) as a guarantee of payment." 'Procedure'
+      amended from 'Prodecure'.
+
+    ARTICLE EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF: "The Apocalypse is called 1 Esdras,
+      our author 2 Esdras, and Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras, or 3 and 4
+      Esdras." 'Apocalypse' amended from 'Apocalyspe'.
+
+    ARTICLE EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF: "It is difficult to follow its
+      progress clearly, and the account ceases abruptly in. vi. 17-19
+      with the notice of the conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of
+      Judah." 'progress' amended from 'progrees'.
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+
+
+  FIRST  edition, published in three    volumes, 1768-1771.
+  SECOND    "        "        ten          "     1777-1784.
+  THIRD     "        "        eighteen     "     1788-1797.
+  FOURTH    "        "        twenty       "     1801-1810.
+  FIFTH     "        "        twenty       "     1815-1817.
+  SIXTH     "        "        twenty       "     1823-1824.
+  SEVENTH   "        "        twenty-one   "     1830-1842.
+  EIGHTH    "        "        twenty-two   "     1853-1860.
+  NINTH     "        "        twenty-five  "     1875-1889.
+  TENTH     "   ninth edition and eleven
+                  supplementary volumes,         1902-1903.
+  ELEVENTH  "  published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910-1911.
+
+
+  COPYRIGHT
+
+  in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention
+
+  by
+
+  THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS
+  of the
+  UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
+
+
+  _All rights reserved_
+
+
+
+
+  THE
+
+  ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+  A DICTIONARY OF
+  ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION
+
+  ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+
+  VOLUME X
+  EVANGELICAL CHURCH to FRANCIS JOSEPH
+
+  New York
+
+  Encyclopaedia Britannica, Inc.
+  342 Madison Avenue
+
+
+  Copyright, in the United States of America, 1910,
+  by
+  The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company.
+
+
+                   VOLUME X, SLICE I
+
+  Evangelical Church Conference to Fairbairn, Sir William
+
+
+
+
+ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:
+
+
+  EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE     EXPULSION
+  EVANGELICAL UNION                 EXTENSION
+  EVANS, CHRISTMAS                  EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES
+  EVANS, EVAN HERBER                EXTERRITORIALITY
+  EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY         EXTORTION
+  EVANS, SIR JOHN                   EXTRACT
+  EVANS, OLIVER                     EXTRADITION
+  EVANSON, EDWARD                   EXTRADOS
+  EVANSTON                          EXTREME UNCTION
+  EVANSVILLE                        EYBESCHUTZ, JONATHAN
+  EVARISTUS                         EYCK, VAN
+  EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL           EYE (English town)
+  EVE                               EYE (organ)
+  EVECTION                          EYEMOUTH
+  EVELETH                           EYLAU
+  EVELYN, JOHN                      EYRA
+  EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN            EYRE, EDWARD JOHN
+  EVEREST, SIR GEORGE               EYRE, SIR JAMES
+  EVEREST, MOUNT                    EYRIE
+  EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL           EZEKIEL
+  EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL          EZRA
+  EVERETT, EDWARD                   EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF
+  EVERETT (Massachusetts, U.S.A.)   EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF
+  EVERETT (Washington, U.S.A.)      EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF
+  EVERGLADES                        EZZO
+  EVERGREEN                         EZZOLIED
+  EVERLASTING                       F
+  EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE    FABBRONI, ANGELO
+  EVESHAM                           FABER
+  EVIDENCE                          FABER, BASIL
+  EVIL EYE                          FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM
+  EVOLUTION                         FABER, JACOBUS
+  EVORA                             FABER, JOHANN
+  EVREUX                            FABERT, ABRAHAM DE
+  EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON  FABIAN, SAINT
+  EWALD, JOHANNES                   FABIUS
+  EWART, WILLIAM                    FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS
+  EWE                               FABLE
+  EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT           FABLIAU
+  EWING, ALEXANDER                  FABRE, FERDINAND
+  EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR        FABRE D'EGLANTINE, FRANCOIS NAZAIRE
+  EWING, THOMAS                     FABRETTI, RAPHAEL
+  EXAMINATIONS                      FABRIANI, SEVERINO
+  EXARCH                            FABRIANO
+  EXCAMBION                         FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS
+  EXCELLENCY                        FABRICIUS, GEORG
+  EXCHANGE                          FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS
+  EXCHEQUER                         FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT
+  EXCISE                            FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN
+  EXCOMMUNICATION                   FABRIZI, NICOLA
+  EXCRETION                         FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL
+  EXECUTION                         FABYAN, ROBERT
+  EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS      FACADE
+  EXEDRA                            FACCIOLATI, JACOPO
+  EXELMANS, RENE JOSEPH ISIDORE     FACE
+  EXEQUATUR                         FACTION
+  EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS & DUKE OF  FACTOR
+  EXETER (England)                  FACTORY ACTS
+  EXETER (New Hampshire, U.S.A.)    FACULA
+  EXETER BOOK                       FACULTY
+  EXHIBITION                        FAED, THOMAS
+  EXHUMATION                        FAENZA
+  EXILARCH                          FAEROE
+  EXILE                             FAESULAE
+  EXILI                             FAFNIR
+  EXMOOR FOREST                     FAGGING
+  EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW            FAGGOT
+  EXMOUTH                           FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES
+  EXODUS, BOOK OF                   FAGUET, EMILE
+  EXODUS, THE                       FA-HIEN
+  EXOGAMY                           FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK
+  EXORCISM                          FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL
+  EXORCIST                          FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LEON CESAR
+  EXOTIC                            FAIENCE
+  EXPATRIATION                      FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE
+  EXPERT                            FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANCOIS
+  EXPLOSIVES                        FAIR
+  EXPRESS                           FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN
+  EXPROPRIATION                     FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM
+
+
+
+
+INITIALS USED IN VOLUME X. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,[1] WITH
+THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED.
+
+
+A. B. R.
+    ALFRED BARTON RENDLE, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S., F.L.S.
+      Keeper, Department of Botany, British Museum. Author of _Text Book
+      on Classification of Flowering Plants_; &c.
+
+    Flower.
+
+A. D.
+    AUSTIN DOBSON, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: DOBSON, H. AUSTIN.
+
+    Fielding, Henry.
+
+A. F. B.
+    ALDRED FARRER BARKER, M.SC.
+      Professor of Textile Industries at Bradford Technical College.
+
+    Felt.
+
+A. F. P.
+    ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC.
+      Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow
+      of All Souls' College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the _Dictionary
+      of National Biography_, 1893-1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892;
+      Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of _England under Protector
+      Somerset_; _Henry VIII._; _Life of Thomas Cranmer_; &c.
+
+    Ferrar, Bishop;
+    Fox, Edward;
+    Fox, Richard.
+
+A. G.
+    MAJOR ARTHUR GEORGE FREDERICK GRIFFITHS (d. 1908).
+      H.M. Inspector of Prisons, 1878-1896. Author of _The Chronicles of
+      Newgate_; _Secrets of the Prison House_; &c.
+
+    Finger Prints.
+
+A. Go.*
+    REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A.
+      Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester.
+
+    Faber, Basil, Jacobus and Johann;
+    Familists;
+    Farel, G.;
+    Flacius.
+
+A. H.-S.
+    SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E.
+      General in the Persian Army. Author of _Eastern Persian Irak_.
+
+    Fars;
+    Firuzabad.
+
+A. L.
+    ANDREW LANG.
+      See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW.
+
+    Fairy;
+    Family.
+
+A. L. B.
+    ALFRED LYS BALDRY.
+      Art Critic of the _Globe_, 1893-1908. Author of _Modern Mural
+      Decoration_ and biographies of Albert Moore, Sir H. von Herkomer,
+      R.A., Sir J. E. Millais, P.R.A., Marcus Stone, R.A., and G. H.
+      Boughton, R.A.
+
+    Fortuny.
+
+A. N.
+    ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S.
+      See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED.
+
+    Falcon;
+    Fieldfare;
+    Finch;
+    Flycatcher;
+    Fowl.
+
+A. S.
+    ARTHUR SMITHELLS, F.R.S.
+      Professor of Chemistry in the University of Leeds. Author of
+      Scientific Papers on Flame and Spectrum Analysis.
+
+    Flame.
+
+A. M. C.
+    AGNES MARY CLERKE.
+      See the biographical article: CLERKE, A. M.
+
+    Flamsteed.
+
+A. W.
+    ARTHUR WATSON.
+      Secretary in the Academic Department, University of London.
+
+    Examinations (_in part_).
+
+A. W. R.
+    ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B.
+      Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of
+      _Encyclopaedia of the Laws of England_.
+
+    Fixtures;
+    Flat.
+
+A. W. W.
+    ADOLPHUS WILLIAM WARD, D.LITT., LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: WARD, A. W.
+
+    Foote, Samuel;
+    Ford, John.
+
+C. El.
+    SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.A., LL.D., D.C.L.
+      Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of
+      Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and
+      Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent
+      and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East
+      Africa, 1900-1904.
+
+    Finno-Ugrian.
+
+C. F. B.
+    CHARLES FRANCIS BASTABLE, M.A., LL.D.
+      Regius Professor of Laws and Professor of Political Economy in the
+      University of Dublin. Author of _Public Finance_; _Commerce of
+      Nations_; _Theory of International Trade_; &c.
+
+Finance.
+
+C. F. C.
+    C. F. CROSS, B.SC. (Lond.), F.C.S. F.I.C.
+      Analytical and Consulting Chemist.
+
+    Fibres.
+
+C. F. R.
+    CHARLES FRANCIS RICHARDSON, A.M., PH.D.
+      Professor of English at Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire,
+      U.S.A. Author of _A Story of English Rhyme_; _A History of
+      American Literature_; &c.
+
+    Fiske, John.
+
+C. H. T.*
+    CRAWFORD HOWELL TOY, A.M.
+      See the biographical article: TOY, CRAWFORD HOWELL.
+
+    Ezekiel.
+
+C. J.
+    CHARLES JOHNSON, M.A.
+      Clerk in H.M. Public Record Office. Joint Editor of the _Domesday
+      Survey_ for the _Victoria County History: Norfolk_.
+
+    Exchequer (_in part_).
+
+C. J. B. M.
+    CHARLES JOHN BRUCE MARRIOTT, M.A.
+      Clare College, Cambridge. Secretary of the Rugby Football Union.
+
+    Football: _Rugby_ (_in part_).
+
+C. J. N. F.
+    CHARLES JAMES NICOL FLEMING.
+      H.M. Inspector of Schools, Scotch Education Department.
+
+    Football: _Rugby_ (_in part_).
+
+C. L. K.
+    CHARLES LETHBRIDGE KINGSFORD, M.A., F.R.HIST.SOC., F.S.A.
+      Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Author of _Life of
+      Henry V._ Editor of _Chronicles of London_ and Stow's _Survey of
+      London_.
+
+    Fabyan;
+    Fastolf.
+
+C. P. I.
+    SIR COURTENAY PEREGRINE ILBERT, K.C.B., K.C.S.I., C.I.E.
+      Clerk of the House of Commons. Chairman of Statute Law Committee.
+      Parliamentary Counsel to the Treasury, 1899-1901. Legal Member of
+      Council of Governor-General of India, 1882-1886; President, 1886.
+      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow and Tutor of
+      Balliol College, Oxford. Author of _The Government of India_;
+      _Legislative Method and Forms_.
+
+    Evidence.
+
+C. W. A.
+    CHARLES WILLIAM ALCOCK. (d. 1907).
+      Formerly Secretary of the Football Association, London.
+
+    Football: _Association_ (_in part_).
+
+D. H.
+    DAVID HANNAY.
+      Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of _Short
+      History of the Royal Navy_; _Life of Emilio Castelar_; &c.
+
+    First of June, Battle of the;
+    Fox, Charles James.
+
+D. Mn.
+    REV. DUGALD MACFADYEN, M.A.
+      Minister of South Grove Congregational Church, Highgate. Director
+      of the London Missionary Society.
+
+    Excommunication.
+
+D. N. P.
+    DIARMID NOEL PATON, M.D., F.R.C.P. (Edin.).
+      Regius Professor of Physiology in the University of Glasgow.
+      Formerly Superintendent of Research Laboratory of Royal College of
+      Physicians, Edinburgh. Biological Fellow of Edinburgh University,
+      1884. Author of _Essentials of Human Physiology_; &c.
+
+    Fever.
+
+D. S. M.*
+    DAVID SAMUEL MARGOLIOUTH, M.A., D.LITT.
+      Laudian Professor of Arabic, Oxford. Fellow of New College. Author
+      of _Arabic _Papyri of the Bodleian Library_; _Mohammed and the
+      Rise of Islam_; _Cairo, Jerusalem_ and Damascus_.
+
+    Fatimites.
+
+E. B.
+    EDWARD BRECK, M.A., PH.D.
+      Formerly Foreign Correspondent of the _New York Herald_ and the
+      _New York Times_. Author of _Fencing_; _Wilderness Pets_;
+      _Sporting in Nova Scotia_; &c.
+
+    Foil-fencing;
+    Football: _American_ (_in part_).
+
+E. Ca.
+    EGERTON CASTLE, M.A., F.S.A.
+      Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of _Schools and Masters of
+      Fence_; &c.
+
+    Fencing.
+
+Ed. C.*
+    THE HON. EDWARD EVAN CHARTERIS.
+      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
+
+    Fair (_in part_).
+
+E. C. B.
+    RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.LITT.
+      Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of "The Lausiac History of
+      Palladius," in _Cambridge Texts and Studies_, vol. vi.
+
+    Fontevrault;
+    Francis of Assisi, St;
+    Francis of Paola, St.
+
+E. C. Q.
+    EDMUND CROSBY QUIGGIN, M.A.
+      Fellow and Lecturer in Modern Languages and Monro Lecturer in
+      Celtic, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
+
+    Finn mac Cool.
+
+E. D. R.
+    LIEUT.-COLONEL EMILIUS C. DELME RADCLIFFE.
+      Author of _Falconry: Notes on the Falconidae used in India in
+      Falconry_.
+
+    Falconry.
+
+E. E. A.
+    ERNEST E. AUSTEN.
+      Assistant in Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South
+      Kensington.
+
+    Flea.
+
+E. E. H.
+    REV. EDWARD EVERETT HALE.
+      See the biographical article: HALE, E. E.
+
+    Everett, Edward.
+
+E. G.
+    EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND.
+
+    Ewald, Johannes;
+    Fabliau;
+    Fabre, Ferdinand;
+    Feuillet;
+    Finland: _Literature_;
+    FitzGerald, Edward;
+    Flaubert;
+    Flemish Literature;
+    Forssell.
+
+E. H. P.
+    EDWARD HENRY PALMER, M.A.
+      See the biographical article: PALMER, E. H.
+
+    Firdousi (_in part_).
+
+E. K.
+    EDMUND KNECHT, PH.D., M.SC.TECH. (Manchester), F.I.C.
+      Professor of Technological Chemistry, Manchester University. Head
+      of Chemical Department, Municipal School of Technology,
+      Manchester. Examiner in Dyeing, City and Guilds of London
+      Institute. Author of _A Manual of Dyeing_; &c. Editor of _Journal
+      of the Society of Dyers and Colourists_.
+
+    Finishing.
+
+E. M. Ha.
+    ERNEST MAES HARVEY.
+      Partner in Messrs. Allen Harvey & Ross, Bullion Brokers, London.
+
+    Exchange.
+
+E. O.*
+    EDMUND OWEN, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., D.SC.
+      Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital, London, and to the
+      Children's Hospital, Great Ormond Street, London. Chevalier of the
+      Legion of Honour. Late Examiner in Surgery at the University of
+      Cambridge, London and Durham. Author of _A Manual of Anatomy for
+      Senior Students_.
+
+    Fistula.
+
+E. O. S.
+    EDWIN OTHO SACHS, F.R.S. (Edin.), A.M.INST.M.E.
+      Chairman of the British Fire Prevention Committee. Vice-President,
+      National Fire Brigades Union. Vice-President, International Fire
+      Service Council. Author of _Fires and Public Entertainments_; &c.
+
+    Fire and Fire Extinction.
+
+E. Pr.
+    EDGAR PRESTAGE.
+      Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature at the University of
+      Manchester. Commendador, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago.
+      Corresponding Member of Lisbon Royal Academy of Sciences and
+      Lisbon Geographical Society.
+
+    Falcao;
+    Ferreira.
+
+E. Re.
+    ELISEE RECLUS.
+      See the biographical article: RECLUS, J. J. E.
+
+    Fire.
+
+E. Tn.
+    REV. ETHELRED LEONARD TAUNTON, (d. 1907).
+      Author of _The English Black Monks of St Benedict_; _History of
+      the Jesuits in England_.
+
+    Feckenham;
+    Fisher, John.
+
+E. W. H.
+    ERNEST WILLIAM HOBSON, M.A., D.SC., F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
+      Fellow and Tutor in Mathematics, Christ's College, Cambridge.
+      Stokes Lecturer in Mathematics in the University.
+
+    Fourier's Series.
+
+F. C. C.
+    FREDERICK CORNWALLIS CONYBEARE, M.A., D.TH. (Giessen).
+      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Fellow of University
+      College, Oxford. Author of _The Ancient Armenian Texts of
+      Aristotle_; _Myth, Magic and Morals_; &c.
+
+    Extreme Unction.
+
+F. G. P.
+    FREDERICK GYMER PARSONS, F.R.C.S., F.Z.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST.
+      Vice-President, Anatomical Society of Great Britain and Ireland.
+      Lecturer on Anatomy at St Thomas's Hospital and the London School
+      of Medicine for Women. Formerly Hunterian Professor at the Royal
+      College of Surgeons.
+
+    Eye: _Anatomy_.
+
+F. J. H.
+    FRANCIS JOHN HAVERFIELD, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A.
+      Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford.
+      Fellow of Brasenose College. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. Fellow of
+      the British Academy. Author of Monographs on Roman History,
+      especially Roman Britain; &c.
+
+    Fosse.
+
+F. J. W.
+    FREDERICK JOSEPH WALL, F.C.S.
+      Secretary to the Football Association.
+
+    Football: _Association_ (_in part_).
+
+F. R. C.
+    FRANK R. CANA.
+      Author of _South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union_.
+
+    France: _Colonies_.
+
+F. S.
+    FRANCIS STORR, M.A.
+      Editor of the _Journal of Education_, London. Officier d'Academie,
+      Paris.
+
+    Fable.
+
+G. A. B.
+    GEORGE A. BOULENGER, D.SC., PH.D., F.R.S.
+      In charge of the Collections of Reptiles and Fishes, Department of
+      Zoology, British Museum. Vice-President of the Zoological Society
+      of London.
+
+    Flat-fish.
+
+G. A. Be.
+    GEORGE ANDREAS BERRY, M.B., F.R.C.S., F.R.S. (Edin.).
+      Hon. Surgeon Oculist to His Majesty in Scotland. Formerly Senior
+      Ophthalmic Surgeon, Edinburgh Royal Infirmary, and Lecturer on
+      Ophthalmology in the University of Edinburgh. Vice-President,
+      Ophthalmological Society. Author of _Diseases of the Eye_; _The
+      Elements of Ophthalmoscopic Diagnosis_; _Subjective Symptoms in
+      Eye Diseases_; &c.
+
+    Eye: _Diseases_.
+
+G. B. A.
+    GEORGE BURTON ADAMS, A.M., B.D., PH.D., LITT.D.
+      Professor of History, Yale University. Editor of _American
+      Historical Review_. Author of _Civilization during the Middle
+      Ages_; _Political History of England_, 1066-1216; &c.
+
+    Feudalism.
+
+G. C. L.
+    GEORGE COLLINS LEVEY, C.M.G.
+      Member of Board of Advice to Agent-General of Victoria. Formerly
+      Editor and Proprietor of the _Melbourne Herald_. Secretary,
+      Colonial Committee of Royal Commission to Paris Exhibition, 1900.
+      Secretary, Adelaide Exhibition, 1887. Secretary, Royal Commission,
+      Hobart Exhibition, 1894-1895. Secretary to Commissioners for
+      Victoria at the Exhibitions in London, Paris, Vienna, Philadelphia
+      and Melbourne, 1873, 1876, 1878, 1880-1881.
+
+    Exhibition.
+
+G. E.
+    REV. GEORGE EDMUNDSON, M.A., F.R.HIST.S.
+      Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's
+      Lecturer, 1909. Hon. Member, Dutch Historical Society, and Foreign
+      Member, Netherlands Association of Literature.
+
+    Flanders.
+
+G. F. Z.
+    GEORGE FREDERICK ZIMMER, A.M.INST.C.E.
+      Author of _Mechanical Handling of Material_.
+
+    Flour and Flour Manufacture.
+
+G. G. P.*
+    GEORGE GRENVILLE PHILLIMORE, M.A., B.C.L.
+      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.
+
+    Fishery, Law of.
+
+G. P.
+    GIFFORD PINCHOT, A.M., D.SC., LL.D.
+      Professor of Forestry, Yale University. Formerly Chief Forester,
+      U.S.A. President of the National Conservation Association. Member
+      of the Society of American Foresters, Royal English Arboricultural
+      Society, &c. Author of _The White Pine_; _A Primer of Forestry_;
+      &c.
+
+    Forests and Forestry: _United States_.
+
+G. W. T.
+    REV. GRIFFITHS WHEELER THATCHER, M.A., B.D.
+      Warden of Camden College, Sydney, N.S.W. Formerly Tutor in Hebrew
+      and Old Testament History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
+
+    Fairuzabadi;
+    Fakhr ud-Din Razi;
+    Farabi;
+    Farazdaq.
+
+H. B. S.
+    REV. HENRY BARCLAY SWETE, M.A., D.D., LITT.D.
+      Regius Professor of Divinity, Cambridge University. Fellow of
+      Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow of King's College,
+      London. Fellow of British Academy. Hon. Canon of Ely Cathedral.
+      Author of _The Holy Spirit in the New Testament_; &c.
+
+    Fathers of the Church.
+
+H. Ch.
+    HUGH CHISHOLM, M.A.
+      Formerly Scholar of Corpus Christi College, Oxford. Editor of the
+      11th Edition of the _Encyclopaedia Britannica_; Co-Editor of the
+      10th edition.
+
+    Forster.
+
+H. De.
+    HIPPOLYTE DELEHAYE, S.J.
+      Assistant in the compilation of the Bollandist publications:
+      _Analecta Bollandiana_ and _Acta Sanctorum_.
+
+    Fiacre, Saint;
+    Florian, Saint.
+
+H. F. G.
+    HANS FRIEDRICH GADOW, F.R.S., PH.D.
+      Strickland Curator and Lecturer on Zoology in the University of
+      Cambridge. Author of "Amphibia and Reptiles," in the _Cambridge
+      Natural History_.
+
+    Flamingo.
+
+H. L. S.
+    H. LAWRENCE SWINBURNE (d. 1909).
+
+    Flag.
+
+H. St.
+    HENRY STURT, M.A.
+      Author of _Idola Theatri_; _The Idea of a Free Church_; _Personal
+      Idealism_.
+
+    Fechner;
+    Feuerbach, Ludwig A.
+
+
+H. W. C. D.
+    HENRY WILLIAM CARLESS DAVIS, M.A.
+      Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls'
+      College, Oxford, 1895-1902. Author of _England under the Normans
+      and Angevins_; _Charlemagne_.
+
+    Fitz Neal;
+    Fitz Peter, Geoffrey;
+    Fitz Stephen, William;
+    Fitz Thedmar;
+    Flambard;
+    Florence of Worcester.
+
+H. W. S.
+    H. WICKHAM STEED.
+      Correspondent of _The Times_ at Vienna. Correspondent of _The
+      Times_ at Rome, 1897-1902.
+
+    Fabrizi.
+
+I. A.
+    ISRAEL ABRAHAMS, M.A.
+      Reader in Talmudic and Rabbinic Literature, University of
+      Cambridge. President, Jewish Historical Society of England. Author
+      of _A Short History of Jewish Literature_; _Jewish Life in the
+      Middle Ages_.
+
+    Exilarch;
+    Eybeschutz.
+
+J. A. C.
+    SIR JOSEPH ARCHER CROWE, K.C.M.G.
+      See the biographical article: CROWE, SIR JOSEPH A.
+
+    Eyck, Van.
+
+J. A. H.
+    JOHN ALLEN HOWE, B.SC.
+      Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London.
+      Author of _The Geology of Building Stones_.
+
+    France: _Geology_.
+
+J. A. S.
+    JOHN ADDINGTON SYMONDS, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: SYMONDS, JOHN A.
+
+    Ficino;
+    Filelfo.
+
+J. B.*
+    JOSEPH BURTON.
+      Partner in Pilkington's Tile and Pottery Co., Clifton Junction,
+      Manchester.
+
+    Firebrick (_in part_).
+
+J. B. P.
+    JAMES BELL PETTIGREW, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.C.P. (Edin.) (1834-1908).
+      Chandos Professor of Medicine and Anatomy, University of St
+      Andrews, 1875-1908. Author of _Animal Locomotion_; &c.
+
+    Flight and Flying (_in part_).
+
+J. Bt.
+    JAMES BARTLETT.
+      Lecturer on Construction, Architecture, Sanitation, Quantities,
+      &c., at King's College, London. Member of Society of Architects.
+      Member of Institute of Junior Engineers.
+
+    Foundations.
+
+J. C. M.
+    JAMES CLERK MAXWELL, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK.
+
+    Faraday.
+
+J. E. C. B.
+    JOHN EDWARD COURTENAY BODLEY, M.A.
+      Balliol College, Oxford. Corresponding Member of the Institute of
+      France. Author of _France_; _The Coronation of Edward VII._; &c.
+
+    France: _History_, 1870-1910.
+
+J. E. P. W.
+    JOHN EDWARD POWER WALLIS, M.A.
+      Puisne Judge, Madras. Vice-Chancellor of Madras University. Inns
+      of Court Reader in Constitutional Law, 1892-1897. Formerly Editor
+      of _State Trials_.
+
+    Extradition.
+
+J. F. St.
+    JOHN FREDERICK STENNING, M.A.
+      Dean and Fellow of Wadham College, Oxford. University Lecturer in
+      Aramaic. Lecturer in Divinity and Hebrew at Wadham College.
+
+    Exodus, Book of.
+
+J. G. H.
+    JOSEPH G. HORNER, A.M.I.MECH.E.
+      Author of _Plating and Boiler Making_; _Practical Metal Turning_;
+      &c.
+
+    Forging;
+    Founding.
+
+J. G. R.
+    JOHN GEORGE ROBERTSON, M.A., PH.D.
+      Professor of German at the University of London. Formerly Lecturer
+      on the English Language, Strassburg University. Author of _History
+      of German Literature_; &c.
+
+    Fouque, Baron.
+
+J. H. P.*
+    JOHN HUNGERFORD POLLEN, M.A. (d. 1908).
+      Formerly Professor of Fine Arts in Catholic University of Dublin.
+      Fellow of Merton College, Oxford. Cantor Lecturer, Society of
+      Arts, 1885. Author of _Ancient and Modern Furniture and Woodwork_;
+      _Ancient and Modern Gold and Silversmith's Work_; _The Trajan
+      Column_; &c.
+
+    Fan.
+
+J. Hl. R.
+    JOHN HOLLAND ROSE, M.A., LITT.D.
+      Lecturer on Modern History to the Cambridge University Local
+      Lectures Syndicate. Author of _Life of Napoleon I._; _Napoleonic
+      Studies_; _The Development of the European Nations_; _The Life of
+      Pitt_; chapters in the _Cambridge Modern History_.
+
+    Fouche.
+
+J. H. R.
+    JOHN HORACE ROUND, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.).
+      Author of _Feudal England_; _Studies in Peerage and Family
+      History_; _Peerage and Pedigree_; &c.
+
+    Ferrers: _Family_;
+    Fitzgerald: _Family_.
+
+J. I.
+    JULES ISAAC.
+      Professor of History at the Lycee of Lyons.
+
+    Francis I. of France.
+
+J. K. L.
+    SIR JOHN KNOX LAUGHTON, M.A., LITT.D.
+      Professor of Modern History, King's College, London. Secretary of
+      the Navy Records Society. Served in the Baltic, 1854-1855; in
+      China, 1856-1859. Mathematical and Naval Instructor, Royal Naval
+      College, Portsmouth, 1866-1873; Greenwich, 1873-1885. President,
+      Royal Meteorological Society, 1882-1884. Honorary Fellow, Gonville
+      and Caius College, Cambridge. Fellow, King's College, London.
+      Author of _Physical Geography in its Relation to the Prevailing
+      Winds and Currents_; _Studies in Naval History_; _Sea Fights and
+      Adventures_; &c.
+
+    Farragut;
+    Fitzroy.
+
+J. L. B.
+    JULIAN LEVETT BAKER, F.I.C.
+      Analytical and Consulting Chemist. Examiner in Brewing to the City
+      and Guilds of London Institute, Department of Technology. Hon.
+      Secretary of the Institute of Brewing. Author of _The Brewing
+      Industry_; &c.
+
+    Fermentation.
+
+J. Ma.
+    JOHN MACDONALD.
+
+    Fair (_in part_).
+
+J. M. S.
+    JAMES MONTGOMERY STUART.
+      Author of _The History of Free Trade in Tuscany_; _Reminiscences
+      and Essays_.
+
+    Foscolo.
+
+J. Pa.
+    JAMES PATON, F.L.S.
+      Superintendent of Museums and Art Galleries of Corporation of
+      Glasgow. Assistant in Museum of Science and Art, Edinburgh,
+      1861-1876. President of Museums Association of United Kingdom,
+      1896. Editor and part-author of _Scottish National Memorials_,
+      1890.
+
+    Feather (_in part_).
+
+J. P. E.
+    JEAN PAUL HIPPOLYTE EMMANUEL ADHEMAR ESMEIN.
+      Professor of Law in the University of Paris. Officer of the Legion
+      of Honour. Member of the Institute of France. Author of _Cours
+      elementaire d'histoire du droit francais_; &c.
+
+    France: _Law and Institutions_.
+
+J. R. C.
+    JOSEPH ROGERSON COTTER, M.A.
+      Assistant to the Professor of Natural and Experimental Philosophy,
+      Trinity College, Dublin. Editor of 2nd edition of Preston's
+      _Theory of Heat_.
+
+    Fluorescence.
+
+J. R. F.*
+    JOSEPH R. FISHER.
+      Editor of the _Northern Whig_, Belfast. Author of _Finland and the
+      Tsars_; _Law of the Press_; &c.
+
+    Finland.
+
+J. R. J. J.
+    JULIAN ROBERT JOHN JOCELYN.
+      Colonel, R.A. Formerly Commandant, Ordnance College; Member of
+      Ordnance Committee; Commandant, Schools of Gunnery.
+
+    Fireworks: _History_.
+
+J. S. Bl.
+    REV. JOHN SUTHERLAND BLACK, M.A., LL.D.
+      Assistant Editor, 9th edition, _Encyclopaedia Britannica_. Joint
+      Editor of the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_. Translated Ritschl's
+      _Critical History of the Christian Doctrine of Justification and
+      Reconciliation_.
+
+    Fasting;
+    Feasts and Festivals.
+
+J. S. F.
+    JOHN SMITH FLETT, D.SC, F.G.S.
+      Petrographer to the Geological Survey. Formerly Lecturer on
+      Petrology in Edinburgh University. Neill Medallist of the Royal
+      Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby Medallist of the Geological Society
+      of London.
+
+    Felsite;
+    Flint.
+
+J. S. K.
+    JOHN SCOTT KELTIE, LL.D., F.S.S.. F.S.A. (Scot.).
+      Secretary, Royal Geographical Society. Knight of Swedish Order of
+      North Star. Commander of the Norwegian Order of St Olaf. Hon.
+      Member, Geographical Societies of Paris, Berlin, Rome, &c. Editor
+      of _Statesman's Year Book_. Editor of the _Geographical Journal_.
+
+    Finland (_in part_);
+    Flinders.
+
+J. T. Be.
+    JOHN T. BEALBY.
+      Joint Author of Stanford's _Europe_. Formerly Editor of the
+      _Scottish Geographical Magazine_. Translator of Sven Hedin's
+      _Through Asia, Central Asia and Tibet_; &c.
+
+    Fens;
+    Ferghana (_in part_).
+
+K. S.
+    KATHLEEN SCHLESINGER.
+      Author of _The Instruments of the Orchestra_.
+
+    Fiddle;
+    Fife;
+    Flageolet;
+    Flute (_in part_).
+
+L. D.*
+    LOUIS DUCHESNE.
+      See the biographical article: DUCHESNE, L. M. O.
+
+    Formosus.
+
+L. F. S.
+    LESLIE FREDERIC SCOTT, M.A., K.C.C.
+      Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
+
+    Factor.
+
+L. J.
+    LIEUT.-COLONEL LOUIS CHARLES JACKSON, R.E., C.M.G.
+      Assistant Director of Fortifications and Works, War Office.
+      Formerly Instructor in Fortification, R.M.A., Woolwich. Instructor
+      in Fortification and Military Engineering, School of Military
+      Engineering, Chatham
+
+    Fortification and Siegecraft.
+
+L. V.*
+    LUIGI VILLARI.
+      Italian Foreign Office (Emigration Dept.). Formerly Newspaper
+      Correspondent in east of Europe. Italian Vice-Consul in New
+      Orleans, 1906; Philadelphia, 1907; Boston, U.S.A., 1907-1910.
+      Author of _Italian Life in Town and Country_; _Fire and Sword in
+      the Caucasus_; &c.
+
+    Faliero;
+    Fanti, Manfredo;
+    Farini, Luigi Carlo;
+    Farnese: _Family_;
+    Ferdinand I. and IV. of Naples;
+    Ferdinand II. of the Two Sicilies;
+    Fiesco; Filangieri, C.;
+    Florence;
+    Foscari;
+    Fossombroni;
+    Francis II. of the Two Sicilies;
+    Francis IV. and V. of Modena.
+
+M. Ha.
+    MARCUS HARTOG, M.A., D.SC, F.L.S.
+      Professor of Zoology, University College, Cork. Author of
+      "Protozoa," in _Cambridge Natural History_; and papers for various
+      scientific journals.
+
+    Flagellate;
+    Foraminifera.
+
+N. W. T.
+    NORTHCOTE WHITBRIDGE THOMAS, M.A.
+      Government Anthropologist to Southern Nigeria. Corresponding
+      Member of the Societe d'Anthropologie de Paris. Author of _Thought
+      Transference_; _Kinship and Marriage in Australia_; &c.
+
+    Faith Healing;
+    Fetishism;
+    Folklore.
+
+O. H.*
+    OTTO HEHNER, F.I.C., F.C.S.
+      Public Analyst. Formerly President of Society of Public Analysts.
+      Vice-President of Institute of Chemistry of Great Britain and
+      Ireland. Author of works on Butter Analysis; Alcohol Tables; &c.
+
+    Food Preservation.
+
+O. M.
+    DAVID ORME MASSON, M.A., D.SC, F.R.S.
+      Professor of Chemistry, Melbourne University. Author of papers on
+      chemistry in the transactions of various learned societies.
+
+    Fireworks: _Modern_.
+
+P. A.
+    PAUL DANIEL ALPHANDERY.
+      Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole Pratique des Hautes
+      Etudes, Sorbonne, Paris. Author of _Les Idees morales chez les
+      heterodoxes latines au debut du XIII^e siecle_.
+
+    Flagellants.
+
+P. A. K.
+    PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN.
+      See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, P. A.
+
+    Ferghana (_in part_);
+    Finland (_in part_).
+
+P. C. Y.
+    PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A.
+      Magdalen College, Oxford.
+
+    Falkland;
+    Fanshaw;
+    Fawkes, Guy;
+    Fell, John;
+    Fortescue, Sir John.
+
+P. C. M.
+    PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.SC, LL.D.
+      Secretary to the Zoological Society of London. University
+      Demonstrator in Comparative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre
+      Professor at Oxford, 1881-1891. Examiner in Zoology to the
+      University of London, 1903. Author of _Outlines of Biology_; &c.
+
+    Evolution.
+
+P. G. K.
+    PAUL GEORGE KONODY.
+      Art Critic of the _Observer_ and the _Daily Mail_. Formerly Editor
+      of _The Artist_. Author of _The Art of Walter Crane_; _Velasquez,
+      Life and Work_; &c.
+
+    Fiorenzo di Lorenzo;
+    Fragonard.
+
+P. J. H.
+    PHILIP JOSEPH HARTOG, M.A., L. ES SC. (Paris).
+      Academic Registrar of the University of London. Author of _The
+      Writing of English_, and articles in the Special Reports on
+      educational subjects of the Board of Education.
+
+    Examinations (_in part_).
+
+P. W.
+    PAUL WIRIATH.
+      Director of the Ecole Superieure Pratique de Commerce et
+      d'Industrie, Paris.
+
+    France: _History to_ 1870.
+
+R. Ad.
+    ROBERT ADAMSON, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: ADAMSON, R.
+
+    Fichte;
+    Fourier, F. C. M.
+
+R. A. S. M.
+    ROBERT ALEXANDER STEWART MACALISTER, M.A., F.S.A.
+      St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the
+      Palestine Exploration Fund.
+
+    Font.
+
+R. H. C.
+    REV. ROBERT HENRY CHARLES, M.A., D.D., D.LITT. (Oxon.).
+      Grinfield Lecturer and Lecturer in Biblical Studies, Oxford.
+      Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Senior Moderator of
+      Trinity College, Dublin. Author and Editor of _Book of Enoch_;
+      _Book of Jubilees_; _Apocalypse of Baruch_; _Assumption of Moses_;
+      _Ascension of Isaiah_; _Testaments of the XII. Patriarchs_; &c.
+
+    Ezra: _Third and Fourth Books of_.
+
+
+R. J. M.
+    RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A.
+      Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law. Formerly Editor of the
+      _St James's Gazette_, London.
+
+    Fenians;
+    Fitzgerald, Lord Edward;
+    Flood, Henry.
+
+R. L.*
+    RICHARD LYDEKKER, F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S.
+      Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882.
+      Author of _Catalogue of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in
+      British Museum_; _The Deer of all Lands_; _The Game Animals of
+      Africa_; &c.
+
+    Flying-Squirrel; Fox.
+
+R. N. B.
+    ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909).
+      Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Author of
+      _Scandinavia: the Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden,
+      1513-1900_; _The First Romanovs, 1613-1725_; _Slavonic Europe: the
+      Political History of Poland and Russia from 1469 to 1796_; &c.
+
+    Fersen, Counts von.
+
+R. Po.
+    RENE POUPARDIN, D. ES L.
+      Secretary of the Ecole des Chartes. Honorary Librarian at the
+      Bibliotheque Nationale, Paris. Author of _Le Royaume de Provence
+      sous les Carolingiens_; _Recueil des chartes de Saint-Germain_;
+      &c.
+
+    Franche-Comte.
+
+R. P. S.
+    R. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A.
+      Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy,
+      London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and
+      Fellow of King's College, London. Corresponding Member of the
+      Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's _History of
+      Architecture_. Author of _Architecture: East and West_; &c.
+
+    Flute: _Architecture_.
+
+R. S. C.
+    ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.LITT. (Cantab.).
+      Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University
+      of Manchester. Formerly Professor of Latin in University College,
+      Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge.
+      Author of _The Italic Dialects_.
+
+    Falisci.
+
+R. Tr.
+    ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A.
+      Formerly Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Fellow, Dean and
+      Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford.
+
+    France: _Statistics_.
+
+S. A. C.
+    STANLEY ARTHUR COOK, M.A.
+      Editor for Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and
+      Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College,
+      Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew and Aramaic, London University,
+      1904-1908. Author of _Glossary of Aramaic Inscriptions_; _The Laws
+      of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi_; _Critical Notes on Old
+      Testament History_; _Religion of Ancient Palestine_; &c.
+
+    Exodus, The;
+    Ezra and Nehemiah, Books of.
+
+S. C.
+    SIDNEY COLVIN, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: COLVIN, S.
+
+    Fine Arts;
+    Finiguerra;
+    Flaxman.
+
+St C.
+    VISCOUNT ST CYRES.
+      See the biographical article: IDDESLEIGH, 1ST EARL OF
+
+    Fenelon.
+
+S. E. B.
+    HON. SIMEON EBEN BALDWIN, M.A., LL.D.
+      Professor of Constitutional and Private International Law in Yale
+      University. Director of the Bureau of Comparative Law of the
+      American Bar Association. Formerly Chief Justice of Connecticut.
+      Author of _Modern Political Institutions_; _American Railroad
+      Law_; &c.
+
+    Extradition: U.S.A.
+
+S. E. S.-R.
+    STEPHEN EDWARD SPRING-RICE, M.A., C.B. (1856-1902).
+      Formerly Principal Clerk, H.M. Treasury, and Auditor of the Civil
+      List. Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge.
+
+    Exchequer (_in part_).
+
+T. A. I.
+    THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D.
+      Trinity College, Dublin.
+
+    Explosives: _Law_.
+
+T. As.
+    THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. (Oxon.), F.S.A.
+      Director of British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly
+      Scholar of Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897.
+      Corresponding Member of the Imperial German Archaeological
+      Institute. Author of the _Classical Topography of the Roman
+      Campagna_; &c.
+
+    Faesulae;
+    Falerii;
+    Falerio;
+    Fanum Fortunae;
+    Ferentino;
+    Fermo;
+    Flaminia Via;
+    Florence: _Early History_;
+    Fondi;
+    Fonni;
+    Forum Appii.
+
+T. Ba.
+    SIR THOMAS BARCLAY, M.P.
+      Member of the Institute of International Law. Member of the
+      Supreme Council of the Congo Free State. Officer of the Legion of
+      Honour. Author of _Problems of International Practice and
+      Diplomacy_; &c. M.P. for Blackburn, 1910.
+
+    Exterritoriality.
+
+T. H. H.*
+    SIR THOMAS HUNGERFORD HOLDICH, K.C.M.G., K.C.I.E., D.SC., F.R.G.S.
+      Colonel in the Royal Engineers. Superintendent, Frontier Surveys,
+      India, 1892-1898. Gold Medallist, R.G.S., London, 1887. H.M.
+      Commissioner for the Persia-Beluch Boundary, 1896. Author of _The
+      Indian Borderland_; _The Gates of India_; &c.
+
+    Everest, Mount.
+
+T. K. C.
+    REV. THOMAS KELLY CHEYNE, D.D.
+      See the biographical article: CHEYNE, T. K.
+
+    Eve (_in part_).
+
+T. Se.
+    THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A.
+      Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, University
+      of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Formerly Assistant
+      Editor of _Dictionary of National Biography_, 1891-1901.
+      Joint-author of _The Bookman History of English Literature_.
+      Author of _The Age of Johnson_; &c.
+
+    Fawcett, Henry.
+
+T. Wo.
+    THOMAS WOODHOUSE.
+      Head of Weaving and Textile Designing Department, Technical
+      College, Dundee.
+
+    Flax.
+
+V. M.
+    VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON.
+      Principal of the Conservatoire Royal de Musique at Brussels.
+      Chevalier of the Legion of Honour.
+
+    Flute (_in part_).
+
+W. A. B. C.
+    REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S., Ph.D. (Bern).
+      Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History,
+      St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of _Guide to
+      Switzerland_; _The Alps in Nature and in History_; &c. Editor of
+      the _Alpine Journal_, 1880-1889.
+
+    Feldkirch.
+
+W. A. P.
+    WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A.
+      Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St
+      John's College, Oxford. Author of _Modern Europe_; &c.
+
+    Excellency;
+    Faust;
+    Febronianism.
+
+W. B.*
+    WILLIAM BURTON, M.A., F.C.S.
+      Chairman, Joint Committee of Pottery Manufacturers of Great
+      Britain. Author of _English Stoneware and Earthenware_; &c.
+
+    Firebrick (_in part_).
+
+W. Ca.
+    WALTER CAMP, A.M.
+      Member of Yale University Council. Author of _American Football_;
+      _Football Facts and Figures_; &c.
+
+    Football: _American_ (_in part_).
+
+W. Ga.
+    WALTER GARSTANG, M.A., D.SC.
+      Professor of Zoology at the University of Leeds. Scientific
+      Adviser to H.M. Delegates on the International Council for the
+      Exploration of the Sea, 1901-1907. Formerly Fellow of Lincoln
+      College, Oxford. Author of _The Races and Migrations of the
+      Mackerel_; _The Impoverishment of the Sea_; &c.
+
+    Fisheries.
+
+W. He.
+    WALTER HEPWORTH.
+      Formerly Commissioner of the Council of Education, Science and Art
+      Department, South Kensington.
+
+    Fool.
+
+W. M. R.
+    WILLIAM MICHAEL ROSSETTI.
+      See the biographical article: ROSSETTI, DANTE G.
+
+    Ferrari, Gaudenzio;
+    Fielding, Copley;
+    Franceschi, Piero;
+    Francia.
+
+
+W. P. P.
+    WILLIAM PLANE PYCRAFT, F.Z.S.
+      Assistant in the Zoological Department, British Museum. Formerly
+      Assistant Linacre Professor of Comparative Anatomy, Oxford.
+      Vice-President of the Selborne Society. Author of _A History of
+      Birds_; &c.
+
+    Feather (_in part_).
+
+W. N. S.
+    WILLIAM NAPIER SHAW, M.A., LL.D., D.SC, F.R.S.
+      Director of the Meteorological Office. Reader in Meteorology in
+      the University of London. President of Permanent International
+      Meteorological Committee. Member of Meteorological Council,
+      1897-1905. Hon. Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge. Fellow of
+      Emmanuel College, 1877-1899; Senior Tutor, 1890-1899. Joint Author
+      of _Text Book of Practical Physics_; &c.
+
+    Fog.
+
+W. P. R.
+    HON. WILLIAM PEMBER REEVES.
+      Director of London School of Economics. Agent-General and High
+      Commissioner for New Zealand, 1896-1909. Minister of Education,
+      Labour and Justice, New Zealand, 1891-1896. Author of _The Long
+      White Cloud, a History of New Zealand_; &c.
+
+    Fox, Sir William.
+
+W. R. S.
+    WILLIAM ROBERTSON SMITH, LL.D.
+      See the biographical article: SMITH, W. R.
+
+    Eve (_in part_).
+
+W. R. E. H.
+    WILLIAM RICHARD EATON HODGKINSON, PH.D., F.R.S.
+      Professor of Chemistry and Physics, Ordnance College, Woolwich.
+      Formerly Professor of Chemistry and Physics, R.M.A., Woolwich.
+      Part Author of Valentin-Hodgkinson's _Practical Chemistry_; &c.
+
+    Explosives.
+
+W. Sch.
+    SIR WILHELM SCHLICH, K.C.I.E., M.A., PH.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
+      Professor of Forestry at the University of Oxford. Hon. Fellow of
+      St John's College. Author of _A Manual of Forestry_; _Forestry in
+      the United Kingdom_; _The Outlook of the World's Timber Supply_;
+      &c.
+
+    Forests and Forestry.
+
+W. W. F.*
+    WILLIAM WARDE FOWLER, M.A.
+      Fellow of Lincoln College, Oxford. Sub-rector, 1881-1904. Gifford
+      Lecturer, Edinburgh University, 1908. Author of _The City-State of
+      the Greeks and Romans_; _The Roman Festivals of the Republican
+      Period_; &c.
+
+    Fortuna.
+
+W. W. R.*
+    WILLIAM WALKER ROCKWELL, LIC. THEOL.
+      Assistant Professor of Church History, Union Theological Seminary,
+      New York. Author of _Die Doppelehe des Landgrafen Philipp von
+      Hessen_.
+
+    Ferrara-Florence, Council of.
+
+
+
+
+Principal Unsigned Articles
+
+  Evil Eye.          Fault.               Fig.         Fontenoy.
+  Excise.            Federal Government.  Filigree.    Foot and Mouth
+  Execution.         Federalist Party.    Fir.           Disease.
+  Executors and      Fehmic Courts.       Fives.       Forest Laws.
+    Administrators.  Felony.              Fleurus.     Forfarshire.
+  Exeter.            Fez.                 Florida.     Forgery.
+  Exile.             Fezzan.              Foix.        Formosa.
+  Eylau.             Fictions.            Fold.        Foundling
+  Famine.            Fife.                Fontenelle.    Hospitals.
+                                                       Fountain.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in
+    the final volume.
+
+
+
+
+ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
+
+ELEVENTH EDITION
+
+VOLUME X
+
+
+EVANGELICAL CHURCH CONFERENCE, a convention of delegates from the
+different Protestant churches of Germany. The conference originated in
+1848, when the general desire for political unity made itself felt in
+the ecclesiastical sphere as well. A preliminary meeting was held at
+Sandhof near Frankfort in June of that year, and on the 21st of
+September some five hundred delegates representing the Lutheran, the
+Reformed, the United and the Moravian churches assembled at Wittenberg.
+The gathering was known as _Kirchentag_ (church diet), and, while
+leaving each denomination free in respect of constitution, ritual,
+doctrine and attitude towards the state, agreed to act unitedly in
+bearing witness against the non-evangelical churches and in defending
+the rights and liberties of the churches in the federation. The
+organization thus closely resembles that of the Free Church Federation
+in England. The movement exercised considerable influence during the
+middle of the 19th century. Though no _Kirchentag_, as such, has been
+convened since 1871, its place has been taken by the _Kongress fur
+innere Mission_, which holds annual meetings in different towns. There
+is also a biennial conference of the evangelical churches held at
+Eisenach to discuss matters of general interest. Its decisions have no
+legislative force.
+
+
+
+
+EVANGELICAL UNION, a religious denomination which originated in the
+suspension of the Rev. James Morison (1816-1893), minister of a United
+Secession congregation in Kilmarnock, Scotland, for certain views
+regarding faith, the work of the Holy Spirit in salvation, and the
+extent of the atonement, which were regarded by the supreme court of his
+church as anti-Calvinistic and heretical. Morison was suspended by the
+presbytery in 1841 and thereupon definitely withdrew from the Secession
+Church. His father, who was minister at Bathgate, and two other
+ministers, being deposed not long afterwards for similar opinions, the
+four met at Kilmarnock on the 16th of May 1843 (two days before the
+"Disruption" of the Free Church), and, on the basis of certain doctrinal
+principles, formed themselves into an association under the name of the
+Evangelical Union, "for the purpose of countenancing, counselling and
+otherwise aiding one another, and also for the purpose of training up
+spiritual and devoted young men to carry forward the work and 'pleasure
+of the Lord.'" The doctrinal views of the new denomination gradually
+assumed a more decidedly anti-Calvinistic form, and they began also to
+find many sympathizers among the Congregationalists of Scotland. Nine
+students were expelled from the Congregational Academy for holding
+"Morisonian" doctrines, and in 1845 eight churches were disjoined from
+the Congregational Union of Scotland and formed a connexion with the
+Evangelical Union. The Union exercised no jurisdiction over the
+individual churches connected with it, and in this respect adhered to
+the Independent or Congregational form of church government; but those
+congregations which originally were Presbyterian vested their government
+in a body of elders. In 1889 the denomination numbered 93 churches; and
+in 1896, after prolonged negotiation, the Evangelical Union was
+incorporated with the Congregational Union of Scotland.
+
+  See _The Evangelical Union Annual; History of the Evangelical Union_,
+  by F. Ferguson (Glasgow, 1876); _The Worthies of the E. U._ (1883); W.
+  Adamson, _Life of Dr James Morison_ (1898).
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, CHRISTMAS (1766-1838), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born near
+the village of Llandyssul, Cardiganshire, on the 25th of December 1766.
+His father, a shoemaker, died early, and the boy grew up as an
+illiterate farm labourer. At the age of seventeen, becoming servant to a
+Presbyterian minister, David Davies, he was affected by a religious
+revival and learned to read and write in English and Welsh. The
+itinerant Calvinistic Methodist preachers and the members of the Baptist
+church at Llandyssul further influenced him, and he soon joined the
+latter denomination. In 1789 he went into North Wales as a preacher and
+settled for two years in the desolate peninsula of Lleyn,
+Carnarvonshire, whence he removed to Llangefni in Anglesey. Here, on a
+stipend of L17 a year, supplemented by a little tract-selling, he built
+up a strong Baptist community, modelling his organization to some extent
+on that of the Calvinistic Methodists. Many new chapels were built, the
+money being collected on preaching tours which Evans undertook in South
+Wales.
+
+In 1826 Evans accepted an invitation to Caerphilly, where he remained
+for two years, removing in 1828 to Cardiff. In 1832, in response to
+urgent calls from the north, he settled in Carnarvon and again undertook
+the old work of building and collecting. He was taken ill on a tour in
+South Wales, and died at Swansea on the 19th of July 1838. In spite of
+his early disadvantages and personal disfigurement (he had lost an eye
+in a youthful brawl), Christmas Evans was a remarkably powerful
+preacher. To a natural aptitude for this calling he united a nimble mind
+and an inquiring spirit; his character was simple, his piety humble and
+his faith fervently evangelical. For a time he came under Sandemanian
+influence, and when the Wesleyans entered Wales he took the Calvinist
+side in the bitter controversies that were frequent from 1800 to 1810.
+His chief characteristic was a vivid and affluent imagination, which
+absorbed and controlled all his other powers, and earned for him the
+name of "the Bunyan of Wales."
+
+  His works were edited by Owen Davies in 3 vols. (Carnarvon,
+  1895-1897). See the _Lives_ by D.R. Stephens (1847) and Paxton Hood
+  (1883).
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, EVAN HERBER (1836-1896), Welsh Nonconformist divine, was born on
+the 5th of July 1836, at Pant yr Onen near Newcastle Emlyn,
+Cardiganshire. As a boy he saw something of the "Rebecca Riots," and
+went to school at the neighbouring village of Llechryd. In 1853 he went
+into business, first at Pontypridd and then at Merthyr, but next year
+made his way to Liverpool. He decided to enter the ministry, and studied
+arts and theology respectively at the Normal College, Swansea, and the
+Memorial College, Brecon, his convictions being deepened by the
+religious revival of 1858-1859. In 1862 he succeeded Thomas Jones as
+minister of the Congregational church at Morriston near Swansea. In 1865
+he became pastor of Salem church, Carnarvon, a charge which he occupied
+for nearly thirty years despite many invitations to English pastorates.
+In 1894 he became principal of the Congregational college at Bangor. He
+died on the 30th of December 1896. He was chairman of the Welsh
+Congregational Union in 1886 and of the Congregational Union of England
+and Wales in 1892; and by his earnest ministry, his eloquence and his
+literary work, especially in the denominational paper _Y Dysgedydd_, he
+achieved a position of great influence in his country.
+
+  See _Life_ by H. Elvet Lewis.
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, SIR GEORGE DE LACY (1787-1870), British soldier, was born at
+Moig, Limerick, in 1787. He was educated at Woolwich Academy, and
+entered the army in 1806 as a volunteer, obtaining an ensigncy in the
+22nd regiment in 1807. His early service was spent in India, but he
+exchanged into the 3rd Light Dragoons in order to take part in the
+Peninsular War, and was present in the retreat from Burgos in 1812. In
+1813 he was at Vittoria, and was afterwards employed in making a
+military survey of the passes of the Pyrenees. He took part in the
+campaign of 1814, and was present at Pampeluna, the Nive and Toulouse;
+and later in the year he served with great distinction on the staff in
+General Ross's Bladensburg campaign, and took part in the capture of
+Washington and of Baltimore and the operations before New Orleans. He
+returned to England in the spring of 1815, in time to take part in the
+Waterloo campaign as assistant quartermaster-general on Sir T. Picton's
+staff. As a member of the staff of the duke of Wellington he accompanied
+the English army to Paris, and remained there during the occupation of
+the city by the allies. He was still a substantive captain in the 5th
+West India regiment, though a lieutenant-colonel by brevet, when he went
+on half-pay in 1818. In 1830 he was elected M.P. for Rye in the Liberal
+interest; but in the election of 1832 he was an unsuccessful candidate
+both for that borough and for Westminster. For the latter constituency
+he was, however, returned in 1833, and, except in the parliament of
+1841-1846, he continued to represent it till 1865, when he retired from
+political life. His parliamentary duties did not, however, interfere
+with his career as a soldier. In 1835 he went out to Spain in command of
+the Spanish Legion, recruited in England, and 9600 strong, which served
+for two years in the Carlist War on the side of the queen of Spain. In
+spite of great difficulties the legion won great distinction on the
+battlefields of northern Spain, and Evans was able to say that no
+prisoners had been taken from it in action, that it had never lost a gun
+or an equipage, and that it had taken 27 guns and 1100 prisoners from
+the enemy. He received several Spanish orders, and on his return in 1839
+was made a colonel and K.C.B. In 1846 he became major-general; and in
+1854, on the breaking-out of the Crimean War, he was made
+lieutenant-general and appointed to command the 2nd division of the Army
+of the East. At the battle of the Alma, where he received a severe
+wound, his quick comprehension of the features of the combat largely
+contributed to the victory. On the 26th of October he defeated a large
+Russian force which attacked his position on Mount Inkerman. Illness and
+fatigue compelled him a few days after this to leave the command of his
+division in the hands of General Pennefather; but he rose from his
+sick-bed on the day of the battle of Inkerman, the 5th of November, and,
+declining to take the command of his division from Pennefather, aided
+him in the long-protracted struggle by his advice. On his return
+invalided to England in the following February, Evans received the
+thanks of the House of Commons. He was made a G.C.B., and the university
+of Oxford conferred on him the degree of D.C.L. In 1861 he was promoted
+to the full rank of general. He died in London on the 9th of January
+1870.
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, SIR JOHN (1823-1908), English archaeologist and geologist, son of
+the Rev. Dr A.B. Evans, head master of Market Bosworth grammar school,
+was born at Britwell Court, Bucks, on the 17th of November 1823. He was
+for many years head of the extensive paper manufactory of Messrs John
+Dickinson at Nash Mills, Hemel Hempstead, but was especially
+distinguished as an antiquary and numismatist. He was the author of
+three books, standard in their respective departments: _The Coins of the
+Ancient Britons_ (1864); _The Ancient Stone Implements, Weapons and
+Ornaments of Great Britain_ (1872, 2nd ed. 1897); and _The Ancient
+Bronze Implements, Weapons and Ornaments of Great Britain and Ireland_
+(1881). He also wrote a number of separate papers on archaeological and
+geological subjects--notably the papers on "Flint Implements in the
+Drift" communicated in 1860 and 1862 to _Archaeologia_, the organ of the
+Society of Antiquaries. Of that society he was president from 1885 to
+1892, and he was president of the Numismatic Society from 1874 to the
+time of his death. He also presided over the Geological Society,
+1874-1876; the Anthropological Institute, 1877-1879; the Society of
+Chemical Industry, 1892-1893; the British Association, 1897-1898; and
+for twenty years (1878-1898) he was treasurer of the Royal Society. As
+president of the Society of Antiquaries he was an _ex officio_ trustee
+of the British Museum, and subsequently he became a permanent trustee.
+His academic honours included honorary degrees from several
+universities, and he was a corresponding member of the Institut de
+France. He was created a K.C.B. in 1892. He died at Berkhamsted on the
+31st of May 1908.
+
+His eldest son, ARTHUR JOHN EVANS, born in 1851, was educated at
+Brasenose College, Oxford, and Gottingen. He became fellow of Brasenose
+and in 1884 keeper of the Ashmolean Museum at Oxford. He travelled in
+Finland and Lapland in 1873-1874, and in 1875 made a special study of
+archaeology and ethnology in the Balkan States. In 1893 he began his
+investigations in Crete, which have resulted in discoveries of the
+utmost importance concerning the early history of Greece and the eastern
+Mediterranean (see AEGEAN CIVILIZATION AND CRETE). He is a member of all
+the chief archaeological societies in Europe, holds honorary degrees at
+Oxford, Edinburgh and Dublin, and is a fellow of the Royal Society. His
+chief publications are: _Cretan Pictographs and Prae-Phoenician Script_
+(1896); _Further Discoveries of Cretan and Aegean Script_ (1898); _The
+Mycenaean Tree and Pillar Cult_ (1901); _Scripta Minoa_ (1909 foll.);
+and reports on the excavations. He also edited with additions Freeman's
+_History of Sicily_, vol. iv.
+
+
+
+
+EVANS, OLIVER (1755-1819), American mechanician, was born at Newport,
+Delaware, in 1755. He was apprenticed to a wheelwright, and at the age
+of twenty-two he invented a machine for making the card-teeth used in
+carding wool and cotton. In 1780 he became partner with his brothers,
+who were practical millers, and soon introduced various labour-saving
+appliances which both cheapened and improved the processes of
+flour-milling. Turning his attention to the steam engine, he employed
+steam at a relatively high pressure, and the plans of his invention
+which he sent over to England in 1787 and in 1794-1795 are said to have
+been seen by R. Trevithick, whom in that case he anticipated in the
+adoption of the high-pressure principle. He made use of his engine for
+driving mill machinery; and in 1803 he constructed a steam dredging
+machine, which also propelled itself on land. In 1819 a disastrous fire
+broke out in his factory at Pittsburg, and he did not long survive it,
+dying at New York on the 21st of April 1819.
+
+
+
+
+EVANSON, EDWARD (1731-1805), English divine, was born on the 21st of
+April 1731 at Warrington, Lancashire. After graduating at Cambridge
+(Emmanuel College) and taking holy orders, he officiated for several
+years as curate at Mitcham. In 1768 he became vicar of South Mimms near
+Barnet; and in November 1769 he was presented to the rectory of
+Tewkesbury, with which he held also the vicarage of Longdon in
+Worcestershire. In the course of his studies he discovered what he
+thought important variance between the teaching of the Church of England
+and that of the Bible, and he did not conceal his convictions. In
+reading the service he altered or omitted phrases which seemed to him
+untrue, and in reading the Scriptures pointed out errors in the
+translation. A crisis was brought on by his sermon on the resurrection,
+preached at Easter 1771; and in November 1773 a prosecution was
+instituted against him in the consistory court of Gloucester. He was
+charged with "depraving the public worship of God contained in the
+liturgy of the Church of England, asserting the same to be superstitious
+and unchristian, preaching, writing and conversing against the creeds
+and the divinity of our Saviour, and assuming to himself the power of
+making arbitrary alterations in his performance of the public worship."
+A protest was at once signed and published by a large number of his
+parishioners against the prosecution. The case was dismissed on
+technical grounds, but appeals were made to the court of arches and the
+court of delegates. Meanwhile Evanson had made his views generally known
+by several publications. In 1772 appeared anonymously his _Doctrines of
+a Trinity and the Incarnation of God, examined upon the Principles of
+Reason and Common Sense_. This was followed in 1777 by _A Letter to Dr
+Hurd, Bishop of Worcester, wherein the Importance of the Prophecies of
+the New Testament and the Nature of the Grand Apostasy predicted in them
+are particularly and impartially considered_. He also wrote some papers
+on the Sabbath, which brought him into controversy with Joseph
+Priestley, who published the whole discussion (1792). In the same year
+appeared Evanson's work entitled _The Dissonance of the four generally
+received Evangelists_, to which replies were published by Priestley and
+David Simpson (1793). Evanson rejected most of the books of the New
+Testament as forgeries, and of the four gospels he accepted only that of
+St Luke. In his later years he ministered to a Unitarian congregation at
+Lympston, Devonshire. In 1802 he published _Reflections upon the State
+of Religion in Christendom_, in which he attempted to explain and
+illustrate the mysterious foreshadowings of the Apocalypse. This he
+considered the most important of his writings. Shortly before his death
+at Colford, near Crediton, Devonshire, on the 25th of September 1805, he
+completed his _Second Thoughts on the Trinity_, in reply to a work of
+the bishop of Gloucester.
+
+  His sermons (prefaced by a Life by G. Rogers) were published in two
+  volumes in 1807, and were the occasion of T. Falconer's _Bampton
+  Lectures_ in 1811. A narrative of the circumstances which led to the
+  prosecution of Evanson was published by N. Havard, the town-clerk of
+  Tewkesbury, in 1778.
+
+
+
+
+EVANSTON, a city of Cook county, Illinois, U.S.A., on the shore of Lake
+Michigan, 12 m. N. of Chicago. Pop. (1900) 19,259, of whom 4441 were
+foreign-born; (1910 U.S. census) 24,978. It is served by the Chicago &
+North-Western, and the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul railways, and by two
+electric lines. The city is an important residential suburb of Chicago.
+In 1908 the Evanston public library had 41,430 volumes. In the city are
+the College of Liberal Arts (1855), the Academy (1860), and the schools
+of music (1895) and engineering (1908) of Northwestern University,
+co-educational, chartered in 1851, opened in 1855, the largest school of
+the Methodist Episcopal Church in America. In 1909-1910 it had
+productive funds amounting to about $7,500,000, and, including all the
+allied schools, a faculty of 418 instructors and 4487 students; its
+schools of medicine (1869), law (1859), pharmacy (1886), commerce (1908)
+and dentistry (1887) are in Chicago. In 1909 its library had 114,869
+volumes and 79,000 pamphlets (exclusive of the libraries of the
+professional schools in Chicago); and the Garrett Biblical Institute had
+a library of 25,671 volumes and 4500 pamphlets. The university maintains
+the Grand Prairie Seminary at Onarga, Iroquois county, and the Elgin
+Academy at Elgin, Kane county. Enjoying the privileges of the
+university, though actually independent of it, are the Garrett Biblical
+Institute (Evanston Theological Seminary), founded in 1855, situated on
+the university campus, and probably the best-endowed Methodist Episcopal
+theological seminary in the United States, and affiliated with the
+Institute, the Norwegian Danish Theological school; and the Swedish
+Theological Seminary, founded at Galesburg in 1870, removed to Evanston
+in 1882, and occupying buildings on the university campus until 1907,
+when it removed to Orrington Avenue and Noyes Street. The Cumnock School
+of Oratory, at Evanston, also co-operates with the university. By the
+charter of the university the sale of intoxicating liquors is forbidden
+within 4 m. of the university campus. The manufacturing importance of
+the city is slight, but is rapidly increasing. The principal
+manufactures are wrought iron and steel pipe, bakers' machinery and
+bricks. In 1905 the value of the factory products was $2,550,529, being
+an increase of 207.3% since 1900. In Evanston are the publishing offices
+of the National Woman's Christian Temperance Union. Evanston was
+incorporated as a town in 1863 and as a village in 1872, and was
+chartered as a city in 1892. The villages of North Evanston and South
+Evanston were annexed to Evanston in 1874 and 1892 respectively.
+
+
+
+
+EVANSVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Vanderburg county, Indiana,
+U.S.A., and a port of entry, on the N. bank of the Ohio river, 200 m.
+below Louisville, Kentucky--measuring by the windings of the river,
+which double the direct distance. Pop. (1890) 50,756; (1900) 59,007;
+(1910 census) 69,647. Of the total population in 1900, 5518 were
+negroes, 5626 were foreign-born (including 4380 from Germany and 384
+from England), and 17,419 were of foreign parentage (both parents
+foreign-born), and of these 13,910 were of German parentage. Evansville
+is served by the Evansville & Terre Haute, the Evansville &
+Indianapolis, the Illinois Central, the Louisville & Nashville, the
+Louisville, Henderson & St Louis, and the Southern railways, by several
+interurban electric lines, and by river steamboats. The city is situated
+on a plateau above the river, and has a number of fine business and
+public buildings, including the court house and city hall, the Southern
+Indiana hospital for the insane, the United States marine hospital, and
+the Willard library and art gallery, containing in 1908 about 30,000
+volumes. The city's numerous railway connexions and its situation in a
+coal-producing region (there are five mines within the city limits) and
+on the Ohio river, which is navigable nearly all the year, combine to
+make it the principal commercial and manufacturing centre of Southern
+Indiana. It is in a tobacco-growing region, is one of the largest
+hardwood lumber markets in the country, and has an important shipping
+trade in pork, agricultural products, dried fruits, lime and limestone,
+flour and tobacco. Among its manufactures in 1905 were flour and grist
+mill products (value, $2,638,914), furniture ($1,655,246), lumber and
+timber products ($1,229,533), railway cars ($1,118,376), packed meats
+($998,428), woollen and cotton goods, cigars and cigarettes, malt
+liquors, carriages and wagons, leather and canned goods. The value of
+the factory products increased from $12,167,524 in 1900 to $19,201,716
+in 1905, or 57.8%, and in the latter year Evansville ranked third among
+the manufacturing cities in the state. The waterworks are owned and
+operated by the city. First settled about 1812, Evansville was laid out
+in 1817, and was named in honour of Robert Morgan Evans (1783-1844), one
+of its founders, who was an officer under General W.H. Harrison in the
+war of 1812. It soon became a thriving commercial town with an extensive
+river trade, was incorporated in 1819, and received a city charter in
+1847. The completion of the Wabash & Erie Canal, in 1853, from
+Evansville to Toledo, Ohio, a distance of 400 m., greatly accelerated
+the city's growth.
+
+
+
+
+EVARISTUS, fourth pope (c. 98-105), was the immediate successor of
+Clement.
+
+
+
+
+EVARTS, WILLIAM MAXWELL (1818-1901), American lawyer, was born in Boston
+on the 6th of February 1818. He graduated at Yale in 1837, was admitted
+to the bar in New York in 1841, and soon took high rank in his
+profession. In 1860 he was chairman of the New York delegation to the
+Republican national convention. In 1861 he was an unsuccessful candidate
+for the United States senatorship from New York. He was chief counsel
+for President Johnson during the impeachment trial, and from July 1868
+until March 1869 he was attorney-general of the United States. In 1872
+he was counsel for the United States in the "Alabama" arbitration.
+During President Hayes's administration (1877-1881) he was secretary of
+state; and from 1885 to 1891 he was one of the senators from New York.
+As an orator Senator Evarts stood in the foremost rank, and some of his
+best speeches were published. He died in New York on the 28th of
+February 1901.
+
+
+
+
+EVE, the English transcription, through Lat. _Eva_ and Gr. [Greek: Eua],
+of the Hebrew name [Hebrew: Hava] Havvah, given by Adam to his wife
+because she was "mother of all living," or perhaps more strictly, "of
+every group of those connected by female kinship" (see W.R. Smith,
+_Kinship_, 2nd ed., p. 208), as if Eve were the personification of
+mother-kinship, just as Adam ("man") is the personification of mankind.
+
+[The abstract meaning "life" (LXX. [Greek: Zoe]), once favoured by
+Robertson Smith, is at any rate unsuitable in a popular story.
+Wellhausen and Noldeke would compare the Ar. _hayyatun_, "serpent," and
+the former remarks that, if this is right, the Israelites received their
+first ancestress from the Hivvites (Hivites), who were originally the
+serpent-tribe (_Composition des Hexateuchs_, p. 343; cf. _Reste
+arabischen Heidentums_, 2nd ed., p. 154). Cheyne, too, assumes a common
+origin for Havvah and the Hivvites.]
+
+
+  Creation of Eve.
+
+[The account of the origin of Eve (Gen. iii. 21-23) runs thus: "And
+Yahweh-Elohim caused a deep sleep to fall upon the man, and he slept.
+And he took one of his ribs, and closed up the flesh in its stead, and
+the rib which Yahweh-Elohim had taken from the man he built up into a
+woman, and he brought her to the man." Enchanted at the sight, the man
+now burst out into elevated, rhythmic speech: "This one," he said, "at
+length is bone of my bone and flesh of my flesh," &c.; to which the
+narrator adds the comment, "Therefore doth a man forsake his father and
+his mother, and cleave to his wife, and they become one flesh (body)."
+Whether this comment implies the existence of the custom of _beena_,
+marriage (W.R. Smith, _Kinship_, 2nd ed., p. 208), seems doubtful. It is
+at least equally possible that the expression "his wife" simply reflects
+the fact that among ordinary Israelites circumstances had quite
+naturally brought about the prevalence of monogamy.[1] What the narrator
+gives is not a doctrine of marriage, much less a precept, but an
+explanation of a simple and natural phenomenon. How is it, he asks, that
+a man is so irresistibly drawn towards a woman? And he answers: Because
+the first woman was built up out of a rib of the first man. At the same
+time it is plain that the already existing tendency towards monogamy
+must have been powerfully assisted by this presentation of Eve's story
+as well as by the prophetic descriptions of Yahweh's relation to Israel
+under the figure of a monogamous union.]
+
+
+  New Testament application.
+
+[The narrator is no rhetorician, and spares us a description of the
+ideal woman. But we know that, for Adam, his strangely produced wife was
+a "help (or helper) matching or corresponding to him"; or, as the
+Authorized Version puts it, "a help meet for him" (ii. 18b). This does
+not, of course, exclude subordination on the part of the woman; what is
+excluded is that exaggeration of natural subordination which the
+narrator may have found both in his own and in the neighbouring
+countries, and which he may have regarded as (together with the pains of
+parturition) the punishment of the woman's transgression (Gen. iii. 16).
+His own ideal of woman seems to have made its way in Palestine by slow
+degrees. An apocryphal book (Tobit viii. 6, 7) seems to contain the only
+reference to the section till we come to the time of Christ, to whom the
+comment in Gen. ii. 24 supplies the text for an authoritative
+prohibition of divorce, which presupposes and sanctifies monogamy (Matt.
+x. 7, 8; Matt. xix. 5). For other New Testament applications of the
+story of Eve see 1 Cor. xi. 8, 9 (especially); 2 Cor. xi. 3; 1 Tim. ii.
+13, 14; and in general cf. ADAM, and _Ency. Biblica_, "Adam and Eve."]
+
+
+  Imaginative or legendary developments.
+
+[The seeming omissions in the Biblical narrative have been filled up by
+imaginative Jewish writers.] The earliest source which remains to us is
+the Book of Jubilees, or Leptogenesis, a Palestinian work (referred by
+R.H. Charles to the century immediately preceding the Christian era; see
+APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE). In this book, which was largely used by
+Christian writers, we find a chronology of the lives of Adam and Eve and
+the names of their daughters--Avan and Azura.[2] The Targum of Jonathan
+informs us that Eve was created from the thirteenth rib of Adam's right
+side, thus taking the view that Adam had a rib more than his
+descendants. Some of the Jewish legends show clear marks of foreign
+influence. Thus the notion that the first man was a double being,
+afterwards separated into the two persons of Adam and Eve (_Berachot_,
+61; _Erubin_, 18), may be traced back to Philo (_De mundi opif._ S53;
+cf. _Quaest. in Gen._ lib. i. S25), who borrows the idea, and almost the
+words, of the myth related by Aristophanes in the Platonic _Symposium_
+(189 D, 190 A), which, in extravagant form, explains the passion of love
+by the legend that male and female originally formed one body.
+
+[A recent critic[3] (F. Schwally) even holds that this notion was
+originally expressed in the account of the creation of man in Gen. i.
+27. This involves a textual emendation, and one must at least admit that
+the present text is not without difficulty, and that Berossus refers to
+the existence of primeval monstrous androgynous beings according to
+Babylonian mythology.] There is an analogous Iranian legend of the true
+man, which parted into man and woman in the Bundahish[4] (the Parsi
+Genesis), and an Indian legend, which, according to Spiegel, has
+presumably an Iranian source.[5]
+
+
+  Course of Jewish and Christian interpretation.
+
+[It has been remarked elsewhere (ADAM, S16) that though the later Jews
+gathered material for thought very widely, such guidance as they
+required in theological reflection was mainly derived from Greek
+culture. What, for instance, was to be made of such a story as that in
+Gen. ii.-iv.? To "minds trained under the influence of the Jewish
+Haggada, in which the whole Biblical history is freely intermixed with
+legendary and parabolic matter," the question as to the literal truth of
+that story could hardly be formulated. It is otherwise when the Greek
+leaven begins to work.]
+
+Josephus, in the prologue to his _Archaeology_, reserves the problem of
+the true meaning of the Mosaic narrative, but does not regard everything
+as strictly literal. Philo, the great representative of Alexandrian
+allegory, expressly argues that in the nature of things the trees of
+life and knowledge cannot be taken otherwise than symbolically. His
+interpretation of the creation of Eve is, as has been already observed,
+plainly suggested by a Platonic myth. The longing for reunion which love
+implants in the divided halves of the original dual man is the source of
+sensual pleasure (symbolized by the serpent), which in turn is the
+beginning of all transgression. Eve represents the sensuous or
+perceptive part of man's nature, Adam the reason. The serpent,
+therefore, does not venture to attack Adam directly. It is sense which
+yields to pleasure, and in turn enslaves the reason and destroys its
+immortal virtue. This exposition, in which the elements of the Bible
+narrative become mere symbols of the abstract notions of Greek
+philosophy, and are adapted to Greek conceptions of the origin of evil
+in the material and sensuous part of man, was adopted into Christian
+theology by Clement and Origen, notwithstanding its obvious
+inconsistency with the Pauline anthropology, and the difficulty which
+its supporters felt in reconciling it with the Christian doctrine of the
+excellence of the married state (Clemens Alex. _Stromata_, p. 174).
+These difficulties had more weight with the Western church, which, less
+devoted to speculative abstractions and more deeply influenced by the
+Pauline anthropology, refused, especially since Augustine, to reduce
+Paradise and the fall to the region of pure _intelligibilia_; though a
+spiritual sense was admitted along with the literal (Aug. _Civ. Dei_,
+xiii. 21).[6]
+
+The history of Adam and Eve became the basis of anthropological
+discussions which acquired more than speculative importance from their
+connexion with the doctrine of original sin and the meaning of the
+sacrament of baptism. One or two points in Augustinian teaching may be
+here mentioned as having to do particularly with Eve. The question
+whether the soul of Eve was derived from Adam or directly infused by the
+Creator is raised as an element in the great problem of traducianism and
+creationism (_De Gen. ad lit._ lib. x.). And it is from Augustine that
+Milton derives the idea that Adam sinned, not from desire for the
+forbidden fruit, but because love forbade him to dissociate his fate
+from Eve's (_ibid._ lib. xi. _sub fin._). Medieval discussion moved
+mainly in the lines laid down by Augustine. A sufficient sample of the
+way in which the subject was treated by the schoolmen may be found in
+the _Summa_ of Thomas, pars i. qu. xcii. _De productione mulieris_.
+
+The Reformers, always hostile to allegory, and in this matter especially
+influenced by the Augustinian anthropology, adhered strictly to the
+literal interpretation of the history of the Protoplasts, which has
+continued to be generally identified with Protestant orthodoxy. The
+disintegration of the confessional doctrine of sin in last century was
+naturally associated with new theories of the meaning of the biblical
+narrative; but neither renewed forms of the allegorical interpretation,
+in which everything is reduced to abstract ideas about reason and
+sensuality, nor the attempts of Eichhorn and others to extract a kernel
+of simple history by allowing largely for the influence of poetical form
+in so early a narrative, have found lasting acceptance. On the other
+hand, the strict historical interpretation is beset with difficulties
+which modern interpreters have felt with increasing force, and which
+there is a growing disposition to solve by adopting in one or other form
+what is called the _mythical_ theory of the narrative. But
+interpretations pass under this now popular title which have no real
+claim to be so designated. What is common to the "mythical"
+interpretations is to find the real value of the narrative, not in the
+form of the story, but in the thoughts which it embodies. But the story
+cannot be called a myth in the strict sense of the word, unless we are
+prepared to place it on one line with the myths of heathenism, produced
+by the unconscious play of plastic fancy, giving shape to the
+impressions of natural phenomena on primitive observers. Such a theory
+does no justice to a narrative which embodies profound truths peculiar
+to the religion of revelation. Other forms of the so-called mythical
+interpretation are little more than abstract allegory in a new guise,
+ignoring the fact that the biblical story does not teach general truths
+which repeat themselves in every individual, but gives a view of the
+purpose of man's creation, and of the origin of sin, in connexion with
+the divine plan of redemption. Among his other services in refutation of
+the unhistorical rationalism of last century, Kant has the merit of
+having forcibly recalled attention to the fact that the narrative of
+Genesis, even if we do not take it literally, must be regarded as
+presenting a view of the beginnings of the history of the human race
+(_Muthmasslicher Anfang der Menschengeschichte_, 1786) Those who
+recognize this fact ought not to call themselves or be called by others
+adherents of the mythical theory, although they also recognize that in
+the nature of things the divine truths brought out in the history of the
+creation and fall could not have been expressed either in the form of
+literal history or in the shape of abstract metaphysical doctrine; or
+even although they may hold--as is done by many who accept the narrative
+as a part of supernatural revelation--that the specific biblical truths
+which the narrative conveys are presented through the vehicle of a story
+which, at least in some of its parts, may possibly be shaped by the
+influence of legends common to the Hebrews with their heathen
+neighbours. (W. R. S.; [T. K. C.])
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] That polygamy had not become morally objectionable is shown by
+    the stories of Lamech, Abraham and Jacob.
+
+  [2] See West's authoritative translation in _Pahlavi Texts_ (Sacred
+    Books of the East).
+
+  [3] "Die bibl. Schopfungsberichte" (_Archiv fur
+    Religionswissenschaft_, ix. 171 ff.).
+
+  [4] Spiegel, _Eranische Alterthumskunde_, i. 511.
+
+  [5] Muir, _Sanscrit Texts_, vol. i. p. 25; cf. Spiegel, vol. i. p.
+    458.
+
+  [6] Thus in medieval theology Eve is a type of the church, and her
+    formation from the rib has a mystic reason, inasmuch as blood and
+    water (the sacraments of the church) flowed from the side of Christ
+    on the cross (Thomas, _Summa_, par. i. qu. xcii.).
+
+
+
+
+EVECTION (Latin for "carrying away"), in astronomy, the largest
+inequality produced by the action of the sun in the monthly revolution
+of the moon around the earth. The deviation expressed by it has a
+maximum amount of about 1 deg. 15' in either direction. It may be
+considered as arising from a semi-annual variation in the eccentricity
+of the moon's orbit and the position of its perigee. It was discovered
+by Ptolemy.
+
+
+
+
+EVELETH, a city of St Louis county, Minnesota, U.S.A., about 71 m.
+N.N.W. of Duluth. Pop. (1900) 2752; (1905, state census) 5332, of whom
+2975 were foreign-born (1145 Finns, 676 Austrians and 325 Swedes);
+(1910) 7036. Eveleth is served by the Duluth, Missabe & Northern and the
+Duluth & Iron Range railways. It lies in the midst of the great red and
+brown hematite iron-ore deposits of the Mesabi Range--the richest in the
+Lake Superior district--and the mining and shipping of this ore are its
+principal industries. The municipality owns and operates the
+water-works, the water being obtained from Lake Saint Mary, one of a
+chain of small lakes lying S. of the city. Eveleth was first chartered
+as a city in 1902.
+
+
+
+
+EVELYN, JOHN (1620-1706), English diarist, was born at Wotton House,
+near Dorking, Surrey, on the 31st of October 1620. He was the younger
+son of Richard Evelyn, who owned large estates in the county, and was in
+1633 high sheriff of Surrey and Sussex. When John Evelyn was five years
+old he went to live with his mother's parents at Cliffe, near Lewes. He
+refused to leave his "too indulgent" grandmother for Eton, and when on
+her husband's death she married again, the boy went with her to
+Southover, where he attended the free school of the place. He was
+admitted to the Middle Temple in February 1637, and in May he became a
+fellow commoner of Balliol College, Oxford. He left the university
+without taking a degree, and in 1640 was residing in the Middle Temple.
+In that year his father died, and in July 1641 he crossed to Holland. He
+was enrolled as a volunteer in Apsley's company, then encamped before
+Genep on the Waal, but his commission was apparently complimentary, his
+military experience being limited to six days of camp life, during
+which, however, he took his turn at "trailing a pike." He returned in
+the autumn to find England on the verge of civil war. Evelyn's part in
+the conflict is best told in his own words:--
+
+  "12th November was the battle of Brentford, surprisingly fought.... I
+  came in with my horse and arms just at the retreat; but was not
+  permitted to stay longer than the 15th by reason of the army marching
+  to Gloucester; which would have left both me and my brothers exposed
+  to ruin, without any advantage to his Majesty ... and on the 10th
+  [December] returned to Wotton, nobody knowing of my having been in his
+  Majesty's army."
+
+At Wotton he employed himself in improving his brother's property,
+making a fishpond, an island and other alterations in the gardens. But
+he found it difficult to avoid taking a side; he was importuned to sign
+the Covenant, and "finding it impossible to evade doing very unhandsome
+things," he obtained leave in October 1643 from the king to travel
+abroad. From this date his _Diary_ becomes full and interesting. He
+travelled in France and visited the cities of Italy, returning in the
+autumn of 1646 to Paris, where he became intimate with Sir Richard
+Browne, the English resident at the court of France. In June of the
+following year he married Browne's daughter and heiress, Mary, then a
+child of not more than twelve years of age. Leaving his wife in the
+care of her parents, he returned to England to settle his affairs. He
+visited Charles I. at Hampton Court in 1647, and during the next two
+years maintained a cipher correspondence with his father-in-law in the
+royal interest. In 1649 he obtained a pass to return to Paris, but in
+1650 paid a short visit to England. The defeat of Charles II. at
+Worcester in 1651 convinced him that the royalist cause was hopeless,
+and he decided to return to England. He went in 1652 to Sayes Court at
+Deptford, a house which Sir Richard Browne had held on a lease from the
+crown. This had been seized by the parliament, but Evelyn was able to
+compound with the occupiers for L3500, and after the Restoration his
+possession was secured. Here his wife joined him, their eldest son,
+Richard, being born in August 1652. Under the Commonwealth Evelyn amused
+himself with his favourite occupation of gardening, and made many
+friends among the scientific inquirers of the time. He was one of the
+promoters of the scheme for the Royal Society, and in the king's charter
+in 1662 was nominated a member of its directing council. Meanwhile he
+had refused employment from the government of the Commonwealth, and had
+maintained a cipher correspondence with Charles. In 1659 he published an
+_Apology for the Royal Party_, and in December of that year he vainly
+tried to persuade Colonel Herbert Morley, then lieutenant of the Tower,
+to forestall General Monk by declaring for the king. From the
+Restoration onwards Evelyn enjoyed unbroken court favour till his death
+in 1706; but he never held any important political office, although he
+filled many useful and often laborious minor posts. He was commissioner
+for improving the streets and buildings of London, for examining into
+the affairs of charitable foundations, commissioner of the Mint, and of
+foreign plantations. In 1664 he accepted the responsibility for the care
+of the sick and wounded and the prisoners in the Dutch war. He stuck to
+his post throughout the plague year, contenting himself with sending his
+family away to Wotton. He found it impossible to secure sufficient money
+for the proper discharge of his functions, and in 1688 he was still
+petitioning for payment of his accounts in this business. Evelyn was
+secretary of the Royal Society in 1672, and as an enthusiastic promoter
+of its interests was twice (in 1682 and 1691) offered the presidency.
+Through his influence Henry Howard, duke of Norfolk, was induced to
+present the Arundel marbles to the university of Oxford (1667) and the
+valuable Arundel library to Gresham College (1678). In the reign of
+James II., during the earl of Clarendon's absence in Ireland, he acted
+as one of the commissioners of the privy seal. He was seriously alarmed
+by the king's attacks on the English Church, and refused on two
+occasions to license the illegal sale of Roman Catholic literature. He
+concurred in the revolution of 1688, in 1695 was entrusted with the
+office of treasurer of Greenwich hospital for old sailors, and laid the
+first stone of the new building on the 30th of June 1696. In 1694 he
+left Sayes Court to live at Wotton with his brother, whose heir he had
+become, and whom he actually succeeded in 1699. He spent the rest of his
+life there, dying on the 27th of February 1706. Evelyn's house at Sayes
+Court had been let to Captain, afterwards Admiral John Benbow, who was
+not a "polite" tenant. He sublet it to Peter the Great, who was then
+visiting the dockyard at Deptford. The tsar did great damage to Evelyn's
+beautiful gardens, and, it is said, made it one of his amusements to
+ride in a wheelbarrow along a thick holly hedge planted especially by
+the owner. The house was subsequently used as a workhouse, and is now
+alms-houses, the grounds having been converted into public gardens by Mr
+Evelyn in 1886.
+
+It will be seen that Evelyn's politics were not of the heroic order. But
+he was honourable and consistent in his adherence to the monarchical
+principle throughout his life. With the court of Charles II. he could
+have had no sympathy, his dignified domestic life and his serious
+attention to religion standing in the strongest contrast with the
+profligacy of the royal surroundings. His _Diary_ is therefore a
+valuable chronicle of contemporary events from the standpoint of a
+moderate politician and a devout adherent of the Church of England. He
+had none of Pepys's love of gossip, and was devoid of his all-embracing
+curiosity, as of his diverting frankness of self-revelation. Both were
+admirable civil servants, and they had a mutual admiration for each
+other's sterling qualities. Evelyn's _Diary_ covers more than half a
+century (1640-1706) crowded with remarkable events, while Pepys only
+deals with a few years of Charles II.'s reign.
+
+Evelyn was a generous art patron, and Grinling Gibbons was introduced by
+him to the notice of Charles II. His domestic affections were very
+strong. He had six sons, of whom John (1655-1699), the author of some
+translations, alone reached manhood. He has left a pathetic account of
+the extraordinary accomplishments of his son Richard, who died before he
+was six years old, and of a daughter Mary, who lived to be twenty, and
+probably wrote most of her father's _Mundus muliebris_ (1690). Of his
+two other daughters, Susannah, who married William Draper of Addiscombe,
+Surrey, survived him.
+
+  Evelyn's _Diary_ remained in MS. until 1818. It is in a quarto volume
+  containing 700 pages, covering the years between 1641 and 1697, and is
+  continued in a smaller book which brings the narrative down to within
+  three weeks of its author's death. A selection from this was edited by
+  William Bray, with the permission of the Evelyn family, in 1818, under
+  the title of _Memoirs illustrative of the Life and Writings of John
+  Evelyn, comprising his Diary from 1641 to 1705/6, and a Selection of
+  his Familiar Letters_. Other editions followed, the most notable being
+  those of Mr H.B. Wheatley (1879) and Mr Austin Dobson (3 vols., 1906).
+  Evelyn's active mind produced many other works, and although these
+  have been overshadowed by the famous _Diary_ they are of considerable
+  interest. They include: _Of Liberty and Servitude_ ... (1649), a
+  translation from the French of Francois de la Mothe le Vayer, Evelyn's
+  own copy of which contains a note that he was "like to be call'd in
+  question by the Rebells for this booke"; _The State of France, as it
+  stood in the IXth year of ... Louis XIII._ (1652); _An Essay on the
+  First Book of T. Lucretius Carus de Rerum Natura_. _Interpreted and
+  made English verse by J. Evelyn_ (1656); _The Golden Book of St John
+  Chrysostom, concerning the Education of Children_. _Translated out of
+  the Greek by J.E._ (printed 1658, dated 1659); _The French Gardener:
+  instructing how to cultivate all sorts of Fruit-trees_ ... (1658),
+  translated from the French of N. de Bonnefons; _A Character of
+  England_ ... (1659), describing the customs of the country as they
+  would appear to a foreign observer, reprinted in _Somers' Tracts_ (ed.
+  Scott, 1812), and in the _Harleian Miscellany_ (ed. Park, 1813); _The
+  Late News from Brussels unmasked_ ... (1660), in answer to a libellous
+  pamphlet on Charles I. by Marchmont Needham; _Fumifugium, or the
+  inconvenience of the Aer and Smoak of London dissipated_ (1661), in
+  which he suggested that sweet-smelling trees should be planted in
+  London to purify the air; _Instructions concerning erecting of a
+  Library_ ... (1661), from the French of Gabriel Naude; _Tyrannus or
+  the Mode, in a Discourse of Sumptuary Laws_ (1661); _Sculptura: or the
+  History and Art of Chalcography and Engraving in Copper_ ... (1662);
+  _Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees ... to which is annexed Pomona
+  ... Also Kalendarium Hortense_ ... (1664); _A Parallel of the Ancient
+  Architecture with the Modern_ ... (1664), from the French of Roland
+  Freart; _The History of the three late famous Imposters, viz. Padre
+  Ottomano, Mahomed Bei, and Sabatei Sevi_ ... (1669); _Navigation and
+  Commerce ... in which his Majesties title to the Dominion of the Sea
+  is asserted against the Novel and later Pretenders_ (1674), which is a
+  preface to a projected history of the Dutch wars undertaken at the
+  request of Charles II., but countermanded on the conclusion of peace;
+  _A Philosophical Discourse of Earth_ ... (1676), a treatise on
+  horticulture, better known by its later title of _Terra_; _The
+  Compleat Gardener_ ... (1693), from the French of J. de la Quintinie;
+  _Numismata_ ... (1697). Some of these were reprinted in _The
+  Miscellaneous Writings of John Evelyn_, edited (1825) by William
+  Upcott. Evelyn's friendship with Mary Blagge, afterwards Mrs
+  Godolphin, is recorded in the diary, when he says he designed "to
+  consecrate her worthy life to posterity." This he effectually did in a
+  little masterpiece of religious biography which remained in MS. in the
+  possession of the Harcourt family until it was edited by Samuel
+  Wilberforce, bishop of Oxford, as the _Life of Mrs Godolphin_ (1847),
+  reprinted in the "King's Classics" (1904). The picture of Mistress
+  Blagge's saintly life at court is heightened in interest when read in
+  connexion with the scandalous memoirs of the comte de Gramont, or
+  contemporary political satires on the court. Numerous other papers and
+  letters of Evelyn on scientific subjects and matters of public
+  interest are preserved, a collection of private and official letters
+  and papers (1642-1712) by, or addressed to, Sir Richard Browne and his
+  son-in-law being in the British Museum (_Add. MSS._ 15857 and 15858).
+
+  Next to the _Diary_ Evelyn's most valuable work is _Sylva_. By the
+  glass factories and iron furnaces the country was being rapidly
+  depleted of wood, while no attempt was being made to replace the
+  damage by planting. Evelyn put in a plea for afforestation, and
+  besides producing a valuable work on arboriculture, he was able to
+  assert in his preface to the king that he had really induced
+  landowners to plant many millions of trees.
+
+
+
+
+EVERDINGEN, ALLART VAN (1621-?1675), Dutch painter and engraver, the son
+of a government clerk at Alkmaar, was born, it is said, in 1621, and
+educated, if we believe an old tradition, under Roeland Savery at
+Utrecht. He wandered in 1645 to Haarlem, where he studied under Peter de
+Molyn, and finally settled about 1657 at Amsterdam, where he remained
+till his death. It would be difficult to find a greater contrast than
+that which is presented by the works of Savery and Everdingen. Savery
+inherited the gaudy style of the Breughels, which he carried into the
+17th century; whilst Everdingen realized the large and effective system
+of coloured and powerfully shaded landscape which marks the precursors
+of Rembrandt. It is not easy on this account to believe that Savery was
+Everdingen's master, while it is quite within the range of probability
+that he acquired the elements of landscape painting from de Molyn.
+Pieter de Molyn, by birth a Londoner, lived from 1624 till 1661 in
+Haarlem. He went periodically on visits to Norway, and his works, though
+scarce, exhibit a broad and sweeping mode of execution, differing but
+slightly from that transferred at the opening of the 17th century from
+Jan van Goyen to Solomon Ruysdael. His etchings have nearly the breadth
+and effect of those of Everdingen. It is still an open question when de
+Molyn wielded influence on his clever disciple. Alkmaar, a busy trading
+place near the Texel, had little of the picturesque for an artist except
+polders and downs or waves and sky. Accordingly we find Allart at first
+a painter of coast scenery. But on one of his expeditions he is said to
+have been cast ashore in Norway, and during the repairs of his ship he
+visited the inland valleys, and thus gave a new course to his art. In
+early pieces he cleverly represents the sea in motion under varied, but
+mostly clouded, aspects of sky. Their general intonation is strong and
+brown, and effects are rendered in a powerful key, but the execution is
+much more uniform than that of Jacob Ruysdael. A dark scud lowering on a
+rolling sea near the walls of Flushing characterizes Everdingen's "Mouth
+of the Schelde" in the Hermitage at St Petersburg. Storm is the marked
+feature of sea-pieces in the Staedel or Robartes collections; and a
+strand with wreckers at the foot of a cliff in the Munich Pinakothek may
+be a reminiscence of personal adventure in Norway. But the Norwegian
+coast was studied in calms as well as in gales; and a fine canvas at
+Munich shows fishermen on a still and sunny day taking herrings to a
+smoking hut at the foot of a Norwegian crag. The earliest of
+Everdingen's sea-pieces bears the date of 1640. After 1645 we meet with
+nothing but representations of inland scenery, and particularly of
+Norwegian valleys, remarkable alike for wildness and a decisive depth of
+tone. The master's favourite theme is a fall in a glen, with mournful
+fringes of pines interspersed with birch, and log-huts at the base of
+rocks and craggy slopes. The water tumbles over the foreground, so as to
+entitle the painter to the name of "inventor of cascades." It gives
+Everdingen his character as a precursor of Jacob Ruysdael in a certain
+form of landscape composition; but though very skilful in arrangement
+and clever in effects, Everdingen remains much more simple in execution;
+he is much less subtle in feeling or varied in touch than his great and
+incomparable countryman. Five of Everdingen's cascades are in the museum
+of Copenhagen alone: of these, one is dated 1647, another 1649. In the
+Hermitage at St Petersburg is a fine example of 1647; another in the
+Pinakothek at Munich was finished in 1656. English public galleries
+ignore Everdingen; but one of his best-known masterpieces is the
+Norwegian glen belonging to Lord Listowel. Of his etchings and drawings
+there are much larger and more numerous specimens in England than
+elsewhere. Being a collector as well as an engraver and painter, he
+brought together a large number of works of all kinds and masters; and
+the sale of these by his heirs at Amsterdam on the 11th of March 1676
+gives an approximate clue to the date of the painter's death.
+
+His two brothers, Jan and Caesar, were both painters. CAESAR VAN
+EVERDINGEN (1606-1679), mainly known as a portrait painter, enjoyed some
+vogue during his life, and many of his pictures are to be seen in the
+museums and private houses of Holland. They show a certain cleverness,
+but are far from entitling him to rank as a master.
+
+
+
+
+EVEREST, SIR GEORGE (1790-1866), British surveyor and geographer, was
+the son of Tristram Everest of Gwerndale, Brecknockshire, and was born
+there on the 4th of July 1790. From school at Marlow he proceeded to the
+military academy at Woolwich, where he attracted the special notice of
+the mathematical master, and passed so well in his examinations that he
+was declared fit for a commission before attaining the necessary age.
+Having gone to India in 1806 as a cadet in the Bengal Artillery, he was
+selected by Sir Stamford Raffles to take part in the reconnaissance of
+Java (1814-1816); and after being employed in various engineering works
+throughout India, he was appointed in 1818 assistant to Colonel Lambton,
+the founder of the great trigonometrical survey of that country. In
+1823, on Colonel Lambton's death, he succeeded to the post of
+superintendent of the survey; in 1830 he was appointed by the court of
+directors of the East India Company surveyor-general of India; and from
+that date till his retirement from the service in 1843 he continued to
+discharge the laborious duties of both offices. During the rest of his
+life he resided in England, where he became fellow of the Royal Society
+and an active member of several other scientific associations. In 1861
+he was made a C.B. and received the honour of knighthood, and in 1862 he
+was chosen vice-president of the Royal Geographical Society. He died at
+Greenwich on the 1st of December 1866. The geodetical labours of Sir
+George Everest rank among the finest achievements of their kind; and
+more especially his measurement of the meridional arc of India, 11-1/2
+deg. in length, is accounted as unrivalled in the annals of the science.
+In
+
+great part the Indian survey is what he made it.
+
+  His works are purely professional:--A paper in vol. i. of the _Memoirs
+  of the Royal Astronomical Society_, pointing out a mistake in La
+  Caille's measurement of an arc of the meridian which he had discovered
+  during sick-leave at the Cape of Good Hope; _An account of the
+  measurement of the arc of the meridian between the parallels of 18
+  deg. 3' and 24 deg. 7', being a continuation of the Grand Meridional
+  Arc of India, as detailed by Lieut.-Col. Lambton in the volumes of the
+  Asiatic Society of Calcutta_ (London, 1830); _An account of the
+  measurement of two sections of the Meridional Arc of India bounded by
+  the parallels of 18 deg. 3' 15", 24 deg. 7' 11", and 20 deg. 30' 48"_
+  (London, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+EVEREST, MOUNT, the highest mountain in the world. It is a peak of the
+Himalayas situated in Nepal almost precisely on the intersection of the
+meridian 87 E. long. with the parallel 28 N. lat. Its elevation as at
+present determined by trigonometrical observation is 29,002 ft., but it
+is possible that further investigation into the value of refraction at
+such altitudes will result in placing the summit even higher. It has
+been confused with a peak to the west of it called Gaurisankar (by
+Schlagintweit), which is more than 5000 ft. lower; but the observations
+of Captain Wood from peaks near Khatmandu, in Nepal, and those of the
+same officer, and of Major Ryder, from the route between Lhasa and the
+sources of the Brahmaputra in 1904, have definitely fixed the relative
+position of the two mountain masses, and conclusively proved that there
+is no higher peak than Everest in the Himalayan system. The peak
+possesses no distinctive native name and has been called Everest after
+Sir George Everest (q.v.), who completed the trigonometrical survey of
+the Himalayas in 1841 and first fixed its position and altitude.
+     (T. H. H.*)
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, ALEXANDER HILL (1790-1847), American author and diplomatist,
+was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on the 19th of March 1790. He was the
+son of Rev. Oliver Everett (1753-1802), a Congregational minister in
+Boston, and the brother of Edward Everett. He graduated at Harvard in
+1806, taking the highest honours of his year, though the youngest member
+of his class. He spent one year as a teacher in Phillips Academy,
+Exeter, New Hampshire, and then began the study of law in the office of
+John Quincy Adams. In 1809 Adams was appointed minister to Russia, and
+Everett accompanied him as his private secretary, remaining attached to
+the American legation in Russia until 1811. He was secretary of the
+American legation at The Hague in 1815-1816, and _charge d'affaires_
+there from 1818 to 1824. From 1825 to 1829, during the presidency of
+John Quincy Adams, he was the United States minister to Spain. At that
+time Spain recognized none of the governments established by her
+revolted colonies, and Everett became the medium of all communications
+between the Spanish government and the several nations of Spanish origin
+which had been established, by successful revolutions, on the other side
+of the ocean. Everett was a member of the Massachusetts legislature in
+1830-1835, was president of Jefferson College in Louisiana in 1842-1844,
+and was appointed commissioner of the United States to China in 1845,
+but did not go to that country until the following year, and died on the
+29th of May 1847 at Canton, China. Everett, however, is known rather as
+a man of letters than as a diplomat. In addition to numerous articles,
+published chiefly in the _North American Review_, of which he was the
+editor from 1829 to 1835, he wrote: _Europe, or a General Survey of the
+Political Situation of the Principal Powers, with Conjectures on their
+Future Prospects_ (1822), which attracted considerable attention in
+Europe and was translated into German, French and Spanish; _New Ideas on
+Population_ (1822); _America, or a General Survey of the Political
+Situation of the Several Powers of the Western Continent, with
+Conjectures on their Future Prospects_ (1827), which was translated into
+several European languages; a volume of _Poems_ (1845); and _Critical
+and Miscellaneous Essays_ (first series, 1845; second series, 1847).
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, CHARLES CARROLL (1829-1900), American divine and philosopher,
+was born on the 19th of June 1829, at Brunswick, Maine. He studied at
+Bowdoin College, where he graduated in 1850, after which he proceeded to
+Berlin. Subsequently he took a degree in divinity at the Harvard
+Divinity School. From 1859 to 1869 he was pastor of the Independent
+Congregational (Unitarian) church at Bangor, Maine. This charge he
+resigned to take the Bussey professorship of theology at Harvard
+University, and, in 1878, became dean of the faculty of theology.
+Interested in a variety of subjects, he devoted himself chiefly to the
+philosophy of religion, and published _The Science of Thought_ (Boston,
+1869; revised 1891). He also wrote _Fichte's Science of Knowledge_
+(1884); _Poetry, Comedy and Duty_ (1888); _Religions before
+Christianity_ (1883); _Ethics for Young People_ (1891); _The Gospel of
+Paul_ (1892). He died at Cambridge on the 16th of October 1900.
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, EDWARD (1794-1865), American statesman and orator, was born in
+Dorchester, Massachusetts, on the 11th of April 1794. He was the son of
+Rev. Oliver Everett and the brother of Alexander Hill Everett (q.v.).
+His father died in 1802, and his mother removed to Boston with her
+family after her husband's death. At seventeen Edward Everett graduated
+from Harvard College, taking first honours in his class. While at
+college he was the chief editor of _The Lyceum_, the earliest in the
+series of college journals published at the American Cambridge. His
+earlier predilections were for the study of law, but the advice of
+Joseph Stevens Buckminster, a distinguished preacher in Boston, led him
+to prepare for the pulpit, and as a preacher he at once distinguished
+himself. He was called to the ministry of the Brattle Street church
+(Unitarian) in Boston before he was twenty years old. His sermons
+attracted wide attention in that community, and he gained a considerable
+reputation as a theologian and a controversialist by his publication in
+1814 of a volume entitled _Defence of Christianity_, written in answer
+to a work, _The Grounds of Christianity Examined_ (1813), by George
+Bethune English (1787-1828), an adventurer, who, born in Cambridge,
+Massachusetts, was in turn a student of law and of theology, an editor
+of a newspaper, and a soldier of fortune in Egypt. Everett's tastes,
+however, were then, as always, those of a scholar; and in 1815, after a
+service of little more than a year in the pulpit, he resigned his charge
+to accept a professorship of Greek literature in Harvard College.
+
+After nearly five years spent in Europe in preparation, he entered with
+enthusiasm on his duties, and, for five years more, gave a vigorous
+impulse, not only to the study of Greek, but to all the work of the
+college. In January 1820 he assumed the charge of the _North American
+Review_, which now became a quarterly; and he was indefatigable during
+the four years of his editorship in contributing on a great variety of
+subjects. From 1825 to 1835 he was a member of the National House of
+Representatives, supporting generally the administration of President
+J.Q. Adams and opposing that of Jackson, which succeeded it. He bore a
+part in almost every important debate, and was a member of the committee
+of foreign affairs during the whole time of his service in Congress.
+Everett was a member of nearly all the most important select committees,
+such as those on the Indian relations of the state of Georgia, the
+Apportionment Bill, and the Bank of the United States, and drew the
+report either of the majority or the minority. The report on the
+congress of Panama, the leading measure of the first session of the
+Nineteenth Congress, was drawn up by Everett, although he was the
+youngest member of the committee and had just entered Congress. He led
+the unsuccessful opposition to the Indian policy of General Jackson (the
+removal of the Cherokee and other Indians, without their consent, from
+lands guaranteed to them by treaty).
+
+In 1835 he was elected governor of Massachusetts. He brought to the
+duties of the office the untiring diligence which was the characteristic
+of his public life. We can only allude to a few of the measures which
+received his efficient support, e.g. the establishment of the board of
+education (the first of such boards in the United States), the
+scientific surveys of the state (the first of such public surveys), the
+criminal law commission, and the preservation of a sound currency during
+the panic of 1837.
+
+Everett filled the office of governor for four years, and was then
+defeated by a single vote, out of more than one hundred thousand. The
+election is of interest historically as being the first important
+American election where the issue turned on the question of the
+prohibition of the retail sale of intoxicating liquors. In the following
+spring he made a visit with his family to Europe. In 1841, while
+residing in Florence, he was named United States minister to Great
+Britain, and arrived in London to enter upon the duties of his mission
+at the close of that year. Great questions were at that time open
+between the two countries--the north-eastern boundary, the affair of
+M'Leod, the seizure of American vessels on the coast of Africa, in the
+course of a few months the affair of the "Creole," to which was soon
+added the Oregon question. His position was more difficult by reason of
+the frequent changes that took place in the department at home, which,
+in the course of four years, was occupied successively by Messrs
+Webster, Legare, Upshur, Calhoun and Buchanan. From all these gentlemen
+Everett received marks of approbation and confidence.
+
+By the institution of the special mission of Lord Ashburton, however,
+the direct negotiations between the two governments were, about the time
+of Everett's arrival in London, transferred to Washington, though much
+business was transacted at the American legation in London.
+
+Immediately after the accession of Polk to the presidency Everett was
+recalled. From January 1846 to 1849, as the successor of Josiah Quincy,
+he was president of Harvard College. On the death, in October 1852, of
+his friend Daniel Webster, to whom he had always been closely attached,
+and of whom he was always a confidential adviser, he succeeded him as
+secretary of state, which post he held for the remaining months of
+Fillmore's administration, leaving it to go into the Senate in 1853, as
+one of the representatives of Massachusetts. Under the work of the long
+session of 1853-1854 his health gave way. In May 1854 he resigned his
+seat, on the orders of his physician, and retired to what was called
+private life.
+
+But, as it proved, the remaining ten years of his life most widely
+established his reputation and influence throughout America. As early as
+1820 he had established a reputation as an orator, such as few men in
+later days have enjoyed. He was frequently invited to deliver an
+"oration" on some topic of historical or other interest. With him these
+"orations," instead of being the ephemeral entertainments of an hour,
+became careful studies of some important theme. Eager to avert, if
+possible, the impending conflict of arms between the North and South,
+Everett prepared an "oration" on George Washington, which he delivered
+in every part of America. In this way, too, he raised more than one
+hundred thousand dollars, for the purchase of the old home of Washington
+at Mount Vernon. Everett also prepared for the _Encyclopaedia
+Britannica_ a biographical sketch of Washington, which was published
+separately in 1860. In 1860 Everett was the candidate of the short-lived
+Constitutional-Union party for the vice-presidency, on the ticket with
+John Bell (q.v.), but received only 39 electoral votes. During the Civil
+War he zealously supported the national government and was called upon
+in every quarter to speak at public meetings. He delivered the last of
+his great orations at Gettysburg, after the battle, on the consecration
+of the national cemetery there. On the 9th of January 1865 he spoke at a
+public meeting in Boston to raise funds for the southern poor in
+Savannah. At that meeting he caught cold, and the immediate result was
+his death on the 15th of January 1865.
+
+In Everett's life and career was a combination of the results of
+diligent training, unflinching industry, delicate literary tastes and
+unequalled acquaintance with modern international politics. This
+combination made him in America an entirely exceptional person. He was
+never loved by the political managers; he was always enthusiastically
+received by assemblies of the people. He would have said himself that
+the most eager wish of his life had been for the higher education of his
+countrymen. His orations have been collected in four volumes
+(1850-1859). A work on international law, on which he was engaged at his
+death, was never finished. Allibone records 84 titles of his books and
+published addresses.     (E. E. H.)
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, a city of Middlesex county, Massachusetts, U.S.A., adjoining
+Chelsea and 3 m. N. of Boston, of which it is a residential suburb. Pop.
+(1880) 4159; (1890) 11,068; (1900) 24,336, of whom 6882 were
+foreign-born; (1910 census) 33,484. It covers an area of about 3 sq. m.
+and is served by the Boston & Maine railway and by interurban electric
+lines. Everett has the Frederick E. Parlin memorial library (1878), the
+Shute memorial library (1898), the Whidden memorial hospital and
+Woodlawn cemetery (176 acres). The principal manufactures are coke,
+chemicals and boots and shoes; among others are iron and structural
+steel. According to the U.S. Census of Manufactures (1905), "the coke
+industry in Everett is unique, inasmuch as illuminating gas is the
+primary product and coke really a by-product, while the coal used is
+brought from mines located in Nova Scotia." The value of the city's
+total factory product increased from $4,437,180 in 1900 to $6,135,650 in
+1905 or 38.3%. Everett was first settled about 1630, remaining a part of
+Malden (and being known as South Malden) until 1870, when it was
+incorporated as a township. It was chartered as a city in 1892.
+
+
+
+
+EVERETT, a city, a sub-port of entry, and the county-seat of Snohomish
+county, Washington, U.S.A., on Puget Sound, at the mouth of the
+Snohomish river, about 35 m. N. of Seattle. Pop. (1900) 7838; (1910 U.S.
+census) 24,814. The city is served by the Northern Pacific and the Great
+Northern railways, being the western terminus of the latter's main
+transcontinental line, by interurban electric railway, and by several
+lines of Sound and coasting freight and passenger steamboats. Everett
+has a fine harbour with several large iron piers. Among its principal
+buildings are a Carnegie library, a Y.M.C.A. building and two hospitals.
+The buildings of the Pacific College were erected here by the United
+Norwegian Lutheran Church in 1908. The city is in a rich lumbering,
+gardening, farming, and copper-, gold- and silver-mining district. There
+is a U.S. assayer's office here, and there are extensive shipyards, a
+large paper mill, iron works, and, just outside the city limits, the
+smelters of the American Smelters Securities Company, in connexion with
+which is one of the two plants in the United States for saving arsenic
+from smelter fumes. Lumber interests, however, are of most importance,
+and here are some of the largest lumber plants in the Pacific Northwest.
+Red-cedar shingles are an important product. Everett was settled in 1891
+and was incorporated in 1893. Its rapid growth is due to its favourable
+situation as a commercial port, its transportation facilities, and its
+nearness to extensive forests whence the material for its chief
+industries is obtained.
+
+
+
+
+EVERGLADES, an American lake, about 8000 sq. m. in area, in which are
+numerous half-submerged islands; situated in the southern part of
+Florida, U.S.A., in Lee, De Soto, Dade and St Lucie counties. West of it
+is the Big Cypress Swamp. The floor of the lake is a limestone basin,
+extending from Lake Okechobee in the N. to the extreme S. part of the
+state, and the lake varies in depth from 1 to 12 ft., its water being
+pure and clear. The surface is above tide level, and the lake is
+enclosed, probably on all sides, within an outcropping limestone rim,
+averaging about 10 ft. above mean low tide, and approaching much nearer
+to the Atlantic on the E. than to the gulf on the W. There are several
+small outlets, such as the Miami river and the New river on the E. and
+the Shark river on the S.W., but no streams empty into the Everglades,
+and the water-supply is furnished by springs and precipitation. There is
+a general south-easterly movement of the water. The soil of the islands
+is very fertile and is subject to frequent inundations, but gradually
+the water area is being replaced by land. The vegetation is luxuriant,
+the live oak, wild lemon, wild orange, cucumber, papaw, custard apple
+and wild rubber trees being among the indigenous species; there are,
+besides, many varieties of wild flowers, the orchids being especially
+noteworthy. The fauna is also varied; the otter, alligator and crocodile
+are found, also the deer and panther, and among the native birds are the
+ibis, egret, heron and limpkin. There are two seasons, wet and dry, but
+the climate is equable.
+
+Systematic exploration has been prevented by the dense growth of saw
+grass (_Cladium effusum_), a kind of sedge, with sharp, saw-toothed
+leaves, which grows everywhere on the muck-covered rock basin and
+extends several feet above the shallow water. The first white man to
+enter the region was Escalente de Fontenada, a Spanish captive of an
+Indian chief, who named the lake Laguno del Espiritu Santo and the
+islands Cayos del Espiritu Santo. Between 1841 and 1856 various United
+States military forces penetrated the Everglades for the purpose of
+attacking and driving out the Seminoles, who took refuge here. The most
+important explorations during the later years of the 19th century were
+those of Major Archie P. Williams in 1883, James E. Ingraham in 1892 and
+Hugh L. Willoughby in 1897. The Seminole Indians were in 1909
+practically the only inhabitants. In 1850 under the "Arkansas Bill," or
+Swamp and Overflow Act, practically all of the Everglades, which the
+state had been urging the federal government to drain and reclaim, were
+turned over to the state for that purpose, with the provision that all
+proceeds from such lands be applied to their reclamation. A board of
+trustees for the Internal Improvement Fund, created in 1855 and having
+as members _ex officio_ the governor, comptroller, treasurer,
+attorney-general and commissioner-general, sold and allowed to railway
+companies much of the grant. Between 1881 and 1896 a private company
+owning 4,000,000 acres of the Everglades attempted to dig a canal from
+Lake Okechobee through Lake Hicpochee and along the Caloosahatchee river
+to the Gulf of Mexico; the canal was closed in 1902 by overflows. Six
+canals were begun under state control in 1905 from the lake to the
+Atlantic, the northernmost at Jensen, the southernmost at Ft.
+Lauderdale; the total cost, estimated at $1,035,000 for the reclamation
+of 12,500 sq. m., is raised by a drainage tax (not to exceed 10 cents
+per acre) levied by the trustees of the Internal Improvement Fund and
+Board of Drainage commissioners. The small area reclaimed prior to that
+year (1905) was found very fertile and particularly adapted to raising
+sugar-cane, oranges and garden truck.
+
+  See Hugh L. Willoughby's _Across the Everglades_ (Philadelphia, 1898),
+  and especially an article "The Everglades of Florida" by Edwin A. Dix
+  and John M. MacGonigle, in the _Century Magazine_ for February 1905.
+
+
+
+
+EVERGREEN, a general term applied to plants which are always in leaf, as
+contrasted with deciduous trees which are bare for some part of the year
+(see HORTICULTURE). In temperate or colder zones where a season
+favourable to vegetation is succeeded by an unfavourable or winter
+season, leaves of evergreens must be protected from the frost and cold
+drying winds, and are therefore tougher or more leathery in texture than
+those of deciduous trees, and frequently, as in pines, firs and other
+conifers, are needle-like, thus exposing a much smaller surface to the
+drying action of cold winds. The number of seasons for which the leaves
+last varies in different plants; every season some of the older leaves
+fall, while new ones are regularly produced. The common English bramble
+is practically evergreen, the leaves lasting through winter and until
+the new leaves are developed next spring. In privet also the leaves fall
+after the production of new ones in the next year. In other cases the
+leaves last several years, as in conifers, and may sometimes be found on
+eleven-year-old shoots.
+
+
+
+
+EVERLASTING, or IMMORTELLE, a plant belonging to the division
+_Tubuliflorae_ of the natural order Compositae, known botanically as
+_Helichrysum orientale_. It is a native of North Africa, Crete, and the
+parts of Asia bordering on the Mediterranean; and it is cultivated in
+many parts of Europe. It first became known in Europe about the year
+1629, and has been cultivated since 1815. In common with several other
+plants of the same group, known as "everlastings," the immortelle plant
+possesses a large involucre of dry scale-like or scarious bracts, which
+preserve their appearance when dried, provided the plant be gathered in
+proper condition. The chief supplies of _Helichrysum orientale_ come
+from lower Provence, where it is cultivated in large quantities on the
+ground sloping to the Mediterranean, in positions well exposed to the
+sun, and usually in plots surrounded by dry stone walls. The finest
+flowers are grown on the slopes of Bandols and Ciotat, where the plant
+begins to flower in June. It requires a light sandy or stony soil, and
+is very readily injured by rain or heavy dews. It can be propagated in
+quantity by means of offsets from the older stems. The flowering stems
+are gathered in June, when the bracts are fully developed, all the
+fully-expanded and immature flowers being pulled off and rejected. A
+well-managed plantation is productive for eight or ten years. The plant
+is tufted in its growth, each plant producing 60 or 70 stems, while each
+stem produces an average of 20 flowers. About 400 such stems weigh a
+kilogramme. A hectare of ground will produce 40,000 plants, bearing from
+2,400,000 to 2,800,000 stems, and weighing from 5-1/2 to 6-1/2 tons, or
+from 2 to 3 tons per acre. The colour of the bracts is a deep yellow.
+The natural flowers are commonly used for garlands for the dead, or
+plants dyed black are mixed with the yellow ones. The plant is also dyed
+green or orange-red, and thus employed for bouquets or other ornamental
+purposes.
+
+Other species of _Helichrysum_ and species of allied genera with
+scarious heads of flowers are also known as "everlastings." One of the
+best known is the Australian species _H. bracteatum_, with several
+varieties, including double forms, of different colours; _H. vestitum_
+(Cape of Good Hope) has white satiny heads. Others are species of
+_Helipterum_ (West Australia and South Africa), _Ammobium_ and _Waitzia_
+(Australia) and _Xeranthemum_ (south Europe). Several members of the
+natural order Amarantaceae have also "everlasting" flowers; such are
+_Gomphrena globosa_, with rounded or oval heads of white, orange, rose
+or violet, scarious bracts, and _Celosia pyramidalis_, with its elegant,
+loose, pyramidal inflorescences. Frequently these everlastings are mixed
+with bleached grasses, as _Lagurus ovatus_, _Briza maxima_, _Bromus
+brizaeformis_, or with the leaves of the Cape silver tree (_Leucadendron
+argenteum_), to form bouquets or ornamental groups.
+
+
+
+
+EVERSLEY, CHARLES SHAW LEFEVRE, VISCOUNT (1794-1888), speaker of the
+British House of Commons, eldest son of Mr Charles Shaw (who assumed his
+wife's name of Lefevre in addition to his own on his marriage), was born
+in London on the 22nd of February 1794, and educated at Winchester and
+at Trinity College, Cambridge. He was called to the bar in 1819, and
+though a diligent student was also a keen sportsman. Marrying a daughter
+of Mr Samuel Whitbread, whose wife was the sister of Earl Grey,
+afterwards premier, he thus became connected with two influential
+political families, and in 1830 he entered the House of Commons as
+member for Downton, in the Liberal interest. In 1831 he was returned,
+after a severe contest, as one of the county members for Hampshire, in
+which he resided; and after the passing of the Reform Act of 1832 he was
+elected for the Northern Division of the county. For some years Mr Shaw
+Lefevre was chairman of a committee on petitions for private bills. In
+1835 he was chairman of a committee on agricultural distress, but as his
+report was not accepted by the House, he published it as a pamphlet
+addressed to his constituents. He acquired a high reputation in the
+House of Commons for his judicial fairness, combined with singular tact
+and courtesy, and when Mr James Abercromby retired in 1839, he was
+nominated as the Liberal candidate for the chair. The Conservatives put
+forward Henry Goulburn, but Mr Shaw Lefevre was elected by 317 votes to
+299. The period was one of fierce party conflict, and the debates were
+frequently very acrimonious; but the dignity, temper and firmness of the
+new speaker were never at fault. In 1857 he had served longer than any
+of his predecessors, except the celebrated Arthur Onslow (1691-1768),
+who was speaker for more than 33 years in five successive parliaments.
+Retiring on a pension, he was raised to the peerage as Viscount Eversley
+of Heckfield, in the county of Southampton. His appearances in the House
+of Lords were very infrequent, but in his own county he was active in
+the public service. From 1859 he was an ecclesiastical commissioner, and
+he was also appointed a trustee of the British Museum. He died on the
+28th of December 1888, the viscountcy becoming extinct.
+
+His younger brother, SIR JOHN GEORGE SHAW LEFEVRE (1797-1879), who was
+senior wrangler at Cambridge in 1818, had a long and distinguished
+career as a public official. He was under-secretary for the colonies,
+and had much to do with the introduction of the new poor law in 1834,
+and with the foundation of the colony of South Australia; then having
+served on several important commissions he was made clerk of the
+parliaments in 1855, and in the same year became one of the first civil
+service commissioners. He helped to found the university of London, of
+which he was vice-chancellor for twenty years, and also the Athenaeum
+Club. He died on the 20th of August 1879.
+
+The latter's son, GEORGE JOHN SHAW LEFEVRE (b. 1832), was created Baron
+Eversley in 1906, in recognition of long and prominent services to the
+Liberal party. He had filled the following offices:--civil lord of the
+admiralty, 1856; secretary to the board of trade, 1869-1871;
+under-secretary, home office, 1871; secretary to the admiralty,
+1871-1874; first commissioner of works, 1881-1883; postmaster-general,
+1883-1884; first commissioner of works, 1892-1893; president of local
+government board, 1894-1895; chairman of royal commission on
+agriculture, 1893-1896.
+
+
+
+
+EVESHAM, a market-town and municipal borough in the Evesham
+parliamentary division of Worcestershire, England, 107 m. W.N.W. of
+London by the Great Western railway, and 15 m. S.E. by E. of Worcester,
+with a station on the Redditch-Ashchurch branch of the Midland railway.
+Pop. (1901) 7101. It lies on the right (north) bank of the Avon, in the
+rich and beautiful Vale of Evesham. The district is devoted to
+market-gardening and orchards, and the trade of the town is mainly
+agricultural. Evesham is a place of considerable antiquity, a
+Benedictine house having been founded here by St Egwin in the 8th
+century. It became a wealthy abbey, but was almost wholly destroyed at
+the Dissolution. The churchyard, however, is entered by a Norman
+gateway, and there survives also a magnificent isolated bell-tower
+dating from 1533, of the best ornate Perpendicular workmanship. The
+abbey walls surround the churchyard, but almost the only other remnant
+is a single Decorated arch. Close to the bell-tower, however, are the
+two parish churches of St Lawrence and of All Saints, the former of the
+16th century, the latter containing Early English work, and the ornate
+chapel of Abbot Lichfield, who erected the bell-tower. Other buildings
+include an Elizabethan town hall, the grammar school, founded by Abbot
+Lichfield, and the picturesque almonry. The borough includes the parish
+of Bengeworth St Peter, on the left bank of the river. Evesham is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 2265 acres.
+
+Evesham (_Homme_, _Ethomme_) grew up around the Benedictine abbey, and
+had evidently become of some importance as a trading centre in 1055,
+when Edward the Confessor gave it a market and the privileges of a
+commercial town. It is uncertain when the town first became a borough,
+but the Domesday statement that the men paid 20s. may indicate the
+existence of a more or less organized body of tradesmen. Before 1482 the
+burgesses were holding the town at a fee farm rent of twenty marks, but
+the abbot still had practical control of the town, and his steward
+presided over the court at which the bailiffs were chosen. After the
+Dissolution the manor with the markets and fairs and other privileges
+was granted to Sir Philip Hoby, who increased his power over the town by
+persuading the burgesses to agree that, after they had nominated six
+candidates for the office of bailiff, the steward of the court
+instructed by him should indicate the two to be chosen. This privilege
+was contested by Queen Elizabeth, but when the case was taken before the
+court of the exchequer it was decided in favour of Sir Philip's heir,
+Sir Edward Hoby. In 1604 James I. granted the burgesses their first
+charter, but in the following year, by a second charter, he incorporated
+Evesham with the village of Bengeworth, and granted that the borough
+should be governed by a mayor and seven aldermen, to whom he gave the
+power of holding markets and fairs and several other privileges which
+had formerly belonged to the lord of the manor. Evesham received two
+later charters, but in 1688 that of 1605 was restored and still remains
+the governing charter of the borough. Evesham returned two members to
+parliament in 1295 and again in 1337, after which date the privilege
+lapsed until 1604. Its two members were reduced to one by the act of
+1867, and the borough was disfranchised in 1885.
+
+Evesham gave its name to the famous battle, fought on the 4th of August
+1265, between the forces of Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester, and
+the royalist army under Prince Edward. After a masterly campaign, in
+which the prince had succeeded in defeating Leicester in the valleys of
+the Severn and Usk, and had destroyed the forces of the younger Montfort
+at Kenilworth before he could effect a junction with the main body, the
+royalist forces approached Evesham in the morning of the 4th of August
+in time to intercept Leicester's march towards Kenilworth. Caught in the
+bend of the river Avon by the converging columns, and surrounded on all
+sides, the old earl attempted to cut his way out of the town to the
+northward. At first the fury of his assault forced back the superior
+numbers of the prince; but Simon's Welsh levies melted away and his
+enemies closed the last avenue of escape. The final struggle took place
+on Green Hill, a little to the north-west of the town, where the devoted
+friends of de Montfort formed a ring round their leader, and died with
+him. The spot is marked with an obelisk.
+
+
+
+
+EVIDENCE (Lat. _evidentia_, _evideri_, to appear clearly), a term which
+may be defined briefly as denoting the facts presented to the mind of a
+person for the purpose of enabling him to decide a disputed question.
+Evidence in the widest sense includes all such facts, and reference may
+be made to the article LOGIC for the science or art of dealing with the
+proper way of drawing correct conclusions and the nature of proof. In a
+narrower sense, however, evidence includes in English law only such
+facts as are allowed to be so presented in the course of judicial
+proceedings. Thus we say that a fact is not evidence, meaning thereby
+that it is not admissible as evidence in accordance with the rules of
+English law. The law of legal evidence is part of the law of procedure.
+It determines the kinds of evidence which may be produced in judicial
+proceedings, and regulates the mode in which, and the conditions under
+which, evidence may be produced and tested.
+
+
+  History.
+
+The English law of evidence is of comparatively modern growth. It
+enshrines certain maxims, some derived from Roman law, some invented by
+Coke, who, as J.B. Thayer says, "spawned Latin maxims freely." But for
+the most part it was built up by English judges in the course of the
+18th century, and consists of this judge-made law, as modified by
+statutory enactments of the 19th century. Early Teutonic procedure knew
+nothing of evidence in the modern sense, just as it knew nothing of
+trials in the modern sense. What it knew was "proofs." There were two
+modes of proof, ordeals and oaths. Both were appeals to the
+supernatural. The judicial combat was a bilateral ordeal. Proof
+followed, instead of preceding, judgment. A judgment of the court,
+called by German writers the _Beweisurteil_, and by M.M. Bigelow the
+"medial judgment," awarded that one of the two litigants must prove his
+case, by his body in battle, or by a one-sided ordeal, or by an oath
+with oath-helpers, or by the oaths of witnesses. The court had no desire
+to hear or weigh conflicting testimony. To do so would have been to
+exercise critical faculties, which the court did not possess, and the
+exercise of which would have been foreign to the whole spirit of the
+age. The litigant upon whom the burden of furnishing proof was imposed
+had a certain task to perform. If he performed it, he won; if he failed,
+he lost. The number of oath-helpers varied in different cases, and was
+determined by the law or by the court. They were probably, at the
+outset, kinsmen, who would have had to take up the blood-feud. At a
+later stage they became witnesses to character. In the cases,
+comparatively rare, where the oaths of witnesses were admitted as proof,
+their oaths differed materially from the sworn testimony of modern
+courts. As a rule no one could testify to a fact unless, when the fact
+happened, he was solemnly "taken to witness." Then, when the witness was
+adduced, he came merely to swear to a set formula. He did not make a
+promissory oath to answer questions truly. He merely made an assertory
+oath in a prescribed form.
+
+In the course of the 12th and 13th centuries the old formal accusatory
+procedure began to break down, and to be superseded by another form of
+procedure known as _inquisitio_, inquest, or _enquete_. Its decay was
+hastened by the decree of the fourth Lateran Council in 1215, which
+forbade ecclesiastics to take part in ordeals. The Norman administrative
+system introduced into England by the Conquest was familiar with a
+method of ascertaining and determining facts by means of a verdict,
+return or finding made on oath by a body of men drawn from the locality.
+The system may be traced to Carolingian, and even earlier, sources.
+Henry II., by instituting the grand assize and the four petty assizes,
+placed at the disposal of litigants in certain actions the opportunity
+of giving proof by the verdict of a sworn inquest of neighbours, proof
+"by the country." The system was gradually extended to other cases,
+criminal as well as civil. The verdict given was that of persons having
+a general, but not necessarily a particular, acquaintance with the
+persons, places and facts to which the inquiry related. It was, in fact,
+a finding by local popular opinion. Had the finding of such an inquest
+been treated as final and conclusive in criminal cases, English criminal
+procedure might, like the continental inquisition, the French _enquete_,
+have taken the path which, in the forcible language of Fortescue (_De
+laudibus_, &c.) "leads to hell" (_semita ipsa est ad gehennam_).
+Fortunately English criminal procedure took a different course. The
+spirit of the old accusatory procedure was applied to the new procedure
+by inquest. In serious cases the words of the jurors, the accusing
+jurors, were treated not as testimony, but as accusation, the new
+indictment was treated as corresponding to the old appeal, and the
+preliminary finding by the accusing jury had to be supplemented by the
+verdict of another jury. In course of time the second jury were required
+to base their findings not on their own knowledge, but on evidence
+submitted to them. Thus the modern system of inquiry by grand jury and
+trial by petty jury was gradually developed.
+
+A few words may here be said about the parallel development of criminal
+procedure on the continent of Europe. The tendency in the 12th and 13th
+centuries to abolish the old formal methods of procedure, and to give
+the new procedure the name of inquisition or inquest, was not peculiar
+to England. Elsewhere the old procedure was breaking down at the same
+time, and for similar reasons. It was the great pope Innocent III., the
+pope of the fourth Lateran Council, who introduced the new
+inquisitorial procedure into the canon law. The procedure was applied to
+cases of heresy, and, as so applied, especially by the Dominicans,
+speedily assumed the features which made it infamous. "Every safeguard
+of innocence was abolished or disregarded; torture was freely used.
+Everything seems to have been done to secure a conviction." Yet, in
+spite of its monstrous defects, the inquisitorial procedure of the
+ecclesiastical courts, secret in its methods, unfair to the accused,
+having torture as an integral element, gradually forced its way into the
+temporal courts, and may almost be said to have been adopted by the
+common law of western Europe. In connexion with this inquisitorial
+procedure continental jurists elaborated a theory of evidence, or
+judicial proofs, which formed the subject of an extensive literature.
+Under the rules thus evolved full proof (_plena probatio_) was essential
+for conviction, in the absence of confession, and the standard of full
+proof was fixed so high that it was in most cases unattainable. It
+therefore became material to obtain confession by some means or other.
+The most effective means was torture, and thus torture became an
+essential feature in criminal procedure. The rules of evidence attempted
+to graduate the weight to be attached to different kinds of testimony
+and almost to estimate that weight in numerical terms. "Le parlement de
+Toulouse," said Voltaire, "a un usage tres singulier dans les preuves
+par temoins. On admet ailleurs des demi-preuves, ... mais a Toulouse on
+admet des quarts et des huitiemes de preuves." Modern continental
+procedure, as embodied in the most recent codes, has removed the worst
+features of inquisitorial procedure, and has shaken itself free from the
+trammels imposed by the old theory and technical rules of proof. But in
+this, as in other branches of law, France seems to have paid the penalty
+for having been first in the field with codification by lagging behind
+in material reforms. The French Code of Criminal Procedure was largely
+based on Colbert's Ordonnance of 1670, and though embodying some
+reforms, and since amended on certain points, still retains some of the
+features of the unreformed procedure which was condemned in the 18th
+century by Voltaire and the _philosophes_. Military procedure is in the
+rear of civil procedure, and the trial of Captain Dreyfus at Rennes in
+1899 presented some interesting archaisms. Among these were the weight
+attached to the rank and position of witnesses as compared with the
+intrinsic character of their evidence, and the extraordinary importance
+attributed to confession even when made under suspicious circumstances
+and supported by flimsy evidence.
+
+The history of criminal procedure in England has been traced by Sir
+James Stephen. The modern rules and practice as to evidence and
+witnesses in the common law courts, both in civil and in criminal cases,
+appear to have taken shape in the course of the 18th century. The first
+systematic treatise on the English law of evidence appears to have been
+written by Chief Baron Gilbert, who died in 1726, but whose _Law of
+Evidence_ was not published until 1761. In writing it he is said to have
+been much influenced by Locke.[1] It is highly praised by Blackstone as
+"a work which it is impossible to abstract or abridge without losing
+some beauty and destroying the charm of the whole"; but Bentham, who
+rarely agrees with Blackstone, speaks of it as running throughout "in
+the same strain of anility, garrulity, narrow-mindedness, absurdity,
+perpetual misrepresentation and indefatigable self-contradiction." In
+any case it remained the standard authority on the law of evidence
+throughout the remainder of the 18th century. Bentham wrote his
+_Rationale of Judicial Evidence, specially applied to English Practice_,
+at various times between the years 1802 and 1812. By this time he had
+lost the nervous and simple style of his youth, and required an editor
+to make him readable. His great interpreter, Dumont, condensed his views
+on evidence into the _Traite des preuves judiciaires_, which was
+published in 1823. The manuscript of the _Rationale_ was edited for
+English reading, and to a great extent rewritten, by J.S. Mill, and was
+published in five volumes in 1827. The book had a great effect both in
+England and on the continent. The English version, though crabbed and
+artificial in style, and unmeasured in its invective, is a storehouse of
+comments and criticisms on the principles of evidence and the practice
+of the courts, which are always shrewd and often profound. Bentham
+examined the practice of the courts by the light of practical utility.
+Starting from the principle that the object of judicial evidence is the
+discovery of truth, he condemned the rules which excluded some of the
+best sources of evidence. The most characteristic feature of the
+common-law rules of evidence was, as Bentham pointed out, and, indeed,
+still is, their exclusionary character. They excluded and prohibited the
+use of certain kinds of evidence which would be used in ordinary
+inquiries. In particular, they disqualified certain classes of witnesses
+on the ground of interest in the subject-matter of the inquiry, instead
+of treating the interest of the witness as a matter affecting his
+credibility. It was against this confusion between competency and
+credibility that Bentham directed his principal attack. He also attacked
+the system of paper evidence, evidence by means of affidavits instead of
+by oral testimony in court, which prevailed in the court of chancery,
+and in ecclesiastical courts. Subsequent legislation has endorsed his
+criticisms. The Judicature Acts have reduced the use of affidavits in
+chancery proceedings within reasonable limits. A series of acts of
+parliament have removed, step by step, almost all the disqualifications
+which formerly made certain witnesses incompetent to testify.
+
+Before Bentham's work appeared, an act of 1814 had removed the
+incompetency of ratepayers as witnesses in certain cases relating to
+parishes. The Civil Procedure Act 1833 enacted that a witness should not
+be objected to as incompetent, solely on the ground that the verdict or
+judgment would be admissible in evidence for or against him. An act of
+1840 removed some doubts as to the competency of ratepayers to give
+evidence in matters relating to their parish. The Evidence Act 1843
+enacted broadly that witnesses should not be excluded from giving
+evidence by reason of incapacity from crime or interest. The Evidence
+Act 1851 made parties to legal proceedings admissible witnesses subject
+to a proviso that "nothing herein contained shall render any person who
+in any criminal proceeding is charged with the commission of any
+indictable offence, or any offence punishable on summary conviction,
+competent or compellable to give evidence for or against himself or
+herself, or shall render any person compellable to answer any question
+tending to criminate himself or herself, or shall in any criminal
+proceeding render any husband competent or compellable to give evidence
+for or against his wife, or any wife competent or compellable to give
+evidence for or against her husband." The Evidence (Scotland) Act 1853
+made a similar provision for Scotland. The Evidence Amendment Act 1853
+made the husbands and wives of parties admissible witnesses, except that
+husbands and wives could not give evidence for or against each other in
+criminal proceedings or in proceedings for adultery, and could not be
+compelled to disclose communications made to each other during marriage.
+Under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1857 the petitioner can be examined and
+cross-examined on oath at the hearing, but is not bound to answer any
+question tending to show that he or she has been guilty of adultery.
+Under the Matrimonial Causes Act 1859, on a wife's petition for
+dissolution of marriage on the ground of adultery coupled with cruelty
+or desertion, husband and wife are competent and compellable to give
+evidence as to the cruelty or desertion. The Crown Suits &c. Act 1865
+declared that revenue proceedings were not to be treated as criminal
+proceedings for the purposes of the acts of 1851 and 1853. The Evidence
+Further Amendment Act 1869 declared that parties to actions for breach
+of promise of marriage were competent to give evidence in the action,
+subject to a proviso that the plaintiff should not recover unless his or
+her testimony was corroborated by some other material evidence. It also
+made the parties to proceedings instituted in consequence of adultery,
+and their husbands and wives, competent to give evidence, but a witness
+in any such proceeding, whether a party or not, is not to be liable to
+be asked or bound to answer any question tending to show that he or she
+has been guilty of adultery, unless the witness has already given
+evidence in the same proceeding in disproof of the alleged adultery.
+There are similar provisions applying to Scotland in the Conjugal Rights
+(Scotland) Amendment Act 1861, and the Evidence Further Amendment
+(Scotland) Act 1874. The Evidence Act 1877 enacts that "on the trial of
+any indictment or other proceeding for the non-repair of any public
+highway or bridge, or for a nuisance to any public highway, river, or
+bridge, and of any other indictment or proceeding instituted for the
+purpose of trying or enforcing a civil right only, every defendant to
+such indictment or proceeding, and the wife or husband of any such
+defendant shall be admissible witnesses and compellable to give
+evidence." From 1872 onwards numerous enactments were passed making
+persons charged with particular offences, and their husbands and wives,
+competent witnesses. The language and effect of these enactments were
+not always the same, but the insertion of some provision to this effect
+in an act creating a new offence, especially if it was punishable by
+summary proceedings, gradually became almost a common form in
+legislation. In the year 1874 a bill to generalize these particular
+provisions, and to make the evidence of persons charged with criminal
+offences admissible in all cases was introduced by Mr Gladstone's
+government, and was passed by the standing committee of the House of
+Commons. During the next fourteen years bills for the same purpose were
+repeatedly introduced, either by the government of the day, or by Lord
+Bramwell as an independent member of the House of Lords. Finally the
+Criminal Evidence Act 1898, introduced by Lord Halsbury, has enacted in
+general terms that "every person charged with an offence, and the wife
+or husband, as the case may be, of the person so charged, shall be a
+competent witness for the defence at every stage of the proceedings,
+whether the person so charged is charged solely or jointly with any
+other person." But this general enactment is qualified by some special
+restrictions, the nature of which will be noticed below. The act applies
+to Scotland but not to Ireland. It was not to apply to proceedings in
+courts-martial unless so applied by general orders or rules made under
+statutory authority. The provisions of the act have been applied by
+rules to military courts-martial, but have not yet been applied to naval
+courts-martial. The removal of disqualifications for want of religious
+belief is referred to below under the head of "Witnesses."
+
+
+    Literature.
+
+  The act of 1898 finishes for the present the history of English
+  legislation on evidence. For a view of the legal literature on the
+  subject it is necessary to take a step backwards. Early in the 19th
+  century Chief Baron Gilbert was superseded as an authority on the
+  English law of evidence by the books of Phillips (1814) and Starkie
+  (1824), who were followed by Roscoe (_Nisi Prius_, 1827; Criminal
+  Cases, 1835), Greenleaf (American, 1842), Taylor (based on Greenleaf,
+  1848), and Best (1849). In 1876 Sir James FitzJames Stephen brought
+  out his _Digest of the Law of Evidence_, based upon the Indian
+  Evidence Act 1872, which he had prepared and passed as law member of
+  the council of the governor-general of India. This Digest obtained a
+  rapid and well-deserved success, and has materially influenced the
+  form of subsequent writings on the English law of evidence. It sifted
+  out what Stephen conceived to be the main rules of evidence from the
+  mass of extraneous matter in which they had been embedded. Roscoe's
+  Digests told the lawyer what things must be proved in order to sustain
+  particular actions or criminal charges, and related as much to
+  pleadings and to substantive law as to evidence proper. Taylor's two
+  large volumes were a vast storehouse of useful information, but his
+  book was one to consult, not to master. Stephen eliminated much of
+  this extraneous matter, and summed up his rules in a series of
+  succinct propositions, supplemented by apt illustrations, and couched
+  in such a form that they could be easily read and remembered. Hence
+  the English Digest, like the Indian Act, has been of much educational
+  value. Its most original feature, but unfortunately also its weakest
+  point, is its theory of relevancy. Pondering the multitude of
+  "exclusionary" rules which had been laid down by the English courts,
+  Stephen thought that he had discovered the general principle on which
+  those rules reposed, and could devise a formula by which the principle
+  could be expressed. "My study of the subject," he says, "both
+  practically and in books has convinced me that the doctrine that all
+  facts in issue and relevant to the issue, and no others, may be
+  proved, is the unexpressed principle which forms the centre of and
+  gives unity to all the express negative rules which form the great
+  mass of the law." The result was the chapter on the relevancy of facts
+  in the Indian Evidence Act, and the definition of relevancy in s. 7 of
+  that act. This definition was based on the view that a distinction
+  could be drawn between things which were and things which were not
+  causally connected with each other, and that relevancy depended on
+  causal connexion. Subsequent criticism convinced Stephen that his
+  definition was in some respects too narrow and in others too wide, and
+  eventually he adopted a definition out of which all reference to
+  causality was dropped. But even in their amended form the provisions
+  about relevancy are open to serious criticism. The doctrine of
+  relevancy, i.e. of the probative effect of facts, is a branch of
+  logic, not of law, and is out of place both in an enactment of the
+  legislature and in a compendium of legal rules. The necessity under
+  which Stephen found himself of extending the range of relevant facts
+  by making it include facts "deemed to be relevant," and then narrowing
+  it by enabling the judge to exclude evidence of facts which are
+  relevant, illustrates the difference between the rules of logic and
+  the rules of law. Relevancy is one thing; admissibility is another;
+  and the confusion between them, which is much older than Stephen, is
+  to be regretted. Rightly or wrongly English judges have, on practical
+  grounds, declared inadmissible evidence of facts, which are relevant
+  in the ordinary sense of the term, and which are so treated in
+  non-judicial inquiries. Under these circumstances the attempt so to
+  define relevancy as to make it conterminous with admissibility is
+  misleading, and most readers of Stephen's Act and Digest would find
+  them more intelligible and more useful if "admissible" were
+  substituted for "relevant" throughout. Indeed it is hardly too much to
+  say that Stephen's doctrine of relevancy is theoretically unsound and
+  practically useless. The other parts of the work contain terse and
+  vigorous statements of the law, but a Procrustean attempt to make
+  legal rules square with a preconceived theory has often made the
+  language and arrangement artificial, and the work, in spite of its
+  compression, still contains rules which, under a more scientific
+  treatment, would find their appropriate place in other branches of the
+  law. These defects are characteristic of a strong and able man, who
+  saw clearly, and expressed forcibly what he did see, but was apt to
+  ignore or to deny the existence of what he did not see, whose mind was
+  vigorous rather than subtle or accurate, and who, in spite of his
+  learning, was somewhat deficient in the historical sense. But
+  notwithstanding these defects, the conspicuous ability of the author,
+  his learning, and his practical experience, especially in criminal
+  cases, attach greater weight to FitzJames Stephen's statements than to
+  those of any other English writer on the law of evidence.
+
+
+  Rules.
+
+The object of every trial is, or may be, to determine two classes of
+questions or issues, which are usually distinguished as questions of
+law, and questions of fact, although the distinction between them is not
+so clear as might appear on a superficial view. In a trial by jury these
+two classes of questions are answered by different persons. The judge
+lays down the law. The jury, under the guidance of the judge, find the
+facts. It was with reference to trial by jury that the English rules of
+evidence were originally framed; it is by the peculiarities of this form
+of trial that many of them are to be explained; it is to this form of
+trial alone that some of the most important of them are exclusively
+applicable. The negative, exclusive, or exclusionary rules which form
+the characteristic features of the English law of evidence, are the
+rules in accordance with which the judge guides the jury. There is no
+difference of principle between the method of inquiry in judicial and in
+non-judicial proceedings. In either case a person who wishes to find out
+whether a particular event did or did not happen, tries, in the first
+place, to obtain information from persons who were present and saw what
+happened (direct evidence), and, failing this, to obtain information
+from persons who can tell him about facts from which he can draw an
+inference as to whether the event did or did not happen (indirect
+evidence). But in judicial inquiries the information given must be given
+on oath, and be liable to be tested by cross-examination. And there are
+rules of law which exclude from the consideration of the jury certain
+classes of facts which, in an ordinary inquiry, would, or might, be
+taken into consideration. Facts so excluded are said to be "not
+admissible as evidence," or "not evidence," according as the word is
+used in the wider or in the narrower sense. And the easiest way of
+determining whether a fact is or is not evidence in the narrower sense,
+is first to consider whether it has any bearing on the question to be
+tried, and, if it has, to consider whether it falls within any one or
+more of the rules of exclusion laid down by English law. These rules of
+exclusion are peculiar to English law and to systems derived from
+English law. They have been much criticized, and some of them have been
+repealed or materially modified by legislation. Most of them may be
+traced to directions given by a judge in the course of trying a
+particular case, given with special reference to the circumstances of
+that case, but expressed in general language, and, partly through the
+influence of text-writers, eventually hardened into general rules. In
+some cases their origin is only intelligible by reference to obsolete
+forms of pleading or practice. But in most cases they were originally
+rules of convenience laid down by the judge for the assistance of the
+jury. The judge is a man of trained experience, who has to arrive at a
+conclusion with the help of twelve untrained men, and who is naturally
+anxious to keep them straight, and give them every assistance in his
+power. The exclusion of certain forms of evidence assists the jury by
+concentrating their attention on the questions immediately before them,
+and by preventing them from being distracted or bewildered by facts
+which either have no bearing on the question before them, or have so
+remote a bearing on those questions as to be practically useless as
+guides to the truth. It also prevents a jury from being misled by
+statements the effect of which, through the prejudice they excite, is
+out of all proportion to their true weight. In this respect the rules of
+exclusion may be compared to blinkers, which keep a horse's eyes on the
+road before him. In criminal cases the rules of exclusion secure fair
+play to the accused, because he comes to the trial prepared to meet a
+specific charge, and ought not to be suddenly confronted by statements
+which he had no reason to expect would be made against him. They protect
+absent persons against statements affecting their character. And lastly
+they prevent the infinite waste of time which would ensue in the
+discussion of a question of fact if an inquiry were allowed to branch
+out into all the subjects with which that fact is more or less
+connected. The purely practical grounds on which the rules are based,
+according to the view of a great judge, may be illustrated by some
+remarks of Mr Justice Willes (1814-1872). In discussing the question
+whether evidence of the plaintiff's conduct on other occasions ought to
+be admitted, he said:--
+
+  "It is not easy in all cases to draw the line and to define with
+  accuracy where probability ceases and speculation begins; but we are
+  bound to lay down the rule to the best of our ability. No doubt the
+  rule as to confining the evidence to that which is relevant and
+  pertinent to the issue is one of great importance, not only as regards
+  the particular case, but also with reference to saving the time of the
+  court, and preventing the minds of the jury from being drawn away from
+  the real point they have to decide.... Now it appears to me that the
+  evidence proposed to be given in this case, if admitted, would not
+  have shown that it was more probable that the contract was subject to
+  the condition insisted upon by the defendant. The question may be put
+  thus, Does the fact of a person having once or many times in his life
+  done a particular act in a particular way make it more probable that
+  he has done the same thing in the same way upon another and different
+  occasion? To admit such speculative evidence would, I think, be
+  fraught with great danger.... If such evidence were held admissible it
+  would be difficult to say that the defendant might not in any case,
+  where the question was whether or not there had been a sale of goods
+  on credit, call witnesses to prove that the plaintiff had dealt with
+  other persons upon a certain credit; or, in an action for an assault,
+  that the plaintiff might not give evidence of former assaults
+  committed by the defendant upon other persons, or upon other persons
+  of a particular class, for the purpose of showing that he was a
+  quarrelsome individual, and therefore that it was highly probable that
+  the particular charge of assault was well founded. The extent to which
+  this sort of thing might be carried is inconceivable.... To obviate
+  the prejudices, the injustice, and the waste of time to which the
+  admission of such evidence would lead, and bearing in mind the extent
+  to which it might be carried, and that litigants are mortal, it is
+  necessary not only to adhere to the rule, but to lay it down strictly.
+  I think, therefore, the fact that the plaintiff had entered into
+  contracts of a particular kind with other persons on other occasions
+  could not be properly admitted in evidence where no custom of trade
+  to make such contracts, and no connexion between such and the one in
+  question, was shown to exist" (_Hollingham v. Head_, 1858, 4 C.B. N.S.
+  388).
+
+There is no difference between the principles of evidence in civil and
+in criminal cases, although there are a few special rules, such as those
+relating to confessions and to dying declarations, which are only
+applicable to criminal proceedings. But in civil proceedings the issues
+are narrowed by mutual admissions of the parties, more use is made of
+evidence taken out of court, such as affidavits, and, generally, the
+rules of evidence are less strictly applied. It is often impolitic to
+object to the admission of evidence, even when the objection may be
+sustained by previous rulings. The general tendency of modern procedure
+is to place a more liberal and less technical construction on rules of
+evidence, especially in civil cases. In recent volumes of law reports
+cases turning on the admissibility of evidence are conspicuous by their
+rarity. Various causes have operated in this direction. One of them has
+been the change in the system of pleading, under which each party now
+knows before the actual trial the main facts on which his opponent
+relies. Another is the interaction of chancery and common-law practice
+and traditions since the Judicature Acts. In the chancery courts the
+rules of evidence were always less carefully observed, or, as
+Westminster would have said, less understood, than in the courts of
+common law. A judge trying questions of fact alone might naturally think
+that blinkers, though useful for a jury, are unnecessary for a judge.
+And the chancery judge was apt to read his affidavits first, and to
+determine their admissibility afterwards. In the meantime they had
+affected his mind.
+
+The tendency of modern text-writers, among whom Professor J.B. Thayer
+(1831-1902), of Harvard, was perhaps the most independent, instructive
+and suggestive, is to restrict materially the field occupied by the law
+of evidence, and to relegate to other branches of the law topics
+traditionally treated under the head of evidence. Thus in every way the
+law of evidence, though still embodying some principles of great
+importance, is of less comparative importance as a branch of English law
+than it was half a century ago. Legal rules, like dogmas, have their
+growth and decay. First comes the judge who gives a ruling in a
+particular case. Then comes the text-writer who collects the scattered
+rulings, throws them into the form of general propositions, connects
+them together by some theory, sound or unsound, and often ignores or
+obscures their historical origin. After him comes the legislator who
+crystallizes the propositions into enactments, not always to the
+advantage of mankind. So also with decay. Legal rules fall into the
+background, are explained away, are ignored, are denied, are overruled.
+Much of the English law of evidence is in a stage of decay.
+
+The subject-matter of the law of evidence may be arranged differently
+according to the taste or point of view of the writer. It will be
+arranged here under the following heads:--I. Preliminary Matter; II.
+Classes of Evidence; III. Rules of Exclusion; IV. Documentary Evidence;
+V. Witnesses.
+
+
+I. PRELIMINARY MATTER
+
+Under this head may be grouped certain principles and considerations
+which limit the range of matters to which evidence relates.
+
+1. _Law and Fact._--Evidence relates only to facts. It is therefore
+necessary to touch on the distinction between law and facts. _Ad
+quaestionem facti non respondent judices; ad quaestionem juris non
+respondent juratores._ Thus Coke, attributing, after his wont, to
+Bracton a maxim which may have been invented by himself. The maxim
+became the subject of political controversy, and the two rival views are
+represented by Pulteney's lines--
+
+  "For twelve honest men have decided the cause
+   Who are judges alike of the facts and the laws,"
+
+and by Lord Mansfield's variant--
+
+  "Who are judges of facts, but not judges of laws."
+
+The particular question raised with respect to the law of libel was
+settled by Fox's Libel Act 1792. Coke's maxim describes in a broad
+general way the distinction between the functions of the judge and of
+the jury, but is only true subject to important qualifications. Judges
+in jury cases constantly decide what may be properly called questions of
+fact, though their action is often disguised by the language applied or
+the procedure employed. Juries, in giving a general verdict, often
+practically take the law into their own hands. The border-line between
+the two classes of questions is indicated by the "mixed questions of law
+and fact," to use a common phrase, which arise in such cases as those
+relating to "necessaries," "due diligence," "negligence,"
+"reasonableness," "reasonable and probable cause." In the treatment of
+these cases the line has been drawn differently at different times, and
+two conflicting tendencies are discernible. On the one hand, there is
+the natural tendency to generalize common inferences into legal rules,
+and to fix legal standards of duty. On the other hand, there is the
+sound instinct that it is a mistake to define and refine too much in
+these cases, and that the better course is to leave broadly to the jury,
+under the general guidance of the judge, the question what would be done
+by the "reasonable" or "prudent" man in particular cases. The latter
+tendency predominates in modern English law, and is reflected by the
+enactments in the recent acts codifying the law on bills of exchange and
+sale of goods, that certain questions of reasonableness are to be
+treated as questions of fact. On the same ground rests the dislike to
+limit the right of a jury to give a general verdict in criminal cases.
+Questions of custom begin by being questions of fact, but as the custom
+obtains general recognition it becomes law. Many of the rules of the
+English mercantile law were "found" as customs by Lord Mansfield's
+special juries. Generally, it must be remembered that the jury act in
+subordinate co-operation with the judge, and that the extent to which
+the judge limits or encroaches on the province of the jury is apt to
+depend on the personal idiosyncrasy of the judge.
+
+2. _Judicial Notice._--It may be doubted whether the subject of judicial
+notice belongs properly to the law of evidence, and whether it does not
+belong rather to the general topic of legal or judicial reasoning.
+Matters which are the subject of judicial notice are part of the
+equipment of the judicial mind. It would be absurd to require evidence
+of every fact; many facts must be assumed to be known. The judge, like
+the juryman, is supposed to bring with him to the consideration of the
+question which he has to try common sense, a general knowledge of human
+nature and the ways of the world, and also knowledge of things that
+"everybody is supposed to know." Of such matters judicial notice is said
+to be taken. But the range of general knowledge is indefinite, and the
+range of judicial notice has, for reasons of convenience, been fixed or
+extended, both by rulings of the judges and by numerous enactments of
+the legislature. It would be impossible to enumerate here the matters of
+which judicial notice must or may be taken. These are to be found in the
+text-books. For present purposes it must suffice to say that they
+include not only matters of fact of common and certain knowledge, but
+the law and practice of the courts, and many matters connected with the
+government of the country.
+
+3. _Presumptions._--A presumption in the ordinary sense is an inference.
+It is an argument, based on observation, that what has happened in some
+cases will probably happen in others of the like nature. The subject of
+presumptions, so far as they are mere inferences or arguments, belongs,
+not to the law of evidence, or to law at all, but to rules of reasoning.
+But a legal presumption, or, as it is sometimes called, a presumption of
+law, as distinguished from a presumption of fact, is something more. It
+may be described, in Stephen's language, as "a rule of law that courts
+and judges shall draw a particular inference from a particular fact, or
+from particular evidence, unless and until the truth" (perhaps it would
+be better to say 'soundness') "of the inference is disproved." Courts
+and legislatures have laid down such rules on grounds of public policy
+or general convenience, and the rules have then to be observed as rules
+of positive law, not merely used as part of the ordinary process of
+reasoning or argument. Some so-called presumptions are rules of
+substantive law under a disguise. To this class appear to belong
+"conclusive presumptions of law," such as the common-law presumption
+that a child under seven years of age cannot commit a felony. So again
+the presumption that every one knows the law is merely an awkward way of
+saying that ignorance of the law is not a legal excuse for breaking it.
+Of true legal presumptions, the majority may be dealt with most
+appropriately under different branches of the substantive law, such as
+the law of crime, of property, or of contract, and accordingly Stephen
+has included in his _Digest of the Law of Evidence_ only some which are
+common to more than one branch of the law. The effect of a presumption
+is to impute to certain facts or groups of facts a prima facie
+significance or operation, and thus, in legal proceedings, to throw upon
+the party against whom it works the duty of bringing forward evidence to
+meet it. Accordingly the subject of presumptions is intimately connected
+with the subject of the burden of proof, and the same legal rule may be
+expressed in different forms, either as throwing the advantage of a
+presumption on one side, or as throwing the burden of proof on the
+other. Thus the rule in Stephen's Digest, which says that the burden of
+proving that any person has been guilty of a crime or wrongful act is on
+the person who asserts it, appears in the article entitled "Presumption
+of Innocence." Among the more ordinary and more important legal
+presumptions are the presumption of regularity in proceedings, described
+generally as a presumption _omnia esse rite acta_, and including the
+presumption that the holder of a public office has been duly appointed,
+and has duly performed his official duties, the presumption of the
+legitimacy of a child born during the mother's marriage, or within the
+period of gestation after her husband's death, and the presumptions as
+to life and death. "A person shown not to have been heard of for seven
+years by those (if any) who, if he had been alive, would naturally have
+heard of him, is presumed to be dead unless the circumstances of the
+case are such as to account for his not being heard of without assuming
+his death; but there is no presumption as to the time when he died, and
+the burden of proving his death at any particular time is upon the
+person who asserts it. There is no presumption" (i.e. legal presumption)
+"as to the age at which a person died who is shown to have been alive at
+a given time, or as to the order in which two or more persons died who
+are shown to have died in the same accident, shipwreck or battle"
+(Stephen, _Dig._, art. 99). A document proved or purporting to be thirty
+years old is presumed to be genuine, and to have been properly executed
+and (if necessary) attested if produced from the proper custody. And the
+legal presumption of a "lost grant," i.e. the presumption that a right
+or alleged right which has been long enjoyed without interruption had a
+legal origin, still survives in addition to the common law and statutory
+rules of prescription.
+
+4. _Burden of Proof._--The expression _onus probandi_ has come down from
+the classical Roman law, and both it and the Roman maxims, _Agenti
+incumbit probatio_, _Necessitas probandi incumbit ei qui dicit non ei
+qui negat_, and _Reus excipiendo fit actor_, must be read with reference
+to the Roman system of actions, under which nothing was admitted, but
+the plaintiff's case was tried first; then, unless that failed, the
+defendant's on his _exceptio_; then, unless that failed, the plaintiff's
+on his _replicatio_, and so on. Under such a system the burden was
+always on the "actor." In modern law the phrase "burden of proof" may
+mean one of two things, which are often confused--the burden of
+establishing the proposition or issue on which the case depends, and the
+burden of producing evidence on any particular point either at the
+beginning or at a later stage of the case. The burden in the former
+sense ordinarily rests on the plaintiff or prosecutor. The burden in the
+latter sense, that of going forward with evidence on a particular point,
+may shift from side to side as the case proceeds. The general rule is
+that he who alleges a fact must prove it, whether the allegation is
+couched in affirmative or negative terms. But this rule is subject to
+the effect of presumptions in particular cases, to the principle that in
+considering the amount of evidence necessary to shift the burden of
+proof regard must be had to the opportunities of knowledge possessed by
+the parties respectively, and to the express provisions of statutes
+directing where the burden of proof is to lie in particular cases. Thus
+many statutes expressly direct that the proof of lawful excuse or
+authority, or the absence of fraudulent intent, is to lie on the person
+charged with an offence. And the Summary Jurisdiction Act 1848 provides
+that if the information or complaint in summary proceedings negatives
+any exemption, exception, proviso, or condition in the statute on which
+it is founded, the prosecutor or complainant need not prove the
+negative, but the defendant may prove the affirmative in his defence.
+
+
+II. CLASSES OF EVIDENCE
+
+Evidence is often described as being either oral or documentary. To
+these two classes should be added a third, called by Bentham real
+evidence, and consisting of things presented immediately to the senses
+of the judge or the jury. Thus the judge or jury may go to view any
+place the sight of which may help to an understanding of the evidence,
+and may inspect anything sufficiently identified and produced in court
+as material to the decision. Weapons, clothes and things alleged to have
+been stolen or damaged are often brought into court for this purpose.
+Oral evidence consists of the statements of witnesses. Documentary
+evidence consists of documents submitted to the judge or jury by way of
+proof. The distinction between primary and secondary evidence relates
+only to documentary evidence, and will be noticed in the section under
+that head. A division of evidence from another point of view is that
+into direct and indirect, or, as it is sometimes called, circumstantial
+evidence. By direct evidence is meant the statement of a person who saw,
+or otherwise observed with his senses, the fact in question. By indirect
+or circumstantial evidence is meant evidence of facts from which the
+fact in question may be inferred. The difference between direct and
+indirect evidence is a difference of kind, not of degree, and therefore
+the rule or maxim as to "best evidence" has no application to it. Juries
+naturally attach more weight to direct evidence, and in some legal
+systems it is only this class of evidence which is allowed to have full
+probative force. In some respects indirect evidence is superior to
+direct evidence, because, as Paley puts it, "facts cannot lie," whilst
+witnesses can and do. On the other hand facts often deceive; that is to
+say, the inferences drawn from them are often erroneous. The
+circumstances in which crimes are ordinarily committed are such that
+direct evidence of their commission is usually not obtainable, and when
+criminality depends on a state of mind, such as intention, that state
+must necessarily be inferred by means of indirect evidence.
+
+
+III. RULES OF EXCLUSION
+
+It seems desirable to state the leading rules of exclusion in their
+crude form instead of obscuring their historical origin by attempting to
+force them into the shape of precise technical propositions forming
+parts of a logically connected system. The judges who laid the
+foundations of our modern law of evidence, like those who first
+discoursed on the duties of trustees, little dreamt of the elaborate and
+artificial system which was to be based upon their remarks. The rules
+will be found, as might be expected, to be vague, to overlap each other,
+to require much explanation, and to be subject to many exceptions. They
+may be stated as follows:--(1) Facts not relevant to the issue cannot be
+admitted as evidence. (2) The evidence produced must be the best
+obtainable under the circumstances. (3) Hearsay is not evidence. (4)
+Opinion is not evidence.
+
+1. _Rule of Relevancy._--The so-called rule of relevancy is sometimes
+stated by text-writers in the form in which it was laid down by Baron
+Parke in 1837 (_Wright_ v. _Doe and Tatham_, 7 A. and E. 384), when he
+described "one great principle" in the law of evidence as being that
+"all facts which are relevant to the issue may be proved." Stated in
+different forms, the rule has been made by FitzJames Stephen the central
+point of his theory of evidence. But relevancy, in the proper and
+natural sense, as we have said, is a matter not of law, but of logic. If
+Baron Parke's dictum relates to relevancy in its natural sense it is
+not true; if it relates to relevancy in a narrow and artificial sense,
+as equivalent to admissible, it is tautological. Such practical
+importance as the rule of relevancy possesses consists, not in what it
+includes, but in what it excludes, and for that reason it seems better
+to state the rule in a negative or exclusive form. But whether the rule
+is stated in a positive or in a negative form its vagueness is apparent.
+No precise line can be drawn between "relevant" and "irrelevant" facts.
+The two classes shade into each other by imperceptible degrees. The
+broad truth is that the courts have excluded from consideration certain
+matters which have some bearing on the question to be decided, and
+which, in that sense, are relevant, and that they have done so on
+grounds of policy and convenience. Among the matters so excluded are
+matters which are likely to mislead the jury, or to complicate the case
+unnecessarily, or which are of slight, remote, or merely conjectural
+importance. Instances of the classes of matters so excluded can be
+given, but it seems difficult to refer their exclusion to any more
+general principle than this. Rules as to evidence of character and
+conduct appear to fall under this principle. Evidence is not admissible
+to show that the person who is alleged to have done a thing was of a
+disposition or character which makes it probable that he would or would
+not have done it. This rule excludes the biographical accounts of the
+prisoner which are so familiar in French trials, and is an important
+principle in English trials. It is subject to three exceptions: first,
+that evidence of good character is admissible in favour of the prisoner
+in all criminal cases; secondly, that a prisoner indicted for rape is
+entitled to call evidence as to the immoral character of the
+prosecutrix; and thirdly, that a witness may be called to say that he
+would not believe a previous witness on his oath. The exception allowing
+the good character of a prisoner to influence the verdict, as
+distinguished from the sentence, is more humane than logical, and seems
+to have been at first admitted in capital cases only. The exception in
+rape cases does not allow evidence to be given of specific acts of
+immorality with persons other than the prisoner, doubtless on the ground
+that such evidence would affect the reputations of third parties. Where
+the character of a person is expressly in issue, as in actions of libel
+and slander, the rule of exclusion, as stated above, does not apply. Nor
+does it prevent evidence of bad character from being given in mitigation
+of damages, where the amount of damages virtually depends on character,
+as in cases of defamation and seduction. As to conduct there is a
+similar general rule, that evidence of the conduct of a person on other
+occasions is not to be used merely for the purpose of showing the
+likelihood of his having acted in a similar way on a particular
+occasion. Thus, on a charge of murder, the prosecutor cannot give
+evidence of the prisoner's conduct to other persons for the purpose of
+proving a bloodthirsty and murderous disposition. And in a civil case a
+defendant was not allowed to show that the plaintiff had sold goods on
+particular terms to other persons for the purpose of proving that he had
+sold similar goods on the same terms to the defendant. But this general
+rule must be carefully construed. Where several offences are so
+connected with each other as to form parts of an entire transaction,
+evidence of one is admissible as proof of another. Thus, where a
+prisoner is charged with stealing particular goods from a particular
+place, evidence may be given that other goods, taken from the same place
+at the same time, were found in his possession. And where it is proved
+or admitted that a person did a particular act, and the question is as
+to his state of mind, that is to say, whether he did the act knowingly,
+intentionally, fraudulently, or the like, evidence may be given of the
+commission by him of similar acts on other occasions for the purpose of
+proving his state of mind on the occasion. This principle is most
+commonly applied in charges for uttering false documents or base coin,
+and not uncommonly in charges for false pretences, embezzlement or
+murder. In proceedings for the receipt or possession of stolen property,
+the legislature has expressly authorized evidence to be given of the
+possession by the prisoner of other stolen property, or of his previous
+conviction of an offence involving fraud or dishonesty (Prevention of
+Crimes Act 1871). Again, where there is a question whether a person
+committed an offence, evidence may be given of any fact supplying a
+motive or constituting preparation for the offence, of any subsequent
+conduct of the person accused, which is apparently influenced by the
+commission of the offence, and of any act done by him, or by his
+authority, in consequence of the offence. Thus, evidence may be given
+that, after the commission of the alleged offence, the prisoner
+absconded, or was in possession of the property, or the proceeds of the
+property, acquired by the offence, or that he attempted to conceal
+things which were or might have been used in committing the offence, or
+as to the manner in which he conducted himself when statements were made
+in his presence and hearing. Statements made to or in the presence of a
+person charged with an offence are admitted as evidence, not of the
+facts stated, but of the conduct or demeanour of the person to whom or
+in whose presence they are made, or of the general character of the
+transaction of which they form part (under the _res gestae_ rule
+mentioned below).
+
+2. _Best Evidence Rule._--Statements to the effect of the best evidence
+rule were often made by Chief Justice Holt about the beginning of the
+18th century, and became familiar in the courts. Chief Baron Gilbert, in
+his book on evidence, which must have been written before 1726, says
+that "the first and most signal rule in relation to evidence is this,
+that a man must have the utmost evidence the nature of the fact is
+capable of." And in the great case of _Omichund_ v. _Barker_ (1744),
+Lord Hardwicke went so far as to say, "The judges and sages of the law
+have laid down that there is but one general rule of evidence, the best
+that the nature of the case will admit" (1 Atkyns 49). It is no wonder
+that a rule thus solemnly stated should have found a prominent place in
+text-books on the law of evidence. But, apart from its application to
+documentary evidence, it does not seem to be more than a useful guiding
+principle which underlies, or may be used in support of, several rules.
+
+It is to documentary evidence that the principle is usually applied, in
+the form of the narrower rule excluding, subject to exceptions,
+secondary evidence of the contents of a document where primary evidence
+is obtainable. In this form the rule is a rule of exclusion, but may be
+most conveniently dealt with in connexion with the special subject of
+documentary evidence. As noticed above, the general rule does not apply
+to the difference between direct and indirect evidence. And, doubtless
+on account of its vague character, it finds no place in Stephen's
+Digest.
+
+3. _Hearsay._--The term "hearsay" primarily applies to what a witness
+has heard another person say in respect to a fact in dispute. But it is
+extended to any statement, whether reduced to writing or not, which is
+brought before the court, not by the author of the statement, but by a
+person to whose knowledge the statement has been brought. Thus the
+hearsay rule excludes statements, oral or written, made in the first
+instance by a person who is not called as a witness in the case.
+Historically this rule may be traced to the time when the functions of
+the witnesses were first distinguished from the functions of the jury,
+and when the witnesses were required by their formula to testify _de
+visu suo et auditu_, to state what they knew about facts from the direct
+evidence of their senses, not from the information of others. The rule
+excludes statements the effect of which is liable to be altered by the
+narrator, and which purport to have been made by persons who did not
+necessarily speak under the sanction of an oath, and whose accuracy or
+veracity is not tested by cross-examination. It is therefore of
+practical utility in shutting out many loose statements and much
+irresponsible gossip. On the other hand, it excludes statements which
+are of some value as evidence, and may indeed be the only available
+evidence. Thus, a statement has been excluded as hearsay, even though it
+can be proved that the author of the statement made it on oath, or that
+it was against his interest when he made it, or that he is prevented by
+insanity or other illness from giving evidence himself, or that he has
+left the country and disappeared, or that he is dead.
+
+  Owing to the inconveniences which would be caused by a strict
+  application of the rule, it has been so much eaten into by exceptions
+  that some persons doubt whether the rule and the exceptions ought not
+  to change places. Among the exceptions the following may be noticed:
+  (a) _Certain sworn statements_.--In many cases statements made by a
+  person whose evidence is material, but who cannot come before the
+  court, or could not come before it without serious difficulty, delay
+  or expense, may be admitted as evidence under proper safeguards. Under
+  the Indictable Offences Act 1848, where a person has made a deposition
+  before a justice at a preliminary inquiry into an offence, his
+  deposition may be read in evidence on proof that the deponent is dead,
+  or too ill to travel, that the deposition was taken in the presence of
+  the accused person, and that the accused then had a full opportunity
+  of cross-examining the deponent. The deposition must appear to be
+  signed by the justice before whom it purports to have been taken.
+  Depositions taken before a coroner are admissible under the same
+  principle. And the principle probably extends to cases where the
+  deponent is insane, or kept away by the person accused. There are
+  other statutory provisions for the admission of depositions, as in the
+  Criminal Law Amendment Act 1867; the Foreign Jurisdiction Act 1890;
+  and the Children Act 1908, incorporating an act of 1894. In civil
+  cases the rule excluding statements not made in court at the trial is
+  much less strictly applied. Frequent use is made of evidence taken
+  before an examiner, or under a commission. Affidavits are freely used
+  for subordinate issues or under an arrangement between the parties,
+  and leave may be given to use evidence taken in other proceedings. The
+  old chancery practice, under which evidence, both at the trial and at
+  other stages of a proceeding, was normally taken by affidavit,
+  irrespectively of consent, was altered by the Judicature Acts. Under
+  the existing rules of the supreme court evidence may be given by
+  affidavit upon any motion, petition or summons, but the court or a
+  judge may, on the application of either party, order the attendance
+  for cross-examination of the person making the affidavit. (b) _Dying
+  declarations._--In a trial for murder or manslaughter a declaration by
+  the person killed as to the cause of his death, or as to any of the
+  circumstances of the transaction which resulted in his death, is
+  admissible as evidence. But this exception is very strictly construed.
+  It must be proved that the declarant, at the time of making the
+  declaration, was in actual danger of death, and had given up all hope
+  of recovery. (c) _Statements in pedigree cases._--On a question of
+  pedigree the statement of a deceased person, whether based on his own
+  personal knowledge or on family tradition, is admissible as evidence,
+  if it is proved that the person who made the statement was related to
+  the person about whose family relations the statement was made, and
+  that the statement was made before the question with respect to which
+  the evidence is required had arisen. (d) _Statements as to matters of
+  public or general interest._--Statements by deceased persons are
+  admissible as evidence of reputation or general belief in questions
+  relating to the existence of any public or general right or custom, or
+  matter of public and general interest. Statements of this kind are
+  constantly admitted in questions relating to right of way, or rights
+  of common, or manorial or other local customs. Maps, copies of court
+  rolls, leases and other deeds, and verdicts, judgments, and orders of
+  court fall within the exception in cases of this kind. (e) _Statements
+  in course of duty or business._--A statement with respect to a
+  particular fact made by a deceased person in pursuance of his duty in
+  connexion with any office, employment or business, whether public or
+  private, is admissible as evidence of that fact, if the statement
+  appears to have been made from personal knowledge, and at or about the
+  time when the fact occurred. This exception covers entries by clerks
+  and other employees. (f) _Statements against interest._--A statement
+  made by a deceased person against his pecuniary or proprietary
+  interest is admissible as evidence, without reference to the time at
+  which it was made. Where such a statement is admissible the whole of
+  it becomes admissible, though it may contain matters not against the
+  interest of the person who made it, and though the total effect may be
+  in his favour. Thus, where there was a question whether a particular
+  sum was a gift or a loan, entries in an account book of receipt of
+  interest on the sum were admitted, and a statement in the book that
+  the alleged debtor had on a particular date acknowledged the loan was
+  also admitted. (g) _Public documents._--Under this head may be placed
+  recitals in public acts of parliament, notices in the _London_,
+  _Edinburgh_, or _Dublin Gazette_ (which are made evidence by statute
+  in a large number of cases), and entries made in the performance of
+  duty in official registers or records, such as registers of births,
+  deaths or marriages, registers of companies, records in judicial
+  proceedings, and the like. An entry in a public document may be
+  treated as a statement made in the course of duty, but it is
+  admissible whether the person who made the statement is alive or dead,
+  and without any evidence as to personal knowledge, or the time at
+  which the statement is made. (h) _Admissions._--By the term
+  "admission," as here used, is meant a statement made out of the
+  witness-box by a party to the proceedings, whether civil or criminal,
+  or by some person whose statements are binding on that party, against
+  the interest of that party. The term includes admissions made in
+  answer to interrogatories, or to a notice to admit facts, but not
+  admissions made on the pleadings. Admissions, in this sense of the
+  term, are admissible as evidence against the person by whom they are
+  made, or on whom they are binding, without reference to the life or
+  death of the person who made them. A person is bound by the statements
+  of his agent, acting within the scope of his authority, and barristers
+  and solicitors are agents for their clients in the conduct of legal
+  proceedings. Conversely, a person suing or defending on behalf of
+  another, e.g. as agent or trustee, is bound by the statements of the
+  person whom he represents. Statements respecting property made by a
+  predecessor in title bind the successor. Where a statement is put in
+  evidence as an admission by, or binding on, any person, that person is
+  entitled to have the whole statement given in evidence. The principle
+  of this rule is obviously sound, because it would be unfair to pick
+  out from a man's statement what tells against him, and to suppress
+  what is in his favour. But the application of the rule is sometimes
+  attended with difficulty. An admission will not be allowed to be used
+  as evidence if it was made under a stipulation, express or implied,
+  that it should not be so used. Such admissions are said to be made
+  "without prejudice." (i) _Confessions._--A confession is an admission
+  by a person accused of an offence that he has committed the offence of
+  which he is accused. But the rules about admitting as evidence
+  confessions in criminal proceedings are much more strict than the
+  rules about admissions in civil proceedings. The general rule is, that
+  a confession is not admissible as evidence against any person except
+  the person who makes it. But a confession made by one accomplice in
+  the presence of another is admissible against the latter to this
+  extent, that, if it implicates him, his silence under the charge may
+  be used against him, whilst on the other hand his prompt repudiation
+  of the charge might tell in his favour. In other words, the confession
+  may be used as evidence of the conduct of the person in whose presence
+  it was made. A confession cannot be admitted as evidence unless proved
+  to be voluntary. A confession is not treated as being voluntary if it
+  appears to the court to have been caused by any inducement, threat or
+  promise which proceeded from a magistrate or other person in authority
+  concerned in the charge, and which, in the opinion of the court, gave
+  the accused person reasonable ground for supposing that by making a
+  confession he would gain some advantage or avoid some evil in
+  reference to the proceedings against him. This applies to any
+  inducement, threat or promise having reference to the charge, whether
+  it is addressed directly to the accused person or is brought to his
+  knowledge indirectly. But a confession is not involuntary merely
+  because it appears to have been caused by the exhortations of a person
+  in authority to make it as a matter of religious duty, or by an
+  inducement collateral to the proceedings, or by an inducement held out
+  by a person having nothing to do with the apprehension, prosecution or
+  examination of the prisoner. Thus, a confession made to a gaol
+  chaplain in consequence of religious exhortation has been admitted as
+  evidence. So also has a confession made by a prisoner to a gaoler in
+  consequence of a promise by the gaoler, that if the prisoner confessed
+  he should be allowed to see his wife. To make a confession
+  involuntary, the inducement must have reference to the prisoner's
+  escape from the charge against him, and must be made by some person
+  having power to relieve him, wholly or partially, from the
+  consequences of the charge. A confession is treated as voluntary if,
+  in the opinion of the court, it was made after the complete removal of
+  the impression produced by any inducement, threat or promise which
+  would have made it involuntary. Where a confession was made under an
+  inducement which makes the confession involuntary, evidence may be
+  given of facts discovered in consequence of the confession, and of so
+  much of the confession as distinctly relates to those facts. Thus, A.
+  under circumstances which make the confession involuntary, tells a
+  policeman that he, A., had thrown a lantern into the pond. Evidence
+  may be given that the lantern was found in the pond, and that A. said
+  he had thrown it there. It is of course improper to try to extort a
+  confession by fraud or under the promise of secrecy. But if a
+  confession is otherwise admissible as evidence, it does not become
+  inadmissible _merely_ because it was made under a promise of secrecy,
+  or in consequence of a deception practised on the accused person for
+  the purpose of obtaining it, or when he was drunk, or because it was
+  made in answer to questions, whether put by a magistrate or by a
+  private person, or because he was not warned that he was not bound to
+  make the confession, and that it might be used against him. If a
+  confession is given in evidence, the whole of it must be given, and
+  not merely the parts disadvantageous to the accused person. Evidence
+  amounting to a confession may be used as such against the person who
+  gave it, though it was given on oath, and though the proceeding in
+  which it was given had reference to the same subject-matter as the
+  proceeding in which it is to be used, and though the witness might
+  have refused to answer the questions put to him. But if, after
+  refusing to answer such questions, the witness is improperly compelled
+  to answer, his answers are not a voluntary confession. The grave
+  jealousy and suspicion with which the English law regards confessions
+  offer a marked contrast to the importance attached to this form of
+  evidence in other systems of procedure, such as the inquisitorial
+  system which long prevailed, and still to some extent prevails, on the
+  continent. (j) _Res gestae._--Statements are often admitted as
+  evidence on the ground that they form part of what is called the
+  "transaction," or _res gestae_, the occurrence or nature of which is
+  in question. For instance, where an act may be proved, statements
+  accompanying and explaining the act made by or to the person doing it,
+  may be given in evidence. There is no difficulty in understanding the
+  principle on which this exception from the hearsay rule rests, but
+  there is often practical difficulty in applying it, and the practice
+  has varied. How long is the "transaction" to be treated as lasting?
+  What ought to be treated as "the immediate and natural effect of
+  continuing action," and, for that reason, as part of the _res gestae_?
+  When an act of violence is committed, to what extent are the terms of
+  the complaint made by the sufferer, as distinguished from the fact of
+  a complaint having been made, admissible as evidence? These are some
+  of the questions raised. The cases in which statements by a person as
+  to his bodily or mental condition may be put in evidence may perhaps
+  be treated as falling under the same principle. In the Rugeley
+  poisoning case, statements by the deceased person before his illness
+  as to his state of health, and as to his symptoms during illness, were
+  admitted as evidence for the prosecution. Under the same principle may
+  also be brought the rule as to statements in conspiracy cases. In
+  charges of conspiracy, after evidence has been given of the existence
+  of the plot, and of the connexion of the accused with it, the charge
+  against one conspirator may be supported by evidence of anything done,
+  written, or said, not only by him, but by any other of the
+  conspirators, in furtherance of the common purpose. On the other hand,
+  a statement made by one conspirator, not in execution of the common
+  purpose, but in narration of some event forming part of the
+  conspiracy, would be treated, not as part of the "transaction," but as
+  a statement excluded by the hearsay rule. Thus the admissibility of
+  writings in conspiracy cases may depend on the time when they can be
+  shown to have been in the possession of a fellow-conspirator, whether
+  before or after the prisoner's apprehension. (k) _Complaints in rape
+  cases, &c._--In trials for rape and similar offences, the fact that
+  shortly after the commission of the alleged offence a complaint was
+  made by the person against whom the offence was committed, and also
+  the terms of the complaint, have been admitted as evidence, not of the
+  facts complained of, but of the consistency of the complainant's
+  conduct with the story told by her in the witness-box, and as
+  negativing consent on her part.
+
+4. _Opinion._--The rule excluding expressions of opinion also dates from
+the first distinction between the functions of witnesses and jury. It
+was for the witnesses to state facts, for the jury to form conclusions.
+Of course every statement of fact involves inference, and implies a
+judgment on phenomena observed by the senses. And the inference is often
+erroneous, as in the answer to the question, "Was he drunk?" A prudent
+witness will often guard himself, and is allowed to guard himself, by
+answering to the best of his belief. But, for practical purposes, it is
+possible to draw a distinction between a statement of facts observed and
+an expression of opinion as to the inference to be drawn from these
+facts, and the rule telling witnesses to state facts and not express
+opinions is of great value in keeping their statements out of the region
+of argument and conjecture. The evidence of "experts," that is to say,
+of persons having a special knowledge of some particular subject, is
+generally described as constituting the chief exception to the rule. But
+perhaps it would be more accurate to say that experts are allowed a much
+wider range than ordinary witnesses in the expression of their opinions,
+and in the statement of facts on which their opinions are based. Thus,
+in a poisoning case, a doctor may be asked as an expert whether, in his
+opinion, a particular poison produces particular symptoms. And, where
+lunacy is set up as a defence, an expert may be asked whether, in his
+opinion, the symptoms exhibited by the alleged lunatic commonly show
+unsoundness of mind, and whether such unsoundness of mind usually
+renders persons incapable of knowing the nature of their acts, or of
+knowing that what they do is either wrong or contrary to the law.
+Similar principles are applied to the evidence of engineers, and in
+numerous other cases. In cases of disputed handwriting the evidence of
+experts in handwriting is expressly recognized by statute (Evidence and
+Practice on Criminal Trials 1865).
+
+
+IV. DOCUMENTARY EVIDENCE
+
+Charters and other writings were exhibited to the jury at a very early
+date, and it is to writings so exhibited that the term "evidence" or
+"evidences" seems to have been originally applied _par excellence_. The
+oral evidence of witnesses came later. Where a document is to be used as
+evidence the first question is how its contents are to be proved. To
+this question the principle of "best evidence" applies, in the form of
+the rule that primary evidence must be given except in the cases where
+secondary evidence is allowed. By primary evidence is meant the document
+itself produced for inspection. By secondary evidence is meant a copy
+of the document, or verbal accounts of its contents.
+
+  The rule as to the inadmissibility of a copy of a document is applied
+  much more strictly to private than to public or official documents.
+  Secondary evidence may be given of the contents of a private document
+  in the following cases:
+
+  (a) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession of
+  the adverse party, and he, after having been served with reasonable
+  notice to produce it, does not do so.
+
+  (b) Where the original is shown or appears to be in the possession or
+  power of a stranger not legally bound to produce it, and he, after
+  having been served with a writ of _subpoena duces tecum_, or after
+  having been sworn as a witness and asked for the document, and having
+  admitted that it is in court, refuses to produce it.
+
+  (c) Where it is shown that proper search has been made for the
+  original, and there is reason for believing that it is destroyed or
+  lost.
+
+  (d) Where the original is of such a nature as not to be easily
+  movable, as in the case of a placard posted on a wall, or of a
+  tombstone, or is in a country from which it is not permitted to be
+  removed.
+
+  (e) Where the original is a document for the proof of which special
+  provision is made by any act of parliament, or any law in force for
+  the time being. Documents of that kind are practically treated on the
+  same footing as private documents.
+
+  (f) Where the document is an entry in a banker's book, provable
+  according to the special provisions of the Bankers' Books Evidence Act
+  1879.
+
+  Secondary evidence of a private document is usually given either by
+  producing a copy and calling a witness who can prove the copy to be
+  correct, or, when there is no copy obtainable, by calling a witness
+  who has seen the document, and can give an account of its contents. No
+  general definition of public document is possible, but the rules of
+  evidence applicable to public documents are expressly applied by
+  statute to many classes of documents. Primary evidence of any public
+  document may be given by producing the document from proper custody,
+  and by a witness identifying it as being what it professes to be.
+  Public documents may always be proved by secondary evidence, but the
+  particular kind of secondary evidence required is in many cases
+  defined by statute. Where a document is of such a public nature as to
+  be admissible in evidence on its mere production from the proper
+  custody, and no statute exists which renders its contents provable by
+  means of a copy, any copy thereof or extract therefrom is admissible
+  as proof of its contents, if it is proved to be an examined copy or
+  extract, or purports to be signed or certified as a true copy or
+  extract by the officer to whose custody the original is entrusted.
+  Many statutes provide that various certificates, official and public
+  documents, documents and proceedings of corporations and of joint
+  stock and other companies, and certified copies of documents, by-laws,
+  entries in registers and other books, shall be receivable as evidence
+  of certain particulars in courts of justice, if they are authenticated
+  in the manner prescribed by the statutes. Whenever, by virtue of any
+  such provision, any such certificate or certified copy is receivable
+  as proof of any particular in any court of justice, it is admissible
+  as evidence, if it purports to be authenticated in the manner
+  prescribed by law, without calling any witness to prove any stamp,
+  seal, or signature required for its authentication, or the official
+  character of the person who appears to have signed it. The Documentary
+  Evidence Acts 1868, 1882 and 1895, provide modes of proving the
+  contents of several classes of proclamations, orders and regulations.
+
+  If a document is of a kind which is required by law to be attested,
+  but not otherwise, an attesting witness must be called to prove its
+  due execution. But this rule is subject to the following exceptions:
+
+  (a) If it is proved that there is no attesting witness alive, and
+  capable of giving evidence, then it is sufficient to prove that the
+  attestation of at least one attesting witness is in his handwriting,
+  and that the signature of the person executing the document is in the
+  handwriting of that person.
+
+  (b) If the document is proved, or purports to be, more than thirty
+  years old, and is produced from what the court considers to be its
+  proper custody, an attesting witness need not be called, and it will
+  be presumed without evidence that the instrument was duly executed and
+  attested.
+
+Where a document embodies a judgment, a contract, a grant, or
+disposition of property, or any other legal transaction or "act in the
+law," on which rights depend, the validity of the transaction may be
+impugned on the ground of fraud, incapacity, want of consideration, or
+other legal ground. But this seems outside the law of evidence. In this
+class of cases a question often arises whether extrinsic evidence can be
+produced to vary the nature of the transaction embodied in the document.
+The answer to this question seems to depend on whether the document was
+or was not intended to be a complete and final statement of the
+transaction which it embodies. If it was, you cannot go outside the
+document for the purpose of ascertaining the nature of the transaction.
+If it was not, you may. But the mere statement of this test shows the
+difficulty of formulating precise rules, and of applying them when
+formulated. FitzJames Stephen mentions, among the facts which may be
+proved in these cases, the existence of separate and consistent oral
+agreements as to matters on which the document is silent, if there is
+reason to believe that the document is not a complete and final
+statement of the transaction, and the existence of any usage or custom
+with reference to which a contract may be presumed to have been made.
+But he admits that the rules on the subject are "by no means easy to
+apply, inasmuch as from the nature of the case an enormous number of
+transactions fall close on one side or the other of most of them." The
+underlying principle appears to be a rule of substantive law rather than
+of evidence. When parties to an arrangement have reduced the terms of
+the arrangement to a definite, complete, and final written form, they
+should be bound exclusively by the terms embodied in that form. The
+question in each case is under what circumstances they ought to be
+treated as having done so.
+
+The expression "parol evidence," which includes written as well as
+verbal evidence, has often been applied to the extrinsic evidence
+produced for the purpose of varying the nature of the transaction
+embodied in a document. It is also applied to extrinsic evidence used
+for another purpose, namely, that of explaining the meaning of the terms
+used in a document. The two questions, What is the real nature of the
+transaction referred to in a document? and, What is the meaning of a
+document? are often confused, but are really distinct from each other.
+The rules bearing on the latter question are rules of construction or
+interpretation rather than of evidence, but are ordinarily treated as
+part of the law of evidence, and are for that reason included by
+FitzJames Stephen in his Digest. In stating these rules he adopts, with
+verbal modifications, the six propositions laid down by Vice-Chancellor
+Wigram in his _Examinations of the Rules of Law respecting the admission
+of Extrinsic Evidence in Aid of the Interpretation of Wills_. The
+substance of these propositions appears to be this, that wherever the
+meaning of a document cannot be satisfactorily ascertained from the
+document itself, use may be made of any other evidence for the purpose
+of elucidating the meaning, subject to one restriction, that, except in
+cases of equivocation, i.e. where a person or thing is described in
+terms applicable equally to more than one, resort cannot be had to
+extrinsic expressions of the author's intention.
+
+
+V. WITNESSES
+
+1. _Attendance._--If a witness does not attend voluntarily he can be
+required to attend by a writ of _subpoena_.
+
+2. _Competency._--As a general rule every person is a competent witness.
+Formerly persons were disqualified by crime or interest, or by being
+parties to the proceedings, but these disqualifications have now been
+removed by statute, and the circumstances which formerly created them do
+not affect the competency, though they may often affect the credibility,
+of a witness.
+
+Under the general law as it stood before the Criminal Evidence Act 1898
+came into force, a person charged with an offence was not competent to
+give evidence on his own behalf. But many exceptions had been made to
+this rule by legislation, and the rule itself was finally abolished by
+the act of 1898. Under that law a person charged is a competent witness,
+but he can only give evidence for the defence, and can only give
+evidence if he himself applies to do so. Under the law as it stood
+before 1898, persons jointly charged and being tried together were not
+competent to give evidence either for or against each other. Under the
+act of 1898 a person charged jointly with another is a competent
+witness, but only for the defence, and not for the prosecution. If,
+therefore, one of the persons charged applies to give evidence his
+cross-examination must not be conducted with a view to establish the
+guilt of the other. Consequently, if it is thought desirable to use
+against one prisoner the evidence of another who is being tried with
+him, the latter should be released, or a separate verdict of not guilty
+taken against him. A prisoner so giving evidence is popularly said to
+turn king's evidence. It follows that, subject to what has been said
+above as to persons tried together, the evidence of an accomplice is
+admissible against his principal, and _vice versa_. The evidence of an
+accomplice is, however, always received with great jealousy and caution.
+A conviction on the unsupported testimony of an accomplice may, in some
+cases, be strictly legal, but the practice is to require it to be
+confirmed by unimpeachable testimony in some material part, and more
+especially as to his identification of the person or persons against
+whom his evidence may be received. The wife of a person charged is now a
+competent witness, but, except in certain special cases, she can only
+give evidence for the defence, and can only give evidence if her husband
+applies that she should do so. The special cases in which a wife can be
+called as a witness either for the prosecution or for the defence, and
+without the consent of the person charged, are cases arising under
+particular enactments scheduled to the act of 1898, and relating mainly
+to offences against wives and children, and cases in which the wife is
+by common law a competent witness against her husband, i.e. where the
+proceeding is against the husband for bodily injury or violence
+inflicted on his wife. The rule of exclusion extends only to a lawful
+wife. There is no ground for supposing that the wife of a prosecutor is
+an incompetent witness. A witness is incompetent if, in the opinion of
+the court, he is prevented by extreme youth, disease affecting his mind,
+or any other cause of the same kind, from recollecting the matter on
+which he is to testify, from understanding the questions put to him,
+from giving rational answers to those questions, or from knowing that he
+ought to speak the truth. A witness unable to speak or hear is not
+incompetent, but may give his evidence by writing or by signs, or in any
+other manner in which he can make it intelligible. The particular form
+of the religious belief of a witness, or his want of religious belief,
+does not affect his competency. This ground of incompetency has now been
+finally removed by the Oaths Act 1888. It will be seen that the effect
+of the successive enactments which have gradually removed the
+disqualifications attaching to various classes of witnesses has been to
+draw a distinction between the _competency_ of a witness and his
+_credibility_. No person is disqualified on moral or religious grounds,
+but his character may be such as to throw grave doubts on the value of
+his evidence. No relationship, except to a limited extent that of
+husband and wife, excludes from giving evidence. The parent may be
+examined on the trial of the child, the child on that of the parent,
+master for or against servant, and servant for or against master. The
+relationship of the witness to the prosecutor or the prisoner in such
+cases may affect the credibility of the witness, but does not exclude
+his evidence.
+
+3. _Privilege._--It does not follow that, because a person is
+_competent_ to give evidence, he can therefore be compelled to do so.
+
+No one, except a person charged with an offence when giving evidence on
+his own application, and as to the offence wherewith he is charged, is
+bound to answer a question if the answer would, in the opinion of the
+court, have a tendency to expose the witness, or the wife or husband of
+the witness, to any criminal charge, penalty, or forfeiture, which the
+court regards as reasonably likely to be preferred or sued for.
+Accordingly, an accomplice cannot be examined without his consent, but
+if an accomplice who has come forward to give evidence on a promise of
+pardon, or favourable consideration, refuses to give full and fair
+information, he renders himself liable to be convicted on his own
+confession. However, even accomplices in such circumstances are not
+required to answer on their cross-examination as to other offences.
+Where, under the new law, a person charged with an offence offers
+himself as a witness, he may be asked any question in cross-examination,
+notwithstanding that it would tend to criminate him as to the offence
+charged. But he may not be asked, and if he is asked must not be
+required to answer, any question tending to show that he has committed,
+or been convicted of, or been charged with, any other offence, or is of
+bad character, unless:--
+
+  (i.) The proof that he has committed, or been convicted of, the other
+  offence is admissible evidence to show that he is guilty of the
+  offence with which he is then charged; or,
+
+  (ii.) He has personally, or by his advocate, asked questions of the
+  witnesses for the prosecution, with a view to establish his own good
+  character, or has given evidence of his good character, or the nature
+  or conduct of the defence is such as to involve imputations on the
+  character of the prosecutor or the witnesses for the prosecution; or,
+
+  (iii.) He has given evidence against any other person charged with the
+  same offence.
+
+He may not be asked questions tending to criminate his wife.
+
+The privilege as to criminating answers does not cover answers merely
+tending to establish a civil liability. No one is excused from answering
+a question or producing a document only because the answer or document
+may establish or tend to establish that he owes a debt, or is otherwise
+liable to any civil proceeding. It is a privilege for the protection of
+the witness, and therefore may be waived by him. But there are other
+privileges which cannot be so waived. Thus, on grounds of public policy,
+no one can be compelled, or is allowed, to give evidence relating to any
+affairs of state, or as to official communications between public
+officers upon public affairs, except with the consent of the head of the
+department concerned, and this consent is refused if the production of
+the information asked for is considered detrimental to the public
+service.
+
+Again, in cases in which the government is immediately concerned, no
+witness can be compelled to answer any question the answer to which
+would tend to discover the names of persons by or to whom information
+was given as to the commission of offences. It is, as a rule, for the
+court to decide whether the permission of any such question would or
+would not, under the circumstances of the particular case, be injurious
+to the administration of justice.
+
+A husband is not compellable to disclose any communication made to him
+by his wife during the marriage; and a wife is not compellable to
+disclose any communication made to her by her husband during the
+marriage.
+
+A legal adviser is not permitted, whether during or after the
+termination of his employment as such, unless with his client's express
+consent, to disclose any communication, oral or documentary, made to him
+_as such legal adviser_, by or on behalf of his client, during, in the
+course of, and for the purpose of his employment, or to disclose any
+advice given by him to his client during, in the course of, and for the
+purpose of such employment. But this protection does not extend to--
+
+(a) Any such communication if made in furtherance of any criminal
+purpose; nor
+
+(b) Any fact observed by a legal adviser in the course of his employment
+as such, showing that any crime or fraud has been committed since the
+commencement of his employment, whether his attention was directed to
+such fact by or on behalf of his client or not; nor
+
+(c) Any fact with which the legal adviser became acquainted otherwise
+than in his character as such.
+
+Medical men and clergymen are not privileged from the disclosure of
+communications made to them in professional confidence, but it is not
+usual to press for the disclosures of communications made to clergymen.
+
+4. _Oaths._--A witness must give his evidence under the sanction of an
+oath, or of what is equivalent to an oath, that is to say, of a solemn
+promise to speak the truth. The ordinary form of oath is adapted to
+Christians, but a person belonging to a non-Christian religion may be
+sworn in any form prescribed or recognized by the custom of his
+religion. (See the article OATH.)
+
+5. _Publicity._--The evidence of a witness at a trial must, as a general
+rule, be given in open court in the course of the trial. The secrecy
+which was such a characteristic feature of the "inquisition" procedure
+is abhorrent to English law, and, even where publicity conflicts with
+decency, English courts are very reluctant to dispense with or relax the
+safeguards for justice which publicity involves.
+
+6. _Examination._--The normal course of procedure is this. The party who
+begins, i.e. ordinarily the plaintiff or prosecutor, calls his witnesses
+in order. Each witness is first examined on behalf of the party for whom
+he is called. This is called the examination in chief. Then he is liable
+to be cross-examined on behalf of the other side. And, finally, he may
+be re-examined on behalf of his own side. After the case for the other
+side has been opened, the same procedure is adopted with the witnesses
+for that side. In some cases the party who began is allowed to adduce
+further evidence in reply to his opponent's evidence. The examination is
+conducted, not by the court, but by or on behalf of the contending
+parties. It will be seen that the principle underlying this procedure is
+that of the duel, or conflict between two contending parties, each
+relying on and using his own evidence, and trying to break down the
+evidence of his opponent. It differs from the principle of the
+"inquisition" procedure, in which the court takes a more active part,
+and in which the cases for the two sides are not so sharply
+distinguished. In a continental trial it is often difficult to determine
+whether the case for the prosecution or the case for the defence is
+proceeding. Conflicting witnesses stand up together and are "confronted"
+with each other. In the examination in chief questions must be confined
+to matters bearing on the main question at issue, and a witness must not
+be asked leading questions, i.e. questions suggesting the answer which
+the person putting the question wishes or expects to receive, or
+suggesting disputed facts about which the witness is to testify. But the
+rule about leading questions is not applied where the questions asked
+are simply introductory, and form no part of the real substance of the
+inquiry, or where they relate to matters which, though material, are not
+disputed. And if the witness called by a person appears to be directly
+hostile to him, or interested on the other side, or unwilling to reply,
+the reason for the rules applying to examination in chief breaks down,
+and the witness may be asked leading questions and cross-examined, and
+treated in every respect as though he was a witness called on the other
+side, except that a party producing a witness must not impeach his
+credit by general evidence of bad character (Evidence and Practice on
+Criminal Trials Act 1865). In cross-examination questions not bearing on
+the main issue and leading questions may be put and (subject to the
+rules as to privilege) must be answered, as the cross-examiner is
+entitled to test the examination in chief by every means in his power.
+Questions not bearing on the main issue are often asked in
+cross-examination merely for the purpose of putting off his guard a
+witness who is supposed to have learnt up his story. In
+cross-examination questions may also be asked which tend either to test
+the accuracy or credibility of the witness, or to shake his credit by
+impeaching his motives or injuring his character. The licence allowed in
+cross-examination has often been seriously abused, and the power of the
+court to check it is recognized by one of the rules of the supreme court
+(R.S.C. xxxvi. 39, added in 1883). It is considered wrong to put
+questions which assume that facts have been proved which have not been
+proved, or that answers have been given contrary to the fact. A witness
+ought not to be pressed in cross-examination as to any facts which, if
+admitted, would not affect the question at issue or the credibility of
+the witness. If the cross-examiner intends to adduce evidence contrary
+to the evidence given by the witness, he ought to put to the witness in
+cross-examination the substance of the evidence which he proposes to
+adduce, in order to give the witness an opportunity of retracting or
+explaining. Where a witness has answered a question which only tends to
+affect his credibility by injuring his character, it is only in a
+limited number of cases that evidence can be given to contradict his
+answer. Where he is asked whether he has ever been convicted of any
+felony or misdemeanour, and denies or refuses to answer, proof may be
+given of the truth of the facts suggested (28 & 29 Vict. c. 15, s. 6).
+The same rule is observed where he is asked a question tending to show
+that he is not impartial. Where a witness has previously made a
+statement inconsistent with his evidence, proof may be given that he did
+in fact make it. But before such proof is given the circumstances of the
+alleged statement, sufficient to designate the particular occasion,
+must be mentioned to the witness, and he must be asked whether he did or
+did not make the statement. And if the statement was made in, or has
+been reduced to, writing, the attention of the witness must, before the
+writing is used against him, be called to those parts of the writing
+which are to be used for the purpose of contradicting him (Evidence and
+Practice on Criminal Trials Act 1865, ss. 4, 5). The credibility of a
+witness may be impeached by the evidence of persons who swear that they,
+from their knowledge of the witness, believe him to be unworthy of
+credit on his oath. These persons may not on their examination in chief
+give reasons for their belief, but they may be asked their reasons in
+cross-examination, and their answers cannot be contradicted. When the
+credit of a witness is so impeached, the party who called the witness
+may give evidence in reply to show that the witness is worthy of credit.
+Re-examination must be directed exclusively to the explanation of
+matters referred to in cross-examination, and if new matter is, by the
+permission of the court, introduced in re-examination, the other side
+may further cross-examine upon it. A witness under examination may
+refresh his memory by referring to any writing made by himself at or
+about the time of the occurrence to which the writing relates, or made
+by any other person, and read and found accurate by the witness at or
+about the time. An expert may refresh his memory by reference to
+professional treatises.
+
+  For the history of the English law of evidence, see Brunner,
+  _Entstehung der Schwurgerichte_; Bigelow, _History of Procedure in
+  England_; Stephen (Sir J.F.), _History of the Criminal Law of
+  England_; Pollock and Maitland, _History of English Law_, bk. ii. ch.
+  ix.; Thayer, Preliminary Treatise on Evidence at the Common Law. The
+  principal text-books now in use are--Roscoe, _Digest of the Law of
+  Evidence on the Trial of Actions at Nisi Prius_ (18th ed., 1907);
+  Roscoe, _Digest of the Law of Evidence in Criminal Cases_ (13th ed.,
+  1908); Taylor, _Treatise on the Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., 1906);
+  Best, _Principles of the Law of Evidence_ (10th ed., 1906); Powell,
+  _Principles and Practice of the Law of Evidence_ (8th ed., 1904);
+  Stephen, _Digest of the Law of Evidence_ (8th ed., 1907); Wills,
+  _Theory and Practice of the Law of Evidence_ (1907). For the history
+  of the law of criminal evidence in France, see Esmein, _Hist. de la
+  procedure criminelle en France_. For Germany, see Holtzendorff,
+  _Encyclopadie der Rechtswissenschaft_ (passages indexed under head
+  "Beweis"); Holtzendorff, _Rechtslexikon_ ("Beweis").     (C. P. I.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Reference may be made to a well-known passage in the _Essay
+    concerning Human Understanding_ (Book iv. ch. xv.): "The grounds of
+    probability are--First, the conformity of anything with our own
+    knowledge, observation and experience. Second, the testimony of
+    others touching their observation and experience. In the testimony of
+    others is to be considered (1) the number, (2) the integrity, (3) the
+    skill of the witnesses. (4) The design of the author, where it is a
+    testimony out of a book cited. (5) The consistency of the parts and
+    circumstances of the relation. (6) Contrary testimonies."
+
+
+
+
+EVIL EYE. The terror of the arts of "fascination," i.e. that certain
+persons can bewitch, injure and even kill with a glance, has been and is
+still very widely spread. The power was not thought to be always
+maliciously cultivated. It was as often supposed to be involuntary (cf.
+Deuteronomy xxviii. 54); and a story is told of a Slav who, afflicted
+with the evil eye, at last blinded himself in order that he might not be
+the means of injuring his children (Woyciki, _Polish Folklore_, trans.
+by Lewenstein, p. 25). Few of the old classic writers fail to refer to
+the dread power. In Rome the "evil eye" was so well recognized that
+Pliny states that special laws were enacted against injury to crops by
+incantation, excantation or fascination. The power was styled [Greek:
+baskania] by the Greeks and _fascinatio_ by the Latins. Children and
+young animals of all kinds were thought to be specially susceptible.
+Charms were worn against the evil eye both by man and beast, and in
+Judges viii. 21 it is thought there is a reference to this custom in the
+allusion to the "ornaments" on the necks of camels. In classic times the
+wearing of amulets was universal. They were of three classes: (1) those
+the intention of which was to attract on to themselves, as the
+lightning-rod the lightning, the malignant glance; (2) charms hidden in
+the bosom of the dress; (3) written words from sacred writings. Of these
+three types the first was most numerous. They were oftenest of a
+grotesque and generally grossly obscene nature. They were also made in
+the form of frogs, beetles and so on. But the ancients did not wholly
+rely on amulets. Spitting was among the Greeks and Romans a most common
+antidote to the poison of the evil eye. According to Theocritus it is
+necessary to spit three times into the breast of the person who fears
+fascination. Gestures, too, often intentionally obscene, were regarded
+as prophylactics on meeting the dreaded individual. The evil eye was
+believed to have its impulse in envy, and thus it came to be regarded
+as unlucky to have any of your possessions praised. Among the Romans,
+therefore, it was customary when praising anything to add _Praefiscini
+dixerim_ (Fain Evil! I should say). This custom survives in modern
+Italy, where in like circumstances is said _Si mal occhio non ci fosse_
+(May the evil eye not strike it). The object of these conventional
+phrases was to prove that the speaker was sincere and had no evil
+designs in his praise. Though there is no set formula, traces of the
+custom are found in English rural sayings, e.g. the Somersetshire "I
+don't wish ee no harm, so I on't zay no more." This is what the Scots
+call "fore-speaking," when praise beyond measure is likely to be
+followed by disease or accident. A Manxman will never say he is very
+well: he usually admits that he is "middling," or qualifies his
+admission of good health by adding "now" or "just now." The belief led
+in many countries to the saying, when one heard anybody or anything
+praised superabundantly, "God preserve him or it." So in Ireland, to
+avoid being suspected of having the evil eye, it is advisable when
+looking at a child to say "God bless it"; and when passing a farm-yard
+where cows are collected at milking time it is usual for the peasant to
+say, "The blessing of God be on you and all your labour." Bacon writes:
+"It seems some have been so curious as to note that the times when the
+stroke ... of an envious eye does most hurt are particularly when the
+party envied is beheld in glory and triumph."
+
+The powers of the evil eye seem indeed to have been most feared by the
+prosperous. Its powers are often quoted as almost limitless. Thus one
+record solemnly declares that in a town of Africa a fascinator called
+Elzanar killed by his evil art no less than 80 people in two years (W.W.
+Story, _Castle St Angelo_, 1877, p. 149). The belief as affecting cattle
+was universal in the Scottish Highlands as late as the 18th century and
+still lingers. Thus if a stranger looks admiringly on a cow the peasants
+still think she will waste away, and they offer the visitor some of her
+milk to drink in the belief that in this manner the spell is broken. The
+modern Turks and Arabs also think that their horses and camels are
+subject to the evil eye. But the people of Italy, especially the
+Neapolitans, are the best modern instances of implicit believers. The
+_jettatore_, as the owner of the evil eye is called, is so feared that
+at his approach it is scarcely an exaggeration to say that a street will
+clear: everybody will rush into doorways or up alleys to avoid the
+dreaded glance. The _jettatore di bambini_ (fascinator of children) is
+the most dreaded of all. The evil eye is still much feared for horses in
+India, China, Turkey, Greece and almost everywhere where horses are
+found. In rural England the pig is of all animals oftenest "overlooked."
+While the Italians are perhaps the greatest believers in the evil eye as
+affecting persons, the superstition is rife in the East. In India the
+belief is universal. In Bombay the blast of the evil eye is supposed to
+be a form of spirit-possession. In western India all witches and wizards
+are said to be evil-eyed. Modern Egyptian mothers thus account for the
+sickly appearance of their babies. In Turkey passages from the Koran are
+painted on the outside of houses to save the inmates, and texts as
+amulets are worn upon the person, or hung upon camels and horses by
+Arabs, Abyssinians and other peoples. The superstition is universal
+among savage races.
+
+  For a full discussion see _Evil Eye_ by F.T. Elworthy (London, 1895);
+  also W.W. Story, _Castle St Angelo and the Evil Eye_ (1877); E.N.
+  Rolfe and H. Ingleby, _Naples in 1888_ (1888); Johannes Christian
+  Frommann, _Tractatus de fascinatione novus et singularis_, &c., &c.
+  (Nuremburg, 1675); R.C. Maclagan, _Evil Eye in the Western Highlands_
+  (1902).
+
+
+
+
+EVOLUTION. The modern doctrine of evolution or "evolving," as opposed to
+that of simple creation, has been defined by Prof. James Sully in the
+9th edition of this encyclopaedia as a "natural history of the cosmos
+including organic beings, expressed in physical terms as a mechanical
+process." The following exposition of the historical development of the
+doctrine is taken from Sully's article, and for the most part is in his
+own words.
+
+In the modern doctrine of evolution the cosmic system appears as a
+natural product of elementary matter and its laws. The various grades of
+life on our planet are the natural consequences of certain physical
+processes involved in the gradual transformations of the earth.
+Conscious life is viewed as conditioned by physical (organic and more
+especially nervous) processes, and as evolving itself in close
+correlation with organic evolution. Finally, human development, as
+exhibited in historical and prehistorical records, is regarded as the
+highest and most complex result of organic and physical evolution. This
+modern doctrine of evolution is but an expansion and completion of those
+physical theories (see below) which opened the history of speculation.
+It differs from them in being grounded on exact and verified research.
+As such, moreover, it is a much more limited theory of evolution than
+the ancient. It does not necessarily concern itself about the question
+of the infinitude of worlds in space and in time. It is content to
+explain the origin and course of development of the world, the solar or,
+at most, the sidereal system which falls under our own observation. It
+would be difficult to say what branches of science had done most towards
+the establishment of this doctrine. We must content ourselves by
+referring to the progress of physical (including chemical) theory, which
+has led to the great generalization of the conservation of energy; to
+the discovery of the fundamental chemical identity of the matter of our
+planet and of other celestial bodies, and of the chemical relations of
+organic and inorganic bodies; to the advance of astronomical speculation
+respecting the origin of the solar system, &c.; to the growth of the
+science of geology which has necessitated the conception of vast and
+unimaginable periods of time in the past history of our globe, and to
+the rapid march of the biological sciences which has made us familiar
+with the simplest types and elements of organism; finally, to the
+development of the science of anthropology (including comparative
+psychology, philology, &c.), and to the vast extension and improvement
+of all branches of historical study.
+
+_History of the Idea of Evolution._--The doctrine of evolution in its
+finished and definite form is a modern product. It required for its
+formation an amount of scientific knowledge which could only be very
+gradually acquired. It is vain, therefore, to look for clearly defined
+and systematic presentations of the idea among ancient writers. On the
+other hand, nearly all systems of philosophy have discussed the
+underlying problems. Such questions as the origin of the cosmos as a
+whole, the production of organic beings and of conscious minds, and the
+meaning of the observable grades of creation, have from the dawn of
+speculation occupied men's minds; and the answers to these questions
+often imply a vague recognition of the idea of a gradual evolution of
+things. Accordingly, in tracing the antecedents of the modern
+philosophic doctrine we shall have to glance at most of the principal
+systems of cosmology, ancient and modern. Yet since in these systems
+inquiries into the _esse_ and _fieri_ of the world are rarely
+distinguished with any precision, it will be necessary to indicate very
+briefly the general outlines of the system so far as they are necessary
+for understanding their bearing on the problems of evolution.
+
+_Mythological Interpretation._--The problem of the origin of the world
+was the first to engage man's speculative activity. Nor was this line of
+inquiry pursued simply as a step in the more practical problem of man's
+final destiny. The order of ideas observable in children suggests the
+reflection that man began to discuss the "whence" of existence before
+the "whither." At first, as in the case of the child, the problem of the
+genesis of things was conceived anthropomorphically: the question "How
+did the world arise?" first shaped itself to the human mind under the
+form "Who made the world?" As long as the problem was conceived in this
+simple manner there was, of course, no room for the idea of a necessary
+self-conditioned evolution. Yet the first indistinct germ of such an
+idea appears to emerge in combination with that of creation in some of
+the ancient systems of theogony. Thus, for example, in the myth of the
+ancient Parsees, the gods Ormuzd and Ahriman are said to evolve
+themselves out of a primordial matter. It may be supposed that these
+crude fancies embody a dim recognition of the physical forces and
+objects personified under the forms of deities, and a rude attempt to
+account for their genesis as a natural process. These first
+unscientific ideas of a genesis of the permanent objects of nature took
+as their pattern the process of organic reproduction and development,
+and this, not only because these objects were regarded as personalities,
+but also because this particular mode of becoming would most impress
+these early observers. This same way of looking at the origin of the
+material world is illustrated in the Egyptian notion of a cosmic egg out
+of which issues the god (Phta) who creates the world.
+
+_Indian Philosophy._--Passing from mythology to speculation properly so
+called, we find in the early systems of philosophy of India theories of
+emanation which approach in some respects the idea of evolution. Brahma
+is conceived as the eternal self-existent being, which on its material
+side unfolds itself to the world by gradually condensing itself to
+material objects through the gradations of ether, fire, water, earth and
+the elements. At the same time this eternal being is conceived as the
+all-embracing world-soul from which emanates the hierarchy of individual
+souls. In the later system of emanation of Sankhya there is a more
+marked approach to a materialistic doctrine of evolution. If, we are
+told, we follow the chain of causes far enough back we reach unlimited
+eternal creative nature or matter. Out of this "principal thing" or
+"original nature" all material and spiritual existence issues, and into
+it will return. Yet this primordial creative nature is endowed with
+volition with regard to its own development. Its first emanation as
+plastic nature contains the original soul or deity out of which all
+individual souls issue.
+
+_Early Greek Physicists._--Passing by Buddhism, which, though teaching
+the periodic destruction of our world by fire, &c., does not seek to
+determine the ultimate origin of the cosmos, we come to those early
+Greek physical philosophers who distinctly set themselves to eliminate
+the idea of divine interference with the world by representing its
+origin and changes as a natural process. The early Ionian physicists,
+including Thales, Anaximander and Anaximenes, seek to explain the world
+as generated out of a primordial matter (Gr. [Greek: hyle]; hence the
+name "Hylozoists"), which is at the same time the universal support of
+things. This substance is endowed with a generative or transmutative
+force by virtue of which it passes into a succession of forms. They thus
+resemble modern evolutionists, since they regard the world with its
+infinite variety of forms as issuing from a simple mode of matter. More
+especially the cosmology of Anaximander resembles the modern doctrine of
+evolution in its conception of the indeterminate ([Greek: to apeiron])
+out of which the particular forms of the cosmos are differentiated.
+Again, Anaximander may be said to prepare the way for more modern
+conceptions of material evolution by regarding his primordial substance
+as eternal, and by looking on all generation as alternating with
+destruction, each step of the process being of course simply a
+transformation of the indestructible substance. Once more, the notion
+that this indeterminate body contains potentially in itself the
+fundamental contraries--hot, cold, &c.--by the excretion or evolution of
+which definite substances were generated, is clearly a forecasting of
+that antithesis of potentiality and actuality which from Aristotle
+downwards has been made the basis of so many theories of development. In
+conclusion, it is noteworthy that though resorting to utterly fanciful
+hypotheses respecting the order of the development of the world,
+Anaximander agrees with modern evolutionists in conceiving the heavenly
+bodies as arising out of an aggregation of diffused matter, and in
+assigning to organic life an origin in the inorganic materials of the
+primitive earth (pristine mud). The doctrine of Anaximenes, who unites
+the conceptions of a determinate and indeterminate original substance
+adopted by Thales and Anaximander in the hypothesis of a primordial and
+all-generating air, is a clear advance on these theories, inasmuch as it
+introduces the scientific idea of condensation and rarefaction as the
+great generating or transforming agencies. For the rest, his theory is
+chiefly important as emphasizing the vital character of the original
+substance. The primordial air is conceived as animated. Anaximenes seems
+to have inclined to a view of cosmic evolution as throughout involving
+a quasi-spiritual factor. This idea of the air as the original principle
+and source of life and intelligence is much more clearly expressed by a
+later writer, Diogenes of Apollonia. Diogenes made this conception of a
+vital and intelligent air the ground of a teleological view of climatic
+and atmospheric phenomena. It is noteworthy that he sought to establish
+the identity of organic and inorganic matter by help of the facts of
+vegetal and animal nutrition. Diogenes distinctly taught that the world
+is of finite duration, and will be renewed out of the primitive
+substance.
+
+Heraclitus again deserves a prominent place in a history of the idea of
+evolution. Heraclitus conceives of the incessant process of flux in
+which all things are involved as consisting of two sides or
+moments--generation and decay--which are regarded as a confluence of
+opposite streams. In thus making transition or change, viewed as the
+identity of existence and non-existence, the leading idea of his system,
+Heraclitus anticipated in some measure Hegel's peculiar doctrine of
+evolution as a dialectic process.[1] At the same time we may find
+expressed in figurative language the germs of thoughts which enter into
+still newer doctrines of evolution. For example, the notion of conflict
+([Greek: polemos]) as the father of all things and of harmony as arising
+out of a union of discords, and again of an endeavour by individual
+things to maintain themselves in permanence against the universal
+process of destruction and renovation, cannot but remind one of certain
+fundamental ideas in Darwin's theory of evolution.
+
+_Empedocles._--Empedocles took an important step in the direction of
+modern conceptions of physical evolution by teaching that all things
+arise, not by transformations of some primitive form of matter, but by
+various combinations of a number of permanent elements. Further, by
+maintaining that the elements are continually being combined and
+separated by the two forces love and hatred, which appear to represent
+in a figurative way the physical forces of attraction and repulsion,
+Empedocles may be said to have made a considerable advance in the
+construction of the idea of evolution as a strictly mechanical process.
+It may be observed, too, that the hypothesis of a primitive compact mass
+(_sphaerus_), in which love (attraction) is supreme, has some curious
+points of similarity to, and contrast with, that notion of a primitive
+nebulous matter with which the modern doctrine of cosmic evolution
+usually sets out. Empedocles tries to explain the genesis of organic
+beings, and, according to Lange, anticipates the idea of Darwin that
+adaptations abound, because it is their nature to perpetuate themselves.
+He further recognizes a progress in the production of vegetable and
+animal forms, though this part of his theory is essentially crude and
+unscientific. More important in relation to the modern problems of
+evolution is his thoroughly materialistic way of explaining the origin
+of sensation and knowledge by help of his peculiar hypothesis of
+effluvia and pores. The supposition that sensation thus rests on a
+material process of absorption from external bodies naturally led up to
+the idea that plants and even inorganic substances are precipient, and
+so to an indistinct recognition of organic life as a scale of
+intelligence.
+
+_Atomists._--In the theory of Atomism taught by Leucippus and Democritus
+we have the basis of the modern mechanical conceptions of cosmic
+evolution. Here the endless harmonious diversity of our cosmos, as well
+as of other worlds supposed to coexist with our own, is said to arise
+through the various combination of indivisible material elements
+differing in figure and magnitude only. The force which brings the atoms
+together in the forms of objects is inherent in the elements, and all
+their motions are necessary. The origin of things, which is also their
+substance, is thus laid in the simplest and most homogeneous elements or
+principles. The real world thus arising consists only of diverse
+combinations of atoms, having the properties of magnitude, figure,
+weight and hardness, all other qualities being relative only to the
+sentient organism. The problem of the genesis of mind is practically
+solved by identifying the soul, or vital principle, with heat or fire
+which pervades in unequal proportions, not only man and animals, but
+plants and nature as a whole, and through the agitation of which by
+incoming effluvia all sensation arises.
+
+_Aristotle._--Aristotle is much nearer a conception of evolution than
+his master Plato. It is true he sets out with a transcendent Deity, and
+follows Plato in viewing the creation of the cosmos as a process of
+descent from the more to the less perfect according to the distance from
+the original self-moving agency. Yet on the whole Aristotle leans to a
+teleological theory of evolution, which he interprets dualistually by
+means of certain metaphysical distinctions. Thus even his idea of the
+relation of the divine activity to the world shows a tendency to a
+pantheistic notion of a divine thought which gradually realizes itself
+in the process of becoming. Aristotle's distinction of form and matter,
+and his conception of becoming as a transition from actuality to
+potentiality, provides a new ontological way of conceiving the process
+of material and organic evolution.[2] To Aristotle the whole of nature
+is instinct with a vital impulse towards some higher manifestation.
+Organic life presents itself to him as a progressive scale of complexity
+determined by its final end, namely, man.[3] In some respects Aristotle
+approaches the modern view of evolution. Thus, though he looked on
+species as fixed, being the realization of an unchanging formative
+principle ([Greek: physis]), he seems, as Ueberweg observes, to have
+inclined to entertain the possibility of a spontaneous generation in the
+case of the lowest organisms. Aristotle's teleological conception of
+organic evolution often approaches modern mechanical conceptions. Thus
+he says that nature fashions organs in the order of their necessity, the
+first being those essential to life. So, too, in his psychology he
+speaks of the several degrees of mind as arising according to a
+progressive necessity.[4] In his view of touch and taste, as the two
+fundamental and essential senses, he may remind one of Herbert Spencer's
+doctrine. At the same time Aristotle precludes the idea of a natural
+development of the mental series by the supposition that man contains,
+over and above a natural finite soul inseparable from the body, a
+substantial and eternal principle ([Greek: nous]) which enters into the
+individual from without. Aristotle's brief suggestions respecting the
+origin of society and governments in the _Politics_ show a leaning to a
+naturalistic interpretation of human history as a development
+conditioned by growing necessities.
+
+_Strato._--Of Aristotle's immediate successors one deserves to be
+noticed here, namely, Strato of Lampsacus, who developed his master's
+cosmology into a system of naturalism. Strato appears to reject
+Aristotle's idea of an original source of movement and life extraneous
+to the world in favour of an immanent principle. All parts of matter
+have an inward plastic life whereby they can fashion themselves to the
+best advantage, according to their capability, though not with
+consciousness.
+
+_The Stoics._--In the cosmology of the Stoics we have the germ of a
+monistic and pantheistic conception of evolution. All things are said to
+be developed out of an original being, which is at once material (fire)
+and spiritual (the Deity), and in turn they will dissolve back into this
+primordial source. At the same time the world as a developed whole is
+regarded as an organism which is permeated with the divine Spirit, and
+so we may say that the world-process is a self-realization of the divine
+Being. The formative principle or force of the world is said to contain
+the several rational germinal forms of things. Individual things are
+supposed to arise out of the original being, as animals and plants out
+of seeds. Individual souls are an efflux from the all-compassing
+world-soul. The necessity in the world's order is regarded by the Stoics
+as identical with the divine reason, and this idea is used as the basis
+of a teleological and optimistic view of nature. Very curious, in
+relation to modern evolutional ideas, is the Stoical doctrine that our
+world is but one of a series of exactly identical ones, all of which
+are destined to be burnt up and destroyed.
+
+_The Epicureans--Lucretius._--The Epicureans differed from the Stoics by
+adopting a purely mechanical view of the world-process. Their
+fundamental conception is that of Democritus; they seek to account for
+the formation of the cosmos, with its order and regularity, by setting
+out with the idea of an original (vertical) motion of the atoms, which
+somehow or other results in movements towards and from one another. Our
+world is but one of an infinite number of others, and all the harmonies
+and adaptations of the universe are regarded as a special case of the
+infinite possibilities of mechanical events. Lucretius regards the
+primitive atoms (first beginnings or first bodies) as seeds out of which
+individual things are developed. All living and sentient things are
+formed out of insentient atoms (e.g. worms spring out of dung). The
+peculiarity of organic and sentient bodies is due to the minuteness and
+shape of their particles, and to their special motions and combinations.
+So, too, mind consists but of extremely fine particles of matter, and
+dissolves into air when the body dies. Lucretius traces, in the fifth
+book of his poem, the progressive genesis of vegetal and animal forms
+out of the mother-earth. He vaguely anticipates the modern idea of the
+world as a survival of the fittest when he says that many races may have
+lived and died out, and that those which still exist have been protected
+either by craft, courage or speed. Lucretius touches on the development
+of man out of a primitive, hardy, beast-like condition. Pregnant hints
+are given respecting a natural development of language which has its
+germs in sounds of quadrupeds and birds, of religious ideas out of
+dreams and waking hallucinations, and of the art of music by help of the
+suggestion of natural sounds. Lucretius thus recognizes the whole range
+of existence to which the doctrine of evolution may be applied.
+
+_Neoplatonists._--In the doctrines of the Neoplatonists, of whom
+Plotinus is the most important, we have the world-process represented
+after the example of Plato as a series of descending steps, each being
+less perfect than its predecessors, since it is further removed from the
+first cause.[5] The system of Plotinus, Zellar remarks, is not strictly
+speaking one of emanation, since there is no communication of the divine
+essence to the created world; yet it resembles emanation inasmuch as the
+genesis of the world is conceived as a necessary physical effect, and
+not as the result of volition. In Proclus we find this conception of an
+emanation of the world out of the Deity, or the absolute, made more
+exact, the process being regarded as threefold--(1) persistence of cause
+in effect, (2) the departure of effect from cause, and (3) the tendency
+of effect to revert to its cause.
+
+_The Fathers._--The speculations of the fathers respecting the origin
+and course of the world seek to combine Christian ideas of the Deity
+with doctrines of Greek philosophy. The common idea of the origin of
+things is that of an absolute creation of matter and mind alike. The
+course of human history is regarded by those writers who are most
+concerned to refute Judaism as a progressive divine education. Among the
+Gnostics we meet with the hypothesis of emanation, as, for example, in
+the curious cosmic theory of Valentinus.
+
+_Middle Ages--Early Schoolmen._--In the speculative writings of the
+middle ages, including those of the schoolmen, we find no progress
+towards a more accurate and scientific view of nature. The cosmology of
+this period consists for the most part of the Aristotelian teleological
+view of nature combined with the Christian idea of the Deity and His
+relation to the world. In certain writers, however, there appears a more
+elaborate transformation of the doctrine of creation into a system of
+emanation. According to John Scotus Erigena, the nothing out of which
+the world is created is the divine essence. Creation is the act by which
+God passes through the primordial causes, or universal ideas, into the
+region of particular things (_processio_), in order finally to return to
+himself (_reversio_). The transition from the universal to the
+particular is of course conceived as a descent or degradation. A similar
+doctrine of emanation is to be found in the writings of Bernhard of
+Chartres, who conceives the process of the unfolding of the world as a
+movement in a circle from the most general to the individual, and from
+this back to the most general. This movement is said to go forth from
+God to the animated heaven, stars, visible world and man, which
+represent decreasing degrees of cognition.
+
+_Arab Philosophers._--Elaborate doctrines of emanation, largely based on
+Neoplatonic ideas, are also propounded by some of the Arabic
+philosophers, as by Farabi and Avicenna. The leading thought is that of
+a descending series of intelligences, each emanating from its
+predecessor, and having its appropriate region in the universe.
+
+_Jewish Philosophy._--In the Jewish speculations of the middle ages may
+be found curious forms of the doctrine of emanations uniting the
+Biblical idea of creation with elements drawn from the Persians and the
+Greeks. In the later and developed form of the Kabbala, the origin of
+the world is represented as a gradually descending emanation of the
+lower out of the higher. Among the philosophic Jews, the Spanish
+Avicebron, in his _Fons Vitae_, expounds a curious doctrine of
+emanation. Here the divine will is viewed as an efflux from the divine
+wisdom, as the intermediate link between God, the first substance, and
+all things, and as the fountain out of which all forms emanate. At the
+same time all forms, including the higher intelligible ones, are said to
+have their existence only in matter. Matter is the one universal
+substance, body and mind being merely specifications of this. Thus
+Avicebron approaches, as Salomon Munk observes,[6] a pantheistic
+conception of the world, though he distinctly denies both matter and
+form to God.
+
+_Later Scholastics._--Passing now to the later schoolmen, a bare mention
+must be made of Thomas Aquinas, who elaborately argues for the absolute
+creation of the world out of nothing, and of Albertus Magnus, who
+reasons against the Aristotelian idea of the past eternity of the world.
+More importance attaches to Duns Scotus, who brings prominently forward
+the idea of a progressive development in nature by means of a process of
+determination. The original substance of the world is the _materia
+primo-prima_, which is the immediate creation of the Deity. This serves
+Duns Scotus as the most universal basis of existence, all angels having
+material bodies. This matter is differentiated into particular things
+(which are not privations but perfections) through the addition of an
+individualizing principle (_haecceitas_) to the universal (_quidditas_).
+The whole world is represented by the figure of a tree, of which the
+seeds and roots are the first indeterminate matter, the leaves the
+accidents, the twigs and branches corruptible creatures, the blossoms
+the rational soul, and the fruit pure spirits or angels. It is also
+described as a bifurcation of two twigs, mental and bodily creation out
+of a common root. One might almost say that Duns Scotus recognizes the
+principle of a gradual physical evolution, only that he chooses to
+represent the mechanism by which the process is brought about by means
+of quaint scholastic fictions.
+
+_Revival of Learning._--The period of the revival of learning, which was
+also that of a renewed study of nature, is marked by a considerable
+amount of speculation respecting the origin of the universe. In some of
+these we see a return to Greek theories, though the influence of
+physical discoveries, more especially those of Copernicus, Kepler and
+Galileo, is distinctly traceable.
+
+_Telesio._--An example of a return to early Greek speculation is to be
+met with in Bernardino Telesio. By this writer the world is explained as
+a product of three principles--dead matter, and two active forces, heat
+and cold. Terrestrial things arise through a confluence of heat, which
+issues from the heavens, and cold, which comes from the earth. Both
+principles have sensibility, and thus all products of their collision
+are sentient, that is, feel pleasure and pain. The superiority of
+animals to plants and metals in the possession of special organs of
+sense is connected with the greater complexity and heterogeneity of
+their structure.
+
+_Giordano Bruno._--In the system of Giordano Bruno, who sought to
+construct a philosophy of nature on the basis of new scientific ideas,
+more particularly the doctrine of Copernicus, we find the outlines of a
+theory of cosmic evolution conceived as an essentially vital process.
+Matter and form are here identified, and the evolution of the world is
+presented as the unfolding of the world-spirit to its perfect forms
+according to the plastic substratum (matter) which is but one of its
+sides. This process of change is conceived as a transformation, in
+appearance only, of the real unchanging substance (matter and form). All
+parts of matter are capable of developing into all forms; thus the
+materials of the table and chair may under proper circumstances be
+developed to the life of the plant or of the animal. The elementary
+parts of existence are the _minima_, or monads, which are at once
+material and mental. On their material side they are not absolutely
+unextended, but spherical. Bruno looked on our solar system as but one
+out of an infinite number of worlds. His theory of evolution is
+essentially pantheistic, and he does not employ his hypothesis of monads
+in order to work out a more mechanical conception.
+
+_Campanella._--A word must be given to one of Bruno's contemporary
+compatriots, namely Campanella, who gave poetic expression to that
+system of universal vitalism which Bruno developed. He argues, from the
+principle _quicquid est in effectibus esse et in causis_, that the
+elements and the whole world have sensation, and thus he appears to
+derive the organic part of nature out of the so-called "inorganic."
+
+_Boehme._--Another writer of this transition period deserves a passing
+reference here, namely, Jacob Boehme the mystic, who by his conception
+of a process of inner diremption as the essential character of all mind,
+and so of God, prepared the way for later German theories of the origin
+of the world as the self-differentiation and self-externalization of the
+absolute spirit.
+
+_Hobbes and Gassendi._--The influence of an advancing study of nature,
+which was stimulated if not guided by Bacon's writings, is seen in the
+more careful doctrines of materialism worked out almost simultaneously
+by Hobbes and Gassendi. These theories, however, contain little that
+bears directly on the hypothesis of a natural evolution of things. In
+the view of Hobbes, the difficulty of the genesis of conscious minds is
+solved by saying that sensation and thought are part of the reaction of
+the organism on external movement. Yet Hobbes appears (as Clarke points
+out) to have vaguely felt the difficulty; and in a passage of his
+_Physics_ (chap. 25, sect. 5) he says that the universal existence of
+sensation in matter cannot be disproved, though he shows that when there
+are no organic arrangements the mental side of the movement
+(_phantasma_) is evanescent. The theory of the origin of society put
+forth by Hobbes, though directly opposed in most respects to modern
+ideas of social evolution, deserves mention here by reason of its
+enforcing that principle of struggle (_bellum omnium contra omnes_)
+which has played so conspicuous a part in the modern doctrine of
+evolution. Gassendi, with some deviations, follows Epicurus in his
+theory of the formation of the world. The world consists of a finite
+number of atoms, which have in their own nature a self-moving force or
+principle. These atoms, which are the seeds of all things, are, however,
+not eternal but created by God. Gassendi distinctly argues against the
+existence of a world-soul or a principle of life in nature.
+
+_Descartes._--In the philosophy of Descartes we meet with a dualism of
+mind and matter which does not easily lend itself to the conception of
+evolution. His doctrine that consciousness is confined to man, the lower
+animals being unconscious machines (_automata_), excludes all idea of a
+progressive development of mind. Yet Descartes, in his _Principia
+Philosophiae_, laid the foundation of the modern mechanical conception
+of nature and of physical evolution. In the third part of this work he
+inclines to a thoroughly natural hypothesis respecting the genesis of
+the physical world, and adds in the fourth part that the same kind of
+explanation might be applied to the nature and formation of plants and
+animals. He is indeed careful to keep right with the orthodox doctrine
+of creation by saying that he does not believe the world actually arose
+in this mechanical way out of the three kinds of elements which he here
+supposes, but that he simply puts out his hypothesis as a mode of
+conceiving how it might have arisen. Descartes's account of the mind and
+its passions is thoroughly materialistic, and to this extent he works in
+the direction of a materialistic explanation of the origin of mental
+life.
+
+_Spinoza._--In Spinoza's pantheistic theory of the world, which regards
+thought and extension as but two sides of one substance, the problem of
+becoming is submerged in that of being. Although Spinoza's theory
+attributes a mental side to all physical events, he rejects all
+teleological conceptions and explains the order of things as the result
+of an inherent necessity. He recognizes gradations of things according
+to the degree of complexity of their movements and that of their
+conceptions. To Spinoza (as Kuno Fischer observes) man differs from the
+rest of nature in the degree only and not in the kind of his powers. So
+far Spinoza approaches the conception of evolution. He may be said to
+furnish a further contribution to a metaphysical conception of evolution
+in his view of all finite individual things as the infinite variety to
+which the unlimited productive power of the universal substance gives
+birth. Sir F. Pollock has taken pains to show how nearly Spinoza
+approaches certain ideas contained in the modern doctrine of evolution,
+as for example that of self-preservation as the determining force in
+things.
+
+_Locke._--In Locke we find, with a retention of certain
+anti-evolutionist ideas, a marked tendency to this mode of viewing the
+world. To Locke the universe is the result of a direct act of creation,
+even matter being limited in duration and created. Even if matter were
+eternal it would, he thinks, be incapable of producing motion; and if
+motion is itself conceived as eternal, thought can never begin to be.
+The first eternal being is thus spiritual or "cogitative," and contains
+in itself all the perfections that can ever after exist. He repeatedly
+insists on the impossibility of senseless matter putting on sense.[7]
+Yet while thus placing himself at a point of view opposed to that of a
+gradual evolution of the organic world, Locke prepared the way for this
+doctrine in more ways than one. First of all, his genetic method as
+applied to the mind's ideas--which laid the foundations of English
+analytical psychology--was a step in the direction of a conception of
+mental life as a gradual evolution. Again he works towards the same end
+in his celebrated refutation of the scholastic theory of real specific
+essences. In this argument he emphasizes the vagueness of the boundaries
+which mark off organic species with a view to show that these do not
+correspond to absolutely fixed divisions in the objective world, that
+they are made by the mind, not by nature.[8] This idea of the continuity
+of species is developed more fully in a remarkable passage (_Essay_, bk.
+iii. ch. vi. S 12), where he is arguing in favour of the hypothesis,
+afterwards elaborated by Leibnitz, of a graduated series of minds
+(species of spirits) from the Deity down to the lowest animal
+intelligence. He here observes that "all quite down from us the descent
+is by easy steps, and a continued series of things, that in each remove
+differ very little from one another." Thus man approaches the beasts,
+and the animal kingdom is nearly joined with the vegetable, and so on
+down to the lowest and "most inorganical parts of matter." Finally, it
+is to be observed that Locke had a singularly clear view of organic
+arrangements (which of course he explained according to a theistic
+teleology) as an adaptation to the circumstances of the environment or
+to "the neighbourhood of the bodies that surround us." Thus he suggests
+that man has not eyes of a microscopic delicacy, because he would
+receive no great advantage from such acute organs, since though adding
+indefinitely to his speculative knowledge of the physical world they
+would not practically benefit their possessor (e.g. by enabling him to
+avoid things at a convenient distance).[9]
+
+_Idea of Progress in History._--Before leaving the 17th century we must
+just refer to the writers who laid the foundations of the essentially
+modern conception of human history as a gradual upward progress.
+According to Flint,[10] there were four men who in this and the
+preceding century seized and made prominent this idea, namely, Bodin,
+Bacon, Descartes and Pascal. The former distinctly argues against the
+idea of a deterioration of man in the past. In this way we see that just
+as advancing natural science was preparing the way for a doctrine of
+physical evolution, so advancing historical research was leading to the
+application of a similar idea to the collective human life.
+
+_English Writers of the 18th Century--Hume._--The theological
+discussions which make up so large a part of the English speculation of
+the 18th century cannot detain us here. There is, however, one writer
+who sets forth so clearly the alternative suppositions respecting the
+origin of the world that he claims a brief notice. We refer to David
+Hume. In his _Dialogues concerning Natural Religion_ he puts forward
+tentatively, in the person of one of his interlocutors, the ancient
+hypothesis that since the world resembles an animal or vegetal organism
+rather than a machine, it might more easily be accounted for by a
+process of generation than by an act of creation. Later on he develops
+the materialistic view of Epicurus, only modifying it so far as to
+conceive of matter as finite. Since a finite number of particles is only
+susceptible of finite transpositions, it must happen (he says), in an
+eternal duration that every possible order or position will be tried an
+infinite number of times, and hence this world is to be regarded (as the
+Stoics maintained) as an exact reproduction of previous worlds. The
+speaker seeks to make intelligible the appearance of art and contrivance
+in the world as a result of a natural settlement of the universe (which
+passes through a succession of chaotic conditions) into a stable
+condition, having a constancy in its forms, yet without its several
+parts losing their motion and fluctuation.
+
+_French Writers of the 18th Century._--Let us now pass to the French
+writers of the 18th century. Here we are first struck by the results of
+advancing physical speculation in their bearing on the conception of the
+world. Careful attempts, based on new scientific truths, are made to
+explain the genesis of the world as a natural process. Maupertuis, who,
+together with Voltaire, introduced the new idea of the universe as based
+on Newton's discoveries, sought to account for the origin of organic
+things by the hypothesis of sentient atoms. Buffon the naturalist
+speculated, not only on the structure and genesis of organic beings, but
+also on the course of formation of the earth and solar system, which he
+conceived after the analogy of the development of organic beings out of
+seed. Diderot, too, in his varied intellectual activity, found time to
+speculate on the genesis of sensation and thought out of a combination
+of matter endowed with an elementary kind of sentience. De la Mettrie
+worked out a materialistic doctrine of the origin of things, according
+to which sensation and consciousness are nothing but a development out
+of matter. He sought (_L'Homme-machine_) to connect man in his original
+condition with the lower animals, and emphasized (_L'Homme-plante_) the
+essential unity of plan of all living things. Helvetius, in his work on
+man, referred all differences between our species and the lower animals
+to certain peculiarities of organization, and so prepared the way for a
+conception of human development out of lower forms as a process of
+physical evolution. Charles Bonnet met the difficulty of the origin of
+conscious beings much in the same way as Leibnitz, by the supposition of
+eternal minute organic bodies to which are attached immortal souls. Yet
+though in this way opposing himself to the method of the modern doctrine
+of evolution, he aided the development of this doctrine by his view of
+the organic world as an ascending scale from the simple to the complex.
+Robinet, in his treatise _De la nature_, worked out the same conception
+of a gradation in organic existence, connecting this with a general view
+of nature as a progress from the lowest inorganic forms of matter up to
+man. The process is conceived as an infinite series of variations or
+specifications of one primitive and common type. Man is the
+_chef-d'oeuvre_ of nature, which the gradual progression of beings was
+to have as its last term, and all lower creations are regarded as
+pre-conditions of man's existence, since nature "could only realize the
+human form by combining in all imaginable ways each of the traits which
+was to enter into it." The formative force in this process of evolution
+(or "metamorphosis") is conceived as an intellectual principle (_idee
+generatrice_). Robinet thus laid the foundation of that view of the
+world as wholly vital, and as a progressive unfolding of a spiritual
+formative principle, which was afterwards worked out by Schelling. It is
+to be added that Robinet adopted a thorough-going materialistic view of
+the dependence of mind on body, going even to the length of assigning
+special nerve-fibres to the moral sense. The system of Holbach seeks to
+provide a consistent materialistic view of the world and its processes.
+Mental operations are identified with physical movements, the three
+conditions of physical movement, inertia, attraction and repulsion,
+being in the moral world self-love, love and hate. He left open the
+question whether the capability of sensation belongs to all matter, or
+is confined to the combinations of certain materials. He looked on the
+actions of the individual organism and of society as determined by the
+needs of self-preservation. He conceived of man as a product of nature
+that had gradually developed itself from a low condition, though he
+relinquished the problem of the exact mode of his first genesis and
+advance as not soluble by data of experience. Holbach thus worked out
+the basis of a rigorously materialistic conception of evolution.
+
+The question of human development which Holbach touched on was one which
+occupied many minds both in and out of France during the 18th century,
+and more especially towards its close. The foundations of this theory of
+history as an upward progress of man out of a barbaric and animal
+condition were laid by Vico in his celebrated work _Principii di scienza
+nuova_. In France the doctrine was represented by Turgot and Condorcet.
+
+_German Writers of the 18th Century--Leibnitz._--In Leibnitz we find, if
+not a doctrine of evolution in the strict sense, a theory of the world
+which is curiously related to the modern doctrine. The chief aim of
+Leibnitz is no doubt to account for the world in its static aspect as a
+co-existent whole, to conceive the ultimate reality of things in such a
+way as to solve the mystery of mind and matter. Yet by his very mode of
+solving the problem he is led on to consider the nature of the
+world-process. By placing substantial reality in an infinite number of
+monads whose essential nature is force or activity, which is conceived
+as mental (representation), Leibnitz was carried on to the explanation
+of the successive order of the world. He prepares the way, too, for a
+doctrine of evolution by his monistic idea of the substantial similarity
+of all things, inorganic and organic, bodily and spiritual, and still
+more by his conception of a perfect gradation of existence from the
+lowest "inanimate" objects, whose essential activity is confused
+representation, up to the highest organized being--man--with his clear
+intelligence.[11] Turning now to Leibnitz's conception of the world as a
+process, we see first that he supplies, in his notion of the underlying
+reality as force which is represented as spiritual (_quelque chose
+d'analogique au sentiment et a l'appetit_), both a mechanical and a
+teleological explanation of its order. More than this, Leibnitz supposes
+that the activity of the monads takes the form of a self-evolution. It
+is the following out of an inherent tendency or impulse to a series of
+changes, all of which were virtually pre-existent, and this process
+cannot be interfered with from without. As the individual monad, so the
+whole system which makes up the world is a gradual development. In this
+case, however, we cannot say that each step goes out of the other as in
+that of individual development. Each monad is an original independent
+being, and is determined to take this particular point in the universe,
+this place in the scale of beings. We see how different this
+metaphysical conception is from that scientific notion of cosmic
+evolution in which the lower stages are the antecedents and conditions
+of the higher. It is probable that Leibnitz's notion of time and space,
+which approaches Kant's theory, led him to attach but little importance
+to the successive order of the world. Leibnitz, in fact, presents to us
+an infinite system of perfectly distinct though parallel developments,
+which on their mental side assume the aspect of a scale, not through any
+mutual action, but solely through the determination of the Deity. Even
+this idea, however, is incomplete, for Leibnitz fails to explain the
+physical aspect of development. Thus he does not account for the fact
+that organic beings--which have always existed as preformations (in the
+case of animals as _animaux spermatiques_)--come to be developed under
+given conditions. Yet Leibnitz prepared the way for a new conception of
+organic evolution. The modern monistic doctrine, that all material
+things consist of sentient elements, and that consciousness arises
+through a combination of these, was a natural transformation of
+Leibnitz's theory.[12]
+
+_Lessing._--Of Leibnitz's immediate followers we may mention Lessing,
+who in his _Education of the Human Race_ brought out the truth of the
+process of gradual development underlying human history, even though he
+expressed this in a form inconsistent with the idea of a spontaneous
+evolution.
+
+_Herder._--Herder, on the other hand, Lessing's contemporary, treated
+the subject of man's development in a thoroughly naturalistic spirit. In
+his I_deen zur Philosophie der Geschichte_, Herder adopts Leibnitz's
+idea of a graduated scale of beings, at the same time conceiving of the
+lower stages as the conditions of the higher. Thus man is said to be the
+highest product of nature, and as such to be dependent on all lower
+products. All material things are assimilated to one another as organic,
+the vitalizing principle being inherent in all matter. The development
+of man is explained in connexion with that of the earth, and in relation
+to climatic variations, &c. Man's mental faculties are viewed as related
+to his organization, and as developed under the pressure of the
+necessities of life.[13]
+
+_Kant._--Kant's relation to the doctrine of evolution is a many-sided
+one. In the first place, his peculiar system of subjective idealism,
+involving the idea that time is but a mental form to which there
+corresponds nothing in the sphere of noumenal reality, serves to give a
+peculiar philosophical interpretation to every doctrine of cosmic
+evolution. Kant, like Leibnitz, seeks to reconcile the mechanical and
+teleological views of nature, only he assigns to these different
+spheres. The order of the inorganic world is explained by properly
+physical causes. In his _Naturgeschichte des Himmels_, in which he
+anticipated the nebular theory afterwards more fully developed by
+Laplace, Kant sought to explain the genesis of the cosmos as a product
+of physical forces and laws. The worlds, or systems of worlds, which
+fill infinite space are continually being formed and destroyed. Chaos
+passes by a process of evolution into a cosmos, and this again into
+chaos. So far as the evolution of the solar system is concerned, Kant
+held these mechanical causes as adequate. For the world as a whole,
+however, he postulated a beginning in time (whence his use of the word
+creation), and further supposed that the impulse of organization which
+was conveyed to chaotic matter by the Creator issued from a central
+point in the infinite space spreading gradually outwards.[14] While in
+his cosmology Kant thus relies on mechanical conceptions, in his
+treatment of organic life his mind is, on the contrary, dominated by
+teleological ideas. An organism was to him something controlled by a
+formative organizing principle. It was natural, therefore, that he
+rejected the idea of a spontaneous generation of organisms (which was
+just then being advocated by his friend Forster), not only as
+unsupported by experience but as an inadequate hypothesis. Experience
+forbids our excluding organic activity from natural causes, also our
+excluding intelligence from purposeful (_zwecktatigen_) causes; hence
+experience forbids our defining the fundamental force or first cause out
+of which living creatures arose.[15] Just as Kant thus sharply marks off
+the regions of the inorganic and the organic, so he sets man in strong
+opposition to the lower animals. His ascription to man of a unique
+faculty, free-will, forbade his conceiving our species as a link in a
+graduated series of organic developments. In his doctrine of human
+development he does indeed recognize an early stage of existence in
+which our species was dominated by sensuous enjoyment and instinct. He
+further conceives of this stage as itself a process of (natural)
+development, namely, of the natural disposition of the species to vary
+in the greatest possible manner so as to preserve its unity through a
+process of self-adaptation (_Anarten_) to climate. This, he says, must
+not be conceived as resulting from the action of external causes, but is
+due to a natural disposition (_Anlage_). From this capability of natural
+development (which already involves a teleological idea) Kant
+distinguishes the power of moral self-development or self-liberation
+from the dominion of nature, the gradual realization of which
+constitutes human history or progress. This moral development is
+regarded as a gradual approach to that rational, social and political
+state in which will be realized the greatest possible quantity of
+liberty. Thus Kant, though he appropriated and gave new form to the idea
+of human progress, conceived of this as wholly distinct from a natural
+(mechanical) process. In this particular, as in his view of organic
+actions, Kant distinctly opposed the idea of evolution as one universal
+process swaying alike the physical and the moral world.
+
+_Schelling._--In the earlier writings of Schelling, containing the
+philosophy of identity, existence is represented as a becoming, or
+process of evolution. Nature and mind (which are the two sides, or polar
+directions, of the one absolute) are each viewed as an activity
+advancing by an uninterrupted succession of stages. The side of this
+process which Schelling worked out most completely is the negative side,
+that is, nature. Nature is essentially a process of organic
+self-evolution. It can only be understood by subordinating the
+mechanical conception to the vital, by conceiving the world as one
+organism animated by a spiritual principle or intelligence
+(_Weltseele_). From this point of view the processes of nature from the
+inorganic up to the most complex of the organic become stages in the
+self-realization of nature. All organic forms are at bottom but one
+organization, and the inorganic world shows the same formative activity
+in various degrees or potences. Schelling conceives of the gradual
+self-evolution of nature in a succession of higher and higher forms as
+brought about by a limitation of her infinite productivity, showing
+itself in a series of points of arrest. The detailed exhibition of the
+organizing activity of nature in the several processes of the organic
+and inorganic world rests on a number of fanciful and unscientific
+ideas. Schelling's theory is a bold attempt to revitalize nature in the
+light of growing physical and physiological science, and by so doing to
+comprehend the unity of the world under the idea of one principle of
+organic development. His highly figurative language might leave us in
+doubt how far he conceived the higher stages of this evolution of nature
+as following the lower in time. In the introduction to his work _Von der
+Weltseele_, however, he argues in favour of the possibility of a
+transmutation of species in periods incommensurable with ours. The
+evolution of mind (the positive pole) proceeds by way of three
+stages--theoretic, practical and aesthetical activity. Schelling's later
+theosophic speculations do not specially concern us here.
+
+_Followers of Schelling._--Of the followers of Schelling a word or two
+must be said. Heinrich Steffens, in his _Anthropologie_, seeks to trace
+out the origin and history of man in connexion with a general theory of
+the development of the earth, and this again as related to the formation
+of the solar system. All these processes are regarded as a series of
+manifestations of a vital principle in higher and higher forms. Oken,
+again, who carries Schelling's ideas into the region of biological
+science, seeks to reconstruct the gradual evolution of the material
+world out of original matter, which is the first immediate appearance of
+God, or the absolute. This process is an upward one, through the
+formation of the solar system and of our earth with its inorganic
+bodies, up to the production of man. The process is essentially a polar
+linear action, or differentiation from a common centre. By means of this
+process the bodies of the solar system separate themselves, and the
+order of cosmic evolution is repeated in that of terrestrial evolution.
+The organic world (like the world as a whole) arises out of a primitive
+chaos, namely, the infusorial slime. A somewhat similar working out of
+Schelling's idea is to be found in H.C. Oersted's work entitled _The
+Soul in Nature_ (Eng. trans.). Of later works based on Schelling's
+doctrine of evolution mention may be made of the volume entitled _Natur
+und Idee_, by G.F. Carus. According to this writer, existence is nothing
+but a becoming, and matter is simply the momentary product of the
+process of becoming, while force is this process constantly revealing
+itself in these products.
+
+_Hegel._--Like Schelling, Hegel conceives the problem of existence as
+one of becoming. He differs from him with respect to the ultimate motive
+of that process of gradual evolution which reveals itself alike in
+nature and in mind. With Hegel the absolute is itself a dialectic
+process which contains within itself a principle of progress from
+difference to difference and from unity to unity. "This process (W.
+Wallace remarks) knows nothing of the distinctions between past and
+future, because it implies an eternal present." This conception of an
+immanent spontaneous evolution is applied alike both to nature and to
+mind and history. Nature to Hegel is the idea in the form of hetereity;
+and finding itself here it has to remove this exteriority in a
+progressive evolution towards an existence for itself in life and mind.
+Nature (says Zeller) is to Hegel a system of gradations, of which one
+arises necessarily out of the other, and is the proximate truth of that
+out of which it results. There are three stadia, or moments, in this
+process of nature--(1) the mechanical moment, or matter devoid of
+individuality; (2) the physical moment, or matter which has
+particularized itself in bodies--the solar system; and (3) the organic
+moment, or organic beings, beginning with the geological organism--or
+the mineral kingdom, plants and animals. Yet this process of development
+is not to be conceived as if one stage is naturally produced out of the
+other, and not even as if the one followed the other in time. Only
+spirit has a history; in nature all forms are contemporaneous.[16]
+Hegel's interpretation of mind and history as a process of evolution has
+more scientific interest than his conception of nature. His theory of
+the development of free-will (the objective spirit), which takes its
+start from Kant's conception of history, with its three stages of legal
+right, morality as determined by motive and instinctive goodness
+(_Sittlichkeit_), might almost as well be expressed in terms of a
+thoroughly naturalistic doctrine of human development. So, too, some of
+his conceptions respecting the development of art and religion (the
+absolute spirit) lend themselves to a similar interpretation. Yet while,
+in its application to history, Hegel's theory of evolution has points of
+resemblance with those doctrines which seek to explain the world-process
+as one unbroken progress occurring in time, it constitutes on the whole
+a theory apart and _sui generis_. It does not conceive of the organic as
+succeeding on the inorganic, or of conscious life as conditioned in
+time by lower forms. In this respect it resembles Leibnitz's idea of the
+world as a development; the idea of evolution is in each case a
+metaphysical as distinguished from a scientific one. Hegel gives a place
+in his metaphysical system to the mechanical and the teleological views;
+yet in his treatment of the world as an evolution the idea of end or
+purpose is the predominant one.
+
+Of the followers of Hegel who have worked out his peculiar idea of
+evolution it is hardly necessary to speak. A bare reference may be made
+to J.K. F. Rosenkranz, who in his work _Hegel's Naturphilosophie_ seeks
+to develop Hegel's idea of an earth-organism in the light of modern
+science, recognizing in crystallization the morphological element.
+
+_Schopenhauer._--Of the other German philosophers immediately following
+Kant, there is only one who calls for notice here, namely, Arthur
+Schopenhauer. This writer, by his conception of the world as will which
+objectifies itself in a series of gradations from the lowest
+manifestations of matter up to conscious man, gives a slightly new shape
+to the evolutional view of Schelling, though he deprives this view of
+its optimistic character by denying any co-operation of intelligence in
+the world-process. In truth, Schopenhauer's conception of the world as
+the activity of a blind force is at bottom a materialistic and
+mechanical rather than a spiritualistic and teleological theory.
+Moreover, Schopenhauer's subjective idealism, and his view of time as
+something illusory, hindered him from viewing this process as a sequence
+of events in time. Thus he ascribes eternity of existence to species
+under the form of the "Platonic ideas." As Ludwig Noire observes,
+Schopenhauer has no feeling for the problem of the origin of organic
+beings. He says Lamarck's original animal is something metaphysical, not
+physical, namely, the will to live. "Every species (according to
+Schopenhauer) has of its own will, and according to the circumstances
+under which it would live, determined its form and organization,--yet
+not as something physical in time, but as something metaphysical out of
+time."
+
+_Von Baer._--Before leaving the German speculation of the first half of
+the century, a word must be said of von Baer, to whose biological
+contributions we shall refer later in this article, who recognized in
+the law of development the law of the universe as a whole. In his
+_Entwickelungsgeschichte der Thiere_ (p. 264) he distinctly tells us
+that the law of growing individuality is "the fundamental thought which
+goes through all forms and degrees of animal development and all single
+relations. It is the same thought which collected in the cosmic space
+the divided masses into spheres, and combined these to solar systems;
+the same which caused the weather-beaten dust on the surface of our
+metallic planet to spring forth into living forms." Von Baer thus
+prepared the way for Herbert Spencer's generalization of the law of
+organic evolution as the law of all evolution.
+
+_Comte._--As we arrive at the 19th century, though yet before the days
+of Darwin, biology is already beginning to affect the general aspect of
+thought. It might suffice to single out the influence of Auguste Comte,
+as the last great thinker who wrote before Darwinism began to permeate
+philosophic speculation. Though Comte did not actually contribute to a
+theory of cosmic organic evolution, he helped to lay the foundations of
+a scientific conception of human history as a natural process of
+development determined by general laws of human nature together with the
+accumulating influences of the past. Comte does not recognize that this
+process is aided by any increase of innate capacity; on the contrary,
+progress is to him the unfolding of fundamental faculties of human
+nature which always pre-existed in a latent condition; yet he may
+perhaps be said to have prepared the way for the new conception of human
+progress by his inclusion of mental laws under biology.
+
+_Development of the Biological Doctrine._--In the 19th century the
+doctrine of evolution received new biological contents and became
+transformed from a vague, partly metaphysical theory to the dominant
+modern conception. At this point it is convenient to leave the guidance
+of Professor J. Sully and to follow closely T.H. Huxley, who in the 9th
+edition of this encyclopaedia traced the history of the growth of the
+biological idea of evolution from its philosophical beginnings to its
+efflorescence in Charles Darwin.
+
+In the earlier half of the 18th century the term "evolution" was
+introduced into biological writings in order to denote the mode in which
+some of the most eminent physiologists of that time conceived that the
+generation of living things took place; in opposition to the hypothesis
+advocated, in the preceding century, by W. Harvey in that remarkable
+work[17] which would give him a claim to rank among the founders of
+biological science, even had he not been the discoverer of the
+circulation of the blood.
+
+One of Harvey's prime objects is to defend and establish, on the basis
+of direct observation, the opinion already held by Aristotle, that, in
+the higher animals at any rate, the formation of the new organism by the
+process of generation takes place, not suddenly, by simultaneous
+accretion of rudiments of all or the most important of the organs of the
+adult, nor by sudden metamorphosis of a formative substance into a
+miniature of the whole, which subsequently grows, but by _epigenesis_,
+or successive differentiation of a relatively homogeneous rudiment into
+the parts and structures which are characteristic of the adult.
+
+  "Et primo, quidem, quoniam per _epigenesin_ sive partium
+  superexorientium additamentum pullum fabricari certum est: quaenam
+  pars ante alias omnes exstruatur, et quid de illa ejusque generandi
+  modo observandum veniat, dispiciemus. Ratum sane est et in ovo
+  manifeste apparet quod _Aristoteles_ de perfectorum animalium
+  generatione enuntiat: nimirum, non omnes partes simul fieri, sed
+  ordine aliam post aliam; primumque existere particulam genitalem,
+  cujus virtute postea (tanquam ex principio quodam) reliquae omnes
+  partes prosiliant. Qualem in plantarum seminibus (fabis, puta, aut
+  glandibus) gemmam sive apicem protuberantem cernimus, totius futurae
+  arboris principium. _Estque haec particula velut filius emancipatus
+  seorsumque collocatus, et principium per se vivens; unde postea
+  membrorum ordo describitur; et quaecunque ad absolvendum animal
+  pertinent, disponuntur._[18] Quoniam enim _nulla pars se ipsam
+  generat; sed postquam generata est, se ipsam jam auget; ideo eam
+  primum oriri necesse est, quae principium augendi contineat_ (_sive
+  enim planta, sive animal est, aeque omnibus inest quod vim habeat
+  vegetandi, sive nutriendi_),[19] simulque reliquas omnes partes suo
+  quamque ordine distinguat et formet; proindeque in eadem primogenita
+  particula anima primario inest, sensus, motusque, et totius vitae
+  auctor et principium." (_Exercitatio_ 51.)
+
+Harvey proceeds to contrast this view with that of the "Medici," or
+followers of Hippocrates and Galen, who, "badly philosophizing,"
+imagined that the brain, the heart, and the liver were simultaneously
+first generated in the form of vesicles; and, at the same time, while
+expressing his agreement with Aristotle in the principle of epigenesis,
+he maintains that it is the blood which is the primal generative part,
+and not, as Aristotle thought, the heart.
+
+In the latter part of the 17th century the doctrine of epigenesis thus
+advocated by Harvey was controverted on the ground of direct observation
+by M. Malpighi, who affirmed that the body of the chick is to be seen in
+the egg before the _punctum sanguineum_ makes it appearance. But from
+this perfectly correct observation a conclusion which is by no means
+warranted was drawn, namely, that the chick as a whole really exists in
+the egg antecedently to incubation; and that what happens in the course
+of the latter process is no addition of new parts, "alias post alias
+natas," as Harvey puts it, but a simple expansion or unfolding of the
+organs which already exist, though they are too small and inconspicuous
+to be discovered. The weight of Malpighi's observations therefore fell
+into the scale of that doctrine which Harvey terms metamorphosis, in
+contradistinction to epigenesis.
+
+The views of Malpighi were warmly welcomed on philosophical grounds by
+Leibnitz,[20] who found in them a support to his hypothesis of monads,
+and by Nicholas Malebranche;[21] while, in the middle of the 18th
+century, not only speculative considerations, but a great number of new
+and interesting observations on the phenomena of generation, led the
+ingenious Charles Bonnet and A. von Haller, the first physiologist of
+the age, to adopt, advocate and extend them.
+
+Bonnet affirms that, before fecundation, the hen's egg contains an
+excessively minute but complete chick; and that fecundation and
+incubation simply cause this germ to absorb nutritious matters, which
+are deposited in the interstices of the elementary structures of which
+the miniature chick, or germ, is made up. The consequence of this
+intussusceptive growth is the "development" or "evolution" of the germ
+into the visible bird. Thus an organized individual (_tout organise_)
+"is a composite body consisting of the original, or _elementary_, parts
+and of the matters which have been associated with them by the aid of
+nutrition"; so that, if these matters could be extracted from the
+individual (_tout_), it would, so to speak, become concentrated in a
+point, and would thus be restored to its primitive condition of a
+_germ_; "just as, by extracting from a bone the calcareous substance
+which is the source of its hardness, it is reduced to its primitive
+state of gristle or membrane."[22]
+
+"Evolution" and "development" are, for Bonnet, synonymous terms; and
+since by "evolution" he means simply the expansion of that which was
+invisible into visibility, he was naturally led to the conclusion, at
+which Leibnitz had arrived by a different line of reasoning, that no
+such thing as generation, in the proper sense of the word exists in
+nature. The growth of an organic being is simply a process of
+enlargement, as a particle of dry gelatine may be swelled up by the
+intussusception of water; its death is a shrinkage, such as the swelled
+jelly might undergo on desiccation. Nothing really new is produced in
+the living world, but the germs which develop have existed since the
+beginning of things; and nothing really dies, but, when what we call
+death takes place, the living thing shrinks back into its germ
+state.[23]
+
+The two parts of Bonnet's hypothesis, namely, the doctrine that all
+living things proceed from pre-existing germs, and that these contain,
+one enclosed within the other, the germs of all future living things,
+which is the hypothesis of "emboitement," and the doctrine that every
+germ contains in miniature all the organs of the adult, which is the
+hypothesis of evolution or development, in the primary senses of these
+words, must be carefully distinguished. In fact, while holding firmly by
+the former, Bonnet more or less modified the latter in his later
+writings, and, at length, he admits that a "germ" need not be an actual
+miniature of the organism, but that it may be merely an "original
+preformation" capable of producing the latter.[24]
+
+But, thus defined, the germ is neither more nor less than the "particula
+genitalis" of Aristotle, or the "primordium vegetale" or "ovum" of
+Harvey; and the "evolution" of such a germ would not be distinguishable
+from "epigenesis."
+
+Supported by the great authority of Haller, the doctrine of evolution,
+or development, prevailed throughout the whole of the 18th century, and
+Cuvier appears to have substantially adopted Bonnet's later views,
+though probably he would not have gone all lengths in the direction of
+"emboitement." In a well-known note to Charles Leopold Laurillard's
+_Eloge_, prefixed to the last edition of the _Ossemens fossiles_, the
+"radical de l'etre" is much the same thing as Aristotle's "particula
+genitalis" and Harvey's "ovum."[25]
+
+Bonnet's eminent contemporary, Buffon, held nearly the same views with
+respect to the nature of the germ, and expresses them even more
+confidently.
+
+  "Ceux qui ont cru que le coeur etoit le premier forme, se sont
+  trompes; ceux qui disent que c'est le sang se trompent aussi: tout est
+  forme en meme temps. Si l'on ne consulte que l'observation, le poulet
+  se voit dans l'oeuf avant qu'il ait ete couve."[26]
+
+  "J'ai ouvert une grande quantite d'oeufs a differens temps avant et
+  apres l'incubation, et je me suis convaincu par mes yeux que le poulet
+  existe en entier dans le milieu de la cicatrule au moment qu'il sort
+  du corps de la poule."[27]
+
+The "moule interieur" of Buffon is the aggregate of elementary parts
+which constitute the individual, and is thus the equivalent of Bonnet's
+germ,[28] as defined in the passage cited above. But Buffon further
+imagined that innumerable "molecules organiques" are dispersed
+throughout the world, and that alimentation consists in the
+appropriation by the parts of an organism of those molecules which are
+analogous to them. Growth, therefore, was, on this hypothesis, partly a
+process of simple evolution, and partly of what has been termed
+syngenesis. Buffon's opinion is, in fact, a sort of combination of
+views, essentially similar to those of Bonnet, with others, somewhat
+similar to those of the "Medici" whom Harvey condemns. The "molecules
+organiques" are physical equivalents of Leibnitz's "monads."
+
+It is a striking example of the difficulty of getting people to use
+their own powers of investigation accurately, that this form of the
+doctrine of evolution should have held its ground so long; for it was
+thoroughly and completely exploded, not long after its enunciation, by
+Caspar Frederick Wolff, who in his _Theoria generationis_, published in
+1759, placed the opposite theory of epigenesis upon the secure
+foundation of fact, from which it has never been displaced. But Wolff
+had no immediate successors. The school of Cuvier was lamentably
+deficient in embryologists; and it was only in the course of the first
+thirty years of the 19th century that Prevost and Dumas in France, and,
+later on, Dollinger, Pander, von Bar, Rathke, and Remak in Germany,
+founded modern embryology; and, at the same time, proved the utter
+incompatibility of the hypothesis of evolution as formulated by Bonnet
+and Haller with easily demonstrable facts.
+
+Nevertheless, though the conceptions originally denoted by "evolution"
+and "development" were shown to be untenable, the words retained their
+application to the process by which the embryos of living beings
+gradually make their appearance; and the terms "development,"
+"Entwickelung," and "evolutio" are now indiscriminately used for the
+series of genetic changes exhibited by living beings, by writers who
+would emphatically deny that "development" or "Entwickelung" or
+"evolutio," in the sense in which these words were usually employed by
+Bonnet or Haller, ever occurs.
+
+Evolution, or development, is, in fact, at present employed in biology
+as a general name for the history of the steps by which any living being
+has acquired the morphological and the physiological characters which
+distinguish it. As civil history may be divided into biography, which is
+the history of individuals, and universal history, which is the history
+of the human race, so evolution falls naturally into two categories--the
+evolution of the individual (see EMBRYOLOGY) and the evolution of the
+sum of living beings.
+
+_The Evolution of the Sum of Living Beings._--The notion that all the
+kinds of animals and plants may have come into existence by the growth
+and modification of primordial germs is as old as speculative thought;
+but the modern scientific form of the doctrine can be traced
+historically to the influence of several converging lines of
+philosophical speculation and of physical observation, none of which go
+further back than the 17th century. These are:--
+
+1. The enunciation by Descartes of the conception that the physical
+universe, whether living or not living, is a mechanism, and that, as
+such, it is explicable on physical principles.
+
+2. The observation of the gradations of structure, from extreme
+simplicity to very great complexity, presented by living things, and of
+the relation of these graduated forms to one another.
+
+3. The observation of the existence of an analogy between the series of
+gradations presented by the species which compose any great group of
+animals or plants, and the series of embryonic conditions of the highest
+members of that group.
+
+4. The observation that large groups of species of widely different
+habits present the same fundamental plan of structure; and that parts of
+the same animal or plant, the functions of which are very different,
+likewise exhibit modifications of a common plan.
+
+5. The observation of the existence of structures, in a rudimentary and
+apparently useless condition, in one species of a group, which are fully
+developed and have definite functions in other species of the same
+group.
+
+6. The observation of the effects of varying conditions in modifying
+living organisms.
+
+7. The observation of the facts of geographical distribution.
+
+8. The observation of the facts of the geological succession of the
+forms of life.
+
+1. Notwithstanding the elaborate disguise which fear of the powers that
+were led Descartes to throw over his real opinions, it is impossible to
+read the _Principes de la philosophie_ without acquiring the conviction
+that this great philosopher held that the physical world and all things
+in it, whether living or not living, have originated by a process of
+evolution, due to the continuous operation of purely physical causes,
+out of a primitive relatively formless matter.[29]
+
+The following passage is especially instructive:--
+
+  "Et tant s'en faut que je veuille que l'on croie toutes les choses que
+  j'ecrirai, que meme je pretends en proposer ici quelques-unes que je
+  crois absolument etre fausses; a savoir, je ne doute point que le
+  monde n'ait ete cree au commencement avec autant de perfection qu'il
+  en a; en sorte que le soleil, la terre, la lune, et les etoiles ont
+  ete des lors; et que la terre n'a pas eu seulement en soi les semences
+  des plantes, mais que les plantes meme en ont couvert une partie; et
+  qu'Adam et Eve n'ont pas ete crees enfans mais en age d'hommes
+  parfaits. La religion chretienne veut que nous le croyons ainsi, et la
+  raison naturelle nous persuade entierement cette verite; car si nous
+  considerons la toute puissance de Dieu, nous devons juger que tout ce
+  qu'il a fait a eu des le commencement toute la perfection qu'il devoit
+  avoir. Mais neanmoins, comme on connoitroit beaucoup mieux quelle a
+  ete la nature d'Adam et celle des arbres de Paradis si on avoit
+  examine comment les enfants se forment peu a peu dans le ventre de
+  leurs meres et comment les plantes sortent de leurs semences, que si
+  on avoit seulement considere quels ils ont ete quand Dieu les a crees:
+  tout de meme, nous ferons mieux entendre quelle est generalement la
+  nature de toutes les choses qui sont au monde si nous pouvons imaginer
+  quelques principes qui soient fort intelligibles et fort simples,
+  desquels nous puissions voir clairement que les astres et la terre et
+  enfin tout ce monde visible auroit pu etre produit ainsi que de
+  quelques semences (bien que nous sachions qu'il n'a pas ete produit en
+  cette facon) que si nous la decrivions seulement comme il est, ou bien
+  comme nous croyons qu'il a ete cree. Et parceque je pense avoir trouve
+  des principes qui sont tels, je tacherai ici de les expliquer."[30]
+
+If we read between the lines of this singular exhibition of force of one
+kind and weakness of another, it is clear that Descartes believed that
+he had divined the mode in which the physical universe had been evolved;
+and the _Traite de l'homme_ and the essay _Sur les passions_ afford
+abundant additional evidence that he sought for, and thought he had
+found, an explanation of the phenomena of physical life by deduction
+from purely physical laws.
+
+Spinoza abounds in the same sense, and is as usual perfectly candid--
+
+  "Naturae leges et regulae, secundum quas omnia fiunt et ex unis formis
+  in alias mutantur, sunt ubique et semper eadem."[31]
+
+Leibnitz's doctrine of continuity necessarily led him in the same
+direction; and, of the infinite multitude of monads with which he
+peopled the world, each is supposed to be the focus of an endless
+process of evolution and involution. In the _Protogaea_, xxvi., Leibnitz
+distinctly suggests the mutability of species--
+
+  "Alii mirantur in saxis passim species videri quas vel in orbe
+  cognito, vel saltem in vicinis locis frustra quaeras. Ita _Cornua
+  Ammonis_, quae ex nautilorum numero habeantur, passim et forma et
+  magnitudine (nam et pedali diametro aliquando reperiuntur) ab omnibus
+  illis naturis discrepare dicunt, quas praebet mare. Sed quis
+  absconditos ejus recessus aut subterraneas abyssos pervestigavit? quam
+  multa nobis animalia antea ignota offert novus orbis? Et credibile est
+  per magnas illas conversiones etiam animalium species plurimum
+  immutatas."
+
+Thus in the end of the 17th century the seed was sown which has at
+intervals brought forth recurrent crops of evolutional hypotheses,
+based, more or less completely, on general reasonings.
+
+Among the earliest of these speculations is that put forward by Benoit
+de Maillet in his _Telliamed_, which, though printed in 1735, was not
+published until twenty-three years later. Considering that this book was
+written before the time of Haller, or Bonnet, or Linnaeus, or Hutton, it
+surely deserves more respectful consideration than it usually receives.
+For De Maillet not only has a definite conception of the plasticity of
+living things, and of the production of existing species by the
+modification of their predecessors, but he clearly apprehends the
+cardinal maxim of modern geological science, that the explanation of the
+structure of the globe is to be sought in the deductive application to
+geological phenomena of the principles established inductively by the
+study of the present course of nature. Somewhat later, P.L.M. de
+Maupertuis[32] suggested a curious hypothesis as to the causes of
+variation, which he thinks may be sufficient to account for the origin
+of all animals from a single pair. Jean Baptiste Rene Robinet[33]
+followed out much the same line of thought as De Maillet, but less
+soberly; and Bonnet's speculations in the _Palingenesie_, which appeared
+in 1769, have already been mentioned. Buffon (1753-1778), at first a
+partisan of the absolute immutability of species, subsequently appears
+to have believed that larger or smaller groups of species have been
+produced by the modification of a primitive stock; but he contributed
+nothing to the general doctrine of evolution.
+
+Erasmus Darwin (_Zoonomia_, 1794), though a zealous evolutionist, can
+hardly be said to have made any real advance on his predecessors; and,
+notwithstanding the fact that Goethe had the advantage of a wide
+knowledge of morphological facts, and a true insight into their
+signification, while he threw all the power of a great poet into the
+expression of his conceptions, it may be questioned whether he supplied
+the doctrine of evolution with a firmer scientific basis than it already
+possessed. Moreover, whatever the value of Goethe's labours in that
+field, they were not published before 1820, long after evolutionism had
+taken a new departure from the works of Treviranus and Lamarck--the
+first of its advocates who were equipped for their task with the needful
+large and accurate knowledge of the phenomena of life as a whole. It is
+remarkable that each of these writers seems to have been led,
+independently and contemporaneously, to invent the same name of
+"biology" for the science of the phenomena of life; and thus, following
+Buffon, to have recognized the essential unity of these phenomena, and
+their contradistinction from those of inanimate nature. And it is hard
+to say whether Lamarck or Treviranus has the priority in propounding the
+main thesis of the doctrine of evolution; for though the first volume of
+Treviranus's _Biologie_ appeared only in 1802, he says, in the preface
+to his later work, the _Erscheinungen und Gesetze des organischen
+Lebens_, dated 1831, that he wrote the first volume of the _Biologie_
+"nearly five-and-thirty years ago," or about 1796.
+
+Now, in 1794, there is evidence that Lamarck held doctrines which
+present a striking contrast to those which are to be found in the
+_Philosophie zoologique_, as the following passages show:--
+
+  "685. Quoique mon unique objet dans cet article n'ait ete que de
+  traiter de la cause physique de l'entretien de la vie des etres
+  organiques, malgre cela j'ai ose avancer en debutant, que l'existence
+  de ces etres etonnants n'appartiennent nullement a la nature; que tout
+  ce qu'on peut entendre par le mot _nature_, ne pouvoit donner la vie,
+  c'est-a-dire, que toutes les qualites de la matiere, jointes a toutes
+  les circonstances possibles, et meme a l'activite repandue dans
+  l'univers, ne pouvaient point produire un etre muni du mouvement
+  organique, capable de reproduire son semblable, et sujet a la mort.
+
+  "686. Tous les individus de cette nature, qui existent, proviennent
+  d'individus semblables qui tous ensemble constituent l'espece entiere.
+  Or, je crois qu'il est aussi impossible a l'homme de connoitre la
+  cause physique du premier individu de chaque espece, que d'assigner
+  aussi physiquement la cause de l'existence de la matiere ou de
+  l'univers entier. C'est au moins ce que le resultat de mes
+  connaissances et de mes reflexions me portent a penser. S'il existe
+  beaucoup de varietes produites par l'effet des circonstances, ces
+  varietes ne denaturent point les especes; mais on se trompe, sans
+  doute souvent, en indiquant comme espece, ce qui n'est que variete; et
+  alors je sens que cette erreur peut tirer a consequence dans les
+  raisonnements que l'on fait sur cette matiere."[34]
+
+The first three volumes of Treviranus's Biologie, which contains his
+general views of evolution, appeared between 1802 and 1805. The
+_Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants_, which sketches out
+Lamarck's doctrines, was published in 1802; but the full development of
+his views in the _Philosophie zoologique_ did not take place until
+1809.
+
+The _Biologie_ and the _Philosophie zoologique_ are both very remarkable
+productions, and are still worthy of attentive study, but they fell upon
+evil times. The vast authority of Cuvier was employed in support of the
+traditionally respectable hypotheses of special creation and of
+catastrophism; and the wild speculations of the _Discours sur les
+revolutions de la surface du globe_ were held to be models of sound
+scientific thinking, while the really much more sober and philosophical
+hypotheses of the _Hydrogeologie_ were scouted. For many years it was
+the fashion to speak of Lamarck with ridicule, while Treviranus was
+altogether ignored.
+
+Nevertheless, the work had been done. The conception of evolution was
+henceforward irrepressible, and it incessantly reappears, in one shape
+or another,[35] up to the year 1858, when Charles Darwin and A.R.
+Wallace published their _Theory of Natural Selection_. The _Origin of
+Species_ appeared in 1859; and thenceforward the doctrine of evolution
+assumed a position and acquired an importance which it never before
+possessed. In the _Origin of Species_, and in his other numerous and
+important contributions to the solution of the problem of biological
+evolution, Darwin confined himself to the discussion of the causes which
+have brought about the present condition of living matter, assuming such
+matter to have once come into existence. On the other hand, Spencer[36]
+and E. Haeckel[37] dealt with the whole problem of evolution. The
+profound and vigorous writings of Spencer embody the spirit of Descartes
+in the knowledge of our own day, and may be regarded as the _Principes
+de la philosophie_ of the 19th century; while, whatever hesitation may
+not unfrequently be felt by less daring minds in following Haeckel in
+many of his speculations, his attempt to systematize the doctrine of
+evolution and to exhibit its influence as the central thought of modern
+biology, cannot fail to have a far-reaching influence on the progress of
+science.
+
+If we seek for the reason of the difference between the scientific
+position of the doctrine of evolution in the days of Lamarck and that
+which it occupies now, we shall find it in the great accumulation of
+facts, the several classes of which have been enumerated above, under
+the second to the eighth heads. For those which are grouped under the
+second to the seventh of these classes, respectively, have a clear
+significance on the hypothesis of evolution, while they are
+unintelligible if that hypothesis be denied. And those of the eighth
+group are not only unintelligible without the assumption of evolution,
+but can be proved never to be discordant with that hypothesis, while, in
+some cases, they are exactly such as the hypothesis requires. The
+demonstration of these assertions would require a volume, but the
+general nature of the evidence on which they rest may be briefly
+indicated.
+
+2. The accurate investigation of the lowest forms of animal life,
+commenced by Leeuwenhoek and Swammerdam, and continued by the remarkable
+labours of Reaumur, Abraham Trembley, Bonnet, and a host of other
+observers in the latter part of the 17th and the first half of the 18th
+centuries, drew the attention of biologists to the gradation in the
+complexity of organization which is presented by living beings, and
+culminated in the doctrine of the _echelle des etres_, so powerfully and
+clearly stated by Bonnet, and, before him, adumbrated by Locke and by
+Leibnitz. In the then state of knowledge, it appeared that all the
+species of animals and plants could be arranged in one series, in such a
+manner that, by insensible gradations, the mineral passed into the
+plant, the plant into the polype, the polype into the worm, and so,
+through gradually higher forms of life, to man, at the summit of the
+animated world.
+
+But, as knowledge advanced, this conception ceased to be tenable in the
+crude form in which it was first put forward. Taking into account
+existing animals and plants alone, it became obvious that they fell into
+groups which were more or less sharply separated from one another; and,
+moreover, that even the species of a genus can hardly ever be arranged
+in linear series. Their natural resemblances and differences are only to
+be expressed by disposing them as if they were branches springing from a
+common hypothetical centre.
+
+Lamarck, while affirming the verbal proposition that animals form a
+single series, was forced by his vast acquaintance with the details of
+zoology to limit the assertion to such a series as may be formed out of
+the abstractions constituted by the common characters of each group.[38]
+
+Cuvier on anatomical, and Von Baer on embryological grounds, made the
+further step of proving that, even in this limited sense, animals cannot
+be arranged in a single series, but that there are several distinct
+plans of organization to be observed among them, no one of which, in its
+highest and most complicated modification, leads to any of the others.
+
+The conclusions enunciated by Cuvier and Von Baer have been confirmed in
+principle by all subsequent research into the structure of animals and
+plants. But the effect of the adoption of these conclusions has been
+rather to substitute a new metaphor for that of Bonnet than to abolish
+the conception expressed by it. Instead of regarding living things as
+capable of arrangement in one series like the steps of a ladder, the
+results of modern investigation compel us to dispose them as if they
+were the twigs and branches of a tree. The ends of the twigs represent
+individuals, the smallest groups of twigs species, larger groups genera,
+and so on, until we arrive at the source of all these ramifications of
+the main branch, which is represented by a common plan of structure. At
+the present moment it is impossible to draw up any definition, based on
+broad anatomical or developmental characters, by which any one of
+Cuvier's great groups shall be separated from all the rest. On the
+contrary, the lower members of each tend to converge towards the lower
+members of all the others. The same may be said of the vegetable world.
+The apparently clear distinction between flowering and flowerless plants
+has been broken down by the series of gradations between the two
+exhibited by the _Lycopodiaceae_, _Rhizocarpeae_, and _Gymnospermeae_.
+The groups of _Fungi_, _Licheneae_ and _Algae_ have completely run into
+one another, and, when the lowest forms of each are alone considered,
+even the animal and vegetable kingdoms cease to have a definite
+frontier.
+
+If it is permissible to speak of the relations of living forms to one
+another metaphorically, the similitude chosen must undoubtedly be that
+of a common root, whence two main trunks, one representing the vegetable
+and one the animal world, spring; and, each dividing into a few main
+branches, these subdivide into multitudes of branchlets and these into
+smaller groups of twigs.
+
+As Lamarck has well said:--[39]
+
+  "Il n'y a que ceux qui se sont longtemps et fortement occupes de la
+  determination des especes, et qui ont consulte de riches collections,
+  qui peuvent savoir jusqu'a quel point les _especes_, parmi les corps
+  vivants, se fondent les unes dans les autres, et qui ont pu se
+  convaincre que, dans les parties ou nous voyons des _especes_ isolees,
+  cela n'est ainsi que parcequ'il nous en manque d'autres qui en sont
+  plus voisines et que nous n'avons pas encore recueillies.
+
+  "Je ne veux pas dire pour cela que les animaux qui existent forment
+  une serie tres-simple et partout egalement nuancee; mais je dis qu'ils
+  forment une serie rameuse, irregulierement graduee et qui n'a point de
+  discontinuite dans ses parties, ou qui, du moins, n'en a toujours pas
+  eu, s'il est vrai que, par suite de quelques especes perdues, il s'en
+  trouve quelque part. Il en resulte que les _especes_ qui terminent
+  chaque rameau de la serie generale tiennent, au moins d'un cote, a
+  d'autres especes voisines qui se nuancent avec elles. Voila ce que
+  l'etat bien connu des choses me met maintenant a portee de demontrer.
+  Je n'ai besoin d'aucune hypothese ni d'aucune supposition pour cela:
+  j'en atteste tous les naturalistes observateurs."
+
+3. In a remarkable essay[40] Meckel remarks:--
+
+"There is no good physiologist who has not been struck by the
+observation that the original form of all organisms is one and the
+same, and that out of this one form, all, the lowest as well as the
+highest, are developed in such a manner that the latter pass through the
+permanent forms of the former as transitory stages. Aristotle, Haller,
+Harvey, Kielmeyer, Autenrieth, and many others have either made this
+observation incidentally, or, especially the latter, have drawn
+particular attention to it, and drawn therefrom results of permanent
+importance for physiology."
+
+Meckel proceeds to exemplify the thesis, that the lower forms of animals
+represent stages in the course of the development of the higher, with a
+large series of illustrations.
+
+After comparing the salamanders and the perenni-branchiate _Urodela_
+with the tadpoles and the frogs, and enunciating the law that the more
+highly any animal is organized the more quickly does it pass through the
+lower stages, Meckel goes on to say:--
+
+  "From these lowest Vertebrata to the highest, and to the highest forms
+  among these, the comparison between the embryonic conditions of the
+  higher animals and the adult states of the lower can be more
+  completely and thoroughly instituted than if the survey is extended to
+  the Invertebrata, inasmuch as the latter are in many respects
+  constructed upon an altogether too dissimilar type; indeed they often
+  differ from one another far more than the lowest vertebrate does from
+  the highest mammal; yet the following pages will show that the
+  comparison may be also extended to them with interest. In fact, there
+  is a period when, as Aristotle long ago said, the embryo of the
+  highest animal has the form of a mere worm, and, devoid of internal
+  and external organization, is merely an almost structureless lump of
+  polype-substance. Notwithstanding the origin of organs, it still for a
+  certain time, by reason of its want of an internal bony skeleton,
+  remains worm and mollusk, and only later enters into the series of the
+  Vertebrata, although traces of the vertebral column even in the
+  earliest periods testify its claim to a place in that series."--Op.
+  cit. pp. 4, 5.
+
+If Meckel's proposition is so far qualified, that the comparison of
+adult with embryonic forms is restricted within the limits of one type
+of organization; and if it is further recollected, that the resemblance
+between the permanent lower form and the embryonic stage of a higher
+form is not special but general, it is in entire accordance with modern
+embryology; although there is no branch of biology which has grown so
+largely, and improved its methods so much since Meckel's time, as this.
+In its original form, the doctrine of "arrest of development," as
+advocated by Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire and Serres, was no doubt an
+over-statement of the case. It is not true, for example, that a fish is
+a reptile arrested in its development, or that a reptile was ever a
+fish; but it is true that the reptile embryo, at one stage of its
+development, is an organism which, if it had an independent existence,
+must be classified among fishes; and all the organs of the reptile pass,
+in the course of their development, through conditions which are closely
+analogous to those which are permanent in some fishes.
+
+4. That branch of biology which is termed morphology is a commentary
+upon, and expansion of, the proposition that widely different animals or
+plants, and widely different parts of animals or plants, are constructed
+upon the same plan. From the rough comparison of the skeleton of a bird
+with that of a man by Pierre Delon, in the 16th century (to go no
+further back), down to the theory of the limbs and the theory of the
+skull at the present day; or, from the first demonstration of the
+homologies of the parts of a flower by C.F. Wolff, to the present
+elaborate analysis of the floral organs, morphology exhibits a continual
+advance towards the demonstration of a fundamental unity among the
+seeming diversities of living structures. And this demonstration has
+been completed by the final establishment of the cell theory (see
+CYTOLOGY), which involves the admission of a primitive conformity, not
+only of all the elementary structures in animals and plants
+respectively, but of those in the one of these great divisions of living
+things with those in the other. No _a priori_ difficulty can be said to
+stand in the way of evolution, when it can be shown that all animals and
+all plants proceed by modes of development, which are similar in
+principle, from a fundamental protoplasmic material.
+
+5. The innumerable cases of structures, which are rudimentary and
+apparently useless, in species, the close allies of which possess
+well-developed and functionally important homologous structures, are
+readily intelligible on the theory of evolution, while it is hard to
+conceive their _raison d'etre_ on any other hypothesis. However, a
+cautious reasoner will probably rather explain such cases deductively
+from the doctrine of evolution than endeavour to support the doctrine of
+evolution by them. For it is almost impossible to prove that any
+structure, however rudimentary, is useless--that is to say, that it
+plays no part whatever in the economy; and, if it is in the slightest
+degree useful, there is no reason why, on the hypothesis of direct
+creation, it should not have been created. Nevertheless; double-edged as
+is the argument from rudimentary organs, there is probably none which
+has produced a greater effect in promoting the general acceptance of the
+theory of evolution.
+
+6. The older advocates of evolution sought for the causes of the process
+exclusively in the influence of varying conditions, such as climate and
+station, or hybridization, upon living forms. Even Treviranus has got no
+further than this point. Lamarck introduced the conception of the action
+of an animal on itself as a factor in producing modification. Starting
+from the well-known fact that the habitual use of a limb tends to
+develop the muscles of the limb, and to produce a greater and greater
+facility in using it, he made the general assumption that the effort of
+an animal to exert an organ in a given direction tends to develop the
+organ in that direction. But a little consideration showed that, though
+Lamarck had seized what, as far as it goes, is a true cause of
+modification, it is a cause the actual effects of which are wholly
+inadequate to account for any considerable modification in animals, and
+which can have no influence at all in the vegetable world; and probably
+nothing contributed so much to discredit evolution, in the early part of
+the 19th century, as the floods of easy ridicule which were poured upon
+this part of Lamarck's speculation. The theory of natural selection, or
+survival of the fittest, was suggested by William Charles Wells in 1813,
+and further elaborated by Patrick Matthew in 1831. But the pregnant
+suggestions of these writers remained practically unnoticed and
+forgotten, until the theory was independently devised and promulgated by
+Charles Robert Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace in 1858, and the effect
+of its publication was immediate and profound.
+
+Those who were unwilling to accept evolution, without better grounds
+than such as are offered by Lamarck, and who therefore preferred to
+suspend their judgment on the question, found in the principle of
+selective breeding, pursued in all its applications with marvellous
+knowledge and skill by Darwin, a valid explanation of the occurrence of
+varieties and races; and they saw clearly that, if the explanation would
+apply to species, it would not only solve the problem of their
+evolution, but that it would account for the facts of teleology, as well
+as for those of morphology; and for the persistence of some forms of
+life unchanged through long epochs of time, while others undergo
+comparatively rapid metamorphosis.
+
+How far "natural selection" suffices for the production of species
+remains to be seen. Few can doubt that, if not the whole cause, it is a
+very important factor in that operation; and that it must play a great
+part in the sorting out of varieties into those which are transitory and
+those which are permanent.
+
+But the causes and conditions of variation have yet to be thoroughly
+explored; and the importance of natural selection will not be impaired,
+even if further inquiries should prove that variability is definite, and
+is determined in certain directions rather than in others, by conditions
+inherent in that which varies. It is quite conceivable that every
+species tends to produce varieties of a limited number and kind, and
+that the effect of natural selection is to favour the development of
+some of these, while it opposes the development of others along their
+predetermined lines of modification.
+
+7. No truths brought to light by biological investigation were better
+calculated to inspire distrust of the dogmas intruded upon science in
+the name of theology than those which relate to the distribution of
+animals and plants on the surface of the earth. Very skilful
+accommodation was needful, if the limitation of sloths to South America,
+and of the _Ornithorhynchus_ to Australia, was to be reconciled with
+the literal interpretation of the history of the Deluge; and, with the
+establishment of the existence of distinct provinces of distribution,
+any serious belief in the peopling of the world by migration from Mount
+Ararat came to an end.
+
+Under these circumstances, only one alternative was left for those who
+denied the occurrence of evolution; namely, the supposition that the
+characteristic animals and plants of each great province were created,
+as such, within the limits in which, we find them. And as the hypothesis
+of "specific centres," thus formulated, was heterodox from the
+theological point of view, and unintelligible under its scientific
+aspect, it may be passed over without further notice, as a phase of
+transition from the creational to the evolutional hypothesis.
+
+8. In fact, the strongest and most conclusive arguments in favour of
+evolution are those which are based upon the facts of geographical,
+taken in conjunction with those of geological, distribution.
+
+Both Darwin and Wallace lay great stress on the close relation which
+obtains between the existing fauna of any region and that of the
+immediately antecedent geological epoch in the same region; and rightly,
+for it is in truth inconceivable that there should be no genetic
+connexion between the two. It is possible to put into words the
+proposition, that all the animals and plants of each geological epoch
+were annihilated, and that a new set of very similar forms was created
+for the next epoch, but it may be doubted if any one who ever tried to
+form a distinct mental image of this process of spontaneous generation
+on the grandest scale ever really succeeded in realizing it.
+
+In later years the attention of the best palaeontologists has been
+withdrawn from the hodman's work of making "new species" of fossils, to
+the scientific task of completing our knowledge of individual species,
+and tracing out the succession of the forms presented by any given type
+in time.
+
+_Evolution at the Beginning of the 20th century._--Since Huxley and
+Sully wrote their masterly essays in the 9th edition of this
+encyclopaedia, the doctrine of evolution has outgrown the trammels of
+controversy and has been accepted as a fundamental principle. Writers on
+biological subjects no longer have to waste space in weighing evolution
+against this or that philosophical theory or religious tradition;
+philosophical writers have frankly accepted it, and the supporters of
+religious tradition have made broad their phylacteries to write on them
+the new words. A closer scrutiny of the writers of all ages who preceded
+Charles Darwin, and, in particular, the light thrown back from Darwin on
+the earlier writings of Herbert Spencer, have made plain that without
+Darwin the world by this time might have come to a general acceptance of
+evolution; but it seems established as a historical fact that the world
+has come to accept evolution, first, because of Darwin's theory of
+natural selection, and second, because of Darwin's exposition of the
+evidence for the actual occurrence of organic evolution. The evidence as
+set out by Darwin has been added to enormously; new knowledge has in
+many cases altered our conceptions of the mode of the actual process of
+evolution, and from time to time a varying stress has been laid on what
+are known as the purely Darwinian factors in the theory. The balance of
+these tendencies has been against the attachment of great importance to
+sexual selection, and in favour of attaching a great importance to
+natural selection; but the dominant feature in the recent history of the
+theory has been its universal acceptance and the recognition that this
+general acceptance has come from the stimulus given by Darwin.
+
+
+  Ontogeny.
+
+A change has taken place in the use of the word evolution. Huxley,
+following historical custom, devoted one section of his article to the
+"Evolution of the Individual." The facts and theories respecting this
+are now discussed under such headings as EMBRYOLOGY; HEREDITY; VARIATION
+AND SELECTION; under these headings must be sought information on the
+important recent modifications with regard to the theory of the relation
+between the development of the individual and the development of the
+race, the part played by the environment on the individual, and the
+modern developments of the old quarrel between evolution and
+epigenesis. The most striking general change has been against seeing in
+the facts of ontogeny any direct evidence as to phylogeny. The general
+proposition as to a parallelism between individual and ancestral
+development is no doubt indisputable, but extended knowledge of the very
+different ontogenetic histories of closely allied forms has led us to a
+much fuller conception of the mode in which stages in embryonic and
+larval history have been modified in relation to their surroundings, and
+to a consequent reluctance to attach detailed importance to the
+embryological argument for evolution.
+
+
+  Phylogeny.
+
+The vast bulk of botanical and zoological work on living and extinct
+forms published during the last quarter of the 19th century increased
+almost beyond all expectation the evidence for the fact of evolution.
+The discovery of a single fossil creature in a geological stratum of a
+wrong period, the detection of a single anatomical or physiological fact
+irreconcilable with origin by descent with modification, would have been
+destructive of the theory and would have made the reputation of the
+observer. But in the prodigious number of supporting discoveries that
+have been made no single negative factor has appeared, and the evolution
+from their predecessors of the forms of life existing now or at any
+other period must be taken as proved. It is necessary to notice,
+however, that although the general course of the stream of life is
+certain, there is not the same certainty as to the actual individual
+pedigrees of the existing forms. In the attempts to place existing
+creatures in approximately phylogenetic order, a striking change, due to
+a more logical consideration of the process of evolution, has become
+established and is already resolving many of the earlier difficulties
+and banishing from the more recent tables the numerous hypothetical
+intermediate forms so familiar in the older phylogenetic trees. The
+older method was to attempt the comparison between the highest member of
+a lower group and the lowest member of a higher group--to suppose, for
+example, that the gorilla and the chimpanzee, the highest members of the
+apes, were the existing representatives of the ancestors of man and to
+compare these forms with the lowest members of the human race. Such a
+comparison is necessarily illogical, as the existing apes are separated
+from the common ancestor by at least as large a number of generations as
+separate it from any of the forms of existing man. In the natural
+process of growth, the gap must necessarily be wider between the summits
+of the twigs than lower down, and, instead of imagining "missing links,"
+it is necessary to trace each separate branch as low down as possible,
+and to institute the comparisons between the lowest points that can be
+reached. The method is simply the logical result of the fact that every
+existing form of life stands at the summit of a long branch of the whole
+tree of life. A due consideration of it leads to the curious paradox
+that if any two animals be compared, the zoologically lower will be
+separated from the common ancestor by a larger number of generations,
+since, on the average, sexual maturity is reached more quickly by the
+lower form. Naturally very many other factors have to be considered, but
+this alone is a sufficient reason to restrain attempts to place existing
+forms in linear phylogenetic series. In embryology the method finds its
+expression in the limitation of comparisons to the corresponding stages
+of low and high forms and the exclusion of the comparisons between the
+adult stages of low forms and the embryonic stages of higher forms.
+Another expression of the same method, due to Cope, and specially
+valuable to the taxonomist, is that when the relationship between orders
+is being considered, characters of subordinal rank must be neglected. It
+must not be supposed that earlier writers all neglected this method, or
+still less that all writers now employ it, but merely that formerly it
+was frequently overlooked by the best writers, and now is neglected only
+by the worst. The result is, on the one hand, a clearing away of much
+fantastic phylogeny, on the other, an enormous reduction of the supposed
+gaps between groups.
+
+
+  Comparative anatomy.
+
+There has been a renewed activity in the study of existing forms from
+the point of view of obtaining evidence as to the nature and origin of
+species. Comparative anatomists have been learning to refrain from
+basing the diagnosis of a species, or the description of the condition
+of an organ, on the evidence of a single specimen. Naturalists who deal
+specially with museum collections have been compelled, it is true, for
+other reasons to attach an increasing importance to what is called the
+type specimen, but they find that this insistence on the individual,
+although invaluable from the point of view of recording species, is
+unsatisfactory from the point of view of scientific zoology; and
+propositions for the amelioration of this condition of affairs range
+from a refusal of Linnaean nomenclature in such cases, to the
+institution of a division between _master species_ for such species as
+have been properly revised by the comparative morphologist, and
+_provisional species_ for such species as have been provisionally
+registered by those working at collections. Those who work with living
+forms of which it is possible to obtain a large number of specimens, and
+those who make revisions of the provisional species of palaeontologists,
+are slowly coming to some such conception as that a species is the
+abstract central point around which a group of variations oscillate, and
+that the peripheral oscillations of one species may even overlap those
+of an allied species. It is plain that we have moved far from the
+connotation and denotation of the word _species_ at the time when Darwin
+began to discuss the origin of species, and that the movement, on the
+one hand, tends to simplify the problem philosophically, and, on the
+other, to make it difficult for the amateur theorist.
+
+The conception of evolution is being applied more rigidly to the
+comparative anatomy of organs and systems of organs. When a series of
+the modifications of an anatomical structure has been sufficiently
+examined, it is frequently possible to decide that one particular
+condition is primitive, ancestral or central, and that the other
+conditions have been derived from it. Such a condition has been termed,
+with regard to the group of animals or plants the organs of which are
+being studied, _archecentric_. The possession of the character in the
+archecentric condition in (say) two of the members of the group does not
+indicate that these two members are more nearly related to one another
+than they are to other members of the group; the archecentric condition
+is part of the common heritage of all the members of the group, and may
+be retained by any. On the other hand, when the ancestral condition is
+modified, it may be regarded as having moved outwards along some radius
+from the archecentric condition. Such modified conditions have been
+termed _apocentric_. It is obvious that the mere apocentricity of a
+character can be no guide to the affinities of its possessor. It is
+necessary to determine if the modification be a simple change that might
+have occurred in independent cases, in fact if it be a multiradial
+apocentricity, or if it involved intricate and precisely combined
+anatomical changes that we could not expect to occur twice
+independently; that is to say, if it be a uniradial apocentricity.
+Multiradial apocentricities lie at the root of many of the phenomena
+that have been grouped under the designation _convergence_. Especially
+in the case of manifest adaptations, organs possessed by creatures far
+apart genealogically may be moulded into conditions that are extremely
+alike. Sir E. Ray Lankester's term, _homoplasy_, has passed into
+currency as designating such cases where different genetic material has
+been pressed by similar conditions into similar moulds. These may be
+called heterogeneous homoplasies, but it is necessary to recognize the
+existence of homogeneous homoplasies, here called multiradial
+apocentricities. A complex apocentric modification of a kind which we
+cannot imagine to have been repeated independently, and which is to be
+designated as uniradial, frequently forms a new centre around which new
+diverging modifications are produced. With reference to any particular
+group of forms such a new centre of modification may be termed a
+_metacentre_, and it is plain that the archecentre of the whole group is
+a metacentre of the larger group of which the group under consideration
+is a branch. Thus, for instance, the archecentric condition of any Avian
+structure is a metacentre of the Sauropsidan stem. A form of
+apocentricity extremely common and often perplexing may be termed
+_pseudocentric_; in such a condition there is an apparent simplicity
+that reveals its secondary nature by some small and apparently
+meaningless complexity.
+
+
+  Bionomics.
+
+Another group of investigations that seems to play an important part in
+the future development of the theory of evolution relates to the study
+of what is known as organic symmetry. The differentiations of structure
+that characterize animals and plants are being shown to be orderly and
+definite in many respects; the relations of the various parts to one
+another and to the whole, the modes of repetition of parts, and the
+series of changes that occur in groups of repeated parts appear to be to
+a certain extent inevitable, to depend on the nature of the living
+material itself and on the necessary conditions of its growth. Closely
+allied to the study of symmetry is the study of the direct effect of the
+circumambient media on embryonic young and adult stages of living beings
+(see EMBRYOLOGY: _Physiology_; HEREDITY; and VARIATION AND SELECTION),
+and a still larger number of observers have added to our knowledge of
+these. It is impossible here to give even a list of the names of the
+many observers who in recent times have made empirical study of the
+effects of growth-forces and of the symmetrical limitations and
+definitions of growth. It is to be noticed, however, that, even after
+such phenomena have been properly grouped and designated under Greek
+names as laws of organic growth, they have not become explanations of
+the series of facts they correlate. Their importance in the theory of
+evolution is none the less very great. In the first place, they lessen
+the number of separate facts to be explained; in the second, they limit
+the field within which explanation must be sought, since, for instance,
+if a particular mode of repetition of parts occur in mosses, in
+flowering-plants, in beetles and in elephants, the seeker of ultimate
+explanations may exclude from the field of his inquiry all the
+conditions individual to these different organic forms, and confine
+himself only to what is common to all of them; that is to say,
+practically only the living material and its environment. The
+prosecution of such inquiries is beginning to make unnecessary much
+ingenious speculation of a kind that was prominent from 1880 to 1900;
+much futile effort has been wasted in the endeavour to find on Darwinian
+principles special "selection-values" for phenomena the universality of
+which places them outside the possibility of having relations with the
+particular conditions of particular organisms. On the other hand, many
+of those who have been specially successful in grouping diverse
+phenomena under empirical generalizations have erred logically in posing
+their generalizations against such a _vera causa_ as the preservation of
+favoured individuals and races. The thirty years which followed the
+publication of the _Origin of Species_ were characterized chiefly by
+anatomical and embryological work; since then there has been no
+diminution in anatomical and embryological enthusiasm, but many of the
+continually increasing body of investigators have turned again to
+bionomical work. Inasmuch as Lamarck attempted to frame a theory of
+evolution in which the principle of natural selection had no part, the
+interpretation placed on their work by many bionomical investigators
+recalls the theories of Lamarck, and the name _Neo-Lamarckism_ has been
+used of such a school of biologists, particularly active in America. The
+weakness of the Neo-Lamarckian view lies in its interpretation of
+heredity; its strength lies in its zealous study of the living world and
+the detection therein of proximate empirical laws, a strength shared by
+very many bionomical investigations, the authors of which would prefer
+to call themselves Darwinians, or to leave themselves without sectarian
+designation.
+
+
+  Biometrics.
+
+Statistical inquiry into the facts of life has long been employed, and
+in particular Francis Galton, within the Darwinian period, has advocated
+its employment and developed its methods. Within quite recent years,
+however, a special school has arisen with the main object of treating
+the processes of evolution quantitatively. Here it is right to speak of
+Karl Pearson as a pioneer of notable importance. It has been the habit
+of biologists to use the terms variation, selection, elimination,
+correlation and so forth, vaguely; the new school, which has been
+strongly reinforced from the side of physical science, insists on
+quantitative measurements of the terms. When the anatomist says that one
+race is characterized by long heads, another by round heads, the
+biometricist demands numbers and percentages. When an organ is stated to
+be variable, the biometricist demands statistics to show the range of
+the variations and the mode of their distribution. When a character is
+said to be favoured by natural selection, the biometricist demands
+investigation of the death-rate of individuals with or without the
+character. When a character is said to be transmitted, or to be
+correlated with another character, the biometricist declares the
+statement valueless without numerical estimations of the inheritance or
+correlation. The subject is still so new, and its technical methods (see
+VARIATION AND SELECTION) have as yet spread so little beyond the group
+which is formulating and defining them, that it is difficult to do more
+than guess at the importance of the results likely to be gained. Enough,
+however, has already been done to show the vast importance of the method
+in grouping and codifying the empirical facts of life, and in so
+preparing the way for the investigation of ultimate "causes." The chief
+pitfall appears to be the tendency to attach more meaning to the results
+than from their nature they can bear. The ultimate value of numerical
+inquiries must depend on the equivalence of the units on which they are
+based. Many of the characters that up to the present have been dealt
+with by biometrical inquiry are obviously composite. The height or
+length of the arm of a human being, for instance, is the result of many
+factors, some inherent, some due to environment, and until these have
+been sifted out, numerical laws of inheritance or of correlation can
+have no more than an empirical value. The analysis of composite
+characters into their indivisible units and statistical inquiry into the
+behaviour of the units would seem to be a necessary part of biometric
+investigation, and one to which much further attention will have to be
+paid.
+
+
+  Segregation.
+
+It is well known that Darwin was deeply impressed by differences in
+flora and fauna, which seemed to be functions of locality, and not the
+result of obvious dissimilarities of environment. A.R. Wallace's studies
+of island life, and the work of many different observers on local races
+of animals and plants, marine, fluviatile and terrestrial, have brought
+about a conception of segregation as apart from differences of
+environment as being one of the factors in the differentiation of living
+forms. The segregation may be geographical, or may be the result of
+preferential mating, or of seasonal mating, and its effects plainly can
+be made no more of than proximate or empirical laws of differentiation,
+of great importance in codifying and simplifying the facts to be
+explained. The minute attention paid by modern systematists to the exact
+localities of subspecies and races is bringing together a vast store of
+facts which will throw further light on the problem of segregation, but
+the difficulty of utilizing these facts is increased by an unfortunate
+tendency to make locality itself one of the diagnostic characters.
+
+
+  Bathmism.
+
+Consideration of phylogenetic series, especially from the
+palaeontological side, has led many writers to the conception that there
+is something of the nature of a growth-force inherent in organisms and
+tending inevitably towards divergent evolution. It is suggested that
+even in the absence of modification produced by any possible Darwinian
+or Lamarckian factors, that even in a neutral environment, divergent
+evolution of some kind would have occurred. The conception is
+necessarily somewhat hazy, but the words _bathmism_ and _bathmic
+Evolution_ have been employed by a number of writers for some such
+conception. Closely connected with it, and probably underlying many of
+the facts which have led to it, is a more definite group of ideas that
+may be brought together under the phrase "phylogenetic limitation of
+variation." In its simplest form, this phrase implies such an obvious
+fact as that whatever be the future development of, say, existing
+cockroaches, it will be on lines determined by the present structure of
+these creatures. In a more general way, the phrase implies that at each
+successive branching of the tree of life, the branches become more
+specialized, more defined, and, in a sense, more limited. The full
+implications of the group of ideas require, and are likely to receive,
+much attention in the immediate future of biological investigation, but
+it is enough at present to point out that until the more obvious lines
+of inquiry have been opened out much more fully, we cannot be in a
+position to guess at the existence of a residuum, for which such a
+metaphysical conception as bathmism would serve even as a convenient
+disguise for ignorance.
+
+Almost every side of zoology has contributed to the theory of evolution,
+but of special importance are the facts and theories associated with the
+names of Gregor Mendel, A. Weismann and Hugo de Vries. These are
+discussed under the headings HEREDITY; MENDELISM; and VARIATION AND
+SELECTION. It has been a feature of great promise in recent
+contributions to the theory of evolution, that such contributions have
+received attention almost directly in proportion to the new methods of
+observation and the new series of facts with which they have come. Those
+have found little favour who brought to the debate only formal
+criticisms or amplifications of the Darwinian arguments, or
+re-marshallings of the Darwinian facts, however ably conducted. The time
+has not yet come for the attempt to synthesize the results of the many
+different and often apparently antagonistic groups of workers. The great
+work that is going on is the simplification of the facts to be explained
+by grouping them under empirical laws; and the most general statement
+relating to these that can yet be made is that no single one of these
+laws has as yet shown signs of taking rank as a _vera causa_ comparable
+with the Darwinian principle of natural selection.
+
+  For evolution in relation to society see SOCIOLOGY.
+
+  REFERENCES.--Practically, every botanical and zoological publication
+  of recent date has its bearing on evolution. The following are a few
+  of the more general works: Bateson, _Materials for the Study of
+  Variation_; Bunge, _Vitalismus und Mechanismus_; Cope, _Origin of the
+  Fittest_, _Primary Factors of Organic Evolution_, _Darwin's Life and
+  Letters_; H. de Vries, _Species and Varieties and their Origin by
+  Mutation_; Eimer, _Organic Evolution_; Gulick, "Divergent Evolution
+  through Cumulative Segregation," _Jour. Linn. Soc._ xx.; Haacke,
+  _Schopfung des Menschen_; Mitchell, "Valuation of Zoological
+  Characters," _Trans. Linn. Soc._ viii. pt. 7; Pearson, _Grammar of
+  Science_; Romanes, _Darwin and after Darwin_; Sedgwick, Presidential
+  Address to Section Zoology, _Brit. Ass. Rep. 1899_; Wallace,
+  _Darwinism_; Weismann, _The Germ-Plasm_. Further references of great
+  value will be found in the works of Bateson and Pearson referred to
+  above, and in the annual volumes of the _Zoological Record_,
+  particularly under the head "General Subject."     (P. C. M.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] This is brought out by F. Lassalle, _Die Philosophie
+    Herakleitos_, p. 126.
+
+  [2] Zeller says that through this distinction Aristotle first made
+    possible the idea of development.
+
+  [3] See this well brought out in G.H. Lewes's _Aristotle_, p. 187.
+
+  [4] Grote calls attention to the contrast between Plato's and
+    Aristotle's way of conceiving the gradations of mind (_Aristotle_,
+    ii. 171).
+
+  [5] Zeller observes that this scale of decreasing perfection is a
+    necessary consequence of the idea of a transcendent deity.
+
+  [6] Melanges de philosophie juive et arabe, p. 225.
+
+  [7] Yet he leaves open the question whether the Deity has annexed
+    thought to matter as a faculty, or whether it rests on a distinct
+    spiritual principle.
+
+  [8] Locke half playfully touches on certain monsters, with respect to
+    which it is difficult to determine whether they ought to be called
+    men. (_Essay_, book iii. ch. vi. sect. 26, 27.)
+
+  [9] A similar coincidence between the teleological and the modern
+    evolutional way of viewing things is to be met with in Locke's
+    account of the use of pain in relation to the preservation of our
+    being (bk. ii. ch. vii. sect. 4).
+
+  [10] _Philosophy of History_ (1893), p. 103, where an interesting
+    sketch of the growth of the idea of progress is to be found.
+
+  [11] G.H. Lewes points out that Leibnitz is inconsistent in his
+    account of the intelligence of man in relation to that of lower
+    animals, since when answering Locke he no longer regards these as
+    differing in degree only.
+
+  [12] Both Lewes and du Bois Reymond have brought out the points of
+    contact between Leibnitz's theory of monads and modern biological
+    speculations (_Hist. of Phil._ ii. 287, and _Leibnitzsche Gedanken in
+    der modernen Naturwissenschaft_, p. 23 seq.).
+
+  [13] For Herder's position in relation to the modern doctrine of
+    evolution see F. von Barenbach's _Herder als Vorganger Darwins_, a
+    work which tends to exaggerate the proximity of the two writers.
+
+  [14] Kant held it probable that other planets besides our earth are
+    inhabited, and that their inhabitants form a scale of beings, their
+    perfection increasing with the distance of the planet which they
+    inhabit from the sun.
+
+  [15] Kant calls the doctrine of the transmutation of species "a
+    hazardous fancy of the reason." Yet, as Strauss and others have
+    shown, Kant's mind betrayed a decided leaning at times to a more
+    mechanical conception of organic forms as related by descent.
+
+  [16] Hegel somewhere says that the question of the eternal duration
+    of the world is unanswerable: time as well as space can be predicated
+    of finitudes only.
+
+  [17] _The Exercitationes de generatione animalium_, which Dr George
+    Ent extracted from him and published in 1651.
+
+  [18] _De generatione animalium_, lib. ii. cap. x.
+
+  [19] _De generatione animalium_, lib. ii. cap. iv.
+
+  [20] "Cependant, pour revenir aux formes ordinaires ou aux ames
+    materielles, cette duree qu'il leur faut attribuer, a la place de
+    celle qu'on avoit attribuee aux atomes pourroit faire douter si elles
+    ne vont pas de corps en corps; ce qui seroit la metempsychose, a peu
+    pres comme quelques philosophes ont cru la transmission du mouvement
+    et celle des especes. Mais cette imagination est bien eloignee de la
+    nature des choses. Il n'y a point de tel passage; et c'est ici ou les
+    transformations de Messieurs Swammerdam, Malpighi, et Leewenhoek, qui
+    sont des plus excellens observateurs de notre tems, sont venues a mon
+    secours et m'ont fait admettre plus aisement, que l'animal, et toute
+    autre substance organisee ne commence point lorsque nous le croyons,
+    et que sa generation apparente n'est qu'un developpement et une
+    espece d'augmentation. Aussi ai-je remarque que l'auteur de la
+    _Recherche de la verite_, M. Regis, M. Hartsoeker, et d'autres
+    habiles hommes n'ont pas ete fort eloignes de ce sentiment."
+    Leibnitz, _Systeme nouveau de la nature_ (1695). The doctrine of
+    "Emboitement" is contained in the _Considerations sur le principe de
+    vie_ (1705); the preface to the _Theodicee_ (1710); and the
+    _Principes de la nature et de la grace_ (S 6) (1718).
+
+  [21] "Il est vrai que la pensee la plus raisonnable et la plus
+    conforme a l'experience sur cette question tres difficile de la
+    formation du foetus; c'est que les enfans sont deja presque tout
+    formes avant meme l'action par laquelle ils sont concus; et que leurs
+    meres ne font que leur donner l'accroissement ordinaire dans le temps
+    de la grossesse." _De la recherche de la verite_, livre ii. chap.
+    vii. p. 334 (7th ed., 1721).
+
+  [22] _Considerations sur les corps organises_, chap. x.
+
+  [23] Bonnet had the courage of his opinions, and in the _Palingenesie
+    philosophique_, part vi. chap, iv., he develops a hypothesis which he
+    terms "evolution naturelle"; and which, making allowance for his
+    peculiar views of the nature of generation, bears no small
+    resemblance to what is understood by "evolution" at the present
+    day:--
+
+    "Si la volonte divine a cree par un seul Acte l'Universalite des
+    etres, d'ou venoient ces plantes et ces animaux dont Moyse nous
+    decrit la Production au troisieme et au cinquieme jour du
+    renouvellement de notre monde?
+
+    "Abuserois-je de la liberte de conjectures si je disois, que les
+    Plantes et les Animaux qui existent aujourd'hui sont parvenus par une
+    sorte d'evolution naturelle des Etres organises qui peuplaient ce
+    premier Monde, sorti immediatement des MAINS du CREATEUR?...
+
+    "Ne supposons que trois revolutions. La Terre vient de sortir des
+    MAINS du CREATEUR. Des causes preparees par sa Sagesse font
+    developper de toutes parts les Germes. Les Etres organises commencent
+    a jouir de l'existence. Ils etoient probablement alors bien differens
+    de ce qu'ils sont aujourd'hui. Ils l'etoient autant que ce premier
+    Monde differoit de celui que nous habitons. Nous manquons de moyens
+    pour juger de ces dissemblances, et peut-etre que le plus habile
+    Naturaliste qui auroit ete place dans ce premier Monde y auroit
+    entierement meconnu nos Plantes et nos Animaux."
+
+  [24] "Ce mot (germe) ne designera pas seulement un corps organise
+    _reduit en petit_; il designera encore toute espece de _preformation
+    originelle dont un Tout organique peut resulter comme de son principe
+    immediat."--Palingenesie philosophique_, part. x. chap. ii.
+
+  [25] "M. Cuvier considerant que tous les etres organises sont derives
+    de parens, et ne voyant dans la nature aucune force capable de
+    produire l'organisation, croyait a la pre-existence des germes; non
+    pas a la pre-existence d'un etre tout forme, puisqu'il est bien
+    evident que ce n'est que par des developpemens successifs que l'etre
+    acquiert sa forme; mais, si l'on peut s'exprimer ainsi, a la
+    pre-existence du radical de l'etre, radical qui existe avant que la
+    serie des evolutions ne commence, et qui remonte certainement,
+    suivant la belle observation de Bonnet, a plusieurs
+    generations."--Laurillard, _Eloge de Cuvier_, note 12.
+
+  [26] _Histoire naturelle_, tom. ii. ed. ii. (1750), p. 350.
+
+  [27] _Ibid._ p. 351.
+
+  [28] See particularly Buffon, l.c. p. 41.
+
+  [29] As Buffon has well said:--"L'idee de ramener l'explication de
+    tous les phenomenes a des principes mecaniques est assurement grande
+    et belle, ce pas est le plus hardi qu'on peut faire en philosophie,
+    et c'est Descartes qui l'a fait."--l.c. p. 50.
+
+  [30] _Principes de la philosophie_, Troisieme partie, S 45.
+
+  [31] _Ethices_, Pars tertia, Praefatio.
+
+  [32] _Systeme de la Nature. Essai sur la formation des corps
+    organises_, 1751, xiv.
+
+  [33] _Considerations philosophiques sur la gradation naturelle des
+    formes de l'etre; ou les essais de la nature qui apprend a faire
+    l'homme_ (1768).
+
+  [34] _Recherches sur les causes des principaux faits physiques_, par
+    J.B. Lamarck. Paris. Seconde annee de la Republique. In the preface,
+    Lamarck says that the work was written in 1776, and presented to the
+    Academy in 1780; but it was not published before 1794, and at that
+    time it presumably expressed Lamarck's mature views. It would be
+    interesting to know what brought about the change of opinion
+    manifested in the _Recherches sur l'organisation des corps vivants_,
+    published only seven years later.
+
+  [35] See the "Historical Sketch" prefixed to the last edition of the
+    _Origin of Species_.
+
+  [36] _First Principles and Principles of Biology_ (1860-1864).
+
+  [37] _Generelle Morphologie_ (1866).
+
+  [38] "Il s'agit donc de prouver que la serie qui constitute l'echelle
+    animale reside essentiellement dans la distribution des masses
+    principals qui la composent et non dans celle des especes ni meme
+    toujours dans celle des genres."--_Phil. zoologique_, chap. v.
+
+  [39] _Philosophie zoologique_, premiere partie, chap. iii.
+
+  [40] "Entwurf einer Darstellung der zwischen dem Embryozustande der
+    hoheren Thiere und dem per manenten der niederen stattfindenden
+    Parallele," _Beytrage zur vergleichenden Anatomie_, Bd. ii. 1811.
+
+
+
+
+EVORA, the capital of an administrative district in the province of
+Alemtejo, Portugal; 72 m. E. by S. of Lisbon, on the Casa
+Branca-Evora-Elvas railway. Pop. (1900) 16,020. Evora occupies a fertile
+valley enclosed by low hills. It is surrounded by ramparts flanked with
+towers, and is further defended by two forts; but the neglected
+condition of these, combined with the narrow arcaded streets and
+crumbling walls of Roman or Moorish masonry, gives the city an
+appearance corresponding with its real antiquity. Evora is the see of an
+archbishop, and has several churches, convents and hospitals, barracks,
+a diocesan school and a museum. A university, founded in 1550, was
+abolished on the expulsion of the Jesuits in the 18th century. The
+cathedral, originally a Romanesque building erected 1186-1204, was
+restored in Gothic style about 1400; its richly decorated chancel was
+added in 1761. The church of Sao Francisco (1507-1525) is a good example
+of the blended Moorish and Gothic architecture known as Manoellian. The
+art gallery, formerly the archbishop's palace, contains a collection of
+Portuguese and early Flemish paintings. An ancient tower, and the
+so-called aqueduct of Sertorius, 9 m. long, have been partly demolished
+to make room for the market-square, in which one of the largest fairs in
+Portugal is held at midsummer. Both tower and aqueduct were long
+believed to have been of Roman origin, but are now known to have been
+constructed about 1540-1555 in the reign of John III., at the instance
+of an antiquary named Resende. The aqueduct was probably constructed on
+the site of the old Roman one. A small Roman temple is used as a public
+library; it is usually known as the temple of Diana, a name for which no
+valid authority exists. Evora is of little commercial importance,
+except as an agricultural centre, but its neighbourhood is famous for
+its mules and abounds in cork-woods; there are also mines of iron,
+copper, and asbestos and marble quarries.
+
+Under its original name of _Ebora_, the city was from 80 to 72 B.C. the
+headquarters of Sertorius, and it long remained an important Roman
+military station. It was called _Liberalitas Juliae_ on account of
+certain municipal privileges bestowed on it by Julius Caesar (c. 100-44
+B.C.). Its bishopric, founded in the 5th century, was raised to an
+archbishopric in the 16th. In 712 Evora was conquered by the Moors, who
+named it _Jabura_; and it was only retaken in 1166. From 1663 to 1665 it
+was held by the Spaniards. In 1832 Dom Miguel, retreating before Dom
+Pedro, took refuge in Evora; and here was signed the convention of
+Evora, by which he was banished. (See PORTUGAL.)
+
+The administrative district of Evora coincides with the central part of
+Alemtejo (q.v.); pop. (1900) 128,062; area, 2856 sq. m.
+
+
+
+
+EVREUX, a town of north-western France, capital of the department of
+Eure, 67 m. W.N.W. of Paris on the Western railway to Cherbourg. Pop.
+(1906) town, 13,773; commune, 18,971. Situated in the pleasant valley of
+the Iton, arms of which traverse it, the town, on the south, slopes up
+toward the public gardens and the railway station. It is the seat of a
+bishop, and its cathedral is one of the largest and finest in France.
+Part of the lower portion of the nave dates from the 11th century; the
+west facade with its two ungainly towers is, for the most part, the work
+of the late Renaissance, and various styles of the intervening period
+are represented in the rest of the church. A thorough restoration was
+completed in 1896. The elaborate north transept and portal are in the
+flamboyant Gothic; the choir, the finest part of the interior, is in an
+earlier Gothic style. Cardinal de la Balue, bishop of Evreux in the
+latter half of the 15th century, constructed the octagonal central
+tower, with its elegant spire; to him is also due the Lady chapel, which
+is remarkable for some finely preserved stained glass. Two rose windows
+in the transepts and the carved wooden screens of the side chapels are
+masterpieces of 16th-century workmanship. The episcopal palace, a
+building of the 15th century, adjoins the south side of the cathedral.
+An interesting belfry, facing the handsome modern town hall, dates from
+the 15th century. The church of St Taurin, in part Romanesque, has a
+choir of the 14th century and other portions of later date; it contains
+the shrine of St Taurin, a work of the 13th century. At Vieil Evreux,
+3-1/2 m. south-east of the town, the remains of a Roman theatre, a
+palace, baths and an aqueduct have been discovered, as well as various
+relics which are now deposited in the museum of Evreux. Evreux is the
+seat of a prefect, a court of assizes, of tribunals of first instance
+and commerce, a chamber of commerce and a board of trade arbitrators,
+and has a branch of the Bank of France, a lycee and training colleges
+for teachers. The making of ticking, boots and shoes, agricultural
+implements and gas motors, and metal-founding and bleaching are carried
+on.
+
+Vieil-Evreux (_Mediolanum Aulercorum_) was the capital of the Gallic
+tribe of the _Aulerci Eburovices_ and a flourishing city during the
+Gallo-Roman period. Its bishopric dates from the 4th century.
+
+The first family of the counts of Evreux which is known was descended
+from an illegitimate son of Richard I., duke of Normandy, and became
+extinct in the male line with the death of Count William in 1118. The
+countship passed in right of Agnes, William's sister, wife of Simon de
+Montfort-l'Amaury (d. 1087) to the house of the lords of
+Montfort-l'Amaury. Amaury III. of Montfort ceded it in 1200 to King
+Philip Augustus. Philip the Fair presented it (1307) to his brother
+Louis, for whose benefit Philip the Long raised the countship of Evreux
+into a peerage of France (1317). Philip of Evreux, son of Louis, became
+king of Navarre by his marriage with Jeanne, daughter of Louis the
+Headstrong (Hutin), and their son Charles the Bad and their grandson
+Charles the Noble were also kings of Navarre. The latter ceded his
+countships of Evreux, Champagne and Brie to King Charles VI. (1404). In
+1427 the countship of Evreux was bestowed by King Charles VII. on Sir
+John Stuart of Darnley (c. 1365-1429), the commander of his Scottish
+bodyguard, who in 1423 had received the seigniory of Aubigny and in
+February 1427/8 was granted the right to quarter the royal arms of
+France for his victories over the English (see Lady Elizabeth Cust,
+_Account of the Stuarts of Aubigny in France, 1422-1672_, 1891). On
+Stuart's death (before Orleans during an attack on an English convoy)
+the countship reverted to the crown. It was again temporarily alienated
+(1569-1584) as an appanage for Francis, duke of Anjou, and in 1651 was
+finally made over to Frederic Maurice de la Tour d'Auvergne, duke of
+Bouillon, in exchange for the principality of Sedan.
+
+
+
+
+EWALD, GEORG HEINRICH AUGUST VON (1803-1875), German Orientalist and
+theologian, was born on the 16th of November 1803 at Gottingen, where
+his father was a linen-weaver. In 1815 he was sent to the gymnasium, and
+in 1820 he entered the university of his native town, where under J.G.
+Eichhorn and T.C. Tychsen he devoted himself specially to the study of
+Oriental languages. At the close of his academical career in 1823 he was
+appointed to a mastership in the gymnasium at Wolfenbuttel, and made a
+study of the Oriental manuscripts in the Wolfenbuttel library. But in
+the spring of 1824 he was recalled to Gottingen as _repetent_, or
+theological tutor, and in 1827 (the year of Eichhorn's death) he became
+professor _extraordinarius_ in philosophy and lecturer in Old Testament
+exegesis. In 1831 he was promoted to the position of professor
+_ordinarius_ in philosophy; in 1833 he became a member of the Royal
+Scientific Society, and in 1835, after Tychsen's death, he entered the
+faculty of theology, taking the chair of Oriental languages.
+
+Two years later occurred the first important episode in his studious
+life. In 1837, on the 18th of November, along with six of his colleagues
+he signed a formal protest against the action of King Ernst August (duke
+of Cumberland) in abolishing the liberal constitution of 1833, which had
+been granted to the Hanoverians by his predecessor William IV. This bold
+procedure of the seven professors led to their speedy expulsion from the
+university (14th December). Early in 1838 Ewald received a call to
+Tubingen, and there for upwards of ten years he held a chair as
+professor _ordinarius_, first in philosophy and afterwards, from 1841,
+in theology. To this period belong some of his most important works, and
+also the commencement of his bitter feud with F.C. Baur and the Tubingen
+school. In 1847, "the great shipwreck-year in Germany," as he has called
+it, he was invited back to Gottingen on honourable terms--the liberal
+constitution having been restored. He gladly accepted the invitation. In
+1862-1863 he took an active part in a movement for reform within the
+Hanoverian Church, and he was a member of the synod which passed the new
+constitution. He had an important share also in the formation of the
+Protestantenverein, or Protestant association, in September 1863. But
+the chief crisis in his life arose out of the political events of 1866.
+His loyalty to King George (son of Ernst August) would not permit him to
+take the oath of allegiance to the victorious king of Prussia, and he
+was therefore placed on the retired list, though with the full amount of
+his salary as pension. Perhaps even this degree of severity might have
+been held by the Prussian authorities to be unnecessary, had Ewald been
+less exasperating in his language. The violent tone of some of his
+printed manifestoes about this time, especially of his _Lob des Konigs
+u. des Volkes_, led to his being deprived of the _venia legendi_ (1868)
+and also to a criminal process, which, however, resulted in his
+acquittal (May 1869). Then, and on two subsequent occasions, he was
+returned by the city of Hanover as a member of the North German and
+German parliaments. In June 1874 he was found guilty of a libel on
+Prince Bismarck, whom he had compared to Frederick II. in "his
+unrighteous war with Austria and his ruination of religion and
+morality," to Napoleon III. in his way of "picking out the best time
+possible for robbery and plunder." For this offence he was sentenced to
+undergo three weeks' imprisonment. He died in his 72nd year of heart
+disease on the 4th of May 1875.
+
+Ewald was no common man. In his public life he displayed many noble
+characteristics,--perfect simplicity and sincerity, intense moral
+earnestness, sturdy independence, absolute fearlessness. As a teacher
+he had a remarkable power of kindling enthusiasm; and he sent out many
+distinguished pupils, among whom may be mentioned Hitzig, Schrader,
+Noldeke, Diestel and Dillmann. His disciples were not all of one school,
+but many eminent scholars who apparently have been untouched by his
+influence have in fact developed some of the many ideas which he
+suggested. His numerous writings, from 1823 onwards, were the reservoirs
+in which the entire energy of a life was stored. His _Hebrew Grammar_
+inaugurated a new era in biblical philology. All subsequent works in
+that department have been avowedly based on his, and to him will always
+belong the honour of having been, as Hitzig has called him, "the second
+founder of the science of the Hebrew language." As an exegete and
+biblical critic no less than as a grammarian he has left his abiding
+mark. His _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_, the result of thirty years'
+labour, was epoch-making in that branch of research. While in every line
+it bears the marks of intense individuality, it is at the same time a
+product highly characteristic of the age, and even of the decade, in
+which it appeared. If it is obviously the outcome of immense learning on
+the part of its author, it is no less manifestly the result of the
+speculations and researches of many laborious predecessors in all
+departments of history, theology and philosophy. Taking up the idea of a
+divine education of the human race, which Lessing and Herder had made so
+familiar to the modern mind, and firmly believing that to each of the
+leading nations of antiquity a special task had been providentially
+assigned, Ewald felt no difficulty about Israel's place in universal
+history, or about the problem which that race had been called upon to
+solve. The history of Israel, according to him, is simply the history of
+the manner in which the one true religion really and truly came into the
+possession of mankind. Other nations, indeed, had attempted the highest
+problems in religion; but Israel alone, in the providence of God, had
+succeeded, for Israel alone had been inspired. Such is the supreme
+meaning of that national history which began with the exodus and
+culminated (at the same time virtually terminating) in the appearing of
+Christ. The historical interval that separated these two events is
+treated as naturally dividing itself into three great periods,--those of
+Moses, David and Ezra. The periods are externally indicated by the
+successive names by which the chosen people were called--Hebrews,
+Israelites, Jews. The events prior to the exodus are relegated by Ewald
+to a preliminary chapter of primitive history; and the events of the
+apostolic and post-apostolic age are treated as a kind of appendix. The
+entire construction of the history is based, as has already been said,
+on a critical examination and chronological arrangement of the available
+documents. So far as the results of criticism are still uncertain with
+regard to the age and authorship of any of these, Ewald's conclusions
+must of course be regarded as unsatisfactory. But his work remains a
+storehouse of learning and is increasingly recognized as a work of rare
+genius.
+
+  Of his works the more important are:--_Die Composition der Genesis
+  kritisch untersucht_ (1823), an acute and able attempt to account for
+  the use of the two names of God without recourse to the
+  document-hypothesis; he was not himself, however, permanently
+  convinced by it; _De metris carminum Arabicorum_ (1825); _Das Hohelied
+  Salomo's ubersetzt u. erklart_ (1826; 3rd ed., 1866); _Kritische
+  Grammatik der hebr. Sprache_ (1827)--this afterwards became the
+  _Ausfuhrliches Lehrbuch der hebr. Sprache_ (8th ed., 1870); and it was
+  followed by the _Hebr. Sprachlehre fur Anfanger_ (4th ed., 1874);
+  _Uber einige altere Sanskritmetra_ (1827); _Liber Vakedii de
+  Mesopotamiae expugnatae historia_ (1827); _Commentarius in Apocalypsin
+  Johannis_ (1828); _Abhandlungen zur biblischen u. orientalischen
+  Literatur_ (1832); _Grammatica critica linguae Arabicae_ (1831-1833);
+  _Die poetischen Bucher des alten Bundes_ (1835-1837, 3rd ed.,
+  1866-1867); _Die Propheten des alten Bundes_ (1840-1841, 2nd ed.,
+  1867-1868); _Geschichte des Volkes Israel_ (1843-1859, 3rd ed.,
+  1864-1868); _Alterthumer Israels_ (1848); _Die drei ersten Evangelien
+  ubersetzt u. erklart_ (1850); _Uber das athiopische Buch Henoch_
+  (1854); _Die Sendschreiben des Apostels Paulus ubersetzt u. erklart_
+  (1857); _Die Johanneischen Schriften ubersetzt u. erklart_
+  (1861-1862); _Uber das vierte Esrabuch_ (1863); _Sieben Sendschreiben
+  des neuen Bundes_ (1870); _Das Sendschreiben an die Hebraer u.
+  Jakobos' Rundschreiben_ (1870); _Die Lehre der Bibel von Gott, oder
+  Theologie des alten u. neuen Bundes_ (1871-1875). The _Jahrbucher der
+  biblischen Wissenschaft_ (1849-1865) were edited, and for the most
+  part written, by him. He was the chief promoter of the _Zeitschrift
+  fur die Kunde des Morgenlandes_, begun in 1837; and he frequently
+  contributed on various subjects to the _Gotting. gelehrte Anzeigen_.
+  He was also the author of many pamphlets of an occasional character.
+
+  The following have been translated into English:--_Hebrew Grammar_, by
+  John Nicholson (from 2nd German edition) (London 1836); _Introductory
+  Hebrew Grammar_ (from 3rd German edition) (London, 1870); _History of
+  Israel_, 5 vols. (corresponding to vols. i.-iv. of the German), by
+  Russell Martineau and J. Estlin Carpenter (London, 1867-1874);
+  _Antiquities of Israel_, by H.S. Solly (London, 1876); _Commentary on
+  the Prophets of the Old Testament_, by J. Frederick Smith (2 vols.,
+  London, 1876-1877); _Isaiah the Prophet_, chaps. i.-xxxiii., by O.
+  Glover (London, 1869); _Life of Jesus Christ_, also by O. Glover
+  (London, 1865).
+
+  See the article in Herzog-Hauck; T. Witton Davies, _Heinrich Ewald_
+  (1903); and cf. T.K. Cheyne, _Founders of Old Testament Criticism_
+  (1893); F. Lichtenberger, _History of German Theology in the
+  Nineteenth Century_ (1889).
+
+
+
+
+EWALD, JOHANNES (1743-1781), the greatest lyrical poet of Denmark, was
+the son of a melancholy and sickly chaplain at Copenhagen, where he was
+born on the 18th of November 1743. At the age of eleven he was sent to
+school at Schleswig, his father's birthplace, and returned to the
+capital only to enter the university in 1758. His father was by that
+time dead, and in his mother, a frivolous and foolish woman, he found
+neither sympathy nor moral support. At fifteen he fell passionately in
+love with Arense Hulegaard, a girl whose father afterwards married the
+poet's mother; and the romantic boy resolved on various modes of making
+himself admired by the young lady. He began to learn Abyssinian, for the
+purpose of going out as a missionary to Africa, but this scheme was soon
+given up, and he persuaded a brother, four years older than himself, to
+run away that they might enlist as hussars in the Prussian army. They
+managed to reach Hamburg just when the Seven Years' War was commencing
+and were allowed to enter a regiment. But the elder brother soon got
+tired and ran away, while the poet, after a series of extraordinary
+adventures, deserted to the Austrian army, where from being drummer he
+rose to being sergeant, and was only not made an officer because he was
+a Protestant. In 1760 he was weary of a soldier's life and deserted
+again, getting safe back to Denmark. For the next two years he worked
+with great diligence at the university, but the Arense for whom he had
+gone through so much hardship and taken so much pains married another
+man almost immediately after Ewald's final and very successful
+examination. The disappointment was one from which he never recovered,
+but his own weakness of will was largely to blame for it. He plunged
+into dissipation of every kind, and gave his serious thoughts only to
+poetry.
+
+In 1763 his first work, a perfunctory dissertation, _De pyrologia
+sacra_, first saw the light. In 1764 he made a considerable success with
+a short prose story in the popular manner of Sneedorf, _Lykkens Tempel_
+(The Temple of Fortune), which was translated into German and Icelandic.
+On the death of Frederick V., however, Ewald first appeared prominently
+as a poet; he published in 1766 three _Elegies_ over the dead king,
+which were received with universal acclamation, and of which one, at
+least, is a veritable masterpiece. But his dramatic poem _Adam og Eva_
+(Adam and Eve), by far the finest imaginative work produced in Denmark
+up to that time, was rejected by the Society of Arts in 1767 and was not
+published until 1769. At the latter date, however, its merits were
+perceived. In 1770 Ewald attained success with _Philet_, a narrative and
+lyrical poem, and still more with his splendid _Rolf Krage_, the first
+original Danish tragedy. For the next ten years Ewald was occupied in
+producing one brilliant poetical work after another, in rapid
+succession. In 1771 he published _De brutale Klappers_ (The Brutal
+Clappers), a tragi-comedy or parody satirizing the dispute then raging
+between the critics and the manager of the Royal Theatre; in 1772 he
+translated from the German the lyrical drama of _Philemon and Baucis_,
+and brought out his versified comedy of _Harlequin Patriot_, a satire on
+the passion for political scribbling created by Struensee's introduction
+of the liberty of the press. In 1773 he published _Pebersvendene_ (Old
+Bachelors), a prose comedy. In 1771 he had already collected some of his
+lyrical poems under the title of _Adskilligt af Johannes Ewald_
+(Miscellanies). In 1774 appeared the heroic opera of _Balder's Dod_
+(Balder's Death), and in 1779 the finest of his works, the lyrical drama
+_Fiskerne_ (The Fishers), which contains the Danish National Song, "King
+Christian stood by the high Mast," his most famous lyric. In the two
+poems last mentioned, however, Ewald passed beyond contemporary taste,
+and these great works, the pride of Danish literature, were coldly
+received. But while the new poetry was slowly winning its way into
+popular esteem, the poet did not lack admirers, and at the head of these
+he founded in 1775 the Danish Literary Society, a body which became
+influential, and which made the study of Ewald a cultus. But the poet's
+health had broken; when he was writing _Rolf Krage_ he was already an
+inmate of the consumptive hospital, and when he seemed to be recovering,
+his health was shattered again by a night spent in the frosty streets.
+He embittered his existence by the recklessness of his private life, and
+finally, through a fall from a horse, he ended by becoming a complete
+invalid. His last ten years were full of acute suffering; his mother
+treated him with cruelty, his family with neglect, and but few even of
+his friends showed any manliness or generosity towards him. In 1774 he
+was placed in the house of an inspector of fisheries at Rungsted, where
+Anna Hedevig Jacobsen, the daughter of the house, tended the wasted poet
+with infinite tenderness and skill. He stayed in this house for three
+years, and wrote there some of his finest later lyrics. Meanwhile he had
+fallen deeply in love with the charming solace of his sufferings and won
+her consent to a marriage. This step, however, was prevented by his
+family, who roughly removed him to their own keeping near Kronborg. Here
+he was treated so infamously that he insisted on being taken back to
+Copenhagen in 1777, where he found an older, but no less tender nurse,
+in Ane Kirstine Skou. Here he wrote _Fiskerne_ with his imagination full
+of the familiar shore at Hornbaek, near Rungsted. In 1780 he was a
+little better, and managed to be present at the theatre at the first
+performance of his poem. But this excitement hastened his end, and after
+months of extreme agony he died on the 17th of March 1781, and was
+carried to the grave by a large assembly of his admirers, since he was
+now just recognized by the public for the first time as the greatest
+national poet. Among his papers were found fragments of three dramas,
+two on old Scandinavian subjects, entitled _Frode_ and _Helgo_, and the
+third a tragedy on the story of _Hamlet_, which he meant to treat in a
+way wholly distinct from Shakespeare's.
+
+Ewald belongs to the race of poetical reformers who appeared in all
+countries of Europe at the end of the 18th century; but it is
+interesting to observe that in point of time he preceded all of them. He
+was born six years earlier than Goethe and Alfieri, sixteen years before
+Schiller, nine years before Andre Chenier, and twenty-seven years
+earlier than Wordsworth, but he did for Denmark what each of these poets
+did for his own country. Ewald found Danish literature given over to
+tasteless rhetoric, and without art or vigour. He introduced vivacity of
+style, freshness and brevity of form, and an imaginative study of nature
+which was then unprecedented. But perhaps his greatest claim to notice
+is the fact that he was the first person to call the attention of the
+Scandinavian peoples to the treasuries of their ancient history and
+mythology, and to suggest the use of these in imaginative writing. With
+a colouring more distinctly modern than that of Collins and Gray, his
+lyrics yet resemble the odes of these his English contemporaries more
+closely than those of any continental poet; from another point of view
+his ballads remind us of those of Schiller, which they preceded. His
+dramas, which had an immense influence on the Danish stage, are now
+chiefly of antiquarian interest, with the exception of "The Fishers," a
+work that must always live as a great national poem. In personal
+character and in fate Ewald seems to have been not unlike Heinrich
+Heine.
+
+  The first collected edition of Ewald's works began to appear in his
+  lifetime. It is in four volumes, 1780-1784. His works have constantly
+  been reprinted, but the standard edition is that by Liebenberg, in 8
+  vols., 1850-1855. The best biographies of him are those by C. Molbech
+  (1831), Hammerich (1860) and Andreas Dolleris (1900).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+EWART, WILLIAM (1798-1869), English politician, was born in Liverpool on
+the 1st of May 1798. He was educated at Eton and Christ Church, Oxford,
+gaining the Newdigate prize for English verse. He was called to the bar
+at the Middle Temple in 1827, and the next year entered parliament for
+the borough of Bletchingley in Surrey. He subsequently sat for Liverpool
+from 1830 to 1837, for Wigan in 1839, and for Dumfries Burghs from 1841
+until his retirement from public life in 1868. He died at Broadleas,
+near Devizes, on the 23rd of January 1869, Ewart, who was an advanced
+liberal in politics, was responsible during his long political career
+for many useful measures. In 1834 he carried a bill for the abolition of
+hanging in chains, and in 1837 he was successful in getting an act
+passed for abolishing capital punishment for cattle-stealing and other
+offences. In 1850 he carried a bill for establishing free libraries
+supported out of the rates, and in 1864 he was instrumental in getting
+an act passed for legalizing the use of the metric system of weights and
+measures. He was always a strong advocate for the abolition of capital
+punishment, and on his motion in 1864 a select committee was appointed
+to consider the subject. Other reforms which he advocated and which have
+since been carried out were an annual statement on education, and the
+examination of candidates for the civil service and army.
+
+
+
+
+EWE, a group of Negro peoples of the Slave Coast, West Africa. By the
+natives their country is called _Ewe-me_, "Land of the Ewe." The Ewe
+family forms five linguistic groups: the Anlo or Anglawa on the Gold
+Coast frontier, the Krepi of Anfueh speech, the Jeji, the Dahomeyans and
+the Mahi.
+
+  See further Dahomey, and A.B. Ellis, _The Ewe-Speaking Peoples of the
+  Slave Coast_ ... (London, 1890).
+
+
+
+
+EWELL, RICHARD STODDERT (1817-1872), American soldier,
+lieutenant-general in the Confederate army, was born in Georgetown, now
+a part of Washington, D.C., on the 2nd of February 1817, and graduated
+at West Point in 1840. As a cavalry officer he saw much active service
+in the Mexican War and later in Indian warfare in New Mexico. He
+resigned his commission at the outbreak of the Civil War, and entered
+the Confederate service. He commanded a brigade in the first Bull Run
+campaign, and a division in the famous Valley Campaign of "Stonewall"
+Jackson, to whom he was next in rank. At Cross Keys he was in command of
+the forces which defeated General Fremont. Ewell's division served with
+Jackson in the Seven Days and in the campaign of Second Bull Run. At the
+action of Groveton Ewell lost a leg, but did not on that account retire
+from active service, though other generals led his men in the sanguinary
+battles of Antietam (where they lost 47% of their numbers) and
+Fredericksburg. After the death of "Stonewall" Jackson, Ewell was
+promoted lieutenant-general and appointed to command the 2nd Corps, with
+which he had served from the beginning of the Valley Campaign. His
+promotion set aside General J.E.B. Stuart, the temporary commander of
+Jackson's corps; that Ewell, crippled as he was, was preferred to the
+brilliant cavalry leader was a marked testimony to his sterling
+qualities as a soldier. The invasion of Pennsylvania soon followed,
+Ewell's corps leading the advance of Lee's army. A federal force was
+skilfully cut off and destroyed near Winchester, Va., and Ewell's corps
+then raided Maryland and southern Pennsylvania unchecked. At the battle
+of Gettysburg, the 2nd Corps decided the fighting of the first day in
+favour of the Confederates, driving the enemy before them; on the second
+day it fought a desperate action on Lee's left wing. Ewell took part in
+the closing operations of 1863 and in all the battles of the Wilderness
+and Petersburg campaigns. In the final campaign of 1865 he and the
+remnant of his corps were cut off and forced to surrender at Sailor's
+Creek, a few days before his chief capitulated to Grant at Appomattox.
+After the war General Ewell lived in retirement. He died near Spring
+Hill, Maury County, Tennessee, on the 25th of January 1872.
+
+
+
+
+EWING, ALEXANDER (1814-1873), Scottish divine, was born of an old
+Highland family in Aberdeen on the 25th of March 1814. In October 1838
+he was admitted to deacon's orders, and after his return from Italy he
+took charge of the episcopal congregation at Forres, and was ordained a
+presbyter in the autumn of 1841. In 1846 he was elected first bishop of
+the newly restored diocese of Argyll and the Isles, the duties of which
+position he discharged till his death on the 22nd of May 1873. In 1851
+he received the degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford. Though
+hampered by a delicate bodily constitution, he worked in a spirit of
+buoyant cheerfulness. By the charm of his personal manner and his
+catholic sympathies he gradually attained a prominent position. In
+theological discussion he contended for the exercise of a wide
+tolerance, and attached little importance to ecclesiastical authority
+and organization. His own theological position had close affinity with
+that of Thomas Erskine of Linlathen and Frederick Denison Maurice; but
+his opinions were the fruit of his own meditation, and were coloured by
+his own individuality. The trend of his teaching is only to be gathered
+from fragmentary publications--letters to the newspapers, pamphlets,
+special sermons, essays contributed to the series of _Present Day
+Papers_, of which he was the editor, and a volume of sermons entitled
+_Revelation considered as Light_.
+
+  Besides his strictly theological writings, Ewing was the author of the
+  _Cathedral or Abbey Church of Iona_ (1865), the first part of which
+  contains drawings and descriptive letterpress of the ruins, and the
+  second a history of the early Celtic church and the mission of St
+  Columba. See _Memoir of Alexander Ewing, D.C.L._, by A.J. Ross (1877).
+
+
+
+
+EWING, JULIANA HORATIA ORR (1841-1885), English writer of books for
+children, daughter of the Rev. Alfred Gatty and of Margaret Gatty
+(q.v.), was born at Ecclesfield, Yorkshire, in 1841. One of a large
+family, she was accustomed to act as nursery story-teller to her
+brothers and sisters, and her brother Alfred Scott Gatty provided music
+to accompany her plays. She was well educated in classics and modern
+languages, and at an early age began to publish verses, being a
+contributor to _Aunt Judy's Magazine_, which her mother started in 1866.
+_The Land of Lost Toys_ and many other of Juliana's stories appeared in
+this magazine. In 1867 she married Major Alexander Ewing, himself an
+author, and the composer of the well-known hymn "Jerusalem the Golden."
+From this time until her death (13th May 1885), previously to which she
+had been a constant invalid, Mrs Ewing produced a number of charming
+children's stories. The best of these are: _The Brownies_ (1870), _A
+Flat-Iron for a Farthing_ (1873), _Lob-lie-by the Fire_ (1874), _The
+Story of a Short Life_ (1885) and _Jackanapes_ (1884), the two
+last-named, in particular, obtaining great success; among others may be
+mentioned _Mrs Over-the-Way's Remembrances_ (1869), _Six to Sixteen, Jan
+of the Windmill_ (1876), _A Great Emergency_ (1877), _We and the World_
+(1881), _Old-Fashioned Fairy Tales, Brothers of Pity_ (1882), _The
+Doll's Wash_, _Master Fritz_, _Our Garden_, _A Soldier's Children_,
+_Three Little Nest-Birds_, _A Week Spent in a Glass-House_, _A Sweet
+Little Dear_, and _Blue-Red_ (1883). Many of these were published by the
+S.P.C.K. Simple and unaffected in style, and sound and wholesome in
+matter, with quiet touches of humour and bright sketches of scenery and
+character, Mrs Ewing's best stories have never been surpassed in the
+style of literature to which they belong.
+
+
+
+
+EWING, THOMAS (1789-1871), American lawyer and statesman, was born near
+the present West Liberty, West Virginia, on the 28th of December 1789.
+His father, George Ewing, settled at Lancaster, Fairfield county, Ohio,
+in 1792. Thomas graduated at Ohio University, Athens, Ohio, in 1815, and
+in August 1816 was admitted to the bar at Lancaster, where he won high
+rank as an advocate. He was a Whig member of the United States senate in
+1831-1837, and as such took a prominent part in the legislative struggle
+over the United States Bank, whose rechartering he favoured and which he
+resolutely defended against President Jackson's attack, opposing in able
+speeches the withdrawal of deposits and Secretary Woodbury's "Specie
+Circular" of 1836. In March 1841 he became secretary of the treasury in
+President W.H. Harrison's cabinet. When, however, after President
+Tyler's accession, the relations between the President and the Whig
+Party became strained, he retired (September 1841) and was succeeded by
+Walter Forward (1786-1852). Subsequently from March 1849 to July 1850
+he was a member of President Taylor's cabinet as the first secretary of
+the newly established department of the interior. He thoroughly
+organized the department, and in his able annual report advocated the
+construction by government aid of a railroad to the Pacific Coast. In
+1850-1851 he filled the unexpired term of Thomas Corwin in the U.S.
+Senate, strenuously opposing Clay's compromise measures and advocating
+the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia. He was
+subsequently a delegate to the Peace Congress in 1861, and was a loyal
+supporter of President Lincoln's war policy. He died at Lancaster, Ohio,
+on the 26th of October 1871.
+
+His daughter was the wife of General William T. Sherman. His son, Hugh
+Boyle Ewing (1826-1905), served throughout the Civil War in the Federal
+armies, rising from the rank of colonel (1861) to that of
+brigadier-general (1862) and brevet major-general (1865), and commanding
+brigades at Antietam and Vicksburg and a division at Chickamauga; and
+was minister of the United States to the Netherlands in 1866-1870.
+Another son, Thomas Ewing (1829-1896), studied at Brown University in
+1852-1854 (in 1894, by a special vote, he was placed on the list of
+graduates in the class of 1856); he was a lawyer and a free-state
+politician in Kansas in 1857-1861, and was the first chief-justice of
+the Kansas supreme court (1861-1862). In the Civil War he attained the
+rank of brigadier-general (March 1863) and received the brevet of
+major-general (1865). He was subsequently a representative in Congress
+from Ohio in 1877-1881; and from 1882 to 1896 practised law in New York
+City, where he was long one of the recognized leaders of the bar.
+
+
+
+
+EXAMINATIONS. The term "examination" (i.e. inspecting, weighing and
+testing; from Lat. _examen_, the tongue of a balance) is used in the
+following article to denote a systematic test of knowledge, and of
+either special or general capacity or fitness, carried out under the
+authority of some public body.
+
+1. _History._--The oldest known system of examinations in history is
+that used in China for the selection of officers for the public service
+(c. 1115 B.C.), and the periodic tests which they undergo after entry
+(c. 2200 B.C.). See CHINA; also W.A.P. Martin, _The Lore of Cathay_
+(1901), p. 311 et seq.; T.L. Bullock, "Competitive Examinations in
+China" (_Nineteenth Century_, July 1894); and Etienne Zi, _Pratique des
+examens litteraires en Chine_ (Shanghai, 1894). The abolition of this
+system was announced in 1906, and, as a partial substitute, it was
+decided to hold an annual examination in Peking of Chinese graduates
+educated abroad (_Times_, 22nd of October 1906).
+
+The majority of examinations in western countries are derived from the
+university examinations of the middle ages. The first universities of
+Europe consisted of corporations of teachers and of students analogous
+to the trade gilds and merchant gilds of the time. In the trade gilds
+there were apprentices, companions, and masters. No one was admitted to
+mastership until he had served his apprenticeship (q.v.), nor, as a
+rule, until he had shown that he could accomplish a piece of work to the
+satisfaction of the gild.
+
+The object of the universities was to teach; and to the three classes
+established by the gild correspond roughly the _scholar_, the _bachelor_
+or pupil-teacher (see Rashdall i. 209, note 2, and 221, note 5), and the
+_master_ or _doctor_ (two terms at first equivalent) who, having served
+his apprenticeship and passed a definite technical test, had received
+permission to teach. The early universities of Europe, being under the
+same religious authority and animated by the same philosophy, resembled
+each other very closely in curriculum and general organization and
+examinations, and by the authority of the emperor, or of the pope in
+most cases, the permission to teach granted by one university was valid
+in all (_jus ubicunque docendi_).
+
+The earliest university examinations of which a description is available
+are those in civil and in canon law held at Bologna at a period
+subsequent to 1219. The student was admitted without examination as
+bachelor after from four to six years' study, and after from six to
+eight years' study became qualified as a candidate for the doctorate. He
+might obtain the doctorate in both branches of law in ten years
+(Rashdall i. 221-222).
+
+The doctoral examination at Bologna in the 13th-14th centuries consisted
+of two parts--a private examination which was the real test, and a
+public one of a ceremonial character (_conventus_). The candidate first
+took an "oath that he had complied with all the statutable conditions,
+that he would give no more than the statutable fees or entertainments to
+the rector himself, the doctor or his fellow-students, and that he would
+obey the rector." He was then presented to the archdeacon of Bologna by
+one or more doctors, who were required to have satisfied themselves of
+his fitness by private examination. On the morning of the examination,
+after attending mass, he was assigned by one of the doctors of the
+assembled college two passages (_puncta_) in the civil or canon law,
+which he retired to his house to study, possibly with the assistance of
+the presenting doctor. Later in the day he gave a lecture on, or
+exposition of, the prepared passages, and was examined on them by two of
+the doctors appointed by the college. Other doctors might then put
+supplementary questions on law arising out of the passages, or might
+suggest objections to his answers. The vote of the doctors present was
+taken by ballot, and the fate of the candidate was determined by the
+majority. The successful candidate, who received the title of
+licentiate, was, on payment of a heavy fee and other expenses, permitted
+to proceed to the _conventus_ or final public examination. This
+consisted in the delivery of a speech and the defence of a thesis on
+some point of law, selected by the candidate, against opponents selected
+from among the students. The successful candidate received from the
+archdeacon the formal "licence to teach" by the authority of the pope in
+the name of the Trinity, and was invested with the insignia of office.
+At Bologna, though not at Paris, the "permission to teach" soon became
+fictitious, only a small number of doctors being allowed to exercise the
+right of teaching in that university (Rashdall).
+
+In the faculty of arts of Paris, towards the end of the 13th century,
+the system was already more complicated than at Bologna. The
+baccalaureate, licentiateship, and mastership formed three distinct
+degrees. For admission to the baccalaureate a preliminary test or
+"Responsions" was first required, at which the candidate had to dispute
+in grammar or logic with a master. The examiners then inspected the
+certificates (_schedulae_) of residence and of having attended lectures
+in the prescribed subjects, and examined him in the contents of his
+books. The successful candidate was admitted to maintain a thesis
+against an opponent, a process called "determination" (see Rashdall i.
+443 et seq.), and as bachelor was then permitted to give "cursory"
+lectures. After five or six years from the date of beginning his studies
+(matriculation) and being twenty years of age (these conditions varied
+at different periods), a bachelor was permitted to present himself for
+the examination for the licentiateship, which was divided into two
+parts. The first part was conducted in private by the chancellor and
+four examiners (_temptatores in cameris_), and included an inquiry into
+the candidate's residence, attendance at lectures, and performance of
+exercises, as well as examination in prescribed books; those candidates
+adjudged worthy were admitted to the more important examination before
+the faculty, and the names of successful candidates were sent to the
+chancellor in batches of eight or more at a time, arranged in order of
+merit. (The order of merit at the examination for the licentiateship
+existed in Paris till quite recently.) Each successful candidate was
+then required to maintain a thesis chosen by himself (_quodlibetica_) in
+St Julian's church, and was finally submitted to a purely formal public
+examination (_collatio_) at either the episcopal palace or the abbey of
+Ste Genevieve, before receiving from the chancellor, in the name of the
+Trinity, the licence to incept or begin to teach in the faculty of arts.
+After some six months more the licentiate took part "in a peculiarly
+solemn disputation known as his 'Vespers,'" then gave his formal
+inaugural lecture or disputation before the faculty, and was received
+into the faculty as master. This last process was called "inception."
+
+In discussing the value of medieval examinations of the kind described,
+Paulsen (_The German Universities_ (1906), p. 25) asserts that they were
+well adapted to increase a student's alertness, his power of
+comprehending new ideas, and his ability quickly and surely to
+assimilate them to his own, and that "they did more to enable [students]
+to grasp a subject than the mute and solitary reviewing and cramming of
+our modern examinations can possibly do." At their best they fulfilled
+precisely the technical purpose for which they were intended; they fully
+tested the capacity of the candidate to teach the subjects which he was
+required to teach in accordance with the methods which he was required
+to use. The limitations of the test were the limitations of the
+educational and philosophic ideals of the time, in which a dogmatic
+basis was presupposed to all knowledge and criticism was limited to the
+superstructure. At their worst, even with venal examiners (and
+additional fees were often offered as a bribe), Rashdall regards these
+examinations (at the end of the 13th century) as probably "less of a
+farce than the pass examinations of Oxford and Cambridge almost within
+the memory of persons now living." It is, however, to be pointed out
+that the standard in Paris and elsewhere at a later date became
+scandalously low in some cases. In some universities the sons of nobles
+were regularly excused certain examinations. At Cambridge in 1774 Fellow
+Commoners were examined with such precipitation to fulfil the formal
+requirements of the statutes that the ceremony was termed "huddling for
+a degree" (Jebb, _Remarks upon the Present Mode of Education in the
+University of Cambridge_, 4th ed., 1774, p. 32). The last privileges of
+this kind were abolished at Cambridge by a grace passed on the 20th of
+March 1884.
+
+In the medieval examinations described above we find most of the
+elements of our present examinations: certificates of previous study and
+good conduct, preparation of set-books, questioning on subjects not
+specially prepared, division of examinations into various parts,
+classification in order of merit, payment of fees, the presentation of a
+dissertation, and the defence and publication of a thesis (a term of
+which the meaning has now become extended).
+
+The requirement to write answers to questions written or dictated, to
+satisfy a practical test (other than in teaching), and a clinical test
+in medicine, appear to be of later date.[1] The medieval candidate for
+the doctorate in medicine, although required to have attended practice
+before presenting himself, discussed as his thesis a purely theoretical
+question, often semi-theological in character, of which as an extreme
+example may be quoted "whether Adam had a navel."
+
+The competitive system was developed considerably at Louvain, and in the
+15th century the candidates for the mastership of arts were divided into
+three classes (_rigorosi_, honour-men; _transibiles_, pass-men;
+_gratiosi_, charity-passes), while a fourth, which was not published,
+contained the names of those who failed. In the 17th century the first
+class comprised the names of twelve, and the second, of twenty-four,
+candidates, who were divided on the report of their teachers into
+classes before the examination, and finally arranged in order of merit
+by the examiners (Vernulaeus, quoted by Sir W. Hamilton, _Discussions_,
+1852; p. 647; Rashdall, loc. cit. ii. 262). At the Cambridge tripos (as
+described by Jebb in 1774, _Remarks_, &c., pp. 20-31) the first
+twenty-four candidates were also selected by a preliminary test; they
+were then divided further into "wranglers" (the disputants, _par
+excellence_) and _Senior Optimes_, the next twelve on the list being
+called the _Junior Optimes_. These names have in the mathematics tripos
+survived the procedure. (The name _Tripos_ is derived from the
+three-legged stool on which "an old bachilour," selected for the
+purpose, sat during his disputation with the senior bachelor of the
+year, who was required to propound two questions to him.)
+
+The subjects in which the medieval universities examined were (i.) those
+of the trivium and quadrivium in the faculty of arts; (ii.) theology;
+(iii.) medicine; and (iv.) civil and canon law. The number of subjects
+in which examinations are held has since grown immensely. We can only
+sketch in outline the transformations of certain typical university
+systems of examinations.
+
+At Oxford there is no record of a process of formal examination on books
+similar to that of Paris (Rashdall, ii. 442 et seq.), disputations being
+apparently the only test applied in its early history. Examinations were
+definitely introduced for the B.A. and M.A. degrees by Laud in 1636-1638
+(Brodrick, _History of Oxford_, p. 114), but the standard prescribed was
+so much beyond the actual requirements of later times that it may be
+doubted if it was enforced. The studies fell in the 18th century into an
+"abject state," from which they were first raised by a statute passed in
+1800 (_Report of Oxford University Commission of 1850-1852_, p. 60 et
+seq.), under which distinctions were first allotted to the ablest
+candidates for the bachelor's degree. Further changes were made in 1807
+and 1825; and in 1830 a distinction was made between honours
+examinations of a more difficult character, at which successful
+candidates were divided into four classes, and pass examinations of an
+easier character. By the statutes of 1849 and 1858 an intermediate
+"Moderations" examination was instituted between the preliminary
+examination called "Responsions" and the final examination. Since 1850,
+although fresh subjects of examination have been introduced, no
+considerable change of system has been made.
+
+The bachelor's degree at Oxford tended from an early period to be
+postponed to an advanced stage of studies, while the requirements for
+the master's degree diminished until, in 1807, the examination for the
+M.A. was abolished. It is now awarded to bachelors of three years'
+standing on payment of a fee.
+
+Cambridge in early times followed the example of Oxford, and here also
+the bachelor's degree became more and more important (Bass Mullinger,
+_History of the University of Cambridge from 1535_..., p. 414), and the
+M.A. has been finally reduced to a mere formality, awarded on terms
+similar to those of the sister university. The standard of examinations
+was raised in Cambridge at an earlier date than at Oxford, and in the
+18th century the tripos "established the reputation of Cambridge as a
+School of Mathematical Science." The school, however, produced few, if
+any, great mathematicians between Newton and George Green. It was only
+between 1830 and 1840 that the standard of the tripos became a high one.
+At Cambridge there is no intermediate examination between the "Previous
+Examination" (commonly called "Little-go"), which corresponds to Oxford
+"Responsions" or "Smalls" and the triposes and examinations for the
+"Poll" degree, which correspond to the Oxford final honours and pass
+examinations respectively. But most of the triposes have been divided
+into two parts, of which the second is not obligatory in order to obtain
+a degree. The "senior wrangler" was the first candidate in order of
+merit in the first part of the mathematical tripos. The abolition of
+order of merit at this examination was decided on in 1906, and names of
+candidates appeared in this order for the last time in 1909.
+
+At the Scottish universities the B.A. degree has become extinct, and the
+M.A., awarded on the results of examination, is the first degree in the
+faculty of arts.
+
+The incorporation of the university of London in 1836 marks an era in
+the history of examinations; the teaching and examining functions of a
+university were dissociated for the first time. Until 1858 the London
+examinations were open only to students in affiliated colleges, and the
+teachers had no share in the appointment of the examiners or in
+determining the curricula for examinations; in 1858 the examinations
+were thrown open to all comers, and no requirements were insisted on
+with regard to courses of study except for degrees in the faculty of
+medicine. The sole function of the university was to examine, and its
+examinations for matriculation and for degrees in arts and science were
+carried on by means of written papers not only in London but in many
+centres in the United Kingdom and the colonies. From the first the
+degrees were (unlike those of Oxford and Cambridge until 1871) open to
+all male persons without religious distinctions; and in 1878 they were
+opened to women. (Tripos examinations were thrown open to women at
+Cambridge by the grace of 24th Feb. 1881, and at Oxford women were
+admitted to examinations for honours by statute of 29th April 1884.
+Proposals to admit women to university degrees were rejected by Oxford
+and Cambridge in 1896 and 1897 respectively.)
+
+The standard of difficulty set by the university of London was a high
+one, very much higher for its pass degrees than the corresponding
+standards at Oxford and Cambridge, while the standard for honours was
+equally high. In medicine the examinations were made both wider in range
+and more searching than those of any other examining body. But, for
+reasons dealt with below, great discontent was roused by the new system.
+In 1880 the Victoria University, Manchester, was established, in which
+teaching and examining were again united; and in the universities since
+established, with the exception of the Royal University of Ireland
+(which was created in 1880 as an examining body on the model of London,
+but which was dissolved under the Irish Universities Act 1908, and
+replaced by the National University of Ireland and the Queen's
+University of Belfast), the precedent of Victoria has been followed. By
+an act passed in 1898, of which the provisions came into force in 1900,
+the university of London was reconstituted as a teaching university,
+although provision was made for the continuance of the system of
+examinations by "external examiners" for "external students," together
+with "internal examinations" for "internal students," in which the
+teachers and the external examiners of the university are associated.
+The examinations in music and the final examinations in law and medicine
+are carried on [1910] both for "internal" and "external" students by
+"external" examiners only, who are, however, appointed on the
+recommendation of boards of studies consisting mainly of London
+teachers.
+
+At the university of Dublin, examinations have been maintained both for
+the B.A. and M.A. degrees, and students may be admitted to the
+examinations in subjects other than divinity, law, medicine, and
+engineering without attendance at university courses.
+
+The examinations of the newer universities, the Victoria University of
+Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool, Leeds, Sheffield and Wales, are open
+only to students at these universities, and are conducted by the
+teachers in association with one or more external examiners for each
+subject. In some universities, e.g. Manchester, the M.A. degree is given
+after examination to students who have taken a pass, and without
+examination to those who have taken an honours degree.
+
+The universities which have departed furthest from the medieval system
+of examinations, at any rate in appearance, are those of Germany. The
+baccalaureate has disappeared, but students cannot be matriculated
+without having passed the _Abiturienten-examen_ (see below), probably
+the most severe of all entrance examinations (foreign students may be
+exempted under certain conditions). The student desiring to proceed to
+the doctorate is free from examinations thereafter until he presents his
+thesis for the doctor's degree,[2] when, if it is accepted, he is
+submitted to a public oral examination not only in his principal subject
+(_Hauptfach_), but also as a rule in two or more collateral subjects
+(_Nebenfacher_). The doctor's degree does not give the right to teach in
+a faculty (_venia legendi_). To acquire this a doctor must present a
+further thesis (_Habilitationsschrift_), and must deliver two lectures,
+one before the faculty, followed by a discussion (_colloquium_), the
+other in public; but these lectures "seem to be merely secondary and are
+tending to become so more and more"; "scientific productiveness is so
+sharply emphasized among the conditions for admission that it
+overshadows all the rest" (Paulsen, loc. cit. p. 165).
+
+In France the examination for the baccalaureate, though conducted in
+part by university examiners, has become a school-leaving examination
+(see below). The licentiateship has been preserved in the faculties of
+arts, science and laws, and is in point of difficulty about equal to the
+pass degree examinations of the university of London, though differing
+in the nature of the tests. In the faculty of sciences, the three
+subjects of examination selected may, under a recent regulation, be
+taken separately. Until a few years ago the successful candidates at the
+licentiateship were arranged in order of merit. For the doctorate in the
+faculty of letters two theses must be submitted, of which the subject
+and plan must be approved by the faculty (until recently one of them was
+required to be written in Latin). Permission to print the theses is
+given by the rector or vice-rector after report from one or more
+professors, and they are then discussed publicly by the faculty and the
+candidate (_soutenance de these_). In this public discussion the
+"disputation" of the middle ages survives in its least changed form. The
+literary theses required by French universities are, as a rule, volumes
+of several hundred pages, and more important in character even than the
+German _Habilitationsschrift_. The possession of the doctorate is a
+_sine qua non_ for eligibility to a university chair, and to a
+lectureship in the university of Paris.
+
+In the faculty of sciences a candidate for the doctorate may submit two
+theses, or else submit one thesis and undergo an oral examination.
+
+For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are
+required.
+
+In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for the
+doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis submitted.
+
+There is also a special doctorate, the "_doctorat d'Universite_,"
+awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are diplomas
+(_Diplomes d'Etudes superieures_) awarded on dissertations and
+examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and geography, classics
+or modern languages, selected mainly by the candidate and approved by
+the faculty.
+
+2. _Professional Examinations._ (a) _Teaching._--University examinations
+for degrees having ceased to be used as technical tests of teaching
+capacity, new examinations have been devised for this purpose. The test
+for German university teachers has been described above. For secondary
+teachers, W. von Humboldt instituted a special examination in 1810
+(Paulsen, _Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts_, ii. pp. 283 and 393), and
+an examination for primary teachers was instituted in Prussia in 1794.
+
+In France there is a competitive examination for secondary teachers, the
+_agregation_, originally established in 1766. _Agreges_ have a right to
+state employment and they alone can occupy the highest teaching post
+(_chaire de professeur_) in a state secondary school, other posts being
+open to licentiates. There are also examinations for primary teachers.
+The tests for teachers are different for the two sexes.
+
+In England there is no obligatory test for secondary teachers. The
+universities and the College of Preceptors conduct examinations for
+teaching diplomas. The Board of Education holds special examinations
+(Preliminary Certificate examination and Certificate examination, &c.)
+for primary teachers.
+
+(b) _Medicine._--See MEDICAL EDUCATION.
+
+(c) _Other Professions._--A system of professional examinations carried
+on by professional bodies, in some cases with legal sanction, was
+developed in England during the 19th century. Those in the following
+subjects are the most important: Accountancy (Institute of Chartered
+Accountants and Society of Accountants and Auditors), actuarial work
+(Institute of Actuaries), music (Royal Academy of Music, Royal College
+of Music, Trinity College of Music, Royal College of Organists, and the
+Incorporated Society of Musicians), pharmacy (Pharmaceutical Society),
+plumbing (the Plumbers' Company), surveying (Surveyors' Institution),
+veterinary medicine (Royal College of Veterinary Surgeons), technical
+subjects, e.g. cotton-spinning, dyeing, motor-manufacture (City & Guilds
+of London Institute), architecture (Royal Institute of British
+Architects), commercial subjects, shorthand (the Society of Arts and
+London Chamber of Commerce), engineering (Institutions of Civil
+Engineers, of Mechanical Engineers, and of Electrical Engineers).
+
+3. _School-leaving Examinations._--The faculty of arts in medieval
+universities covered secondary as well as higher education in the
+subjects concerned. The division in arts subjects between secondary and
+university education has been drawn at different levels in different
+countries. Thus the first two years of the arts curriculum in English
+and American universities correspond, roughly speaking, to the last two
+years spent in a secondary school of Germany or France, and the
+continental "school-leaving examinations" correspond to the intermediate
+examinations of the newer English universities and to the pass
+examinations for the degree at Oxford and Cambridge (Mark Pattison,
+_Suggestions on Academical Organization_, 1868, p. 238, and Matthew
+Arnold, _Higher Schools and Universities in Germany_, 1892, p. 209).
+
+A tabular summary is given (see Tables I., II., III., IV.) of the
+requirements of the secondary school-leaving examinations of France,
+Prussia (for the nine-year secondary schools) and Scotland, and of the
+university of London.
+
+There are in England a number of school examinations which, under
+prescribed conditions, also serve as school-leaving examinations, and
+give entrance to certain universities, especially the Oxford and
+Cambridge local examinations (both established in 1858), and the
+examinations of the Oxford and Cambridge "Joint Board." A movement to
+reduce the number of entrance examinations and to secure uniformity in
+their standard was set on foot in 1901. In that year the General Medical
+Council communicated to the Board of Education a memorial on the subject
+from the Headmasters' Conference. The memorial was further communicated
+to various professional bodies concerned. Conferences were held by the
+consultative committee of the Board of Education in 1903, with
+representatives of the universities, the Headmasters' Conference, the
+Association of Head-Masters, the Association of Head-Mistresses, the
+College of Preceptors, the Private Schools' Association, and with
+representatives of professional bodies. The committee were of opinion
+that a central board, consisting of representatives of the Board of
+Education and the different examining bodies, should be established, to
+co-ordinate and control the standards of the examinations, and to secure
+interchangeability of certificates, &c., as soon as a sufficient number
+of such bodies signified their willingness to be represented on the
+board. They recommended that the examination should be conducted by
+external and internal examiners, representing in each case the examining
+body and the school staff respectively, and that reports on the school
+work of candidates should be available for reference by the examiners
+(circular of the Board of Education of 12th of July 1904).
+
+The "accrediting" system in the United States was started by the
+university of Michigan in 1871. A school desiring to be accredited is
+submitted to inspection without previous notice. If the inspection is
+satisfactory, the school is accredited by a university for from one to
+three years, and upon the favourable report of its principal any of its
+students are admitted to the university by which it has been accredited
+without any entrance examination. In practice it is found that many
+students whom their teachers refuse to certify are able to pass the
+university entrance examination. The statistics of nine years show that
+the standard of the certified students is higher than that of
+non-certified students. Two hundred and fifty schools are accredited by
+the university of Michigan. In 1904 it was stated that the system was
+gaining favour in the east,[3] and that it had been adopted more or less
+by all the eastern colleges and universities with the exception of
+Harvard, Yale, Princeton and Columbia.
+
+4. _Methods of Examination._--Examinations may test (i.) knowledge, or,
+more exactly, the power of restating facts and arguments of a kind that
+may be learnt by rote; (ii.) the power of doing something, e.g. of
+making a _precis_ of a written document, of writing a letter or a report
+on a particular subject with a particular object in view, of translating
+from or into a foreign language, of solving a mathematical problem, of
+criticizing a passage from a literary work, of writing an essay on an
+historical or literary subject with the aid of books in a library, of
+diagnosing the malady of a patient, of analysing a chemical mixture or
+compound; and (the highest form under the rubric) of making an original
+contribution to learning or science as the result of personal
+investigation or experiment. Examinations are carried out at present by
+means of (1) written papers; (2) oral examinations; (3) practical,
+including in medicine clinical, tests; (4) theses; or a combination of
+these.
+
+
+  Written.
+
+In written examinations the candidates are, as a rule, supplied with a
+number of printed questions, of which they must answer all, or a certain
+proportion, within a given time, varying, as a rule, from 1-1/2 to 3
+hours, the latter being the duration most generally adopted for higher
+examinations in England. Whereas in France and Germany the questions are
+generally few in number and require long answers, showing constructive
+skill and mastery of the mother-tongue on the part of the candidates,
+such "essay-papers" are comparatively rare in England. In many subjects,
+the written examinations test memory rather than capacity. It has been
+suggested that sets of questions to be answered in writing should as a
+rule be divided into two parts: (i.) a number of questions requiring
+short answers and intended to test the range of the candidate's
+knowledge; (ii.) questions requiring long answers, intended to test its
+depth, and the candidate's powers of co-ordination and reflection. A
+necessary condition for the application of the second kind of test is
+that time should be given for reflection and for rewriting, say
+one-third or one-quarter of the whole time allowed. A further
+distinction is important, especially in such subjects as mathematics or
+foreign languages, in which it is legitimate to ask what precise power
+on the part of a candidate the passing of an examination shall signify.
+Owing to a prevailing confusion between tests of memory and tests of
+capacity, the allowance for chance fairly applied to the former is apt
+to be unduly extended to the latter. In applying tests of memory, it may
+be legitimate to allow a candidate to pass who answers correctly from 30
+to 50% of the questions; such an allowance if applied to a test of
+capacity, such as the performance of a sum in addition, the solution of
+triangles by means of trigonometrical tables, or the translation of an
+easy passage from a foreign language, appears to be irrational. A
+candidate who obtains only 50% of the marks in performing such
+operations cannot be regarded as being able to perform them; and, if the
+examination is to be treated as a test of his capacity to perform them,
+he should be rejected unless he obtains full marks, less a certain
+allowance (say 10, or at most 20%) in view of the more or less
+artificial conditions inherent in all examinations.
+
+
+  Oral.
+
+The oral examination is better suited than the written to discover the
+range of a candidate's knowledge; it also serves as a test of his powers
+of expression in his mother-tongue, or in a foreign language, and may be
+used (as in the examination for entrance to the Osborne Naval College)
+to test the important qualities (hardly tested in any other examinations
+at present), readiness of wit, common-sense and nerve. It may be
+objected that candidates are heavily handicapped by nervousness in oral
+examinations, but this objection does not afford sufficient ground for
+rejecting the test, provided that it is supplemented by others. Oral
+tests are used almost invariably in medical examinations; and there is a
+growing tendency to make them compulsory in dealing with modern
+languages. Oral examinations are much more used abroad than in England,
+where the pupils during their school years receive but little exercise
+in the art of consecutive speaking.
+
+
+TABLE I.--PRUSSIA: ABITURIENTEN EXAMEN
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    _Abiturienten Examen_ (established in 1788).
+
+  II. Minimum Age for Entry.
+
+    Age only limited by condition of length of school course. The usual
+    age is 17-18.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    9 years.
+
+    Candidates who have not attended the 9 years' school course may be
+    admitted to the examination on special application.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    In _Gymnasium_.
+
+            Written.                        Oral.
+      German essay.                   Latin.
+      Mathematics.                    Greek.
+      Translation into Latin.         English or French.
+      Translation from Greek into     Religion.
+        German.                       History.
+                                      Mathematics.
+
+    In _Real-Gymnasium_.
+
+            Written.                        Oral.
+      German essay.                   Latin.
+      Mathematics.                    English.
+      Translation from Latin.         French.
+      Translation from German into    Physics or Chemistry.
+        or essay in English or        Religion.
+        French.                       History.
+      Physics.                        Mathematics.
+
+    In _Ober-Realschule_.
+
+            Written.                        Oral.
+      German essay.                   English.
+      Mathematics.                    French.
+      An exercise in French and in    Physics.
+        English (an essay in one      Chemistry.
+        language and a translation    Religion.
+        from the other into German).  History.
+      Physics or Chemistry.           Mathematics.
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    The object of the examination is defined as being a test of whether
+    the candidate has fulfilled the aims laid down in the curricula,
+    &c., prescribed for a _Gymnasium_, _Real-gymnasium_, or
+    _Ober-realschule_, as the case may be, and the subjects of
+    examination are those prescribed in the curricula for the kind of
+    school concerned.
+
+    The report on the school work of each candidate in his various
+    subjects is laid before the Examining Board before the beginning of
+    the examination.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The Examining Board consists of a government inspector (_der
+    Konigliche Kommissar_) acting as chairman, the headmaster of the
+    school, and the teachers of the highest classes in the school. The
+    inspector may nominate a deputy, who is as a rule, the headmaster of
+    the school.
+
+    Each teacher concerned selects for the written examination three
+    alternative subjects in his branch, from which, after receiving a
+    report thereon from the headmaster, the inspector makes a final
+    choice.
+
+    The papers are marked by the teachers concerned and circulated the
+    the whole Board of Examiners, who then decide whether individual
+    candidates shall be (i.) rejected, (ii.) admitted with (ii.)
+    admitted with oral examination, or (iii.) submitted to the oral
+    examination.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The written examination extends over four or five days. Only one
+    paper is given each day, for which 3 to 5-1/2 hours are allowed
+    (5-1/2 hours for the German essay). For essays in foreign languages
+    dictionaries may be used.
+
+
+TABLE II.--FRANCE: BACCALAUREAT
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    _Baccalaureat de l'enseignement secondaire._
+
+    This examination has been carried on under different forms since
+    1808. The regulations summarized here date from 1902, when the
+    _baccalaureat_ described replaced the _baccalaureat-es-lettres,
+    baccalaureat-es-sciences_, and _baccalaureat de l'enseignement
+    moderne._
+
+  II. Minimum Age for Entry.
+
+    Part I., 16, or, with special permission, 15.
+
+    Part II. may not be taken within an academic year after passing Part
+    I.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    There is no requirement of attendance. Part I. of the examination
+    corresponds exactly to the subjects taken in the "second cycle" of
+    secondary education, and Part II. to the _classe de philosophie_ and
+    _classe de mathematiques._
+
+    See also under V.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    Part I. is divided into four Branches, viz.:--
+
+      (1) Latin-Greek.
+      (2) Latin-modern languages.
+      (3) Latin-science.
+      (4) Science-modern languages.
+
+    In each Branch the examination is divided into two parts, viz.,
+    written and oral. The nature of the examination may be indicated by
+    the following requirements in Branch (1):--
+
+                     Written
+         (i.) French composition.
+        (ii.) Translation from Latin.
+       (iii.) Translation from Greek.
+
+                     Oral
+         (i.) Explanation of a Greek text.
+        (ii.) Explanation of a Latin text.
+       (iii.) Explanation of a French text.
+        (iv.) Text in a modern foreign language.
+         (v.) Interrogation on ancient history.
+        (vi.) Interrogation on modern history.
+       (vii.) Interrogation on geography.
+      (viii.) Interrogation on mathematics.
+        (ix.) Interrogation on physics.
+
+    Part II. is divided into two Branches, viz.:--
+
+      (1) Philosophy.
+      (2) Mathematics.
+
+    The nature of the examination may be indicated by the following
+    requirements in Branch (I):--
+
+                     Written
+         (i.) An essay in French on a philosophical subject.
+        (ii.) An examination in physical and natural science.
+
+                     Oral
+         (i.) Interrogation on philosophy and philosophical writers.
+        (ii.) Interrogation on contemporary history.
+       (iii.) Interrogation on physical science.
+        (iv.) Interrogation on natural science.
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    The syllabus of the examination is that prescribed for the higher
+    classes in the Government secondary schools.
+
+    The candidate may submit his _livret scolaire_, or school record,
+    which will be taken into account.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The Board of Examiners (or "jury") consists of (i.) University
+    examiners being members of a faculty of letters or faculty of
+    sciences; (ii.) secondary teachers, active or retired, selected by
+    the minister of public instruction. The Board consists of from four
+    to six examiners, of whom, when the number is even, half are chosen
+    from either category.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The written portion of Part I. extends over from 9 to 10 hours in
+    all (not on a single day), in periods of 3 or 4 hours each; the
+    written portion of Part II. extends over from 6 to 9 hours. The oral
+    examination for each part lasts 3/4 hour on the average, and is
+    public.
+
+
+TABLE III.--SCOTLAND: SCHOOL-LEAVING EXAMINATION
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    Scottish school-leaving examination (established 1888). (See
+    pamphlet on the "Leaving Certificate Examination" issued by the
+    Scottish Education Department, 1908.)
+
+  II. Minimum Age for Entry.
+
+    17 on 1st of January following the year in which the candidate
+    passes the last of the written examinations.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    4 years.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    Candidates must pass in four subjects on the higher grade standard,
+    or in three subjects on the higher grade standard and two on the
+    lower. A pass in drawing is accepted in lieu of one of the two lower
+    grade passes. A pass in Gaelic is reckoned as a pass on lower grade.
+    All candidates must have passed in higher English and in either
+    higher or lower grade mathematics. The remaining subjects may be
+    either science with one or more languages (Latin Greek, French,
+    German, Spanish, or Italian), or languages only. But where two or
+    more languages other than English are taken, the candidate's group
+    must include either higher or lower grade Latin. A pass in Spanish,
+    Italian, or science (in which subjects there is only one
+    examination) is reckoned as a pass on the higher grade standard.
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    Schools are inspected, and the course of instruction must be
+    approved by the Scottish Education Department, but the examinations
+    are conducted by external examiners with whom teachers are not
+    associated.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The examiners are appointed by the Scottish Education Department.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The examination consists of a written examination and an oral
+    examination, on which stress is laid. The length of the examination
+    varies with the subjects selected. The periods of examination vary
+    from 1 to 2-1/2 hours. If the candidate selects on the higher grade,
+    English, Latin, mathematics, and French, the examination extends
+    over 19-1/2 hours.
+
+
+TABLE IV.--UNIVERSITY OF LONDON SCHOOL EXAMINATION, MATRICULATION STANDARD
+
+  I. Name of Examination.
+
+    School examination, matriculation standard (established in 1902).
+
+    _Note_--A higher school-leaving certificate is awarded to pupils who
+    (i.) have pursued an approved course of study for a period of years
+    at a school or schools under inspection approved by the University;
+    and (ii.) being matriculated students, have passed the "higher
+    school examination" in at least three subjects at one and the same
+    examination.
+
+  II. Minimum Age For Entry.
+
+    The minimum age of entry is 15, but if the candidate is under 16 he
+    must remain at school until he is 16 years of age in order to be
+    qualified for the school-leaving certificate, and cannot be
+    registered as a student of the University until he has reached that
+    age.
+
+  III. Length of Course of Study.
+
+    The curriculum of each school is considered on its own merits.
+
+  IV. Subjects.
+
+    Pupils must satisfy the examiners in not less than five subjects, as
+    follows:--
+
+    (1) English.
+
+    (2) Elementary mathematics.
+
+    (3) Latin, or elementary mechanics, or elementary physics--heat,
+    light and sound, or elementary chemistry, or elementary botany, or
+    general elementary science.
+
+    (4) and (5) Two of the following subjects, neither of which has
+    already been taken under section (3). If Latin be not taken, one of
+    the other subjects selected must be another language, either ancient
+    or modern, from the list, and languages other than those included in
+    the list may be taken if approved by the University, provided that
+    the language is included in the regular curriculum:--Latin, Greek,
+    French, German, ancient history, modern history, history and
+    geography, physical and general geography, logic, geometrical and
+    mechanical drawing, mathematics (more advanced), elementary
+    mechanics, elementary chemistry, elementary physics--heat, light and
+    sound, elementary physics--electricity and magnetism, elementary
+    biology--botany, elementary biology--zoology, general elementary
+    science (chemistry and physics).
+
+  V. Co-ordination with Teaching.
+
+    Schools under approved inspection, and course of instruction
+    approved by the University.
+
+    The papers are ordinarily set on the matriculation syllabus, but
+    papers may be specially set more closely in accordance with the
+    school curriculum provided that the syllabus proposed is approved by
+    the University as at least equivalent to that for which it is
+    substituted.
+
+  VI. Examiners.
+
+    The examiners are ordinarily those appointed by the University for
+    the ordinary matriculation examination.
+
+  VII. Nature of Examination and General Remarks.
+
+    The examination extends over at least 18 hours, and includes an oral
+    examination in modern languages.
+
+
+  Practical.
+
+The laboratory examination may be used in subjects like physics,
+chemistry, geology, zoology, botany, anatomy, physiology, to test powers
+of manipulation and knowledge of experimental methods. In some cases
+(e.g. in certain honours examinations) the examination may be prolonged
+over one or more days, and may test higher powers of investigation. But
+such powers can only be fully tested by the performance of original
+work, under conditions difficult to fulfil in the examination room or
+laboratory. At the French examinations for the _prix de Rome_ the
+candidates are required to execute a painting in a given number of days,
+under strict supervision (_en loge_).
+
+In medicine the clinical examination of a patient is a test carried out
+under conditions more nearly approaching those of actual work than any
+other; and distinction in medical examinations is probably more often
+followed by distinction in after life than is the case in other
+examinations.
+
+
+  Thesis.
+
+For the doctor's degree (where this is not an honorary distinction) a
+thesis or dissertation is generally, though not invariably, required in
+England. Of recent years the thesis has been introduced into lower
+examinations; it is required for the master's degree at London in the
+case of internal students, in subjects other than mathematics (1910);
+both at Oxford and London, the B.Sc. degree, and at Cambridge the B.A.
+degree, may be given for research, although the number of students
+proceeding to a degree in this way is at present relatively small. In
+certain of the honours B.A. and B.Sc. examinations at Manchester and
+Liverpool, candidates may take the written portion of the examination at
+the end of the second year's course of study and submit a dissertation
+at the end of the third year. Theses are generally examined by two or
+more specialists.
+
+5. _Competitive Examinations._--The arrangement of students in order of
+merit led naturally to the use of examinations not only as a qualifying
+but also as a selective test, and to the offering of money prizes
+(including exhibitions, scholarships and fellowships) on the results. In
+1854 selection by examination as a method of appointment to posts in the
+English public service was first substituted for the patronage system,
+which had caused grave dissatisfaction (see Macaulay's speech on the
+subject, _The Times_ of the 25th of June 1853). The first public
+competitive examination for the Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, took
+place in 1855, and in 1870 the principle of open competition for the
+civil service was adopted as a general rule. (For further details see
+CIVIL SERVICE.)
+
+In the Wurttemberg civil service candidates are admitted to a year's
+probation after passing a theoretical examination, at the conclusion of
+which they must pass an examination of a more practical character (A.
+Herbert, _Sacrifice of Education_ ..., 1889, p. 111).
+
+In the award of scholarships, &c., it should be definitely decided
+whether the scholarship is to be awarded (1) for attainment, in which
+case the examination-test pure and simple may suffice, or (2) for
+promise, in which case personal information and a _curriculum vitae_ are
+necessary. To take a simple instance: a candidate partly educated in
+Germany may obtain more marks in German at a scholarship examination
+than another who is more gifted, but whose opportunities have been less;
+the question at once arises, are the examiners to take the circumstances
+of the candidate into account or not? It is understood that at the
+colleges of the older universities such circumstances are considered. It
+must again be decided whether the financial circumstances of candidates
+are to be taken into account; are scholarships intended as prizes, or as
+a means of enabling poor students to obtain a university education? In
+some cases wealthy students have been known to return the emoluments of
+scholarships. In many universities of the United States there is a
+definite understanding that emoluments shall only be accepted by those
+needing them. It would not be difficult to ask candidates to make a
+confidential declaration on this subject on entrance and to establish in
+Great Britain a tradition similar to that of the United States, and
+steps in this direction have been taken both at Oxford and Cambridge
+(Lord Curzon of Kedleston, _University Reform_, p. 86).
+
+A special allowance may be made for age. In certain scholarship
+examinations held formerly by the London County Council a percentage was
+added to the marks of each candidate proportionate to the number of
+months by which his age fell short of the maximum age for entry. The
+whole subject of entrance scholarships at English schools and
+universities, and especially their tendency to produce premature
+specialization, has recently been much discussed.
+
+6. _The Organization and Conduct of Examinations._--The organization and
+conduct of examinations, in such a way that each candidate shall be
+treated in precisely the same way as every other candidate, is a complex
+matter, especially where several thousand candidates are concerned. The
+greatest precautions must be taken to ensure the secrecy of the
+examination papers before the examination, and the effective isolation
+of individual candidates during the examination. The supervision should
+be adequate to remove all temptation to copying. The hygienic conditions
+should be such as to reduce the strain to a minimum. The question of the
+mental fatigue produced by examinations has been studied by certain
+German observers, but has not yet been fully investigated.
+
+7. _Marking, Classification and Errors of Detail._--In applying a single
+test in a qualifying examination it would be sufficient to mark
+candidates as passing or failing. But examinations consist as a rule of
+a number of tests, each one of which is complex; and a mark is recorded
+in respect of each test or portion of a test in order to enable the
+examining body to estimate the performance, considered as a whole, of
+the candidate. At Oxford the marks are not numerical, but the papers are
+judged as of this or that supposed "class," and various degrees of merit
+are indicated by the symbols [alpha], [beta], [gamma], [delta], to which
+the signs + or -may be prefixed, according as they are above or below a
+certain standard within each class. At Cambridge, numerical marks are
+used. The advantage of numerical marks is that they are more easily
+manipulated than symbols; the disadvantage, that they produce the false
+impression that merit can be estimated with mathematical accuracy.
+Professor F.Y. Edgeworth, in two papers on "The Statistics of
+Examinations" and the "Element of Chance in Competitive Examinations"
+(_Journal of the Royal Statistical Society_, 1888 and 1890), has dealt
+with the subject, although on somewhat limited lines. His
+investigations show clearly that with candidates near the border-line of
+failure, which must necessarily be fixed at a given point (subject to
+certain allowances, where more than one subject is considered), the
+element of chance necessarily enters largely into the question of pass
+and failure. The fact may be stated in this way:--the general efficiency
+of the test being granted, it is true to say that the large majority of
+those who pass an examination will be superior in efficiency to those
+who fail; but a few of those who fail may be superior to a few of those
+who pass. These errors are not peculiar to the examination system, they
+are inherent in all human judgments. It is necessary to allow for them
+in considering the failure of an individual candidate as an index of
+inefficiency.
+
+The element of chance, which prevails in the region on either side of
+the border between pass and failure, obviously prevails equally on
+either side of the border between "classes," where candidates are
+classified; it has been suggested by Dr Schuster that numerical order
+should accompany classification so as to avoid the creation of an
+artificial gap between the last candidate in one class and the highest
+in the next. Edgeworth's objection to such an argument is that the
+number of uncertainties is far less when candidates are classed than
+when they are placed in ostensible order of merit.
+
+The difficulties of comparison of marks are further complicated when
+students take different subjects and it is necessary to compare their
+merit by means of marks allotted by different examiners and added
+together. In a pass examination the question has to be considered how
+far, if at all, excellence in one subject shall compensate for
+deficiency in another, a question which is indeterminate until the
+precise object of the whole examination is formulated. In the
+competitive examination for the Indian civil service, places are
+allotted on the aggregate of marks obtained in a number of subjects
+selected by the candidate from a list of thirty-two. The successful
+candidates are compared a year later on the results of another
+examination in which there is again a choice, though a much more limited
+one. The order of merit in the two examinations is, as a rule, very
+different.
+
+Two further points may be noted. An examiner may have underestimated the
+time required to answer the questions which he has set; this will be
+obvious if with a large number of candidates (say 300 or 400) none
+approaches the maximum mark. In this case the maximum should be reduced.
+Again, it is generally recognized to be undesirable to give marks for a
+smattering. In order to avoid this various devices are adopted. The
+simplest is to award a proportion of marks (say 10 to 15, or even 20%)
+for "general impression." In some examinations, unless say 20% or more
+marks are obtained for a particular subject, no credit is given for the
+paper in that subject. Latham (_The Action of Examinations_, 1877, p.
+490) describes other numerical adjustments used to meet this difficulty,
+especially that used in English civil service examinations. The
+numerical results of the civil service examinations are reduced so as to
+conform to a certain symmetrical "frequency-curve," of which the
+abscissae represent percentages of marks between definite limits and the
+ordinates the number of candidates obtaining marks between those limits.
+C.E. Fawsitt (_The Education of the Examiner_, Royal Philosophical
+Society of Glasgow, 1905) shows that frequency-curves deduced from
+actual investigation of class-marks are not symmetrical, but have two
+maxima corresponding to the performance of "non-workers" and of
+"workers." In pass examinations of a well-known character there is a
+maximum just beyond the pass mark, this being the point of efficiency at
+which many students aim.
+
+8. _The Object and Efficiency of Examinations, and their Indirect
+Effects._--In order to estimate the efficiency of an examination as a
+test, the precise question should be asked in each case--what is it
+intended to test? Much of the evil attributed to, and resulting from,
+examinations is due to the fact that this question has not been
+definitely put, and that a test legitimate for certain purposes has been
+used for others to which it is unsuited. Examinations are suited in the
+first instance for the purpose for which they were originally designed
+in medieval universities--the test of technical and professional
+capacity; it has never been proposed to abolish qualifying examinations
+for doctors, pharmaceutical chemists, &c.; the tests applied are (or
+should be) direct tests of capacity carried out under conditions as
+nearly as possible like those of actual practice. If a student can
+auscultate correctly, or make up a prescription, at an examination, he
+will in all probability be able to do so in other circumstances.
+
+Examinations as tests of the knowledge of isolated facts are necessarily
+of relatively small value, because the memory of such facts is
+transient; and memorization of a large number of facts for examination
+purposes is generally admitted to be specially transient; the
+"knowledge-test," considered apart from a test of capacity, is in fact
+not a test of permanent knowledge, but of the power of retaining facts
+for a length of time which it is impossible to estimate and which with
+some candidates extends over a few weeks only. When used as tests of
+"general culture," examinations, in the view of Paulsen, based on a
+study of German education, not only fail in their purpose, but tend to
+destroy the faculties which it is desired to develop (_Geschichte des
+gelehrten Unterrichts_, ii. 684 et seq.); to prepare ready answers to
+the numberless questions which an examiner may ask on a large variety of
+subjects is to paralyse the natural and free activity of the mind (cf.
+A.C. Benson on the results of English secondary classical education,
+_From a College Window_, 3rd ed., 1906, pp. 154-177). If pushed to its
+logical conclusion the view of Paulsen must, it is submitted, lead to
+the complete abandonment at examinations of tests of "knowledge" as
+distinguished from direct tests of capacity. Thus isolated questions on
+details of grammar would disappear from papers on the mother-tongue and
+on foreign languages, in which the test would consist mainly or entirely
+of composition and translation. Erudition would be tested by the power
+of writing, at leisure, a dissertation on some subject selected by the
+examiners or the candidate or, in the case of a teacher, by the delivery
+of a lecture on the subject. At the French _agregation_ candidates are
+given twenty-four hours for the preparation of a lecture of this kind.
+Such examinations would test the "skill in the manipulation of facts
+which is the true sign of a trained intelligence" (cf. K. Pearson, "The
+Function of Science in the Modern State," _Ency. Brit._ 10th ed. xxxii.
+Prefatory essay). They might possibly be supplemented by easy oral
+examinations to test both range of knowledge and readiness of mind. But
+in the case of a pupil who had passed through a good secondary school it
+would be as safe to rely for supplementary information under this head
+on the testimony of his teachers, as it is to rely on their evidence
+with regard to the fundamental and all-important element on which no
+examination supplies direct information--personal character.
+
+The main arguments of those opposed to the examination system may be
+summarized as follows: (i.) Examinations tend to destroy natural
+interests and exclude from the attention of the pupil all matters
+outside the purview of the examination (they would not do so if
+examinations were so limited in character that preparation therefor
+could absorb only a fraction of the pupil's time); (ii.) they tend to
+cultivate a personal judgment where no personal basis of judgment is
+possible (this argument, directed mainly against the Oxford essay
+system, applies not to examinations in general, but to the character of
+the subjects set for essays); (iii.) competitive examinations on the
+home and Indian civil services scheme tend to diffuse mental energy over
+too many subjects (but see (xviii.) below); (iv.) examinations,
+especially competitive examinations, tend to become more and more
+difficult, difficulty being confused with efficiency--this has shown
+itself with the Cambridge mathematical tripos, in which for years
+questions of increasing difficulty were set on relatively unimportant
+subjects, until the examination was reformed (reply: all examinations
+should be overhauled periodically); (v.) they tend to paralyse the
+powers of exposition, all statements of knowledge being thrown into a
+form suitable, not for an uninstructed person, but for one who already
+possesses it, the examiner (this tendency should be counteracted by
+definite training in composition); (vi.) the sample of knowledge and
+capacity yielded at an examination is frequently not a fair sample; it
+is liable to extreme variations in a favourable sense, if the candidate
+happens to have prepared the precise questions asked; in an unfavourable
+sense, if the candidate is suffering from misfortune or from accidental
+ill-health, the latter, owing to the periodic function, occurring much
+more frequently in the case of women than of men--[the reform of
+examination methods may remove to a great extent the element of chance
+in questions set; in a competitive examination it is impossible to allow
+for ill-health; in a qualifying examination it is difficult to make any
+allowance unless the examination is definitely conducted in whole or in
+part by the teachers, and the past record of the candidate is taken into
+account (cf. Paulsen, _The German Universities_, pp. 344-345)]; (vii.)
+examinations of several hundred candidates at a time cannot be
+rationally conducted so as to be equally fair to the individuality of
+all candidates; the individual test is the only complete one (it is
+admitted that examinations on a large scale necessarily involve a margin
+of error; but this error may be reduced to a minimum, especially by a
+combination of oral and practical with written work); (viii.) the
+multiplicity of school examinations required for different reasons
+produces confusion in our secondary education (there is a growing
+tendency to admit equivalence of "school-leaving" and entrance
+examinations; thus entrance examinations of Oxford, Cambridge and
+London, and the Northern Universities Joint Board are interchangeable
+under certain conditions); (ix.) the multiplicity of examinations tends
+to "underselling" (the success of the London examinations in medicine
+proves that a high standard attracts candidates as well as a low one;
+possibly intermediate standards may be killed in the competition; it is
+by no means obvious that a uniform system of examinations would conduce
+to efficiency); (x.) examinations produce physical damage to health,
+especially in the case of women-students (on this point more statistical
+evidence is needed; see, however, Engelmann quoted by G. Stanley Hall,
+_Adolescence_, 1905, ii. 588 et seq.); (xi.) examinations have in
+England mechanically cast the education of women into the same mould as
+that of men, without reference to the different social functions of the
+two sexes (the remedy is obvious); (xii.) it is unjustifiable to give a
+man a university position on the results of his performance in the
+examination room, a practice common in England though almost unknown on
+the continent; a just estimate of a man's powers in research or for
+teaching can only be properly based on his performance. The present
+system merely leads to the transmission of the sterile art of passing
+examinations. (At Oxford and Cambridge many fellowships are now awarded
+on the results of examination; it is sometimes stated, in defence of
+this system, that young men cannot be expected to carry out research in
+classics or philosophy.)
+
+On the other hand, the defenders of examinations reply that (xiii.)
+examinations are necessary in order to test the efficiency of schools to
+which grants of public money are given (this argument has become
+somewhat out of date owing to the recent substitution of "inspection"
+for examination as a test of the efficiency of schools; a combination of
+inspection and examination is also sometimes used); (xiv.) they serve as
+a necessary incentive to steady and concentrated work[4] (the reply made
+to this is that the incentive is a bad one, and that with efficient
+teachers it is unnecessary); (xv.) they show both student and teacher
+where they have failed (unnecessary for efficient teachers); (xvi.)
+though possibly harmful to the highest class of men, they are good for
+the mass (reply: no system which damages the highest class of men is
+tolerable); (xvii.) they are indispensable as an impartial means of
+selecting men for the civil service; (xviii.) in a difficult examination
+like the first class civil service examination the qualities of
+quickness of comprehension, industry, concentration, power of rapidly
+passing from one subject to another, good health, are necessary for
+success, though not tested directly, and these qualities are valuable in
+any kind of work (this appears to be incontrovertible); (xix.)
+examination records show that success in examinations is generally
+followed by success in after-life, and the test is therefore efficient
+(it does not follow that certain rejected candidates may not be
+extremely efficient); (xx.) as a plea for purely "external
+examinations," teachers cannot be trusted to be impartial and it is
+better for a boy to "cram" than to curry favour with his teacher
+(Latham).
+
+The brief comments in brackets, appended above to the arguments, merely
+indicate what has been said or can be said on the other side. It can
+scarcely be doubted that in spite of the powerful objections that have
+been advanced against examinations, they are, in the view of the
+majority of English people, an indispensable element in the social
+organization of a highly specialized democratic state, which prefers to
+trust nearly all decisions to committees rather than to individuals. But
+in view of the extreme importance of the matter, and especially of the
+evidence that, for some cause or other (which may or may not be the
+examination system), intellectual interest and initiative seem to
+diminish in many cases very markedly during school and college life in
+England, the whole subject seems to call for a searching and impartial
+inquiry.
+
+  SOURCES OF INFORMATION.--The works mentioned above, and T.D. Acland,
+  _Some Account of the Origin and Objects of the New Oxford Examinations
+  for the Title of Associate in Arts_ (London, 1858); Matthew Arnold,
+  _Higher Schools and Universities in Germany_ (1874); Graham Balfour,
+  _The Educational Systems of Great Britain and Ireland_ (2nd ed.,
+  Oxford, 1903); W.W. Rouse Ball, _Origin and History of the
+  Mathematical Tripos_ (Cambridge, 1880); Adolf Beier, _Die hoheren
+  Schulen in Preussen und ihre Lehrer_ (1902-1906) (in progress);
+  Cloudesley Brereton, "A New Method of awarding Scholarships," _School
+  World_, 1907, p. 409; G.C. Brodrick, _A History of the University of
+  Oxford_ (London, 1886); F. Buisson, _Dictionnaire de pedagogie_
+  (1880-1887); Lord Curzon of Kedleston, _Principles and Methods of
+  University Reform_ (1909); J. Demogeot and H. Montucci, _De
+  l'enseignement superieur en Angleterre et en Ecosse_ (1870); H.
+  Denifle, _Die Universitaten des Mittelalters bis 1400_ (Berlin, 1885);
+  F.Y. Edgeworth, "The Statistics of Examinations," and "The Element of
+  Chance in Competitive Examinations," _Journal of the Statistical
+  Society_, 1888 and 1890 respectively; H.W. Eve, Lecture "On Marking,"
+  in _The Practice of Education_ (Cambridge, 1883); Charles E. Fawsitt,
+  _The Education of the Examiner_ (Royal Philosophical Society of
+  Glasgow) (Glasgow, 1905); J.G. Fitch, "The Proposed Admission of Girls
+  to the University Local Examination," _Education Miscellanies_ (1865),
+  vol. x.; W. Garnett, "The Representation of certain Examination
+  Results," _Journ. Statist. Soc._ (Jan. 1910); G. Stanley Hall,
+  _Adolescence_ (London, 1905); Sir W. Hamilton, _Discussions on
+  Philosophy_ (London, 1853); P.J. Hartog, "Universities, Schools and
+  Examinations" in the _University Review_ (July 1905); P.J. Hartog and
+  Mrs A.H. Langdon, _The Writing of English_ (1907); Auberon Herbert
+  (edited by), _The Sacrifice of Education to Examination_, Letters from
+  "All Sorts and Conditions of Men" (1889); _Influence of Examinations_,
+  Report by a Committee, British Association Reports for 1903, p. 434.
+  and for 1904, p. 360; John Jebb, _Remarks upon the Present Mode of
+  Education in the University of Cambridge_ (4th ed., 1774); Henry
+  Latham, _On the Action of Examinations_ (Cambridge, 1877); H.C.
+  Maxwell Lyte, _A History of the University of Oxford to the Year 1530_
+  (London, 1886); W.A.P. Martin, _The Lore of Cathay_ (Edinburgh and
+  London, 1901); J.B. Mullinger, _The University of Cambridge_
+  (Cambridge, 1873); _How to pass Examinations successfully_, by an
+  Oxford Coach; Mark Pattison, _Suggestions on Academical Organization_
+  (Edinburgh, 1868); Friedrich Paulsen, _The German Universities and
+  University Study_ (London, 1906) and _Geschichte des gelehrten
+  Unterrichts_ (Leipzig, 1896); George Peacock, _Observations on the
+  Statutes of the University of Cambridge_ (1841); _Programme des
+  examens du nouveau baccalaureat de l'enseignement secondaire_,
+  Delalain freres, Paris; Hastings Rashdall, _The Universities of Europe
+  in the Middle Ages_ (Oxford, 1895); Rein's _Encyklopadisches Handbuch
+  der Padagogik_ (2nd ed., 1902, &c.), articles "Prufungen" (by F.
+  Paulsen), &c.; Third Report of the Royal Commissioners on Scientific
+  Instructions, 1873; J.E. Thorold Rogers, _Education in Oxford_ (1861);
+  M.E. Sadler, "Memorandum on the Leaving Examinations ... in the
+  Secondary Schools of Prussia," in Report of Royal Commission on
+  Secondary Education, vol. v. p. 27 (1895); C.A. Schmid, _Geschichte
+  der Erziehung_ (Stuttgart, 1884, &c.), and _Encyklopadie des gesammten
+  Erziehungs- und Unterrichtswesens_ (2nd ed., 1876-87), articles
+  "Prufung," "Schulprufungen," "Versetzungsprufungen," &c.;
+  Scholarships, various papers on, by H.B. Baker, A.A. David, H.A.
+  Miers, M.E. Sadler and H. Bompas Smith, and others, British
+  Association Report, 1907, pp. 707-718; Arthur Schuster, article on
+  "Universities and Examinations" in the University Review (May 1905);
+  W.H. Sharp, _The Educational System of Japan_ (Office of the
+  Director-General of Education in India) (Bombay, 1906); Special
+  Educational Reports, issued by the Board of Education, _passim_;
+  A.M.M. Stedman, _Oxford: its Life and Schools_ (London, 1887); I.
+  Todhunter, _Conflict of Studies_ (1873); William Whewell, _Of a
+  Liberal Education_ (London, 1845); Christopher Wordsworth, _Scholae
+  academicae_ (Cambridge, 1877); Etienne Zi (or Siu or Seu), _Pratique
+  des examens litteraires en Chine_ (Shanghai, 1894). Private
+  information from Professor M.E. Sadler and Mr A.E. Twentyman.
+       (P. J. H.; A. Wn.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] W.W. Rouse Ball in his _History of the Study of Mathematics at
+    Cambridge_ (1889), p. 193, states that he can find no record of any
+    European examinations by means of written papers earlier than those
+    introduced by R. Bentley at Trinity College, Cambridge, in 1702.
+
+  [2] It should be mentioned that the professors of chemistry of a
+    number of German, Austrian and Swiss universities, have, by
+    agreement, instituted an intermediate examination in that subject
+    which students are required to pass before beginning work on the
+    doctoral thesis. The examination of the students is conducted by the
+    teachers concerned.
+
+  [3] See E.E. Brown in _Monographs on Education in the United States_
+    (ed. by N.M. Butler, 1900, i. 164), and T. Gregory Foster and H.R.
+    Reichel, _Report of Mosely Educational Commission_ (1904), pp.
+    117-119 and 288-289.
+
+  [4] The Oxford commissioners of 1852 reported that "the examinations
+    have become the chief instruments not only for testing the
+    proficiency of the students but also for stimulating and directing
+    the studies of the place" (_Report_, p. 61).
+
+
+
+
+EXARCH ([Greek: exarchos], a chief person or leader), a title that has
+been conferred at different periods on certain chief officers or
+governors, both in secular and ecclesiastical matters. Of these, the
+most important were the exarchs of Ravenna (q.v.). In the ecclesiastical
+organization the exarch of a _diocese_ (the word being here used of the
+political division) was in the 4th and 5th centuries the same as
+primate. This dignity was intermediate between the patriarchal and the
+metropolitan, the name patriarch being restricted after A.D. 451 to the
+chief bishops of the most important cities (see PATRIARCH). The title of
+Exarch was also formerly given in the Eastern Church to a general or
+superior over several monasteries, and to certain ecclesiastics deputed
+by the patriarch of Constantinople to collect the tribute payable by the
+Church to the Turkish government. In the modern Greek Church an exarch
+is a deputy, or legate _a latere_, of the patriarch, whose office it is
+to visit the clergy and churches in the provinces allotted to him. The
+title of exarch has been borne by the head of the Bulgarian Church (see
+BULGARIA), since in 1872 it repudiated the jurisdiction of the Greek
+patriarch of Constantinople. Hence the names of the politico-religious
+parties in the recent history of the Near East: "Exarchists" and
+"Patriarchists."
+
+
+
+
+EXCAMBION (a word connected with a large class of Low Latin and Romance
+forms, such as _cambium_, _concambium_, _scambium_, from Lat. _cambire_,
+Gr. [Greek: kambein] or [Greek: kamptein], to bend, turn or fold), in
+Scots law, the exchange (q.v.) of one heritable subject for another. The
+modern Scottish excambion may consist in the exchange of any heritable
+subjects whatever, e.g. a patronage or, what often occurs, a portion of
+a glebe for servitude. Writing is not, by the law of Scotland, essential
+to an excambion. Chiefly in favour of the class of cottars and small
+feuars, and for convenience in straightening marches, the law will
+consider the most informal memoranda, and even a verbal agreement, if
+supported by the subsequent possession. The power to excamb was
+gradually conferred on entailed proprietors. The Montgomery Act, which
+was passed in 1770, to facilitate agricultural improvements, permitted
+50 acres arable and 100 acres not fit for the plough to be excambed.
+This was enlarged by the Rosebery Act in 1836, under which one-fourth of
+an entailed estate, not including the mansion-house, home farm and
+policies, might be excambed, provided the heirs took no higher grassum
+(O.E. _gersum_, fine) than L200. The power was applied to the whole
+estate by the Rutherford Act of 1848, and the necessary consents of
+substitute heirs are now regulated by the Entail (Scotland) Act 1882.
+
+
+
+
+EXCELLENCY (Lat. _excellentia_, excellence), a title or predicate of
+honour. The earliest records of its use are associated with the Frank
+and Lombard kings; e.g. Anastasius Bibliothecarius (d. c. 886) in his
+life of Pope Honorius refers to Charlemagne as "his excellency" (_ejus
+excellentia_); and during the middle ages it was freely applied to or
+assumed by emperors, kings and sovereign princes generally, though
+rather as a rhetorical flourish than as a part of their formal style.
+Its use is well illustrated in the various charters in the Red Book of
+the exchequer, where the addresses to the king vary between "your
+excellency," "your dignity" (_vestra dignitas_), "your sublimity"
+(_vestra sublimitas_) and the like, according to the taste and
+inventiveness of the writers. Du Cange also gives examples of the style
+_excellentia_ being applied to the pope and even to a bishop (in a
+charter of 1182). With the gradual stereotyping of titles of honour that
+of "excellency" was definitively superseded in the case of sovereigns of
+the highest rank, about the beginning of the 15th century, by those of
+"highness" and "grace," and later by "majesty," first assumed in England
+by King Henry VIII. Dukes and counts of the Empire and the Italian
+reigning princes continued, however, to be "excellencies" for a while
+longer. In 1593 the bestowal of the title of _excellence_ by Henry IV.
+of France on the duc de Nevers, his ambassador at Rome, set a precedent
+that was universally followed from the time of the treaty of Westphalia
+(1648). This, together with the reservation in 1640 of the title
+"eminence" (q.v.) to the cardinals, led the Italian princes to adopt the
+style of "highness" (_altezza_) instead of "excellency." In France, from
+1654 onwards, the title of _excellence_ was given to all high civil and
+military officials, and this example was followed in Germany in the 18th
+century.
+
+The subsequent fate of the title varies very greatly in different
+countries. In Great Britain it is borne by the viceroy of India, the
+lord-lieutenant of Ireland, all governors of colonies and ambassadors. In
+the United States it is part of the official style of the governors of
+states, but not of that of the president; though diplomatic usage varies
+in this respect, some states (e.g. France) conceding to him the style of
+"excellency," others (e.g. Belgium) refusing it. The custom of other
+republics differs: in France the president is addressed as _excellence_
+by courtesy; in Switzerland the title is omitted; in the South American
+republics it is part of the official style (Pradier-Fodere, _Cours de
+droit diplom._ i. 89). In Spain the title of _excelencia_ properly
+belonged to the grandees and to those who had the right to be covered in
+the royal presence, but it was extended also to high officials, viceroys,
+ministers, captains-general, lieutenants-general, ambassadors and knights
+of the Golden Fleece. In Austria the title _Exzellenz_ belongs properly
+to privy councillors. It has, however, gradually been extended by custom
+to all the higher military commands from lieutenant-field-marshal
+upwards. Ministers, even when not privy councillors, are styled
+_Exzellenz_. In Germany the title is borne by the imperial chancellor,
+the principal secretaries of state, ministers and _Oberprasidenten_ in
+Prussia, by generals from the rank of lieutenant-general upwards, by the
+chief court officials, and it is also sometimes bestowed as a title of
+honour in cases where it is not attached to the office held by its
+recipient. In Russia the title is very common, being borne by all
+officers from major-general upwards and by all officials above the rank
+of acting privy councillor. Officers and officials of the highest rank
+have the title of "high excellency." Finally, in Italy, the title
+_eccelenza_, which had come to be used in the republics of Venice and
+Genoa as the usual form of address to nobles, has become as meaningless
+as the English title of "esquire" or the address of "sir," being,
+especially in the south, the usual form of address to any stranger.
+
+In the diplomatic service the title of excellency is technically
+reserved to ambassadors, but in addressing envoys also this form is
+commonly used by courtesy.     (W. A. P.)
+
+
+
+
+EXCHANGE, in general, the action of mutual giving and receiving objects,
+interests, benefits, rights, &c. The word comes through the French from
+the Late Lat. _excambium_ (see EXCAMBION). The present article deals
+with the theory and practice of exchange in monetary transactions, but
+this may conveniently be prefaced by a brief statement as to the law
+relating to the exchange of property and other matters. In English law
+exchange is defined as the mutual grant of equal interests, the one in
+consideration of the other. The ancient common law conveyance had
+certain restrictions, e.g. identity in quantity of interest, fee-simple
+for fee-simple, &c., entry to perfect the conveyance, and an implied
+warranty of title and right of entry by either party in case of
+eviction. Such exchanges are now effected by mutual conveyances with the
+usual covenants for title. Exchanges are also frequently made by order
+of the Board of Agriculture under the Inclosure Acts, and there are also
+statutes enabling ecclesiastical corporations to exchange benefices with
+the approval of the ecclesiastical commissioners. The international
+exchange of territories is effected by treaties. The exchange of
+prisoners of war is regulated by documents called "cartels" (Med. Lat.
+_cartellus_, diminutive of _carta_, paper, bill), which specify a
+certain agreed-on value for each rank of prisoners. The practice
+superseded the older one of ransom at the end of a war. By the
+Regimental Exchanges Act 1875 the sovereign may by regulation authorize
+exchanges by officers from one regiment to another. (For "labour
+exchanges" see UNEMPLOYMENT.)
+
+Exchange in relation to money affairs denotes a species of barter not of
+goods but of the value of goods, a payment in one place being exchanged
+for a payment in another place. The popular statement of the theory of
+exchange represents four principals involved in two transactions. A and
+B are two persons residing in one place different from the domicile of C
+and D; A sells goods to C; B buys goods from D; A sells his claim on C
+to B, who remits it to D in satisfaction of his debt, and D receives the
+cash from C, so that, assuming the two transactions to be of equal
+value, one piece of paper satisfies the four parties to these two
+transactions, and the trouble, expense and risk of sending money from
+both places are avoided. The piece of paper which performs the service
+may be a telegraphic order, cheque or bill of exchange. In this
+elementary proposition there would be no difficulty of exchange, as the
+full value of A's claim on C would be paid for by B, who is under the
+necessity of sending in exactly similar amount of money to D; but it can
+be seen that in actual practice the claims of one place on another place
+would not be exactly balanced by the necessities of the one place to
+meet obligations in the other place; thus arises the complication of
+exchange, which may best be described as the price of monetary claims on
+distant debtors.
+
+Supposing, for example, that A in London had a claim on C in Edinburgh
+amounting to L100, and that B in London did not require to remit more
+than L90 to D in Edinburgh, it is evident that B in London must be
+offered some inducement to take over the whole of A's claim. B might
+give A L99:19:0, and could then, after satisfying his debt to D, have
+L10 to his credit in Edinburgh, which he could retain there at interest
+until he had incurred further liability to D, or he could have the
+balance of L10 returned him in coin at an expense, say, of sixpence;
+this would leave B with a profit of sixpence on the transaction, and,
+assuming that these figures are reasonable, exchange on Edinburgh in
+London would be one shilling discount per L100. Supposing the
+necessities of B induced him to offer A only L99:14:0 for his L100
+claim, A would then prefer that C remitted him L100 in coin, which, on
+the above scale of expenses would cost 5s. and A would receive L99:15:0
+net. On these premises, exchange on Edinburgh in London cannot fall
+below 1/4% discount, and the same circumstances prevent it from rising
+above 1/4% premium, for B, in no case, would pay more for A's claim than
+L100 plus the cost of sending coin to Scotland. If this basis is
+appreciated, all exchange problems between different countries can be
+mastered, and the quotations in the daily papers of cable payments,
+sight drafts (cheques) and long bills are then understood and supply an
+interesting indication of the state of international financial
+relations. As shown above, the balance of indebtedness must eventually
+be remitted by coin, and consequently when exchange in any city is
+quoted at one or other of the limit points given in our example as 1/4%
+discount or 1/4% premium, this exchange immediately acquires a very
+serious importance, because with the development of modern monetary
+systems under which enormous trade is carried on with a most moderate
+foundation of actual coin the weakening or strengthening of that
+foundation is a very vital matter.
+
+While the understanding of the theory is essential for any facile
+interpretation of an exchange, there are of course innumerable details
+of practice which require to be known to identify the limit points of
+exchange in any particular city. The limit points can only be taken
+advantage of by banking experts, and, although we assume a trader
+remitting his indebtedness in coin when he is asked to pay too high a
+price for his bill of exchange, in actual affairs the banker will supply
+the cheque or bill and himself will do the professional business of
+sending away bullion. Similarly, we have represented one trader drawing
+on another trader and selling his draft to a third trader who remits the
+draft to a fourth. In actual practice, however, No. 1 draws on No. 2 and
+disposes of his draft to a banker; No. 4 draws on No. 3 and sells his
+draft to a banker; because, speaking generally, whenever goods are
+shipped, the shipper immediately requires his money; he draws a bill
+against the goods, and it is the function of a banker to help, as a sort
+of debt-collecting agency, by buying these drafts; and the bank, being a
+mart for all forms of remittance, gets an immense variety of demand for
+cable payments, cheques and bills on all centres. This does not affect
+the theory, for it must be remembered that the banker is a necessary
+link between the buyer and seller of exchange, because the seller can
+only sell what he has and the buyer must have exactly what he wants.
+
+To return to the question of limit points: if a universal currency
+system existed, with the same monetary standard that is used in England,
+and the coinage kept in a proper condition of weight and fineness, and
+the coin readily supplied to meet every reasonable claim--if, in fact,
+the pound sterling were the prevalent coin and the English banking
+system obtained everywhere, then we should find all exchange quotations
+as simple as our case of London and Edinburgh, that is to say, all
+exchanges would be quoted at par or a premium or a discount. The limit
+points in any place of the exchange on London would represent simply and
+obviously the cost of the transmission of the coin. These limit points
+would vary at each place according to the distance from London, the cost
+of freight, the risk involved in the transmission and the local rate of
+interest. On the continent of Europe some advance has been made in the
+direction of a universal coinage. Countries subscribing to the Latin
+Union have agreed on the franc as a common unit, and Belgium,
+Switzerland, France and Italy quote exchange between themselves at a
+premium or discount. Greece, Spain and other countries are also parties
+to the arrangement, but their currencies are in a bad state, and the
+exchange quotations involve a considerable element of speculation. We
+have, however, to deal with another factor in international finance,
+namely, the enormous variety of currency systems; and we have then to
+discover, in each case, the exchange which represents par and
+corresponds to our L100 for L100 in the London-Edinburgh example. The
+United States furnishes perhaps the easiest problem, and we must find
+out how many dollars in gold contain exactly the same amount of the
+precious metal as is contained in one hundred sovereigns. The answer is
+486-5/8, and the arithmetic is a question of the mint laws of the two
+countries. Gold coin in the United States contains one-tenth alloy and
+in England one-twelfth alloy. Ten dollars contain 258 grains of gold,
+nine-tenths fine. One pound contains 123.274 grains of gold,
+eleven-twelfths fine, consequently L100 is worth $486-5/8, or, to be
+exact, $486-2/3, and when cable payments between London and New York are
+quoted at 4.86-5/8 for the L1 sterling, exchange is about par. As a
+cable payment is an immediate transfer from one city to another, no
+question of interest or other charge is involved. Owing to the cost of
+sending gold as detailed above, the New York cable exchange varies from
+about 4.84 to 4.89-1/2; at the former point gold leaves London for New
+York, and at the latter point gold comes to England. Besides insurance,
+freight, packing, commission and interest, there must also be considered
+the circumstance that coin taken in bulk is always a little worn and
+under full weight, and in the process of turning sovereigns into
+dollars, the result would not bear out the calculation based on the mint
+regulations: consequently, when taking gold from London, the demand
+would first fall on the raw metal as received from South Africa or
+Australia to be minted in the United States, then on any stock of
+American coin the Bank of England might have and be willing to sell by
+weight (which would be accounted by tale in New York), and lastly the
+demand would be satisfied by sovereigns taken by tale from the Bank of
+England and converted by weight in America.
+
+The instance of the American quotation may be further taken to explain
+some of the numerous points which the study of the exchange involves. In
+the first place, it will be noted that we have quoted the price in
+dollars. In London, business in bills, &c., on New York is quoted either
+in pence or in dollars, that is to say, payments are negotiated for so
+many dollars either at 49-3/16 pence per dollar, or at the equivalent
+rate $4.88 for the pound. In practice it is much more convenient to
+quote in London in the money of the foreign country, as it makes
+comparison with the foreign rate on London very simple. Some foreign
+countries quote exchange on London in pence, and then, of course, in
+relation to those countries the same practice will obtain in England,
+but the majority of the exchange quotations on London are in francs,
+marks, gulden, lire, kronen or other foreign money. Another point which
+must be explained is the reason why exchange varies between what we have
+called the limit points; why there is sometimes so much demand for bills
+on London and why at other times so many bills are being offered.
+Similar causes operate on other exchanges, and if we develop the New
+York case we shall provide explanations for exchange movements in other
+countries.
+
+At one time the financial relations between England and America were as
+follows. England was the principal creditor of the United States, and
+the latter country had to remit continually very large amounts in
+payment of interest on English money and profits on English investments,
+in payment for shipping freights, for banking commissions, insurance
+premiums and an immense variety of services, besides paying for the
+large imports which crossed the Atlantic from English ports. In the fall
+of the year these payments would be more than offset by the enormous
+exports of food-stuffs, cotton, tobacco, &c., so that during the first
+half of the year exchange would be at or about the limit of 4.89-1/2 and
+gold would have to be sent from New York to supplement the deficient
+quantity of bills. In the autumn the produce bills would flood the
+exchange market and gold would be sent from London as exchange got to
+the other limit point of 4.84. These conditions are still very potent,
+but latterly another element has entered into the position, and the new
+development is so powerful as to reverse sometimes what we may call the
+natural and legitimate movement in the exchange. This new element is the
+more intimate banking and financial relationship which has been
+established between the two countries. As American conditions have
+become more stable, with better security for capital and an assured
+feeling about the currency of the United States, bankers in London have
+gladly allowed their banking friends in New York and other large cities
+to draw bills on London whenever there was a good demand for sterling
+remittances. We have, therefore, to consider a fresh type of bill of
+which the drawer has no claim on the drawee, but, on the other hand,
+incurs a debt to the drawee. To take a very usual method, a banker in
+Wall Street, New York, will advance money to stockbrokers, investors and
+speculators against bonds and shares with a 20% margin. He deposits this
+security with a trust company in New York which acts both for the
+American and English banker. The Wall Street banker then draws a bill at
+60 days' sight or 90 days' sight on the banker in Lombard Street and
+sells this draft to supply the money he lends the stockbroker. Two or
+three months hence the New York banker must send money to London with
+which to meet the bill, so that, whereas, in the case of a commercial
+bill, the produce is despatched and in due course the consignee must
+find the money for the bill, in the case of a finance bill, as it is
+called, the bill is drawn and in due course the drawer must send the
+value with which it is to be honoured. In any event the acceptor, the
+London banker, has to pay the bill, so that it will be easily understood
+that relations of the greatest confidence are necessary between the
+drawer and drawee before finance bills of this class can be created.
+
+The profit arising from the transaction we have sketched is realized by
+the separate parties in this way. The New York banker lends money for
+three months, say, at 5% per annum, he pays a commission of 1/32% to the
+trust company which has custody of the security, a charge equivalent to
+1/8% interest per annum. He draws on London at 90 days' sight and sells
+the bill at 4.83-5/8, the cable rate being 4.87-3/4, the buyer of a
+three months' bill making the allowance for the English bill stamp of
+1/2 per mille and the London discount rate of 3%. The drawer of the bill
+must also pay a commission of 3/16% to the London banker who accepts the
+draft; this is equivalent to another 3/4% per annum in the rate of
+discount, so that money raised in this way costs 1/8% for the trust
+company, 3% the London discount rate, about 1/4% for bill stamps, and
+3/4% for London commission--altogether, 4-1/8%; and, as the money is
+loaned at 5%, there appears to be 7/8% profit to the drawer of the bill.
+This, however, is on the assumption that the cable rate is still
+4.87-3/4 when the bill falls due for payment and that the drawer would
+have to pay that price to telegraph the money to meet the draft. But
+exchange on London can go up or down between 4.84 and 4.89-1/2, and if
+at the end of the three months the cable rate is 4.84 the New York
+banker will be able to cover his bill at almost the same rate at which
+he sold it and will only be out of pocket to the extent of the
+commissions and stamps, so that the accommodation will only cost him
+1-1/2% and his profit will be 3-1/2%. If he has to pay more than
+4.87-3/4 for his cable at the maturity of the bill his profit will be
+less than 7/8%, and he may even be a loser on the transaction.
+
+It is obvious, then, that a high rate of interest in New York, with a
+high rate of exchange on London and a low rate of discount in England,
+would induce the creation of these finance bills. The supply of these
+bills would prevent New York exchange reaching the limit point at which
+gold leaves the United States, and the maturity of these bills in the
+autumn would ensure a demand for the produce bills and possibly prevent
+exchange from falling to the other limit point at which London has to
+send gold to New York.
+
+We have pointed out the essential difference between these finance bills
+and what we have called produce bills, but there is another very
+striking difference, that of the question of supply. These finance bills
+are obviously very difficult to limit in their amounts; produce bills
+are, of course, limited by the extent of the surplus crops of the United
+States and by the demand for the produce in Europe, but so long as it is
+mutually satisfactory to the big finance houses in both countries to
+draw on credit granted in London, so long may these accommodation bills
+be created, and the pressure of the bills in New York may depress
+exchange so much that gold leaves London at a time when it is required
+in other directions. In such a case the embarrassment caused by this
+artificial drain of the gold reserve would much more than offset the
+amount of the commission earned by the accepting houses. The Bank of
+England may have to raise its rate of discount at the expense of the
+entire home trade; probably, also, with the rise in the value of money,
+consequent on the diminished resources, all investment securities fall
+in value and more onerous terms must be submitted to by the government,
+corporations and colonies, in the issue of any loans they may require.
+It will, therefore, be appreciated that, although these finance bills
+may be perfectly safe, their excessive creation is viewed with great
+disfavour, and considerable apprehension is felt when the adventures of
+speculators in New York make great demands for loans against stocks and
+shares, and, through the instrumentality of these finance bills, shift
+the burden on to the shoulders of the London discount market. The effect
+of this is to level money rates as between New York and London, and in
+the process the pressure falls on London and the relief goes to America.
+Eventually, of course, the bills must be met and funds sent for that
+purpose from across the Atlantic, but in the meanwhile the disturbance
+of the gold supply is an inconvenience.
+
+We have explained the process of employing credits granted in London to
+finance Wall Street; there are, also, many other types of bill to which
+the acceptor lends his name on the assurance that he will in due course
+be supplied with the funds required to meet the acceptance. In the case
+of the produce bills, a London banker will accept the bills in order
+that they may be more easily marketable than if they were drawn direct
+on the actual consignee of the cotton, tobacco or wheat. The consignees
+in Liverpool, &c., pay a commission for this assistance and reimburse
+the London bank as the produce is gradually disposed of. The transaction
+appears slightly more complicated when English bankers accept bills for
+produce shipped from the United States to merchants living in Hamburg,
+Genoa, Singapore and all other great ports, but the principle is the
+same, and the influence of such business on the exchange affects, in the
+first instance, the quotation between America and London, but
+afterwards, when money must be sent to London with which to honour the
+bills, the exchanges with Germany, Italy or the Straits Settlements bear
+their share in the eventual adjustment, the spinners, tobacco
+manufacturers and corn factors requiring drafts on London where so much
+of the trade of the world is financed.
+
+We shall have to consider later the reasons which ensure to London this
+peculiar and predominant position. We have so far used the American
+exchange as an example to explain causes which produce fluctuations in
+all the principal exchanges on London and to show the points between
+which fluctuations are limited. The fact that America is still
+developing at a much greater rate than the Old World makes an important
+distinction between the financial position in New York and the financial
+position of the big capitals in Europe. There is not in America the huge
+accumulation of savings and investment money which the Old World has
+collected, so that whereas Europe helps to finance the United States,
+the latter country has so many home enterprises that she can spare none
+of her funds to assist Europe. It would not be possible for London to
+draw on New York such bills as we have described as finance bills, for
+they could never be discounted there except on the most onerous terms,
+and there is nothing in America which corresponds to the London money
+market.
+
+We have to deal with dollars and cents in America, with francs in
+France, with marks in Germany, and different money units in nearly every
+country; but, given the mint regulations, the theoretical par of
+exchange and the theoretical limit points are arrived at by simple
+arithmetic. An exhaustive statement with reference to every country
+would involve an amount of tedious repetition, so that for the purposes
+of this article it is more instructive to consider the essential
+differences between the important exchanges than to go into the details
+of coinage, which would appeal rather to the numismatist than to the
+exchange expert.
+
+The United States, offering as it does a vast field for profitable
+investment, must annually remit huge amounts for interest on bonds and
+shares held by Europeans; coupons and dividend warrants payable in
+America are offered for sale daily in London, and at the end of the
+quarters the amount of these claims, coupons and drawn bonds is very
+large, and a considerable set off to the indebtedness of Europe for
+American produce. It is often asserted that the United States is rapidly
+getting sufficiently wealthy to repurchase all these bonds and shares;
+but whenever trade conditions are exceptionally good in the States,
+fresh evidence is forthcoming that assistance from London and Europe is
+essential to finance the commercial development of the United States.
+This illustrates a feature common to all new countries, and the effect
+is that they make annual payments to the older countries and especially
+to England.
+
+A government loan or other large borrowing arranged abroad will
+immediately move the exchange in favour of the borrowing country. A
+tendency adverse to the United States results from the drafts and
+letters of credit of the large number of holiday makers who cross the
+Atlantic and spend so much money in Europe. When remittance is made of
+the incomes of Americans who have taken up their residence in the Old
+World the exchange is affected in a similar manner.
+
+In one respect the United States stands far superior to most of the
+older countries. There are no restrictions on the free export of gold
+when exchange reaches the limit point showing that the demand for bills
+on London exceeds the supply. New York (with London and India) is a free
+gold market, and this is undoubtedly one of the reasons why money is so
+readily advanced to the United States, and the finance bills, to which
+we referred above, would not be allowed to the same extent were it not
+for the fact that New York will remit gold when other forms of
+remittance are insufficient to satisfy foreign creditors. When exchange
+between Paris and London reaches the theoretical limit point of 25.32
+(25 francs 32 centimes for the L1 sterling), gold does not leave Paris
+for London unless the Bank of France is willing to allow it. By law,
+silver is also legal tender in France, and if the State Bank is pressed
+for gold a premium will be charged for it if it is supplied. Gold may be
+collected on cheaper terms in small amounts from the great trading
+corporations or from the offices of the railways, but a large shipment
+can only be made by special arrangement with the Bank of France.
+Similarly, in Germany, where a gold standard is supposed to obtain, if a
+banker requires a large amount of gold from the Reichsbank he is warned
+that he had better not take it, and if he persists he incurs the
+displeasure of the government institution to the prejudice of his
+business, so that the theoretical limit point of 20 marks 52 pf. to the
+pound sterling has no practical significance, and gold cannot be secured
+from Berlin when exchange is against that city, and Germany has, when
+put to the test, an inconvertible and sometimes a debased currency.
+There is no state bank in the United States, and no government
+interference with the natural course of paying debts. On the other hand,
+when monetary conditions in New York indicate a great shortage of funds,
+and rates of interest are uncomfortably high, the United States treasury
+has sometimes parted with some of its revenue accumulations to the
+principal New York bankers on condition that they at once engage a
+similar amount of gold for import from abroad, which shall be turned
+over to the treasury on arrival. As these advances are made free of
+interest the effect is to adjust the limit point of 484 to about 485,
+and the United States treasury seems to have taken a leaf out of the
+book of the German Reichsbank, which frequently offers similar
+facilities to gold importers and creates an artificial limit point in
+the Berlin Exchange. The Reichsbank gives credit in Berlin for gold that
+has only got as far as Hamburg, and sometimes gives so many days' credit
+that the agent in London of German banking houses can afford an
+extravagant price for bar gold and even risk the loss in weight on a
+withdrawal of sovereigns, although the exchange may not have fallen to
+the other limit point of 20.32. In England the only effort that is made
+to attract gold is some action by the Bank of England in the direction
+of raising discount rates; occasionally, also, the bank outbids other
+purchasers for the arrivals of raw gold from South Africa, Australia and
+other mining countries. Quite exceptionally, for instance during the
+Boer War, the Bank of England allowed advances free of interest against
+gold shipped to London.
+
+Many of the principal banking houses in all the important capitals
+receive continually throughout the day telegraphic information of the
+tendency and movement of all the exchanges, and on the smallest margin
+of profit a large business is done in what is called arbitrage (q.v.).
+For instance, cheques or bills on London will be bought by X in Paris
+and remitted to Y in London. X will recoup himself by selling a cable
+payment on Z in New York. Z will put himself in funds to meet the cable
+payment by selling 60 days' sight drafts on Y, who pays the 60 days'
+drafts at maturity out of the proceeds of the cheques or bills received
+from Paris, and this complicated transaction, involving no outlay of
+capital, must show some minute profit after all expense of bill stamps,
+discount, cables and commissions has been allowed for. Such business is
+very difficult and very technical. The arbitrageur must be in
+first-class credit, must make the most exact calculation, and be prompt
+to take advantage of the small differences in exchange, differences
+which can be only temporary, as these operations soon bring about an
+adjustment.
+
+The European exchanges with which London is chiefly concerned are Paris
+and Berlin, through which centres most of the financial business of the
+rest of Europe is conducted; for example, Scandinavia, Russia and
+Austria bank more largely with Berlin than elsewhere. Italy,
+Switzerland, Belgium and Spain bank chiefly in Paris. European claims on
+London or debts to London are settled mostly through Germany or France,
+and consequently the German and French rates of exchange are affected by
+the relation of England with the rest of the Continent. The exchanges on
+Paris and Berlin are therefore most carefully watched by all those big
+interests which are concerned with the rate of discount and the value of
+money in London.
+
+If the Paris cheque falls to 25.12, gold arrivals in the London bullion
+market will be taken by French bankers unless the profit shown by the
+exchange on some other country enables other buyers to pay more for the
+gold than Paris can afford. If the Paris cheque falls still further, it
+would pay to take sovereigns from the Bank of England for export, and so
+much would be taken as would satisfy the demand to send money to France,
+or until the consequent scarcity of money in London made rates of
+interest so high in England that French bankers would prefer to leave
+money and perhaps increase their balances. As between London and Paris
+and Berlin the greatest factor operating the exchanges is the relative
+value of money in the three centres. There is no great excess of trade
+balance at any season in favour of Germany or France and against
+England. On the other hand the banking relations between those countries
+are very intimate, and if funds can be very profitably employed in one
+of these places, there will be a good demand for remittance, and
+exchange will move in favour of that place, that is to say, exchange
+will go towards that limit point at which gold will be sent. The great
+pastoral and agricultural countries like South America, Egypt and India
+are in a position to draw very largely on London when their crops or
+other products are ready for shipment. In the early months of the year
+gold goes freely to South America to pay for the cereals, hides and
+meat, and in the autumn Egypt and India send such quantities of cotton
+and wheat that exchange moves heavily in favour of those countries, and
+gold must go to adjust the trade balance. During the rest of the year
+the gold tends to return as these countries always require bills on
+London or some form of payment to meet interest and dividends on
+European money invested in their government debts, railways and trading
+enterprises, and to pay for the European manufactures which they import.
+Exchange then moves in favour of England, and the Bank of England can
+replenish its reserve. Over the greater part of the world the rate of
+exchange on London is an indication simply of the trade balance. The
+greater part of the world receives payment for food stuffs, and has to
+pay for European manufactures, shipping freights, banking services and
+professional commissions.
+
+The greatest complication in exchange questions arises when we have to
+deal with a country employing a silver standard, and, fortunately for
+the development of trade, this problem has disappeared of late years in
+the case of India, Ceylon, Japan, Mexico and the Straits Settlements,
+and now the only important country using silver as a standard is China.
+When the monetary standard in one country is only a commodity in another
+country we are as far removed from the ideal of an international
+currency as can be imagined. We can fix no limit points to the exchange
+and we cannot settle any theoretical par of exchange. The price of
+silver in the gold-using country may vary as much as the price of copper
+or tin, and in the silver-using country gold is dealt in just as any
+other metal. In both cases the only metal of constant price is the metal
+which is used as the money standard. The easiest method of explaining
+the position is to consider that any one in a gold-using country having
+a claim in currency on a silver-using country has to offer for sale so
+many ounces of silver, and vice versa the exporter in a silver-using
+country sending produce to London has to offer a draft representing so
+many ounces of gold. This introduces a very unsatisfactory element. To
+take a practical example:--a tea-grower in China has raised his crop in
+spite of the usual experience of weather and labour difficulties and the
+endless risks that a planter must face; the tea is then sent to London
+to take its chance of good or bad prices, and at the same time the
+planter has a draft to sell representing locally a certain weight of
+gold; now, in addition to all the risks of weather and trading
+conditions, and the chances of the fluctuations in the tea market, he is
+compelled to gamble in the metal market on the price of gold. Some years
+ago when a large number of important countries employed a silver
+standard it was seriously suggested that a fixed ratio should be agreed
+internationally at which gold and silver should be exchanged. This
+advocacy of bimetallism (q.v.) was especially persistent at a time when
+silver had suffered a very great fall in price and the prominent
+exponents could generally be identified either as extremely practical
+men who were interested in the price of silver, or as very inexperienced
+theorists. The difficulty of the two standards was successfully solved
+by discarding the use of silver, and the chief silver-using countries
+adopted a gold standard which has given greater security for the
+investment of foreign capital, has simplified business and brought about
+a large increase of trade.
+
+In the case of a country of which the government has been subject to
+great financial difficulties, gold has been shipped to satisfy foreign
+creditors so long as the supply held out, and the exchange with such a
+country will continue to move adversely with every fresh political
+embarrassment and any other economic cause reflecting on the national
+credit. With the collapse of the monarchy in Brazil the value of the
+milreis fell from 27d. to 5d., and all the Spanish-American countries
+have from time to time afforded most distressing examples of the
+demoralizing effects on the currency of unstable and reckless
+administration. In Europe similar results have been shown by the
+mistrust inspired by the governments of Spain, Greece, Italy and some
+other states. The raising of revenue by the use of the printing press
+creates an inconvertible and depreciating paper currency which frightens
+foreign capital and severely taxes the unfortunate country which must
+make payment abroad for the service of debt and other obligations. With
+the tardy appreciation of the old proverb that "honesty is the best
+policy" nearly every country of importance has made strenuous efforts to
+improve the integrity of its money.
+
+Exchange quotations are not published from many of the British colonies,
+as their financial business is in the hands of a comparatively few
+excellently managed banks, which establish, by agreement, conventional
+exchanges fixed for a considerable period, notably in the case of
+Australia, New Zealand and South Africa. The Scottish and Irish banks
+supply similar examples of a monopoly in exchange.
+
+The following table taken from the money article of a London daily paper
+indicates the exchanges which are of most interest to England:--
+
+  _Foreign Exchanges._
+
+  +-----------------------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+
+  |                       |     June 14.    |    June 15.    |    June 16.    |
+  +-----------------------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+
+  | Paris, cheques        |   25 f. 18 c.   |  25 f. 18 c.   |  25 f. 18 c.   |
+  |   "    Mkt. discount  | 2-1/2-5/8 p.c.  | 2-1/2-5/8 p.c. | 2-1/2-5/8 p.c. |
+  | Brussels, cheques     |  25 f. 23 c.    | 25 f. 23-1/2 c.|      ..        |
+  | Berlin, sight         | 20 m. 48-3/4 pf.|20 m. 48-3/4 pf.| 20 m. 48 pf.   |
+  |   "     8 days        | 20 m. 46-1/2 pf.|20 m. 46-1/4 pf.|20 m. 45-1/2 pf.|
+  |   "     Mkt. discount |    3-7/8 p.c.   |   3-7/8 p.c.   |   3-7/8 p.c.   |
+  | Vienna, sight         |     Holiday     |24 kr. 02-1/4 h.|24 kr. 02-3/4 h.|
+  | Amsterdam, sight      | 12 fl. 13-1/8 c.|12 fl. 13-1/4 c.|       ..       |
+  | Italy, sight          |     Holiday     | 25 lire 15 c.  |       ..       |
+  | Madrid, sight         |        "        |   27 ps. 68    |       ..       |
+  | Lisbon, sight         |        "        |      ..        |       ..       |
+  | St Petersburg, 3 ms.  |    94 r. 10     |   94 r. 10     |       ..       |
+  | Bombay, T.T.          |     1s. 4d.     |    1s. 4d.     |    1s. 4d.     |
+  | Calcutta, T.T.        |     1s. 4d.     |    1s. 4d.     |    1s. 4d.     |
+  | Hong-Kong, T.T.       |   2s. 1-1/16d.  |  2s. 1-1/16d.  |  2s. 1-1/16d.  |
+  | Shanghai, T.T.        |   2s. 10-3/4d.  |  2s. 10-5/8d.  |  2s. 10-5/8d.  |
+  | Singapore, T.T.       |   2s. 4-1/16d.  |  2s. 4-1/16d.  |  2s. 4-1/16d.  |
+  | Yokohama, T.T.        |   2s. 0-3/8d.   |  2s. 0-3/8d.   |  2s. 0-3/8d.   |
+  |*Rio de Jan'ro, 90 days|    16-9/16d.    |   16-9/16d.    |   16-17/32d.   |
+  |*Valparaiso, 90 days   |                 |                |                |
+  |   Coml.               |     14-3/8d.    |   14-3/8d.     |    14-1/4d.    |
+  |*B. Ayres, 90 days     |     48-1/8d.    |      48d.      |      48d.      |
+  +-----------------------+-----------------+----------------+----------------+
+    * These rates are telegraphed on the day preceding their receipt.
+
+In the case of Paris and Berlin it will be noticed that the local rate
+of discount is also given, as the value of money in these centres, in
+relation to the value of money in London, is the most important factor
+in a movement of the exchange. Vienna has become important owing to the
+improvement in the financial position of Austria, and still greater
+improvement is shown in the case of Italy, whose currency stands in the
+above list better even than that of France. Spain, which should stand at
+about the same rate, still has a depreciated paper currency. Lisbon
+stands also at a discount, as the milreis should be worth 53-1/4 pence.
+
+In Russia the exchange showing 94.10 roubles to L10 is carefully and
+cleverly controlled in spite of the bad internal position. The India
+exchanges move slightly, as the currency is firmly established at the
+rate of 15 rupees to the L1. Hong-Kong quotes for the old Mexican dollar
+and a British trade dollar; Shanghai for the tael containing on an
+average 517-1/2 grains of fine silver. The Straits Settlements have
+fixed their money on a gold basis at 2s. 4d. per dollar, on the lines of
+the arrangement made in India. In Japan there is a gold standard, and
+par of exchange is 2s. 0-1/2d. for the yen. Brazil, Chile and Argentina
+have a depreciated paper currency, and the last quotation of 48d. is for
+the gold dollar equal to five francs, but there is a premium on gold in
+the River Plate of 127.27-1/2% and for the present a gold standard is
+re-established on this basis. The letters T.T. with the eastern
+exchanges signify telegraphic transfer or the rate for payments made by
+cable. The very important New York rates are always given in another
+part of the daily paper with other details of American commercial
+interest.
+
+These rates are all quotations for payments in England, and all over the
+world the exchange on London is the exchange of the greatest importance.
+This unique position was gained originally, probably, through the
+geographical position of the United Kingdom, and has been maintained
+owing to several reasons which secure to London a peculiar position by
+comparison with any other capital. Britain's colossal trade ensures a
+supply of and a demand for English remittances. Even when goods or
+produce are dealt in between foreign countries a credit is opened in
+London, so that the shipper of the produce can offer in the local market
+a bill of exchange which is readily saleable. With the highly developed
+banking system a large amount of deposits is collected in London, and
+the result is that bills of any usance up to six months can be
+immediately discounted, and the proceeds, if required, can be handed
+over in gold. There are in London a great number of wealthy banks and
+banking houses whose reputation and solidity allow any one of them to
+accept bills for amounts varying from one to ten millions sterling,
+whereby large commissions are earned.
+
+These four advantages, namely, a free gold market, a huge trade, an
+enormous accumulation of wealth, and a discount market such as exists
+nowhere else, have made London an unrivalled financial centre, and
+consequently bills on London are an international money and the best
+medium of exchange.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--_A B C of the Foreign Exchanges_, by George Clare;
+  _Foreign Exchanges_, by Goschen; _Arbitrage_, by Deutsch; _Arbitrages
+  et Parites_, by Ottomar Haupt; Swoboda, _Arbitrage_ (12th edition), by
+  Max Fuerst.     (E. M. Ha.)
+
+
+
+
+EXCHEQUER. The word "exchequer" is the English form of the Fr.
+_echiquier_, low Lat. _scaccarium_, and its primary meaning is a
+chess-board (see CHESS). As the name of a government department dealing
+with accounts it is derived from the exchequer or the "abacus" by means
+of which such accounts were kept, such a contrivance being almost
+universally in use before the introduction of the Arabic notation. In
+England the department or court of accounts was named originally "the
+tallies" from the notched sticks or tallies which constituted the
+primitive means of account-keeping (which were only abolished in 1826),
+and was only subsequently, probably in the reign of Henry I., named the
+exchequer from the use of the abacus. Both the name and the general
+features of the institution may reasonably be attributed to Norman
+influence, since we find both in Normandy and in the Norman kingdom of
+Sicily, as well as in Scotland and Ireland; the two latter cases being
+directly due to English example. As a court of law the exchequer owed
+its existence in England, as elsewhere, to the necessity of deciding
+legal questions arising from matters of account, and its secondary
+activities soon overshadowed its original functions.
+
+We cannot say whether the exchequer, as known in England, is older than
+the beginning of the 12th century. The treasury, which may be regarded
+as one of its constituents, dates from before the conquest, and the
+officers of the exchequer who were drawn from the treasury staff can be
+traced back to Domesday. But our earliest information about the
+exchequer itself, apart from that afforded by the pipe rolls (see
+RECORD), rests on a treatise (_Dialogus de Scaccario_) written about
+A.D. 1179 by Richard, bishop of London and treasurer of England. His
+father, Nigel, bishop of Ely, had been treasurer of Henry I., and nephew
+to that king's great financial minister Roger, bishop of Salisbury.
+Nigel is said to have reconstituted the exchequer after the troubles of
+Stephen's reign upon the model which he inherited from his uncle. The
+Angevin, or rather the Norman, exchequer cannot be regarded in
+strictness as a permanent department. It consisted of two parts: the
+lower exchequer, which was closely connected with the permanent treasury
+and was an office for the receipt and payment of money; and the upper
+exchequer, which was a court sitting twice a year to settle accounts and
+thus nearly related to the Curia Regis (q.v.). We dare hardly say that
+either exchequer existed in vacation; indeed the word (like the word
+"diet") seems to have been limited at first to the actual sitting of the
+king's court for financial purposes. The Michaelmas and Easter
+exchequers were the sessions of this court "at the exchequer" or
+chess-board as it had previously sat "at the tallies." The constitution
+of the court was that of the normal Frankish curia. The king was the
+nominal president, and the court consisted of his great officers of
+state and his barons, or tenants-in-chief, and it is doubtless due to
+the fact that the exchequer was originally the curia itself sitting for
+a special purpose that its unofficial judges retained the name of
+"barons" until recent times. Of the great officers we may probably find
+the steward in the person of the justiciar, the normal president of the
+court. He sat at the head of the exchequer table. The butler was not
+represented. The chancellor sat on the justiciar's left; he was
+custodian _ex officio_ of the seal of the court, and thus responsible
+for the issue of all writs and summonses, and moreover for the keeping
+of a duplicate roll of accounts embodying the judgments of the court. On
+the left of the chancellor, and thus clear of the table, since their
+services might be required elsewhere at any moment, sat the constable,
+the two chamberlains and the marshal. The constable was the chief of the
+outdoor service of the court, and was responsible for everything
+connected with the army, or with hunting and hawking. The two
+chamberlains were the lay colleagues of the treasurer, and shared with
+him the duty of receiving and paying money, and keeping safe the seal of
+the court, and all the records and other contents of the treasury. The
+marshal, who was subordinate to the constable, shared his duties, and
+was specially responsible for the custody of prisoners and of the
+vouchers produced by accountants. At the head of the table on the
+justiciar's right sat, in Henry II.'s time, an extraordinary member of
+the court, the bishop of Winchester. The treasurer, like the chancellor
+a clerk, sat at the head of the right-hand side of the table. He charged
+the accountants with their fixed debts, and dictated the contents of the
+great roll of accounts (or pipe roll) which embodied the decisions of
+the court as to the indebtedness of the sheriffs and other accountants.
+These persons with certain subordinates constituted the court of
+accounts, or upper exchequer, whereas the lower exchequer, or exchequer
+of receipt, consisted almost exclusively of the subordinates of the
+treasurer and chamberlains. In the upper exchequer the justiciar
+appointed the calculator, who exhibited the state of each account by
+means of counters on the exchequer table, so that the proceedings of the
+court might be clear to the presumably illiterate sheriff. The
+calculator sat in the centre of the side of the table on the president's
+left. The chancellor's staff consisted of the _Magister Scriptorii_
+(probably the ancestor of the modern master of the rolls), whose duties
+are not stated; a clerk (the modern chancellor of the exchequer) who
+settled the form of all writs and summonses, charged the sheriff with
+all fines and amercements, and acted as a check on the treasurer in the
+composition of the great roll; and a scribe (afterwards the comptroller
+of the pipe), who wrote out the writs and summonses and kept a duplicate
+of the great roll, known as the chancellor's roll. The constable's
+subordinates were the marshal and a clerk, who, besides the duty of
+paying outdoor servants of the crown, had the special task of producing
+duplicates of all writs issued by the Curia Regis. The treasurer and
+chamberlains, being colleagues, had a joint staff, the clerical or
+literate members of which were servants of the treasurer, while the lay
+or illiterate members depended on the chamberlains. Hence while the
+treasurer and his clerks kept their accounts by means of rolls, the
+chamberlains and their serjeants duplicated them so far as possible by
+means of tallies. Thus the great roll was written by the treasurer's
+scribe (the engrosser, afterwards the clerk of the pipe), while the
+payments on account and other allowances to be credited to the sheriff
+were registered by the tally cutter of the chamberlains.
+
+In the exchequer of receipt the staff was similarly divided between the
+treasurer and chamberlains; the treasurer having a clerk who kept the
+issue and receipt rolls (the later clerk of the pells) and four tellers,
+while each of the chamberlains was represented by a knight (afterwards
+the deputy chamberlains), who controlled the clerk's account by means of
+tallies, and held their lands by this serjeanty; these three had joint
+control of the treasury, and could not act independently. The other
+serjeants were the knight or "pesour" who weighed the money, the melter
+who assayed it, and the ushers of the two exchequers. It should be noted
+that all the lay offices of the treasury in both exchequers were
+hereditary. Henry II. had also a personal clerk who supervised the
+proceedings personally in the upper, and by deputy in the lower,
+exchequer.
+
+The business of the ancient exchequer was primarily financial, although
+we know that some judicial business was done there and that the court of
+common pleas was derived from it rather than from the curia proper. The
+principal accountants were the sheriffs, who were bound, as the king's
+principal financial agents in each county, to give an account of their
+stewardship twice a year, at the exchequers of Easter and Michaelmas.
+Half the annual revenue was payable at Easter, and at Michaelmas the
+balance was exacted, and the accounts made up for the year, and formally
+enrolled on the pipe roll. The fixed revenue consisted of the farms of
+the king's demesne lands within the counties, of the county mints, and
+of certain boroughs (see BOROUGH) which paid annual sums as the price of
+their liberties. Danegeld was also regarded as fixed revenue, though
+after the accession of Henry II. it was not frequently levied. There
+were also rents of assarts and purprestures and mining and other
+royalties. The casual revenue consisted of the profits of the feudal
+incidents (escheat, wardship and marriage), of the profits of justice
+(amercements, and goods of felons and outlaws), and of fines, or
+payments made by the king's subjects to secure grants of land, wardships
+or marriages, and of immunities, as well as for the hastening and
+sometimes the delaying of justice. Besides this, there were the revenues
+arising from aids and scutages of the king's military tenants, tallages
+of the crown lands, customs of ports, and special "gifts," or general
+assessments made on particular occasions. For the collection of all
+these the sheriff was primarily responsible, though in some cases the
+accountants dealt directly with the exchequer, and were bound to make
+their appearance in person on the day when the sheriff accounted.
+
+We gather both from tradition and from the example of the Scottish
+exchequer that the farms of demesne lands were originally paid in kind,
+by way of purveyance for the royal household, and although such farms
+are expressed even in Domesday Book in terms of money, the tradition
+that there was a system of customary valuation is a sufficient
+explanation, and not of itself incredible. At some date, possibly under
+the administration of Roger of Salisbury, the inconvenience of this
+arrangement led to the substitution of money payments at the exchequer.
+The rapid deterioration of a small silver coinage led to successive
+efforts to maintain the value of these payments, first by a "scale"
+deduction of 6d. in the L for wear, then by the substitution of payment
+by weight for payment by tale, and finally by the reduction of most of
+such payments to their pure silver value by means of an assay, a process
+originally confined to payments from particular manors. Only the farms
+of counties, however, were so treated, and not all of those. The amount
+to be deducted in these cases was settled by the weighing and assaying
+of a specimen pound of silver in the presence of the sheriff by the
+pesour and the melter in the lower exchequer. The casual revenue was
+paid by tale, and for the determination of its amount it was necessary
+to have copies of all grants made in the chancery on which rents were
+reserved, or fines payable. These were known first as _contrabrevia_ and
+later as _originalia_; the profits of justice were settled by the
+delivery of "estreats" from the justices, while for certain minor
+casualties the oath of the sheriff was at first the only security. At a
+later date many of them were determined by copies of inquisitions sent
+in from the chancery. All this business might be transacted anywhere in
+England, and though convenience placed the exchequer first at Winchester
+(where the treasury was), and afterwards usually at Westminster, it held
+occasional sessions at other towns even in the 14th century.
+
+The Angevin exchequer, described by Richard the Treasurer, remained the
+ideal of the institution throughout its history, and the lineaments of
+the original exemplar were never completely effaced; but the rapid
+increase both of financial and judicial business led to a multiplication
+of machinery and a growing complexity of constitution. Even in the time
+of Henry II. we gather that the great officers of state, except the
+treasurer and chancellor, commonly attended by deputy. In the reign of
+Henry III. the chancellor had also ceased to attend, and his clerk
+acquired the title of chancellor of the exchequer. To the same period
+belongs the institution of the king's and lord treasurer's
+remembrancers. These at first had common duties and kept duplicate
+rolls, but by the ordinance of 1323 their functions were differentiated.
+Henceforward the king's remembrancer was more particularly concerned
+with the casual, and the lord treasurer's remembrancer with the fixed
+revenue. The former put all debts in charge, while the latter saw to
+their recovery when they had found their way on to the great roll. Hence
+the preliminary stages of each account, the receiving and registering of
+the king's writs to the treasurer and barons, and the drawing up of all
+particulars of account, lay with the king's remembrancer, and he
+retained the corresponding vouchers. The lord treasurer's remembrancer
+exacted the "remanets" of such accounts as had been enrolled, as well as
+reserved rents and fixed revenue, and so became closely connected with
+the clerk of the pipe. Before the end of the 14th century these three
+offices had already crystallized into separate departments.
+
+In the meantime the increasing length and variety of accounts, as well
+as the growth of judicial business, had led to various efforts at
+reform. As early as 22 Henry II. it became necessary to remove from the
+great roll the debts which it seemed hopeless to levy, and further
+ordinances to the same end were made by statute in 54 Henry III. and in
+12 Edward I. By this last a special "exannual roll" was established in
+which the "desperate debts" were recorded, in order that the sheriff
+might be reminded of them yearly without their overloading the great
+roll. But the largest accession of financial business arose from the
+"foreign accounts," that is to say, the accounts of national services,
+which did not naturally form part of the account of any county. These
+did not in the reign of Henry II. form a part of the exchequer business.
+Such expenses as appear on the pipe roll were paid by the sheriffs, or
+by the bailiffs of "honours"; payments out of the treasury itself would
+only appear on the receipt and issue rolls, and the "spending
+departments" probably drew their supplies from the camera curie, and not
+directly from the exchequer. In the course of the 13th century the
+exchequer gradually acquired partial control of these national accounts.
+Even in 18 Henry II. there is an account for the forests of England, and
+soon the mint, the wardrobe and the escheators followed. The undated
+statute of the exchequer (probably about 1276) provides for escheators,
+the earldom of Chester, the Channel Islands, the customs and the
+wardrobe. During the reign of Edward I., the wardrobe account became
+unmanageable, since it not only financed the household, army, navy and
+diplomatic service, but raised money on the customs independently of the
+exchequer. The reform of 1323-1326, due to Walter de Stapledon, in
+remedying this state of things, greatly increased the number of "foreign
+accounts" by making the great wardrobe (the storekeeping department),
+the butler, purveyors, keepers of horses or of the stud, the clerk of
+the "hamper" of the chancery (who took the fees for the great seal), and
+the various ambassadors, directly accountable to the exchequer. At the
+same time the sheriffs' accounts were expedited by the further
+simplification of the great roll, and by appointing a special officer,
+the "foreign apposer," to take the account of the "green wax," or
+estreats, so that two accounts could go on at once. Another baron (the
+5th or cursitor baron) was appointed, and the whole business of foreign
+accounts was transferred to a separate building where one baron and
+certain auditors spent their whole time in settling the balances due on
+the accounts already mentioned, as well as those of castles, &c., not
+let to farm, Wales, Gascony, Ireland, aids (clerical and lay),
+temporalities of vacant bishoprics, abbeys, priories and dignities,
+mines of silver and tin, ulnage and so forth. These balances were
+accounted for in the exchequer itself, and entered on the pipe roll, but
+the preliminary accounts were filed by the king's remembrancer, and
+enrolled separately by the treasurer's remembrancer as a supplement to
+the pipe roll.
+
+The next important change, about the end of the 15th century, was the
+gradual substitution of special auditors appointed by the crown, known
+as the auditors of the prests (the predecessors of the commissioners for
+auditing public accounts), for the auditors of the exchequer. Accounts
+when passed by them were presented in duplicate and "declared" before
+the treasurer, under-treasurer and chancellor. Of the two copies, one,
+on paper, was retained by the auditors, the other, on parchment, was
+successively enrolled by the king's and lord treasurer's remembrancers,
+and finally by the clerk of the pipe, to secure the levying of any
+"remanets" or "supers" by process of the exchequer.
+
+Besides the two great difficulties of the postponement of financial to
+legal business, and of preventing the sheriffs from exacting the same
+debt twice, the exchequer was, as has been seen, hampered in its
+functions by the interference of other departments in financial matters.
+Its own branches even acquired a certain independence. The exchequer of
+the Jews, which came to an end in 18 Edward I., was such a branch. In 27
+Henry VIII. the court of augmentations was established to deal with
+forfeited lands of monasteries. This was followed in 32 & 33 Henry VIII.
+by the courts of first-fruits and tenths and of general surveyors. These
+were reabsorbed by the exchequer in 1 Mary, but remained as separate
+departments within it. But the development of the treasury, which
+succeeded to the functions of the camera curie or the king's chamber,
+ultimately reduced the administrative functions of the exchequer to
+unimportance, and the audit office took over its duties with regard to
+public accounts. So that when the statute of 3 & 4 William IV. cap. 99,
+removed the sheriff's accounts also from its competence, and brought to
+an end the series of pipe rolls which begins in 1130, the ancient
+exchequer may be said to have come to an end. (C. J.)
+
+In 1834 an act was passed abolishing the old offices of the exchequer,
+and creating a new exchequer under a comptroller-general, the detailed
+business of payments formerly made at the exchequer being transferred to
+the paymaster-general, whose office was further enlarged in 1836 and
+1848. And in 1866, as the result of a select committee reporting
+unfavourably on the system of exchequer control as established in 1834,
+the exchequer was abolished altogether as a distinct department of
+state, and a new exchequer and audit department established.
+
+The ancient term exchequer now survives mainly as the official title of
+the national banking account of the United Kingdom. This central account
+is commonly called the exchequer, and its statutory title is "His
+Majesty's Exchequer." It may also be described with statutory authority
+as "The Account of the Consolidated Fund of Great Britain and Ireland."
+This account is, in fact, divided between the Banks of England and
+Ireland. At the head office of each of these institutions receipts are
+accepted and payments made on account of the exchequer; but in published
+documents the two accounts are consolidated into one, the balances only
+at the two banks being shown separately.
+
+Operations affecting the exchequer are regulated by the Exchequer and
+Audit Departments Act 1866. Section 10 prescribes that the gross revenue
+of the United Kingdom (less drawbacks and repayments, which are not
+really revenue) is payable, and must sooner or later be paid into the
+exchequer. Section 11 directs that payments should be made from the fund
+so formed to meet the current requirements of spending departments.
+Sections 13, 14, 15 lay down the conditions under which money can be
+drawn from the exchequer. Drafts on the exchequer require the approval
+of an officer independent of the executive government, the comptroller
+and auditor-general. But the description of the formal procedure
+required by statute cannot adequately express the actual working of the
+system, or the part it plays in the national finance. The simplicity of
+the system laid down by the act of 1866 has been disturbed by the
+diversion of certain branches or portions of revenue from the exchequer
+to "Local Taxation Accounts," under a system initiated by the Local
+Government Act 1888, and much extended since.
+
+While the exchequer is, as already stated, the central account, it is
+not directly in contact with the details of either revenue or
+expenditure. As regards revenue, the produce of taxes and other sources
+of income passes, in the first instance, into the separate accounts of
+the respective receiving departments--mainly, of course, those of the
+customs, inland revenue and post office. A not inconsiderable portion is
+received in the provinces, and remitted to London or Dublin by bills or
+otherwise, and the ultimate transfers to the exchequer are made (in
+round sums) from the accounts of the receiving departments in London or
+in Dublin. Thus, there are always considerable sums due to the exchequer
+by the revenue departments; on the other hand, as floating balances are
+(for the sake of economy) used temporarily for current expenses, there
+are generally amounts due by the exchequer to the receiving departments;
+such cross claims are adjusted periodically, generally once a month. The
+finance accounts of the United Kingdom show the gross amounts due to the
+exchequer from the departments, and likewise the amounts payable out of
+the gross revenue in priority to the claim of the exchequer. On the
+expenditure side a similar system prevails. No detailed payments are
+made direct from the exchequer, but round sums are issued from it to
+subsidiary accounts, from which the actual drafts for the public
+services are met. For instance, the interest on the national debt is
+paid by the Bank of England from a separate account fed by transfers of
+round sums from the exchequer as required. Similarly, payments for army,
+navy and most civil services are met by the paymaster-general out of an
+account of his own, fed by daily transfers from the exchequer.
+
+This system has two noticeable effects. Firstly, it secures the
+simplicity and finality of the exchequer accounts, and therefore of all
+ordinary statements of national finance. Every evening the chancellor of
+the exchequer can tell his position so far as the exchequer is
+concerned; on the first day of every quarter the press is able to
+comment on the national income and expenditure up to the evening before.
+The annual account is closed on the evening of the 31st of March, and
+there can be no reopening of the budget of a past year such as may occur
+under other financial systems. The second effect of the system is to
+introduce a certain artificiality into the financial statements. Actual
+facts cannot be reduced to the simplicity of exchequer figures; there is
+always (as already explained) revenue received by government which has
+not yet reached the exchequer; and there must always be a considerable
+outstanding liability in the form of cheques issued but not yet cashed.
+The suggested criticism is, however, met if it can be shown that, on the
+whole, the differences between the true revenue and the exchequer
+receipts, or between the true (or audited) expenditure and the exchequer
+issues, are not, taking one year with another, relatively considerable.
+The following figures (000's omitted) illustrate this point:--
+
+  _Expenditure._
+
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------
+  |   Year.   |Exchequer |   Audited    | Difference.|
+  |           |  Issues. | Expenditure. |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | 1888-1889 | L85,674  |   L86,070    |   L+396    |
+  | 1889-1890 |  86,083  |    86,033    |    - 50    |
+  | 1890-1891 |  87,732  |    87,638    |    - 94    |
+  | 1891-1892 |  89,928  |    90,125    |    +197    |
+  | 1892-1893 |  90,375  |    90,164    |    -211    |
+  | 1893-1894 |  91,303  |    91,530    |    +227    |
+  | 1894-1895 |  93,919  |    93,818    |    -101    |
+  | 1895-1896 |  97,764  |    97,667    |    - 97    |
+  | 1896-1897 | 101,477  |   101,543    |    + 66    |
+  | 1897-1898 | 102,936  |   103,010    |    + 74    |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | Total for |L927,191  |  L927,598    |   L+407    |
+  | 10 years  |          |              |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+
+  _Revenue._
+
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  |   Year.   |Exchequer |   Actual     | Difference.|
+  |           |Receipts. |  Revenue.    |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | 1888-1889 |  L88,473 |   L88,038    |   L-435    |
+  | 1889-1890 |   89,304 |    89,416    |    +112    |
+  | 1890-1891 |   89,489 |    89,282    |    -207    |
+  | 1891-1892 |   90,995 |    91,428    |    +433    |
+  | 1892-1893 |   90,395 |    90,181    |    -214    |
+  | 1893-1894 |   91,133 |    91,265    |    +132    |
+  | 1894-1895 |   94,684 |    94,873    |    +189    |
+  | 1895-1896 |  101,974 |   102,031    |    + 57    |
+  | 1896-1897 |  103,960 |   104,089    |    +129    |
+  | 1897-1898 |  106,614 |   106,691    |    + 77    |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | Total for | L947,011 |  L947,294    |   L+273    |
+  | 10 years  |          |              |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+
+  _Surplus._
+
+  +-----------+----------=--------------+------------+
+  |           |Exchequer |Diff. between |            |
+  |   Year.   | Accounts.|  Actual Rev. | Difference.|
+  |           |          | and Aud. Exp.|            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | 1888-1889 |  L2,799  |   L1,968     |   L-831    |
+  | 1889-1890 |   3,221  |    3,383     |    +162    |
+  | 1890-1891 |   1,757  |    1,644     |    -113    |
+  | 1891-1892 |   1,067  |    1,303     |    +236    |
+  | 1892-1893 |      20  |       17     |    -  3    |
+  | 1893-1894 |   -_170_ |    -_265_    |    - 95    |
+  | 1894-1895 |     765  |    1,055     |    +290    |
+  | 1895-1896 |    4,210 |    4,364     |    +154    |
+  | 1896-1897 |    2,473 |    2,546     |    + 73    |
+  | 1897-1898 |    3,678 |    3,681     |    +  3    |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+  | Total for |  L19,820 |  L19,696     |   L-124    |
+  | 10 years  |          |              |            |
+  +-----------+----------+--------------+------------+
+
+The third column in the above shows the price which has to be paid (in
+the form of discrepancies between facts and figures) for the simplicity
+secured to statements and records of the national finance by the present
+system embodied in the term exchequer. Probably few will think the price
+too high in consideration of the advantages secured.
+
+The principal official who derives a title from the exchequer in its
+living sense is, of course, the chancellor of the exchequer. He is the
+person named second in the patent appointing commissions for executing
+the office of lord high treasurer of Great Britain and Ireland; but he
+is appointed chancellor of the exchequer for Great Britain and
+chancellor of the exchequer for Ireland by two additional patents.
+Although, in fact, the finance minister of the United Kingdom, he has no
+_statutory_ power over the exchequer apart from his position as second
+commissioner of the treasury; but in virtue of his office he is by
+statute master of the mint, senior commissioner for the reduction of the
+national debt, a trustee of the British Museum, an ecclesiastical
+commissioner, a member of the board of agriculture, a commissioner of
+public works and buildings, local government, and education, a
+commissioner for regulating the offices of the House of Commons, and has
+certain functions connected with the office of the secretary of state
+for India. The only other exchequer officer requiring mention is the
+comptroller and auditor-general, whose functions as comptroller-general
+of the exchequer have been already described.
+
+The ancient name of the national banking account has been attached to
+two of the forms of unfunded national debt. Exchequer bills, which date
+from the reign of William and Mary (they took the place of the tallies,
+previously used for the same purpose), became extinct in 1897, but
+exchequer bonds (first issued by Mr Gladstone in 1853) still possess a
+practical importance. An exchequer bond is a promise by government to
+pay a specified sum after a specified period, generally three or five
+years, and meanwhile to pay interest half-yearly at a specified rate on
+that sum. Government possesses no general power to issue exchequer
+bonds; such power is only conferred by a special act, and for specified
+purposes; but when the power has been created, exchequer bonds issued in
+pursuance of it are governed by general statutory provisions contained
+in the Exchequer Bills and Bonds Act 1866, and amending acts. These acts
+create machinery for the issue of exchequer bonds and for the payment of
+interest thereon, and protect them against forgery.
+
+Some traces may be mentioned of the ancient uses of the name exchequer
+which still remain. The chancellor of the exchequer still presides at
+the ceremony of "pricking the list of sheriffs," which is a
+quasi-judicial function; and on that occasion he wears a robe of black
+silk with gold embroidery, which suggests a judicial costume. In England
+the last judge who was styled baron of the exchequer (Baron Pollock)
+died in 1897. In Scotland the jurisdiction of the barons of the
+exchequer was transferred to the court of session in 1856, but the same
+act requires the appointment of one of the judges as "lord ordinary in
+exchequer causes," which office still exists. In Ireland Lord Chief
+Baron Palles was the last to retain the old title. A street near Dublin
+Castle is called Exchequer Street, recalling the separate Irish
+exchequer, which ceased in 1817. The old term also survives in the full
+title of the treasury representative in Scotland, which is "The King's
+and the Lord Treasurer's Remembrancer in Exchequer," while his office in
+the historic Parliament Square is styled "Exchequer Chambers."
+     (S. E. S.-R.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--For the early exchequer Thomas Madox's _History and
+  Antiquities of the Exchequer_ (London, 1711) remains the standard
+  authority, and in it the _Dialogus de Scaccario_ of Richard the
+  Treasurer (1179) was first printed (edited since by A. Hughes, C.G.
+  Crump and C. Johnson, Oxford, 1902). The publications of the Pipe Roll
+  Society (London, 1884 et seq.), the Pipe Rolls and Chancellor's Roll,
+  printed by the Record Commission (London, 1833 and 1844), and H.
+  Hall's edition of the _Receipt Roll of the Exchequer 31 Henry II._
+  (London, 1899) should also be consulted. A popular account is in H.
+  Hall's _Court Life under the Plantagenets_ (London, 1901), and a
+  careful study in Dr Parow's thesis, _Compotus Vicecomitis_ (Berlin,
+  1906). For the 13th and 14th centuries H. Hall's edition of the _Red
+  Book of the Exchequer_ (London, Rolls Series, 1896) is essential, as
+  also the Public Record Office _List of Foreign Accounts_ (London,
+  1900). Later practice may be gathered from the similar _List and Index
+  of Declared Accounts_ (London, 1893), and from such books as Sir T.
+  Fanshawe's _Practice of the Exchequer Court_, written about A.D. 1600
+  (London, 1658); Christopher Vernon's _The Exchequer Opened_ (London,
+  1661), or Sir Geoffrey Gilbert's _Treatise on the Court of Exchequer_
+  (London, 1758), as well as from the statutes abolishing various
+  offices in the exchequer. H. Hall's _Antiquities of the Exchequer_
+  (London, 1891) gives many interesting details of various dates. For
+  the Scottish exchequer _The Exchequer Rolls of Scotland_ (Edinburgh,
+  1878 et seq.) should be consulted, while Gilbert's book noted above
+  gives some details on that of Ireland. See also Appendix 13 to the
+  great account of _Public Income and Expenditure from 1688 to 1869_, in
+  three volumes, prepared for parliament by H.W. Chisholm (1869); and
+  for sidelights on the working of the office from 1825 to 1866 the
+  reminiscences of the same author (the last chief clerk of the
+  exchequer) in _Temple Bar_ (January to April 1891).
+
+
+
+
+EXCISE (derived through the Dutch, _excijs_ or _accijs_, possibly from
+Late Lat. _accensare_,--ad, to, and census, tax; the word owes something
+to a confusion with _excisum_, cut out), a term now well known in public
+finance, signifying a duty charged on home goods, either in the process
+of their manufacture, or before their sale to the home consumers. This
+form of taxation implies a commonwealth somewhat advanced in
+manufactures, markets and general riches; and it interferes so directly
+with the industry and liberty of the subject that it has seldom been
+introduced save in some supreme financial exigency, and has as seldom
+been borne, even after long usage, with less than the ordinary
+impatience of taxation. Yet excise duties can boast a respectable
+antiquity, having a distinct parallel in the _vectigal rerum venalium_
+(or toll levied on all commodities sold by auction, or in public market)
+of the Romans. But the Roman excise was mild compared with that of
+modern nations, having never been more than _centesima_, or 1%, of the
+value; and it was much shorter lived than the modern examples, having
+been first imposed by Augustus, reduced for a time one-half by Tiberius,
+and finally abolished by Caligula, A.D. 38, so that the Roman excise
+cannot have had a duration of much more than half a century. Its
+remission must have been deemed a great boon in the marts of Rome, since
+it was commemorated by the issue of small brass coins with the legend
+_Remissis Centesimis_, specimens of which are still to be found in
+collections.
+
+The history of this branch of revenue in the United Kingdom dates from
+the period of the civil wars, when the republican government, following
+the example of Holland, established, as a means of defraying the heavy
+expenditure of the time, various duties of excise, which the royalists
+when restored to power found too convenient or too necessary to be
+abandoned, notwithstanding their origin and their general unpopularity.
+On the contrary, they were destined to be steadily increased both in
+number and in amount. It is curious that the first commodities selected
+for excise were those on which this branch of taxation, after great
+extension, had again in the period of reform and free trade been in a
+manner permanently reduced, viz. malt liquors, and such kindred
+beverages as cider perry and spruce beer. The other excise duties
+remaining are chiefly in the form of licences, such as to kill game and
+to use and carry guns, to sell gold and silver plate, to pursue the
+business of appraisers or auctioneers, hawkers or pedlars, pawnbrokers
+or patent-medicine vendors, to manufacture tobacco or snuff, to deal in
+sweets or in foreign wines, to make vinegar, to roast malt, or to use a
+still in chemistry or otherwise. It may be presumed that the policy of
+the licence duties was at first not so much to collect revenue, though
+in the aggregate they yielded a large sum, as to guard the main sources
+of excise, and to place certain classes of dealers, by registration and
+an annual payment to the exchequer, under a direct legal responsibility.
+The excise system of the United Kingdom as now pruned and reformed,
+however, while still the most prolific of all the sources of revenue, is
+simple in process, and is contentedly borne as compared with what was
+the case in the 18th, and the beginning of the 19th century. The wars
+with Bonaparte strained the government resources to the uttermost, and
+excise duties were multiplied and increased in every practicable form.
+Bricks, candles, calico prints, glass, hides and skins, leather, paper,
+salt, soap, and other commodities of home manufacture and consumption
+were placed, with their respective industries, under excise surveillance
+and fine. When the duties could no longer be increased in number, they
+were raised in rate. The duty on British spirits, which had begun at a
+few pence per gallon in 1660, rose step by step to 11s. 8-1/4d. per
+gallon in 1820; and the duty on salt was augmented to three or fourfold
+its value.
+
+The old unpopularity of excise, though now somewhat out of date, must
+have had real enough grounds. It breaks out in English literature, from
+songs and pasquinades to grave political essays and legal commentaries.
+Blackstone, in quoting the declaration of parliament in 1649 that
+"excise is the most easy and indifferent levy that can be laid upon the
+people," adds on his own authority that "from its first original to the
+present time its very name has been odious to the people of England"
+(book i. cap. 8, tenth edition, 1786); while the definition of "excise"
+gravely inserted by Dr Johnson in the _Dictionary_, at the imminent risk
+of subjecting the eminent author to a prosecution for libel--viz. "a
+hateful tax levied upon commodities, and adjudged not by the common
+judges of property, but wretches hired by those to whom excise is
+paid"--can hardly be ever forgotten.
+
+The duties of excise in the United Kingdom were, until the passing of
+the Finance Act 1908, under the control of the commissioners of inland
+revenue; they are now under the control of the commissioners of customs;
+the amount raised, apart from changes in the rate, shows a fairly
+constant tendency to increase, and is usually regarded as one of the
+best tests of the prosperity of the working classes.
+
+The _spirit duty_ is levied according to the quantity of "proof spirit"
+contained in the product of distillation, and the charge is taken at
+three different points in the process of manufacture, the trader being
+liable for the result of the highest of the three calculations. What is
+known as "proof spirit" is obtained by mixing nearly equal weights of
+pure alcohol and water, the quantity of pure alcohol being in bulk about
+57% of the whole. Owing to the high rate of duty as compared with the
+volume and intrinsic value of the spirits, the whole process of
+manufacture is carried on under the close supervision of revenue
+officials. All the vessels used are measured by them and are secured
+with revenue locks; the premises are under constant survey; and notice
+has to be given by the distiller of the materials used and of the
+several stages of his operations. Though the charge for duty is raised
+at the time when the process of distillation is completed, the duty is
+not actually paid until the spirits are required for consumption. In the
+meanwhile they may be retained in an approved "warehouse," which is also
+subject to close supervision.
+
+The _beer duty_ dates from 1880, in which year it was substituted for
+the duty on malt. The specific gravity of the worts depends chiefly on
+the amount of sugar which they contain, and is ascertained by the
+saccharometer.
+
+Excise _licences_ may be divided into--(a) licences for the sale or
+manufacture of excisable liquors, (b) licences for other trades, such as
+tobacco dealers or manufacturers, auctioneers, pawnbrokers, &c., (c)
+licences for male servants, carriages, motors and armorial bearings, and
+(d) gun, game and dog licences. Nearly the whole of the licence duties
+is paid over to the local taxation account.
+
+The _railway passenger duty_, which was made an excise duty by the
+Railway Passenger Duty Act 1847, applies only to Great Britain. It is
+levied on all passenger fares exceeding 1d. per mile, the rate being 2%
+on urban and 5% on other traffic.
+
+The other items which go to make up the excise revenue are the charges
+on deliveries from bonded warehouses, and the duties on coffee mixture
+labels and on chicory.
+
+  For more detailed information reference should be made to Highmore's
+  _Excise Laws_, and the annual reports of the commissioners of inland
+  revenue, especially those issued in 1870 and 1885. See also TAXATION;
+  ENGLISH FINANCE.
+
+
+
+
+EXCOMMUNICATION (Lat. _ex_, out of, away from; _communis_, common), the
+judicial exclusion of offenders from the rights and privileges of the
+religious community to which they belong. The history of the practice of
+excommunication may be traced through (1) pagan analogues, (2) Hebrew
+custom, (3) primitive Christian practice, (4) medieval and monastic
+usage, (5) modern survivals in existing Christian churches.
+
+1. Among pagan analogues are the Gr. [Greek: chernibon eirgesthai]
+(Demosth. 505, 14), the exclusion of an offender from purification with
+holy water. This exclusion was enforced in the case of persons whose
+hands were defiled with bloodshed. Its consequences are described Aesch.
+_Choeph._ 283, _Eum._ 625 f., Soph. _Oed. Tyr._ 236 ff. The Roman
+_exsecratio_ and diris _devotio_ was a solemn pronouncement of a
+religious curse by priests, intended to call down the divine wrath upon
+enemies, and to devote them to destruction by powers human and divine.
+The Druids claimed the dread power of excluding offenders from sacrifice
+(Caes. _B.G._ vi. 13). Primitive Semitic customs recognize that when
+persons are laid under a ban or taboo (_herem_) restrictions are imposed
+on contact with them, and that the breach of these involves supernatural
+dangers. Impious sinners, or enemies of the community and its god, might
+be devoted to utter destruction.
+
+2. _Hebrew Custom._--In a theocracy excommunication is necessarily both
+a civil and a religious penalty. The word used in the New Testament to
+describe an excommunicated person, [Greek: anathema](1 Cor. xvi. 22,
+Gal. i. 8-9, Rom. ix. 3), is the Septuagint rendering of the Hebrew
+_herem_. The word means "set apart" (cf. HAREM), and does not
+distinguish originally between things set apart because devoted to God
+and things devoted to destruction. Lev. xxvii. 16-34 defines the law for
+dealing with "devoted" things; according to v. 28 "No devoted thing that
+a man shall devote unto the Lord, of all that he hath, whether of man or
+beast, or of the field of his possession, shall be sold or redeemed.
+None devoted shall be ransomed, he shall surely be put to death." As in
+Greece and Rome whole cities or nations might be devoted to destruction
+by pronouncement of a ban (Numbers xxi. 2, 3, Deut. ii. 34, iii. 6, vii.
+2). Occasionally Israelites as well as aliens fall under the curse
+(Judg. xxi. 5, 11). A milder form of penalty was the temporary
+separation or seclusion (_niddah_) prescribed for ceremonial
+uncleanness. This was the ordinary form of religious discipline. In the
+time of Ezra the Jewish "magistrates and judges" among their
+ecclesiastico-civil functions have the right of pronouncing sentence
+whether it be unto death, or to "rooting out," or to confiscation of
+goods, or to imprisonment (Ezra vii. 26). There is also a lighter form
+of excommunication which "devotes" the goods of an offender, but only
+separates him from the congregation. Both major and minor kinds of
+excommunication are recognized by the Talmud. The lesser (_niddah_)
+involved exclusion from the synagogue for thirty days, and other
+penalties, and might be renewed if the offender remained impenitent. The
+major excommunication (_herem_) excluded from the Temple as well as the
+synagogue and from all association with the faithful. Spinoza was
+excommunicated (July 16, 1656) for contempt of the law. Seldon (_De jure
+nat. et gen._, iv. 7) gives the text of the curse pronounced on the
+culprit. The _Exemplar Humanae Vitae_ of Uriel d'Acosta also deserves
+reference. The practice of the Jewish courts in New Testament times may
+be inferred from certain passages in the Gospels. Luke vi. 22, John ix.
+22, xii. 42 indicate that exclusion from the synagogue was a recognized
+penalty, and that it was probably inflicted on those who confessed Jesus
+as the Christ. John xvi. 2 ("Whosoever killeth you," &c.) may point to
+the power of inflicting the major penalty. The Talmud itself says that
+the judgment of capital cases was taken away from Israel forty years
+before the destruction of the Temple. "Forty" is probably a round number
+without historical value, but the circumstance recorded by this
+tradition and confirmed by the evangelist's account of the trial of
+Jesus is historical, and is to be regarded as one of several
+restrictions imposed on the Jewish courts in the time of the Roman
+procurators.
+
+3. _Primitive Christian Practice._--The use of excommunication as a form
+of Christian discipline is based on the precept of Christ and on
+apostolic practice. The general principles which govern the exclusion of
+members from a religious community may be gathered from the New
+Testament writings. Matt. xviii. 15-17 prescribes a threefold
+admonition, first privately, then in the presence of witnesses (cf.
+Titus iii. 10), then before the church. This is a graded procedure as in
+the Jewish synagogue and makes exclusion a last resort. Nothing is said
+as to the nature and effects of excommunication. The tone of the passage
+when compared with the disciplinary methods of the synagogue indicates
+that its purpose was to introduce elements of reason and moral suasion
+in place of sterner methods. Its object is rather the protection of the
+church than the punishment of the sinner. The offender is only treated
+as a heathen and publican when the purity and safety of the church
+demand it. In the _locus classicus_ on this subject (1 Cor. v. 5) Paul
+refers to a formal meeting of the Corinthian church at which the
+incestuous person is "delivered unto Satan for the destruction of the
+flesh that the spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." These
+are mysterious words implying (1) a formal ecclesiastical censure, (2) a
+physical penalty, (3) the hope of a spiritual result. The form of
+penalty which would meet these conditions is not explained. There is a
+reference in 2 Cor. ii. 6-11 to a case of discipline which may or may
+not be the same. If it be the same it indicates that the excommunication
+had not been final; the offender had been received back. If it be not
+the same it shows the Corinthian church exercising discipline
+independently of apostolic advice. Up to this point there is no
+established formal practice. 1 Tim. i. 20 ("Hymenaeus and Alexander whom
+I delivered unto Satan that they might be taught not to blaspheme")
+seems to refer to an excommunication, but it does not appear whether the
+apostle had acted as representing a church, nor is there anything to
+explain the exact consequences or limits of the deliverance to Satan. 1
+Cor. xvi. 22, Gal. i. 8, 9, Rom. ix. 3 refer to the practice of
+regarding a person as anathema. Taking these passages as a whole they
+seem to point to an exclusion from church fellowship rather than to a
+final cutting off from the hope of salvation. In the pastoral letters
+there is already a formal and recognized method of procedure in cases of
+church discipline. 1 Tim. v. 19, 20 requires two or three witnesses in
+the case of an accusation against an elder, and a public reproof. Tit.
+iii. 20 recognizes a factious spirit as a reason for excommunication
+after two admonitions (cf. Tim. vi. and 2 John v. 10). In 3 John v. 9-10
+Diotrephes appears to have secured an excommunication by the action of a
+party in the church. It is clear from these illustrations that within
+the New Testament there is development from spontaneous towards strictly
+regulated methods; also that the use of excommunication is chiefly for
+disciplinary and protective rather than punitive purposes. A process
+which is intended to produce penitence and ultimate restoration cannot
+at the same time contemplate handing the offender over to eternal
+punishment.
+
+4. _Medieval and Monastic Usage._--The writings of the church Fathers
+give sufficient evidence that two degrees of excommunication, the
+[Greek: aphorismos] and the [Greek: aphorismos panteles], as they were
+generally called, were in use during, or at least soon after, the
+apostolic age. The former, which involved exclusion from participation
+in the eucharistic service and from the eucharist itself, though not
+from the so-called "service of the catechumens," was the usual
+punishment of comparatively light offences; the latter, which was the
+penalty for graver scandals, involved "exclusion from all church
+privileges,"--a vague expression which has sometimes been interpreted as
+meaning total exclusion from the very precincts of the church building
+(_inter hiemantes orare_) and from the favour of God (Bingham,
+_Antiquities of Christian Church_, xvi. 2. 16). For some sins, such as
+adultery, the sentence of excommunication was in the 2nd century
+regarded as [Greek: panteles] in the sense of being irrevocable.
+Difference of opinion as to the absolutely "irremissible" character of
+mortal sins led to the important controversy associated with the names
+of Zephyrinus, Tertullian, Calistus, Hippolytus, Cyprian and Novatian,
+in which the stricter and more montanistic party held that for those who
+had been guilty of such sins as theft, fraud, denial of the faith, there
+should be no restoration to church fellowship even in the hour of death.
+On this point the provincial synods of Illiberis (Elvira) in 305 and of
+Ancyra in 315 subsequently came to conflicting decisions, the council of
+Elvira forbidding the reception of offenders into communion during life,
+and the council of Ancyra fixing a limit to the penalty in the same
+cases. But the excommunication was on all hands regarded as being
+"medicinal" in its character. It is noteworthy that the word [Greek:
+anathema] had fallen into disuse about the beginning of the 4th century,
+and that, throughout the same period, no instance of the judicial use of
+the phrase [Greek: paradounai to Satana] can be found.
+
+A new chapter in the history of the church censure may be said to have
+begun with the publication of those imperial edicts against heresy, the
+first of which, _De summa trinitate et fide catholica_, dates from 380.
+Till then exclusion from church privileges had been a spiritual
+discipline merely; thenceforward it was to expose a man to serious
+temporal risks. Excommunication still continued to be occasionally used
+in the spirit of genuine Christian fidelity, as by Ambrose in the case
+of Theodosius himself (390); but the temptation to wield it as an
+instrument of secular tyranny too often proved to be irresistible. The
+church fell back on carnal weapons in her warfare and invoked the
+secular powers to uphold the ecclesiastical. In the formula used by
+Synesius (410) which is to be found in Bingham's _Antiquities_, we
+already find the attention of magistrates specially called to the
+censured person. The history of the next thousand years shows that the
+magistrates were seldom slow to respond to the appeal. Even the hastiest
+survey of that long and interesting period enables the student to notice
+a marked development in the theory and practice of excommunication. One
+or two points may be specially noted. (1) When the Empire became
+nominally Christian and the quality of the church life was sacrificed to
+the quantity of its adherents, the original character of excommunication
+was lost. The power of excommunication was transferred from the
+community to the bishop, and was liable to abuse from personal motives:
+Gregory the Great rebukes a bishop for using for private ends power
+conferred for the public good (_Epist._ ii. 34). Excommunication became
+a common penalty applied in numberless cases (see the _Penitential_ of
+Archbishop Theodosius: Haddan and Stubbs, _Councils and Documents_, iii.
+1737), and was invested with superstitious terrors. (2) While it had
+been held as an undoubted principle by the ancient church that this
+sentence could only be passed on living individuals whose fault had been
+distinctly stated and fully proved, we find the medieval church on the
+one hand sanctioning the practice of excommunication of the dead
+(Morinus, _De poenit._ x. c. 9), and, on the other hand, by means of the
+papal interdict, excluding whole countries and kingdoms at once from the
+means of grace. The earliest well-authenticated instance of such an
+interdict is that which was passed (998) by Pope Gregory V. on France,
+in consequence of the contumacy of King Robert the Wise. Other instances
+are those laid respectively on Germany in 1102 by Gregory VII.
+(Hildebrand), on England in 1208 by Innocent III., on Rome itself in
+1155 by Adrian IV. (3) While in the ancient church the language used in
+excommunicating had been carefully measured, we find an amazing
+recklessness in the phraseology employed by the medieval clergy. The
+curse of Ernulphus or Arnulphus of Rochester (c. 1100), often quoted by
+students of English literature, is a very fair specimen of that class of
+composition. With it may be compared the formula transcribed by Dr
+Burton in his _History of Scotland_ (iii. 317 ff.). To the spoken word
+was added the language of symbol. By means of lighted candles violently
+dashed to the ground and extinguished the faithful were graphically
+taught the meaning of the greater excommunication--though in a somewhat
+misleading way, for it is a fundamental principle of the canon law that
+_disciplina est excommunicatio, non eradicatio_. The first instance,
+however, of excommunication by "bell, book and candle" is comparatively
+late (c. 1190).
+
+5. _Modem Survivals in Existing Christian Churches._--At the Reformation
+the necessity for church discipline did not cease to be recognized; but
+the administration of it in many Reformed churches has passed through a
+period of some confusion. In some instances the old episcopal power
+passed more or less into the hands of the civil magistrate (a state of
+matters which was highly approved by Erastus and his followers), in
+other cases it was conceded to the presbyterial courts. In the Anglican
+Church the bishops (subject to appeal to the sovereign) have the right
+of excommunicating, and their sentence, if sustained, may in certain
+cases carry with it civil consequences. But this right is in practice
+never exercised. In the law of England sentence of excommunication, upon
+being properly certified by the bishop, was followed by the writ _de
+excommunicato capiendo_ for the arrest of the offender. The statute 5
+Eliz. c. 23 provided for the better execution of this writ. By the 53
+Geo. III. c. 127 (which does not, however, extend to Ireland) it was
+enacted that "excommunication, together with all proceedings following
+thereupon, shall in all cases, save those hereafter to be specified, be
+discontinued." Disobedience to or contempt of the ecclesiastical courts
+is to be punished by a new writ, _de contumace capiendo_, to follow on
+the certificate of the judge that the defender is contumacious and in
+contempt. Sect. 2 provides that nothing shall prevent "any
+ecclesiastical court from pronouncing or declaring persons to be
+excommunicate on definite sentences pronounced as spiritual censures for
+offences of ecclesiastical cognizance." No persons so excommunicated
+shall incur any civil penalty or incapacity whatever, save such
+sentence of imprisonment, not exceeding six months, as the court shall
+direct and certify to the king in chancery.
+
+In the churches which consciously shaped their polity at or after the
+Reformation the principle of excommunication is preserved in the
+practice of church discipline. Calvin devotes a chapter in the
+_Institutes_ (bk. iv. chap. xii.) to the "Discipline of the Church; its
+Principal Use in Censure and Excommunication." The three ends proposed
+by the church in such discipline are there stated to be, (1) that those
+who lead scandalous lives may not to the dishonour of God be numbered
+among Christians, seeing that the church is the body of Christ; (2) that
+the good may not be corrupted by constant association with the wicked;
+(3) that those who are censured or excommunicated, confounded with
+shame, may be led to repentance. He differentiates decisively between
+excommunication and anathema. "When Christ promises that what his
+ministers bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, he limits the power of
+binding to the censure of the church; by which those who are
+excommunicated are not cast into eternal ruin and condemnation, but by
+having their life and conduct condemned are also certified of their
+final condemnation unless they repent. For excommunication differs from
+anathema: anathema which ought to be very rarely, or never, resorted to,
+in precluding all pardon, execrates a person, and devotes him to eternal
+perdition: whereas excommunication rather censures and punishes his
+conduct. Yet in such a manner by warning him of his future condemnation
+it recalls him to salvation" (_Inst._ bk. iv. chap. xii. 10). The
+Reformed churches in England and America accepted the distinction
+between public and private offences. The usual provision is that private
+offences are to be dealt with according to the rule in Matt. v. 23-24,
+xviii. 15-17; public offences are to be dealt with according to the rule
+in 1 Cor. v. 3-5, 13. The public expulsion or suspension of the offender
+is necessary for the good repute of the church, and its influence over
+the faithful members. The expelled member may be readmitted on showing
+the fruits of repentance.
+
+In Scotland three degrees of church censure are recognized--admonition,
+suspension from sealing ordinances (which may be called temporary
+excommunication), and excommunication properly so-called. Intimation of
+the last-named censure may occasionally (but very rarely) be given by
+authority of a presbytery in a public and solemn manner, according to
+the following formula:--"Whereas thou N. hast been by sufficient proof
+convicted (here mention the sin) and after due admonition and prayer
+remainest obstinate without any evidence or sign of true repentance:
+Therefore in the name of the Lord Jesus Christ, and before this
+congregation, I pronounce and declare thee N. excommunicated, shut out
+from the communion of the faithful, debar thee from privileges, and
+deliver thee unto Satan for the destruction of thy flesh, that thy
+spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus." This is called the
+greater excommunication. The congregation are thereafter warned to shun
+all unnecessary converse with the excommunicate (see _Form of Process_,
+c. 8). Formerly excommunicated persons were deprived of feudal rights in
+Scotland; but in 1690 all acts enjoining civil pains upon sentences of
+excommunication were finally repealed (Burton's _History_, vii. 435).
+
+The question whether the power of excommunication rests in the church or
+in the clergy has been an important one in the history of English and
+American churches. Hooker lays down (_Survey_, pt. 3, pp. 33-46) four
+necessary conditions for the execution of a sentence involving church
+discipline. "(1) The cause exactly recorded is fully and nakedly to be
+presented to the consideration of the congregation. (2) The elders are
+to go before the congregation in laying open the rule so far as reacheth
+any particular now to be considered, and to express their judgment and
+determination thereof, so far as appertains to themselves. (3) Unless
+the people be able to convince them of errors and mistakes in their
+sentence, they are bound to joyn their judgment with theirs to the
+compleating of the sentence. (4) The sentence thus compleatly issued is
+to be solemnly passed and pronounced upon the delinquent by the ruling
+Elder whether it be of censure or excommunication." In this passage it
+is clear that the effective power of discipline is regarded as being
+wholly in the power of the individual church or congregation. Hooker
+expressly denies the power of synods to excommunicate: "that there
+should be Synods, which have _potestatem juridicam_ is nowhere proved in
+Scripture because it is not a truth" (_Survey_, pt. 4, pp. 48, 49).
+
+The confession of faith issued by the London-Amsterdam church (the
+original of the Pilgrim Fathers' churches) in 1596 declares that the
+Christian congregation having power to elect its minister has also power
+to excommunicate him if the case so require (Walker, _Creeds and
+Platforms of Congregationalism_, p. 66). In 1603 the document known as
+"Points of Difference" (i.e. from the established Anglicanism) submitted
+to James I. sets forth: "That all particular Churches ought to be so
+constituted as, having their owne peculiar Officers, the whole body of
+every Church may meet together in one place, and jointly performe their
+duties to God and one towards another. And that the censures of
+admonition and excommunication be in due manner executed, for sinne,
+convicted, and obstinately stood in. This power also to be in the body
+of the Church whereof the partyes so offending and persisting are
+members." The _Cambridge Platform_ of 1648 by which the New England
+churches defined their practice, devotes ch. xiv. to "excommunication
+and other censures." It follows in the main the line of Hooker and
+Calvin, but adds (S 6) an important definition: "Excommunication being a
+spirituall punishment it doth not prejudice the excommunicate in, nor
+deprive him of his _civil_ rights, therfore toucheth not princes, or
+other magistrates, in point of their civil dignity or authority. And,
+the excommunicate being but as a publican and a heathen, heathen being
+lawfully permitted to come to hear the word in church assemblyes; wee
+acknowledg therfore the like liberty of hearing the word, may be
+permitted to persons excommunicate, that is permitted unto heathen. And
+because wee are not without hope of his recovery, wee are not to account
+him as an enemy but to admonish him as a brother." The Savoy Declaration
+of 1658 defines the theory and practice of the older English
+Nonconformist churches in the section on the "Institution of Churches
+and the Order appointed in them by Jesus Christ" (xix.). The important
+article is as follows:--"The Censures so appointed by Christ, are
+Admonition and Excommunication; and whereas some offences are or may be
+known onely to some, it is appointed by Christ, that those to whom they
+are so known, do first admonish the offender in private: in publique
+offences where any sin, before all; or in case of non-amendment upon
+private admonition, the offence being related to the Church, and the
+offender not manifesting his repentance, he is to be duely admonished in
+the Name of Christ by the whole Church, by the Ministery of the Elders
+of the Church, and if this Censure prevail not for his repentance, then
+he is to be cast out by Excommunication with the consent of the Church."
+
+In contemporary English Free Churches the purity of the church is
+commonly secured by the removal of persons unsuitable for membership
+from the church books by a vote of the responsible authority.
+     (D. Mn.)
+
+
+
+
+EXCRETION (Lat. _ex_, out of, _cernere_, _cretum_, to separate), in
+plant and animal physiology, the separation from an organ of some
+substance, also the substance separated. The term usually refers to the
+separation of waste or harmful products, as distinguished from
+"secretion," which refers to products that play a useful or necessary
+part in the functions of the organism.
+
+
+
+
+EXECUTION (from Lat. _ex-sequor_, _exsecutus_, follow or carry out), the
+carrying into effect of anything, whether a rite, a piece of music, an
+office, &c.; and so sometimes involving a notion of skill in the
+performance. Technically, the word is used in law in the _execution_ of
+a deed (its formal signing and sealing), an _execution_ (see below) by
+the sheriff's officers under a "writ of execution" (the enforcement of a
+judgment on a debtor's goods); and _execution of death_ has been
+shortened to the one word to denote CAPITAL PUNISHMENT (q.v.).
+
+_Civil Execution_ may be defined as the process by which the judgments
+or orders of courts of law are made effectual. In Roman law the earliest
+mode of execution was the seizure, legalized by the _actio per manus
+injectionem_, of the debtor as a slave of the creditor. During the later
+Republic, imprisonment took the place of slavery. Under the regime of
+the _actio per manus injectionem_, the debtor might dispute the
+debt--the issue being raised by his finding a substitute (_vindex_) to
+conduct the case for him. By the time of Gaius (iv. 25) the _actio per
+manus injectionem_ had been superseded by the _actio judicati_, the
+object of which was to enable the creditor to take payment of the debt
+or compel the debtor to find security (_pignus in causa judicati captum:
+Cautio judicatum solvi_), and in A.D. 320 Constantine abolished
+imprisonment for debt, unless the debtor were contumacious. The time
+allowed for payment of a judgment debt was by the XII. Tables 30 days;
+it was afterwards extended to two months, and ultimately, by Justinian,
+to four months. The next stage in the Roman law of execution was the
+recognition of bankruptcy either against the will of the bankrupt
+(_missio in bona_) or on the application of the bankrupt (_cessio
+bonorum_; and see BANKRUPTCY). Lastly, in the time of Antoninus Pius,
+judgment debts were directly enforced by the seizure and sale of the
+debtor's property. Slaves, oxen and implements of husbandry were
+privileged; and movable property was to be exhausted before recourse was
+had to land (see Hunter, _Roman Law_, 4th ed. pp. 1029 et seq., Sohm,
+_Inst. Rom. Law_, 2nd ed. pp. 302-305).
+
+  GREAT BRITAIN.--The English law of execution is very complicated, and
+  only a statement of the principal processes can here be attempted.
+
+  _High Court.--Fieri Facias._ A judgment for the recovery of money or
+  costs is enforced, as a rule, by writ of _fieri facias_ addressed to
+  the sheriff, and directing him to cause to be made (_fieri facias_) of
+  the goods and chattels of the debtor a levy of a sum sufficient to
+  satisfy the judgment and costs, which carry interest at 4% per annum.
+  The seizure effected by the sheriff or his officer, under this writ,
+  of the property of the debtor, is what is popularly known as "the
+  putting-in" of an execution. The seizure should be carried out with
+  all possible despatch. The sheriff or his officer must not break open
+  the debtor's house in effecting a seizure, for "a man's house is his
+  castle" (_Semayne's Case_ [1604], 5 Coke Rep. 91); but this principle
+  applies only to a dwelling-house, and a barn or outhouse unconnected
+  with the dwelling-house may be broken into. The sheriff on receipt of
+  the writ endorses on it the day, hour, month and year when he received
+  it; and the writ binds the debtor's goods as at the date of its
+  delivery, except as regards goods sold before seizure in market overt,
+  or purchased for value, without notice before actual seizure (Sale of
+  Goods Act 1893, s. 26, which supersedes s. 16 of the Statute of Frauds
+  and s. 1 of the Mercantile Law Amendment Act 1856). This rule is
+  limited to goods, and does not apply to the money or bank notes of the
+  debtor which are not bound by the writ till seized under it (_Johnson_
+  v. _Pickering_, Oct. 14, 1907, C.A.). The mere seizure of the goods,
+  however, although, subject to such exceptions as those just stated, it
+  binds the interest of the debtor, and gives the sheriff such an
+  interest in the goods as will enable him to sue for the recovery of
+  their possession, does not pass the property in the goods to the
+  sheriff. The goods are in the custody of the law. But the property
+  remains in the debtor who may get rid of the execution on payment of
+  the claim and fees of the sheriff [as to which see Sheriffs Act 1887,
+  s. 20, and order of 21st of August 1888, _Annual Practice_ (1908),
+  vol. ii. p. 278]. The wearing apparel, bedding, tools, &c., of the
+  debtor to the value of L5 are protected. Competing claims as to the
+  ownership of the goods seized are brought before the courts by the
+  procedure of "interpleader." After seizure, the sheriff must retain
+  possession, and, in default of payment by the execution debtor,
+  proceed to sell. Where the judgment debt, including legal expenses,
+  exceeds L20, the sale must be by public auction, unless the Court
+  otherwise orders, and must be publicly advertised. The proceeds of
+  sale, after deduction of the sheriff's fees and expenses, become the
+  property of the execution creditor to the extent of his claim. The
+  Bankruptcy Act 1890 (53 & 54 Vict. c. 71, s. 11 [2]) requires the
+  sheriff in case of sale under a judgment for a sum exceeding L20 to
+  hold the proceeds for 14 days in case notice of bankruptcy proceedings
+  should be served upon him (see BANKRUPTCY). The form of the writ of
+  _fieri facias_ requires the sheriff to make a return to the writ. In
+  practice this is seldom done unless the execution has been ineffective
+  or there has been delay in the execution of the writ; but the judgment
+  creditor may obtain an order calling on the sheriff to make a return.
+  A sheriff or his officer, who is guilty of extortion in the execution
+  of the writ, is liable to committal for contempt, and to forfeit L200
+  and pay all damages suffered by the person aggrieved (Sheriffs Act
+  1887 [50 & 51 Vict. c. 55], s. 29 [2]), besides being civilly liable
+  to such person. Imprisonment for debt in execution of civil judgments
+  is now abolished except in cases of default in the nature of
+  contempt, unsatisfied judgments for penalties, defaults by persons in
+  a fiduciary character, and defaults by judgment debtors (Debtors Act
+  1869 [32 & 33 Vict. c. 62]; Bankruptcy Act 1883 [46 & 47 Vict. c. 52],
+  ss. 53, 103). Imprisonment for debt has been abolished within similar
+  limits in Scotland (Debtors [Scotland] Act 1880 [43 & 44 Vict. c. 34]
+  and Ireland, Debtors [Ireland] Act 1872, 35 & 36 Vict. c. 57). There
+  may still be imprisonment in England, under the writ--rarely used in
+  practice--_ne exeat regno_, which issues to prevent a debtor from
+  leaving the kingdom.
+
+  _Writ of Elegit._--The writ of _elegit_ is a process enabling the
+  creditor to satisfy his judgment debt out of the lands of the debtor.
+  It derives its name from the election of the creditor in favour of
+  this mode of recovery. It is founded on the Statute of Westminster
+  (1285, 13 Ed. I. c. 18), under which the sheriff was required to
+  deliver to the creditor all the chattels (except oxen and beasts of
+  the plough) and _half_ the lands of the debtor until the debt was
+  satisfied. By the Judgments Act 1838 the remedy was extended to _all_
+  the debtor's lands, and by the Bankruptcy Act 1883 the writ no longer
+  extends to the debtor's goods. The writ is enforceable against legal
+  interests whether in possession or remainder (_Hood-Barrs_ v.
+  _Cathcart_, 1895, 2 Ch. 411), but not against equitable interests in
+  land (_Earl of Jersey_ v. _Uxbridge Rural Sanitary Authority_, 1891, 3
+  Ch. 183). When the debtor's interest is equitable, recourse is had to
+  equitable execution by the appointment of a receiver or to bankruptcy
+  proceedings.
+
+  The writ is directed to the sheriff, who, after marking on it the date
+  of its receipt, at once in pursuance of its directions holds an
+  inquiry with a jury as to the nature and value of the interest of the
+  debtor in the lands extended under the writ, and delivers to the
+  creditor at a reasonable price and extent in accordance with the writ,
+  the lands of which the debtor was possessed in the bailiwick. When the
+  sheriff has returned and filed a record (in the central office of the
+  High Court) of the writ and the execution thereof, the execution
+  creditor becomes "tenant to the elegit." Where the land is freehold
+  the creditor acquires only a chattel interest in it; where the land is
+  leasehold he acquires the whole of the debtor's interest (_Johns_ v.
+  _Pink_, 1900, 1 Ch. 296). The creditor is entitled to hold the land
+  till his debt is satisfied, or enough to satisfy it is tendered to
+  him, and under the Judgments Act 1864 the creditor may obtain an order
+  for sale. Until the land is delivered on execution and the writs which
+  have effected the delivery are registered in the Land Registry, the
+  judgment does not create any charge on the land so as to fetter the
+  debtor's power of dealing with it. Land Charges Registration Acts 1888
+  and 1900. (See R.S.C., O. xliii.)
+
+  _Writs of Possession and Delivery._--Judgments for the recovery or for
+  the delivery of the possession of land are enforceable by writ of
+  possession. The recovery of specific chattels is obtained by writ of
+  delivery (R.S.C., O. xlvii., xlviii.).
+
+  _Writ of Sequestration._--Where a judgment directing the payment of
+  money into court, or the performance by the defendant of any act
+  within a limited time, has not been complied with, or where a
+  corporation has wilfully disobeyed a judgment, a writ of sequestration
+  is issued, to not less than four sequestrators, ordering them to enter
+  upon the real estate of the party in default, and "sequester" the
+  rents and profits until the judgment has been obeyed (R.S.C., O.
+  xliii. r. 6).
+
+  _Equitable Execution._--Where a judgment creditor is otherwise unable
+  to reach the property of his debtor he may obtain equitable execution,
+  usually by the appointment of a receiver, who collects the rents and
+  profits of the debtor's land for the benefit of the creditor (R.S.C.,
+  O. l. rr. 15A-22). But receivers may be appointed of interests in
+  personal property belonging to the debtor by virtue of the Judicature
+  Act 1873, s. 25 (8).
+
+  _Attachment._--A judgment creditor may "attach" debts due by third
+  parties to his debtor by what are known as garnishee proceedings.
+  Stock and shares belonging to a judgment debtor may be charged by a
+  charging order, so as, in the first instance, to prevent transfer of
+  the stock or payment of the dividends, and ultimately to enable the
+  judgment creditor to realise his charge. A writ of attachment of the
+  person of a defaulting debtor or party may be obtained in a variety of
+  cases akin to contempt (e.g. against a person failing to comply with
+  an order to answer interrogatories, or against a solicitor not
+  entering an appearance in an action, in breach of his written
+  undertaking to do so), and in the cases where imprisonment for debt is
+  still preserved by the Debtors Act 1869 (R.S.C., O. xliv.). CONTEMPT
+  OF COURT (q.v.) in its ordinary forms is also punishable by summary
+  committal.
+
+  _County Courts._--In the county courts the chief modes of execution
+  are "warrant of execution in the nature of a writ of _fieri facias_";
+  garnishee proceedings; equitable execution; warrants of possession and
+  delivery, corresponding to the writs of possession and delivery above
+  mentioned; committal, where a judgment debtor has, or, since the date
+  of the judgment has had, means to pay his debt; and attachment of the
+  person for contempt of court. If the judgment debtor assaults the
+  bailiff or his officer or rescues the goods, he is liable to a fine
+  not exceeding L5.
+
+  SCOTLAND.--The principal modes of execution or "diligence" in Scots
+  law are (i.) Arrestment and furthcoming, which corresponds to the
+  English garnishee proceedings; (ii.) arrestment _jurisdictionis
+  fundandae causa_, i.e. the seizure of movables within the jurisdiction
+  to found jurisdiction against their owner, being a foreigner; this
+  precedure, which is not, however, strictly a "diligence," as it does
+  not bind the goods, is analogous to the French _saisie-arret_, and to
+  the obsolete practice in the mayor's court of London known as "foreign
+  attachment" (see Glyn and Jackson, _Mayor's Court Practice_, 2nd ed.,
+  vii. 260); (iii.) arrestment under _meditatione fugae_ warrant,
+  corresponding to the old English writ of _ne exeat regno_, and
+  applicable in the case of a debtor who intends to leave Scotland to
+  evade an action; (iv.) arrestment on dependence, i.e. of funds in
+  security; (v.) poinding, i.e. valuation and sale of the debtor's
+  goods; (vi.) sequestration, e.g. of tenant's effects under a
+  landlord's hypothec for rent; (vii.) action of adjudication, by which
+  a debtor's "heritable" (i.e. real) estate is transferred to his
+  judgment creditor in satisfaction of his debt or security therefor. In
+  Scots law "multiplepoinding" is the equivalent of "interpleader."
+
+  IRELAND.--The law of execution in Ireland (see R.S.C., 1905, Orders
+  xli.-xlviii.) is practically the same as in England.
+
+  BRITISH POSSESSIONS.--The Judicature Acts of most of the Colonies
+  have also adopted English Law. Parts of the French _Code de procedure
+  civile_ are still in force in Mauritius. But its provisions have been
+  modified by local enactment (No. 19 of 1868) as regards realty, and
+  the rules of the Supreme Court 1903 have introduced the English forms
+  of writs. Quebec and St Lucia, where French law formerly prevailed,
+  have now their own codes of Civil Procedure. The law of execution
+  under the Quebec Code resembles the French, that under the St Lucia
+  Code the English system. In British Guiana and Ceylon, in which Roman
+  Dutch law in one form or another prevailed, the English law of
+  execution has now in substance been adopted (British Guiana Rules of
+  Court, 1900, Order xxxvi.)., Ceylon (Code of Civil Procedure, No. 2 of
+  1889); the modes of execution in the South African Colonies are also
+  the subject of local enactment, largely influenced by English law (cf.
+  the Sheriffs' Ordinance, 1902, No. 9 of 1902), (Orange River Colony)
+  and (Proclamation 17 of 1902), Transvaal (Nathan, _Common Law of South
+  Africa_, vol. iv. p. 2206); and generally, Van Zyl, _Judicial Practice
+  of South Africa_, pp. 198 et seq.
+
+  UNITED STATES.--Execution in the United States is founded upon English
+  law, which it closely resembles. Substantially the same forms of
+  execution are in force. The provisions of the Statute of Frauds making
+  the lien of execution attach only on delivery to the sheriff were
+  generally adopted in America, and are still law in many of the states.
+  The law as to the rights and duties of sheriffs is substantially the
+  same as in England. The "homestead laws" (q.v.) which are in force in
+  nearly all the American States exempt a certain amount or value of
+  real estate occupied by a debtor as his homestead from a forced sale
+  for the payment of his debts. This homestead legislation has been
+  copied in some British colonies, e.g. Western Australia (No. 37 of
+  1898, Pt. viii.), Quebec (Rev. Stats., ss. 1743-1748), Manitoba (Rev.
+  Stats., 1902, c. 58, s. 29, c. 21, s. 9), Ontario (Rev. Stats., 1897,
+  c. 29), British Columbia (Rev. Stats., 1897, c. 93), New South Wales
+  (Crown Lands Act 1895, Pt. iii.), New Zealand (Family Homes Protection
+  Act 1895, No. 20 of 1895).
+
+  FRANCE.--Provisional execution (_saisie-arret_) with a view to obtain
+  security has been already mentioned. Execution against personalty
+  (_saisie-execution_) is preceded by a _commandement_ or summons,
+  personally served upon, or left at the domicile of the debtor calling
+  on him to pay. The necessary bedding of debtors and of their children
+  residing with them, and the clothes worn by them, cannot be seized in
+  execution under any circumstances. Objects declared by law to be
+  immovable by destination (_immeubles par destination_), such as beasts
+  of burden and agricultural implements, books relating to the debtor's
+  profession, to the value of 300 francs, workmen's tools, military
+  equipments, provisions and certain cattle cannot be seized, even for a
+  debt due to Government, unless in respect of provisions furnished to
+  the debtor, or amounts due to the manufacturers or vendors of
+  protected articles or to parties who advanced moneys to purchase,
+  manufacture or repair them. Growing fruits cannot be seized except
+  during the six weeks preceding the ordinary period when they become
+  ripe. Execution against immovable property (_la saisie immobiliere_)
+  is preceded also by a summons to pay, and execution cannot issue until
+  the expiry of 30 days after service of such summons (see further Code
+  Proc. Civ., Arts. 673-689). Imprisonment for debt was abolished in all
+  civil and commercial matters by the law of 22nd of July 1867, which
+  extends to foreigners. It still subsists in favour of the State for
+  non-payment of fines, &c. The French system is in substance in force
+  in Belgium (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 51 et seq.), the Netherlands (Code
+  Civ. Proc., Arts. 430 et seq.), Italy (Code Civ. Proc., Arts. 553 et
+  seq., 659 et seq.), and Spain.
+
+  GERMANY.--Under the German Code of Civil Procedure (Arts. 796 et
+  seq.), both the goods and (if the goods do not offer adequate
+  security) the person of the debtor may be seized (the process is
+  called _arrest_) as a guarantee of payment. The debtor's goods cannot
+  be sold except in pursuance of a judgment notified to the debtor
+  either before or within a prescribed period after the execution (Art.
+  809 [3], and law of 30th of April 1886). Imprisonment for debt in
+  civil and commercial matters has been abolished or limited on the
+  lines of the French law of 1867 in many countries (e.g. Italy, law of
+  the 6th of December 1877; Belgium, law of the 27th of July 1871;
+  Greece, law of the 9th of March 1900; Russia, decree of the 7th of
+  March 1879).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Anderson, _Execution_ (London, 1889); _Annual Practice_
+  (London, 1908); Johnston Edwards, _Execution_ (London, 1888); Mather,
+  _Sheriff Law_ (London, 1903). As to Scots law, Mackay, _Manual of
+  Practice_ (Edinburgh, 1893). As to American law, Bingham, _Judgments
+  and Executions_ (Philadelphia, 1836); A.C. Freeman, _Law of
+  Execution_, Civil Cases (3rd ed., San Francisco, 1900); H.M. Herman,
+  _Law of Executions_ (New York, 1875); American Notes to _tit._
+  "Execution," in _Ruling Cases_ (London and Boston, 1897); Bouvier,
+  _Law Dict._, ed. Rawle (1897), s.v. "Execution."
+
+
+
+
+EXECUTORS AND ADMINISTRATORS, in English law, those persons upon whom
+the property of a deceased person both real and personal devolves
+according as he has or has not left a will. Executors differ from
+administrators both in the mode of their creation and in the date at
+which their estate vests. An executor can only be appointed by the will
+of his testator; such appointment may be express or implied, and in the
+latter case he is said to be an executor "according to the tenor." The
+estate of an executor vests in him from the date of the testator's
+death. An administrator on the other hand is appointed by the probate
+division of the High Court, and his estate does not vest till such
+appointment, the title to the property being vested till then in the
+judge of the probate division. As to whom the court will appoint
+administrators and the various kinds of administrators see under
+ADMINISTRATION. Apart from these two points the rights and liabilities
+of executors and administrators are the same, and they may be
+indifferently referred to as the representative of the deceased. As to
+their appointment before the establishment of the court of probate see
+articles WILL and INTESTACY. Before the Land Transfer Act 1897, the real
+estate of the deceased did not devolve upon the representative but
+vested directly in the devisee or heir-at-law, but by that act it was
+provided that the personal representative should be also the real
+representative, and therefore it may now be said broadly that the
+representative takes the whole estate of the deceased. There are,
+however, a few minor exceptions to this rule, of which the most
+important are lands held in joint tenancy and copyhold lands. As the
+representative stands in the shoes of the deceased he is entitled to sue
+upon any contract or for any debt which the deceased might have sued in
+his lifetime.
+
+  The duties of a representative are as follows: 1. To bury the deceased
+  in a manner suitable to the estate he leaves behind him; and the
+  expenses of such funeral take precedence of any duty or debt whatever;
+  but extravagant expenses will not be allowed. No rule can be laid down
+  as to what is a reasonable allowance for this purpose, as it is
+  impossible to know at the time of the funeral what the estate of the
+  deceased may amount to. The broad rule is that the representative must
+  allow such sum as seems reasonable, having regard to all the
+  circumstances of the case and the conditions in life of the deceased,
+  remembering that if he should exceed this he will be personally liable
+  for such excess in the event of the estate proving insolvent.
+
+  2. He must obtain probate or letters of administration to the deceased
+  within six months of the death, or, if such grant be disputed, within
+  two months of the determination of such suit. The penalty for not
+  doing so is fixed by the Stamp Act 1815, S 37, at L100, and an
+  additional stamp duty at the rate of 10%. As to the formalities of
+  PROBATE see that article.
+
+  3. Strictly speaking, he must compile an inventory of all the estate
+  of the deceased, whether in possession or outstanding, and he is to
+  deliver it to the court on oath. He is to collect all the goods so
+  inventoried and to commence actions to get in all those outstanding,
+  and he is responsible to creditors for the whole of such estate,
+  whether in possession or in action. This duty is thrown upon the
+  representative by an act of 1529, but it is not the modern practice to
+  exhibit such inventory unless he be cited for it in the spiritual
+  court at the instance of a party interested. It is, however, necessary
+  to file an affidavit setting out the value of the estate of the
+  deceased upon applying for a grant of probate or letters of
+  administration.
+
+  4. The representative must pay the debts of the deceased according to
+  their priority. Next to the legitimate funeral expenses come the costs
+  of proving and administering the estate; in the event, however, of the
+  funeral and testamentary expenses being charged by the will upon any
+  particular fund, they will be primarily payable out of that fund. The
+  representative must be careful to pay the debts according to the rules
+  of priority, otherwise he will become personally liable to the
+  creditors of one degree if he has exhausted the estate in paying
+  creditors of a lesser degree. First of all, a solicitor has a lien for
+  his costs upon any fund or duty which he has recovered for the
+  deceased; next in order come debts due to the crown by record or
+  speciality; then debts given a priority by statute, as, for example,
+  by the Poor Relief Act 1743, money due by an overseer of the poor to
+  his parish. Next, debts of record, i.e. judgment recovered against
+  the deceased in any court of record; all such debts are equal among
+  themselves, but a judgment creditor who has sued out execution is
+  preferred to one who has not; another class of debts of record are
+  statutes merchant and staple, or recognizances in the nature of
+  statute staple, i.e. bonds of record acknowledged before the lord
+  mayor of London or the mayor of the staple. Last in the order of debts
+  come specialty and simple contract debts, which by Hinde Palmer's Act
+  (the Executors Act 1869) are of equal degree, though as between
+  specialty debts bonds given for value rank before voluntary bonds
+  unless assigned for value, and as between simple contract debts those
+  due to the crown have priority. Though the creditors can if necessary
+  take all the estate of the deceased to satisfy their claims, yet as
+  between the various classes of assets the representative must pay the
+  debts out of assets in the following order: (i.) General personal
+  estate not specifically bequeathed nor exempted from payment of debts;
+  (ii.) real estate appropriated to debts; (iii.) real estate descended;
+  (iv.) real estate devised charged with payment of debts; (v.) general
+  pecuniary legacies _pro rata_; (vi.) specific legacies and devises;
+  (vii.) real estate over which a general power of appointment has been
+  exercised by will; (viii.) the widow's paraphernalia.
+
+  5. The debts of the deceased being satisfied, the representative must
+  next proceed to satisfy the legacies and devises left by the testator.
+  In order to enable him to do this with safety to himself, it is
+  provided that he cannot be compelled to divide the estate among the
+  legatees or next of kin until twelve months from the death of the
+  deceased (this is commonly known as "the executor's year"), though if
+  there is no doubt as to the solvency of the estate he may do so at
+  once. As a further protection the representative may give notice by
+  advertisement for creditors to send in their claims against the
+  estate, and on expiration of the notices he may proceed to divide the
+  estate, though even then the creditor may follow the assets to the
+  person who has received them and recover for his debt. As between
+  legatees the following priorities must be observed: (1) Specific
+  legatees and devisees, (2) demonstrative legatees, and (3) general
+  legatees; and as to this last class the testator can give priority to
+  one over another. If there are not sufficient assets to pay the
+  general legatees they must abate rateably. Legacies were not payable
+  out of the real estate prior to the Land Transfer Act 1897, unless the
+  testator charged the realty with them. Even then unless the testator
+  exonerates his personalty from payment of the legacies the personalty
+  will be the first fund chargeable. It has been suggested that the
+  effect of the act is to make the realty chargeable _pro rata_ with the
+  personalty, but this is doubtful.
+
+  6. The residue, after all legacies and devises are satisfied, must, if
+  there be a will, be paid to the residuary legatee therein named, and
+  if there be no will the real estate will go to the heir (see
+  INHERITANCE) and the personalty to the next of kin (see INTESTACY). It
+  was held at one time that in default of a residuary legatee the
+  residue fell to the executor himself, but now nothing less than the
+  expressed intention of the testator can give it to him.
+
+  The liabilities of the representative may be shortly stated. He is
+  liable in his representative capacity in all cases where the deceased
+  would be liable were he alive. To this general rule there are some
+  exceptions. The representative cannot be sued for breach of a contract
+  for personal services which can be performed only in the lifetime of
+  the person contracting, nor again can he be sued in a case where
+  unliquidated damages only could have been recovered against the
+  deceased. He is liable in his personal capacity in the following
+  cases: if he contracts to pay a debt due by the deceased, or if having
+  admitted that he had assets in his hands sufficient to pay a debt or
+  legacy he has misapplied such assets so that he cannot satisfy them;
+  or lastly, if by mismanaging the estate and effects of the deceased he
+  has made himself liable for a _devastavit_. Shortly stated, a
+  representative is bound to exercise the ordinary care of a business
+  man in administering the estate of the deceased, and he will be liable
+  for the loss to the estate caused by his own negligence, or by the
+  negligence of a co-representative which his act or neglect has
+  rendered possible. Though the general rule of _delegatus non potest
+  delegari_ holds good of a representative, yet in certain cases he may
+  "rely upon skilled persons in matters in which he cannot be expected
+  to be experienced," e.g. he must employ solicitors to conduct a
+  lawsuit.
+
+  The privileges of the representative are these: he may prefer one
+  creditor to another of equal degree; he may retain a debt owing to him
+  from the deceased as against other creditors of equal degree (see
+  RETAINER); he may reimburse himself out of the estate all expenses
+  incurred in the execution of his trust.
+
+  An executor _de son tort_ is one who, without any title to do so,
+  wrongfully intermeddles with the assets of the deceased, dealing with
+  them in such a way as to hold himself out as executor. In such a case
+  he is subject to all the liabilities of an executor, and can claim
+  none of the privileges. He may be treated by the creditor as the
+  executor, and, if he is really assuming to act as executor, creditors
+  and legatees will get a good title from him, but he is liable to be
+  sued by the rightful representative for damages for interfering with
+  the property of the deceased.
+
+  _Scotland._--Executor in Scots law is a more extensive term than in
+  English. He is either nominative or dative, the latter appointed by
+  the court and corresponding in most respects to the English
+  administrator. Caution is required from the latter, not from the
+  former. By the common law doctrine of passive representation the heir
+  or executor was liable to be sued for implement of the deceased's
+  obligations. The Roman principle of _beneficium inventarii_ was first
+  introduced by an act of 1695. As the law at present stands, the heir
+  or executor is liable only to the value of the succession, except
+  where there has been vitious intromission in movables, and in _gestio
+  pro haerede_ (behaviour as heir) and other cases in heritables. The
+  present inventory duty on succession to movables and heritables
+  depends on the Finance Acts 1894-1909 (see ESTATE DUTY). In England
+  the executor is bound to pay the debts of the deceased in a certain
+  order, but in Scotland they all rank _pari passu_ except privileged
+  debts (see PRIVILEGE).
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--R.L. Vaughan Williams, _The Law of Executors and
+  Administrators_; W.G. Walker, _Compendium on the Law of Executors and
+  Administrators_; James Schouler, _Law of Executors and Administrators_
+  (3rd ed., Boston, 1901).
+
+
+
+
+EXEDRA, or EXHEDRA (from Gr. [Greek: ex], out, and [Greek: hedra], a
+seat), an architectural term originally applied to a seat or recess out
+of doors, intended for conversation. Such recesses were generally
+semicircular, as in the important example built by Herodes Atticus at
+Olympia. In the great Roman thermae (baths) they were of large size, and
+like apses were covered with a hemispherical vault. An example of these
+exists at Pompeii in the Street of the Tombs. From Vitruvius we learn
+that they were often covered over, and they are described by him (v. 11)
+as places leading out of porticoes, where philosophers and rhetoricians
+could debate or harangue.
+
+
+
+
+EXELMANS, RENE JOSEPH ISIDORE, COUNT (1775-1852), marshal of France, was
+born at Bar-le-Duc on the 13th of November 1775. He volunteered into the
+3rd battalion of the Meuse in 1791, became a lieutenant in 1797, and in
+1798 was aide-de-camp to General Eble, and in the following year to
+General Broussier. In his first campaign in Italy he greatly
+distinguished himself; and in April 1799 he was rewarded for his
+services by the grade of captain of dragoons. In the same year he took
+part with honour in the conquest of Naples and was again promoted, and
+in 1801 he became aide-de-camp to General Murat. He accompanied Murat in
+the Austrian, Prussian and Polish campaigns of 1805, 1806 and 1807. At
+the passage of the Danube, and in the action of Wertingen, he specially
+distinguished himself; he was made colonel for the valour which he
+displayed at Austerlitz, and general of brigade for his conduct at Eylau
+in 1807. In 1808 he accompanied Murat to Spain, but was there made
+prisoner and conveyed to England. On regaining his liberty in 1811 he
+went to Naples, where King Joachim Murat appointed him grand-master of
+horse. Exelmans, however, rejoined the French army on the eve of the
+Russian campaign, and on the field of Borodino won the rank of general
+of division. In the retreat from Moscow his steadfast courage was
+conspicuously manifested on several occasions. In 1813 he was made, for
+services in the campaign of Saxony and Silesia, grand-officer of the
+Legion of Honour, and in 1814 he reaped additional glory by his
+intrepidity and skill in the campaign of France. When the Bourbons were
+restored, Exelmans retained his position in the army. In January 1815 he
+was tried on an accusation of having treasonable relations with Murat,
+but was acquitted. Napoleon on his return from Elba made Exelmans a peer
+of France and placed him in command of the II. cavalry corps, which he
+commanded in the Waterloo campaign, the battle of Ligny and Grouchy's
+march on Wavre. In the closing operations round Paris Exelmans won great
+distinction. After the second Restoration he denounced, in the House of
+Peers, the execution of Marshal Ney as an "abominable assassination";
+thereafter he lived in exile in Belgium and Nassau for some years, till
+1819, when he was recalled to France. In 1828 he was appointed
+inspector-general of cavalry; and after the July revolution of 1830 he
+received from Louis Philippe the grand cross of the Legion of Honour,
+and was reinstated as a peer of France. At the revolution of 1848
+Exelmans was one of the adherents of Louis Napoleon; and in 1851 he was,
+in recognition of his long and brilliant military career, raised to the
+dignity of a marshal of France. His death, which took place on the 10th
+of July 1852, was the result of a fall from his horse.
+
+
+
+
+EXEQUATUR, the letter patent, issued by a foreign office and signed by a
+sovereign, which guarantees to a foreign consul the rights and
+privileges of his office, and ensures his recognition in the state in
+which he is appointed to exercise them. If a consul is not appointed by
+commission he receives no exequatur; and a notice in the _Gazette_ in
+this case has to suffice. The exequatur may be withdrawn, but in
+practice, where a consul is obnoxious, an opportunity is afforded to his
+government to recall him.
+
+
+
+
+EXETER, EARL, MARQUESS AND DUKE OF. These English titles have been borne
+at different times by members of the families of Holand or Holland,
+Beaufort, Courtenay and Cecil. The earls of Devon of the family of de
+Redvers were sometimes called earls of Exeter; but the 1st duke of
+Exeter was John (c. 1355-1400), a younger son of Thomas Holand, earl of
+Kent (d. 1360). John's mother, Joan (d. 1385), a descendant of Edward
+I., married for her third husband Edward the Black Prince, by whom she
+was the mother of Richard II., and her son John was thus the king's
+half-brother, a relationship to which he owed his high station at the
+English court. He married Elizabeth (d. 1426), a daughter of John of
+Gaunt, duke of Lancaster, and was constantly in Richard's train until
+1385, when his murder of Ralph Stafford disturbed these friendly
+relations. John then went to Spain as constable of the English army
+under John of Gaunt; but after his return to England in 1387 he was
+created earl of Huntingdon, was made admiral of the fleet and
+chamberlain of England, and was again high in the king's favour. He was
+Richard's chief helper in the proceedings against the lords appellant in
+1397, was created duke of Exeter in September of this year, and went
+with the king to Ireland in 1399. After the accession of his
+brother-in-law, Henry IV., Holand was tried for his share in the events
+of 1397, and was reduced to his earlier rank of earl of Huntingdon. He
+was soon plotting against Henry's life, and after the projected rising
+in 1400 had failed he was captured and was probably beheaded at Pleshey
+in Essex on the 16th of January 1400.[1] He was afterwards attainted and
+his titles and lands were forfeited.
+
+In 1416 THOMAS BEAUFORT, earl of Dorset, was created duke of Exeter; but
+this dignity was only granted for his life, and consequently it expired
+on his death in 1426.
+
+In 1416 JOHN (1395-1447), son of John Holand, the former duke of Exeter,
+was allowed to take his father's earldom of Huntingdon. This nobleman
+rendered great assistance to Henry V. in his conquest of France,
+fighting both on sea and on land. He was marshal of England, admiral of
+England and governor of Aquitaine under Henry VI.; was one of the king's
+representatives at the conference of Arras in 1435; and in 1443 was
+created duke of Exeter. When he died on the 5th of August 1447 his
+titles passed to his son HENRY (1430-1473), who, although married to
+Anne (d. 1476), daughter of Richard, duke of York, fought for Henry VI.
+during the Wars of the Roses. After having been imprisoned by York at
+Pontefract, he was present at the battle of Towton, sailed with Henry's
+queen, Margaret of Anjou, to Flanders in 1463, and was wounded at Barnet
+in 1471. In 1461 he had been attainted and his dukedom declared
+forfeited, and he died without sons, probably in 1473.
+
+Coming to the family of Courtenay the title of marquess of Exeter was
+borne by HENRY COURTENAY (c. 1496-1538), earl of Devon, who was made a
+marquess in 1525. A grandson of Edward IV., Courtenay was a prominent
+figure at the court of Henry VIII. until Thomas Cromwell rose to power,
+when his high birth, his great wealth and his independent position made
+him an object of suspicion. Some slight discontent in the west of
+England gave the occasion for his arrest, and he was tried and beheaded
+on the 9th of December 1538. A few days later he was declared a traitor
+and his titles were forfeited; although his only son, EDWARD (c.
+1526-1556), who was restored to the earldom of Devon in 1553 and was a
+suitor for the hand of Queen Mary, is sometimes called marquess of
+Exeter.
+
+The title of earl of Exeter was first bestowed upon the Cecils (see
+CECIL: _Family_) in 1605 when THOMAS, 2nd Lord Burghley (1542-1623), the
+eldest son of William Cecil, Lord Burghley, was made earl of Exeter by
+James I. Thomas had been a member of parliament during the reign of
+Queen Elizabeth, who knighted him in 1575, and had fought under the earl
+of Leicester in the Netherlands. After his father's death in 1598 he
+became president of the Council of the North and was made a knight of
+the Garter. He died on the 7th or 8th of February 1623. His direct
+descendants continued to bear the title of earl of Exeter, and in 1801
+HENRY (1754-1804), the 10th earl, was advanced to the dignity of
+marquess of Exeter, the present marquess being his lineal descendant. It
+may be noted that the 1st marquess is Tennyson's "lord of Burghley."
+
+  See G.E. C(okayne), _Complete Peerage_ (1887-1898).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] There is some difference of opinion about the place and manner of
+    the earl's death, and this question has an important bearing upon the
+    privilege of trial by peers of the realm. See L.W. Vernon-Harcourt,
+    _His Grace the Steward and Trial of Peers_ (1907).
+
+
+
+
+EXETER, a city and county of a city, municipal, county and parliamentary
+borough, and the county town of Devonshire, England, 172 m. W.S.W. of
+London, on the London & South Western and the Great Western railways.
+Pop. (1901) 47,185. The ancient city occupies a broad ridge of land,
+which rises steeply from the left bank of the Exe. At the head of the
+ridge is the castle, on the site of a great British earthwork. The High
+Street and its continuation, called Fore Street, are narrow, but very
+picturesque, with many houses of the 16th and 17th centuries. There is a
+maze of lesser streets within the ancient walls, the line of which may
+be traced. All the gates have disappeared. The suburbs, which have
+greatly extended since the beginning of the 19th century, contain many
+good streets, terraces and detached villas. The surrounding country is
+rich, fertile and of great beauty. Extensive views are commanded in the
+direction of Haldon, a stretch of high moorland which may be regarded as
+an outlier of Dartmoor. The lofty mound of the castle is laid out as a
+promenade, with fine trees and broad walks.
+
+The cathedral, although not one of the largest in England, is
+unsurpassed in the beauty of its architecture and the richness of its
+details. With the exception of the Norman transeptal towers, the general
+character is Decorated, ranging from about 1280 to 1369. Transeptal
+towers occur elsewhere in England only in the collegiate church of
+Ottery St Mary, in Devonshire, for which Exeter cathedral served as a
+model. The west front is of later date than the rest (probably
+1369-1394), and the porch is wholly covered with statues. Within, the
+most noteworthy features are the long unbroken roof, extending
+throughout nave and choir, with no central tower or lantern; the
+beautiful sculpture of bosses and corbels; the minstrel's gallery,
+projecting from the north triforium of the nave; and the remarkable
+manner in which the several parts of the church are made to correspond.
+The window tracery is much varied; but each window answers to that on
+the opposite side of nave or choir; pier answers to pier, aisle to
+aisle, and chapel to chapel, while the transeptal towers complete the
+balance of parts. A complete restoration under Sir G.G. Scott was
+carried out between 1870 and 1877. The modern stall work, the reredos,
+the choir pavement of tiles, rich marbles and porphyries, the stained
+glass and the sculptured pulpits in choir and nave are meritorious. The
+episcopal throne, a sheaf of tabernacle work in wood, was erected by
+Bishop Stapeldon about 1320, and in the north transept is an ancient
+clock. The most interesting monuments are those of bishops of the 12th
+and 13th centuries, in the choir and lady chapel. Some important MSS.,
+including the famous book of Saxon poetry given by Leofric to his
+cathedral, are preserved in the chapter-house. The united sees of
+Devonshire and Cornwall were fixed at Exeter from the installation there
+of Leofric (1050) by the Confessor, until the re-erection of the Cornish
+see in 1876. The bishop's palace embodies Early English portions. The
+diocese covers the greater part of Devonshire, with a very small part of
+Dorsetshire.
+
+The guildhall in the High Street is a picturesque Elizabethan building,
+which contains some interesting portraits; among them being one of
+General Monk, who was a native of Devon, and another of Henrietta,
+duchess of Orleans, given by her brother Charles II. Both are by Sir
+Peter Lely. The assize hall and sessions house dates from 1774. The
+Albert Memorial Museum contains a school of art, an excellent free
+library, a reading-room, and a museum of natural history and
+antiquities. There is a good collection of local birds, and some
+remarkable pottery and bronze relics extracted from barrows near Honiton
+or found in various parts of Devonshire. Of the castle, called
+Rougemont, the chief architectural remnant is a portion of a gateway
+tower which may be late Norman. Traces are also seen of the surrounding
+earthworks, which may have belonged to the original British stronghold.
+Beneath the castle wall is the pleasant promenade of Northernhay. The
+churches of Exeter are of little importance, being mostly small, and
+closely beset with buildings, but the modern church of St Michael (1860)
+deserves notice. The Devon and Exeter Institution, founded in 1813,
+contains a large and valuable library, and among educational
+establishments may be noticed the technical and university extension
+college, the diocesan training college and school; and the grammar
+school, which was founded under a scheme of Walter de Stapeldon, bishop
+of Exeter and founder of Exeter College, Oxford, in 1332, and refounded
+in 1629, but occupies modern buildings (1886) outside the city. It is
+endowed with a large number of leaving exhibitions, and about 150 boys
+are educated. There are two market-houses in the city, many hospitals
+and many charitable institutions, including the picturesque hospital or
+almshouse of William Wynard, recorder of Exeter (1439).
+
+Exeter is one of the principal railway centres in the south-west, and it
+also has some shipping trade, communicating with the sea by way of the
+Exeter ship-canal, originally cut in the reign of Elizabeth (1564), and
+enlarged in 1675 and 1827. This canal is an interesting work, being the
+first canal carried out in the United Kingdom for the purpose of
+enabling sea-going vessels to pass to an inland port. The river Exe was
+very early utilized by small craft trading to Exeter, parliament having
+granted powers for the improvement of the navigation by the construction
+of a canal 3 m. long from Exeter to the river; at a later date this
+canal was extended lower down to the tidal estuary of the Exe. Previous
+to the year 1820 it was only available for vessels of a draft not
+exceeding 9 ft., but by deepening it, raising the banks, and
+constructing new locks, vessels drawing 14 ft. of water were enabled to
+pass up to a basin and wharves at Exeter. These works were carried out
+under the advice of Thomas Telford. A floating basin is accessible to
+vessels of 350 tons. Larger vessels lie at Topsham, at the junction of
+the canal with the estuary of the Exe; while at the mouth of the estuary
+is the port of Exmouth. Imports are miscellaneous, while paper, grain,
+cider and other goods are exported. Brewing, paper-making and
+iron-founding are carried on, and the city is an important centre of
+agricultural trade. The parliamentary borough returns one member. The
+city is governed by a mayor, 14 aldermen and 42 councillors. Area, 3158
+acres. The eastern suburb of Heavitree, where is the Exeter city asylum,
+is an urban district with a population (1901) of 7529.
+
+Exeter was the Romano-British country town of _Isca Damnoniorum_--the
+most westerly town in the south-west of Roman Britain. Mosaic pavements,
+potsherds, coins and other relics have been found, and probably traces
+of the Roman walls survive here and there in the medieval walls. It is
+said to be the _Caer Isce_ of the Britons, and its importance as a
+British stronghold is shown by the great earthwork which the Britons
+threw up to defend it, on the site of which the castle was afterwards
+built, and by the number of roads which branch from it. Exeter is famous
+for the number of sieges which it sustained as the chief town in the
+south-west of England. In 1001 it was unsuccessfully besieged by the
+Danes, but in the following year was given by King Aethelred to Queen
+Emma, who appointed as reeve, Hugh, a Frenchman, owing to whose
+treachery it was taken and destroyed by Sweyn in 1003. By 1050, however,
+it had recovered, and was chosen by Leofric as the new seat of the
+bishops of Devon. In 1068, after a siege of eighteen days, Exeter
+surrendered to the Conqueror, who threw up a castle which was called
+Rougemont, from the colour of the rock on which it stood. Again in 1137
+the town was held for Matilda by Baldwin de Redvers for three months and
+surrendered, at last, owing to lack of water. Three times subsequently
+Exeter held out successfully for the king--in 1467 against the Yorkists,
+in 1497 against Perkin Warbeck, and in 1549 against the men of Cornwall
+and Devon, who rose in defence of the old religion. During the civil
+wars the city declared for parliament, but was in 1643 taken by the
+royalists, who held it until 1646. The only other historical event of
+importance is the entry of William, prince of Orange, in 1688, shortly
+after his arrival in England. Exeter was evidently a borough by
+prescription some time before the Conquest, since the burgesses are
+mentioned in the Domesday Survey. Its first charter granted by Henry I.
+gave the burgesses all the free customs which the citizens of London
+enjoyed, and was confirmed and enlarged by most of the succeeding kings.
+By 1227 government by a reeve had given place to that by a mayor and
+four bailiffs, which continued until the Municipal Reform Act of 1835.
+Numerous trade gilds were incorporated in Exeter, one of the first being
+the tailors' gild, incorporated in 1466. This by 1482 had become so
+powerful that it interfered with the government of the town, and was
+dissolved on the petition of the burgesses. Another powerful gild was
+that of the merchant adventurers, incorporated in 1559, which is said to
+have dictated laws to which the mayor and bailiffs submitted. From 1295
+to 1885 Exeter was represented in parliament by two members, but in the
+latter year the number of representatives was reduced to one. Exeter was
+formerly noted for the manufacture of woollen goods, introduced in
+Elizabeth's reign, and the value of its exports at one time exceeded
+half a million sterling yearly. The trade declined partly owing to the
+stringent laws of the trade gilds, and by the beginning of the 19th
+century had entirely disappeared, although at the time of its greatest
+prosperity it had been surpassed in value and importance only by that of
+Leeds.
+
+  See _Victoria County History_, _Devon_; Richard Izacke, _Antiquities
+  of the City of Exeter_ (1677); George Oliver, _The History of the City
+  of Exeter_ (1861); and E.A. Freeman, _Exeter_ ("Historic Towns"
+  series) (London, 1887), in the preface to which the names of earlier
+  historians of the city are given.
+
+
+
+
+EXETER, a town and one of the county-seats of Rockingham county, New
+Hampshire, U.S.A., on the Squamscott river, about 12 m. S.W. of
+Portsmouth and about 51 m. N. by E. of Boston, Mass. Pop. (1890) 4284;
+(1900) 4922 (1066 foreign-born); (1910) 4897; area, about 17 sq. m. It
+is served by the Western Division of the Boston & Maine railway. The
+town has a public library and some old houses built in the colonial
+period, and is the seat of Phillips Exeter Academy (incorporated in 1781
+and opened in 1783). In its charter this institution is described as "an
+academy for the purpose of promoting piety and virtue, and for the
+education of youth in the English, Latin and Greek languages, in
+writing, arithmetic, music and the art of speaking, practical geometry,
+logic and geography, and such other of the liberal arts and sciences or
+languages, as opportunity may hereafter permit." It was founded by Dr
+John Phillips (1719-1795), a graduate of Harvard College, who acquired
+considerable wealth as a merchant at Exeter and gave nearly all of it to
+the cause of education. The academy is one of the foremost secondary
+schools in the country, and among its _alumni_ have been Daniel Webster,
+Edward Everett, Lewis Cass (born in Exeter in a house still standing),
+John Parker Hale, George Bancroft, Jared Sparks, John Gorham Palfrey,
+Richard Hildreth and Francis Bowen. The government of the academy is
+vested in a board of six trustees, regarding whom the founder provided
+that a majority should be laymen and not inhabitants of Exeter. In
+1909-1910 the institution had 20 buildings, 32 acres of recreation
+grounds, 16 instructors and 488 students, representing 38 states and
+territories of the United States and 4 foreign countries. At Exeter also
+is the Robinson female seminary (1867), with 14 instructors and 272
+students in 1906-1907. The river furnishes water-power, and among the
+manufactures of the town are shoes, machinery, cottons, brass, &c. The
+town is one of the oldest in the state; it was founded in 1638 by Rev.
+John Wheelwright, an Antinomian leader who with a number of followers
+settled here after his banishment from Massachusetts. For their
+government the settlers adopted (1639) a plantation covenant. There was
+disagreement from the first, however, with regard to the measure of
+loyalty to the king, and in 1643, when Massachusetts had asserted her
+claim to this region and the other three New Hampshire towns had
+submitted to her jurisdiction, the majority of the inhabitants of Exeter
+also yielded, while the minority, including the founder, removed from
+the town. In 1680 the town became a part of the newly created province
+of New Hampshire. During the French and Indian wars it was usually
+protected by a garrison, and some of the garrison houses are still
+standing. From 1776 to 1784 the state legislature usually met at Exeter.
+
+  See C.H. Bell, _History of the Town of Exeter_ (Exeter, 1888).
+
+
+
+
+EXETER BOOK [_Codex Exoniensis_], an anthology of Anglo-Saxon poetry
+presented to Exeter cathedral by Leofric,[1] bishop of Exeter, England,
+from 1050 to 1071, and still in the possession of the dean and chapter.
+It contains some legal documents, the poems entitled _Crist_, _Guthlac_,
+_Phoenix_, _Juliana_, _The Wanderer_ and others, and concludes with
+between eighty and ninety riddles. It was first described in Humphrey
+Wanley's _Catalogus_ ... (1705) in detail but with many inaccuracies;
+subsequently by J.J. Conybeare, _Account of a Saxon Manuscript_ (a paper
+read in 1812; printed with some extracts from the MS. in _Archaeologia_,
+vol. xvii. pp. 180-197, 1814). A complete transcript made (1831) by
+Robert Chambers is in the British Museum (Addit. MS. 9067). It was first
+printed in 1842 by Benjamin Thorpe for the Soc. of Antiq., London, as
+_Codex Exoniensis ... with an English Translation, Notes and Indexes_.
+More recent editions, chiefly based on Thorpe's text, are:--in Chr.
+Grein's _Bibliothek der A.S. Poesie_ (vol. iii. part 1, ed. R. Wulker,
+Leipzig, 1897, with a bibliography), J. Schipper in Pfeiffer's
+_Germania_, vol. xix. pp. 327-339, and Israel Gollancz, _The Exeter
+Book_, pt. i. (1895), with English translation, for the Early English
+Text Society.
+
+  A detailed account, with bibliographies of the separate poems, is
+  given by R. Wulker, in _Grundriss ... der A.S. Literatur_, pp. 218-236
+  (Leipzig, 1885); see also the introduction to _The Crist of Cynewulf_
+  ..., edited by Prof. A.S. Cook, with introduction, notes and a
+  glossary (Boston, U.S.A., 1900). For the poems contained in the MS.
+  see also CYNEWULF and RIDDLES.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] For Leofric, see F.E. Warren, _The Leofric Missal_ (1883).
+
+
+
+
+EXHIBITION, a term, meaning in general a public display,[1] which has a
+special modern sense as applied to public shows of goods for the
+promotion of trade (Fr. _exposition_). The first exhibition in this
+sense of which there is any account, in either sacred or profane
+history, was that held by King Ahasuerus, who, according to the Book of
+Esther, showed in the third year of his reign "the riches of his
+glorious kingdom, and the honour of his excellent majesty, many days,
+even a hundred and fourscore days." The locale of this function was
+Shushan, the palace and the exhibits consisted of "white, green and blue
+hangings, fastened with cords of fine linen and purple to silver rings
+and pillars of marble: the beds were of gold and silver, upon a pavement
+of red, and blue, and white and black marble. And they gave them drink
+in vessels of gold, the vessels being diverse one from another." The
+first exhibition since the Christian era was at Venice during the
+dogeship of Lorenzo Tiepolo, in 1268. On that occasion there was a grand
+display, consisting of a water fete, a procession of the trades and an
+industrial exhibition. The various gilds of the Queen City of the Seas
+marched through the narrow streets to the great square of St Mark, and
+their leaders asked the dogaressa to inspect the products of their
+industry. Other medieval exhibitions were the fairs held at Leipzig and
+Nizhni Novgorod in Europe, at Tanta in Egypt, and in 1689 that by the
+Dutch at Leiden.
+
+The first modern exhibition was held at London in 1756 by the Society of
+Arts, which offered prizes for improvements in the manufacture of
+tapestry, carpets and porcelain, the exhibits being placed side by side.
+Five years afterwards, in 1761, the same society gave an exhibition of
+agricultural machinery. In 1797 a collective display of the art
+factories of France, including those of Sevres, the Gobelins and the
+Savonnerie, was made in the palace of St Cloud, and the exhibition was
+repeated during the following year in the rue de Varennes, Paris. This
+experiment was so successful that in the last three days of the same
+year an exhibition under official auspices, at which private exhibitors
+were allowed to compete, was held in the Champ de Mars. Four years
+later, in 1801, there was a second official exhibition in the grand
+court of the Louvre. Upon that occasion juries of practical men examined
+the objects shown, and the winners of a gold medal were invited to dine
+with Napoleon, who was at that time First Consul. In the report of the
+jury the following remarkable sentence appeared:--"There is not an
+artist or inventor who, once obtaining thus a public recognition of his
+ability, has not found his reputation and his business largely
+increased." The third Paris Exhibition, held in 1802, was the first to
+publish an official catalogue. There were 540 exhibitors, including J.E.
+Montgolfier, the first aeronaut, and J.M. Jacquard, the inventor of the
+loom which bears his name. The fourth exhibition was held in 1806 in the
+esplanade in front of the Hotel des Invalides, and attracted 1422
+exhibitors. There were no more exhibitions till after the fall of the
+empire, but in 1819 the fifth was held during the reign of Louis XVIII.,
+with 1622 exhibitors. Others were held at Paris at various intervals,
+that in 1849 having 4500 exhibitors.
+
+Other exhibitions, though on a smaller scale, were held in Dublin,
+London, and in various parts of Germany and Austria during the first
+half of the 19th century--that in 1844, held at Berlin, having 3040
+exhibitors. Switzerland, Holland, Belgium, Sweden, Russia, Poland,
+Italy, Spain and Portugal all held exhibitions, and there was a Free
+Trade Bazaar of British Manufactures at Covent Garden theatre in 1845,
+which at the time created a great deal of interest. But all these
+exhibitions were confined to the products of the country in which they
+took place, and the first great International Exhibition was held in
+London in 1851 by the Society of Arts, under the presidency of the
+prince consort. All nations were invited to compete; a site was obtained
+in Hyde Park, and a building 20 acres in extent was erected, after the
+design of Sir Joseph Paxton, at a cost of L193,168. The exhibition was
+open for five months and fifteen days. The receipts amounted to
+L506,100, and the surplus was L186,000. The number of visitors was
+6,039,195, and the money taken at the doors was L423,792. The total,
+number of exhibitors was 13,937, of which Great Britain contributed
+6861, the British colonies 520 and foreign countries 6556. The
+International Exhibition of 1851 was followed by those of New York and
+Dublin in 1853, Melbourne and Munich in 1854, and Paris in 1855--this
+latter was held in the Palais d'Industrie, which remained in existence
+until pulled down to make room for the two Palais des Beaux Arts, which
+formed one of the attractions of the 1900 exhibition. The exhibitors
+numbered 20,839 and the visitors 5,162,330. There were national
+exhibitions during the following years in several European countries,
+but the next great world's fair was held at London in 1862. The total
+space roofed in amounted to 988,000 sq. ft., 22.65 acres, the number of
+visitors was 6,211,103, and the amount received at the doors L408,530.
+The death of the prince consort had a depressing effect upon the
+enterprise. In 1865 an exhibition was held at Dublin, the greater
+proportion of the funds being supplied by Sir Benjamin Lee Guinness. The
+number of attendances during six months was 900,000, and the exhibition
+was opened at night. An Italian exhibition was held at Rome in 1862.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1867 was upon a far larger scale than that of
+1855. It was held, like those that preceded and succeeded it, at the
+Champ de Mars, and covered 41 acres. The building resembled an
+exaggerated gasometer. The external ring was devoted to machinery, the
+internal to the gradual development of civilization, commencing with the
+stone age and continuing to the present era. A great feature of the
+exhibition was the park, which was studded with specimens of every style
+of modern architecture--Turkish mosques, Swedish cottages, English
+lighthouses, Egyptian palaces and Swiss chalets. The number of
+attendances was 6,805,969. The exhibitors numbered 43,217, and the total
+amount received for entrances, concessions, &c., was L420,735. This was
+the first exhibition at which there were international restaurants. The
+cost of the exhibition was defrayed partly by the state and partly by
+private subscriptions.
+
+Small exhibitions were held in various parts of Europe between 1867 and
+1870, and in the latter year a series of international exhibitions,
+confined to one or two special descriptions of produce or manufactures,
+was inaugurated in London at South Kensington. These continued till
+1874, but they failed to attract any very large attendance of the public
+and were abandoned. A medal was given to each exhibitor, and reports on
+the various exhibits were published, but there was no examination of the
+exhibits by jurors. In 1873 there was an International Exhibition at
+Vienna. The main building, a rotunda, was erected in the beautiful park
+of the Austrian capital. There were halls for machinery and agricultural
+products, and hundreds of buildings, erected by different nations, were
+scattered amongst the woodlands of the Prater. Unfortunately, an
+outbreak of cholera diminished the attendance of visitors, and the
+receipts were only L206,477, although the visitors were said to have
+reached 6,740,500, and the number of exhibitors was 25,760.
+
+None of the International Exhibitions held between 1857 and 1873 had
+attracted as many as 7,000,000 visitors, but the gradual extension of
+education amongst the masses, and the greater facilities for locomotion,
+brought about by the growth of the railway system in all portions of the
+civilized world, largely increased the attendances at subsequent World's
+Fairs. The Centennial Exhibition of 1876, to celebrate the one-hundredth
+anniversary of American Independence, was held at Fairmount Park,
+Philadelphia. The funds were raised partly by private subscriptions, and
+partly by donations from the city of Philadelphia, from Pennsylvania and
+some of the neighbouring states. The central government at Washington
+made a large loan, which was subsequently repaid. The principal
+buildings, five in number, occupied an area of 48-1/2 acres, and there
+were several smaller structures, which in the aggregate must have filled
+half as much space more, the largest being that devoted to the exhibits
+of the various departments of the United States government, which
+covered 7 acres. Several novelties in exhibition management were
+introduced at Philadelphia. Instead of gold, silver and bronze medals,
+only one description, bronze, was issued, the difference between the
+merits of the different exhibits being shown by the reports. Season
+tickets were not issued, and the price of admission, the same on all
+occasions, was half a dollar, or about 2s. 1d. The exhibition was not
+open at night or on Sundays, thus following the British, and not the
+continental, precedent. The number of visitors was 9,892,625, of whom
+8,004,214 paid for admission, the balance being exhibitors, officials
+and attendants. The total receipts amounted to L763,899. Upon one
+occasion, the Pennsylvania day, 274,919 persons--the largest number that
+had visited any exhibition up to that date--passed through the
+turnstiles. The display of machinery was the finest ever made, that of
+the United States occupying 480,000 sq. ft. The motive-power was
+obtained from a Corliss engine of 1600 horse-power. At this exhibition
+the United Kingdom and the British Colonies of Canada, Victoria, New
+South Wales, New Zealand, Cape Colony and Tasmania made a very fine
+display, which was only excelled by that of the United States.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1878 was upon a far larger scale in every
+respect than any which had been previously held in any part of the
+world. The total area covered not less than 66 acres, the main building
+in the Champ de Mars occupying 54 acres. The French exhibits filled
+one-half the entire space, the remaining moiety being occupied by the
+other nations of the world. The United Kingdom, British India, Canada,
+Victoria, New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Cape Colony and
+some of the British crown colonies occupied nearly one-third of the
+space set aside for nations outside France. Germany was the only great
+country which was not represented, but there were a few German
+paintings. The display of fine arts and machinery was upon a very large
+and comprehensive scale, and the Avenue des Nations, a street 2400 ft.
+in length, was devoted to specimens of the domestic architecture of
+nearly every country in Europe, and of several in Asia, Africa and
+America. The palace of the Trocadero, on the northern bank of the Seine,
+was erected for the exhibition. It was a handsome structure, with towers
+250 ft. in height and flanked by two galleries. The rules for admission
+were the same as those at Philadelphia, and every person--exhibitor,
+journalist or official--who had the right of entrance was compelled to
+forward two copies of his or her photograph, one of which was attached
+to the card of entry. The ordinary tickets were not sold at the doors,
+but were obtainable at various government offices and shops, and from
+numerous pedlars in all parts of the city and suburbs. The buildings
+were somewhat unfinished upon the opening day, political complications
+having prevented the French government and the French people from paying
+much attention to the exhibition till about six months before it was
+opened; but the efforts made in April were prodigious, and by June 1st,
+a month after the opening, the exhibition was complete, and afforded an
+object-lesson of the recovery of France from the calamities of
+1870-1871. The decisions arrived at by the international juries were
+accompanied by medals of gold, silver and bronze. The expenditure by the
+United Kingdom was defrayed out of the consolidated revenue, each
+British colony defraying its own expenses. The display of the United
+Kingdom was under the control of a royal commission, of which the prince
+of Wales was president. The number of paying visitors to the exhibition
+was 13,000,000, and the cost of the enterprise to the French government,
+which supplied all the funds, was a little less than a million sterling,
+after allowing for the value of the permanent buildings and the
+Trocadero Palace, which were sold to the city of Paris. The total number
+of persons who visited Paris during the time the exhibition was open was
+571,702, or 308,974 more than came to the French metropolis during the
+year 1877, and 46,021 in excess of the visitors during the previous
+exhibition of 1867. It was stated at the time that, in addition to the
+impetus given to the trade of France, the revenue of the Republic and of
+the city of Paris from customs and octroi duties was increased by nearly
+three millions sterling as compared with the previous year.
+
+Exhibitions on a scale of considerable magnitude were held at Sydney and
+Melbourne in 1879 and 1880, and many continental and American
+manufacturers took advantage of them in order to bring the products of
+their industry directly under the notice of Australian consumers, who
+had previously purchased their supplies through the instrumentality of
+British merchants. The United Kingdom and India made an excellent
+display at both cities, but the effect of the two great Australian
+exhibitions was to give a decided impetus to German, American, French
+and Belgian trade. One of the immediate results was that lines of
+steamers to Melbourne and Sydney commenced to run from Marseilles and
+Bremen; another, that for the first time in the history of the
+Australian colonies, branches of French banks were opened in the two
+principal cities. The whole cost of these exhibitions was defrayed by
+the local governments.
+
+Exhibitions were held at Turin and Brussels during 1880, and smaller
+ones at Newcastle, Milan, Lahore, Adelaide, Perth, Moscow, Ghent and
+Lille during 1881 and 1882, and at Zurich, Bordeaux and Caraccas in
+Venezuela during 1883. The next of any importance was held at Amsterdam
+in the latter year. On that occasion a new departure in exhibition
+management was made. The government of the Netherlands was to a certain
+extent responsible for the administration of the exhibition, but the
+funds were obtained from private sources, and a charge was made to each
+nation represented for the space it occupied. The United Kingdom, India,
+Victoria and New South Wales took part in the exhibition, but there was
+no official representation of the mother country. Exhibitions on
+somewhat similar lines were held at Nice and Calcutta in the winter of
+1883 and 1884, and at Antwerp in 1895.
+
+A series of exhibitions, under the presidency of the then prince of
+Wales, and managed by Sir Cunliffe Owen, was commenced at South
+Kensington in 1883. The first was devoted to a display of the various
+industries connected with fishing; the second, in 1884, to objects
+connected with hygiene; the third, in 1885, to inventions; and the
+fourth, in 1886, to the British Colonies and India. These exhibitions
+attracted a large number of visitors and realized a substantial profit.
+They might have been continued indefinitely if it had not been that the
+buildings in which they were held had become very dilapidated, and that
+the ground covered by them was required for other purposes. There was no
+examination of the exhibits by juries, but a tolerably liberal supply of
+instrumental music was supplied by military and civil bands. The Crystal
+Palace held a successful International Exhibition in 1884, and there was
+an Italian Exhibition at Turin, and a Forestry Exhibition at Edinburgh,
+during the same year. A World's Industrial Fair was held at New Orleans
+in 1884-1885, and there were universal Exhibitions at Montenegro and
+Antwerp in 1885, at Edinburgh in 1886, Liverpool, Adelaide, Newcastle
+and Manchester in 1887, and at Glasgow, Barcelona and Brussels in 1888.
+Melbourne held an International Exhibition in 1888-1889 to celebrate the
+Centenary of Australia. Great Britain, Germany, France, Austria and the
+United States were officially represented, and an expenditure of
+L237,784 was incurred by the local government.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1889 marked an important change in the policy
+which had previously characterized the management of these gatherings.
+The funds were contributed partly by the state, which voted 17,000,000
+francs, and by the municipality of Paris, which gave 8,000,000. A
+guarantee fund amounting to 23,124,000 francs was raised, and on this
+security a sum of 18,000,000 francs was obtained and paid into the
+coffers of the administration. The bankers who advanced this sum
+recouped themselves by the issue of 1,200,000 "bons," each of 25 francs,
+Every bon contained 25 admissions, valued at 1 franc, and certain
+privileges in the shape of participation in a lottery, the grand prix
+being L20,000. The calculations of the promoters were tolerably
+accurate. The attendances reached the then unprecedented number of
+32,350,297, of whom 25,398,609 paid in entrance tickets and 2,723,366
+entered by season tickets. A sum of 2,307,999 francs was obtained by
+concessions for restaurants and "side-shows," upon which the
+administration relied for much of the attractiveness of the exhibition.
+The total expenditure was 44,000,000 francs, and there was a small
+surplus. The space covered in the Champ de Mars, the Trocadero, the
+Palais d'Industrie, the Invalides and the Quai d'Orsay was 72 acres, as
+compared with 66 acres in 1878 and 41 acres in 1867. Amongst the
+novelties was the Eiffel Tower, 1000 ft. in height, and a faithful
+reproduction of a street in Cairo. The system of international juries
+was continued, but instead of gold, silver and copper medals, diplomas
+of various merits were granted, each entitling the holder to a uniform
+medal of bronze. Some of the "side-shows," although perhaps pecuniary
+successes, did not add to the dignity of the exhibition. The date at
+which it was held, the Centenary of the French Revolution, did not
+commend it to several European governments. Austria, Hungary, Belgium,
+China, Egypt, Spain, Great Britain, Italy, Luxemburg, Holland, Peru,
+Portugal, Rumania and Russia took part, but not officially, while
+Germany, Sweden, Turkey and Montenegro were conspicuous by their
+absence. On the other hand, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, the United
+States, Greece, Guatemala, Morocco, Mexico, Nicaragua, Norway, Paraguay,
+Salvador, the South African Republic, Switzerland, Uruguay and Venezuela
+sent commissioners, who were accredited to the government of the French
+Republic. The total number of exhibitors was 61,722, of which France
+contributed 33,937, and the rest of the world 27,785. The British and
+colonial section was under the management of the Society of Arts, which
+obtained a guarantee fund of L16,800, and, in order to recoup itself
+for its expenditure, made a charge to exhibitors of 5s. per sq. ft. for
+the space occupied. There were altogether 1149 British exhibitors, of
+whom 429 were in the Fine Arts section. One of the features of the
+exhibition was the number of congresses and conferences held in
+connexion with it.
+
+During the year 1890 there was a Mining Exhibition at the Crystal
+Palace, and a Military Exhibition in the grounds of Chelsea Hospital; in
+1891 a Naval Exhibition at Chelsea and an International at Jamaica. In
+1891-1892 there were exhibitions at Palermo and at Launceston in
+Tasmania; in 1892, a Naval Exhibition at Liverpool, and one of
+Electrical Appliances at the Crystal Palace. A series of small national
+exhibitions under private management was held at Earl's Court between
+1887 and 1891. The first of the series was that of the United
+States--Italy followed in 1888, Spain in 1889, France in 1890 and
+Germany in 1891.
+
+The next exhibition of the first order of magnitude was at Chicago in
+1893, and was held in celebration of the 400th anniversary of the
+discovery of America by Columbus. The financial arrangements were
+undertaken by a company, with a capital of L2,000,000. The central
+government at Washington allotted L20,000 for the purposes of foreign
+exhibits, and L300,000 for the erection and administration of a building
+for exhibits from the various government departments. The exhibition was
+held at Jackson Park, a place for public recreation, 580 acres in
+extent, situated on the shore of Lake Michigan, on the southern side of
+the city, with which it was connected by railways and tramways. Special
+provision was made for locomotion in the grounds themselves by a
+continuous travelling platform and an elevated electric railway. The
+proximity of the lake, and of some artificial canals which had been
+constructed, rendered possible the service of electric and steam
+launches; The exhibition remained open from the 1st of May to the 30th
+of October, and was visited by 21,477,212 persons, each of whom paid
+half a dollar (about 2s. 1d.) for admission. The largest number of
+visitors on any one day was 716,881. In addition to its direct vote of
+L320,000, Congress granted L500,000 to the exhibition in a special
+coinage, which sold at an enhanced price. The receipts from admissions
+were L2,120,000; from concessions, L750,000; and the miscellaneous
+receipts, L159,000: total, L3,029,000. The total expenses were
+L5,222,000. Of the sums raised by the Company, L400,000 was returned to
+the subscribers. Speaking roughly, it may be said that the total outlay
+on the Chicago Exhibition was six millions sterling, of which three
+millions were earned by the Fair, two millions subscribed by Chicago and
+a million provided by the United States government. The sums expended by
+the participating foreign governments were estimated at L1,440,000. The
+total area occupied by buildings at Chicago was as nearly as possible
+200 acres, the largest building, that devoted to manufactures, being
+1687 ft. by 787, and 30.5 acres. The funds for the British commission,
+which was under the control of the Society of Arts, were provided by the
+imperial government, which granted L60,000. The number of British
+exhibitors was 2236, of whom 597 were Industrial, 501 Fine Arts and 1138
+Women's work. In this total were included 18 Indian exhibitors. The
+space occupied by Great Britain was 306,285 sq. ft.; and, in addition,
+separate buildings were erected in the grounds. These were Victoria
+House, the headquarters of the British commission; the Indian Pavilion,
+erected by the Indian Tea Association; the Kiosk of the White Star
+Steamship Company; and the structure set up by the Maxim-Nordenfelt
+Company. Canada and New South Wales had separate buildings, which
+covered 100,140 and 50,951 sq. ft. respectively; and Cape Colony
+occupied 5250, Ceylon 27,574, British Guiana 3367, Jamaica 4250,
+Trinidad 3400 and India 3584, sq. ft. in the several buildings. The
+total space occupied by the British Colonies was therefore 193,660 sq.
+ft. The system of awards was considered extremely unsatisfactory.
+Instead of international juries, a single judge was appointed for each
+class, and the recompenses were all of one grade, a bronze medal and a
+diploma, on which was stated the reasons which induced the judge to
+make his decision. Some judges took a high standard, and refused to make
+awards except to a small proportion of selected exhibits; others took a
+low one, and gave awards indiscriminately. About 1183 awards were made
+to British exhibitors. The French refused to accept any awards. The
+value of the British goods exhibited was estimated, exclusive of Fine
+Arts, at L430,000, and the expenses of showing them at L200,000. A large
+expenditure was incurred in the erection of buildings, which were more
+remarkable for their beauty and grandeur than for their suitableness to
+the purposes for which they were intended. Considerable areas were
+devoted to "side-shows," and the Midway Plaisance, as it was termed,
+resembled a gigantic fair. Every country in the world contributed
+something. There were sights and shows of every sort from everywhere.
+The foreign countries represented were Argentina, Austria, Belgium,
+Bolivia, Brazil, Bulgaria, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Cuba, Curacoa,
+Denmark, Danish West Indies, Ecuador, France, Germany, Greece,
+Guatemala, Honduras, Hayti, Japan, Johore, Korea, Liberia, Mexico,
+Monaco, Netherlands, Norway, Orange Free State, Paraguay, Persia,
+Portugal, Russia, Siam, Spain, Sweden, Turkey, United Kingdom and
+Colonies, Uruguay and Venezuela.
+
+Exhibitions were held at Antwerp, Madrid and Bucharest in 1894; Hobart
+in 1894-1895; Bordeaux, 1895; Nizhni Novgorod, Berlin and Buda-Pest in
+1896; Brussels and Brisbane in 1897. A series of exhibitions, under the
+management of the London Exhibitions Company, commenced at Earl's Court
+in 1895 and continued in successive years.
+
+The Paris Exhibition of 1900 was larger than any which had been
+previously held in Europe. The buildings did not cover so much ground as
+those at Chicago, but many of those at Paris had two or more floors. In
+addition to the localities occupied in 1889, additional space was
+obtained at the Champs Elysees, the park of Vincennes, on the north bank
+of the Seine between the Place de la Concorde, and at the Trocadero. The
+total superficial area occupied was as follows: Champ de Mars, 124
+acres; Esplanade des Invalides, 30 acres; Trocadero Gardens, 40 acres;
+Champs Elysees, 37 acres; quays on left bank of Seine, 23 acres; quays
+on right bank of Seine, 23 acres; park at Vincennes, 270 acres: total,
+549 acres. The space occupied by buildings and covered in amounted to
+4,865,328 sq. ft., 111-1/2 acres. The French section covered 2,691,000
+sq. ft., the foreign 1,829,880, and those at the park of Vincennes
+344,448 sq. ft. About one hundred French and seventy-five foreign
+pavilions and detached buildings were erected in the grounds in addition
+to the thirty-six official pavilions, which were for the most part along
+the Quai d'Orsay. Funds were raised upon the same system as that adopted
+in 1889. The French government granted L800,000, and a similar sum was
+contributed by the municipality of Paris. L2,400,000 was raised by the
+issue of 3,250,000 "bons," each of the value of 20 francs, and
+containing 20 tickets of admission to the exhibition of the face value
+of one franc each, and a document which gave its holder a right either
+to a reduced rate for admission to the different "side-shows" or else to
+a diminution in the railway fare to and from Paris, together with a
+participation in the prizes, amounting to six million francs, drawn at a
+series of lotteries. Permission to erect restaurants, and to open places
+of amusement in buildings erected for that purpose, were sold at high
+prices, and for these privileges, which only realised 2,307,999 francs
+in 1889, the concessionaires agreed to pay 8,864,442 francs in 1900. The
+results did not justify the expectations which had been formed, and the
+administration finally consented to receive a much smaller sum. The
+administration calculated that they would have 65,000,000 paying
+visitors, though there were only 13,000,000 in 1878 and 25,398,609 in
+1889. A very few weeks after the opening day, April 15th, it became
+evident that the estimated figures would not be reached, since a large
+number of holders of "bons" threw them on the market, and the selling
+price of an admission ticket declined from the par value of one franc to
+less than half that amount, or from 30 to 50 centimes. The proprietors
+of the restaurants and "side-shows" discovered that they had paid too
+much for their concessions, that the buildings they had erected were far
+too handsome and costly to be profitable, and that the public preferred
+the exhibition itself to the so-called attractions. The exhibition was
+largely visited by foreigners, but various causes kept away many persons
+of wealth and position. Although many speculators were ruined, the
+exhibition itself was successful. The attendance was unprecedentedly
+large, and during the seven months the exhibition was open, 39,000,000
+persons paid for admission with 47,000,000 tickets, since from two to
+five tickets were demanded at certain times of the day and on certain
+occasions. The entries of exhibitors, attendants and officials totalled
+9,000,000. The receipts were 114,456,213 francs (L4,578,249), and the
+expenditure 116,500,000 (L4,660,000), leaving a deficiency of rather
+more than two millions of francs (L80,000). It was calculated that the
+expenditure of the foreign nations which took part in the exhibition was
+six millions sterling, and of the French exhibitors and concessionaires
+three millions sterling.
+
+A new plan of classifying exhibits was adopted at Paris, all being
+displayed according to their nature, and not according to their country
+of origin, as had been the system at previous exhibitions. One-half the
+space in each group was allotted to France, so that the exhibitors of
+that nation were enabled to overwhelm their rivals by the number and
+magnitude of the objects displayed by them. All the agricultural
+implements, whatever their nationality, were in one place, all the
+ceramics in another, so that there was no exclusively British and no
+exclusively German court. The only exception to this rule was in the
+Trocadero, where the French, British, Dutch, and Portuguese Colonies,
+Algeria, Tunis, Siberia, the South African Republic, China and Japan
+were allowed to erect at their own cost separate pavilions. The greater
+number of the nationalities represented had palaces of their own in the
+rue des Nations along the Quai d'Orsay, in which thoroughfare were to be
+seen the buildings erected by Italy, Turkey, the United States, Denmark,
+Portugal, Austria, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Peru, Hungary, the United
+Kingdom, Persia, Belgium, Norway, Luxemburg, Finland, Germany, Spain,
+Bulgaria, Monaco, Sweden, Rumania, Greece, Servia and Mexico. Scattered
+about the grounds, in addition to those in the Trocadero, were the
+buildings of San Marino, Morocco, Ecuador and Korea. Nearly every
+civilized country in the world was represented at the exhibition, the
+most conspicuous absentees being Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and some
+other South and Central American Republics, and a number of the British
+colonies. The most noteworthy attractions of the exhibition were the
+magnificent effects produced by electricity in the palace devoted to it
+in the Chateau d'Eau and in the Hall of Illusions, the two palaces of
+the Fine Arts in the Champs Elysees, and the Bridge over the Seine
+dedicated to the memory of Alexander II. These permanent Fine Art
+palaces were devoted, the one to modern painting and sculpture, the
+other to the works of French artists and art workmen who flourished from
+the dawn of French art up to the end of the 18th century.
+
+The United Kingdom was well but not largely represented both in Fine
+Arts and Manufactures, the administration of the section being in the
+hands of a royal commission, presided over by the prince of Wales. The
+British pavilion contained an important collection of paintings of the
+British school, chiefly by Reynolds, Gainsborough and their
+contemporaries, and by Turner and Burne-Jones. Special buildings had
+been erected by the British colonies and by British India. Canada, West
+Australia and Mauritius occupied the former, India and Ceylon the
+latter. For the first time since the war of 1870 Germany took part in a
+French International Exhibition, and the exhibits showed the great
+industrial progress which had been made since the foundation of the
+empire in 1870. The United States made a fine display, and fairly
+divided the honours with Germany. Remarkable progress was manifested in
+the exhibits of Canada and Hungary. France maintained her superiority in
+all the objects in which good taste was the first consideration, but the
+more utilitarian exhibits were more remarkable for their number than
+their quality, except those connected with electrical work and display,
+automobiles and iron-work. The number of exhibitors in the industrial
+section from the British empire, including India and the colonies, was
+1250, who obtained 1647 awards, as many persons exhibited in several
+classes. There were, in addition, 465 awards for "collaborateurs," that
+is, assistants, engineers, foremen, craftsmen and workmen who had
+co-operated in the production of the exhibits. In the British Fine Arts
+section there were 429 exhibits by 282 exhibitors and 175 awards.
+
+In later years, important international exhibitions have been held at
+Glasgow, and at Buffalo, New York, in 1901, at St Louis (commemorating
+the Louisiana purchase) in 1904, at Liege in 1905, at Milan in 1906, at
+Dublin in 1907, and in London (Franco-British), 1908. In the artistic
+taste and magnificence of their buildings and the interest of their
+exhibits these took their cue from the great Paris Exhibition, and even
+in some cases went beyond it, notably at Buffalo (q.v.), St Louis (q.v.)
+and London. And it might well be thought that the evolution of this type
+of public show had reached its limits.     (G. C. L.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] An "exhibition," in the sense of a minor scholarship, or annual
+    payment to a student from the funds of a school or college, is a
+    modern survival from the obsolete meaning of "maintenance" or
+    "endowment" (cf. Late Lat. _exhibitio et tegumentum_, i.e. food and
+    raiment).
+
+
+
+
+EXHUMATION (from Med. Lat. _exhumare_; _ex_, out of, and _humus_,
+ground), the act of digging up and removing an object from the ground.
+The word is particularly applied to the removal of a dead body from its
+place of burial. For the offence of exhuming a body without legal
+authority, and the process of obtaining such authority, see BURIAL AND
+BURIAL ACTS.
+
+
+
+
+EXILARCH, in Jewish history, "Chief or Prince of the Captivity." The
+Jews of Babylonia, after the fall of the first temple, were termed by
+Jeremiah and Ezekiel the people of the "Exile." Hence the head of the
+Babylonian Jews was the exilarch (in Aramaic _Resh Galutha_). The office
+was hereditary and carried with it considerable power. Some traditions
+regarded the last king of Davidic descent (Jehoiachin) as the first
+exilarch, and all the later holders of the dignity claimed to be scions
+of the royal house of Judah. Under the Arsacids and Sassanids the office
+continued. In the 6th century an attempt was made to secure by force
+political autonomy for the Jews, but the exilarch who led the movement
+(Mar Zutra) was executed. For some time thereafter the office was in
+abeyance, but under Arabic rule there was a considerable revival of its
+dignity. From the middle of the 7th till the 11th centuries the
+exilarchs were all descendants of Bostanai, through whom "the splendour
+of the office was renewed and its political position made secure"
+(Bacher). The last exilarch of importance was David, son of Zakkai,
+whose contest with Seadiah (q.v.) had momentous consequences. Hezekiah
+(c. 1040) was the last Babylonian exilarch, though the title left its
+traces in later ages. Benjamin of Tudela (_Itinerary_, p. 61) names an
+exilarch Daniel b. Hisdai in the 12th century. Petahiah (_Travels_, p.
+17) records that this Daniel's nephew succeeded to the office jointly
+with a R. Samuel. The latter, according to Petahiah, had a learned
+daughter who "gave instruction, through a window, remaining in the house
+while the disciples were below, unable to see her."
+
+Our chief knowledge of the position and function of the exilarch
+concerns the period beginning with the Arabic rule in Persia. In the age
+succeeding the Mahommedan conquest the exilarch was noted for the
+stately retinue that accompanied him, the luxurious banquets given at
+his abode, and the courtly etiquette that prevailed there. A brilliant
+account has come down of the ceremonies at the installation of a new
+exilarch. Homage was paid to him by the rabbinical heads of the colleges
+(each of whom was called Gaon, q.v.); rich gifts were presented; he
+visited the synagogue in state, where a costly canopy had been erected
+over his seat. The exilarch then delivered a discourse, and in the
+benediction or doxology (_Qaddish_) his name was inserted. Thereafter he
+never left his house except in a carriage of state and in the company of
+a large retinue. He would frequently have audiences of the king, by whom
+he was graciously received. He derived a revenue from taxes which he was
+empowered to exact. The exilarch could excommunicate, and no doubt had
+considerable jurisdiction over the Jews. A spirited description of the
+glories of the exilarch is given in D'Israeli's novel _Alroy_.
+
+  See Neubauer, _Mediaeval Jewish Chronicles_, ii. 68 seq.; Zacuto,
+  _Yuhasin_; Graetz, _Geschichte_, vols. iv.-vi.; Benjamin of Tudela,
+  _Itinerary_, ed. Adler, pp. 39 seq.; Bacher, _Jewish Encyclopaedia_,
+  vol. v. 288.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+EXILE (Lat. _exsilium_ or _exilium_, from _exsul_ or exul, which is
+derived from _ex_, out of, and the root _sal_, to go, seen in _salire_,
+to leap, _consul_, &c.; the connexion with _solum_, soil, country is now
+generally considered wrong), banishment from one's native country by the
+compulsion of authority. In a general sense exile is applied to
+prolonged absence from one's country either through force of
+circumstances or when undergone voluntarily. Among the Greeks, in the
+Homeric age, banishment ([Greek: phuge]) was sometimes inflicted as a
+punishment by the authorities for crimes affecting the general
+interests, but is chiefly known in connexion with cases of homicide.
+With these the state had nothing to do; the punishment of the murderer
+was the duty and privilege of the relatives of the murdered man. Unless
+the relatives could be induced to accept a money payment by way of
+compensation ([Greek: poine], weregeld; see especially Homer, _Iliad_,
+xviii. 497), in which case the murderer was allowed to remain in the
+country, his only means of escaping punishment was flight to a foreign
+land. If, during his self-imposed exile, the relatives expressed their
+willingness to accept the indemnity, he was at liberty to return and
+resume his position in society.
+
+In later times banishment is (1) a legal punishment for particular
+offences; (2) voluntary.
+
+1. Banishment for life with confiscation of property was inflicted upon
+those who destroyed or uprooted the sacred olives at Athens; upon those
+who remained neutral during a sedition (by a law of Solon, which
+subsequently fell into abeyance); upon those who gave refuge to or
+received on board ship a man who had fled to avoid punishment; upon
+those who wounded with intent to kill and those who prompted them to
+such an act (it is uncertain whether in this case exile was for life or
+temporary); upon any one who wilfully murdered an alien; for impiety.
+Certain political crimes were also similarly punished--treason,
+laconism, sycophancy (see SYCOPHANT), attempts to subvert existing
+decrees. For the peculiar form of banishment called OSTRACISM, see
+separate article.
+
+In cases of voluntary homicide the punishment was death; but (except in
+cases of parricide) the murderer could leave the country unmolested
+after the first day of the trial. He was bound to remain outside Attica,
+and when on foreign soil was not allowed to appear at the public games,
+to enter the temples or take part in sacrifices; but provided that he
+adhered to the prescribed regulations, he was accorded a certain amount
+of protection. Even when a general amnesty was proclaimed, he was not
+allowed to return; if he did so, he might at once be put to death.
+
+Temporary exile (the period of which is uncertain) without confiscation,
+was the punishment for involuntary homicide. As soon as the relatives of
+the deceased became reconciled to the man who had slain him, the latter
+was permitted to return; further, since banishment was only temporary,
+it is reasonable to suppose that the law insisted upon such
+reconciliation.
+
+2. Citizens sometimes voluntarily left the country for other reasons
+(debt, inability to pay a fine). Since extradition was only demanded in
+cases of high treason or other serious offences against the state, the
+fugitive was not interfered with. He was at liberty to return after a
+certain time had elapsed.
+
+Little is known about exile as it affected Sparta and other Greek towns,
+but it is probable that the same conditions prevailed as at Athens.
+
+At Rome, in early times, exile was not a punishment, but rather a means
+of escaping punishment. Before judgment had been finally pronounced it
+was open to any Roman citizen condemned to death to escape the penalty
+by voluntary exile (_solum vertere exsilii causa_). To prevent his
+return, he was interdicted from the use of fire and water; if he broke
+the interdict and returned, any one had the right to put him to death.
+The _aquae et ignis_ (to which _et tecti_ "shelter" is sometimes added)
+_interdictio_ is variously explained as exclusion from the necessaries
+of life, from the symbols of civic communion, or from "the marks of a
+pure society, which the criminal would defile by his further use of
+them." Subsequently (probably at the time of the Gracchi) it became a
+recognized legal penalty, practically equivalent to "exile," taking the
+place of capital punishment. The criminal was permitted to withdraw from
+the city _after_ sentence was pronounced; but in order that this
+withdrawal might as far as possible bear the character of a punishment,
+his departure was sanctioned by a decree of the people which declared
+his exile permanent. Authorities are not agreed whether this exile by
+interdiction entailed loss of _civitas_; according to some this did not
+ensue until (as in earlier times) the criminal had assumed the
+citizenship of the state in which he had taken refuge and thereby lost
+his rights as a citizen of Rome, while others hold that it was not until
+the time of Tiberius (A.D. 23) that _capitis deminutio media_ became the
+direct consequence of trial and conviction. _Interdictio_ was the
+punishment for treason, murder, arson and other serious offences which
+came under the cognizance of the _quaestiones perpetuae_ (permanent
+judicial commissions for certain offences); confiscation of property was
+only inflicted in extreme cases.
+
+Under the Empire _interdictio_ gradually fell into disuse and a new form
+of banishment, introduced by Augustus, called _deportatio_, generally
+_in insulam_, took its place. For some time the two probably existed
+side by side. _Deportatio_ consisted in transportation for life to an
+island (or some place prescribed on the mainland, not of Italy),
+accompanied by loss of _civitas_ and all civil rights, and confiscation
+of property. The most dreaded places of exile were the islands of
+Gyarus, Sardinia, an oasis in the desert (_quasi in insulam_) of Libya;
+Crete, Cyprus and Rhodes were considered more tolerable. Large bodies of
+persons were also transported in this manner; thus Tiberius sent 4000
+freedmen to Sardinia for Jewish or Egyptian superstitious practices.
+_Deportatio_ was originally inflicted upon political criminals, but in
+course of time became more particularly a means of removing those whose
+wealth and popularity rendered them objects of suspicion. It was also a
+punishment for the following offences: adultery, murder, poisoning,
+forgery, embezzlement, sacrilege and certain cases of immorality.
+
+_Relegatio_ was a milder form of _deportatio_. It either excluded the
+person banished from one specified district only, with permission to
+choose a residence elsewhere, or the place of exile was fixed.
+_Relegatio_ could be either temporary or for life, but it did not in
+either case carry with it loss of _civitas_ or property, nor was the
+exile under military surveillance, as in the case of _deportatio_. Thus,
+Ovid, when in exile at Tomi, says (_Tristia_, v. ii): "he (i.e. the
+emperor) has not deprived me of life, nor of wealth, nor of the rights
+of a citizen ... he has simply ordered me to leave my home." He calls
+himself _relegatus_, not _exsul_.
+
+In later writers the word _exsilium_ is used in the sense of all its
+three forms--_aquae et ignis interdictio_, _deportatio_ and _relegatio_.
+
+In England the first enactment legalizing banishment dates from the
+reign of Elizabeth (39 Eliz. c. 4), which gave power to banish from the
+realm "such rogues as are dangerous to the inferior people." A statute
+of Charles II. (18 Car. II. c. 3) gave power to execute or to transport
+to America for life the mosstroopers of Cumberland and Northumberland.
+Banishment or transportation for criminal offences was regulated by an
+act of 1824 (5 Geo. IV. s. 84) and finally abolished by the Penal
+Servitude Acts 1853 and 1857 (see further DEPORTATION). The word exile
+has sometimes, though wrongly, been applied to the sending away from a
+country of those who are not natives of it, but who may be temporary or
+even permanent residents in it (see ALIEN; EXPATRIATION; EXPULSION).
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--J.J. Thonissen, _Le Droit penal de la republique
+  athenienne_ (Brussels, 1875); G.F. Schomann, _Griechische Altertumer_
+  (4th ed., 1897), p. 46; T. Mommsen, _Ronmisches Strafrecht_ (1899),
+  pp. 68, 964, and _Romisches Staatsrecht_ (1887), iii. p. 48; L.M.
+  Hartmann, _De exilio apud Rumanos_ (Berlin, 1887); F. von
+  Holtzendorff-Vietmansdorf, _Die Deportationsstrafe im romischen
+  Alterthum_ (Leipzig, 1859); articles in Smith's _Dict. of Greek and
+  Roman Antiquities_ (3rd ed., 1890) and Daremberg and Saglio's _Dict.
+  des antiquites_ (C. Lecrivain and G. Humbert).
+
+
+
+
+
+EXILI, an Italian chemist and poisoner in the 17th century. His real
+name was probably Nicolo Egidi or Eggidio. Few authentic details of his
+life exist. Tradition, however, credits him with having been originally
+the salaried poisoner at Rome of Olympia Maidalchina, the mistress of
+Pope Innocent X. Subsequently he became a gentleman in waiting to Queen
+Christina of Sweden, whose taste for chemistry may have influenced this
+appointment. In 1663 his presence in France aroused the suspicions of
+the French government, and he was imprisoned in the Bastille. Here he is
+said to have made the acquaintance of Godin de Sainte-Croix, the lover
+of the marquise de Brin-villiers (q.v.). After three months'
+imprisonment, powerful influences secured Exili's release, and he left
+France for England. In 1681 he was again in Italy, where he married the
+countess Fantaguzzi, second cousin of Duke Francis of Modena.
+
+
+
+
+EXMOOR FOREST, a high moorland in Somersetshire and Devonshire, England.
+The uplands of this district are bounded by the low alluvial plain of
+Sedgemoor on the east, by the lower basin of the Exe on the south, by
+the basin of the Taw (in part) on the west, and by the Bristol Channel
+on the north. The area thus defined, however, includes not only Exmoor
+but the Brendon and Quantock Hills east of it. Excluding these, the
+total area in the district lying at an elevation exceeding 1000 ft. is
+about 120 sq. m. The geological formation is Devonian. The ancient
+forest had an area of about 20,000 acres, and was enclosed in 1815.
+Large tracts are still uncultivated; and the wild red deer and native
+Exmoor pony are characteristic of the district. The highest point is
+Dunkery Beacon in the east (1707 ft.), but Span Head in the south-west
+is 1618 ft., and a height of 1500 ft. is exceeded at several points. The
+Exe, Barle, Lyn and other streams, traversing deep picturesque valleys
+except in their uppermost courses, are in favour with trout fishermen.
+The few villages, such as Exford, Withypool and Simonsbath, with Lynton
+and Lynmouth on the coast, afford centres for tourists and sportsmen.
+Exmoor is noted for its stag hunting. The district has a further fame
+through Richard Blackmore's novel, _Lorna Doone_.
+
+
+
+
+EXMOUTH, EDWARD PELLEW, 1ST VISCOUNT (1757-1833), English admiral, was
+descended from a family which came originally from Normandy, but had for
+many centuries been settled in the west of Cornwall. He was born at
+Dover, on the 19th of April 1757. At the age of thirteen he entered the
+navy, and even then his smartness and activity, his feats of daring, and
+his spirit of resolute independence awakened remark, and pointed him out
+as one specially fitted to distinguish himself in his profession. He had,
+however, no opportunity of active service till 1776, when, at the battle
+of Lake Champlain, his gallantry, promptitude and skill, not only saved
+the "Carleton"--whose command had devolved upon him during the progress
+of the battle--from imminent danger, but enabled her to take a prominent
+part in sinking two of the enemy's ships. For his services on this
+occasion he obtained a lieutenant's commission, and the command of the
+schooner in which he had so bravely done his duty. The following year, in
+command of a brigade of seamen, he shared in the hardships and perils of
+the American campaign of General Burgoyne. In 1782, in command of the
+"Pelican," he attacked three French privateers inside the Ile de Batz,
+and compelled them to run themselves on shore--a feat for which he was
+rewarded by the rank of post-captain. On the outbreak of the French War
+in 1793, he was appointed to the "Nymphe," a frigate of 36 guns; and,
+notwithstanding that for the sake of expedition she was manned chiefly by
+Cornish miners, he captured, after a desperate conflict, the French
+frigate "La Cleopatre," a vessel of equal strength. For this act he
+obtained the honour of knighthood. In 1794 he received the command of the
+"Arethusa" (38), and in a fight with the French frigate squadron off the
+Ile de Batz he compelled the "Pomona" (44) to surrender. The same year
+the western squadron was increased and its command divided, the second
+squadron being given to Sir Edward Pellew in the "Indefatigable" (44).
+While in command of this squadron he, on several occasions, performed
+acts of great personal daring; and for his bravery in boarding the
+wrecked transport "Dutton," and his promptitude and resolution in
+adopting measures so as to save the lives of all on board, he was in 1796
+created a baronet. In 1798 he joined the channel fleet, and in command of
+the "Impetueux" (74) took part in several actions with great distinction.
+In 1802 Sir Edward Pellew was elected member of parliament for Dunstable,
+and during the time that he sat in the Commons he was a strenuous
+supporter of Pitt. In 1804 he was made rear-admiral of the blue, and
+appointed commander-in-chief in India, where, by his vigilance and
+rapidity of movement, he entirely cleared the seas of French cruisers,
+and secured complete protection to English commerce. He returned to
+England in 1809, and in 1810 was appointed commander-in-chief in the
+North Sea, and in 1811 commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean. In 1814
+he was created Baron Exmouth of Canonteign, and in the following year was
+made K.C.B., and a little later G.C.B. When the dey of Algiers, in 1816,
+violated the treaty for the abolition of slavery, Exmouth was directed to
+attack the town. Accordingly, on the 26th of August, he engaged the
+Algerine battery and fleet, and after a severe action of nine hours'
+duration, he set on fire the arsenal and every vessel of the enemy's
+fleet, and shattered the sea defences into ruins. At the close of the
+action the dey apologized for his conduct, and agreed to a renewal of the
+treaty, at the same time delivering up over three thousand persons of
+various nationalities who had been Algerine slaves. For this splendid
+victory Exmouth was advanced to the dignity of viscount. Shortly before
+his death, which took place on the 23rd of January 1833, he was made
+vice-admiral.
+
+He had married Susan (d. 1837), daughter of James Frowde of Knoyle,
+Wiltshire, who bore him four sons and two daughters. His eldest son,
+Pownoll Bastard Pellew (1786-1833), became 2nd Viscount Exmouth, and his
+descendant, Edward Addington Hargreaves Pellew (b. 1890), became the 5th
+viscount in 1899.
+
+Exmouth's second son, Sir Fleetwood Broughton Reynolds Pellew
+(1789-1861), was like his father an admiral. The third son was George
+Pellew (1793-1866), author and divine, who married Frances (d. 1870),
+daughter of the prime minister, Lord Sidmouth, and wrote his
+father-in-law's life (_The Life and Correspondence of Henry Addington,
+1st Viscount Sidmouth_, 1847).
+
+Exmouth had a brother, Sir Israel Pellew (1758-1832), also an admiral,
+who was present at the battle of Trafalgar.
+
+  A _Life_ of the 1st viscount, by Edward Osler, was published in 1835.
+
+
+
+
+EXMOUTH, a market-town, seaport and watering-place in the Honiton
+parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, at the mouth of the river
+Exe, 10-1/2 m. S.E. by S. of Exeter by the London & South-Western
+railway. Pop. of urban district (1901) 10,485. In the 18th century it
+consisted of a primitive fishing village at the base of Beacon Hill, a
+height commanding fine views over the estuary and the English Channel.
+After its more modern terraces were built up the hillside, Exmouth
+became the first seaside resort in Devon. Its excellent bathing and the
+beauty of its coast and moorland scenery attract many visitors in
+summer, while it is frequented in winter by sufferers from pulmonary
+disease. The climate is unusually mild, as a range of hills shelters the
+town on the east. A promenade runs along the sea wall; there are golf
+links and public gardens, and the port is a favourite yachting centre, a
+regatta being held annually. Near the town is a natural harbour called
+the Bight. The local industries include fishing, brick-making and the
+manufacture of Honiton lace. Exmouth was early a place of importance,
+and in 1347 contributed 10 vessels to the fleet sent to attack Calais.
+It once possessed a fort or "castelet," designed to command the estuary
+of the Exe. This fort, which was garrisoned for the king during the
+Civil War, was blockaded and captured by Colonel Shapcoate in 1646.
+
+
+
+
+EXODUS, BOOK OF, in the Bible, a book of the Old Testament which derives
+its name, through the Greek, from the event which forms the most
+prominent feature of the history it narrates, viz. the deliverance of
+Israel from Egypt. Strictly speaking, however, this title is applicable
+to the first half only, the historical portion of the book, and takes no
+account of those chapters which describe the giving of the Law on Mt.
+Sinai, nor of those which deal with the Tabernacle and its furniture. By
+the Jews it is usually styled after its opening words [Hebrew: We'eleh
+Shemoth] (_We'eleh Shemoth_) or, more briefly, [Hebrew: Shemoth]
+(_Shemoth_).
+
+In its present form the book sets forth (a) the oppression of the
+Israelites in Egypt (ch. i.), (b) the birth and education of Moses, and
+his flight to the land of Midian (ch. ii.), (c) the theophany at Mt.
+Horeb (the Burning Bush), and the subsequent commission of Moses and
+Aaron (iii. 1-iv. 17), (d) the return of Moses to Egypt, and his appeal
+to Pharaoh which results in the further oppression of Israel (iv.
+18-vii. 7), (e) the plagues of Egypt (vii. 8-xi. 10), (f) the
+institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the
+last plague, and Israel's departure from Egypt (xii. 1-xiii. 16), (g)
+the crossing of the Red Sea and the discomfiture of the Egyptians, the
+Song of Triumph, the sending of the manna and other incidents of the
+journeying through the wilderness (xiii. 17-xviii. 27), (h) the giving
+of the Law, including the Decalogue and the so-called Book of the
+Covenant, on Sinai-Horeb (xix.-xxiv.), (i) directions for the building
+of the Tabernacle and for the consecration of the priests (xxv.-xxxi.),
+(j) the sin of the Golden Calf, and another earlier version of the first
+legislation (xxxii.-xxxiv.), (k) the construction of the Tabernacle and
+its erection (xxxv.-xl.). The book of Exodus, however, like the other
+books of the Hexateuch, is a composite work which has passed, so to
+speak, through many editions; hence the order of events given above
+cannot lay claim to any higher authority than that of the latest editor.
+Moreover, the documents from which the book has been compiled belong to
+different periods in the history of Israel, and each of them,
+admittedly, reflects the standpoint of the age in which it was written.
+Hence it follows that the contents of the book are not of equal
+historical value; and though the claim of a passage to be considered
+historical is not necessarily determined by the age of the source from
+which it is derived, yet, in view of the known practice of Hebrew
+writers, greater weight naturally attaches to the earlier documents in
+those cases in which the sources are at variance with one another. Any
+attempt, therefore, at restoring the actual course of history must be
+preceded by an inquiry into the source of the various contents of the
+book.
+
+The sources from which the book of Exodus has been compiled are the same
+as those which form the basis of the book of Genesis, while the method
+of composition is very similar. Here, too, the strongly marked
+characteristics of P, or the Priestly Document, as opposed to JE, enable
+us to determine the extent of that document with comparative ease; but
+the absence, in some cases, of conclusive criteria prevents any final
+judgment as to the exact limits of the two strands which have been
+united in the composite JE. The latter statement applies especially to
+the legislative portions of the book: in the historical sections the
+separation of the two sources gives rise to fewer difficulties. It does
+not, however, lie within the scope of the present article to examine the
+various sources underlying the narrative with any minuteness, but rather
+to sum up those results of modern criticism which have been generally
+accepted by Old Testament scholars. To this end it will be convenient to
+treat the subject-matter of the book under three main heads: (a) the
+historical portion (ch. i.-xviii.), (b) the sections dealing with the
+giving of the Law (xix.-xxiv., xxxii.-xxxiv.), and (c) the construction
+of the Tabernacle and its furniture (xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl.).
+
+  (a) _Israel in Egypt and the Exodus_ (ch. i.-xviii.). (1) i. 1-vii.
+  13.--The analysis of these chapters shows that the history, in the
+  main, has been derived from the two sources J and E, chiefly the
+  former, and that a later editor has included certain passages from P,
+  besides introducing a slight alteration of the original order and
+  other redactional changes. The combined narrative of JE sets forth the
+  rise of a new king in Egypt, who endeavoured to check the growing
+  strength of the children of Israel; it thus prepares the way for the
+  birth of Moses, his early life in Egypt, his flight to Midian and
+  marriage with Zipporah, the theophany at Mt. Horeb, and his divine
+  commission to deliver Israel from Egypt.
+
+  At the very outset the two sources betray their divergent origin and
+  point of view. According to J (i. 6, 8-12, 20b) the Israelites dwell
+  apart in the province of Goshen, and their numbers become so great as
+  to call for severe measures of repression, the method employed being
+  that of forced labour. E, on the other hand (i. 15-20a, 21, 22),
+  represents them as living among the Egyptians, and so few in number
+  that two midwives satisfy their requirements. It is to this latter
+  source that we owe the account of the birth of Moses and of his
+  education at the court of Pharaoh (ii. 1-10). On reaching manhood
+  Moses openly displays his sympathy with his brethren by slaying an
+  Egyptian, and has, in consequence, to flee to Midian, where he marries
+  Zipporah, the daughter of the priest of Midian (ii. 11-22). In this
+  section the editor has undoubtedly made use of the parallel narrative
+  of J, though it is impossible to determine the exact point at which
+  J's account is introduced: certainly ii. 15b-22 belong to that
+  source.[1] The narrative of the call of Moses is by no means uniform,
+  and shows obvious traces of twofold origin (J iii. 2-4a, 5, 7, 8,
+  16-18; iv. 1-12 (13-16), 29-31; E iii. 1, 4b, 6, 9-14, 21, 22; iv. 17,
+  18, 20b, 27, 28). These two sources present striking points of
+  difference, which reappear in the subsequent narrative. According to
+  E, Moses with Aaron is to demand from Pharaoh the release of Israel,
+  which will be effected in spite of his opposition; in assurance
+  thereof the promise is given that they shall serve God upon this
+  mountain; moreover, the people on their departure are to borrow
+  raiment and jewels from their Egyptian neighbours. According to J, on
+  the other hand, the spokesmen are to be Moses and the elders; and
+  their request is for a temporary departure only, viz. "three days'
+  journey into the wilderness"; their departure from Egypt is a hurried
+  one. Yet another difficulty, which disappears as soon as the composite
+  character of the narrative is recognized, is that of the signs. In J
+  three signs are given for the purpose of reassuring Moses, only one of
+  which is wrought with the rod (iv. 1-9), but in iv. 17 (E) the
+  reference is clearly to entirely different signs, probably the plagues
+  of Egypt, which according to E were invariably wrought by "the rod of
+  God." Further, it is questionable if the passage iv. 13-16 really
+  forms part of the original narrative of J, and is not rather to be
+  ascribed to the redactor of JE. The name of Aaron has certainly been
+  introduced by a later hand in J's account of the plague of frogs
+  (viii. 12), and the only passage in J in which Aaron is represented as
+  taking an active part is iv. 29-31, where the mention of his name
+  causes no little difficulty.[2] In E, on the other hand, Aaron is sent
+  by God to meet Moses at Mt. Horeb, after the latter had taken leave of
+  Jethro, and, later on, accompanies him into the presence of Pharaoh.
+  The succeeding narrative (v. 1-vi. 1) is mainly taken from J, though
+  E's account of the first interview with Pharaoh has been partially
+  retained in v. 1, 2, 4. Moses and the elders ask leave to go three
+  days' journey into the wilderness to sacrifice to Yahweh, a request
+  which is met by an increase of the burdensome work of brick-making:
+  henceforward the Israelites have to provide their own straw. The
+  people complain bitterly to Moses, who appeals to Yahweh and is
+  assured by him of the future deliverance of Israel "by a strong hand."
+
+  With the exception of the genealogical list (i. 1-5) and the brief
+  notices of the increase of Israel (i. 7) and of its oppression at the
+  hands of the Egyptians (i. 13, 14; ii. 23b-25), the narrative so far
+  exhibits no traces of P[3]. But in vi. 2-vii. 13 we are confronted
+  with a narrative which carries us back to ii. 23b-25 and gives
+  practically a parallel account to that of JE in ch. iii.-v. Thus the
+  revelation of the divine name, vi. 2f., finds its counterpart in iii.
+  10f., the message to be delivered to Israel (vi. 6f.) is very similar
+  to that of ch. iii. 16f., while the demand which is to be addressed to
+  Pharaoh is identical with that which had been already refused in ch.
+  v. No allusion, however, is made by Moses to this previous demand; he
+  merely urges the same objection as that put forward in iv. 10f. With
+  the resumption[4] of the story in vi. 28f. Moses reiterates his
+  objection, and is told that Aaron shall be his "prophet" and speak for
+  him, and shall also perform the sign of the rod (cf. iv. 2-4). The
+  sign, however, has no effect on Pharaoh (vii. 13), and we thus reach
+  the same point in the narrative as at vi. 1. Apart from the literary
+  characteristics which clearly differentiate this narrative from the
+  preceding accounts of J and E, the following points of variation are
+  worthy of consideration: (1) The people refuse to listen to Moses; (2)
+  Aaron is appointed to be Moses' spokesman, not with the _people_, but
+  with Pharaoh; (3) _one_ sign is given (not _three_) and performed
+  before Pharaoh; (4) the rod is turned into a reptile (_tannin_), not a
+  serpent (_nahash_).
+
+  (2) vii. 14-xi. 10. _The First Plagues of Egypt._--In this section the
+  analysis again reveals three main sources, which are clearly marked
+  off from one another both by their linguistic features and by their
+  difference of representation. The principal source is J, from which
+  are derived six plagues, viz. killing of the fish in the river (vii.
+  14, 16, 17a, 18, 21a, 24, 25), frogs (viii. 1-4, 8-150), insects
+  (viii. 20-32), murrain (ix. 1-7), hail (ix. 13-18, 23b, 24b, 25b-34),
+  locusts (x. 1a, 3-11, 13b, 14b, 15a, c-19, 24-26, 28, 29), the threat
+  to slay all the first-born (xi. 4-8). The most striking characteristic
+  of this narrative is that the plagues are represented as mainly due to
+  natural causes and follow a natural sequence. Thus Yahweh smites the
+  river so that the fish die and render the water undrinkable. This is
+  succeeded by a plague of frogs. The swarms of flies and insects, which
+  next appear, are the natural outcome of the decaying masses of frogs,
+  and these, in turn, would form a natural medium for the spread of
+  cattle disease. Destructive hailstorms, again, though rare, are not
+  unknown in Egypt, while the locusts are definitely stated to have been
+  brought by a strong east wind. Other distinctive features of J's
+  narrative are: (1) Moses alone is bidden to interview Pharaoh (vii. 14
+  f.; viii. 1 f., 20 f.; ix. 1 f., 13 f.; x. 1 f.); (2) on each occasion
+  he makes a formal demand; (3) on Pharaoh's refusal the plague is
+  announced, and takes place at a fixed time without any human
+  intervention; (4) when the plague is sent, Pharaoh sends for Moses and
+  entreats his intercession, promising in most cases to accede in part
+  to his request; when the plague is removed, however, the promise is
+  left unfulfilled, the standing phrase being "and Pharaoh's heart was
+  heavy ([Hebrew: kaved])," or "and Pharaoh made heavy ([Hebrew:
+  hihbid]) his heart"; (5) the plagues do not affect the children of
+  Israel in Goshen. E's account (water turned into blood, vii. 15, 17b,
+  20b, 23; hail, ix. 22, 23a, 24a, 25a, 35; locusts, x. 12, 13a, 14a,
+  15b) is more fragmentary, having been doubtless superseded in most
+  cases by the fuller and more graphic narrative of J, but the plague of
+  darkness (x. 20-23, 27) is found only in this source. As contrasted
+  with J the narrative emphasizes the miraculous character of the
+  plagues. They are brought about by "the rod of God," which Moses
+  wields, the effect being instantaneous and all-embracing. The
+  Israelites are represented as living among the Egyptians, and enjoy no
+  immunity from the plagues, except that of darkness. Their departure
+  from Egypt is deliberate; the people have time to borrow raiment and
+  jewels from their neighbours. E regularly uses the phrase "and
+  Pharaoh's heart was strong ([Hebrew: hazak])," or "and Yahweh made
+  strong ([Hebrew: hizek]) Pharaoh's heart" and "he would not let the
+  children of Israel (or, them) go." In the priestly narrative (P) the
+  plagues assume the form of a trial of skill between Aaron, who acts at
+  Moses' command, and the Egyptian magicians, and thus connect with vii.
+  8-13. The magicians succeed in turning the Nile water into blood (vii.
+  19, 20a, 21b, 22), and in bringing up frogs (viii. 5-7), but they fail
+  to bring forth lice (viii. 15b-19), and are themselves smitten with
+  boils (ix. 8-12): the two last-named plagues have no parallel either
+  in J or E. Throughout the P sections Aaron is associated with Moses,
+  and the regular command given to the latter is "Say unto Aaron": no
+  demand is ever made to Pharaoh, and the description of the plague is
+  quite short. The formula employed by P is "and Pharaoh's heart was
+  strong ([Hebrew: hazak])," or, "and Pharaoh made strong ([Hebrew:
+  hizek]) his heart," as in E, but it is distinguished from E's phrase
+  by the addition of "and he hearkened not unto them as Yahweh had
+  spoken."
+
+  (3) xii. i-xiii. 16. _The Last Plague, the Deliverance from Egypt, the
+  Institution of the Passover and of the Feast of Unleavened Cakes, the
+  Consecration of the First-born._--This section presents the usual
+  phenomena of a composite narrative, viz. repetitions and
+  inconsistencies. Thus J's regulations for the Passover (xii. 21-23,
+  27b) seem at first sight simply to repeat the commands given to Moses
+  and Aaron in xii. 1-13 (P), but in reality they are a parallel and
+  divergent account. In vv. 1-13 the choice of the lamb and the manner
+  in which it is to be eaten constitute the essential feature, the
+  smearing with the blood being quite secondary; in vv. 21 f. the latter
+  point is all-important, and no regulations are given for the paschal
+  meal (which, possibly, formed no part of J's original account).
+  Similarly the institution of the Feast of _Mazzoth_, or Unleavened
+  Cakes (xiii. 3-10J), does not form the sequel to the regulations laid
+  down in xii. 14-20 (P), but is independent of them: it omits all
+  reference to the "holy convocations" and to the abstinence from
+  labour, and is obviously simpler and more primitive. J's account,
+  again, makes important exceptions (xiii. 11-13) to the severe
+  enactment of P with reference to the first-born (xiii. 1). The
+  description of the smiting of the first-born of Egypt is derived from
+  J (xii. 29-34, 37-39), who clearly sees in the Feast of _Mazzoth_ a
+  perpetual reminder of the haste with which the Israelites fled from
+  Egypt; the editor of JE, however, has included some extracts from E
+  (xii. 31, 35, 36), which point to a more deliberate departure. The
+  section has been worked over by a Deuteronomistic editor, whose hand
+  can be clearly traced in the additions xii. 24-27a; xiii. 3b, 5, 8, 9,
+  14-16.
+
+  (4) xiii. 17-xv. 21. _The Crossing of the Red Sea._--According to J
+  the children of Israel departed from Egypt under the guidance of
+  Yahweh, who leads them by day in a pillar of cloud and by night in a
+  pillar of fire (xiii. 21, 22). On hearing of their flight Pharaoh at
+  once starts in pursuit. The Israelites, terrified by the approach of
+  the Egyptians, upbraid Moses, who promises them deliverance by the
+  hand of Yahweh (xiv. 5, 6,-7b, 10a, 11-14, 19b). Yahweh then causes a
+  strong east wind to blow all that night, which drives back the waters
+  from the shallows, and so renders it possible for the host of Israel
+  to cross over. The Egyptians follow, but the progress of their
+  chariots is hindered by the soft sand, and in the morning they are
+  caught by the returning waters (xiv. 21b, 24, 25, 27b, 28b, 30). The
+  story, however, has been combined with the somewhat different account
+  of E, which doubtless covered the same ground, and also with that of
+  P. According to the former, Elohim did not permit the Israelites to
+  take the shorter route to Canaan by the Mediterranean coast, for fear
+  of the Philistines, but led them southwards to the Red Sea, whither
+  they were pursued by the Egyptians (xiii. 17-19). The remainder of E's
+  account has only been preserved in a fragmentary form (xiv. 7aa, 10b,
+  15a, 19a, 20a), from which it may be gathered that Moses divided the
+  waters by stretching out his rod, thus presupposing that the crossing
+  took place by day, and that the dark cloud which divided the two hosts
+  was miraculously caused by the angel of God. P also represents the sea
+  as divided by means of Moses' rod, but heightens the effect by
+  describing the crossing as taking place between walls of water (xiii.
+  20; xiv. 1-4, 8, 9, 15b, 16b-18, 21a, c, 22, 23, 26, 27a, 28a, 29).
+
+  J's version of the Song of Moses probably does not extend beyond xv.
+  1, and has its counterpart in the very similar song of Miriam (E), in
+  vv. 20, 21. The rest of the song (vv. 2-18) is probably the work of a
+  later writer; for these verses set forth not only the deliverance from
+  Egypt, but also the entrance of Israel into Canaan (vv. 13-17), and
+  further presuppose the existence of the temple (vv. 13b, 17b). These
+  phenomena have been explained as due to later expansion, but the poem
+  has all the appearance of being a unity, and the language, style and
+  rhythm all point to a later age. Verse 19 is probably the work of the
+  redactor (R^P) who inserted the song.
+
+  (5) xv. 22-xviii. 27. _Incidents in the Wilderness._--The narrative of
+  the first journeying in the wilderness (xv. 22-xvii. 7) presents a
+  series of difficulties which probably owe their origin to the
+  editorial activity of R^P, who appears to have transferred to the
+  beginning of the wanderings a number of incidents which rightly belong
+  to the end. The concluding verses of ch. xv. contain J's account of
+  the sweetening of the waters of Marah, with which has been
+  incorporated a fragment of E's story of Massah (xv. 25b) and a
+  Deuteronomic expansion in v. 26. Then follows (ch. xvi.) P's version
+  of the sending of the manna and quails. In its present form, this
+  narrative contains a number of conflicting elements, which can only be
+  the result of editorial activity. Thus vv. 6, 7 must originally have
+  preceded vv. 11, 12, though the redactor has attempted to evade the
+  difficulty by inserting v. 8. Again, the account of the quails, which
+  is obviously incomplete, is undoubtedly derived from Num. xi.; but the
+  latter account, which admittedly belongs to JE, places the incident at
+  the end of the wanderings. Closer examination also of P's narrative of
+  the manna shows that its true-position is _after_ the departure from
+  Mt. Sinai; cf. the expressions used in vv. 9, 10, 33, 34, implying the
+  existence of the ark and the tabernacle. P's account of the manna,
+  however, can hardly have stood originally in close juxtaposition with
+  his account of the quails (cf. Num. xi. 6), but the two narratives
+  were probably combined by R^P before they were transferred to their
+  present position. The same redactor doubtless added v. 8 (and possibly
+  vv. 17, 18) by way of explanation, and vv. 5 and 22-30, which imply
+  that the law of the Sabbath was already known, and introduce a fresh
+  element into the story. A plausible explanation of R^P's action is
+  supplied by the theory that an earlier account of the giving of the
+  manna already existed at this point of the narrative. We know from
+  Deuteronomy viii. 2 f., 16 that JE contained an account of the manna,
+  which included the explanation of Ex. xvi. 15, and also emphasized, as
+  the motive for the gift, Yahweh's desire "to prove thee (i.e. test thy
+  disposition) ... whether thou wouldst keep his commandments, or no."
+  Fragments of this early story of Massah (testing) were incorporated by
+  R^P in his story of the manna and the quails, viz. xv. 25b; xvi. 4,
+  15, 16a, 19b-21. These verses must be assigned to E, for in xvii. 3,
+  2c (wherefore do ye tempt the Lord?), 7a (to _Massah_), c (because
+  they tempted ..., &c.), we find yet another version (J) of the same
+  incident, according to which the people tempted (tested) Yahweh. It
+  was owing to the combination of this latter account with E's further
+  description of the striving of the people for water at Meribah that
+  the double name Massah-Meribah arose, xvii. 1b-7 (1a belongs to P),
+  though Deut. xxxiii. 8 makes it clear that Massah and Meribah were
+  separate localities (cf. Deut. ix. 22, 2 f., 16, where Massah occurs
+  alone): P's version of striving at Meribah, in which traces of J's
+  account have been preserved, is given at Num. xx. 1-13.
+
+  xvii. 8-16. _The Battle with Amalek at Rephidim._--This incident is
+  derived from E, but is clearly out of place in its present context.
+  Its close connexion with the end of the wanderings is shown by (a) the
+  description of Moses as an infirm old man; (b) the role played by
+  Joshua in contrast with xxiv. 13, xxxiii. 11, where he is introduced
+  as a young man and Moses' minister; and (c) the references elsewhere
+  to the home of the Amalekites: according to Num. xiii. 29, xiv. 25,
+  xliii. 45, they dwelt in the S. or S.W. of Judah near Kadesh (cf. 1
+  Sam. xv. 6 f., 30; Gen. xiv. 7; xxxvi. 12).
+
+  Ch. xviii. _The visit of Jethro to Moses and the appointment of
+  judges._--This story, like the preceding one, is mainly derived from E
+  and is also out of place. Allusions in the chapter itself point
+  unmistakably to a time just before the departure from Sinai-Horeb, and
+  this date is confirmed both by Deut. i. 9-16 and by the parallel
+  account of J in Num. x. 29-32. The narrative, however, displays signs
+  of compilation, and it is not improbable that R^JE has incorporated in
+  vv. 7-11 part of J's account of the visit of Moses' father-in-law (cf.
+  the use of Yahweh).
+
+  (b) Ch. xix.-xxiv., xxxii., xxxiv.--The contents of these chapters,
+  which, owing to their contents, form the most important section in the
+  book of Exodus, may be briefly analysed as follows. In ch. xix. we
+  have a twofold description of the theophany on Mt. Sinai (or Horeb),
+  followed by the Decalogue in xx. 1-17. Alongside of this code we find
+  another, dealing in part with the civil and social (xxi. 2-xxii. 17),
+  in part with the religious life of Israel, the so-called Book of the
+  Covenant, xx. 22-xxiii. 19. Ch. xxiv. contains a composite narrative
+  of the ratification of the covenant. In chs. xxxii. and xxxiii. we
+  have again two narratives of the sin of the people and of Moses'
+  intercession, while in ch. xxxiv. we are confronted with yet another
+  early code, which is practically identical with the religious
+  enactments of xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii. 10-19.
+
+  With but few exceptions the _provenance_ of the individual sections
+  may be said to have been finally determined by the labours of the
+  critics, but even a cursory examination of their contents makes it
+  evident that the sequence of events, which they now present, cannot be
+  original, but is rather the outcome of a long process of revision,
+  during which the text has suffered considerably from alterations,
+  omissions, dislocations and additions. Yet owing to the method of
+  composition employed by Hebrew editors, or revisers, it is possible in
+  this case, as in others, not only to determine the source of each
+  individual passage, but also to trace with considerable confidence the
+  various stages in the process by which it reached its final form and
+  position. It must, however, be admitted that the evidence at our
+  disposal is, in some cases, capable of more than one interpretation.
+  Hence a final conclusion can hardly be expected, but with certain
+  modifications in detail the following solution of the problem may be
+  accepted as representing the point of view of recent criticism.
+
+  Ch. xix. contains two parallel accounts of the theophany on
+  Horeb-Sinai, from E and J respectively, which differ materially from
+  one another. According to the former, Moses is instructed by God
+  (Elohim) to sanctify the _people_ against the third day (vv. 9a, 10,
+  11a). This is done and the people are brought by Moses to the foot of
+  the mountain (Horeb), where they hear the divine voice (14-17, 19). A
+  noticeable feature of this narrative, of which xx. 18-21 forms a
+  natural continuation, is the fact that the theophany is addressed to
+  the _people_, who are too frightened to remain near the mountain
+  itself. In J, on the other hand, it is the _priests_ who are
+  sanctified, and great care must be taken to prevent the people from
+  "breaking through to gaze" (20-22). In this account the mountain is
+  called "Sinai" throughout, and "Yahweh" appears instead of "Elohim"
+  (11b, 18, 20 f.). Moreover, Moses and Aaron and the priests are
+  summoned to the top of the mount (in v. 24b render "thou and Aaron
+  with thee, and the priests: but let not the people," &c.). Vv. 3b-8,
+  which have been expanded by a Deuteronomic editor, have been
+  transferred from their original context after xx. 21; the introductory
+  verses 1, 2a form part of P's itinerary.
+
+  Of the succeeding legislation in xx.-xxiii., xxxii.-xxxiv.,
+  undoubtedly the earlier sections are xx. 22-26; xxii. 29, 30; xxiii.
+  10-19, and xxxiv. 10-26, which contain regulations with regard to
+  worship and religious festivals, and form the basis of the covenant
+  made by Yahweh with Israel on Sinai-Horeb, as recorded by E and J
+  respectively. The narrative which introduces the covenant laws of J
+  has been preserved partly in its present context, ch. xxxiv., partly
+  in xxiv. 1, 2, 9-11; the narrative of E, on the other hand, has in
+  part disappeared owing to the interpolation of later material, in part
+  has been retained in xxiv. 3-8. J's narrative xxiv. 1 f., 9-11 clearly
+  forms the continuation of xix. 20 f., 11b, 13, 25, but the
+  introductory words of v. 1, "and unto Moses he said," point to some
+  omission. Originally, no doubt, it included the recital of the divine
+  instructions to the people in accordance with xix. 21 f., 11b-13, the
+  statement that Yahweh came down on the third day, and that a long
+  blast was blown on the trumpet (or ram's horn [[Hebrew: yovel], as
+  opposed to [Hebrew: shofar] E]). From xxiv. 1 f. we learn that Moses
+  and Aaron, Nadab and Abihu, and seventy of the elders were summoned to
+  the top of the mountain, but that Moses alone was permitted to
+  approach Yahweh. Then followed the theophany, and, as the text stands,
+  the sacrificial meal (9-11).[5] The conclusion of J's narrative is
+  given in ch. xxxiv.,[6] which describes how Moses hewed two tables of
+  stone at Yahweh's command, and went up to the top of the mountain,
+  where he received the words of the covenant and wrote them on the
+  tables. As it stands, however, this chapter represents the legislation
+  which it contains as a renewal of a former covenant, also written on
+  tables of stone, which had been broken (1b, 4a). But the document from
+  which the chapter, as a whole, is derived, is certainly J, while the
+  previous references to tables of stone and to Moses' breaking them
+  belong to the parallel narrative of E. Moreover, the covenant here set
+  forth (v. 10 f.) is clearly a new one, and contains no hint of any
+  previous legislation, nor of any breach of it by the people. In view
+  of these facts we are forced to conclude that 1b ("like unto the first
+  ... brakest"), 4a ("and he hewed ... the first") and v. 28 ("the ten
+  words") formed no part of the original narrative,[7] but were inserted
+  by a later Deuteronomic redactor. In the view of this editor the
+  Decalogue alone formed the basis of the covenant at Sinai-Horeb, and
+  in order to retain J's version, he represented it as a renewal of the
+  tables of stone which Moses had broken.[8]
+
+  The legislation contained in xxxiv. 10-26, which may be described as
+  the oldest legal code of the Hexateuch, is almost entirely religious.
+  It prohibits the making of molten images (v. 17), the use of leaven in
+  sacrifices (25a), the retention of the sacrifice until the morning
+  (25b),[9] and the seething of a kid in its mother's milk (26b); and
+  enjoins the observance of the three annual feasts and the Sabbath
+  (18a, 21-23), and the dedication of the first-born (19, 20, derived
+  from xiii. 11-13) and of the first-fruits (26a).
+
+  The parallel collection of E is preserved in xx. 24-26, xxiii. 10-19,
+  to which we should probably add xxii. 29-31 (for which xxiii. 19a was
+  afterwards substituted). The two collections resemble one another so
+  closely, both in form and extent, that they can only be regarded as
+  two versions of the same code. E has, however, preserved certain
+  additional regulations with regard to the building of altars (xx.
+  24-26) and the observance of the seventh year (xxiii. 10, 11), and
+  omits the prohibition of molten images (xx. 22, 23, appear to be the
+  work of a redactor); xxiii. 20-33, the promises attached to the
+  observance of the covenant, probably formed no part of the original
+  code, but were added by the Deuteronomic redactor; cf. especially vv.
+  23-25a, 27, 28, 31b-33. The narrative of E relative to the delivery of
+  these laws has disappeared,[10] but xxiv. 3-8 (which manifestly have
+  no connexion with their immediate context) clearly point back to some
+  such narrative. These verses describe how Moses wrote all the words of
+  the Lord in a book and recited them to the _people_ (v. 7) as the
+  basis of a covenant, which was solemnly ratified by the sprinkling of
+  the blood of the accompanying sacrifices.
+
+  In the existing text the covenant laws of E (xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31,
+  xxiii. 10-19) are combined with a mass of civil and other legislation;
+  hence the title "Book of the Covenant" (referred to above, xxiv. 7)
+  has usually been applied to the whole section, xx. 22-xxiii. 33. But
+  this section includes three distinct elements: (a) the "words"
+  ([Hebrew: hadvarim]) found in xx. 24-26, xxii. 29-31, xxiii. 1-10; (b)
+  the "judgments" ([Hebrew: hamishpatim]), xxi. 2-xxii. 17; and (c) a
+  group of moral and ethical enactments, xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9; and an
+  examination of their contents makes it evident that, though the last
+  two groups are unmistakably derived from E, they cannot have formed
+  part of the original "Book of the Covenant"; for the "judgments,"
+  which are expressed in a hypothetical form, consist of a number of
+  legal decisions on points of civil law. The cases dealt with fall into
+  five divisions: (1) The rights of slaves, xxi. 2-11; (2) capital
+  offences, xxi. 12-16 (v. 17 has probably been added later); (3)
+  injuries inflicted by man or beast, xxi. 18-32; (4) losses incurred by
+  culpable negligence or theft, xxi. 33-xxii. 6; (5) cases arising out
+  of deposits, loans, seduction, xxii. 7-17. It is obvious, from their
+  very nature, that these legal precedents could not have been included
+  in the covenant which the _people_ (xxiv. 3) promised to observe, and
+  it is now generally admitted that the words "and the judgments"
+  (which are missing in c. 1 b) have been inserted in xxiv. 3a by the
+  redactor to whom the present position of the "judgments" is due.[11]
+  The majority of critics, therefore, adopt Kuenen's conjecture that the
+  "judgments" were originally delivered by Moses on the borders of Moab,
+  and that when D's revised version of Ex. xxi.-xxiii. was combined with
+  JE, the older code was placed alongside of E's other legislation at
+  Horeb. The third group of laws (xxii. 18-28, xxiii. 1-9) appears to
+  have been added somewhat later than the bulk of xxi.-xxiii. Some of
+  the regulations are couched in hypothetical form, but their contents
+  are of a different character to the "judgments," e.g. xxii. 25 f.,
+  xxiii. 4 f.; others, again, are of a similar nature, but differ in
+  form, e.g. xxii. 18 f. Lastly, xxii. 20-24, xxiii. 1-3 set forth a
+  number of moral injunctions affecting the individual, which cannot
+  have found place in a civil code. At the same time, these additions
+  must for the most part be prior to D, since many of them are included
+  in Deut. xii.-xxvi., though there are traces of Deuteronomic revision.
+
+  Now it is obvious that the results obtained by the foregoing analysis
+  of J and E have an important bearing on the history of the remaining
+  section of E's legislation, viz. the Decalogue (q.v.), Ex. xx. 1-17 (=
+  Deut. v. 6-21). At present the "Ten Words" stand in the forefront of
+  E's collection of laws, and it is evident that they were already found
+  in that position by the author of Deuteronomy, who treated them as the
+  sole basis of the covenant at Horeb. The evidence, however, afforded
+  (a) by the parallel version of Deuteronomy and (b) by the literary
+  analysis of J and E not only fails to support this tradition, but
+  excites the gravest suspicions as to the originality both of the
+  _form_ and of the _position_ in which the Decalogue now appears. For
+  when compared with Ex. xx. 1-17 the parallel version of Deut. v. 6 ff.
+  is found to exhibit a number of variations, and, in particular,
+  assigns an entirely different reason for the observance of the
+  Sabbath. But these variations are practically limited to the
+  explanatory comments attached to the 2nd, 4th, 5th and 10th
+  commandments; and the majority of critics are now agreed that these
+  comments were added at a later date, and that all the commandments,
+  like the 1st and the 6th to the 9th, were originally expressed in the
+  form of a single short sentence. This view is confirmed by the fact
+  that the additions, or comments, bear, for the most part, a close
+  resemblance to the style of D. They can scarcely, however, have been
+  transferred from Deuteronomy to Exodus (or vice versa), owing to the
+  variations between the two versions: we must rather regard them as the
+  work of a Deuteronomic redactor. But the expansion and revision of the
+  Decalogue were not limited to the Deuteronomic school. Literary traces
+  of J and E in the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 10th commandments point to earlier
+  activity on the part of R^JE, while the addition of v. 11, which bases
+  the observance of the Sabbath on P 's narrative of the Creation (Gen.
+  ii. 1-3), can only be ascribed to a priestly writer: its absence from
+  Deut. v. 6 ff. is otherwise inexplicable. Thus the Decalogue, as given
+  in Exodus, would seem to have passed through at least three stages
+  before it assumed its present form. But even in its original form it
+  could hardly have formed part of E's Horeb legislation; for (a) both J
+  and E have preserved a different collection of laws (or "words")
+  inscribed by Moses, which are definitely set forth as the basis of the
+  covenant at Sinai-Horeb (Ex. xxxiv. 10, xxiv. 3 f.), and (b) the
+  further legislation of E in ch. xx.-xxiii. affords close parallels to
+  all the commandments (except the 7th and the 10th), and a comparison
+  of the two leaves no doubt as to which is the more primitive. Hence we
+  can only conclude that the Decalogue, in its original short form, came
+  into existence during the period after the completion of E, but before
+  the promulgation of Deuteronomy. Its present position is, doubtless,
+  to be ascribed to a redactor who was influenced by the same conception
+  as the author of Deuteronomy. This redactor, however, did not limit
+  the Horeb covenant to the Decalogue, but retained E's legislation
+  alongside of it. The insertion of the Decalogue, or rather the point
+  of view which prompted its insertion, naturally involved certain
+  consequential changes of the existing text. The most important of
+  these, viz. the harmonistic additions to ch. xxxiv., by means of which
+  J's version of the covenant was represented as a renewal of the
+  Decalogue, has already been discussed; other passages which show
+  traces of similar revision are xxiv. 12-15a, 18b, and xxxiv. 1-6.
+
+  The confusion introduced into the legislation by later additions, with
+  the consequent displacement of earlier material, has not been without
+  effect on the narratives belonging to the different sources. Hence the
+  sequence of events after the completion of the covenant on Sinai-Horeb
+  is not always easy to trace, though indications are not wanting in
+  both J and E of the probable course of the history. The two main
+  incidents that precede the departure of the children of Israel from
+  the mountain (Num. x. 29 ff.) are (1) the sin of the people, and (2)
+  the intercession of Moses, of both of which a double account has been
+  preserved.
+
+  (1) _The Sin of the People._--According to J (xxxii. 25-29) the
+  people, during the absence of Moses, "break loose," i.e. mutiny. Their
+  behaviour excites the anger of Moses on his return, and in response to
+  his appeal the sons of Levi arm themselves and slay a large number of
+  the people: as a reward for their services they are bidden to
+  consecrate themselves to Yahweh. The fragmentary form of the
+  narrative--we miss especially a fuller account of the "breaking
+  loose"--is doubtless due to the latter editor, who substituted the
+  story of the golden calf (xxxii. 1-6, 15-24, 35), according to which
+  the sin of the people consisted in direct violation of the 2nd
+  commandment. At the instigation of the people Aaron makes a molten
+  calf out of the golden ornaments brought from Egypt; Moses and Joshua,
+  on their return to the camp, find the people holding festival in
+  honour of the occasion; Moses in his anger breaks the tables of the
+  covenant which he is carrying: he then demolishes the golden calf, and
+  administers a severe rebuke to Aaron. The punishment of the people is
+  briefly recorded in v. 35. This latter narrative, which is obviously
+  inconsistent with the story of J, shows unmistakable traces of E. In
+  its present form, however, it can hardly be original, but must have
+  been revised in accordance with the later Deuteronomic conception
+  which represented the sin committed by the people as a breach of the
+  2nd commandment. Possibly vv. 7-14 are also to be treated as a
+  Deuteronomic expansion (cf. Deut. ix. 12-14). Though they show clear
+  traces of J, it is extremely difficult to fit them into that narrative
+  in view of Moses' action in vv. 25-29 and of his intercession in ch.
+  xxxiii.; in any case, vv. 8 and 13 must be regarded as redactional.
+
+  (2) _Moses' Intercession._--The time for departure from the Sacred
+  Mount had now arrived, and Moses is accordingly bidden to lead the
+  people to the promised land. Yahweh himself refuses to accompany
+  Israel owing to their disobedience, but in response to Moses'
+  passionate appeal finally consents to let his presence go with them.
+  The account of Moses' intercession has been preserved in J, though the
+  narrative has undergone considerable dislocation. The true sequence of
+  the narrative appears to be as follows: Moses is commanded to lead the
+  people to Canaan (xxxiii. 1-3); he pleads that he is unequal to the
+  task (Num. xi. 10c, 11, 12, 14, 15), and, presumably, asks for
+  assistance, which is promised (omitted). Moses then asks for a fuller
+  knowledge of Yahweh and his ways (xxxiii. 12, 13): this request also
+  is granted (v. 17), and he is emboldened to pray that he may see the
+  glory of Yahweh; Yahweh replies that his prayer can only be granted in
+  part, for "man shall not see me and live"; a partial revelation is
+  then vouchsafed to Moses (xxxiii. 18-23, xxxiv. 6-8): finally, Moses
+  beseeches Yahweh to go in the midst of his people, and is assured that
+  Yahweh's presence shall accompany them (xxxiv. 9, xxxiii. 14-16). The
+  passage from Numbers xi., which is here included, is obviously out of
+  place in its present context (the story of the quails), and supplies
+  in part the necessary antecedent to Ex. xxxiii. 12, 13; the passage is
+  now separated from Ex. xxxiii. by Ex. xxxiv. (J), which has been
+  wrongly transferred to the close of the Horeb-Sinai incidents (see
+  above), and by the priestly legislation of Ex. xxxv.-xl., Leviticus
+  and Num. i.-x.; but originally it must have stood in close connexion
+  with that chapter. A similar displacement has taken place with regard
+  to Ex. xxxiv. 6-9, which clearly forms the sequel to xxxiii. 17-23.
+  The latter passage, however, can hardly represent the conclusion of
+  the interview, which is found more naturally in xxxiii. 14-16. E's
+  account of Moses' intercession seems to have been retained, in part,
+  in xxxii. 30-34, but the passage has probably been revised by a later
+  hand; in any case its position _before_ instead of _after_ the
+  dismissal would seem to be redactional.
+
+  It is a plausible conjecture that the original narratives of J and E
+  also contained directions for the construction of an ark,[12] as a
+  substitute for the personal presence of Yahweh, and also for the
+  erection of a "tent of meeting" outside the camp, and that these
+  commands were omitted by R^P in favour of the more elaborate
+  instructions given in ch. xxv.-xxix. (P). The subsequent narrative of
+  J (Num. x. 33-36, xiv. 44) implies an account of the making of the
+  ark, while the remarkable description in Ex. xxxiii. 7-11 (E) of
+  Moses' practice in regard to the "tent of meeting" points no less
+  clearly to some earlier statement as to the making of this tent.
+
+  The history of Exodus in its original form doubtless concluded with
+  the visit of Moses' father-in-law and the appointment of judges (ch.
+  xviii.), the departure from the mountain and the battle with Amalek
+  (xvii. 8-16).
+
+  (c) _The Construction of the Tabernacle and its Furniture_ (ch.
+  xxv.-xxxi., xxxv.-xl.).--It has long been recognized that the
+  elaborate description of the Tabernacle and its furniture, and the
+  accompanying directions for the dress and consecration of the priests,
+  contained in ch. xxv.-xxxi., have no claim to be regarded as an
+  historical presentment of the Mosaic Tabernacle and its service. The
+  language, style and contents of this section point unmistakably to the
+  hand of P; and it is now generally admitted that these chapters form
+  part of an ideal representation of the post-exilic ritual system,
+  which has been transferred to the Mosaic age. According to this
+  representation, Moses, on the seventh day after the conclusion of the
+  covenant, was summoned to the top of the mountain, and there received
+  instructions with regard to (a) the furniture of the sanctuary, viz.
+  the ark, the table and the lamp-stand (ch. xxv.); (b) the Tabernacle
+  (ch. xxvi.); (c) the court of the Tabernacle and the altar of
+  burnt-offering (ch. xxvii.); (d) the dress of the priests (ch.
+  xxviii.); (e) the consecration of Aaron and his sons (xxix. 1-37); and
+  (f) the daily burnt-offering (xxix. 38-42): the section ends with a
+  formal conclusion (xxix. 43-46). The two following chapters contain
+  further instructions relative to the altar of incense (xxx. 1-10), the
+  payment of the half-shekel (11-16), the brazen laver (17-21), the
+  anointing oil (22-33), the incense (34-38), the appointment of
+  Bezaleel and Oholiab (xxxi. 1-11) and the observance of the Sabbath
+  (12-17). It is hardly doubtful, however, that these two chapters
+  formed no part of P's original legislation, but were added by a later
+  hand.[13] For (1) the altar of incense is here mentioned for the first
+  time, and was apparently unknown to the author of ch. xxv.-xxix. Had
+  he known of its existence, he could hardly have failed to include it
+  with the rest of the Tabernacle furniture in ch. xxvi., and must have
+  mentioned it at xxvi. 34 f., where the relative positions of the
+  contents of the Tabernacle are defined: further, the ritual of the Day
+  of Atonement (Lev. xvi. referred to in xxx. 10) ignores this altar,
+  and mentions only _one_ altar (cf. "_the_ altar," xxvii. 1), viz. that
+  of burnt-offering; (2) the command as to the half-shekel presupposes
+  the census of Num. i., and appears to have been unknown in the time of
+  Nehemiah (Neh. x. 32) (Heb. 33); (3) the instructions as to the brazen
+  laver would naturally be expected alongside of those for the altar of
+  burnt-offering in ch. xxvii.; (4) the following section relating to
+  the anointing oil presupposes the altar of incense (v. 28), and
+  further extends the ceremony of anointing to Aaron's sons, though,
+  elsewhere, the ceremony is confined to Aaron (xxix. 7, Lev. viii. 12),
+  cf. the title "anointed priest" applied to the high priest (Lev. iv.
+  3, &c.); (5) the directions for compounding the incense connect
+  naturally with xxx. 1-10, while (6) the appointment of Bezaleel and
+  Oholiah cannot be separated from the rest of ch. xxx.-xxxi. The
+  concluding section on the Sabbath (xxxi. 12-17) shows marks of
+  resemblance to H (Lev. xvii.-xxvi.), especially in vv. 12-14a, which
+  appear to have been expanded, very possibly by the editor who inserted
+  the passage. The continuation of P's narrative is given in xxxiv.
+  29-35, which describe Moses' return from the mount. The subsequent
+  chapters (xxxv.-xl.), however, can hardly belong to the original
+  stratum of P, if only because they presuppose ch. xxx., xxxi., and
+  were probably added at a later stage than the latter chapters. They
+  narrate how the commands of ch. xxv.-xxxi. were carried out, and
+  practically repeat the earlier chapters _verbatim_, merely the tenses
+  being changed, the most noticeable omissions being xxvii. 20 f. (oil
+  for the lamps), xxviii. 30 (Urim and Thummim), xxix. 1-37 (the
+  consecration of the priests, which recurs in Lev. viii.) and xxix.
+  38-42 (the daily burnt-offering). Apart from the omissions the most
+  striking difference between the two sections is the variation in
+  order, the different sections of ch. xxv.-xxxi. being here set forth
+  in their natural sequence. The secondary character of these concluding
+  chapters receives considerable confirmation from a comparison of the
+  Septuagint text. For this version exhibits numerous cases of
+  variation, both as regards _order_ and _contents_, from the Hebrew
+  text; moreover the translation, more particularly of many technical
+  terms, differs from that of ch. xxv.-xxxi., and seems to be the work
+  of different translators. Hence it is by no means improbable that the
+  final recension of these chapters had not been completed when the
+  Alexandrine version was made.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--In addition to the various English and German
+  commentaries on Exodus included under the head of the Pentateuch, the
+  following English works are especially worthy of mention: S.R. Driver,
+  _Introd. to the Literature of the O.T._, and "Exodus" in the _Camb.
+  Bible_; B.W. Bacon, _The Triple Tradition of the Exodus_ (Hartford,
+  U.S.A., 1894), and A.H. McNeile, _The Book of Exodus_ (Westminster
+  Commentaries) (1908); also the articles on "Exodus" by G.
+  Harford-Battersby (Hastings, _Dict. Bib._ vol. i.) and by G.F. Moore,
+  _Ency. Biblica_, vol. ii.     (J. F. St.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The fact that the father-in-law of Moses is called Reuel in v.
+    18, as contrasted with the name Jethro, which occurs in iii. 1 f. and
+    in all subsequent passages from E, cannot be taken as conclusive on
+    this point, since critics are agreed that "Reuel" in this verse is a
+    later addition: had it been original we should have expected the name
+    to be given at v. 16 rather than at v. 18. But, if no argument can be
+    based on the discrepancy between the two names, we may at least
+    assume that the namelessness of the priest in v. 16 f. points to a
+    different source for those verses from that of iii. 1 f. Elsewhere J
+    speaks of "Hobab, the son of Reuel the Midianite, Moses'
+    father-in-law" (Num. x. 29); the addition, "the priest of Midian,"
+    only occurs in the (secondary) passages iii. 1, xviii. 1 (E).
+    Probably RJE omitted the name in ii. 16 and added "the priest of
+    Midian" in iii. 1, xviii 1, from harmonizing motives. Further, vv.
+    15^B-22 speak of _one_ son being born to Moses at this period, a
+    statement which is borne out by iv. 20, 25 ("sons" in iv. 20 is
+    obviously a correction), whereas ch. xviii. (E) mentions _two_ sons.
+
+    The original order of events in J seems to have been as follows:
+    after the death of Pharaoh (ii. 23a; the Septuagint repeats this
+    notice before iv. 19) Moses returns to Egypt with his wife and son
+    (iv. 19, 20) in obedience to Yahweh's command. On the way he is
+    seized with a sudden illness, which Zipporah attributes to the fact
+    that he has not been circumcised and seeks to avert by circumcising
+    her son (iv. 24-26). The scene of the theophany, therefore, according
+    to J, is to be placed on the way from Midian to Goshen. Probably the
+    displacement of iv. 19, 20, 24-26 is due to the editor of JE, who was
+    thus enabled to combine the two narratives of the theophany.
+
+  [2] Cf. iv. 30; Aaron had received no command to do the signs, and
+    the words "and he did the signs" are most naturally referred to
+    Moses.
+
+  [3] The expansion in iii. 8c, 15, 17b; iv. 22, 23, are probably the
+    work of a Deuteronomistic redactor.
+
+  [4] The genealogy of Moses and Aaron (vv. 14-27) appears to be a
+    later addition.
+
+  [5] Unless we follow Riedel and read simply "and worshipped"
+    ([Hebrew: vaishtahavu]) instead of "and drank" ([Hebrew: vaishtu]),
+    treating "and ate" ([Hebrew: vaiohlu]) as a later addition; cf. HDB,
+    extra vol. p. 631 note.
+
+  [6] Vv. 6-9 are out of place here: they belong to the story of Moses'
+    intercession in ch. xxxiii.
+
+  [7] This view is confirmed by (a) a comparison of v. lb ("and I will
+    write") with vv. 27, 28; according to the latter, _Moses_ wrote the
+    words of the covenant; and (b) the tardy mention of Moses in 4b; the
+    name would naturally be given at the beginning of the verse.
+
+  [8] Others suppose that the present position of ch. xxxiv. is due, in
+    the first instance, to RJE, but in view of the other Deuteronomic
+    expansions in vv. 10b-16, 23, 24, it is more probable that J's
+    version was discarded by RJE in favour of E's, and was afterwards
+    restored by RD.
+
+  [9] Reading "the sacrifice of my feasts" for "the sacrifice of the
+    feast of the Passover."
+
+  [10] Unless, with Bacon, we are to regard xxiv. 12-14, 18b as
+    original. More probably a later editor has worked up old material of
+    E (of which there are unmistakable traces) in order to include the
+    whole of xx.-xxiii. in the covenant: xxiv. 15-18a are an addition
+    from P.
+
+  [11] The present text of xxiv. 12 also has probably been transposed
+    in accordance with the view that the "judgment" formed part of the
+    covenant, cf. Deut. v. 31. Originally the latter part of the verse
+    must have run, "That I may give thee the tables of stone which I have
+    written, and may teach thee the law and the commandment." For further
+    details see Bacon, _Triple Tradition of Exodus_, pp. 111 f., 132 f.
+
+  [12] According to Deut. x. 1 f., which is in the main a _verbal_
+    excerpt from Ex. xxxiv. 1 f., Yahweh ordered Moses to make an ark of
+    acacia wood _before_ he ascended the mountain.
+
+  [13] To the same hand are to be ascribed also xxvii. 6, 20, 21;
+    xxviii. 41; xxix. 21, 38-41.
+
+
+
+
+EXODUS, THE, the name given to the journey (Gr. [Greek: exodos]) of the
+Israelites from Egypt into Palestine, under the leadership of Moses and
+Aaron, as described in the books of the Bible from Exodus to Joshua.
+These books contain the great national epic of Judaism relating the
+deliverance of the people from bondage in Egypt, the overthrow of the
+pursuing Pharaoh and his army, the divinely guided wanderings through
+the wilderness and the final entry into the promised land. Careful
+criticism of the narratives[3] has resulted in the separation of later
+accretions from the earliest records, and the tracing of the elaboration
+of older traditions under the influence of developing religious and
+social institutions. In the story of the Exodus there have been
+incorporated codes of laws and institutions which were to be observed by
+the descendants of the Israelites in their future home, and these,
+really of later origin, have thus been thrown back to the earlier period
+in order to give them the stamp of authority. So, although a certain
+amount of the narrative _could_ date from the days of Moses, the Exodus
+story has been made the vehicle for the aims and ideals of subsequent
+ages, and has been adapted from time to time to the requirements of
+later stages of thought. The work of criticism has brought to light
+important examples of fluctuating tradition, singular lacunae in some
+places and unusual wealth of tradition in others, and has demonstrated
+that much of that which had long been felt to be impossible and
+incredible was due to writers of the post-exilic age many centuries
+after the presumed date of the events.
+
+The book of Genesis closes with the migration of Jacob's family into
+Egypt to escape the famine in Canaan. Jacob died and was buried in
+Canaan by his sons, who, however, returned again to the pastures which
+the Egyptian king had granted them in Goshen. Their brother Joseph on
+his death-bed promised that God would bring them to the land promised to
+their forefathers and solemnly adjured them to carry up his bones (Gen.
+1.). In the book of Exodus the family has become a people.[2] The
+Pharaoh is hostile, and Yahweh, the Israelite deity, is moved to send a
+deliverer; on the events that followed see EXODUS, BOOK OF; MOSES. It
+has been thought that dynastic changes occasioned the change in Egyptian
+policy (e.g. the expulsion of the Hyksos), but if the Israelites built
+Rameses and Pithom (Ex. i. 11), cities which, as excavation has shown,
+belong to the time of Rameses II. (13th century B.C.), earlier dates are
+inadmissible. On these grounds the Exodus may have taken place under one
+of his successors, and since Mineptah or Merneptah (son of Rameses), in
+relating his successes in Palestine, boasts that _Ysiraal_ is desolated,
+it would seem that the Israelites had already returned. On the other
+hand, it has been suggested that when Jacob and his family entered
+Egypt, some Israelite tribes had remained behind and that it is to these
+that Mineptah's inscription refers. The problem is complicated by the
+fact that, from the Egyptian evidence, not only was there at this time
+no remarkable emigration of oppressed Hebrews, but Bedouin tribes were
+then receiving permission to enter Egypt and to feed their flocks upon
+Egyptian soil. It might be assumed that the Israelites (or at least
+those who had not remained behind in Palestine) effected their departure
+at a somewhat later date, and in the time of Mineptah's successor, Seti
+II., there is an Egyptian report of the pursuit of some fugitive slaves
+over the eastern frontier. The value of all such evidence will naturally
+depend largely upon the estimate formed of the biblical narratives, but
+it is necessary to observe that these have not yet found Egyptian
+testimony to support them. Although the information which has been
+brought to bear upon Egyptian life and customs substantiates the general
+accuracy of the local colouring in some of the biblical narratives, the
+latter contain several inherent improbabilities, and whatever future
+research may yield, no definite trace of Egyptian influence has so far
+been found in Israelite institutions.
+
+  No allusions to Israelites in Egypt have yet been found on the
+  monuments; against the view that the Aperiu (or Apury) of the
+  inscriptions were Hebrews, see S.R. Driver in D.G. Hogarth, _Authority
+  and Archaeology_, pp. 56 sqq.; H.W. Hogg, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1310. The
+  plagues of Egypt have been shown to be those to which the land is
+  naturally subject (R. Thomson, _Plagues of Egypt_), but the
+  description of the relations of Moses and Aaron to the court raises
+  many difficult questions (H.P. Smith, _O.T. Hist._ pp. 57-60). Those
+  who reject Ex. i. 11 and hold that 480 years elapsed between the
+  Exodus and the foundation of the temple (I Kings vi. 1, see BIBLE:
+  Chronology) place the former about the time of Tethmosis (Thothmes)
+  III., and suppose that the hostile Habiri (Khabiri) who troubled
+  Palestine in the 15th century are no other than Hebrews (the equation
+  is philologically sound), i.e. the invading Israelites.[3] But
+  although the evidence of the Amarna tablets might thus support the
+  biblical tradition in its barest outlines, the view in question, if
+  correct, would necessitate the rejection of a great mass of the
+  biblical narratives as a whole.
+
+In the absence of external evidence the study of the Exodus of the
+Israelites must be based upon the Israelite records, and divergent or
+contradictory views must be carefully noticed. Regarded simply as a
+journey from Egypt into Palestine it is the most probable of
+occurrences: the difficulty arises from the actual narratives. The first
+stage is the escape from the land of Goshen (q.v.), the district
+allotted to the family of Jacob (Gen. xlvi. 28-34, xlvii. 1, 4, 6).[4]
+As to the route taken across the Red Sea (_Yam Suph_) scholars are not
+agreed (see W.M. Muller, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1436 sqq.); it depends upon
+the view held regarding the second stage of the journey, the road to the
+mountain of Sinai or Horeb and thence to Kadesh. The last-mentioned
+place is identified with Ain Kadis, about 50 m. south of Beersheba; but
+the identification of the mountain is uncertain, and it is possible that
+tradition confused two distinct places. According to one favourite view,
+the journey was taken across the Sinaitic peninsula to Midian, the home
+of Jethro. Others plead strongly for the traditional site Jebel Musa or
+Serbal in the south of the peninsula (see J.R. Harris, _Dict. Bible_,
+iv. pp. 536 sqq.; H. Winckler, _Ency. Bib._ col. 4641). The latter view
+implies that the oppressed Israelites left Egypt for one of its
+dependencies, and both theories find only conjectural identifications in
+the various stations recorded in Num. xxxiii. But this list of forty
+names, corresponding to the years of wandering, is from a post-exilic
+source, and may be based merely upon a knowledge of caravan-routes; even
+if it be of older origin, it is of secondary value since it represents a
+tradition differing notably from that in the earlier narratives
+themselves, and these on inspection confirm Judg. xi. 16 seq., where the
+Israelites proceed immediately to Kadesh.
+
+  Ex. xvi.-xviii. presuppose a settled encampment and a law-giving, and
+  thus belong to a stage _after_ Sinai had been reached (Ex. xix. sqq.).
+  They are closely related, as regards subject matter, &c., to the
+  narratives in Num. x. 29-xi., xx. 1-13 (Sinai to Kadesh), and the
+  initial step is the recognition that the latter is their original
+  context (see G.F. Moore, _Ency. Bib._ col. 1443 v). Further, internal
+  peculiarities associating events now at Sinai-Horeb with those at
+  Kadesh support the view that Kadesh was their true scene, and it is to
+  be noticed that in Ex. xv. 22 seq. the Israelites already reach the
+  wilderness of Shur and accomplish the three days' journey which had
+  been their original aim (cf. Ex. iii. 18, v. 3, viii. 27). The
+  wilderness of Shur (Gen. xvi. 7, xx. 1; 1 Sam. xv. 7, xxvii. 8) is the
+  natural scene of conflicts with Amalekites (Ex. xvii. 8 sqq.), and its
+  sanctuary of Kadesh or En Mishpat ("well of judgment," Gen. xiv. 7)
+  was doubtless associated with traditions of the giving of statutes and
+  ordinances. The detour to Sinai-Horeb appears to belong to a later
+  stage of the tradition, and is connected with the introduction of laws
+  and institutions of relatively later form. It is foreshadowed by the
+  injunction to avoid the direct way into Palestine (see Ex. xiii.
+  17-19), since on reaching Kadesh the Israelites would be within reach
+  of hostile tribes, and the conflicts which it was proposed to avoid
+  actually ensued.[5] The forty years of wandering in the wilderness is
+  characteristic of the Deuteronomic and post-exilic narratives; in the
+  earlier sources the fruitful oasis of Kadesh is the centre, and even
+  after the tradition of a detour to Sinai-Horeb was developed, only a
+  brief period is spent at the holy mountain.
+
+From Kadesh spies were sent into Palestine, and when the people were
+dismayed at their tidings and incurred the wrath of Yahweh, the penalty
+of the forty years' delay was pronounced (Num. xiii. seq.). Originally
+Caleb alone was exempt and for his faith received a blessing; later
+tradition adds Joshua and in Deut. i. 37 seq. alludes to some unknown
+offence of Moses. According to Num. xxi. 1-3 the Israelites (a
+generalizing amplification) captured Hormah, on the way to Beersheba,
+and subsequently the clan Caleb and the Kenites (the clan of Moses'
+father-in-law) are found in Judah (Judg. i. 16). Although the traditions
+regard their efforts as part of a common movement (from Gilgal, see
+below), it is more probable that these (notably Caleb) escaped the
+punishment which befell the rest of the Israelites, and made their way
+direct from Kadesh into the south of Palestine.[6] On the other hand,
+according to the prevailing tradition, the attempt to break northwards
+was frustrated by a defeat at Hormah (Num. xiv. 40-45), an endeavour to
+pass Edom failed, and the people turned back to the _Yam Suph_ (here at
+the head of the Gulf of Akabah) and proceeded up to the east of Edom and
+Moab. Conflicting views are represented (on which see MOAB), but at
+length Shittim was reached and preparations were made to cross the
+Jordan into the promised land. This having been effected, Gilgal became
+the base for a series of operations in which the united tribes took
+part. But again the representations disagree, and to the overwhelming
+campaigns depicted in the book of Joshua most critics prefer the account
+of the more gradual process as related in the opening chapter of the
+book of Judges (see JEWS: _History_, S 8).
+
+Thus, whatever evidence may be supplied by archaeological research, the
+problem of the Exodus must always be studied in the light of the
+biblical narratives. That the religious life of Israel as portrayed
+therein dates from this remote period cannot be maintained against the
+results of excavation or against the later history, nor can we picture a
+united people in the desert when subsequent vicissitudes represent the
+union as the work of many years, and show that it lasted for a short
+time only under David and Solomon. During the centuries in which the
+narratives were taking shape many profound changes occurred to affect
+the traditions. Developments associated with the Deuteronomic reform and
+the reorganization of Judaism in post-exilic days can be unmistakably
+recognized, and it would be unsafe to assume that other vicissitudes
+have not also left their mark. Allowance must be made for the shifting
+of boundaries or of spheres of influence (Egypt, Edom, Moab), for the
+incorporation of tribes and of their own tribal traditions, and in
+particular for other movements (e.g. from Arabia).[7] If certain clans
+moved direct from Kadesh into Judah, it is improbable that others made
+the lengthy detour from Kadesh by the Gulf of Akabah, but this may well
+be an attempt to fuse the traditions of two distinct migrations. Among
+the Joseph-tribes (Ephraim and Manasseh), the most important of
+Israelite divisions, the traditions of an ancestor who had lived and
+died in Egypt would be a cherished possession, but although most writers
+agree that not all the tribes were in Egypt, it is impossible to
+determine their number with any certainty. At certain periods,
+intercourse with Egypt was especially intimate, and there is much in
+favour of the view that the name Mizraim (Egypt) extended beyond the
+borders of Egypt proper. Reference has already been made to other cases
+of geographical vagueness, and one must recognize that in a body of
+traditions such as this there was room for the inclusion of the most
+diverse elements which it is almost hopeless to separate, in view of the
+scantiness of relevant evidence from other sources, and the literary
+intricacy of the extant narratives. That many different beliefs have
+influenced the tradition is apparent from what has been said above, and
+is especially noticeable from a study of the general features. Thus,
+although the Israelites possessed cattle (Ex. xvii. 3, xix. 13, xxiv. 5,
+xxxii. 6, xxxiv. 3; Num. xx. 19), allusion is made to their lack of meat
+in order to magnify the wonders of the journey, and among divinely sent
+aids to guide and direct the people upon the march not only does Moses
+require the assistance of a _human_ helper (Jethro or Hobab), but the
+angel, the ark, the pillar of cloud and of fire and the mysterious
+hornet are also provided.
+
+  In addition to the references already given, see J.W. Colenso,
+  _Pentateuch and Book of Joshua_ (on internal difficulties); A.
+  Jeremias, _Alte Test. im Lichte d. alt. Orients_[2] (pp. 402 sqq., on
+  later references in Manetho, &c., with which cf. also R.H. Charles,
+  _Jubilees_, p. 245 seq.); art. "Exodus" in _Ency. Bib._; Ed. Meyer,
+  _Israeliten_ (_passim_); Bonhoff, _Theolog. Stud. u. Krit._ (1907),
+  pp. 159-217; the histories of Israel and commentaries on the book of
+  Exodus. Among the numerous special works, mention may be made of G.
+  Ebers, _Durch Gosen zum Sinai_; E.H. Palmer, _Desert of the Exodus_;
+  O.A. Toffteen, _The Historic Exodus_; fuller information is given in
+  L.B. Paton, _Hist. of Syria and Palestine_, p. 34 (also ch. viii.);
+  and C.F. Kent, _Beginnings of Heb. Hist._ p. 355 seq.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] See the articles on the books in question.
+
+  [2] There is a lacuna between the oldest traditions in Genesis and
+    those in Exodus: the latter beginning simply "and there arose a new
+    king over Egypt which knew not Joseph." The interval between Jacob's
+    arrival in Egypt and the Exodus is given varyingly as 400 or 430
+    years (Gen. xv. 13, Ex. xii. 40 seq., Acts vii. 6); but the Samaritan
+    and Septuagint versions allow only 215 years (Ex. loc. cit.), and a
+    period of only four generations is presupposed in Gen. xv. 16 (cf.
+    the length of the genealogies between the contemporaries of Joseph
+    and those of Moses in Ex. vi. 16-20).
+
+  [3] Sec, e.g., J. Orr, _Problem of the O.T._ pp. 422 sqq.; Ed. Meyer,
+    _Die Israeliten_, pp. 222 sqq. Some, too, find in the Amarna tablets
+    the historical background for Joseph's high position at the Egyptian
+    court (see Cheyne, _Ency. Bib._ art. "Joseph").
+
+  [4] For the varying traditions regarding the number of the people and
+    their residence (whether settled apart, cf., e.g., Gen. xlvi. 34, Ex.
+    viii. 22, ix. 26, x. 23, or in the midst of the Egyptians) see the
+    recent commentaries.
+
+  [5] See further J. Wellhausen, _Prolegomena_, pp. 342 sqq.; G.F.
+    Moore, Ency. Bib. col. 1443; S.A. Cook, _Jew. Quart. Rev._ (1906),
+    pp. 741 sqq. (1907), p. 122, and art. MOSES. Ex. xiii. 17-19 forbids
+    the compromise which would place Sinai-Horeb in the neighbourhood of
+    Kadesh (A.E. Haynes, _Pal. Explor. Fund, Quart. Statem._ (1896), pp.
+    175 sqq.; C.F. Kent [see _Lit._ below], p. 381).
+
+  [6] So B. Stade, Steuernagel, Guthe, G.F. Moore, H.P. Smith, C.F.
+    Kent, &c. See CALEB; JERAHMEEL; JUDAH; KENITES; LEVITES; and JEWS:
+    _History_, SS 5, 20 (end).
+
+  [7] An instructive parallel to the last-mentioned is afforded by
+    Dissard's account of the migration of Arab tribes into Palestine in
+    the 18th century A.D. (_Revue biblique_, July 1905).
+
+
+
+
+EXOGAMY (Gr. [Greek: exo], outside; and [Greek: gamos], marriage), the
+term proposed by J.F. McLennan for the custom compelling marriage "out
+of the tribe" (or rather "out of the totem"); its converse is endogamy
+(q.v.). McLennan would find an explanation of exogamy in the prevalence
+of female infanticide, which, "rendering women scarce, led at once to
+polyandry within the tribe, and the capturing of women from without."
+Infanticide of girls is, and no doubt ever has been, a very common
+practice among savages, and for obvious reasons. Among tribes in a
+primitive stage of social organization girl-children must always have
+been a hindrance and a source of weakness. They had to be fed and yet
+they could not take part in the hunt for food, and they offered a
+temptation to neighbouring tribes. Infanticide, however, is not proved
+to have been so universal as McLennan suggests, and it is more probable
+that the reason of exogamy is really to be found in that primitive
+social system which made the "captured" woman the only wife in the
+modern sense of the term. In the beginnings of human society children
+were related only to their mother; and the women of a tribe were common
+property. Thus no man might appropriate any female or attempt to
+maintain proprietary rights over her. With women of other tribes it
+would be different, and a warrior who captured a woman would doubtless
+pass unchallenged in his claim to possess her absolutely. Infanticide,
+the evil physical effects of "in-and-in" breeding, the natural strength
+of the impulse to possess on the man's part, and the greater feeling of
+security and a tendency to family life and affections on the woman's,
+would combine to make exogamy increase and marriages within the tribe
+decrease. A natural impulse would in a few generations tend to become a
+law or a custom, the violation of which would be looked on with horror.
+Physical capture, too, as soon as increasing civilization and tribal
+intercommunication removed the necessity for violence, became symbolic
+of the more permanent and individual relations of the sexes. An
+additional explanation of the prevalence of exogamy may be found in the
+natural tendency of exogamous tribes to increase in numbers and strength
+at the expense of those communities which moved towards decadence by
+in-breeding. Thus tradition would harden into a prejudice, strong as a
+principle of religion, and exogamy would become the inviolable custom it
+is found to be among many races. In Australia, Sir G. Grey writes: "One
+of the most remarkable facts connected with the natives is that they are
+divided into certain great families, all the members of which bear the
+same name ... these family names are common over a great portion of the
+continent and a man cannot marry a woman of his own family name." In
+eastern Africa, Sir R. Burton says: "The Somal will not marry one of the
+same, or even of a consanguineous family," and the Bakalahari have the
+same rule. Paul B. du Chaillu found exogamy the rule and blood marriages
+regarded as an abomination throughout western Equatorial Africa. In
+India the Khasias, Juangs, Waralis, Otaons, Hos and other tribes are
+strictly exogamous. The Kalmucks are divided into hordes, and no man may
+marry a woman of the same horde. Circassians and Samoyedes have similar
+rules. The Ostiaks regard endogamy (marriage within the clan) as a
+crime, as do the Yakuts of Siberia. Among the Indians of America severe
+rules prescribing exogamy prevail. The Tsimsheean Indians of British
+Columbia are divided into tribes and totems, or "crests which are
+common to all the tribes," says one writer. "The crests are the whale,
+the porpoise, the eagle, the coon, the wolf and the frog.... The
+relationship existing between persons of the same crest is nearer than
+that between members of the same tribe.... Members of the same tribe may
+marry, but those of the same crest are not allowed to under any
+circumstances; that is, a whale may not marry a whale, but a whale may
+marry a frog, &c." The Thlinkeets, the Mayas of Yucatan and the Indians
+of Guiana are exogamous, observing a custom which is thus seen to exist
+throughout Africa, in Siberia, China, India, Polynesia and the Americas.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--J.F. McLennan, _Primitive Marriage_ (1865), and _Studies
+  in Anc. Hist._ (1896); Lord Avebury, _Origin of Civilization_ (1902);
+  Westermarck, _History of Human Marriage_ (1894); A. Lang, _Social
+  Origins_ (1903); L.H. Morgan, _Ancient Society_ (1877); J.G. Frazer,
+  _Totemism and Exogamy_ (1910); see also TOTEM.
+
+
+
+
+EXORCISM (Gr. [Greek: exorkizein], to conjure out), the expulsion of
+evil spirits from persons or places by incantations, magical rites or
+other means. As a corollary of the animistic theory of diseases and of
+belief in Possession (q.v.), we find widely spread customs whose object
+is to get rid of the evil influences. These customs may take the form of
+a general expulsion of evils, either once a year or at irregular
+intervals; the evils, which are often regarded as spirits, sometimes as
+the souls of the dead, may be expelled, according to primitive
+philosophy, either immediately by spells, purifications or some form of
+coercion; or they may be put on the back of a scapegoat or other
+material vehicle. Among the means of compelling the evil spirits are
+assaults with warlike weapons or sticks, the noise of musical
+instruments or of the human voice, the use of masks, the invocation of
+more powerful good spirits, &c.; both fire and water are used to drive
+them out, and the use of iron is a common means of holding them at bay.
+
+The term exorcism is applied more especially to the freeing of an
+individual from a possessing or disease-causing spirit; the means
+adopted are frequently the same as those mentioned above; in the East
+Indies the sufferer sometimes dances round a small ship, into which the
+spirit passes and is then set adrift. The patient may be beaten or means
+may be employed whose efficiency depends largely on their suggestive
+nature. Among the Dakota Indians the medicine-man chants _hi-le-li-lah!_
+at the bed of the sick man and accompanies his chant with the rattle; he
+then sucks at the affected part till the possessing spirit is supposed
+to come out and take its flight, when men fire guns at it from the door
+of the tent. The Zulus believe that they can get rid of the souls of the
+dead, which cause diseases, by sacrifices of cattle, or by expostulating
+with the spirits; so too the _shaman_ or magician in other parts of the
+world offers the possessing spirit objects or animals.
+
+The professional exorcist was known among the Jews; in Greece the art
+was practised by women, and it is recorded that the mothers of Epicurus
+and Aeschines belonged to this class; both were bitterly reproached, the
+one by the Stoics, the other by Demosthenes, with having taken part in
+the practices in question. The prominence of exorcism in the early ages
+of the Christian church appears from its frequent mention in the
+writings of the fathers, and by the 3rd century there was an order of
+exorcists (see EXORCIST). The ancient rite of exorcism in connexion with
+baptism is still retained in the Roman ritual, as is also a form of
+service for the exorcising of possessed persons. The exorcist signs the
+possessed person with the figure of the cross, desires him to kneel, and
+sprinkles him with holy water; after which the exorcist asks the devil
+his name, and abjures him by the holy mysteries of the Christian
+religion not to afflict the person possessed any more. Then, laying his
+right hand on the demoniac's head, he repeats the form of exorcism as
+follows: "I exorcise thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ;
+tremble, O Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind, who hast
+brought death into the world, who hast deprived men of life, and hast
+rebelled against justice, thou seducer of mankind, thou root of evil,
+thou source of avarice, discord and envy." Houses and other places
+supposed to be haunted by unclean spirits are likewise to be exorcised
+with similar rites, and in general exorcism has a place in all the
+ceremonies for consecrating and blessing persons or things (see
+BENEDICTION).
+
+  See Tylor, _Primitive Culture_; Skeat, _Malay Magic_, p. 427 seq.;
+  Frazer, _Golden Bough_, vol. iii. 189; Krafft, _Ausfuhrliche Historie
+  von Exorcismus_; Koldeweg, _Der Exorcismus im Herzogthum
+  Braunschweig_; Brecher, _Das Transcendentale, Magie, etc. im Talmud_,
+  pp. 195-203: _Zeitschr. fur Assyriologie_ (Dec. 1893, April 1894);
+  Herzog, _Realencykl., s.v._ "Exorcismus"; Waldmeier, _Autobiography_,
+  p. 64; L.W. King, _Babylonian Magic_; Maury, _La Magie_; R.C.
+  Thompson, _Devils and Evil Spirits of Babylonia_.
+
+
+
+
+EXORCIST (Lat. _exorcista_, Gr. [Greek: exorkistes]), in the Roman
+Catholic church, the third grade in the minor orders of the clergy,
+between those of acolyte and reader. The office, which involves the
+right of ceremonially exorcising devils (see Exorcism), is actually no
+more than a preliminary stage of the priesthood. The earliest record of
+the special ordination of exorcists is the 7th canon of the council of
+Carthage (A.D. 256). "When they are ordained," it runs, "they receive
+from the hand of the bishop a little book in which the exorcisms are
+written, receiving power to lay hands on the _energumeni_, whether
+baptized or catechumens." Whatever its present position, the office of
+exorcist was, until comparatively recent times, by no means considered a
+sinecure. "The exorcist a terror to demons" (Paulinus, _Epist._ 24)
+survived the Reformation among Protestants, with the belief, expressed
+by Firmilianus in his epistle to St Cyprian, that "through the
+exorcists, by the voice of man and the power of God, the devil may be
+whipped, and burnt and tortured."
+
+
+
+
+EXOTIC (Gr. [Greek: exotikos], foreign, from [Greek: exo], outside), of
+foreign origin, or belonging to another country. The term is now used in
+the restricted sense of something not indigenous or native, and is
+mostly applied to plants introduced from foreign countries, which have
+not become acclimatized. Figuratively, "exotic" is used to convey the
+sense of something rare, delicate or extravagant.
+
+
+
+
+EXPATRIATION (from Late Lat. _expatriare_, to exile, and _patria_,
+native land), a term used in a general sense for the banishment of a
+person from his own country. In international law expatriation is the
+renunciation or change of allegiance to one's native or adopted country.
+It may take place either by a voluntary act or by operation of law. Some
+countries, as France and England, disclaim their subjects if they become
+naturalized in another country, others, again, passively permit
+expatriation whether a new nationality has been acquired or not; others,
+as Germany, make expatriation the consequence of continued absence from
+their territory. (See ALIEN; ALLEGIANCE; NATURALIZATION.)
+
+
+
+
+EXPERT (Lat. _expertus_, from _experiri_, to try), strictly, skilled, or
+one who has special knowledge; as used in law, an expert is a person,
+selected by a court, or adduced by a party to a cause, to give his
+opinion on some point in issue with which he is peculiarly conversant.
+In Roman law questions of disputed handwriting were referred to experts;
+and in France, whenever the court considers that a report by experts is
+necessary, it is ordered by a judgment clearly setting forth the objects
+of the _expertise_ (Code Proc. Civ. art. 302). Three experts are then to
+be appointed, unless the parties agree upon one only (art. 303). The
+experts are required to take an oath (art. 305), but in practice this
+requirement is frequently dispensed with. They may be challenged on the
+same grounds as witnesses (art. 310). The necessary documentary and
+other evidence is laid before them (art. 317), and they make a single
+report to the court, even if they express different opinions: in that
+case the grounds only of the different opinions are to be stated, and
+not the personal opinion of each of the experts (art. 318). If the court
+is not satisfied with the report, new experts may be appointed (art.
+322); the judges are not bound to adopt the opinion of the experts (art.
+323). "This procedure in regard to experts is common to both the civil
+and commercial courts, but it is much more frequently resorted to in the
+commercial court than in the civil court, and the investigation is
+usually conducted by special experts officially attached to each of
+these courts" (Bodington, _French Law of Evidence_, London, 1904, p.
+102). A similar system is to be found in force in many other European
+countries; see e.g. Codes of Civil Procedure of Holland, arts. 222 et
+seq.; Belgium, arts. 302 et seq.; Italy, arts. 252 et seq.; as well as
+in those colonies where French law has been followed (Codes of Civil
+Procedure of Quebec, arts. 392 et seq.; St Lucia, arts. 286 et seq.). In
+Mauritius the articles of the French law, summarized above, are still
+nominally in force; but in practice each side calls its own expert
+evidence, as in England.
+
+There is some evidence that in England the courts were in early times in
+the habit of summoning to their assistance, apparently as assessors,
+persons specially qualified to advise upon any scientific or technical
+question that required to be determined. Thus "in an appeal of maihem
+(i.e. wounding) ... the court did not know how to adjudge because the
+wound was new, and then the defendant took issue and prayed the court
+that the maihem might be examined, on which a writ was sent to the
+sheriff to cause to come _medicos chirurgieos de melioribus London, ad
+informandum dominum regem el curiam de his quae eis ex parte domini
+regis injungerentur_" (Year Book, 21 Hen. VII. pl. 30, p. 33). The
+practice of calling in expert assistance in judicial inquiries was not
+confined to medico-legal cases. "If matters arise," said Justice
+Saunders in _Buckley_ v. _Rice Thomas_ (1554, Plowden, 124 a), "which
+concern other faculties, we commonly apply for the aid of that science
+or faculty which it concerns." English procedure, however, being
+_litigious_, and not, like continental European procedure,
+_inquisitorial_, in its character, the expert soon became, and still is,
+simply a witness to speak to matters of opinion.
+
+There is a considerable body of law in England as to expert evidence.
+Only a few points can be touched upon here. (1) An expert is permitted
+to refresh his memory in regard to any fact by referring to anything
+written by himself or under his direction at the time when the fact
+occurred or at a time when it was fresh in his memory. This is also law
+generally in the United States (see e.g. New York Civil Code, s. 1843).
+In Scotland, medical and other scientific reports are lodged in process
+before the trial, and the witness reads them as part of his evidence and
+is liable to be examined or cross-examined on their contents. (2) In
+strictness, an expert will not be allowed, in cases of alleged insanity,
+to say that a litigating or incriminated party is insane or the reverse,
+and so to usurp the prerogative of the court or jury. But he may be
+asked whether certain facts or symptoms, _assuming them to be proved_,
+are or are not indicative of insanity. But in practice this rule is
+relaxed both in England and in Scotland, and (where it exists) to a
+still greater extent in America. (3) Foreign law can only be proved in
+English courts--and the same rule applies in Scotland--(a) by obtaining
+an opinion on the subject from a superior court of the country whose
+laws are in dispute under the Foreign Law Ascertainment Act 1861 or the
+British Law Ascertainment Act 1859, or (b) by the evidence of a lawyer
+of the country whose law is in question, or who has studied it _in that
+country_, or of an official whose position requires, and therefore
+presumes, a sufficient knowledge of that law. (4) The weight of
+authority both in England and in America supports the view that an
+expert is not bound to give evidence as to matters of opinion unless
+upon an undertaking by the party calling him to pay a reasonable
+remuneration for his evidence.
+
+Statutory provision has been made in England for the summoning of expert
+assistance by the legal tribunals in various cases. In the county courts
+the judge may, if he thinks fit, on the application of either party,
+call in as assessor one or more persons of skill and experience as to
+the matters in dispute (County Courts Act 1888, s. 103), and special
+provision is made for calling in an assessor in employers' liability
+cases (act of 1880, s. 6) and admiralty matters (see County Courts
+Admiralty Jurisdiction Acts of 1868 and 1869). In the High Court and
+court of appeal one or more specially qualified assessors may be called
+in to assist in the hearing of any cause or matter except a criminal
+proceeding by the crown (Judicature Acts 1873, s. 56), and a like power
+is given to both these courts and the judicial committee of the privy
+council in patent cases (Patents, &c., Act 1883., s. 28). Maritime
+causes, whether original or on appeal from county courts, are usually
+taken in the presence of Elder Brethren of the Trinity House, who advise
+the judge without having any right to control or any responsibility for
+his decision (see the "Beryl," 1884, 9 P.D. 1), and on appeal in
+maritime causes nautical assessories are usually called in by the court
+of appeal, and may be called in by the House of Lords (Judicature Act
+1891, s. 3); a like provision is made as to maritime causes in Scottish
+courts (Nautical Assessors [Scotland] Act 1894). The judicial committee
+of the privy council, besides its power to call in assessors in patent
+cases, is authorized to call them in in ecclesiastical causes (Appellate
+Jurisdiction Act 1876, s. 14).
+
+  In addition to the authorities cited in the text, see Taylor, _Law of
+  Evidence_ (9th ed., London, 1895); J.D. Lawson, _Law of Expert and
+  Opinion Evidence_ (1900).
+
+
+
+
+EXPLOSIVES, a general term for substances which by certain treatment
+"explode," i.e. decompose or change in a violent manner so as to
+generate force. From the manner and degree of violence of the
+decomposition they are classified into "propellants" and "detonators,"
+but this classification is not capable of sharp delimitation. In some
+cases the same substance may be employed for either purpose under
+altered external conditions; but there are some substances which could
+not possibly be employed as propellants, and others which can scarcely
+be induced to explode in the manner known as "detonation." A propellant
+may be considered as a substance that on explosion produces such a
+disturbance that neighbouring substances are thrown to some distance; a
+detonator or disruptor may produce an extremely violent disturbance
+within a limited area without projecting substances to any great
+distance. Time is an important, perhaps the most important, factor in
+this action. A propellant generally acts by _burning_ in a more or less
+rapid and regular manner, producing from a comparatively small volume a
+large volume of gases; during this action heat is also developed, which,
+being expended mostly on the gaseous products, causes a further
+expansion. The noise accompanying an explosion is due to an air wave,
+and is markedly different in the case of a detonator from a real
+propellant. Some cases of ordinary combustion can be accelerated into
+explosions by increasing the area of contact between the combustible and
+the oxygen supplier, for instance, ordinary gas or dust explosions.
+Neither temperature nor quantity of heat energy necessarily gives an
+explosive action. Some metals, e.g. aluminium and magnesium, will, in
+oxidizing, produce a great thermal effect, but unless there be some
+gaseous products no real explosive action.
+
+Explosives may be mechanical mixtures of substances capable of chemical
+interaction with the production of large volumes of gases, or definite
+chemical compounds of a peculiar class known as "endothermic," the
+decomposition of which is also attended with the evolution of gases in
+large quantity.
+
+  All chemical compounds are either "endothermic" or "exothermic." In
+  endothermic compounds energy, in some form, has been taken up in the
+  act of formation of the compound. Some of this energy has become
+  potential, or rather the compound formed has been raised to a higher
+  potential. This case occurs when two elements can be united only under
+  some compulsion such as a very high temperature, by the aid of an
+  electric current, or spark, or as a secondary product whilst some
+  other reactions are proceeding. For example, oxygen and nitrogen
+  combine only under the influence of an electric spark, and carbon and
+  calcium in the electric furnace. The formation of chlorates by the
+  action of chlorine on boiling potash is a good instance of a complex
+  compound (potassium chlorate), being formed in small quantity as a
+  secondary product whilst a large quantity of primary and simpler
+  products (potassium chloride and water) is forming. In chlorate
+  formation the greater part of the reaction represents a running down
+  of energy and formation of exothermic compounds, with only a small
+  yield of an endothermic substance. Another idea of the meaning of
+  endothermic is obtained from acetylene. When 26 parts by weight of
+  this substance are burnt, the heat produced will warm up 310,450 parts
+  of water 1 deg. C. Acetylene consists of 24 parts of carbon and 2 of
+  hydrogen by weight. The 24 parts of carbon will, if in the form of
+  pure charcoal, heat 192,000 parts of water 1 deg., and the 2 parts of
+  hydrogen will heat 68,000 parts of water 1 deg., the total heat
+  production being 260,000 heat units. Thus 26 grams of acetylene give
+  an excess of 50,450 units over the amount given by the constituents.
+  This excess of heat energy[1] is due to some form of potential energy
+  in the compound which becomes actual heat energy at the moment of
+  dissolution of the chemical union. The manner in which a substance is
+  endothermic is of importance as regards the practical employment of
+  explosives. Some particular endothermic state or form results from the
+  mode of formation and the consequent internal structure of the
+  molecule. Physical structure alone can be the cause of a relative
+  endothermic state, as in the glass bulbs known as Rupert's drops, &c.,
+  or even in chilled steel. Rupert's drops fly in pieces on being
+  scratched or cut to a certain depth. The cause is undoubtedly to be
+  ascribed to the molecular state of the glass brought about by chilling
+  from the melted state. The molecules have not had time to separate or
+  arrange themselves in easy positions. In steel when melted the carbide
+  of iron is no doubt diffused equally throughout the liquid. When
+  cooled slowly some carbide separates out more or less, and the steel
+  is soft or annealed. When chilled the carbides are retained in solid
+  solution. The volume of chilled glass or steel differs slightly from
+  that in the annealed state.
+
+  Superfused substances are probably in a similar state of physical
+  potential or strain. Many metallic salts, and organic compounds
+  especially, will exhibit this state when completely melted and then
+  allowed to cool in a clean atmosphere. On touching with a little of
+  the same substance in a solid state the liquids will begin to
+  crystallize, at the same time becoming heated almost up to their
+  melting-points. The metal gallium shows this excellently well, keeping
+  liquid for years until touched with the solid metal, when there is a
+  considerable rise of temperature as solidification takes place.
+
+  All carbon compounds, excepting carbon dioxide, and many if not all
+  compounds of nitrogen, are endothermic. Most of the explosives in
+  common use contain nitrogen in some form.
+
+  Exothermic compounds are in a certain sense the reverse of
+  endothermic; they are relatively inert and react but slowly or not at
+  all, unless energy be expended upon them from outside. Water, carbon
+  dioxide and most of the common minerals belong to this class.
+
+The explosives actually employed at the present time include mixtures,
+such as gunpowders and some chlorate compositions, the ingredients of
+which separately may be non-explosive; compounds used singly, as
+guncotton, nitroglycerin (in the form of dynamite), picric acid (as
+lyddite or melinite), trinitrotoluene, nitrocresols, mercury fulminate,
+&c.; combinations of some explosive compounds, such as cordite and the
+smokeless propellants in general use for military purposes; and,
+finally, blasting and detonating or igniting compositions, some of which
+contain inert diluting materials as well as one or more high explosives.
+Many igniting compositions are examples of the last type, consisting of
+a high explosive diluted with a neutral substance, and frequently
+containing in addition a composition which is inflamed by the explosion
+of the diluted high explosive, the flame in turn igniting the actual
+propellant.
+
+_Explosive Mixtures._--The explosive mixture longest known is
+undoubtedly gunpowder (q.v.) in some form--that is, a mixture of
+charcoal with sulphur and nitre, the last being the oxygen provider.
+Besides the nitrates of metals and ammonium nitrate, there is a limited
+number of other substances capable of serving in a sufficiently
+energetic manner as oxygen providers. A few chlorates, perchlorates,
+permanganates and chromates almost complete the list. Of these the
+sodium, potassium and barium chlorates are best known and have been
+actually tried, in admixture with some combustible substances, as
+practical explosives. Most other metallic chlorates are barred from
+practical employment owing to instability, deliquescence or other
+property.
+
+Of the chlorates those of potassium and sodium are the most stable, and
+mixtures of either of these salts with sulphur or sulphides, phosphorus,
+charcoal, sugar, starch, finely-ground cellulose, coal or almost any
+kind of organic, i.e. carbon, compound, in certain proportions, yield an
+explosive mixture. In many cases these mixtures are not only fired or
+exploded by heating to a certain temperature, but also by quite moderate
+friction or percussion. Consequently there is much danger in manufacture
+and storage, and however these mixtures have been made up, they are
+quite out of the question as propellants on account of their great
+tendency to explode in the manner of a detonator. In addition they are
+not smokeless, and leave a considerable residue which in a gun would
+produce serious fouling.
+
+Mixtures of chlorates with aromatic compounds such as the nitro- or
+dinitro-benzenes or even naphthalene make very powerful blasting agents.
+The violent action of a chlorate mixture is due first to the rapid
+evolution of oxygen, and also to the fact that a chlorate can be
+detonated when alone. A drop of sulphuric acid will start the combustion
+of a chlorate mixture. In admixture with sulphur, sulphides and
+especially phosphorus, chlorates give extremely sensitive compositions,
+some of which form the basis of friction tube and firing mixtures.
+
+Potassium and sodium perchlorates and permanganates make similar but
+slightly less sensitive explosive mixtures with the above-mentioned
+substances. Finely divided metals such as aluminium or magnesium give
+also with permanganates, chlorates or perchlorates sensitive and
+powerful explosives. Bichromates, although containing much available
+oxygen, form but feeble explosive mixtures, but some compounds of
+chromic acid with diazo compounds and some acetylides are extremely
+powerful as well as sensitive. Ammonium bichromate is a self-combustible
+after the type of ammonium nitrate, but scarcely an explosive.
+
+_Explosive Compounds._--Nearly all the explosive compounds in actual use
+either for blasting purposes or as propellants are nitrogen compounds,
+and are obtained more or less directly from nitric acid. Most of the
+propellants at present employed consist essentially of nitrates of some
+organic compound, and may be viewed theoretically as nitric acid, the
+hydrogen of which has been replaced by a carbon complex; such compounds
+are expressed by M.O.NO2, which indicates that the carbon group is in
+some manner united by means of oxygen to the nitrogen group. Guncotton
+and nitroglycerin are of this class. Another large class of explosives
+is formed by a more direct attachment of nitrogen to the carbon complex,
+as represented by M.NO2. A number of explosives of the detonating type
+are of this class. They contain the same proportions of oxygen and
+nitrogen as nitrites, but are not nitrites. They have been termed
+nitro-derivatives for distinction. One of the simplest and longest-known
+members of this group is nitrobenzene, C6H5NO2, which is employed to
+some extent as an explosive, being one ingredient in rack-a-rock and
+other blasting compositions. The dinitro-benzenes, C6H4(NO2)2, made from
+it are solids which are somewhat extensively employed as constituents of
+some sporting powders, and in admixture with ammonium nitrate form a
+blasting powder of a "flameless" variety which is comparatively safe in
+dusty or "gassy" coal seams.
+
+Picric acid or trinitrophenol, C6H2.OH.(NO2)3 is employed as a high
+explosive for shell, &c. It requires, however, either to be enclosed and
+heated, or to be started by a powerful detonator to develop its full
+effect. Its compounds with metals, such as the potassium salt,
+C6H2.OK.(NO2)3, are when dry very easily detonated by friction or
+percussion and _always_ on heating, whereas picric acid itself will burn
+very quietly when set fire to under ordinary conditions.
+Trinitrotoluene, C6H2.CH3.(NO2)3, is a high explosive resembling picric
+acid in the manner of its explosion (to which in fact it is a rival),
+but differs therefrom in not forming salts with metals. The
+nitronaphthols, C10H6.OH.NO2, and higher nitration products may be
+counted in the list. Their salts with metals behave much like the
+picrates.
+
+All these nitro compounds can be reduced by the action of nascent
+hydrogen to substances called amines (q.v.), which are not always
+explosive in themselves, but in some cases can form nitrates of a
+self-combustible nature. Aminoacetic acid, for instance, will form a
+nitrate which burns rapidly but quietly, and might be employed as an
+explosive. By the action of nitrous acid at low temperatures on aromatic
+amines, e.g. aniline, C6H5NH2, diazo compounds are produced. These are
+all highly explosive, and when in a dry state are for the most part also
+extremely sensitive to friction, percussion or heat. As many of these
+diazo compounds contain no oxygen their explosive nature must be
+ascribed to the peculiar state of union of the nitrogen. This state is
+attempted to be shown by the formulae such as, for instance, C6H5.N :
+N.X, which maybe some compound of diazobenzene. Probably the most
+vigorous high explosive at present known is the substance called
+hydrazoic acid or azoimide (q.v.). It forms salts with metals such as
+AgN3, which explode in a peculiar manner. The ammonium compound, NH4N3,
+may become a practical explosive of great value.
+
+Mercuric fulminate, HgC2N2O2, is one of the most useful high explosives
+known. It is formed by the action of a solution of mercurous nitrate,
+containing some nitrous acid, on alcohol. It is a white crystalline
+substance almost insoluble in cold water and requiring 130 times its
+weight of boiling water for solution. It may be heated to 180 deg. C.
+before exploding, and the explosion so brought about is much milder than
+that produced by percussion. It forms the principal ingredient in cap
+compositions, in many fuses and in detonators. In many of these
+compositions the fulminate is diluted by mixture with certain quantities
+of inert powders so that its sensitiveness to friction or percussion is
+just so much lowered, or slowed down, that it will fire another mixture
+capable of burning with a hot flame. For detonating dynamite, guncotton,
+&c., it is generally employed without admixture of a diluent.
+
+_Smokeless Propellants._--Gunpowders and all other explosive mixtures or
+compounds containing metallic salts must form smoke on combustion. The
+solids produced by the resolution of the compounds are in an extremely
+finely-divided state, and on being ejected into the atmosphere become
+more or less attached to water vapour, which is so precipitated, and
+consequently adds to the smoke. The simplest examples of propellants of
+the smokeless class are compressed gases. Compressed air was the
+propellant for the Zalinski dynamite gun. Liquefied carbon dioxide has
+also been proposed and used to a slight extent with the same idea. It is
+scarcely practical, however, because when a quantity of a gas liquefied
+by pressure passes back again into the gaseous state, there is a great
+absorption of heat, and any remaining liquid, and the containing vessel,
+are considerably cooled. Steam guns were tried in the American Civil War
+in 1864; but a steam gun is not smokeless, for the steam escaping from
+the long tube or gun immediately condenses on expansion, forming white
+mist or smoke.
+
+At the earliest stage of the development of guncotton the advantage of
+its smokeless combustion was fully appreciated (see GUNCOTTON). That it
+did not at once take its position as _the_ smokeless propellant, was
+simply due to its physical state--a fibrous porous mass--which burnt too
+quickly or even detonated under the pressure required in fire-arms of
+any kind. In the early eighties of the 19th century it was found that
+several substances would partly dissolve or at least gelatinize
+guncotton, and the moment when guncotton proper was obtained as a
+colloid or jelly was the real start in the matter of smokeless
+propellants.
+
+Guncotton is converted into a gelatinous form by several substances,
+such as esters, e.g. ethyl acetate or benzoate, acetone and other
+ketones, and many benzene compounds, most of which are volatile liquids.
+On contact with the guncotton a jelly is formed which stiffens as the
+evaporation of the gelatinizing agent proceeds, and finally hardens when
+the evaporation is complete. Whilst in a stiff pasty state it may be
+cut, moulded or pressed into any desired shape without any danger of
+ignition. In fact guncotton in the colloid state may be hammered on an
+anvil, and, as a rule, only the portion struck will detonate or fire.
+Guncotton alone makes a very hard and somewhat brittle mass after
+treatment with the gelatinizing agent and complete drying, and small
+quantities of camphor, vaseline, castor oil and other substances are
+incorporated with the gelatinous guncotton to moderate this hard and
+brittle state.
+
+All the smokeless powders, of which gelatinized guncottons or nitrated
+celluloses are the base, are moulded into some conveniently shaped
+grain, e.g. tubes, cords, rods, disks or tablets, so that the rate of
+burning may be controlled as desired. The Vieille powder, invented in
+1887 and adopted in France for a magazine rifle, consisted of
+gelatinized guncotton with a little picric acid. Later a mixture of two
+varieties of guncotton gelatinized together was used. In addition to
+guncottons other explosive or non-explosive substances are contained in
+some of these powders. Guncotton alone in the colloid state burns very
+slowly if in moderate-sized pieces, and when subdivided or made into
+thin rods or strips it is still very mild as an explosive, partly from a
+chemical reason, viz. there is not sufficient oxygen in it to burn the
+carbon to dioxide. Many mixtures are consequently in use, and many more
+have been proposed, which contain some metallic salt capable of
+supplying oxygen, such as barium or ammonium nitrate, &c., the idea
+being to accelerate the rate of burning of the guncotton and if possible
+avoid the production of smoke.
+
+The discovery by A. Nobel that nitroglycerin could be incorporated with
+collodion cotton to form blasting gelatin (see DYNAMITE) led more or
+less directly to the invention of ballistite, which differs from
+blasting gelatin only in the relative amounts of collodion, or soluble
+nitrated cotton, and nitroglycerin. Ballistite was adopted by the
+Italian government in 1890 as a military powder. Very many substances
+and mixtures have been proposed for smokeless powder, but the two
+substances, guncotton and nitroglycerin, have for the most part kept the
+field against all other combinations, and for several reasons.
+Nitroglycerin contains a slight excess of oxygen over that necessary to
+convert the whole of the carbon into carbon dioxide; it burns in a more
+energetic manner than guncotton; the two can be incorporated together in
+any proportion whilst the guncotton is in the gelatinous state; also all
+the liquids which gelatinize guncotton dissolve nitroglycerin, and, as
+these gelatinizing liquids evaporate, the nitroglycerin is left
+entangled in the guncotton jelly, and then shares more or less its
+colloidal character. In burning the nitroglycerin is protected from
+detonation by the gelatinous state of the guncotton, but still adds to
+the rate of burning and produces a higher temperature.
+
+  _Desirable Qualities._--Smokelessness is one only of the desirable
+  properties of a propellant. All the present so-called smokeless
+  powders produce a little fume or haze, mainly due to the condensation
+  of the steam which forms one of the combustion products. There is
+  often also a little vapour from the substances, such as oils, mineral
+  jelly, vaseline or other hydrocarbon added for lubrication or to
+  render the finished material pliable, &c. The gases produced should
+  neither be very poisonous nor exert a corrosive action on metals, &c.
+  The powder itself should have good keeping qualities, that is, not be
+  liable to chemical changes within ordinary ranges of temperature or in
+  different climates when stored for a few years. In these powders
+  slight chemical changes are generally followed by noticeable ballistic
+  changes. All the smokeless powders of the present day produce some
+  oxide of nitrogen, traces of which hang about the gun after firing and
+  change rapidly into nitrous and nitric acids. Nitrous acid is
+  particularly objectionable in connexion with metals, as it acts as a
+  carrier of oxygen. The fouling from modern smokeless powders is a
+  slight deposit of acid grease, and the remedy consists in washing out
+  the bore of the piece with an alkaline liquid. The castor oil, mineral
+  jelly or camphor, and similar substances added to smokeless powders
+  are supposed to act as lubricants to some extent. They are not as
+  effective in this respect as mineral salts, and the rifling of both
+  small-arms and ordnance using smokeless powders is severely gripped by
+  the metal of the projectile. The alkaline fouling produced by the
+  black and brown powders acted as a preventive of rusting to some
+  extent, as well as a lubricant in the bore.
+
+  _Danger in Manufacture._--In the case of the old gunpowders, the most
+  dangerous manufacturing operation was incorporation. With the modern
+  colloid propellants the most dangerous operations are the chemical
+  processes in the preparation of nitroglycerin, the drying of
+  guncotton, &c. After once the gelatinizing solvent has been added, all
+  the mechanical operations can be conducted, practically, with perfect
+  safety. This statement appears to be correct for all kinds of nitrated
+  cellulose powders, whether mixed with nitroglycerin or other
+  substances. Should they become ignited, which is possible by a rise of
+  temperature (to say 180 deg.) or contact with a flame, the mixture
+  burns quickly, but does not detonate.
+
+  As a rule naval and military smokeless powders are shaped into flakes,
+  cubes, cords or cylinders, with or without longitudinal perforations.
+  All the modifications in shape and size are intended to regulate the
+  rate of burning. Sporting powders are often coloured for trade
+  distinction. Some powders are blackleaded by glazing with pure
+  graphite, as is done with black powders. One object of this glazing is
+  to prevent the grains or pieces becoming joined by pressure; for rods
+  or pieces of some smokeless powders might possibly unite under
+  considerable pressure, producing larger pieces and thus altering the
+  rate of burning. Most smokeless powders are fairly insensitive to
+  shock. All these gelatinized powders are a little less easily ignited
+  than black powders. A slightly different cap composition is required
+  for small-arm cartridges, and cannon cartridges generally require a
+  small primer or starter of powdered black gunpowder.
+
+  It is desired that a propellant shall produce the maximum velocity
+  with the minimum pressure. The pressure should start gently so that
+  the inertia of the projectile is overcome without any undue local
+  strain on the breech near the powder chamber, and more especially that
+  as more and more space is given to the gases by the movement of the
+  projectile up the gun to the muzzle, gas should be produced with
+  sufficient rapidity to keep the pressure nearly uniform or slightly
+  increasing along the bore. The leading idea for improvements in
+  relation to propellants is to obtain the greatest possible pressure
+  regularly developed, and at the same time the lowest temperatures.
+       (W. R. E. H.)
+
+_Law._--In 1860 an act was passed in England "to amend the law
+concerning the making, keeping and carriage of gunpowder and
+compositions of an explosive nature, and concerning the manufacture and
+use of fireworks" (23 & 24 Vict. c. 139), whereby previous acts on the
+same subject were repealed, and minute and stringent regulations
+introduced. Amending acts were passed in 1861 and 1862. In 1875 was
+passed the Explosives Act (38 & 39 Vict. c. 17), which repealed the
+former acts, and dealt with the whole subject in a more comprehensive
+manner. This act, containing 122 sections, and applying to Scotland and
+Ireland, as well as to England, constitutes, with various orders in
+council and home office orders, a complete code. The act of 1875 was
+based on the report of a committee of the House of Commons, public
+opinion having been greatly excited on the subject by a terrible
+explosion on the Regent's Canal in 1874. Explosives are thus defined:
+(1) Gunpowder, nitroglycerin, dynamite, guncotton, blasting powders,
+fulminate of mercury or of other metals, coloured fires, and every other
+substance, whether similar to those above-mentioned or not, used or
+manufactured with a view to produce a practical effect by explosion or a
+pyrotechnic effect, and including (2) fog-signals, fireworks, fuses,
+rockets, percussion caps, detonators, cartridges, ammunition of all
+descriptions, and every adaptation or preparation of an explosive as
+above defined. Part i. deals with gunpowder, providing that it shall be
+manufactured only at factories lawfully existing or licensed under the
+act; that it shall be kept (except for private use) only in existing or
+new magazines or stores, or in registered premises, licensed under the
+act. Private persons may keep gunpowder for their own use to the amount
+of thirty pounds. The act also prescribes rules for the proper keeping
+of gunpowder on registered premises. Part ii. deals with nitroglycerin
+and other explosives; part iii. with inspection, accidents, search, &c.;
+part iv. contains various supplementary provisions. By order in council
+the term "explosive" may be extended to any substance which appears to
+be specially dangerous to life or property by reason of its explosive
+properties, or to any process liable to explosion in the manufacture
+thereof, and the provisions of the act then extend to such substance
+just as if it were included in the term "explosive" in the act. The act
+lays down minute and stringent regulations for the sale of gunpowder,
+restricting the sale thereof in public thoroughfares or places, or to
+any child apparently under the age of thirteen; requiring the sale of
+gunpowder to be in closed packages labelled; it also lays down general
+rules for conveyance, &c. The act also gives power by order in council
+to define, from time to time, the composition, quality and character of
+any explosive, and to classify explosives, and such orders in council
+are frequently made including new substances; those in force will be
+found in the _Statutory Rules and Orders_, tit. "explosive substance."
+The Merchant Shipping Act 1894 imposes restrictions on the carriage of
+dangerous goods in a British or foreign vessel, "dangerous goods"
+meaning aquafortis, vitriol, naphtha, benzine, gunpowder, lucifer
+matches, nitroglycerin, petroleum and any explosive within the meaning
+of the Explosives Act 1875. The act is administered by the home office,
+and an annual report is published containing the proceedings of the
+inspectors of explosives and an account of the working of the act. Each
+annual report gives a list of explosives at the time authorized for
+manufacture or importation, and appendices containing information as to
+accidents, experiments, &c.
+
+Practically every European country has legislated on the lines of the
+English act of 1875, Austria taking the lead, in 1877, with an
+explosives ordinance almost identical with the English act. The United
+States and the various English colonies also have explosives acts
+regulating the manufacture, storage and importation of explosives. (See
+also PETROLEUM.)     (T. A. I.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--M. Berthelot, _Sur la force des matieres explosives_
+  (Paris, 1883); P.F. Chalon, _Les Explosifs modernes_ (Paris, 1886);
+  W.H. Wardell, _Handbook of Gunpowder and Guncotton_ (London, 1888);
+  J.P. Cundill, _A Dictionary of Explosives_ (London, 1889 and 1897); M.
+  Eissler, _A Handbook of Modern Explosives_ (London, 1896, new ed.
+  1903); J.A. Longridge, _Smokeless Powder and its Influence on Gun
+  Construction_ (London, 1890); C. Napier Hake and W. Macnab,
+  _Explosives and their Power_ (London, 1892); G. Coralys, _Les
+  Explosifs_ (Paris, 1893); A. Ponteaux, _La Poudre sans fumee et les
+  poudres anciennes_ (Paris, 1893); F. Salvati, _Vocabolario di polveri
+  ed explosivi_ (Rome, 1893); C. Guttmann, _The Manufacture of
+  Explosives_ (London, 1895 and later); S.J. von Romocki, _Geschichte
+  der Sprengstoffchemie, der Sprengtechnik und des Torpedowesens bis zum
+  Beginn der neusten Zeit_ (Berlin, 1895); _Geschichte der
+  Explosivstoffe, die rauchschwachen Pulver_ (Berlin, 1896); P.G.
+  Sanford, _Nitro-explosives_ (London, 1896); L. Gody, _Traite theorique
+  et pratique des matieres explosives_ (Namur, 1896); R. Wille, _Der
+  Plastomerite_ (Berlin, 1898); E. Sarrau, _Introduction a la theorie
+  des explosifs_ (1893); _Theorie des explosifs_ (1896); O. Guttmann,
+  _Manufacture of Explosives_ (London, 1895); E.M. Weaver, _Notes on
+  Military Explosives_ (New York, 1906); M. Eissler, _The Modern High
+  Explosives_ (New York, 1906); _Treatise on Service Explosives_,
+  published by order of the secretary of state for war (London, 1907).
+  Most of the literature on modern explosives, e.g. dynamite, &c., is to
+  be found in papers contributed to scientific journals and societies.
+  An index to those which have appeared in the _Journal of the Society
+  of Chemical Industry_ is to be found in the decennial index (1908)
+  compiled by F.W. Renant.
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Not necessarily heat energy entirely. A number of
+    substances--acetylides and some nitrogen compounds, such as nitrogen
+    chloride--decompose with extreme violence, but _little heat_ is
+    produced.
+
+
+
+
+EXPRESS (through the French from the past participle of the Lat.
+_exprimere_, to press out, by transference used of representing objects
+in painting or sculpture, or of thoughts, &c. in words), a word
+signifying that which is clearly and definitely set forth or
+represented, explicit, and thus used of a meaning, a law, a contract and
+the like, being specially contrasted with "implied." Thus in law,
+malice, for which there is actual evidence, as apart from that which may
+be inferred from the acts of the person charged, is known as "express."
+The word is most frequently used with the idea of something done with a
+definite purpose; the term "express train," now meaning one that travels
+at a high speed over long distances with few intermediate stoppages,
+was, in the early days of railways, applied to what is now usually
+called a "special," i.e. a train not running according to the ordinary
+time-tables of the railway company, but for some specific purpose, or
+engaged by a private person. About 1845 this term became used for a
+train running to a particular place without stopping. Similarly in the
+British postal service, express delivery is a special and immediate
+delivery of a letter, parcel, &c., by an express messenger at a
+particular increased rate. The system was adopted in 1891.
+
+In the United States of America, express companies for the rapid
+transmission of parcels and luggage and light goods generally perform
+the function of the post office or the railways in the United Kingdom
+and the continent of Europe. Not only do they deliver goods, but by the
+cash on delivery system (see CASH) the express companies act as agents
+both for the purchaser and seller of goods. They also serve as a most
+efficient agency for the transmission of money, the express money order
+being much more easily convertible than the postal money orders, as the
+latter can only be redeemed at offices in large and important towns. The
+system dates back to 1839, when one William Frederick Harnden
+(1813-1845), a conductor on the Boston and Worcester railway, undertook
+on his own account the carrying of small parcels and the performance of
+small commissions. Obliged to leave the company's service or abandon his
+enterprise, he started an "express" service between Boston and New York,
+carrying parcels, executing commissions and collecting drafts and bills.
+Alvin Adams followed in 1840, also between Boston and New York. From
+1840 to 1845 the system was adopted by many others between the more
+important towns throughout the States. The attempt to carry letters
+also was stopped by the government as interfering with the post office.
+In 1854 began the amalgamation of many of the companies. Thus under the
+name of the Adams Express Company the services started by Harnden and
+Adams were consolidated. The lines connecting the west and east by
+Albany, Buffalo and the lakes were consolidated in the American Express
+Company, under the direction of William G. Fargo (q.v.), Henry Wells and
+Johnston Livingston, while another company, Wells, Fargo & Co., operated
+on the Pacific coast. The celebrated "Pony Express" was started in 1860
+between San Francisco and St Joseph, Missouri, the time scheduled being
+eight days. The service was carried on by relays of horses, with
+stations 25 m. apart. The charge made for the service was $2.50 per 1/2
+oz. The completion of the Pacific Telegraph Company line in 1861 was
+followed by the discontinuance of the regular service.
+
+The name "express" is applied to a rifle having high velocity, flat
+trajectory and long fixed-sight ranges; and an "express-bullet" is a
+light bullet with a heavy charge of powder used in such a rifle (see
+RIFLE).
+
+
+
+
+EXPROPRIATION, the taking away or depriving of property (Late Lat.
+_expropriare_, to take away, _proprium_, i.e. that which is one's own).
+The term is particularly applied to the compulsory acquisition of
+private property by the state or other public authority.
+
+
+
+
+EXPULSION (Lat. _expulsio_, from _expellere_), the act of driving out,
+or of removing a person from the membership of a body or the holding of
+an office, or of depriving him of the right of attending a meeting, &c.
+In the United Kingdom the House of Commons can by resolution expel a
+member. Such resolution cannot be questioned by any court of law. But
+expulsion is only resorted to in cases where members are guilty of
+offences rendering them unfit for a seat in the House, such as being in
+open rebellion, being guilty of forgery, perjury, fraud or breach of
+trust, misappropriation of public money, corruption, conduct unbecoming
+the character of an officer and a gentleman, &c. It is customary to
+order the member, if absent, to attend in his place, before an order is
+made for his expulsion (see May, _Parliamentary Practice_, 1906, p. 56
+seq.). Municipal corporations or other local government bodies have no
+express power to expel a member, except in such cases where the law
+declares the member to have vacated his seat, or where power is given by
+statute to declare the member's seat vacant. In the cases of officers
+and servants of the crown, tenure varies with the nature of the office.
+Some officials hold their offices _ad vitam aut culpam or dum bene se
+gesserunt_, others can be dismissed at any time and without reason
+assigned and without compensation. In the case of membership of a
+voluntary association (club, &c.) the right of expulsion depends upon
+the rules, and must be exercised in good faith. Courts of justice have
+jurisdiction to prevent the improper expulsion of the member of a
+voluntary association where that member has a right of property in the
+association. In the case of meetings, where the meeting is one of a
+public body, any person not a member of the body is entitled to be
+present only on sufferance, and may be expelled on a resolution of the
+body. In the case of ordinary public meetings those who convene the
+meeting stand in the position of licensors to those attending and may
+revoke the licence and expel any person who creates disorder or makes
+himself otherwise objectionable.
+
+_Expulsion of Aliens._--Under the Naturalization Act of 1870, the last
+of the civil disqualifications affecting aliens in England was removed.
+The political disqualifications which remained only applied to electoral
+rights. In the very exceptional cases in which it was retained in the
+statute book, expulsion was considered to have fallen into desuetude,
+but it has been revived by the Aliens Act of 1905 (5 Edw. VII. c. 13).
+Under this act powers are given to the secretary of state to make an
+order requiring an alien to leave the United Kingdom within a time fixed
+by the order and thereafter to remain outside the United Kingdom,
+subject to certain conditions, provided it is certified to him that the
+alien has been convicted of any felony or misdemeanour or other offence
+for which the court has power to impose imprisonment without the option
+of a fine, &c., or that he has been sentenced in a foreign country with
+which there is an extradition treaty, for a crime not being an offence
+of a political character. There are also provisions applicable within
+one year, after the alien has entered the United Kingdom in the case of
+pauper aliens. Precautions are taken to prevent, as far as possible, any
+abuse of the power of expulsion. Under the French law of expulsion
+(December 3, 1849) there are no such precautions, the minister of the
+interior having an absolute discretion to order any foreigner as a
+measure of public policy to leave French territory and in fact to have
+him taken immediately to the frontier.
+
+
+
+
+EXTENSION (Lat. _ex_, out; _tendere_, to stretch), in general, the
+action of straining or stretching out. It is usually employed
+metaphorically (cf. the phrase an "extension of time," a period allowed
+in excess of what has been agreed upon). It is used as a technical term
+in logic to describe the total number of objects to which a given term
+may be applied; thus the meaning of the term "King" in "extension" means
+the kings of England, Italy, Spain, &c. (cf. DENOTATION), while in
+"intension" it means the attributes which taken together make up the
+idea of kinghood (see CONNOTATION). In psychology the literal sense of
+extension is retained, i.e. "spread-outness." The perception of space by
+the senses of sight and touch, as opposed to semi-spatial perceptions by
+smell and hearing, is that of "continuous expanse composed of positions
+separated and connected by distances" (Stout); to this the term
+"extension" is applied. The perception of separate objects involves
+position and distance, but these taken together are not extension, which
+necessarily implies continuity. To move one's finger along the keys of a
+piano gives both the position and the distance of the keys; to move it
+along the frame gives the idea of extension. By expanding this idea we
+obtain the conception of all space as an extended whole. To this
+perception are necessary both form and material. It should be observed
+the actual quality of a stimulus (rough, smooth, dry, &c.) has nothing
+to do with the spatial perception as such, which is concerned purely
+with what is known as "local signature." The elementary undifferentiated
+sensation excited by the stimuli exerted by a continuous whole is known
+as its "extensive quantity" or "extensity." The term has to do not with
+the kind of object which excites the sensation, but simply with the
+vague massiveness of the latter. As such it is distinguishable in
+thought from extension, though it is not easy to say whether and if so
+how far the quantitative aspect of space can exist apart from spatial
+order. Extensity as an element in the complex of extension must be
+carefully distinguished from intensity. Mere increase of pressure
+implies increase of intensity of sensation; to increase the extensity
+the _area_, so to speak, of the exciting stimulus must be increased.
+Thus the extensity (also called "voluminousness," or "massiveness") of
+the sensation produced by a roll of thunder is greater than that
+produced by a whistle or the bark of a dog. It should be observed that
+this application of the idea of extensity to sensation in general,
+rather than to the matter which is the exciting stimulus, is only an
+analogy, an attempt to explain a common psychic phenomenon by
+terminology which is intrinsically suitable to the physical. As a
+natural consequence the term represents different shades of meaning in
+different treatises, verging sometimes towards the physical, sometimes
+towards the psychic, meaning.
+
+In connexion with extension elaborate psycho-physical experiments have
+been devised,.e.g. with the object of comparing the accuracy of tactual
+and visual perception and discovering what are the least differences
+which each can observe. At a distance two lights appear as one, just as
+two stars distinguishable through a telescope are one to the naked eye
+(see VISION): again if the points of a compass are brought close
+together and pressed lightly on the skin the sensation, though vague and
+diffused, is a single one.
+
+  See PSYCHOLOGY and works there quoted; also SPACE AND TIME.
+
+
+
+
+EXTENUATING CIRCUMSTANCES. This expression is used in law with reference
+to crimes, to describe cases in which, though an offence has been
+committed without legal justification or excuse, its gravity, from the
+point of view of punishment or moral opprobrium, is mitigated or reduced
+by reason of the facts leading up to or attending the commission of the
+offence. According to English procedure, the jury has no power to
+determine the punishment to be awarded for an offence. The sentence,
+with certain exceptions in capital cases, is within the sole discretion
+of the judge, subject to the statutory prescriptions as to the kind and
+maximum of punishment. It is common practice for juries to add to their
+verdict, guilty or not guilty, a rider recommending the accused to mercy
+on the ground of grave provocation received, or other circumstances
+which in their view should mitigate the penalty. This form of rider is
+often added on a verdict of guilty of wilful murder, a crime as to which
+the judge has no discretion as to punishment, but the recommendation is
+sent to the Home Office for consideration in advising as to exercise of
+the prerogative of mercy. Quite independently of any recommendation by
+the jury, the judge is entitled to take into account matters proved
+during the trial, or laid before him after verdict, as a guide to him in
+determining the quantum of punishment.
+
+Under the French law (_Code d'instruction criminelle_, art. 345), it is
+the sole right and the duty of a jury in a criminal case to pronounce
+whether or not the commission of the offence was attended by extenuating
+circumstances (_circonstances attenuantes_). They are not bound to say
+anything about the matter, but the whole or the majority may qualify the
+verdict by finding extenuation, and if they do, the powers of the court
+to impose the maximum punishment are taken away and the sentence to be
+pronounced is reduced in accordance with the scale laid down in art. 463
+of the _Code penal_. The most important result of this rule is to enable
+a jury to prevent the infliction of capital punishment for murder. In
+cases of what is termed "crime passionel," French juries, when they do
+not acquit, almost invariably find extenuation; and a like verdict has
+become common even in the case of cold-blooded and sordid murders, owing
+to objections to capital punishment.
+
+
+
+
+EXTERRITORIALITY, a term of international law, used to denominate
+certain immunities from the application of the rule that every person is
+subject for all acts done within the boundaries of a state to its local
+laws. It is also employed to describe the quasi-extraterritorial
+position, to borrow the phrase of Grotius, of the dwelling-place of an
+accredited diplomatic agent, and of the public ships of one state while
+in the waters of another. Latterly its sense has been extended to all
+cases in which states refrain from enforcing their laws within their
+territorial jurisdiction. The cases recognized by the law of nations
+relate to: (1) the persons and belongings of foreign sovereigns, whether
+incognito or not; (2) the persons and belongings of ambassadors,
+ministers plenipotentiary, and other accredited diplomatic agents and
+their suites (but not consuls, except in some non-Christian countries,
+in which they sometimes have a diplomatic character); (3) public ships
+in foreign waters. Exterritoriality has also been granted by treaty to
+the subjects and citizens of contracting Christian states resident
+within the territory of certain non-Christian states. Lastly, it is held
+that when armies or regiments are allowed by a foreign state to cross
+its territory, they necessarily have exterritorial rights. "The ground
+upon which the immunity of sovereign rulers from process in our courts,"
+said Mr Justice Wills in the case of _Mighell_ v. _Sultan of Johore_,
+1804, "is recognized by our law, is that it would be absolutely
+inconsistent with the status of an independent sovereign that he should
+be subject to the process of a foreign tribunal," unless he deliberately
+submits to its jurisdiction. It has, however, been held where the
+foreign sovereign was also a British subject (_Duke of Brunswick_ v.
+_King of Hanover_, 1844), that he is amenable to the jurisdiction of the
+English Courts in respect of transactions done by him in his capacity as
+a subject. A "foreign sovereign" may be taken to include the president
+of a republic, and even a potentate whose independence is not complete.
+Thus in the case, cited above, of _Mighell_ v. _Sultan of Johore_, the
+sultan was ascertained to have abandoned all right to contract with
+foreign states, and to have placed his territory under British
+protection. The court held that he was, nevertheless, a foreign
+sovereign in so far as immunity from British jurisdiction was concerned.
+The immunity of a foreign diplomatic agent, as the direct representative
+of a foreign sovereign (or state), is based on the same grounds as that
+of the sovereign authority itself. The international practice in the
+case of Great Britain was confirmed by an act of parliament of the reign
+of Queen Anne, which is still in force. The preamble to this act states
+that "turbulent and disorderly persons in a most outrageous manner had
+insulted the person of the then ambassador of his Czarish Majesty,
+emperor of Great Russia," by arresting and detaining him in custody for
+several hours, "in contempt to the protection granted by Her Majesty,
+contrary to the law of nations, and in prejudice of the rights and
+privileges which ambassadors and other public ministers, authorized and
+received as such, have at all times been thereby possessed of, and ought
+to be kept sacred and inviolable." This preamble has been repeatedly
+held by our courts to be declaratory of the English common law. The act
+provides that all suits, writs, processes, against any accredited
+ambassador or public minister or his domestic servant, and all
+proceedings and judgments had thereupon, are "utterly null and void,"
+and that any person violating these provisions shall be punished for a
+breach of the public peace. Thus a foreign diplomatic agent cannot, like
+the sovereign he represents, waive his immunity by submitting to the
+British jurisdiction. The diplomatic immunity necessarily covers the
+residence of the diplomatic agent, which some writers describe as
+assimilated to territory of the state represented by the agent; but
+there is no consideration which can justify any extension of the
+immunity beyond the needs of the diplomatic mission resident within it.
+It is different with public ships in foreign waters. In their case the
+exterritoriality attaches to the vessel. Beyond its bulwarks captain and
+crew are subject to the ordinary jurisdiction of the state upon whose
+territory they happen to be. By a foreign public ship is now understood
+any ship in the service of a foreign state. It was even held in the case
+of the "Parlement Belge" (1880), a packet belonging to the Belgian
+government, that the character of the vessel as a public ship was not
+affected by its carrying passengers and merchandise for hire. In a more
+recent case an action brought by the owners of a Greek vessel against a
+vessel belonging to the state of Rumania was dismissed, though the
+agents of the Rumanian government had entered an appearance
+unconditionally and had obtained the release of the vessel on bail, on
+the ground that the Rumanian government had not authorized acceptance of
+the British jurisdiction (The "Jassy," 1906, 75 L.J.P. 93).
+
+Writers frequently describe the exterritoriality of both embassies and
+ships as absolute. There is, however, this difference, that the
+exterritoriality of the latter not being, like that of embassies, a
+derived one, there seems to be no ground for limitation of it. It was,
+nevertheless, laid down by the arbitrators in the "Alabama" case
+(Cockburn dissenting), that the privilege of exterritoriality accorded
+to vessels had not been admitted into the law of nations as an absolute
+right, but solely as a proceeding founded on the principle of courtesy
+and mutual deference between different nations, and that it could
+therefore "never be appealed to for the protection of acts done in
+violation of neutrality."
+
+The exterritorial settlements in the Far East, the privileges of
+Christians under the arrangements made with the Ottoman Porte, and other
+exceptions from local jurisdictions, are subject to the conditions laid
+down in the treaties by which they have been created. There are also
+cases in which British communities have grown up in barbarous countries
+without the consent of any local authority. All these are regulated by
+orders in council, issued now in virtue of the Foreign Jurisdiction Act
+1890, an act enabling the crown to exercise any jurisdiction it may have
+"within a foreign country" in as ample a manner as if it had been
+acquired "by cession or conquest of territory." A very exceptional case
+of exterritoriality is that granted to the pope under a special Italian
+enactment.     (T. Ba.)
+
+
+
+
+EXTORTION (Lat. _extorsio_, from _extorquere_, to twist out, to take
+away by force), in English law the term applied to the exaction by
+public officers of money or money's worth not due at all, or in excess
+of what is due, or before it is due. Such exaction, unless made in good
+faith (i.e. in honest mistake as to the sum properly payable), is a
+misdemeanour by the common law and is punishable by fine and (or)
+imprisonment. Besides the punishment above stated, an action for twice
+the value of the thing extorted lies against officers of the king (1275,
+3 Edw. I. c. 26). There are numerous provisions for the punishment of
+particular officers who make illegal exactions or take illegal fees:
+e.g. sheriffs and their officers (Sheriffs Act 1887), county court
+bailiffs (County Courts Act 1888), clerks of courts of justice, and
+gaolers who exact fees from prisoners. A gaoler is also punishable for
+detaining the corpse of a prisoner as security for debt. The term
+"public officer" is not limited to offices under the crown; and there
+are old precedents of criminal proceedings for extortion against
+churchwardens, and against millers and ferrymen who demand tolls in
+excess of what is customary under their franchise.
+
+The term extortion is also applied to the exaction of money or money's
+worth by menaces of personal violence or by threats to accuse of crime
+or to publish defamatory matter about another person. These offences
+fall partly under the head of robbery and partly under blackmail, or
+what in French is termed _chantage_.
+
+  See _Russell on Crimes_ (6th ed., vol. i. p. 423; vol. iii. p. 348).
+
+
+
+
+EXTRACT (from Lat. _extrahere_, to draw out), in pharmacy, the name
+given to preparations formed by evaporating or concentrating solutions
+of active principles; _tinctures_ are solutions which have not been
+subjected to any evaporation. "Liquid extracts" are those of a syrupy
+consistency, and are generally prepared by treating the drug with the
+solvent (water, alcohol, &c.) and concentrating the solution until it
+attains the desired consistency. "Ordinary extracts" are thick,
+tenacious and sometimes even dry preparations; they are obtained by
+evaporating solutions as obtained above, or the juices expressed from
+the plants.
+
+Extraction, in chemical technology, is a process for separating one
+substance from another by taking advantage of the varying solubility of
+the components in some chosen solvent. The term "lixiviation" is used
+when water is the solvent. In laboratory practice all the common
+solvents are employed. With small quantities it may suffice to shake the
+substance with the solvent, the mixture being heated if necessary,
+filter and distil or otherwise remove the solvent from the distillate.
+For larger quantities continuous extraction is advisable. This may be
+carried out in many forms of apparatus; one of the most convenient is
+the Soxhlet extractor, in which the extract siphons into the flask
+containing the solvent, and so maintains the quantity of available
+solvent practically constant. Continuous extraction is generally the
+practice in technology. One of the most important applications is in the
+fat and gelatine industries.
+
+
+
+
+EXTRADITION (Lat. _ex_, out, and _traditio_, handing over), the
+surrender of an alleged criminal for trial by a foreign state where he
+has taken refuge, to the state against which the alleged offence has
+been committed. When a person who has committed an offence in one
+country escapes to another, what is the duty of the latter with regard
+to him? Should the country of refuge try him in its own courts according
+to its own laws, or deliver him up to the country whose laws he has
+broken? To the general question international law gives no certain
+answer. Some jurists, Grotius among them, incline to hold that a state
+is bound to give up fugitive criminals, but the majority appear to deny
+the obligation as a matter of right, and prefer to put it on the ground
+of comity. And the universal practice of nations is to surrender
+criminals only in consequence of some special treaty with the country
+which demands them.
+
+There are two practical difficulties about extradition which have
+probably prevented the growth of any uniform rule on the subject. One is
+the variation in the definitions of crime adopted by different
+countries. The second is the possibility of the process of extradition
+being employed to get hold of a person who is wanted by his country, not
+really for a criminal, but for a political offence. In modern states,
+and more particularly in England, offences of a political character have
+always been carefully excluded from the operation of the law of
+extradition.
+
+1. UNITED KINGDOM.--The Extradition Acts 1870-1873 (33 & 34 Vict. cc.
+62, and 36 & 37 Vict. c. 60) and the Fugitive Offenders Act 1881 (44 &
+45 Vict. c. 69) deal with different branches of the same subject, the
+recovery and surrender of fugitive criminals. The Extradition Acts apply
+in the case of countries with which Great Britain has extradition
+treaties. The Fugitive Offenders Act applies--(1) as between the United
+Kingdom and any British possession, (2) as between any two British
+possessions, and (3) as between the United Kingdom or a British
+possession and certain foreign countries, such as Turkey and China, in
+which the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction.
+
+_Conditions of Surrender._--In spite of some earlier authorities it has
+long been settled that in English law there is no power to surrender
+fugitive criminals to a foreign country without express statutory
+authority. Such authority is now given by the Extradition Acts
+1870-1873, but only in the case of the offences therein specified, and
+with regard to countries with which an arrangement has been entered
+into, and to which the acts have been applied by order in council. The
+acts are further to be applied, subject to such "conditions, exceptions
+and qualifications as may be deemed expedient" (s. 2); and these
+conditions, &c., are invariably to be found in the extradition treaty
+which is set out in the order in council applying the Extradition Acts
+to a particular country. To support a demand for extradition from Great
+Britain it is therefore necessary to show that the offence is one of
+those enumerated in the Extradition Acts, and also in the particular
+treaty, and that the acts charged amount to the offence according to the
+laws both of Great Britain and of the state demanding the surrender.
+
+_Surrender of Subjects._--A further question arises where a state is
+called on to surrender one of its own subjects. Some of the treaties,
+such as those with France and Germany, stipulate that neither
+contracting party shall surrender its own subjects, and in such cases a
+British subject cannot be surrendered by his own country. The treaties
+with Spain, Switzerland and Luxemburg provide for the surrender by Great
+Britain of her own subjects, but there is no reciprocity. Other
+treaties, such as those with Austria, Belgium, Russia and the
+Netherlands, give each party the option of surrendering or refusing to
+surrender its own subjects in each particular case. Under such treaties
+British subjects are surrendered unless the secretary of state
+intervenes to forbid it. Lastly, some treaties, such as that with the
+United States, contain no restriction of this kind, and the subjects of
+each power are freely surrendered to the other. Surrender by Great
+Britain is also subject to the following restrictions contained in s. 3
+of the Extradition Act 1870:--(1) that the offence is not of a political
+character, and the requisition has not been made with a view to try and
+punish for an offence of a political character; (2) that the prisoner
+shall not be liable to be tried for any but the specified extradition
+offences; (3) that he shall not be surrendered until he has been tried
+and served his sentence for offences committed in Great Britain; and (4)
+that he shall not be actually given up until fifteen days after his
+committal for extradition, so as to allow of an application to the
+courts.
+
+_Political Offences._--The question as to what constitutes a political
+offence is one of some nicety. It was discussed in _In re Castioni_
+(1890, 1 Q.B. 149), where it was held, following the opinion of Mr
+Justice Stephen in his _History of the Criminal Law_, that to give an
+offence a political character it must be "incidental to and form part of
+political disturbances." Extradition was accordingly refused for
+homicide committed in the course of an armed rising against the
+constituted authorities. In the more recent case of _In re Meunier_
+(1894, 2 Q.B. 415), an Anarchist was charged with causing two explosions
+in Paris--one at the Cafe Very resulting in the death of two persons,
+and the other at certain barracks. It was not contended that the outrage
+at the cafe was a political crime, but it was argued that the explosion
+at the barracks came within the description. The court, however, held
+that to constitute a political offence there must be two or more parties
+in the state, each seeking to impose a government of its own choice on
+the other, which was not the case with regard to Anarchist crimes. The
+party of anarchy was the enemy of all governments, and its effects were
+directed primarily against the general body of citizens. The test
+applied in the earlier case is perhaps the more satisfactory of the two.
+
+With regard to the provision that surrender shall not be granted if the
+requisition has in fact been made with a view to try and punish for an
+offence of a political character, it, was decided in the case of _Arton_
+(1896, 1 Q.B. 108) that a mere suggestion, that after his surrender for
+a non-political crime, the prisoner would be interrogated on political
+matters (his alleged complicity in the Panama scandal), and punished for
+his refusal to answer, was not enough to bring him within the provision.
+The court also held that it had no jurisdiction to entertain a
+suggestion that the request of the French government for his extradition
+was not made in good faith and in the interests of justice.
+
+_Extradition Offences._--The following is a list of crimes in respect of
+which extradition may be provided for under the Extradition Acts
+1870-1873, and the Slave Trade Act 1873. _Extradition Act_ 1870:--(1)
+Murder; (2) Attempt to murder; (3) Conspiracy to murder; (4)
+Manslaughter; (5) Counterfeiting and altering money, uttering
+counterfeit or altered money; (6) Forgery, counterfeiting, and altering
+and uttering what is forged or counterfeited or altered; (7)
+Embezzlement and larceny; (8) Obtaining money or goods by false
+pretences; (9) Crimes by bankrupts against bankruptcy law; (10) Fraud by
+a bailee, banker, agent, factor, trustee or director, or member or
+public officer of any company made criminal by any law for the time
+being in force; (11) Rape; (12) Abduction; (13) Child-stealing; (14)
+Burglary and housebreaking; (15) Arson; (16) Robbery with violence; (17)
+Threats by letter or otherwise with intent to extort; (18) Crimes
+committed at sea: (a) Piracy by the law of nations; (b) Sinking or
+destroying a vessel at sea, or attempting or conspiring to do so; (c)
+Assault on a ship on the high seas, with intent to destroy life or to do
+grievous bodily harm; (d) Revolt, or conspiring to revolt, by two or
+more persons on board a ship on the high seas against the authority of
+the master; (19) Bribery. _Extradition Act_ 1873:-(20) Kidnapping and
+false imprisonment; (21) Perjury and subornation of perjury. This act
+also extends to indictable offences under 24 & 25 Vict. cc. 96, 97, 98,
+99, 100, and amending and substituted acts. Among such offences included
+in various extradition treaties are the following:--(22) Obtaining
+valuable securities by false pretences; (23) Receiving any money,
+valuable security or other property, knowing the same to have been
+stolen or unlawfully obtained; (24) Falsification of accounts (see _In
+re Arton_, 1896, 1 Q.B. 509); (25) Malicious injury to property, if such
+offence be indictable;. (26) Knowingly making, without lawful authority,
+any instrument, tool or engine adapted and intended for the
+counterfeiting of coin of the realm; (27) Abandoning children; exposing
+or unlawfully detaining them; (28) Any malicious act done with intent to
+endanger the safety of any person in a railway train; (29) Wounding or
+inflicting grievous bodily harm; (30) Assault occasioning actual bodily
+harm; (31) Assaulting a magistrate or peace or public officer; (32)
+Indecent assault; (33) Unlawful carnal knowledge, or any attempt to have
+unlawful carnal knowledge, of a girl under age; (34) Bigamy; (35)
+Administering drugs or using instruments with intent to procure the
+miscarriage of women; (36) Any indictable offence under the laws for the
+time being in force in relation to bankruptcy. _Slave Trade Act_ 1873
+(36 & 37 Vict. c. 88, s. 27):--(37) Dealing in slaves in such manner as
+to constitute a criminal offence against the laws of both states.
+
+The United Kingdom has extradition treaties with practically all
+civilized foreign countries; and though it is not practicable to state
+which of the statutory extradition offences are included in each, it may
+be said generally that crimes 1 to 17 inclusive are covered in all,
+though Rumania has reserved the right to refuse, and Portugal does
+refuse, to surrender for a crime punishable with death.
+
+The act of 1873 provides for the surrender of accessories before and
+after the fact to extradition crimes, and most of the treaties contain a
+clause by which extradition is to be granted for participation in any of
+the crimes specified in the treaty, provided that such participation is
+punishable by the laws of both countries. Several of the treaties also
+contain clauses, providing for optional surrender in respect of any
+crime not expressly mentioned for which extradition can be granted by
+the laws of both countries.
+
+It is further to be noted that the restrictions on surrender in the
+Extradition Acts apply only to surrenders by Great Britain. Foreign
+countries may surrender fugitives to Great Britain without any treaty,
+if they are willing to do so and their law allows of it, and such
+surrenders have not infrequently been made. But when surrendered for an
+extradition crime, the prisoner cannot be tried in England for any other
+crime committed before such surrender, until he has been restored, or
+has had an opportunity of returning, to the foreign state from which he
+was extradited.
+
+_Procedure._--To obtain from a foreign country the extradition of a
+fugitive from the United Kingdom, it is necessary to procure a warrant
+for his arrest, and to send it, or a certified copy, to the home
+secretary together with such further evidence as is required by the
+treaty with the country in question. In most, cases an information or
+deposition containing evidence which would justify a committal for trial
+in Great Britain will be required. The home secretary will then
+communicate through the foreign secretary and the proper diplomatic
+channels with the foreign authorities, and in case of urgency will ask
+them by telegraph for a provisional arrest. For the arrest in the United
+Kingdom of fugitive criminals whose extradition is requested by a
+foreign state, two procedures are provided in ss. 7 and 8 of the act of
+1870:--(1) On a diplomatic requisition supported by the warrant of
+arrest and documentary evidence, the home secretary, if he thinks the
+crime is not of a political character, will order the chief magistrate
+at Bow Street to proceed; and such magistrate will then issue a warrant
+of arrest on such evidence as would be required if the offence had been
+committed in the United Kingdom. (2) More summarily, any magistrate or
+justice of the peace may issue a provisional warrant of arrest on
+evidence which would support such a warrant if the crime had been
+committed within his jurisdiction. In practice a sworn information is
+required, but this may be based on a telegram from the foreign
+authorities. The magistrate or justice must then report the issue of the
+warrant to the home secretary, who may cancel it and discharge the
+prisoner. When arrested on the provisional warrant, the prisoner will be
+brought up before a magistrate and remanded to Bow Street, and will then
+be further remanded until the magistrate at Bow Street is notified that
+a formal requisition for surrender has been made; and unless such
+requisition is made in reasonable time the prisoner is entitled to be
+discharged. The examination of the prisoner prior to his committal for
+extradition ordinarily takes place at Bow Street. The magistrate is
+required to hear evidence that the alleged offence is of a political
+character or is not an extradition crime. If satisfied in these
+respects, and if the foreign warrant of arrest is duly authenticated,
+and evidence is given which according to English law would justify a
+committal for trial, if the prisoner has not yet been tried, or would
+prove a conviction if he has already been convicted, the magistrate will
+commit him for extradition. Under the Extradition Act, 1895 the home
+secretary, if of opinion that removal to Bow Street would be dangerous
+to the prisoner's life, or prejudicial to his health, may order the case
+to be taken by a magistrate at the place where the prisoner was
+apprehended, or then is, and the magistrate may order the prisoner to
+be detained in such place. After committal for extradition, every
+prisoner has fifteen days in which to apply for _habeas corpus_, and
+after such period, or at the close of the _habeas corpus_ proceedings if
+they are unsuccessful, the home secretary issues his warrant for
+surrender, and the prisoner is handed over to the officers of the
+foreign government.
+
+The Extradition Acts apply to the British colonies, the governor being
+substituted for the secretary of state. Their operation may, however, be
+suspended by order in council, as in the case of Canada, where the
+colony has passed an Extradition Act of its own (see Statutory Rules and
+Orders).
+
+_Fugitive Offenders Act._--There are no extradition treaties with
+certain countries in which the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction,
+such as Cyprus, Turkey, Egypt, China, Japan, Corea, Zanzibar, Morocco,
+Siam, Persia, Somali, &c. In these countries the Fugitive Offenders Act
+1881 (44 & 45 Vict. c. 69) has been applied, pursuant to s. 36 of that
+statute, and the measures for obtaining surrender of a fugitive criminal
+are the same as in a British colony. The act, however, only applies to
+persons over whom the crown has jurisdiction in these territories, and
+generally is expressly restricted to British subjects.
+
+Under this act a fugitive from one part of the king's dominions to
+another, or to a country where the crown exercises foreign jurisdiction,
+may be brought back by a procedure analogous to extradition, but
+applicable only to treason, piracy and offences punishable with twelve
+months' imprisonment with hard labour or more. The original warrant of
+arrest must be endorsed by one of several authorities where the
+offenders happen to be,--in practice by the home secretary in the United
+Kingdom and by the governor in a colony. Pending the arrival of the
+original warrant a provisional arrest may be made, as under the
+Extradition Acts. The fugitive must then be brought up for examination
+before a local magistrate, who, if the endorsed warrant is duly
+authenticated, and evidence is produced "which, according to the law
+administered by the magistrate, raises a strong or probable presumption
+that the offender committed the offence, and that the act applies to
+it," may commit him for return. An interval of fifteen days is allowed
+for _habeas corpus_ proceedings, and (s. 10) the court has a large
+discretion to discharge the prisoner, or impose terms, if it thinks the
+case frivolous, or that the return would be unjust or oppressive, or too
+severe a punishment. The next step is for the home secretary in the
+United Kingdom, and the governor in a colony, to issue a warrant for the
+return of the prisoner. He must be removed within a month, in the
+absence of reasonable cause to the contrary. If not prosecuted within
+six months after arrival, or if acquitted, he is entitled to be sent
+back free of cost.
+
+In the case of fugitive offenders from one part of the United Kingdom to
+another, it is enough to get the warrant of arrest backed by a
+magistrate having jurisdiction in that part of the United Kingdom where
+the offender happens to be. A warrant issued by a metropolitan police
+magistrate may be executed, without backing, by a metropolitan police
+officer anywhere, and there are certain other exceptions, but as a rule
+a warrant cannot be executed without being backed by a local magistrate.
+     (J. E. P. W.)
+
+2. UNITED STATES.--Foreign extradition is purely an affair of the United
+States, and not for the individual states themselves. Upon a demand upon
+the United States for extradition, there is a preliminary examination
+before a commissioner or judge before there can be a surrender to the
+foreign government (Revised Statutes, Title LXVI.; 22 Statutes at Large,
+215). It is enough to show probable guilt (_Ornelas_ v. _Ruiz_, 161
+United States Reports, 502). An extradition treaty covers crimes
+previously committed. If a Power, with which the United States have such
+a treaty, surrenders a fugitive charged with a crime not included in the
+treaty, he may be tried in the United States for such crime. Inter-state
+extradition is regulated by act of Congress under the Constitution of
+the United States (Article IV. s. 2; United States Revised Statutes, s.
+5278). A surrender may be demanded of one properly charged with an act
+which constitutes a crime under the laws of the demanding state,
+although it be no crime in the other state. A party improperly
+surrendered may be released by writ of _habeas corpus_, either from a
+state or United States court (_Robb_ v. _Conolly_, 111 U.S. Reports,
+624). On his return to the state from which he fled, he is subject to
+prosecution for any crime, though on a foreign extradition the law is
+otherwise (_Lascelles_ v. _Georgia_, 148 U.S. Reports, 537).
+     (S. E. B.).
+
+  See Sir E. Clarke, _Treatise upon the Law of Extradition_ (4th ed.,
+  1904); Biron and Chalmers, _Law and Practice of Extradition_ (1903).
+
+
+
+
+EXTRADOS (_extra_, outside, Fr. _dos_, back), the architectural term for
+the outer boundary of the voussoirs of an arch (q.v.).
+
+
+
+
+EXTREME UNCTION, a sacrament of the Roman Catholic Church. In James v.
+14 it is ordained that, if any believer is sick, he shall call for the
+elders of the church; and they shall pray over him, anointing him with
+oil in the name of the Lord; and the prayer of faith shall save him that
+is sick, and the Lord shall raise him up; and if he have committed sins,
+it shall be forgiven him.
+
+Origen reprobated medical art on the ground that the prescription here
+cited is enough; modern faith-healers and Peculiar People have followed
+in his wake. The Catholic Church has more wisely left physicians in
+possession, and elevated the anointing of the sick into a sacrament to
+be used only in cases of mortal sickness, and even then not to the
+exclusion of the healing art.
+
+It has been general since the 9th century. The council of Florence A.D.
+1439 thus defined it:--
+
+  "The fifth sacrament is extreme unction. Its matter is olive oil,
+  blessed by a bishop. It shall not be given except to a sick person
+  whose death is apprehended. He shall be anointed in the following
+  places: the eyes, ears, nostrils, mouth, hands, feet, reins. The form
+  of the sacrament, is this: Through this anointing of thee and through
+  its most pious mercy, be forgiven all thy sins of sight, &c. ... and
+  so in respect of the other organs. A priest can administer this
+  sacrament. But its effect is to make whole the mind, and, so far as it
+  is expedient, the body as well."
+
+This sacrament supplements that of penance (viz. remission of
+post-baptismal sin) in the sense that any guilt unconfessed or left over
+after normal penances imposed by confessors is purged thereby. It was
+discussed in the 12th century whether this sacrament is indelible like
+baptism, or whether it can be repeated; and the latter view, that of
+Peter Lombard, prevailed.
+
+It was a popular opinion in the middle ages that extreme unction
+extinguishes all ties and links with this world, so that he who has
+received it must, if he recovers, renounce the eating of flesh and
+matrimonial relations. A few peasants of Lombardy still believe that one
+who has received extreme unction ought to be left to die, and that sick
+people may be starved to death through the withholding of food on
+superstitious grounds. Such opinions, combated by bishops and councils,
+were due to the influence of the _consolamentum_ of the Cathars (q.v.).
+In both sacraments the death-bed baptism of an earlier age seems to
+survive, and they both fulfil a deep-seated need of the human spirit.
+
+Some Gnostics sprinkled the heads of the dying with oil and water to
+render them invisible to the powers of darkness; but in the East
+generally, where the need to compete with the Cathar sacrament of
+_Consolatio_ was less acutely felt, extreme unction is unknown. The
+Latinizing Armenians adopted it from Rome in the crusading epoch. At an
+earlier date, however, it was usual to anoint the dead.
+
+In the Roman Church the bishop blesses the oil of the sick used in
+extreme unctions on Holy Thursday at the Chrismal Mass,[1] using the
+following prayer of the sacramentaries of Gelasius and Hadrian:--
+
+  "Send forth, we pray Thee, O Lord, Thy holy spirit, the Paraclete from
+  Heaven, into this fatness of oil, which Thou hast deigned to produce
+  from the green wood for refreshment of mind and body; and through Thy
+  holy benediction may it be for all that anoint, taste, touch, a
+  protection of mind and body, of soul and spirit, unto the easing away
+  of all pain, all weakness, all sickness of mind and body; wherefore
+  Thou hast anointed priest, kings and prophets and martyrs with thy
+  chrism, perfected by Thee, O Lord, blessed and abiding in our bowels
+  in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ."
+
+  See L. Duchesne, _Origines du Culte Chretien_ (Paris, 1898).
+       (F. C. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] The oil left over from the year before is burnt.
+
+
+
+
+EYBESCHUTZ, JONATHAN (1690-1764), German rabbi, was from 1750 rabbi in
+Altona. He was a man of erudition, but he owed his fame chiefly to his
+personality. Few men of the period so profoundly impressed their mark on
+Jewish life. He became specially notorious because of a curious
+controversy that arose concerning the amulets which Eybeschutz was
+suspected of issuing. These amulets recognized the Messianic claims of
+Sabbatai Sebi (q.v.), and a famous rabbinic contemporary of Eybeschutz,
+Jacob Emden, boldly accused him of heresy. The controversy was a
+momentous incident in the Jewish life of the period, and though there is
+insufficient evidence against Eybeschutz, Emden may be credited with
+having crushed the lingering belief in Sabbatai current even in some
+orthodox circles.     (I. A.)
+
+
+
+
+EYCK, VAN, the name of a family of Flemish painters in whose works the
+rise and mature development of art in western Flanders are represented.
+Though bred in the valley of the Meuse, they finally established their
+professional domicile in Ghent and in Bruges; and there, by skill and
+inventive genius, they changed the traditional habits of the earlier
+schools, remodelled the primitive forms of Flemish design, and
+introduced a complete revolution into the technical methods of execution
+familiar to their countrymen.
+
+1. HUBERT (Huybrecht) VAN EYCK (? 1366-1426) was the oldest and most
+remarkable of this race of artists. The date of his birth and the
+records of his progress are lost amidst the ruins of the earlier
+civilization of the valley of the Meuse. He was born about 1366, at
+Maeseyck, under the shelter or protection of a Benedictine convent, in
+which art and letters had been cultivated from the beginning of the 8th
+century. But after a long series of wars--when the country became
+insecure, and the schools which had flourished in the towns decayed--he
+wandered to Flanders, and there for the first time gained a name. As
+court painter to the hereditary prince of Burgundy, and as client to one
+of the richest of the Ghent patricians, Hubert is celebrated. Here, in
+middle age, between 1410 and 1420, he signalized himself as the inventor
+of a new method of painting. Here he lived in the pay of Philip of
+Charolais till 1421. Here he painted pictures for the corporation, whose
+chief magistrates honoured him with a state visit in 1424. His principal
+masterpiece, the "Worship of the Lamb," commissioned by Jodocus Vijdts,
+lord of Pamele, is the noblest creation of the Flemish school, a piece
+of which we possess all the parts dispersed from St Bavon in Ghent to
+the galleries of Brussels and Berlin,--one upon which Hubert laboured
+till he died, leaving it to be completed by his brother. Almost unique
+as an illustration of contemporary feeling for Christian art, this great
+composition can only be matched by the "Fount of Salvation," in the
+museum of Madrid. It represents, on numerous panels, Christ on the
+judgment seat, with the Virgin and St John the Baptist at His sides,
+hearing the songs of the angels, and contemplated by Adam and Eve, and,
+beneath him, the Lamb shedding His blood in the presence of angels,
+apostles, prophets, martyrs, knights and hermits. On the outer sides of
+the panels are the Virgin and the angel annunciate, the sibyls and
+prophets who foretold the coming of the Lord, and the donors in prayer
+at the feet of the Baptist and Evangelist. After this great work was
+finished it was placed, in 1432, on an altar in St Bavon of Ghent, with
+an inscription on the framework describing Hubert as "maior quo nemo
+repertus," and setting forth, in colours as imperishable as the picture
+itself, that Hubert began and John afterwards brought it to perfection.
+John van Eyck certainly wished to guard against an error which
+ill-informed posterity showed itself but too prone to foster, the error
+that he alone had composed and carried out an altarpiece executed
+jointly by Hubert and himself. His contemporaries may be credited with
+full knowledge of the truth in this respect, and the facts were equally
+well known to the duke of Burgundy or the chiefs of the corporation of
+Bruges, who visited the painter's house in state in 1432, and the
+members of the chamber of rhetoric at Ghent, who reproduced the Agnus
+Dei as a _tableau vivant_ in 1456. Yet a later generation of Flemings
+forgot the claims of Hubert, and gave the honours that were his due to
+his brother John exclusively.
+
+The solemn grandeur of church art in the 15th century never found, out
+of Italy, a nobler exponent than Hubert van Eyck. His representation of
+Christ as the judge, between the Virgin and St John, affords a fine
+display of realistic truth, combined with pure drawing and gorgeous
+colour, and a happy union of earnestness and simplicity with the deepest
+religious feeling. In contrast with earlier productions of the Flemish
+school, it shows a singular depth of tone and great richness of detail.
+Finished with surprising skill, it is executed with the new oil medium,
+of which Hubert shared the invention with his brother, but of which no
+rival artists at the time possessed the secret,--a medium which consists
+of subtle mixtures of oil and varnish applied to the moistening of
+pigments after a fashion, only kept secret for a time from gildsmen of
+neighbouring cities, but unrevealed to the Italians till near the close
+of the 15th century. When Hubert died on the 18th of September 1426 he
+was buried in the chapel on the altar of which his masterpiece was
+placed. According to a tradition as old as the 16th century, his arm was
+preserved as a relic in a casket above the portal of St Bavon of Ghent.
+During a life of much apparent activity and surprising successes he
+taught the elements of his art to his brother John, who survived him.
+
+2. JOHN (Jan) VAN EYCK (? 1385-1440). The date of his birth is not more
+accurately known than that of his elder brother, but he was born much
+later than Hubert, who took charge of him and made him his "disciple."
+Under this tuition John learnt to draw and paint, and mastered the
+properties of colours from Pliny. Later on, Hubert admitted him into
+partnership, and both were made court painters to Philip of Charolais.
+After the breaking up of the prince's household in 1421, John became his
+own master, left the workshop of Hubert, and took an engagement as
+painter to John of Bavaria, at that time resident at the Hague as count
+of Holland. From the Hague he returned in 1424 to take service with
+Philip, now duke of Burgundy, at a salary of 100 livres per annum, and
+from that time till his death John van Eyck remained the faithful
+servant of his prince, who never treated him otherwise than graciously.
+He was frequently employed in missions of trust; and following the
+fortunes of a chief who was always in the saddle, he appears for a time
+to have been in ceaseless motion, receiving extra pay for secret
+services at Leiden, drawing his salary at Bruges, yet settled in a fixed
+abode at Lille. In 1428 he joined the embassy sent by Philip the Good to
+Lisbon to beg the hand of Isabella of Portugal. His portrait of the
+bride fixed the duke's choice. After his return he settled finally at
+Bruges, where he married, and his wife bore him a daughter, known in
+after years as a nun in the convent of Maeseyck. At the christening of
+this child the duke was sponsor, and this was but one, of many
+distinctions by which Philip the Good rewarded his painter's merits.
+Numerous altarpieces and portraits now give proof of van Eyck's
+extensive practice. As finished works of art and models of conscientious
+labour they are all worthy of the name they bear, though not of equal
+excellence, none being better than those which were completed about
+1432. Of an earlier period, a "Consecration of Thomas a Becket" has been
+preserved, and may now be seen at Chatsworth, bearing the date of 1421;
+no doubt this picture would give a fair representation of van Eyck's
+talents at the moment when he started as an independent master, but that
+time and accidents of omission and commission have altered its state to
+such an extent that no conclusive opinion can be formed respecting it.
+The panels of the "Worship of the Lamb" were completed nine years later.
+They show that John van Eyck was quite able to work in the spirit of his
+brother. He had not only the lines of Hubert's compositions to guide
+him, he had also those parts to look at and to study which Hubert had
+finished. He continued the work with almost as much vigour as his
+master. His own experience had been increased by travel, and he had seen
+the finest varieties of landscape in Portugal and the Spanish provinces.
+This enabled him to transfer to his pictures the charming scenery of
+lands more sunny than those of Flanders, and this he did with accuracy
+and not without poetic feeling. We may ascribe much of the success which
+attended his efforts to complete the altarpiece of Ghent to the
+cleverness with which he [reproduced the varied aspect of changing
+scenery, reminiscent here of the orange groves of Cintra, there of the
+bluffs and crags of his native valley. In all these backgrounds, though
+we miss the scientific rules of perspective with which the van Eycks
+were not familiar, we find such delicate perceptions of gradations in
+tone, such atmosphere, yet such minuteness and perfection of finish,
+that our admiration never flags. Nor is the colour less brilliant or the
+touch less firm than in Hubert's panels. John only differs from his
+brother in being less masculine and less sternly religious. He excels in
+two splendid likenesses of Jodocus Vijdts and his wife Catherine
+Burluuts. The same vigorous style and coloured key of harmony
+characterizes the small "Virgin and Child" of 1432 at Ince, and the
+"Madonna," probably of the same date, at the Louvre, executed for
+Rollin, chancellor of Burgundy. Contemporary with these, the male
+portraits in the National Gallery, and the "Man with the Pinks," in the
+Berlin Museum (1432-1434), show no relaxation of power; but later
+creations display no further progress, unless we accept as progress a
+more searching delicacy of finish, counterbalanced by an excessive
+softness of rounding in flesh contours. An unfaltering minuteness of
+hand and great tenderness of treatment may be found, combined with
+angularity of drapery and some awkwardness of attitude in the full
+length portrait couple (John Arnolfini and his wife) at the National
+Gallery (1434), in which a rare insight into the detail of animal nature
+is revealed in a study of a terrier dog. A "Madonna with Saints," at
+Dresden, equally soft and minute, charms us by the mastery with which an
+architectural background is put in. The bold and energetic striving of
+earlier days, the strong bright tone, are not equalled by the soft
+blending and tender tints of the later ones. Sometimes a crude ruddiness
+in flesh strikes us as a growing defect, an instance of which is the
+picture in the museum of Bruges, in which Canon van der Paelen is
+represented kneeling before the Virgin under the protection of St George
+(1434). From first to last van Eyck retains his ability in portraiture.
+Fine specimens are the two male likenesses in the gallery of Vienna
+(1436), and a female, the master's wife, in the gallery of Bruges
+(1439). His death in 1440/41 at Bruges is authentically recorded. He was
+buried in St Donat. Like many great artists he formed but few pupils.
+Hubert's disciple, Jodocus of Ghent, hardly does honour to his master's
+teaching, and only acquires importance after he has thrown off some of
+the peculiarities of Flemish teaching. Petrus Cristus, who was taught by
+John, remains immeasurably behind him in everything that relates to art.
+But if the personal influence of the van Eycks was small, that of their
+works was immense, and it is not too much to say that their example,
+taken in conjunction with that of van der Weyden, determined the current
+and practice of painting throughout the whole of Europe north of the
+Alps for nearly a century.
+
+  See also Waagen, _Hubert and Johann van Eyck_ (1822); Voll, _Werke des
+  Jan van Eyck_ (1900); L. Kammerer on the two families in Knackfuss's
+  _Kunstler-Monographien_ (1898).     (J. A. C.)
+
+
+
+
+EYE, a market-town and municipal borough in the Eye parliamentary
+division of Suffolk; England; 94-1/2 m. N.E. from London by the Great
+Eastern railway, the terminus of a branch from the Ipswich-Norwich line.
+Pop. (1901) 2004. The church of St Peter and St Paul is mainly of
+Perpendicular flint work, with Early English portions and a fine
+Perpendicular rood screen. It was formerly attached to a Benedictine
+priory. Slight fragments of a Norman castle crown a mound of probably
+earlier construction. There are a town hall, corn exchange, and grammar
+school founded in 1566. Brewing is the chief industry. The town is
+governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 4410 acres.
+
+Eye (_Heya_, _Aye_) was once surrounded by a stream, from which it is
+said to have derived its name. Leland says it was situated in a marsh
+and had formerly been accessible by river vessels from Cromer, though
+the river was then only navigable to Burston, 12 m. from Eye. From the
+discovery of numerous bones and Roman urns and coins it has been thought
+that the place was once the cemetery of a Roman camp. William I. gave
+the lordship of Eye to Robert Malet, a Norman, who built a castle and a
+Benedictine monastery which was at first subordinate to the abbey of
+Bernay in Normandy. Eye is a borough by prescription. In 1205 King John
+granted to the townsmen a charter freeing them from various tolls and
+customs and from the jurisdiction of the shire and hundred courts. Later
+charters were granted by Elizabeth in 1558 and 1574, by James I. in
+1604, and by William III. in 1697. In 1574 the borough was newly
+incorporated under two bailiffs, ten chief and twenty-four inferior
+burgesses, and an annual fair on Whit-Monday and a market on Saturday
+were granted. Two members were returned to each parliament from 1571
+till 1832, when the Reform Act reduced the membership to one. By the
+Redistribution Act of 1885 the representation was merged in the Eye
+division of the county. The making of pillow-lace was formerly carried
+on extensively, but practically ceased with the introduction of
+machinery.
+
+
+
+
+EYE (O. Eng. _eage_, Ger. _Auge_); derived from an Indo-European root
+also seen in Lat. _oc-ulus_, the organ of vision (q.v.).
+
+ANATOMY.--The eye consists of the eyeball, which is the true organ of
+sight, as well as of certain muscles which move it, and of the lachrymal
+apparatus which keeps the front of it in a moist condition. The
+_eyeball_ is contained in the front of the orbit and is a sphere of
+about an inch (24 mm.) in diameter. From the front of this a segment of
+a lesser sphere projects slightly and forms the _cornea_ (fig. 1, co).
+There are three coats to the eyeball, an external (protective), a middle
+(vascular), and an internal (sensory). There are also three refracting
+media, the aqueous humour, the lens and the vitreous humour or body.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 1.--Diagrammatic Section through the Eyeball.
+
+  cj, Conjunctiva.             L, Lens.
+  co, Cornea.                  V, Vitreous body.
+  Sc, Sclerotic.               Z, Zonule of Zinn, the ciliary
+  ch, Choroid.                      process being removed to
+  pc, Ciliary processes.            show it.
+  mc, Ciliary muscle.          p, Canal of Petit.
+  O,  Optic nerve.             m, Yellow spot.
+  R,  Retina                        The dotted line behind the
+  I,  Iris.                         cornea represents its posterior
+  aq, Anterior chamber of           epithelium.]
+        aqueous humour.
+
+The protective coat consists of the _sclerotic_ in the posterior
+five-sixths and the cornea in the anterior sixth. The sclerotic (fig. 1,
+Sc) is a firm fibrous coat, forming the "white of the eye," which
+posteriorly is pierced by the optic nerve and blends with the sheath of
+that nerve, while anteriorly it is continued into the cornea at the
+_corneo-scleral junction_. At this point a small canal, known as the
+_canal of Schlemm_, runs round the margin of the cornea in the substance
+of the sclerotic (see fig. 1). Between the sclerotic and the subjacent
+choroid coat is a lymph space traversed by some loose pigmented
+connective tissue,--the _lamina fusca_. The cornea is quite continuous
+with the sclerotic but has a greater convexity. Under the microscope it
+is seen to consist of five layers. Most anteriorly there is a layer of
+stratified epithelium, then an anterior elastic layer, then the
+_substantia propria_ of the cornea which is fibrous with spaces in which
+the stellate _corneal corpuscles_ lie, while behind this is the
+posterior elastic layer and then a delicate layer of endothelium. The
+transparency of the cornea is due to the fact that all these structures
+have the same refractive index.
+
+The middle or vascular coat of the eye consists of the _choroid_, the
+_ciliary processes_ and the _iris_. The choroid (fig. 1, ch) does not
+come quite as far forward as the corneo-scleral junction: it is composed
+of numerous blood-vessels and pigment cells bound together by connective
+tissue and, superficially, is lined by a delicate layer of pigmented
+connective tissue called the _lamina suprachoroidea_ in contact with the
+already-mentioned perichoroidal lymph space. On the deep surface of the
+choroid is a structureless basal lamina.
+
+The _ciliary processes_ are some seventy triangular ridges, radially
+arranged, with their apices pointing backward (fig. 1, pc), while their
+bases are level with the corneo-scleral junction. They are as vascular
+as the rest of the choroid, and contain in their interior the _ciliary
+muscle_, which consists of radiating and circular fibres. The radiating
+fibres (fig. 1, mc) rise, close to the canal of Schlemm, from the margin
+of the posterior elastic lamina of the cornea, and pass backward and
+outward into the ciliary processes and anterior part of the choroid,
+which they pull forward when they contract. The circular fibres lie just
+internal to these and are few or wanting in short-sighted people.
+
+The _iris_ (fig. 1, I) is the coloured diaphragm of the eye, the centre
+of which is pierced to form the pupil; it is composed of a connective
+tissue stroma containing blood-vessels, pigment cells and muscle fibres.
+In front of it is a reflection of the same layer of endothelium which
+lines the back of the cornea, while behind both it and the ciliary
+processes is a double layer of epithelium, deeply pigmented, which
+really belongs to the retina. The pigment in the substance of the iris
+is variously coloured in different individuals, and is often deposited
+after birth, so that, in newly-born European children, the colour of the
+eyes is often slate-blue owing to the black pigment at the back of the
+iris showing through. White, yellow or reddish-brown pigment is
+deposited later in the substance of the iris, causing the appearance,
+with the black pigment behind, of grey, hazel or brown eyes. In
+blue-eyed people very little interstitial pigment is formed, while in
+Albinos the posterior pigment is also absent and the blood vessels give
+the pink coloration. The muscle fibres of the iris are described as
+circular and radiating, though it is still uncertain whether the latter
+are really muscular rather than elastic. On to the front of the iris, at
+its margin, the posterior layer of the posterior elastic lamina is
+continued as a series of ridges called the _ligamentum pectinatum
+iridis_, while between these ridges are depressions known as the _spaces
+of Fontana_.
+
+The inner or sensory layer of the wall of the eyeball is the _retina_;
+it is a delicate transparent membrane which becomes thinner as the front
+of the eye is approached. A short distance behind the ciliary processes
+the nervous part of it stops and forms a scalloped border called the
+_ora serrata_, but the pigmented layer is continued on behind the
+ciliary processes and iris, as has been mentioned, and is known as the
+_pars ciliaris retinae_ and _pars iridica retinae_. Under the microscope
+the posterior part of the retina is seen to consist of eight layers. In
+its passage from the lens and vitreous the light reaches these layers in
+the following order:--(1) Layer of nerve fibres; (2) Layer of ganglion
+cells; (3) Inner molecular layer; (4) Inner nuclear layer; (5) Outer
+molecular layer; (6) Outer nuclear layer; (7) Layer of rods and cones;
+(8) Pigmented layer.
+
+  The layer of nerve fibres (fig. 2, 2) is composed of the
+  axis-cylinders only of the fibres of the optic nerve which pierce the
+  sclerotic, choroid and all the succeeding layers of the retina to
+  radiate over its surface.
+
+  The ganglionic layer (fig. 2, 3) consists of a single stratum of large
+  ganglion cells, each of which is continuous with a fibre of the
+  preceding layer which forms its axon. Each also gives off a number of
+  finer processes (dendrites) which arborize in the next layer.
+
+  The inner molecular layer (fig. 2, 4) is formed by the interlacement
+  of the dendrites of the last layer with those of the cells of the
+  inner nuclear layer which comes next.
+
+  The inner nuclear layer (fig. 2, 5) contains three different kinds of
+  cells, but the most important and numerous are large bipolar cells,
+  which send one process into the inner molecular layer, as has just
+  been mentioned, and the other into the outer molecular layer, where
+  they arborize with the ends of the rod and cone fibres.
+
+  The outer molecular layer (fig. 2, 6) is very narrow and is formed by
+  the arborizations just described. The outer nuclear layer (fig. 2, 7),
+  like the inner, consists of oval cells, which are of two kinds. The
+  rod granules are transversely striped, and are connected externally
+  with the rods, while internally processes pass into the outer
+  molecular layer to end in a knob around which the arborizations of the
+  inner nuclear cells lie. The cone granules are situated more
+  externally, and are in close contact with the cones; internally their
+  processes form a foot-plate in the outer molecular layer from which
+  arborizations extend.
+
+  The layer of rods and cones (fig. 2, 9) contains these structures, the
+  rods being more numerous than the cones. The rods are spindle-shaped
+  bodies, of which the inner segment is thicker than the outer. The
+  cones are thicker and shorter than the rods, and resemble Indian
+  clubs, the handles of which are directed outward and are transversely
+  striped. In the outer part of the rods the visual purple or rhodopsin
+  is found.
+
+  The pigmented layer consists of a single layer of hexagonal cells
+  containing pigment, which is capable of moving towards the rods and
+  cones when the eye is exposed to light and away from them in the dark.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 2.--Diagrammatic section through the retina to show
+the several layers, which are numbered as in the text. Ct, The radial
+fibres of the supporting connective tissue.]
+
+Supporting the delicate nervous structures of the retina are a series of
+connective tissue rods known as the _fibres of Muller_ (fig. 2, Ct);
+these run through the thickness of the retina at right angles to its
+surface, and are joined together on the inner side of the layer of nerve
+fibres to form the _inner limiting membrane_. More externally, at the
+bases of the rods and cones, they unite again to form the outer limiting
+membrane.
+
+When the retina is looked at with the naked eye from in front two small
+marks are seen on it. One of these is an oval depression about 3 mm.
+across, which, owing to the presence of pigment, is of a yellow colour
+and is known as the yellow spot (_macula lutea_); it is situated
+directly in the antero-posterior axis of the eyeball, and at its margin
+the nerve fibre layer is thinned and the ganglionic layer thickened. At
+its centre, however, both these layers are wanting, and in the layer of
+rods and cones only the cones are present. This central part is called
+the _fovea centralis_ and is the point of acutest vision. The second
+mark is situated a little below and to the inner side of the yellow
+spot; it is a circular disk with raised margins and a depressed centre
+and is called the _optic disk_; in structure it is a complete contrast
+to the yellow spot, for all the layers except that of the nerve fibres
+are wanting, and consequently, as light cannot be appreciated here, it
+is known as the "blind spot." It marks the point of entry of the optic
+nerve, and at its centre the retinal artery appears and divides into
+branches. An appreciation of the condition of the optic disk is one of
+the chief objects of the ophthalmoscope.
+
+The _crystalline lens_ (fig. 1, L) with its ligament separates the
+aqueous from the vitreous chamber of the eye; it is a biconvex lens the
+posterior surface of which is more curved than the anterior. Radiating
+from the anterior and posterior poles are three faint lines forming a Y,
+the posterior Y being erect and the anterior inverted. Running from
+these figures are a series of lamellae, like the layers of an onion,
+each of which is made up of a number of fibrils called the lens fibres.
+On the anterior surface of the lens is a layer of epithelial cells,
+which, towards the margin or equator, gradually elongate into lens
+fibres. The whole lens is enclosed in an elastic structureless membrane,
+and, like the cornea, its transparency is due to the fact that all its
+constituents have the same refractive index.
+
+The ligament of the lens is the thickened anterior part of the hyaloid
+membrane which surrounds the vitreous body; it is closely connected to
+the iris at the ora serrata, and then splits into two layers, of which
+the anterior is the thicker and blends with the anterior part of the
+elastic capsule of the lens, so that, when its attachment to the ora
+serrata is drawn forward by the ciliary muscle, the lens, by its own
+elasticity, increases its convexity. Between the anterior and posterior
+splitting of the hyaloid membrane is a circular lymph space surrounding
+the margin of the lens known as the _canal of Petit_ (fig. 1, p).
+
+The _aqueous humour_ (fig. 1, aq) is contained between the lens and its
+ligament posteriorly and the cornea anteriorly. It is practically a very
+weak solution of common salt (chloride of sodium 1.4%). The space
+containing it is imperfectly divided into a large anterior and a small
+posterior chamber by a perforated diaphragm--the iris.
+
+The _vitreous body_ or _humour_ is a jelly which fills all the contents
+of the eyeball behind the lens. It is surrounded by the hyaloid
+membrane, already noticed, and anteriorly is concave for the reception
+of the lens.
+
+From the centre of the optic disk to the posterior pole of the lens a
+lymph canal formed by a tube of the hyaloid membrane stretches through
+the centre of the vitreous body; this is the _canal of Stilling_, which
+in the embryo transmitted the hyaloid artery to the lens. The
+composition of the vitreous is practically the same as that of the
+aqueous humour.
+
+The _arteries of the eyeball_ are all derived from the ophthalmic branch
+of the internal carotid, and consist of the retinal which enters the
+optic nerve far back in the orbit, the two long ciliaries, which run
+forward in the choroid and join the anterior ciliaries, from muscular
+branches of the ophthalmic, in the circulus iridis major round the
+margin of the iris, and the six to twelve short ciliaries which pierce
+the sclerotic round the optic nerve and supply the choroid and ciliary
+processes.
+
+The _veins of the eyeball_ emerge as four or five trunks rather behind
+the equator; these are called from their appearance _venae vorticosae_,
+and open into the superior ophthalmic vein. In addition to these there
+is a retinal vein which accompanies its artery.
+
+_Accessory Structures of the Eye._--The _eyelids_ are composed of the
+following structures from in front backward: (1) Skin; (2) Superficial
+fascia; (3) Orbicularis palpebrarum muscle; (4) _Tarsal plates_ of
+fibrous tissue attached to the orbital margin by the superior and
+inferior _palpebral ligaments_, and, at the junction of the eyelids, by
+the external and internal _tarsal ligaments_ of which the latter is also
+known as the _tendo oculi_; (5) _Meibomian glands_, which are large
+modified sebaceous glands lubricating the edges of the lids and
+preventing them adhering, and _Glands of Moll_, large sweat glands
+which, when inflamed, cause a "sty"; (6) the _conjunctiva_, a layer of
+mucous membrane which lines the back of the eyelids and is reflected on
+to the front of the globe, the reflection forming the fornix: on the
+front of the cornea the conjunctiva is continuous with the layer of
+epithelial cells already mentioned.
+
+The _lachrymal_ gland is found in the upper and outer part of the front
+of the orbit. It is about the size of an almond and has an upper
+(orbital) and a lower (palpebral) part. Its six to twelve ducts open on
+to the superior fornix of the conjunctiva.
+
+The _lachrymal canals_ (canaliculi) (see fig. 3, 2 and 3) are superior
+and inferior, and open by minute orifices (puncta) on to the free
+margins of the two eyelids near their inner point of junction. They
+collect the tears, secreted by the lachrymal gland, which thus pass
+right across the front of the eyeball, continually moistening the
+conjunctiva. The two ducts are bent round a small pink tubercle called
+the _caruncula lachrymalis_ (fig. 3, 4) at the inner angle of the
+eyelids, and open into the _lachrymal sac_ (fig. 3, 5), which lies in a
+groove in the lachrymal bone. The sac is continued down into the _nasal
+duct_ (fig. 3, 6), which is about 3/4 inch long and opens into the
+inferior meatus of the nose, its opening being guarded by a valve.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 3.--Lachrymal Canals and Duct.
+
+  1, Orbicular muscle.    5, Lachrymal sac.
+  2, Lachrymal canal.     6, Lachrymal duct.
+  3, Punctum.             7, Angular artery.
+  4, Caruncula.]
+
+The orbit contains seven muscles, six of which rise close to the optic
+foramen. The _levator palpebrae superioris_ is the highest, and passes
+forward to the superior tarsal plate and fornix of the conjunctiva. The
+_superior_ and _inferior recti_ are inserted into the upper and lower
+surfaces of the eyeball respectively; they make the eye look inward as
+well as up or down. The external and internal recti are inserted into
+the sides of the eyeball and make it look outward or inward. The
+superior oblique runs forward to a pulley in the inner and front part of
+the roof of the orbit, round which it turns to be inserted into the
+outer and back part of the eyeball. It turns the glance downward and
+outward. The inferior oblique rises from the inner and front part of the
+floor of the orbit, and is also inserted into the outer and back part of
+the eyeball. It directs the glance upward and outward. Of all these
+muscles the superior oblique is supplied by the fourth cranial nerve,
+the external rectus by the sixth and the rest by the third.
+
+The posterior part of the eyeball and the anterior parts of the muscles
+are enveloped in a lymph space, known as the _capsule of Tenon_, which
+assists their movements.
+
+[Illustration:
+
+    FIG. 4.                         FIG. 5.
+
+  Diagram of Developing           Diagram of Developing
+    Eye (1st stage).                Eye (2nd stage).
+  [alpha], Forebrain.             [beta], Optic cup.
+  [beta], Optic vesicle.          [delta], Invagination of lens.
+  [gamma], Superficial ectoderm.    Other letters as in fig. 4.]
+  [delta], Thickening for lens.
+
+EMBRYOLOGY.--As is pointed out in the article BRAIN, the _optic
+vesicles_ grow out from the fore-brain, and the part nearest the brain
+becomes constricted and elongated to form the optic stalk (see figs. 4
+and 5, [beta]). At the same time the ectoderm covering the side of the
+head thickens and becomes invaginated to form the lens vesicle (see
+figs. 4 and 5, [delta]), which later loses its connexion with the
+surface and approaches the optic vesicle, causing that structure to
+become cupped for its reception, so that what was the optic vesicle
+becomes the optic cup and consists of an external and an internal layer
+of cells (fig. 6 [beta] and [delta]). Of these the outer cells become
+the retinal pigment, while the inner form the other layers of the
+retina. The invagination of the optic cup extends, as the _choroidal
+fissure_ (not shown in the diagrams), along the lower and back part of
+the optic stalk, and into this slit sinks some of the surrounding
+mesoderm to form the vitreous body and the hyaloid arteries, one of
+which persists.[1] When this has happened the fissure closes up. The
+anterior epithelium of the lens vesicle remains, but from the posterior
+the lens fibres are developed and these gradually fill up the cavity.
+The superficial layer of head ectoderm, from which the lens has been
+invaginated and separated, becomes the anterior epithelium of the
+cornea (fig. 6, [epsilon]), and between it and the lens the mesoderm
+sinks in to form the cornea, iris and anterior chamber of the eye, while
+surrounding the optic cup the mesoderm forms the sclerotic and choroid
+coats (fig. 7, [eta] and [zeta]). Up to the seventh month the pupil is
+closed by the _membrana pupillaris_, derived from the capsule of the
+lens which is part of the mesodermal ingrowth through the choroidal
+fissure already mentioned. The hyaloid artery remains, as a prolongation
+of the retinal artery to the lens, until just before birth, but after
+that its sheath forms the canal of Stilling. Most of the fibres of the
+optic nerve are centripetal and begin as the axons of the ganglionic
+cells of the retina; a few, however, are centrifugal and come from the
+nerve cells in the brain.
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 6.
+
+  Diagram of Developing Eye (3rd stage).
+
+  [delta], Solid lens.
+  [epsilon], Corneal epithelium.
+  Other letters as in figs. 4 and 5.]
+
+[Illustration: FIG. 7.
+
+  Diagram of Developing Eye (4th stage). The mesodermal tissues are
+  dotted.
+
+  [zeta], Choroid and Iris.
+  [eta], Sclerotic and Cornea.
+  [theta], Vitreous.
+  [epsilon], Aqueous.
+  [kappa], Eyelids.]
+
+The eyelids are developed as ectodermal folds, which blend with one
+another about the third month and separate again before birth in Man
+(fig. 7, [Greek: kappa]). The lachrymal sac and duct are formed from
+solid ectodermal thickenings which later become canalized.
+
+It will thus be seen that the optic nerve and retina are formed from the
+brain ectoderm; the lens, anterior epithelium of the cornea, skin of the
+eyelids, conjunctiva and lachrymal apparatus from the superficial
+ectoderm; while the sclerotic, choroid, vitreous and aqueous humours as
+well as the iris and cornea are derived from the mesoderm.
+
+  See _Human Embryology_, by C.S. Minot (New York); Quain's _Anatomy_,
+  vol. i. (1908); "Entwickelung des Auges der Wirbeltiere," by A.
+  Froriep, in _Handbuch der vergleichenden und experimentellen
+  Entwickelungslehre der Wirbeltiere_ (O. Hertwig, Jena, 1905).
+
+COMPARATIVE ANATOMY.--The Acrania, as represented by Amphioxus (the
+lancelet), have a patch of pigment in the fore part of the brain which
+is regarded as the remains of a degenerated eye. In the Cyclostomata the
+hag (Myxine) and larval lamprey (Ammocoetes) have ill-developed eyes
+lying beneath the skin and devoid of lens, iris, cornea and sclerotic as
+well as eye muscles. In the adult lamprey (Petromyzon) these structures
+are developed at the metamorphosis, and the skin becomes transparent,
+rendering sight possible. Ocular muscles are developed, but, unlike most
+vertebrates, the inferior rectus is supplied by the sixth nerve while
+all the others are supplied by the third. In all vertebrates the retina
+consists of a layer of senso-neural cells, the rods and cones, separated
+from the light by the other layers which together represent the optic
+ganglia of the invertebrates; in the latter animals, however, the
+senso-neural cells are nearer the light than the ganglia.
+
+In fishes the eyeball is flattened in front, but the flat cornea is
+compensated by a spherical lens, which, unlike that of other
+vertebrates, is adapted for near vision when at rest. The iris in some
+bony fishes (Teleostei) is not contractile. In the Teleostei, too, there
+is a process of the choroid which projects into the vitreous chamber and
+runs forward to the lens; it is known as the _processus falciformis_,
+and, besides nourishing the lens, is concerned in accommodation. This
+specialized group of fishes is also remarkable for the possession of a
+so-called _choroid gland_, which is really a _rete mirabile_ (see
+ARTERIES) between the choroid and sclerotic. The sclerotic in fishes is
+usually chondrified and sometimes calcified or ossified. In the retina
+the rods and cones are about equal in number, and the cones are very
+large. In the cartilaginous fishes (Elasmobranchs) there is a silvery
+layer, called the _tapetum lucidum_, on the retinal surface of the
+choroid.
+
+In the Amphibia the cornea is more convex than in the fish, but the lens
+is circular and the sclerotic often chondrified. There is no processus
+falciformis or tapetum lucidum, but the class is interesting in that it
+shows the first rudiments of the ciliary muscle, although accommodation
+is brought about by shifting the lens. In the retina the rods outnumber
+the cones and these latter are smaller than in any other animals. In
+some Amphibians coloured oil globules are found in connexion with the
+cones, and sometimes two cones are joined, forming double or twin cones.
+
+In Reptilia the eye is spherical and its anterior part is often
+protected by bony plates in the sclerotic (Lacertilia and Chelonia). The
+ciliary muscle is striated, and in most reptiles accommodation is
+effected by relaxing the ciliary ligament as in higher vertebrates,
+though in the snakes (Ophidia) the lens is shifted as it is in the lower
+forms. Many lizards have a vascular projection of the choroid into the
+vitreous, foreshadowing the pecten of birds and homologous with the
+processus falciformis of fishes. In the retina the rods are scarce or
+absent.
+
+In birds the eye is tubular, especially in nocturnal and raptorial
+forms: this is due to a lengthening of the ciliary region, which is
+always protected by bony plates in the sclerotic. The pecten, already
+mentioned in lizards, is a pleated vascular projection from the optic
+disk towards the lens which in some cases it reaches. In Apteryx this
+structure disappears. In the retina the cones outnumber the rods, but
+are not as numerous as in the reptiles. The ciliary muscle is of the
+striped variety.
+
+In the Mammalia the eye is largely enclosed in the orbit, and bony
+plates in the sclerotic are only found in the monotremes. The cornea is
+convex except in aquatic mammals, in which it is flattened. The lens is
+biconvex in diurnal mammals, but in nocturnal and aquatic it is
+spherical. There is no pecten, but the numerous hyaloid arteries which
+are found in the embryo represent it. The iris usually has a circular
+pupil, but in some ungulates and kangaroos it is a transverse slit. In
+the Cetacea this transverse opening is kidney-shaped, the hilum of the
+kidney being above. In many carnivores, especially nocturnal ones, the
+slit is vertical, and this form of opening seems adapted to a feeble
+light, for it is found in the owl, among birds. The tapetum lucidum is
+found in Ungulata, Cetacea and Carnivora. The ciliary muscle is
+unstriped. In the retina the rods are more numerous than the cones,
+while the macula lutea only appears in the Primates in connexion with
+binocular vision.
+
+Among the accessory structures of the eye the retractor bulbi muscle is
+found in amphibians, reptiles, birds and many mammals; its nerve supply
+shows that it is probably a derivative of the external or posterior
+rectus. The nictitating membrane or third eyelid is well-developed in
+amphibians, reptiles, birds and some few sharks; it is less marked in
+mammals, and in Man is only represented by the little _plica
+semilunaris_. When functional it is drawn across the eye by special
+muscles derived from the retractor bulbi, called the _bursalis_ and
+_pyramidalis_. In connexion with the nictitating membrane the Harderian
+gland is developed, while the lachrymal gland secretes fluid for the
+other eyelids to spread over the conjunctiva. These two glands are
+specialized parts of a row of glands which in the Urodela (tailed
+amphibians) are situated along the lower eyelid; the outer or posterior
+part of this row becomes the lachrymal gland, which in higher
+vertebrates shifts from the lower to the upper eyelid, while the inner
+or anterior part becomes the Harderian gland. Below the amphibians
+glands are not necessary, as the water keeps the eye moist.
+
+The lachrymal duct first appears in the tailed amphibians; in snakes and
+gecko lizards, however, it opens into the mouth.
+
+  For literature up to 1900 see R. Wiedersheim's _Vergleichende Anatomie
+  der Wirbeltiere_ (Jena, 1902). Later literature is noticed in the
+  catalogue of the Physiological Series of the R. College of Surgeons of
+  England Museum, vol. iii. (London, 1906).     (F. G. P.)
+
+
+EYE DISEASES.--The specially important diseases of the eye are those
+which temporarily or permanently interfere with sight. In considering
+the pathology of the eye it may be remembered that (1) it is a double
+organ, while (2) either eye may have its own trouble.
+
+1. The two eyes act together, under normal conditions, for all practical
+purposes exactly as if there were but one eye placed in the middle of
+the face. All impressions made upon either retina, to the one side of a
+vertical line through the centre, the _fovea centralis_, before giving
+rise to conscious perception cause a stimulation of the same area in the
+brain. Impressions formed simultaneously, for instance, on the right
+side of the right retina and on corresponding areas of the right side of
+the left retina, are conveyed to the same spots in the right occipital
+lobe of the brain. Pathological processes, therefore, which are
+localized in the right or left occipital lobes, or along any part of the
+course of the fibres which pass from the right or left optic tracts to
+these "visual centres," cause defects in function of the right or left
+halves of the two retinae. _Hemianopia_, or half-blindness, arising from
+these pathological changes, is of very varying degrees of severity,
+according to the nature and extent of the particular lesion. The blind
+areas in the two fields of vision, corresponding to the outward
+projection of the paralysed retinal areas, are always symmetrical both
+in shape and degree. The central lesion may for instance be very small,
+but at the same time destructive to the nerve tissue. This will be
+revealed as a sector-shaped or insular symmetrical complete blindness in
+the fields of vision to the opposite side. Or a large central area, or
+an area comprising many or all of the nerve fibres which pass to the
+visual centre on one side, may be involved in a lesion which causes
+impairment of function, but no actual destruction of the nerve tissue.
+There is thus caused a symmetrical weakening of vision (_amblyopia_) in
+the opposite fields. In such cases the colour vision is so much more
+evidently affected than the sense of form that the condition has been
+called _hemiachromatopsia_ or half-colour blindness. Hemianopia may be
+caused by haemorrhage, by embolism, by tumour growth which either
+directly involves the visual nerve elements or affects them by
+compression and by inflammation. Transitory hemianopia is rare and is no
+doubt most frequently of toxic origin.
+
+The two eyes also act as if they were one in accommodating. It is
+impossible for the two eyes to accommodate simultaneously to different
+extents, so that where there is, as occasionally happens, a difference
+in focus between them, this difference remains the same for all
+distances for which they are adapted. In such cases, therefore, both
+eyes cannot ever be accurately adapted at the same time, though either
+may be alone. It often happens as a consequence that the one eye is used
+to receive the sharpest images of distant, and the other of near
+objects. Any pathological change which leads to an interference in the
+accommodating power of one eye alone must have its origin in a lesion
+which lies peripherally to the nucleus of the third cranial nerve. Such
+a lesion is usually one of the third nerve itself. Consequently, a
+unilateral accommodation paresis is almost invariably associated with
+pareses of some of the oculo-motor muscles. A bilateral accommodation
+paresis is not uncommon. It is due to a nuclear or more central cerebral
+disturbance. Unlike a hemianopia, which is mostly permanent, a double
+accommodation paresis is frequently transitory. It is often a
+post-diphtheritic condition, appearing alone or associated with other
+paresis.
+
+Both eyes are also normally intimately associated in their movements.
+They move in response to a stimulus or a combination of stimuli,
+emanating from different centres of the brain, but one which is always
+equally distributed to the corresponding muscles in both eyes, so that
+the two lines of fixation meet at the succession of points on which
+attention is directed. The movements are thus associated in the same
+direction, to the right or left, upwards or downwards, &c. In addition,
+owing to the space which separates the two eyes, convergent movements,
+caused by stimuli equally distributed between the two internal recti,
+are required for the fixation of nearer and nearer-lying objects. These
+movements would not be necessary in the case of a single eye. It would
+merely have to accommodate. The converging movements of the double eye
+occur in association with accommodation, and thus a close connexion
+becomes established between the stimuli to accommodation and
+convergence. All combinations of convergent and associated movements are
+constantly taking place normally, just as if a single centrally-placed
+eye were moved in all directions and altered its accommodation according
+to the distance, in any direction, of the object which is fixed.
+
+Associated and convergent movements may be interfered with
+pathologically in different ways. Cerebral lesions may lead to their
+impairment or complete abolition, or they may give rise to involuntary
+spasmodic action, as the result of paralysing or irritating the centres
+from which the various co-ordinated impulses are controlled or emanate.
+Lesions which do not involve the centres may prevent the response to
+associated impulses in one eye alone by interfering with the functional
+activity of one or more of the nerves along which the stimuli are
+conveyed. Paralysis of oculo-motor nerves is thus a common cause of
+defects of association in the movements of the double eye. The great
+advantage of simultaneous binocular vision--viz. the appreciation of
+depth, or stereoscopic vision--is thus lost for some, or it may be all
+directions of fixation. Instead of seeing singly with two eyes, there is
+then double-vision (_diplopia_). This persists so long as the defect of
+association continues, or so long as the habit of mentally suppressing
+the image of the faultily-directed eye is not acquired.
+
+In the absence of any nerve lesions, central or other, interfering with
+their associated movements, the eyes continue throughout life to respond
+equally to the stimuli which cause these movements, even when, owing to
+a visual defect of the one eye, binocular vision has become impossible.
+It is otherwise, however, with the proper co-ordination of convergent
+movements. These are primarily regulated by the unconscious desire for
+binocular vision, and more or less firmly associated with accommodation.
+When one eye becomes blind, or when binocular vision for other reasons
+is lost, the impulse is gradually, as it were, unlearnt. This is the
+cause of _divergent concomitant squint_. Under somewhat similar
+conditions a degree of convergence, which is in excess of the
+requirements of fixation, may be acquired from different causes. This
+gives rise to _convergent concomitant squint_.
+
+  For _Astigmatism_, &c., see the article VISION.
+
+2. Taking each eye as a single organ, we find it to be subject to many
+diseases. In some cases both eyes may be affected in the same way, e.g.
+where the local disease is a manifestation of some general disturbance.
+Apart from the fibrous coat of the eye, the sclera, which is little
+prone to disease, and the external muscles and other adnexa, the eye may
+be looked upon as composed of two elements, (a) the dioptric media, and
+(b) the parts more or less directly connected with perception.
+Pathological conditions affecting either of these elements may interfere
+with sight.
+
+The dioptric media, or the transparent portions which are concerned in
+the transmission of light to, and the formation of images upon, the
+retina, are the following: the _cornea_, the _aqueous humour_, the
+_crystalline lens_ and the _vitreous humour_. Loss of transparency in
+any of these media leads to blurring of the retinal images of external
+objects. In addition to loss of transparency the cornea may have its
+curvature altered by pathological processes. This necessarily causes
+imperfection of sight. The crystalline lens, on the other hand, may be
+dislocated, and thus cause image distortion.
+
+_The Cornea._--The transparency of the cornea is mainly lost by
+imflammation (_keratitis_), which causes either an infiltration of its
+tissues with leucocytes, or a more focal, more destructive ulcerative
+process.
+
+Inflammation of the cornea may be primary or secondary, i.e. the
+inflammatory changes met with in the corneal tissue may be directly
+connected with one or more foci of inflammation in the cornea itself or
+the focus or foci may be in some other part of the eye. Only the very
+superficial forms of primary keratitis, those confined to the epithelial
+layer, leave no permanent change; there is otherwise always a loss of
+tissue resulting from the inflammation and this loss is made up for by
+more or less densely intransparent connective tissue (_nebula_,
+_leucoma_). These according to their site and extent cause greater or
+less visual disturbance. Primary keratitis may be ulcerative or
+non-ulcerative, superficial or deep, diffuse or circumscribed,
+vascularized or non-vascularized. It may be complicated by deeper
+inflammations of the eye such as iritis and cyclitis. In some cases the
+anterior chamber is invaded by pus (_hypopyon_). The healing of a
+corneal ulcer is characterized by the disappearance of pain where this
+has been a symptom and by the rounding off of its sharp margins as
+epithelium spreads over them from the surrounding healthy parts. Ulcers
+tend to extend either in depth or superficially, rarely in both manners
+at the same time. A deep ulcer leads to perforation with more or less
+serious consequences according to the extent of the perforation. Often
+an eye bears permanent traces of a perforation in adhesion of the iris
+to the back of a corneal scar or in changes in the lens capsule
+(capsular cataract). In other cases the ulcerated cornea may yield to
+pressure from within, which causes it to bulge forwards (_staphyloma_).
+
+The principal causes of primary keratitis are traumata and infection
+from the conjunctiva. Traumata are most serious when the body causing
+the wound is not aseptic or when micro-organisms from some other source,
+often the conjunctiva and tear-sac, effect a lodgment before healing of
+the wound has sufficiently advanced. In infected cases a complication
+with iritis is not uncommon owing to the penetration of toxines into the
+anterior chamber.
+
+Inflammations of the cornea are the most important diseases of the eye,
+because they are among the most frequent, because of the value of the
+cornea to vision and because much good can often be done by judicious
+treatment and much harm result from wrong interference and neglect. The
+treatment of primary keratitis must vary according to the cause.
+Generally speaking the aim should be to render the ulcerated portions as
+aseptic as possible without using applications which are apt to cause a
+great deal of irritation and thus interfere with healing. On this
+account it is important to be able to recognize when healing is taking
+place, for as soon as this is the case, rest, along with frequent
+irrigation of the conjunctiva with sterilized water at the body
+temperature, and occasionally mild antiseptic irrigation of the nasal
+mucous membrane is all that is required. It is a common and dangerous
+mistake to over treat.
+
+Of local antiseptics which are of use may be mentioned the actual
+cautery, chlorine water, freshly prepared silver nitrate or protargol,
+and the yellow oxide of mercury. These different agents are of course
+not all equally applicable in any given case; it depends upon the
+severity as well as upon the nature of the inflammation which is the
+most suitable. For instance, the actual cautery is employed only in the
+case of the deeper septic or malignant ulcers, in which the destruction
+of tissue is already considerable and tending to spread further. Again
+the yellow oxide of mercury should only be used in the more superficial,
+strumous forms of inflammation. Many other substances are also in use,
+but need not here be referred to.
+
+_Secondary keratitis_ takes the form of an interstitial deposit of
+leucocytes between the layers of the cornea as well as often of
+vascularization, sometimes intense, from the deeper network of vessels
+(anterior ciliary) surrounding the cornea. The duration of a secondary
+keratitis is usually prolonged, often lasting many months. More or less
+complete restoration of transparency is the rule, however, eventually.
+
+No local treatment is called for except the shading of the eyes and in
+most cases the use of a mydriatic to prevent synechiae when the iris is
+involved. Often it is advisable to do something for the general health.
+In young people there is probably nothing better than cod-liver oil and
+syrup of the iodide of iron. Inherited syphilis, tuberculous and other
+inflammations are the causes of secondary keratitis.
+
+_Neuro-paralytic Keratitis._--When the fifth nerve is paralysed there is
+a tendency for the cornea to become inflamed. Different forms of
+inflammation may then occur which all, besides anaesthesia, show a
+marked slowness in healing. The main cause of neuro-paralytic keratitis
+lies in the greater vulnerability of the cornea. The prognosis is
+necessarily bad. The treatment consists in as far as possible protecting
+the eye from external influences, by keeping it tied up, and by
+frequently irrigating with antiseptic lotions.
+
+Certain non-inflammatory and degenerative changes are met with in the
+cornea. Of these may be mentioned _keratoconus_ or conical cornea, in
+which, owing to some disturbance of vitality, the nature of which has
+not been discovered, the normal curvature of the cornea becomes altered
+to something more of a hyberboloid of revolution, with consequent
+impairment of vision: _arcus senilis_, a whitish opacity due to fatty
+degeneration, extending round the corneal margin, varying in thickness
+in different subjects and usually only met with in old people:
+_transverse calcareous film_, consisting of a finely punctiform opacity
+extending, in a tolerably uniformly wide band, occupying the zone of the
+cornea which is left uncovered when the lids are half closed.
+
+Tumours of the cornea are not common. Those chiefly met with are
+dermoids, fibromata, sarcomata and epitheliomata.
+
+_Scleritis._--Inflammation of the sclera is confined to its anterior
+part which is covered by conjunctiva. Scleritis may occur in
+circumscribed patches or may be diffused in the shape of a belt round
+the cornea. The former is usually more superficial and uncomplicated,
+the latter deeper and complicated with corneal infiltration,
+irido-cyclitis and anterior choroiditis. Superficial scleritis or, as it
+is often called, _episcleritis_, is a long-continued disease which is
+associated with very varying degrees of discomfort. The chronic nature
+of the affection depends mainly upon the tendency that the inflammation
+has to recur in successive patches at different parts of the sclera.
+Often only one eye at a time is affected. Each patch lasts for a month
+or two and is succeeded by another after an interval of varying
+duration. Months or years may elapse between the attacks. The
+cicatricial site of a previous patch is rarely again attacked. The
+scleral infiltration causes a firm swelling, often sensitive to touch,
+over which the conjunctiva is freely movable. The overlying conjunctiva
+is always injected. The infiltration itself at the height of the process
+is densely vascularized. Seen through the conjunctiva its vessels have a
+darker, more purplish hue than the superficial ones. The swelling caused
+by the infiltration gradually subsides, leaving a cicatrix to which the
+overlying conjunctiva becomes adherent. The cicatrix has a slaty
+porcellanous-looking colour. Superficial scleritis occurs in both sexes
+with about equal frequency. No definite cause for the inflammation is
+known. The treatment on the whole is unsatisfactory. Burning down the
+nodules with the actual cautery, and subsequently a visit to such baths
+as Harrogate, Buxton, Homburg and Wiesbaden, may be recommended.
+
+Deep scleritis with its attendant complications is altogether a more
+serious disease. Etiologically it is equally obscure. Both eyes are
+almost always attacked. It more generally occurs in young people, mostly
+in young women. Deep scleritis is more persistent and less subject to
+periods of intermission than episcleritis. The deeper and more
+wide-spread inflammatory infiltrations of the sclera lead eventually to
+weakening of that coat, and cause it to yield to the intra-ocular
+pressure. Vision suffers from extension of the infiltration to the
+cornea, or from iritis with its attendant synechiae, or from anterior
+choroiditis, and sometimes also from secondary glaucoma. The treatment
+is on the whole unsatisfactory. Iridectomy, especially if done early in
+the process, may be of use.
+
+_The Aqueous Humour._--Intransparency of the aqueous humour is always
+due to some exudation. This comes either from the iris or the ciliary
+processes, and may be blood, pus or fibrin. An exudation in this
+situation tends naturally to gravitate to the most dependent part, and,
+in the case of blood or pus, is known as _kyphaema_ or _hypopyon_.
+
+_The Crystalline Lens Cataract._--Intransparency of the crystalline lens
+is technically known as _cataract_. Cataract may be idiopathic and
+uncomplicated, or traumatic, or secondary to disease in the deeper
+parts of the eye. The modified epithelial structure of which the lens is
+composed is always being added to throughout life. The older portions of
+the lens are consequently the more central. They are harder and less
+elastic. This arrangement seems to predispose to difficulties of
+nutrition. In many people, in the absence altogether of general or local
+disease, the transparency of the lens is lost owing to degeneration of
+the incompletely-nourished fibres. This idiopathic cataract mostly
+occurs in old people; hence the term _senile cataract_. So-called
+_senile_ cataract is not, however, necessarily associated with any
+general senile changes. An idiopathic uncomplicated cataract is also met
+with as a congenital defect due to faulty development of the crystalline
+lens. A particular and not uncommon form of this kind of cataract, which
+may also develop during infancy, is _lamellar_ or _zonular cataract_.
+This is a partial and stationary form of cataract in which, while the
+greater part of the lens retains its transparency, some of the lamellae
+are intransparent. Traumatic cataract occurs in two ways: by laceration
+or rupture of the lens capsule, or by nutritional changes consequent
+upon injuries to the deeper structures of the eye. The transparency of
+the lens is dependent upon the integrity of its capsule. Penetrating
+wounds of the eye involving the capsule, or rupture of the capsule from
+severe blows on the eye without perforation of its coats, are followed
+by rapidly developing cataract. Severe non-penetrating injuries, which
+do not cause rupture of the capsule, are sometimes followed, after a
+time, by slowly-progressing cataract. Secondary cataract is due to
+abnormalities in the nutrient matter supplied to the lens owing to
+disease of the ciliary body, choroid or retina. In some diseases, as
+diabetes, the altered general nutrition tells in the same way on the
+crystalline lens. Cataract is then rapidly formed. All cases of cataract
+in diabetes are not, however, necessarily true diabetic cataracts in the
+above sense. _Dislocations of the lens_ are traumatic or congenital. In
+old-standing disease of the eye the suspensory ligament may yield in
+part, and thus lead to lens dislocation. The lens is practically always
+cataractous before this takes place.
+
+_The Vitreous Humour._--The vitreous humour loses its transparency owing
+to exudation from the inflamed ciliary body or choroid. The exudation
+may be fibrinous or purulent; the latter only as a result of injuries by
+which foreign bodies or septic matter are introduced into the eye or in
+metastatic choroiditis. Blood may also be effused into the vitreous from
+rupture of retinal, ciliary or choroidal vessels. The pathological
+significance of the various effusions into the vitreous depends greatly
+upon the cause. In many cases effusion and absorption are constantly
+taking place simultaneously. The extent of possible clearing depends
+greatly upon the preponderance of the latter process.
+
+_Diseases of the Iris and Ciliary Body._--Inflammation of the iris,
+iritis, arises from different causes. The various idiopathic forms have
+relations to constitutional disturbances such as rheumatism, gout,
+albuminuria, tuberculosis, fevers, syphilis, gonorrhoea and others, or
+they may come from cold alone. Traumatic and infected cases are
+attributable to accidents, the presence of foreign bodies, operations,
+&c. In addition, iritis may be secondary to keratitis, scleritis or
+choroiditis. The beginning of an attack of inflammation of the iris is
+characterized by alterations in its colour due to hyperaemia and by
+circumcorneal injection. Later on, exudation takes place into the
+substance of the iris, causing thickening and also a loss of gloss of
+its surface. According to the nature and severity of the exudation there
+may be deposits formed on the back of the cornea, attachments between
+the iris and lens capsule (synechiae), or even gelatinous-looking
+coagulations or pus in the anterior chamber.
+
+The subjective symptoms to which the inflammation may give rise are
+dread of light (_photophobia_), pain, generally most severe at night and
+often very great, also more or less impairment of sight. Along with the
+pain and photophobia there is lacrymation. An acute attack of iritis
+usually lasts about six weeks. Some cases become chronic and last much
+longer. Others are chronic from the first, and in one clinical type of
+iritis, in which the ciliary body is also at the same time affected,
+viz. _iritis serosa_, there is usually comparatively little injection of
+the eye or pain, so that the patient's attention may only be directed to
+the eye owing to the gradual impairment of sight which results. In some
+cases, and more particularly in men, there is a tendency to the
+recurrence at longer or shorter intervals of attacks of iritis
+(_recurrent iritis_). In these cases, as well as in all cases of plastic
+iritis which have not been properly treated, serious consequences to
+sight are apt to follow from the binding down of the iris to the lens
+capsule and the occlusion of the pupil by exudation.
+
+Inflammation of the ciliary body, _cyclitis_, is frequently associated
+with iritis. This association is probable in all cases where there are
+deposits on the posterior surface of the cornea. It is certain where
+there are changes in the intra-ocular tension. Often in cyclitis there
+is a very marked diminution in tension. Cyclitis is also present when
+the degree of visual disturbance is greater than can be accounted for by
+the visible changes in the pupil and anterior chamber. The exudation
+may, as in iritis, be serous, plastic or purulent. It passes from the
+two free surfaces of the ciliary body into the posterior aqueous, and
+into the vitreous, chambers. This produces, what is a constant sign of
+cyclitis, more or less intransparency of the vitreous humour. Where
+there has been excessive exudation into the vitreous, subsequent
+shrinking and liquefaction take place, leading to detachment of the
+retina and consequent blindness.
+
+The treatment of iritis necessarily differs to some extent according to
+the cause. The general treatment applicable to all cases need only be
+here considered. What should be aimed at, at the time of the
+inflammation, is to put the eye as far as possible at rest, to prevent
+the formation of synechiae and alleviate the pain. An attempt should be
+made to get the pupil thoroughly dilated with atropine. The dilatation
+should be kept up as long as any circumcorneal injection lasts. If a
+case of iritis be left to itself or treated without the use of a
+mydriatic, posterior synechiae almost invariably form. Some fibrinous
+exudation may even organize into a membrane stretching across, and more
+or less completely occluding, the pupil. Synechiae, though not of
+themselves causing impairment of vision, increase the risk that the eye
+runs from subsequent attacks of iritis. It should however be remembered
+that as the main call for a mydriatic is to prevent synechiae, the
+_raison d'etre_ for its use no longer exists when, having been begun too
+late, the pupil cannot properly be dilated by it. Under these conditions
+it may even do harm. The eyes should also be kept shaded from the light
+by the use of a shade or neutral-tinted glasses. During an attack any
+use of the eyes for reading or sewing or work of any kind calling for
+accommodation must be prohibited. This applies equally to the case of
+inflammation in one eye alone and in both.
+
+Pain is best relieved by hot fomentations, cocain, and in many cases the
+internal use of salicin or phenacetin. The treatment sometimes required
+for cases of old iritis is iridectomy. The operation is called for in
+two different classes of cases. In the first place, to improve vision
+where the pupil is small, and to a great extent occluded, though the
+condition has not so far led to serious nutritive changes; and in the
+second place, with the object as well of preventing the complete
+destruction of vision which either the existing condition or the danger
+of recurrence of the inflammation has threatened. Iridectomy for iritis
+should be performed when the inflammation has entirely subsided. The
+portion of iris excised should be large. The operation is urgently
+called for where the condition of _iris bombans_ exists.
+
+Iris tumours, either simple or malignant, are of rare occurrence.
+
+A frequent result of a severe blow on the eye is a separation of a
+portion of the iris from its peripheral attachment (_iridodialysis_). Of
+congenital anomalies the most commonly met with are coloboma and more or
+less persistence of the foetal pupillary membrane. The most serious form
+of irido-cyclitis is that which may follow penetrating wounds of the
+eye. Under certain conditions this leads to a similar inflammation in
+the other eye. This so-called _sympathetic ophthalmitis_ is of a
+malignant type, causing destruction of the sympathizing eye.
+
+_The Retina._--Choroidal inflammations are generally patchy, various
+foci of inflammation being scattered over the choroid. These patches may
+in course of time become more or less confluent. The effect upon vision
+depends upon the extent to which the external or percipient elements of
+the retina become involved. It is especially serious when the more
+central portions of the retina, are thus affected (_choroido-retinitis
+centralis_).
+
+A peculiar and grave pathological condition of the eye is what is known
+as _glaucoma_. A characteristic of this condition is increase of the
+intra-ocular tension, which has a deleterious effect on the optic nerve
+end and its ramifications in the retina. The cause of the rise of
+tension is partly congestive, partly mechanical. The effect of glaucoma,
+when untreated, is to cause ever-increasing loss of sight, although the
+time occupied by the process before it leads to complete blindness
+varies within such extraordinary wide limits as from a few hours to many
+years. The uveal tract may be the site of _sarcoma_.
+
+The retina is subject to inflammation, to detachment from the choroid,
+to haemorrhages from the blood-vessels and to tumour. Retinal
+inflammation may primarily affect either the nerve elements or the
+connective tissue framework. The former is usually associated with some
+general disease such as albuminuria or diabetes and is bilateral. The
+tissue changes are oedema, the formation of exudative patches, and
+haemorrhage. Where the connective tissue elements are primarily
+affected, the condition is a slow one, similar to _sclerosis_ of the
+central nervous system. The gradual blindness which this causes is due
+to compression of the retinal nerve elements by the connective tissue
+hyperplasia, which is always associated with characteristic changes in
+the disposition of the retinal pigment. This retinal sclerosis is
+consequently generally known as _retinitis pigmentosa_, a disease to
+which there is a hereditary predisposition. Besides occurring during
+inflammation, haemorrhages into the retina are met with in phlebitis of
+the central retinal vein, which is almost invariably unilateral, and in
+certain conditions of the blood, as pernicious anaemia, when they are
+always bilateral.
+
+The optic nerve is subject to inflammation (optic neuritis) and atrophy.
+Double optic neuritis, affecting, however, only the intra-ocular ends of
+the nerves, is an almost constant accompaniment of brain tumour.
+Unilateral neuritis has a different causation, depending upon an
+inflammation, mainly perineuritic, of the nerve in the orbit. It is
+analogous to peripheral inflammation of other nerves, such as the third,
+fourth, sixth and seventh cranial nerves.
+
+_Diseases of the Conjunctiva._--These are the most frequent diseases of
+the eye with which the surgeon has to deal. They generally lead to more
+or less interference with the functional activity of the eye and often
+indeed to great impairment of vision owing to the tendency which there
+is for the cornea to become implicated.
+
+Many different micro-organisms are of pathogenetic importance in
+connexion with the conjunctiva. Microbes exist in the normal
+conjunctival sac. These are mostly harmless, though it is usual to find
+at any rate a small proportion of others which are known to be
+pyogenetic. This fact is of great importance in connexion both with
+problems of etiology and the practical question of operations on the
+eye.
+
+_Hyperaemia._--When the conjunctiva becomes hyperaemic its colour is
+heightened and its transparency lessened. Sometimes too it becomes
+thickened and its surface altered in appearance. The often marked
+heightening of colour is due to the very superficial position of the
+dilated vessels. This is specially the case with that part of the
+membrane which forms the transition fold between the palpebral and the
+ocular conjunctiva. Consequently it is there that the redness is most
+marked, while it is seen to diminish towards the cornea. An important
+diagnostic mark is thus furnished between purely conjunctival hyperaemia
+and what is called circumcorneal congestion, which is always an
+indication of more deep-seated vascular dilatation. It also differs
+materially from a scleral injection, in which there is a visible
+dilatation of the superficial scleral vessels.
+
+When a conjunctival hyperaemia has existed for some time the papillae
+become swollen, and small blebs form on the surface of the membrane:
+sometimes too, lymph follicles begin to show. The enlargement and
+compression of adjacent papillae give rise to a velvety appearance of
+the surface.
+
+Hyperaemia of the conjunctiva where not followed by inflammation causes
+more or less lacrymation but no alteration in the character of its
+secretion. The hyperaemia may be acute and transitory or chronic. Much
+depends upon the cause as well as upon the persistence of the irritation
+which sets it up.
+
+Traumata, the presence of foreign bodies in the conjunctival sac, or the
+irritations of superficial chalky infarcts in the Meibomian ducts, cause
+more or less severe transitory congestion. Continued subjection to
+irritating particles such as flour, stones, dust, &c., causes a more
+continued hyperaemia which is often circumscribed and less pronounced.
+Bad air in schools, barracks, workhouses, &c., also causes a chronic
+hyperaemia in which it is common to find a follicular hyperplasia. Long
+exposure to too intense light, astigmatism and other ocular defects
+which cause asthenopia lead also to chronic hyperaemia. Anaemic
+individuals are often subject to discomfort from hyperaemia of this
+nature.
+
+The treatment of conjunctival hyperaemia consists first in the removal
+of the cause when it can be discovered. Often this is difficult. In
+addition the application of hot sterilized water is useful and soothing.
+
+_Conjunctivitis._--When the conjunctiva is actually inflamed the
+congested membrane is brought into a condition of heightened secreting
+action. The secretions become more copious and more or less altered in
+character. A sufficiently practical though by no means sharply defined
+clinical division of cases of conjunctivitis is arrived at by taking
+into consideration the character of the secretion from the inflamed
+membrane and the visible tissue alterations which the membrane
+undergoes. The common varieties of conjunctivitis which may thus be
+distinguished are the following: ([alpha]) Catarrhal conjunctivitis,
+([beta]) Purulent conjunctivitis, ([gamma]) Phlyctenular conjunctivitis,
+([delta]) Granular conjunctivitis and ([epsilon]) Diphtheritic
+conjunctivitis.
+
+However desirable a truly etiological classification might appear to be,
+it is doubtful whether such could satisfactorily be made. So much is
+certain at all events, that not only can identically the same clinical
+appearance result from the actions of quite different pathogenetic
+organisms, but that various concomitant circumstances may lead to very
+different clinical signs being set up by one and the same microbe. As
+regards _contagion_ there is no doubt that the secretion in the case of
+a true conjunctivitis (i.e. not merely a hyperaemia) is always more or
+less contagious. The degree of virulence varies not only in different
+cases, but the effect of contagion from the same source may be different
+in different individuals. Healthy conjunctivae may thus react
+differently, not only as regards the degree of severity, but even
+according to different clinical types, when infected by secretion from
+the same source. There are no doubt different reasons for this, such as
+the stage at which the inflammation has arrived in the eye from which
+the secretion is derived, differences in the surroundings and in the
+susceptibility of the infected individuals, the presence of dormant
+microbes of a virulent type in the healthy conjunctiva which has been
+infected, &c. Many points in this connexion are very difficult to
+investigate and much remains to be elucidated. Contagion usually takes
+place directly and not through the air. Often in this way one eye is
+first affected and may in some cases, when sufficient care is afterwards
+taken, be the only one to suffer.
+
+The treatment in all severer forms of conjunctivitis should be
+undertaken with the primary object in view of preventing any implication
+of the cornea.
+
+_Catarrhal conjunctivitis_, which is characterized by an increased
+mucoid secretion accompanying the hyperaemia, is usually bilateral and
+may be either acute or chronic. Acute conjunctivitis lasts as a rule
+only for a week or two: the chronic type may persist, with or without
+occasional exacerbations, for years. The subjective symptoms vary in
+intensity with the severity of the inflammation. There is always more or
+less troublesome "burning" in the eyes with a tired heavy feeling in the
+lids. This is aggravated by reading, which is most distressing in a
+close or smoky atmosphere and by artificial light. In acute cases,
+indeed, reading is altogether impossible. In all cases of catarrhal
+conjunctivitis the symptoms are also more marked if the eyes have been
+tied up, even though this may produce a temporary relief.
+
+A curious variety of acute catarrhal conjunctivitis, in which the
+hyperaemia and lacrymation are the predominant features, is the
+so-called _hay-fever_. In this condition the mucous membrane of the nose
+and throat are similarly affected, and there is at the same time more or
+less constitutional disturbance. Hay-fever is due to irritation from the
+pollen of many plants, but principally from that of the different
+grasses. Some people are so susceptible to it that they invariably
+suffer every year during the early summer months. Here it is difficult
+to remove the cause, but many cases can be cured and almost all are
+alleviated be means of a special antitoxin applied locally.
+
+Other ectogenetic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis which have been
+studied are mostly microbic. Of these the most common are the
+Morax-Axenfeld and the Koch-Weeks conjunctivitis.
+
+The Morax-Axenfeld bacillus sets up a conjunctivitis which affects
+individuals of all ages and conditions and which is contagious. The
+inflammation is usually chronic, at most subacute. It is often
+sufficiently characteristic to be recognized without a microscopical
+examination of the secretions. In typical cases the lid margin,
+palpebral conjunctiva, and it may be a patch of ocular conjunctiva at
+the outer or inner angle are alone hyperaemic: the secretion is not
+copious and is mostly found as a greyish coagulum lying at the inner
+lid-margin. The subjective symptoms are usually slight. Complications
+with other varieties of catarrhal conjunctivitis are not uncommon. This
+mild form of conjunctivitis generally lasts for many months, subject to
+more or less complete disappearance followed by recurrences. It can be
+rapidly cured by the use of an oxide of zinc ointment, which should be
+continued for some time after the appearances have altogether passed
+off.
+
+The conjunctivitis caused by the Koch-Weeks microbe is still more
+common. It is a more acute type, affects mostly children, and is very
+contagious and often epidemic. Here the hyperaemia involves both the
+ocular and the palpebral conjunctiva, and usually there is considerable
+swelling of the lids and a copious secretion. Both eyes are always
+affected. Occasionally the engorged conjunctival vessels give way,
+causing numerous small extravasations (ecchymoses). Complications with
+phlyctenulae (_vide infra_) are common in children. The acute symptoms
+last for a week or ten days, after which the course is more chronic.
+Treatment with nitrate of silver in solution is generally satisfactory.
+Other less frequent microbic causes of catarrhal conjunctivitis yield to
+the same treatment.
+
+A form of _epidemic muco-purulent conjunctivitis_ is not uncommon, in
+which the swelling of the conjunctival folds and lids is much more
+marked and the secretions copious. It is less amenable to treatment and
+also apt to be complicated by corneal ulceration. The microbe which
+gives rise to this condition has not been definitely established. This
+inflammation is also known as _school ophthalmia_. This is extremely
+contagious, so that isolation of cases becomes necessary. The treatment
+with weak solutions of sub-acetate of lead during the acute stage,
+provided there be no corneal complication, and subsequently with a weak
+solution of tannic acid, may be recommended.
+
+_Purulent Conjunctivitis._--Some of the severer forms of catarrhal
+conjunctivitis are accompanied not only by a good deal of swelling of
+both conjunctiva and lids but also by a decidedly muco-purulent
+secretion. Nevertheless there is a sufficiently sharply-defined clinical
+difference between the catarrhal and purulent types of inflammation. In
+purulent conjunctivitis the oedema of the lids is always marked, often
+excessive, the hyperaemia of the whole conjunctiva is intense: the
+membrane is also infiltrated and swollen (chemosis), the papillae
+enlarged and the secretion almost wholly purulent. Although this variety
+of conjunctivitis is principally due to infection by gonococci, other
+microbes, which more frequently set up a catarrhal type, may lead to the
+purulent form.
+
+All forms are contagious, and transference of the secretion to other
+eyes usually sets up the same type of severe inflammation. The way in
+which infection mostly takes place is by direct transference by means of
+the hands, towels, &c., of secretions containing gonococci either from
+the eye or from some other mucous membrane. The poison may also
+sometimes be carried by flies. The dried secretion loses its virulence.
+
+In new-born children (_ophthalmia neonatorum_) infection takes place
+from the maternal passages during birth. Notwithstanding the great
+changes which occur during the progress of a purulent conjunctivitis,
+there is on recovery a complete _restitutio ad integrum_ so far as the
+conjunctiva is concerned. Owing to the tendency to severe ulceration of
+the cornea, more or less serious destructions of that membrane, and
+consequently more or less interference with sight, may result before the
+inflammation has passed off. This is a special danger in the case of
+adults. For this reason when only one eye is affected the first point to
+be attended to in the treatment is to secure the second eye from
+contagion by efficient occlusion. The appliance known as Buller's
+shield, a watch-glass strapped down by plaster, is the best for this
+purpose. It not only admits of the patient seeing with the sound eye,
+but allows the other to remain under direct observation. The treatment
+otherwise consists in frequent removal of the secretions from the
+affected eye, and the use of nitrate of silver solution as a bactericide
+applied directly to the conjunctival surface; sometimes it is necessary
+to cut away the chemotic conjunctiva immediately surrounding the cornea.
+When the cornea has become affected efforts may be made with the
+thermo-cautery or otherwise to limit the area of destruction and thus
+admit of something being done to improve the vision after all
+inflammation has subsided. The greatest cleanliness as well as proper
+antiseptic precautions should of course be observed by every one in any
+way connected with the treatment of such cases.
+
+_Phlyctenular conjunctivitis_ is an acute inflammation of the ocular
+conjunctiva, in which little blebs or phlyctenules form, more
+particularly in the vicinity of the corneal margin, as well as on the
+epithelial continuation of the conjunctiva which covers the cornea. The
+inflammation is characterized by being distributed in little
+circumscribed foci and not diffused as in all other forms of
+conjunctivitis. In it the conjunctival secretion is not altered, unless
+there should exist at the same time a complication with some other form
+of conjunctivitis. This condition is most frequent in children,
+particularly such as are ill-nourished or are recovering from some
+illness, e.g. measles. The susceptibility occurs in fact mainly where
+there exists what used to be called a "strumous" diathesis. In many
+cases, therefore, there is some kind of tubercular basis for the
+manifestations. This basis has to do with the susceptibility only, at
+all events to begin with. The local changes are not tuberculous; their
+exact origin has not been clearly established. They are in all
+probability produced by staphylococci.
+
+Many children suffering from phlyctenular conjunctivitis get after a
+short time an eczematous excoriation of the skin of the nostrils. This
+excoriated, scabby area contains crowds of staphylococci which find a
+nidus here, where the copious tear-flow down the nostrils has excoriated
+and irritated the skin. Lacrymation is indeed a very common concomitant
+of phlyctenular conjunctivitis. Another frequently distressing symptom
+is a pronounced dread of light (_photophobia_), which often leads to
+convulsive and very persistent closing of the lids (_blepharospasm_).
+Indeed the relief of the photophobia is often the most important point
+to be considered in the treatment of phlyctenular conjunctivitis. The
+photophobia may be very severe when the local changes are slight. The
+eyes should be shaded but not bandaged. Cocain may be freely used. The
+best local application is the yellow oxide of mercury used as an
+ointment.
+
+Phlyctenular conjunctivitis, and the corneal complications with which it
+is so often associated, constitute a large proportion (from 1/4 to 1/3)
+of all eye affections with which the surgeon has to deal.
+
+_Granular Conjunctivitis._--This disease, which also goes by the name of
+_trachoma_, is characterized by an inflammatory infiltration of the
+adenoid tissue of the conjunctiva. The inflammation is accompanied by
+the formation of so-called _granules_, and at the same time by a
+hyperplasia of the papillae. The changes further lead in the course of
+time to cicatricial transformations, so that a gradual and progressive
+atrophy of the conjunctiva results. The disease takes its origin most
+frequently in the conjunctival fold of the upper lid, but eventually as
+a rule involves the corna and the deeper tissues of the lid,
+particularly the tarsus.
+
+The etiology of trachoma is unknown. Though a perfectly distinctive
+affection when fully established, the differential diagnosis from other
+forms of conjunctivitis, particularly those associated with much
+follicular enlargement or which have begun as purulent inflammation, may
+be difficult. Trachoma is mostly chronic. When occurring in an acute
+form it is more amenable to treatment and less likely to end in
+cicatricial changes. Fully half the cases of trachoma which occur are
+complicated by _pannus_, which is the name given to the affection when
+it has spread to the cornea. Pannus is a superficial vascularized
+infiltration of the cornea. The veiling which it produces causes more or
+less defect of sight.
+
+Various methods of treatment are in use for trachoma. Expression by
+means of roller-forceps or repeated grattage are amongst the more
+effective means of surgical treatment, while local applications of
+copper sulphate or of alum are certainly useful in suitable cases.
+
+_Diphtheritic conjunctivitis_ is characterized by an infiltration into
+the conjunctival tissues which, owing to great coagulability, rapidly
+interferes with the nutrition of the invaded area and thus leads to
+necrosis of the diphtheritic membrane. Conjunctival diphtheria may or
+may not be associated with diphtheria of the throat. It is essentially a
+disease of early childhood, not more than 10% of all cases occurring
+after the age of four. The cornea is exposed to great risk, more
+particularly during the first few days, and may be lost by necrosis.
+Subsequent ulceration is not uncommon, but may often be arrested before
+complete destruction has taken place. The disease is generally confined
+to one eye, and complicated by swelling of the preauricular glands of
+that side. It may prove fatal. In true conjunctival diphtheria the
+exciting cause is the Klebs-Loffler bacillus. The inflammation occurs in
+very varying degrees of severity. The secretion is at first thin and
+scant, afterwards purulent and more copious. In severe cases there is
+great chemosis with much tense swelling of the lids, which are often of
+an ashy-grey colour. A streptococcus infection produces somewhat similar
+and often quite as disastrous results.
+
+The treatment must be both general with antitoxin and local with
+antiseptics. Of rarer forms of conjunctivitis may be mentioned
+Parinaud's conjunctivitis and the so-called spring catarrh.
+
+_Non-inflammatory Conjunctival Affections._--These are of less
+importance than conjunctivitis, either on account of their comparative
+infrequency or because of their harmlessness. The following conditions
+may be shortly referred to.
+
+_Amyloid degeneration_, in which waxy-looking masses grow from the
+palpebral conjunctiva of both lids, often attaining very considerable
+dimensions. The condition is not uncommon in China and elsewhere in the
+East.
+
+_Essential Shrinking of the Conjunctiva._--This is the result of
+pemphigus, in which the disease has attacked the conjunctiva and led to
+its atrophy.
+
+_Pterygium_ is a hypertrophic thickening of the conjunctiva of
+triangular shape firmly attached by its apex to the superficial layers
+of the cornea. It is a common condition in warm climates owing to
+exposure to sun and dust, and often calls for operative interference.
+
+_Tumours of the Conjunctiva._--These may be malignant or benign, also
+syphilitic and tubercular.     (G. A. Be.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] Some embryologists regard the vitreous body as formed from the
+    ectoderm (see Quain's _Anatomy_, vol. i., 1908).
+
+
+
+
+EYEMOUTH, a police burgh of Berwickshire, Scotland. Pop. (1901) 2436. It
+is situated at the mouth of the Eye, 7-1/2 m. N.N.W. of Berwick-on-Tweed
+by the North British railway via Burnmouth. Its public buildings are the
+town hall, library and masonic hall. The main industry is the fishing
+and allied trades. The harbour was enlarged in 1887, and the bay is
+easily accessible and affords good anchorage. Owing to the rugged
+character of the coast and its numerous ravines and caves the whole
+district was once infested with smugglers. The promontory of St Abb's
+Head is 3 m. to the N.W.
+
+
+
+
+EYLAU (_Preussisch-Eylau_), a town of Germany, in east Prussia, on the
+Pasmar, 23 m. S. by E. Of Konigsberg by rail on the line
+Pillau-Prostken. It has an Evangelical church, a teachers' seminary, a
+hospital, foundries and saw mills. Pop. 3200. Eylau was founded in 1336
+by Arnolf von Eilenstein, a knight of the Teutonic Order. It is famous
+as the scene of a battle between the army of Napoleon and the Russians
+and Prussians commanded by General Bennigsen, fought on the 8th of
+February 1807.
+
+The battle was preceded by a severe general engagement on the 7th. The
+head of Napoleon's column (cavalry and infantry), advancing from the
+south-west, found itself opposed at the outlet of the Grunhofchen defile
+by a strong Russian rearguard which held the (frozen) lakes on either
+side of the Eylau road, and attacked at once, dislodging the enemy after
+a sharp conflict. The French turned both wings of the enemy, and
+Bagration, who commanded the Russian rearguard, retired through Eylau to
+the main army, which was now arrayed for battle east of Eylau. Barclay
+de Tolly made a strenuous resistance in Eylau itself, and in the
+churchyard, and these localities changed hands several times before
+remaining finally in possession of the French. It is very doubtful
+whether Napoleon actually ordered this attack upon Eylau, and it is
+suggested that the French soldiers were encouraged to a premature
+assault by the hope of obtaining quarters in the village. There is,
+however, no reason to suppose that this attack was prejudicial to
+Napoleon's chance of success, for his own army was intended to pin the
+enemy in front, while the outlying "masses of manoeuvre" closed upon his
+flanks and rear (see NAPOLEONIC CAMPAIGNS). In this case the vigour of
+the "general advanced guard" was superfluous, for Bennigsen stood to
+fight of his own free will.
+
+The foremost line of the French bivouacs extended, from Rothenen to
+Freiheit, but a large proportion of the army spent the night in quarters
+farther back. The Russian army on the other hand spent the night
+bivouacked in order of battle, the right at Schloditten and the left at
+Serpallen. The cold was extreme, 2 deg. F. being registered in the early
+morning, and food was scarce in both armies. The ground was covered at
+the time of battle with deep snow, and all the lakes and marshes were
+frozen, so that troops of all arms could pass everywhere, so far as the
+snow permitted. Two of Napoleon's corps (Davout and Ney) were still
+absent, and Ney did not receive his orders until the morning of the 8th.
+His task was to descend upon the Russian right, and also to prevent a
+Prussian corps under Lestocq from coming on to the battlefield. Davout's
+corps advancing from the south-east on Mollwitten was destined for the
+attack of Bennigsen's left wing about Serpallen and Klein Sausgarten. In
+the meantime Napoleon with his forces at and about Eylau made the
+preparations for the frontal attack. His infantry extended from the
+windmill, through Eylau, to Rothenen, and the artillery was deployed
+along the whole front; behind each infantry corps and on the wings stood
+the cavalry. The Guard was in second line south of Eylau, and an army
+reserve stood near the Waschkeiten lake. Bennigsen's army was drawn up
+in line from Schloditten to Klein Sausgarten, the front likewise covered
+by guns, in which arm he was numerically much superior. A detachment
+occupied Serpallen.
+
+The battle opened in a dense snowstorm. About 8 A.M. Bennigsen's guns
+opened fire on Eylau, and after a fierce but undecided artillery fight
+the French delivered an infantry attack from Eylau. This was repulsed
+with heavy losses, and the Russians advanced towards the windmill in
+force. Thereupon Napoleon ordered his centre, the VII. corps of Augereau
+to move forward from the church against the Russian front, the division
+of St Hilaire on Augereau's right participating in the attack. If we
+conceive of this first stage of the battle as the action of the "general
+advanced guard," Augereau must be held to have overdone his part. The
+VII. corps advanced in dense masses, but in the fierce snowstorm lost
+its direction. St Hilaire attacked directly and unsupported; Augereau's
+corps was still less fortunate. Crossing obliquely the front of the
+Russian line, as if making for Schloditten, it came under a _feu
+d'enfer_ and was practically annihilated. In the confusion the Russian
+cavalry charged with the utmost fury downhill and with the wind behind
+them. Three thousand men only out of about fourteen thousand appeared at
+the evening parade of the corps. The rest were killed, wounded,
+prisoners or dispersed. The marshal and every senior officer was amongst
+the killed and wounded, and one regiment, the 14th of the Line, cut off
+in the midst of the Russians and refusing to surrender, fell almost to a
+man. The Russian counterstroke penetrated into Eylau itself and Napoleon
+himself was in serious danger. With the utmost coolness, however, he
+judged the pace of the Russian advance and ordered up a battalion of the
+Guard at the exact moment required. In the streets of Eylau the Guard
+had the Russians at their mercy, and few escaped. Still the situation
+for the French was desperate and the battle had to be maintained at all
+costs. Napoleon now sent forward the cavalry along the whole line. In
+the centre the charge was led by Murat and Bessieres, and the Russian
+horsemen were swept off the field. The Cuirassiers under D'Hautpoult
+charged through the Russian guns, broke through the first line of
+infantry and then through the second, penetrating to the woods of
+Anklappen.
+
+[Illustration: Map of Eylau.]
+
+The shock of a second wave of cavalry broke the lines again, and though
+in the final retirement the exhausted troopers lost terribly, they had
+achieved their object. The wreck of Augereau's and other divisions had
+been reformed, the Guard brought up into first line, and, above all,
+Davout's leading troops had occupied Serpallen. Thence, with his left in
+touch with Napoleon's right (St Hilaire), and his right extending
+gradually towards Klein Sausgarten, the marshal pressed steadily upon
+the Russian left, rolling it up before him, until his right had reached
+Kutschitten and his centre Anklappen. By that time the troops under
+Napoleon's immediate command, pivoting their left on Eylau church, had
+wheeled gradually inward until the general line extended from the
+church to Kutschitten. The Russian army was being driven westward, when
+the advance of Lestocq gave them fresh steadiness. The Prussian corps
+had been fighting a continuous flank-guard action against Marshal Ney to
+the north-west of Althof, and Lestocq had finally succeeded in
+disengaging his main body, Ney being held up at Althof by a small
+rearguard, while the Prussians, gathering as they went the fugitives of
+the Russian army, hastened to oppose Davout. The impetus of these fresh
+troops led by Lestocq and his staff-officer Scharnhorst was such as to
+check even the famous divisions of Davout's corps which had won the
+battle of Auerstadt single-handed. The French were now gradually forced
+back until their right was again at Sausgarten and their centre on the
+Kreege Berg.
+
+Both sides were now utterly exhausted, for the Prussians also had been
+marching and fighting all day against Ney. The battle died away at
+nightfall, Ney's corps being unable effectively to intervene owing to
+the steadiness of the Prussian detachment left to oppose him, and the
+extreme difficulty of the roads. A severe conflict between the Russian
+extreme right and Ney's corps which at last appeared on the field at
+Schloditten ended the battle. Bennigsen retreated during the night
+through Schmoditten, Lestocq through Kutschitten. The numbers engaged in
+the first stage of the battle may be taken as--Napoleon, 50,000,
+Bennigsen, 67,000, to which later were added on the one side Ney and
+Davout, 29,000, on the other Lestocq, 7000. The losses were roughly,
+15,000 men to the French, 18,000 to the Allies, or 21 and 27%
+respectively of the troops actually engaged. The French lost 5 eagles
+and 7 other colours, the Russians 16 colours and 24 guns.
+
+
+
+
+EYRA (_Felis eyra_), a South American wild cat, of weasel-like build,
+and uniform coloration, varying in different individuals from
+reddish-yellow to chestnut. It is found in Brazil, Guiana and Paraguay,
+and extends its range to the Rio del Norte, but is rare north of the
+isthmus of Panama. Little is known of its habits in a wild state, beyond
+the fact that it is a forest-dweller, active in movement and fierce in
+disposition. Several have been exhibited in the London Zoological
+Gardens, and some have grown gentle in captivity. Don Felix de Azara
+wrote of one which he kept on a chain that it was "as gentle and playful
+as any kitten could be." The name is sometimes applied to the
+jaguarondi.
+
+
+
+
+EYRE, EDWARD JOHN (1815-1901), British colonial governor, the son of a
+Yorkshire clergyman, was born on the 5th of August 1815. He was intended
+for the army, but delays having arisen in producing a commission, he
+went out to New South Wales, where he engaged in the difficult but very
+necessary undertaking of transporting stock westward to the new colony
+of South Australia, then in great distress, and where he became
+magistrate and protector of the aborigines, whose interests he warmly
+advocated. Already experienced as an Australian traveller, he undertook
+the most extensive and difficult journeys in the desert country north
+and west of Adelaide, and after encountering the greatest hardships,
+proved the possibility of land communication between South and West
+Australia. In 1845 he returned to England and published the narrative of
+his travels. In 1846 he was appointed lieutenant-governor of New
+Zealand, where he served under Sir George Grey. After successively
+governing St Vincent and Antigua, he was in 1862 appointed
+acting-governor of Jamaica and in 1864 governor. In October 1865 a negro
+insurrection broke out and was repressed with laudable vigour, but the
+unquestionable severity and alleged illegality of Eyre's subsequent
+proceedings raised a storm at home which induced the government to
+suspend him and to despatch a special commission of investigation, the
+effect of whose inquiries, declared by his successor, Sir John Peter
+Grant, to have been "admirably conducted," was that he should not be
+reinstated in his office. The government, nevertheless, saw nothing in
+Eyre's conduct to justify legal proceedings; indictments preferred by
+amateur prosecutors at home against him and military officers who had
+acted under his direction, resulted in failure, and he retired upon the
+pension of a colonial governor. As an explorer Eyre must be classed in
+the highest rank, but opinions are always likely to differ as to his
+action in the Jamaica rebellion. He died on the 30th of November 1901.
+
+
+
+
+EYRE, SIR JAMES (1734-1799), English judge, was the son of the Rev.
+Thomas Eyre, of Wells, Somerset. He was educated at Winchester College
+and at St John's College, Oxford, which, however, he left without taking
+a degree. He was called to the bar at Gray's Inn in 1755, and commenced
+practice in the lord mayor's and sheriffs' courts, having become by
+purchase one of the four counsel to the corporation of London. He was
+appointed recorder of London in 1763. He was counsel for the plaintiff
+in the case of _Wilkes_ v. _Wood_, and made a brilliant speech in
+condemnation of the execution of general search warrants. His refusal to
+voice the remonstrances of the corporation against the exclusion of
+Wilkes from parliament earned him the recognition of the ministry, and
+he was appointed a judge of the exchequer in 1772. From June 1792 to
+January 1793 he was chief commissioner of the great seal. In 1793 he was
+made chief justice of the common pleas, and presided over the trials of
+Horne Tooke, Thomas Crosfield and others, with great ability and
+impartiality. He died on the 1st of July 1799 and was buried at
+Ruscombe, Berkshire.
+
+  See Howell, _State Trials_, xix. (1154--1155); Foss, _Lives of the
+  Judges_.
+
+
+
+
+EYRIE, the alternative English form of the words Aerie or Aery, the
+lofty nest of a bird of prey, especially of an eagle, hence any lofty
+place of abode; the term is also used of the brood of the bird. The word
+derives from the Fr. _aire_, of the same meaning, which comes from the
+Lat. _area_, an open space, but was early connected with _aerius_, high
+in the air, airy, a confusion that has affected the spelling of the
+word. The forms "eyrie" or "eyry" date from a 17th century attempt to
+derive the word from the Teutonic _ey_, an egg.
+
+
+
+
+EZEKIEL ([Hebrew: Ihezkel], "God strengthens" or "God is strong"; Sept.
+[Greek: Iezekiel]; Vulg. Ezechiel), son of Buzi, one of the most
+vigorous and impressive of the older Israelite thinkers. He was a priest
+of the Jerusalem temple, probably a member of the dominant house of
+Zadok, and doubtless had the literary training of the cultivated
+priesthood of the time, including acquaintance with the national
+historical, legal and ritual traditions and with the contemporary
+history and customs of neighbouring peoples. In the year 597 (being
+then, probably, not far from thirty years of age) he was carried off to
+Babylonia by Nebuchadrezzar with King Jehoiachin and a large body of
+nobles, military men and artisans, and there, it would seem, he spent
+the rest of his life. His prophecies are dated from this year ("our
+captivity," xl. 1), except in i. 1, where the meaning of the date
+"thirtieth year" is obscure; it cannot refer to his age (which would be
+otherwise expressed in Hebrew), or to the reform of Josiah, 621 (which
+is not elsewhere employed as an epoch); possibly the reference is to the
+era of Nabopolassar (626 according to the Canon of Ptolemy), if
+chronological inexactness be supposed (34 or 33 years instead of 30), a
+supposition not at all improbable. That the word "thirtieth" is old,
+appears from the fact that a scribe has added a gloss (vv. 2, 3) to
+bring this statement into accord with the usual way of reckoning in the
+book: the "thirtieth" year, he explains, is the fifth year of the
+captivity of Jehoiachin. The exiles dwelt at Tell-abib ("Hill of the
+flood"), one of the mounds or ruins made by the great floods that
+devastated the country,[1] near the "river" Chebar (Kebar), probably a
+large canal not far south of the city of Babylon. Here they had their
+own lands, and some form of local government by elders, and appear to
+have been prosperous and contented; probably the only demand made on
+them by the Babylonian government was the payment of taxes.
+
+Ezekiel was married (xxiv. 18), had his own house, and comported himself
+quietly as a Babylonian subject. But he was a profoundly interested
+observer of affairs at home and among the exiles: as patriot and
+ethical teacher he deplored alike the political blindness of the
+Jerusalem government (King Zedekiah revolted in 588) and the immorality
+and religious superficiality and apostasy of the people. He, like
+Jeremiah, was friendly to Nebuchadrezzar, regarding him as Yahweh's
+instrument for the chastisement of the nation. Convinced that opposition
+to Babylonian rule was suicidal, and interpreting historical events, in
+the manner of the times, as indications of the temper of the deity, he
+held that the imminent political destruction of the nation was proof of
+Yahweh's anger with the people on account of their moral and religious
+depravity; Jerusalem was hopelessly corrupt and must be destroyed
+(xxiv.). On the other hand, he was equally convinced that, as his
+predecessors had taught (Hos. xi. 8, 9; Isa. vii. 3 al.), Yahweh's love
+for his people would not suffer them to perish utterly--a remnant would
+be saved, and this remnant he naturally found in the exiles in
+Babylonia, a little band plucked from the burning and kept safe in a
+foreign land till the wrath should have passed (xi. 14 ff.). This
+conception of the exiles as the kernel of the restored nation he further
+set forth in the great vision of ch. i., in which Yahweh is represented
+as leaving Jerusalem and coming to take up his abode among them in
+Babylonia for a time, intending, however, to return to his own city
+(xliii. 7).
+
+This, then, was Ezekiel's political creed--destruction of Jerusalem and
+its inhabitants, restoration of the exiles, and meantime submission to
+Babylon. His arraignment of the Judeans is violent, almost malignant
+(vi. xvi. al.). The well-meaning but weak king Zedekiah he denounces
+with bitter scorn as a perjured traitor (xvii). He does not discuss the
+possibility of successful resistance to the Chaldeans; he simply assumes
+that the attempt is foolish and wicked, and, like other prophets, he
+identifies his political programme with the will of God. Probably his
+judgment of the situation was correct; yet, in view of Sennacherib's
+failure at Jerusalem in 701 and of the admitted strength of the city,
+the hope of the Jewish nobles could not be considered wholly unfounded,
+and in any case their patriotism (like that of the national party in the
+Roman siege) was not unworthy of admiration. The prophet's predictions
+of disaster continued, according to the record, up to the investment of
+the city by the Chaldean army in 588 (i.-xxiv.); after the fall of the
+city (586) his tone changed to one of consolation (xxxiii.-xxxix.)--the
+destruction of the wicked mass accomplished, he turned to the task of
+reconstruction. He describes the safe and happy establishment of the
+people in their own land, and gives a sketch of a new constitution, of
+which the main point is the absolute control of public religion by the
+priesthood (xl.-xlviii.).
+
+The discourses of the first period (i.-xxiv.) do not confine themselves
+to political affairs, but contain much interesting ethical and religious
+material. The picture given of Jerusalemite morals is an appalling one.
+Society is described as honeycombed with crimes and vices; prophets,
+priests, princes and the people generally are said to practise
+unblushingly extortion, oppression, murder, falsehood, adultery (xxii.).
+This description is doubtless exaggerated. It may be assumed that the
+social corruption in Jerusalem was such as is usually found in wealthy
+communities, made bolder in this case, perhaps, by the political unrest
+and the weakness of the royal government under Zedekiah. No such charges
+are brought by the prophet against the exiles, in whose simple life,
+indeed, there was little or no opportunity for flagrant violation of
+law. Ezekiel's own moral code is that of the prophets, which insists on
+the practice of the fundamental civic virtues. He puts ritual offences,
+however, in the same category with offences against the moral law, and
+he does not distinguish between immorality and practices that are
+survivals of old recognized customs: in ch. xxii. he mentions "eating
+with the blood"[2] along with murder, and failure to observe ritual
+regulations along with oppression of the fatherless and the widow; the
+old customary law permitted marriage with a half-sister (father's
+daughter), with a daughter-in-law, and with a father's wife (Gen. xx.
+12, xxxviii. 26; 2 Sam. xvi. 21, 22), but the more refined feeling of
+the later time frowned on the custom, and Ezekiel treats it as
+adultery.[3] However, notwithstanding the insistence on ritual, natural
+in a priest, his moral standard is high; following the prescription of
+Ex. xxii. 21 [20] he regards oppression of resident aliens (a class that
+had not then received full civil rights) as a crime (xxii. 7), and in
+his new constitution (xlvii. 22, 23) gives them equal rights with the
+homeborn. His strongest denunciation is directed against the religious
+practices of the time in Judea--the worship of the Canaanite local
+deities (the Baals), the Phoenician Tammuz, and the sun and other
+Babylonian and Assyrian gods (vi., viii., xvi., xxiii.); he maintained
+vigorously the prophetic struggle for the sole worship of Yahweh.
+Probably he believed in the existence of other gods, though he does not
+express himself clearly on this point; in any case he held that the
+worship of other deities was destructive to Israel. His conception of
+Yahweh shows a mingling of the high and the low. On the one hand, he
+regards him as supreme in power, controlling the destinies of Babylonia
+and Egypt as well as those of Israel, and as inflexibly just in dealing
+with ordinary offences against morality. But he conceives of him, on the
+other hand, as limited locally and morally--as having his special abode
+in. the Jerusalem temple, or elsewhere in the midst of the Israelite
+people, and as dealing with other nations solely in the interests of
+Israel. The bitter invectives against Ammon, Moab, Edom, Philistia,
+Tyre, Sidon and Egypt, put into Yahweh's mouth, are based wholly on the
+fact that these peoples are regarded as hostile and hurtful to Israel;
+Babylonia, though nowise superior to Egypt morally, is favoured and
+applauded because it is believed to be the instrument for securing
+ultimately the prosperity of Yahweh's people. The administration of the
+affairs of the world by the God of Israel is represented, in a word, as
+determined not by ethical considerations but by personal preferences.
+There is no hint in Ezekiel's writings of the grandiose conception of
+Isa. xl.-lv., that Israel's mission is to give the knowledge of
+religious truth to the other nations of the world; he goes so far as to
+say that Yahweh's object in restoring the fortunes of Israel is to
+establish his reputation among the nations as a powerful deity (xxxvi.
+20-23, xxxvii. 28, xxxix. 23). The prophet regards Yahweh's
+administrative control as immediate: he introduces no angels or other
+subordinate supernatural agents--the cherubs and the "men" of ix. 2 and
+xl. 3 are merely imaginative symbols or representations of divine
+activity. His high conception of God's transcendence, it may be
+supposed, led him to ignore intermediary agencies, which are common in
+the popular literature, and later, under the influence of this same
+conception of transcendence, are freely employed.
+
+The relations between the writings of Ezekiel and those of Jeremiah is
+not clear. They have so much in common that they must have drawn from
+the same current bodies of thought, or there must have been borrowing in
+one direction or the other. In one point, however,--the attitude toward
+the ritual--the two men differ radically. The finer mind of the nation,
+represented mainly by the prophets from Amos onward, had denounced
+unsparingly the superficial non-moral popular cult. The struggle between
+ethical religion and the current worship became acute toward the end of
+the 7th century. There were two possible solutions of the difficulty.
+The ritual books of our Pentateuch were not then in existence, and the
+sacrificial cult might be treated with contempt as not authoritative.
+This is the course taken by Jeremiah, who says boldly that God requires
+only obedience (Jer. vii. 21 ff.). On the other hand the better party
+among the priests, believing the ritual to be necessary, might undertake
+to moralize it; of such a movement, begun by Deuteronomy, Ezekiel is the
+most eminent representative. Priest and prophet, he sought to unify the
+national religious consciousness by preserving the sacrificial cult,
+discarding its abuses and vitalizing it ethically. The event showed that
+he judged the situation rightly--the religious scheme announced by him,
+though not accepted in all its details, became the dominant policy of
+the later time, and he has been justly called "the father of Judaism."
+He speaks as a legislator, citing no authority; but he formulates,
+doubtless, the ideas and perhaps the practices of the Jerusalem
+priesthood. His ritual code (xliii.-xlvi.), which in elaborateness
+stands midway between that of Deuteronomy and that of the middle books
+of the Pentateuch (resembling most nearly the code of Lev. xvii.-xxvi.)
+shows good judgment. Its most noteworthy features are two. Certain
+priests of idolatrous Judean shrines (distinguished by him as "Levites")
+he deprives of priestly functions, degrading them to the rank of temple
+menials; and he takes from the civil ruler all authority over public
+religion, permitting him merely to furnish material for sacrifices. He
+is, however, much more than a ritual reformer. He is the first to
+express clearly the conception of a sacred nation, isolated by its
+religion from all others, the guardian of divine law and the abode of
+divine majesty. This kingdom of God he conceives of as moral: Yahweh is
+to put his own spirit into the people,[4] creating in them a disposition
+to obey his commandments, which are moral as well as ritual (xxxvi. 26,
+27). The conception of a sacred nation controlled the whole succeeding
+Jewish development; if it was narrow in its exclusive regard for Israel,
+its intensity saved the Jewish religion to the world.
+
+_Text and Authorship._--The Hebrew text of the book of Ezekiel is not in
+good condition--it is full of scribal inaccuracies and additions. Many
+of the errors may be corrected with the aid of the Septuagint (e.g. the
+430--390 + 40--of iv. 5, 6 is to be changed to 190), and none of them
+affect the general thought. The substantial genuineness of the
+discourses is now accepted by the great body of critics. The Talmudic
+tradition (_Baba Bathra_ 14b) that the men of the Great Synagogue
+"wrote" Ezekiel, may refer to editorial work by later scholars.[5] There
+is no validity in the objections of Zunz (_Gottesdienstl. Vortr._) that
+the specific prediction concerning Zedekiah (xii. 12 f.) is
+non-Prophetic, and that the drawing-up of a new constitution soon after
+the destruction of the city and the mention of Noah, Daniel, Job and
+Persia are improbable. The prediction in question was doubtless added by
+Ezekiel after the event; the code belongs precisely in his time, and the
+constitution was natural for a priest; Noah, Daniel and Job are old
+legendary Hebrew figures; and it is not probable that the prophet's
+"Paras" is our "Persia." Havet's contention (in _La Modernite des
+prophetes_) that Gog represents the Parthians (40 B.C.) has little or
+nothing in its support. There are additions made _post eventum_, as in
+the case mentioned above and in xxix. 17-20, and the description of the
+commerce of Tyre (xxvii. 9b-25a), which interrupts the comparison of the
+city to a ship, looks like an insertion whether by the prophet or by
+some other; but there is no good reason to doubt that the book is
+substantially the work of Ezekiel. Ezekiel's style is generally
+impetuous and vigorous, somewhat smoother in the consolatory discourses
+(xxxiv., xxxvi., xxxvii.); he produces a great effect by the cumulation
+of details, and is a master of invective; he is fond of symbolic
+pictures, proverbs and allegories; his "visions" are elaborate literary
+productions, his prophecies show less spontaneity than those of any
+preceding prophet (he receives his revelations in the form of a book,
+ii. 9), and in their present shape were hardly pronounced in public--a
+fact that seems to be hinted at in the statement that he was "dumb" till
+the fall of Jerusalem (iii. 26, xxxiii. 22); in private interviews the
+people did not take him seriously (xxxiii. 30-33). His book was accepted
+early as part of the sacred literature: Ben-Sira (c. 180 B.C.) mentions
+him along with Isaiah and Jeremiah (Ecclus. xlix. 8); he is not quoted
+directly in the New Testament, but his imagery is employed largely in
+the Apocalypse and elsewhere. His divergencies from the Pentateuchal
+code gave rise to serious doubts, but, after prolonged study, the
+discrepancies were explained, and the book was finally canonized (Shab.
+13b). According to Jerome (Preface to _Comm. on Ezek._) the Jewish
+youth were forbidden to read the mysterious first chapter (called the
+_markaba_, the "chariot") and the concluding section (xl.-xlviii.) till
+they reached the age of thirty years.
+
+  The book divides itself naturally into three parts: the arraignment of
+  Jerusalem (i.-xxiv.); denunciation of foreign enemies (xxv.-xxxii.);
+  consolatory construction of the future (xxxiii.-xlviii.). The opening
+  "vision" (i.), an elaborate symbolic picture, is of the nature of a
+  general preface, and was composed probably late in the prophet's life.
+  Out of the north (the Babylonian sacred mountain) comes a bright
+  cloud, wherein appear four Creatures (formed on the model of
+  Babylonian composite figures), each with four faces (man, lion, bull,
+  eagle) and attended by a wheel; the wheels are full of eyes, and move
+  straight forward, impelled by the spirit dwelling in the Creatures
+  (the spirit of Yahweh). Supported on their heads is something like a
+  crystalline firmament, above which is a form like a sapphire throne
+  (cf. Ex. xxiv. 10), and on the throne a man-like form (Yahweh)
+  surrounded by a rainbow brightness. The wheels symbolize divine
+  omniscience and control, and the whole vision represents the coming of
+  Yahweh to take up his abode among the exiles. The prophet then
+  receives his call (ii., iii.) in the shape of a roll of a book, which
+  he is required to eat (an indication of the literary form now taken by
+  prophecy). He is informed that the people to whom he is sent are
+  rebellious and stiff-necked (this indicates his opinion of the people,
+  and gives the keynote of the following discourses); he is appointed
+  watchman to warn men when they sin, and is to be held responsible for
+  the consequences if he fail in this duty. To this high conception of a
+  preacher's function the prophet was faithful throughout his career.
+  Next follow minatory discourses (iv.-vii.) predicting the siege and
+  capture of Jerusalem-perhaps revised after the event. There are
+  several symbolic acts descriptive of the siege. One of these (iv. 4
+  ff.) gives the duration of the national punishment in loose
+  chronological reckoning: 40 years (a round number) for Judah, and 150
+  more (according to the corrected text) for Israel, the starting-point,
+  probably, being the year 722, the date of the capture of Samaria; the
+  procedure described in v. 8 is not to be understood literally. In vi.
+  the idolatry of the nation is pictured in darkest colours. Next
+  follows (viii.-xi.) a detailed description, in the form of a vision,
+  of the sin of Jerusalem: within the temple-area elders and others are
+  worshipping beast-forms, Tammuz and the sun (probably actual cults of
+  the time); [6] men approach to defile the temple and slay the
+  inhabitants of the city (ix.). In ch. x. the imagery of ch. i.
+  reappears, and the Creatures are identified with the cherubs of
+  Solomon's temple. This appears to be an independent form of the
+  vision, which has been brought into connexion with that of i. by a
+  harmonizing editor. There follow a symbolic prediction of the exile
+  (xii.) and a denunciation of non-moral prophets and prophetesses
+  (xiii.)--though Yahweh deceive a prophet, yet he and those who consult
+  him will be punished; and so corrupt is the nation that the presence
+  of a few eminently good men will not save it (xiv.).[7] After a
+  comparison of Israel to a worthless wild vine (xv.) come two
+  allegories, one portraying idolatrous Jerusalem as the unfaithful
+  spouse of Yahweh (xvi.), the other describing the fate of Zedekiah
+  (xvii.). The fine insistence on individual moral responsibility in
+  xviii. (cf. Deut. xxiv. 16, Jer. xxxi. 29 f.), while it is a protest
+  against a superficial current view, is not to be understood as a
+  denial of all moral relations between successive generations. This
+  latter question had not presented itself to the prophet's mind; his
+  object was simply to correct the opinion of the people that their
+  present misfortunes were due not to their own faults but to those of
+  their predecessors. A more sympathetic attitude appears in two elegies
+  (xix.), one on the kings Jehoahaz and Jehoiachin, the other on the
+  nation. These are followed by a scathing sketch of Israel's religious
+  career (xx. 1-26), in which, contrary to the view of earlier prophets,
+  it is declared that the nation had always been disobedient. From this
+  point to the end of xxiv. there is a mingling of threat and
+  promise.[8] The allegory of xxiii. is similar to that of xvi., except
+  that in the latter Samaria is relatively treated with favour, while in
+  the former it (Aholah) is involved in the same condemnation as that of
+  Jerusalem. At this point is introduced (xxv.-xxxii.) the series of
+  discourses directed against foreign nations. The description of the
+  king of Tyre (xxviii. 11-19) as dwelling in Eden, the garden of God,
+  the sacred mountain, under the protection of the cherub, bears a
+  curious resemblance to the narrative in Gen. ii., iii., of which,
+  however, it seems to be independent, using different Babylonian
+  material; the text is corrupt. The section dealing with Egypt is one
+  of remarkable imaginative power and rhetorical vigour: the king of
+  Egypt is compared to a magnificent cedar of Lebanon (in xxxi. 3 read:
+  "there was a cedar in Lebanon") and to the dragon of the Nile, and the
+  picture of his descent into Sheol is intensely tragic. Whether these
+  discourses were all uttered between the investment of Jerusalem and
+  its fall, or were here inserted by Ezekiel or by a scribe, it is not
+  possible to say. In xxxiii. the function of the prophet as watchman is
+  described at length (expansion of the description in iii.) and the
+  news of the capture of the city is received. The following chapters
+  (xxxiv.-xxxix.) are devoted to reconstruction: Edom, the detested
+  enemy of Israel, is to be crushed; the nation, politically raised from
+  the dead, with North and South united (xxxvii.), is to be established
+  under a Davidide king; a final assault, made by Gog, is to be
+  successfully met,[9] and then the people are to dwell in their own
+  land in peace for ever; this Gog section is regarded by some as the
+  beginning of Jewish apocalyptic writing. In the last section
+  (xl.-xlviii.), put as a vision, the temple is to be rebuilt, in
+  dimensions and arrangements a reproduction of the temple of Solomon
+  (cf. I Kings vi., vii.), the sacrifices and festivals and the
+  functions of priests and prince are prescribed, a stream issuing from
+  under the temple is to vivify the Dead Sea and fertilize the land
+  (this is meant literally), the land is divided into parallel strips
+  and assigned to the tribes. The prophet's thought is summed up in the
+  name of the city: _Yahweh Shammah_, "Yahweh is there," God dwelling
+  for ever in the midst of his people.
+
+  LITERATURE.--For the older works see the _Introductions_ of J.G.
+  Carpzov (1757) and C.H.H. Wright (1890). For _legends_:
+  Pseud.-Epiphan., _De vit. prophet._; Benjamin of Tudela, Itin.;
+  Hamburger, _Realencycl._; _Jew. Encycl._ On the Hebrew text; C.H.
+  Cornill, _Ezechiel_ (1886) (very valuable for text and ancient
+  versions); H. Graetz, _Emendationes_ (1893).; C.H. Toy, "Text of
+  Ezek." (1899) in Haupt's _Sacred Books of the Old Test._ Commentaries:
+  F. Hitzig (1847); H. Ewald (1868); E. Reuss (French ed., 1876; Germ,
+  ed., 1892); Currey (1876) in _Speaker's Comm._; R. Smend (revision of
+  Hitzig) (1880) in _Kurzgefasst. exeget. Handbuch_; A.B. Davidson
+  (1882) in Cambr. _Bible for Schools_; J. Skinner (1895) in _Expos.
+  Bible_; A. Bertholet (1897) in Marti's _Kurz. Hand-Comm._; C.H. Toy
+  (1899) in Haupt's _Sacr. Bks._ (Eng. ed.); R. Kraetzschmar (1900) in
+  W. Nowack's _Handkommentar_. See also Duhm, _Theol. d. Propheten_
+  (1875); A. Kuenen, _Prophets and Prophecy_ (1877); Gautier, _La
+  Mission du prophete Ezechiel_ (1891); Montefiore, _Hibbert Lectures_
+  (1892); A. Bertholet, _Der Verfassungsentwurf des Hesekiel_ (1896);
+  articles in Herzog-Hauck, _Realencykl._; Hastings, _Bibl. Dict._;
+  Cheyne, _Encycl. Bibl., Jew. Encycl._; F. Bleek, _Introd._ (Eng. tr.,
+  1875), and Bleek-Wellhausen (Germ.) (1878); Wildeboer, _Letterkunde d.
+  Oud. Verbonds_ (1893), and Germ, transl., _Litt. d. Alt. Test._;
+  Perrot and Chipiez, _Hist. de l'art_, &c., in which, however, the
+  restoration of Ezekiel's temple (by Chipiez) is probably
+  untrustworthy.     (C. H. T.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] The Assyrian term _abubu_ is used of the great primeval deluge
+    (in the Gilgamesh epic), and also of the local floods common in the
+    country.
+
+  [2] So we must read (as Robertson Smith has pointed out) in xxii. 9
+    and xviii. 6, instead of "eating on the mountains."
+
+  [3] The stricter marriage law is formulated in Lev. xviii. 8-15, xx.
+    11 ff.
+
+  [4] Yahweh's spirit, thought of as Yahweh's vital principle, as man's
+    spirit is man's vital principle, is to be breathed into them, as, in
+    Gen. ii. 7, Yahweh breathes his own breath into the lifeless body.
+    The spirit in the Old Testament is a refined material thing that may
+    come or be poured out on men.
+
+  [5] The "Great Synagogue" is semi-mythical.
+
+  [6] In viii. 17 the unintelligible expression "they put the branch to
+    their nose" is the rendering of a corrupt Hebrew text; a probable
+    emendation is: "they are sending a stench to my nostrils."
+
+  [7] The legendary figure of Daniel (xiv. 14) is later taken by the
+    author of the book of Daniel as his hero.
+
+  [8] For a reconstruction of the poem in xxi. 10, 11, see the English
+    Ezekiel in Haupt's _Sacred Books_.
+
+  [9] Gog probably represents a Scythian horde (though such an invasion
+    never took place)--certainly not Alexander the Great, who would have
+    been called "king of Greece," and would have been regarded not as an
+    enemy but as a friend.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA (from a Hebrew word meaning "help"), in the Bible, the famous
+scribe and priest at the time of the return of the Jews in the reign of
+the Persian king Artaxerxes I. (458 B.C.). His book and that of Nehemiah
+form one work (see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF), apart from which we
+have little trustworthy evidence as to his life. Even in the beginning
+of the 2nd century B.C., when Ben Sira praises notable figures of the
+exilic and post-exilic age (Zerubbabel, Jeshua and Nehemiah), Ezra is
+passed over (Ecclesiasticus xlix. 11-13), and he is not mentioned in a
+still later and somewhat fanciful description of Nehemiah's work (2
+Macc. i. 18-36). Already well known as a scribe, Ezra's labours were
+magnified by subsequent tradition. He was regarded as the father of the
+scribes and the founder of the Great Synagogue. According to the
+apocryphal fourth book of Ezra (or 2 Esdras xiv.) he restored the law
+which had been lost, and rewrote all the sacred records (which had been
+destroyed) in addition to no fewer than seventy apocryphal works. The
+former theory recurs elsewhere in Jewish tradition, and may be
+associated with the representation in Ezra-Nehemiah which connects him
+with the law. But the story of his many literary efforts, like the more
+modern conjecture that he closed the canon of the Old Testament, rests
+upon no ancient basis.
+
+  See BIBLE, sect. Old Testament (Canon and Criticism); JEWS (history,
+  S21 seq.). The apocryphal books, called 1 and 2 Esdras (the Greek form
+  of the name) in the English Bible, are dealt with below as EZRA, THIRD
+  BOOK OF, and EZRA, FOURTH BOOK OF, while the canonical book of Ezra is
+  dealt with under EZRA AND NEHEMIAH.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF [1 _Esdras_]. The titles of the various books of the
+Ezra literature are very confusing. The Greek, the Old Latin, the
+Syriac, and the English Bible from 1560 onwards designate this book as
+1 Esdras, the canonical books Ezra and Nehemiah being 2 Esdras in the
+Greek. In the Vulgate, however, our author was, through the action of
+Jerome, degraded into the third place and called 3 Esdras, whereas the
+canonical books _Ezra_ and _Nehemiah_ (see EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF,
+below) were called 1 and 2 Esdras, and the Apocalypse of Ezra 4 Esdras.
+Thus the nomenclature of our book follows, and possibly wrongly, the
+usage of the Vulgate.[1] In the Ethiopic version a different usage
+prevails. The Apocalypse is called 1 Esdras, our author 2 Esdras, and
+Ezra and Nehemiah 3 Esdras, or 3 and 4 Esdras. Throughout this article
+we shall use the best attested designation of this book, i.e. 1 Esdras.
+
+_Contents._--With the exception of one original section, namely, that of
+Darius and the three young men, our author contains essentially the same
+materials as the canonical Ezra and some sections of 2 Chronicles and
+Nehemiah. To the various explanations of this phenomenon we shall recur
+later. The book may be divided as follows (the verse division is that of
+the Cambridge LXX):--
+
+  Chap. i. = 2 Chron. xxxv. 1-xxxvi. 21.--Great passover of Josiah; his
+  death at Megiddo. His successors down to the destruction of Jerusalem
+  and the Captivity. (Verses i. 21-22 are not found elsewhere, though
+  the LXX of 2 Chron. xxxv. 20 exhibits a very distant parallel.)
+
+  Chap. ii. 1-14 = Ezra i.--The edict of Cyrus. Restoration of the
+  sacred vessels through Sanabassar to Jerusalem.
+
+  Chap. ii. 15-25 = Ezra iv. 6-24.--First attempt to rebuild the Temple:
+  opposition of the Samaritans. Decree of Artaxerxes: work abandoned
+  till the second year of Darius.
+
+  Chap. iii. 1-v. 6.--This section is peculiar to our author. The
+  contest between the three pages waiting at the court of Darius and the
+  victory of the Jewish youth "Zerubbabel," to whom as a reward Darius
+  decrees the return of the Jews and the restoration of the Temple and
+  worship. Partial list of those who returned with "Joachim, son of
+  Zerubbabel."
+
+  Chap. v. 7-70 = Ezra ii.-iv. 5.--List of exiles who returned with
+  Zerubbabel. Work on the Temple begun. Offer of the Samaritans'
+  co-operation rejected. Suspension of the work through their
+  intervention till the reign of Darius.
+
+  Chap. vi. 1-vii. 9 = Ezra v. 1-vi. 18.--Work resumed in the second
+  year of Darius. Correspondence between Sisinnes and Darius with
+  reference to the building of the Temple. Darius' favourable decree.
+  Completion of the work by Zerubbabel.
+
+  Chap. vii. 10-15 =Ezra vi. 19-22.--Celebration of the completion of
+  the Temple.
+
+  Chap. viii. 1-ix. 36 = Ezra vii.-x.--Return of the exiles under Ezra.
+  Mixed marriages forbidden.
+
+  Chap. ix. 37-55 = Nehemiah vii. 73-viii. 12.--The reading of the Law.
+
+Thus, apart from iii. 1-v. 3, which gives an account of the pages'
+contest, the contents of the book are doublets of the canonical Ezra and
+portions of 2 Chronicles and Nehemiah. The beginning of the book seems
+imperfect, with its abrupt opening "And Josiah held the passover": its
+conclusion is mutilated, as it breaks off in the middle of a sentence.
+As Thackeray suggests, it probably continued the history of the feast of
+Tabernacles described in Neh. viii.--a view that is supported by Joseph.
+_Ant_. xi. 5. 5, "who describes that feast using an Esdras word [Greek:
+epanorthosis] and ... having hitherto followed Esdras as his authority
+passes on to the Book of Nehemiah."
+
+_Claims to Canonicity._--It would seem that even greater value was
+attached to 1 Esdras than to the Hebrew Ezra. (1) For in the best MSS.
+(BA) it stands before 2 Esdras--the verbal translation of the Hebrew
+Ezra and Nehemiah. (2) It is used by Josephus, who in fact does not seem
+aware of the existence of 2 Esdras. (3) 1 Esdras is frequently quoted by
+the Greek fathers--Clem. Alex., Origen, Eusebius, and by the
+Latin--Tertullian, Cyprian, Augustine. The adverse judgment of the
+church is due to Jerome, who, from his firm attachment to the Hebrew Old
+Testament, declined to translate the "dreams" of 3 and 4 Esdras. This
+judgment influenced alike the Council of Trent and the Lutheran church
+in Germany; for Luther also refused to translate Esdras and the
+Apocalypse of Ezra.
+
+_Origin and Relation to the Canonical Ezra._--Various theories have been
+given as to the relation of the book and the canonical Ezra.
+
+1. Some scholars, as Keil, Bissell and formerly Schurer, regarded 1
+Esdras as a free compilation from the Greek of 2 Esdras (2 Chron. and
+Ezra-Nehemiah). This theory has now given place to others more accordant
+with the facts of the case.
+
+2. Others, as Ewald, _Hist. of Isr._ v. 126-128, and Thackeray in
+Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_, assume a lost Greek version of Chronicles,
+Ezra and Nehemiah, from which were derived 1 Esdras--a free redaction of
+the former and 2 Esdras. Thackeray claims that we have "a satisfactory
+explanation of the coincidences in translation and deviation from the
+Hebrew in 1 Esdras and 2 Esdras, if we suppose both are to some extent
+dependent on a lost Greek original." But later in the same article
+Thackeray is compelled to modify this view and admit that 1 Esdras is
+not a mere redaction of a no longer extant version of the canonical
+books, but shows not only an independent knowledge of the Hebrew text
+but also of a Hebrew text superior in not a few passages to the
+Massoretic text, where 2 Esdras gives either an inaccurate version or a
+version reproducing the secondary Massoretic text.
+
+3. Others like Michaelis, Trendelenburg, Pohlmann, Herzfeld, Fritzsche
+hold it to be a direct and independent translation of the Hebrew. There
+is much to be said in favour of this view. It presupposes in reality two
+independent recensions of the Hebrew text, such as we cannot reasonably
+doubt existed at one time of the Book of Daniel. Against this it has
+been urged that the story of the three pages was written originally in
+Greek (Ewald, Schurer, Thackeray). The only grounds for this theory are
+the easiness of the Greek style and the paronomasia in iv. 62 [Greek:
+hanesin kai haphesin]. But the former is no real objection, and the
+latter may be purely accidental. On the other hand there are several
+undoubted Semiticisms. Thus we have two instances Of the split relative
+[Greek: ou] ... [Greek: autou] iii. 5; [Greek: ou] ... [Greek: ep' auto]
+iv. 63 and the phrase pointed out by Fritzsche [Greek: ta dikaia poiei
+apo panton] = [Hebrew: asa mishpat min]. It must, however, be admitted
+that there are fewer Hebraisms in this section of the book than in the
+rest.
+
+4. Sir H.H. Howorth in the treatises referred to at the close of this
+article has shown cogent grounds for regarding 1 Esdras as the original
+and genuine Septuagint translation, and 2 Esdras as probably that of
+Theodotion. For this view he adduces among others the following grounds:
+(i.) Its use by Josephus, who apparently was not acquainted with 2
+Esdras. (ii.) Its precedence of 2 Esdras in the great uncials. (iii.)
+Its origin at a time when Chronicles, Ezra and Nehemiah formed a single
+work. (iv.) Its preservation of a better Hebrew text in many instances
+than 2 Esdras. (v.) The fact that 1 Esdras and the Septuagint of Daniel
+go back to one and the same translator, as Dr Gwynn (_Dict. Christ.
+Biog._ iv. 977) has pointed out (cf. 1 Esdr. vi. 31, and Dan. ii. 5).
+
+This contention of Howorth has been accepted by Nestle, Cheyne,
+Bertholet, Ginsburg and other scholars, though they regard the question
+of an Aramaic original of chapters iii. 1-v. 6 as doubtful. Howorth's
+further claim that he has established the historical credibility of the
+book as a whole and its chronological accuracy as against the canonical
+Ezra has not as yet met with acceptance; but his arguments have not been
+fairly met and answered.
+
+5. Volz (_Encyc. Bibl._ ii. 1490) thinks that the solution of the
+problem is to be found in a different direction. The text is of unequal
+value, and the inequalities are so great as to exclude the supposition
+that the Greek version was produced _aus einem Guss._ iii. 1-v. 3 is an
+independent narrative written originally in Greek and itself a composite
+production, the praise of truth being an addition, vi. 1-vii. 15, ii.
+15-25a is a fragment of an Aramaic narrative. Some in Josephus (_Ant._
+xi. 4. 9) an account of Samaritan intrigues is introduced immediately
+after 1 Esdras vii. 15, it is natural to infer that something of the
+same kind has fallen out between vi. and ii. 15-25. The Aramaic text
+behind 1 Esdras here is better than that behind the canonical Ezra.
+Next, viii.-ix. is from the Ezra document (= Ezra vii.-x.; Neh. vii. 73,
+viii. 1 sqq.), though implying a different Hebrew text. ii. 1-15; v.
+7-73; vii. 2-4, 6-15 are from the Chronicles: likewise i. is from 2
+Chron. xxxv.-vi., 2 Esdras being at the same time before the translator.
+
+_Date._--The book must be placed between 300 B.C. and A.D. 100, when
+it was used by Josephus. It is idle to attempt any nearer limits until
+definite conclusions have been reached on the chief problems of the
+book.
+
+_MSS. and Versions._--The book is found in B and A. The latter seems to
+have preserved the more ancient form of the text, as it is generally
+that followed by Josephus. The Old Latin in two recensions is published
+by Sabatier, _Bibliorum sacrorum Latinae versiones antiquae_, iii.
+Another Latin translation is given in Lagarde (_Septuag. Studien_, ii.,
+1892). In Syriac the text is found only in the Syro-Hexaplar of Paul of
+Tella (A.D. 616). See Walton's Polyglott. There is also an Ethiopic
+version edited by Dillmann (_Bibl. Vet. Test. Aeth_. v., 1894) and an
+Armenian.
+
+  LITERATURE.--Exegesis: Fritzsche, _Exeget. Handb. zu den Apokr._
+  (1851); Zockler, _Die Apokryphen_, 155-161 (1891); Bissell in
+  Lange-Schaff's _Comm_. (1880); Lupton in _Speaker's Comm_. (1888);
+  Ball, notes to 1 Esdr. in the _Variorum Apocrypha_. Introduction and
+  critical Inquiries: Trendelenburg, "Apocr. Esra," in Eichhorn's
+  _Allgem. Bibl. der bibl. Litt._ i. 178-232 (1787); Pohlmann, "Uber das
+  Ansehen der apokr. dritten Buchs Esras," in _Tubingen Theol.
+  Quartalschrift_, 257-275 (1859); Sir H. Howorth, "Character and
+  Importance of 1 Esdras," in the _Academy_ (1893), pp. 13, 60, 106,
+  174, 326, 524; and further studies entitled "Some Unconventional Views
+  on the Text of the Bible," in the _Proceedings of the Society of
+  Biblical Archaeology_, 1901, pp. 147-159; 306-330, 1902, June and
+  November.     (R. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] "At the Council of Trent (when the Septuagint Canon was virtually
+    accepted as authoritative), by a most curious aberration, Esdras iii.
+    and iv. and the Epistle of Manasseh were alone excluded from the
+    canon and remitted to our appendix."--Howorth, "Unconventional Views
+    on the Text of the Bible," in the _P.S.B.A._, 1901, p. 149.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA, FOURTH BOOK (or APOCALYPSE) OF. This is the most profound and
+touching of the Jewish Apocalypses. It stands in the relation of a
+sister work to the Apocalypse of Baruch, but though the relation is so
+close, they have many points of divergence. Thus, whereas the former
+represents the ordinary Judaism of the 1st century of the Christian era,
+the teaching of 4 Ezra on the Law, Works, Justification, Original Sin
+and Free Will approximates to the school of Shammai and serves to
+explain the Pauline doctrines on those subjects; but to this subject we
+shall return.
+
+_Original Language and Versions._--In the Latin version our book
+consists of sixteen chapters, of which, however, only iii.-xiv. are
+found in the other versions. To iii.-xiv., accordingly, the present
+notice is confined. After the example of most of the Latin MSS. we
+designate the book 4 Ezra (see Bensly-James, _Fourth Book of Ezra_, pp.
+xxiv-xxvii). In the First Arabic and Ethiopic versions it is called 1
+Ezra; in some Latin MSS. and in the English Authorized Version it is 2
+Ezra, and in the Armenian 3 Ezra. Chapters i.-ii. are sometimes called 3
+Ezra, and xv.-xvi. 5 Ezra. All the versions go back to a Greek text.
+This is shown by the late Greek apocalypse of Ezra (Tischendorf,
+_Apocalypses Apocryphae_, 1866, pp. 24-33), the author of which was
+acquainted with the Greek of 4 Ezra; also by quotations from it in Barn,
+iv. 4; xii. 1 = 4 Ezra xii. 10 sqq., v. 5; Clem. Alex. _Strom_. iii. 16
+(here first expressly cited) = 4 Ezra v. 35, &c. (see Bensly-James, _op.
+cit._ pp. xxvii-xxxviii). The derivation of the Latin version from the
+Greek is obvious when we consider its very numerous Graecisms. Thus the
+genitive is found after the comparative (v. 13) _horum majora_; xi. 29
+_duorum capitum majus_, even the genitive absolute as in x. 9, the
+double negative, _de_ and _ex_ with the genitive. Peculiar genders can
+only be accounted for by the influence of the original forms in Greek,
+as x. 23 _signaculum_ ([Greek: sphragis]) ... _tradita est_; xi. 4
+_caput_ ([Greek: kephale]) ... _sed et ipsa_. In vi. 25 we have the
+Greek attraction of the relative--_omnibus istis quibus praedixi tibi_.
+In his _Messias Judaeorum_ (1869), pp. 36-110, Hilgenfeld has given a
+reconstruction of the Greek text. Till 1896 only Ewald believed that 4
+Ezra was written originally in Hebrew. In that year Wellhausen (_Gott.
+Gel. Anz._ pp. 12-13) and Charles (_Apoc. Bar._ p. lxxii) pointed out
+that a Hebrew original must be assumed on various grounds; and this
+view the former established in his _Skizzen u. Vorarbeiten_, vi. 234-240
+(1899). Of the numerous grounds for this assumption it will be necessary
+only to adduce such constructions as "de quo me interrogas de eo," iv.
+28, and xiii. 26, "qui per semet ipsum liberabit" (= [Hebrew: asher bo])
+= "through whom he will deliver," or to point to such a mistranslation
+as vii. 33, "longanimitas congregabitur," where for "congregabitur" (=
+[Hebrew: yeasef]) we require "evanescet," which is another and the
+actual meaning of the Hebrew verb in this passage. The same
+mistranslation is found in the Vulgate in Hosea iv. 3. Gunkel has
+adopted this view in his German translation of the book in Kautzsch's
+_Apok. und Pseud, des A. Testaments_, ii. 332-333, and brought forward
+in confirmation the following remarkable instance in viii. 23, where
+though the Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic and Armenian Versions read
+_testificatur_, the Second Arabic version and the Apostolic
+Constitutions have [Greek: menei eis ton aiona], which are to be
+explained as translations of [Hebrew: (lieh) emdat la'ad]. Another
+interesting case is found in xiv. 3, where the Latin and all other
+versions but Arabic[2] read _super rubum_ and the Arabic[2] _in monte
+Sinai_. Here there is a corruption of [Hebrew: sneh] "bush" into
+[Hebrew: sinai] "Sinai."
+
+  _Latin Version._--All the older editions of this version, as those of
+  Fabricius, Sabatier, Volkmar, Hilgenfeld, Fritzsche, as well as in the
+  older editions of the Bible, are based ultimately on only one MS., the
+  Codex Sangermanensis (written A.D. 822), as Gildemeister proved in
+  1865 from the fact that the large fragment between verses 36 and 37 in
+  chapter vii., which is omitted in all the above editions, originated
+  through the excision of a leaf in this MS. A splendid edition of this
+  version based on MSS. containing the missing fragment, which have been
+  subsequently discovered, has been published by Bensly-James, op. cit.
+  This edition has taken account of all the important MSS. known, save
+  one at Leon in Spain.
+
+  _Syriac Version._--This version, found in the Ambrosian Library in
+  Milan, was translated into Latin by Ceriani, _Monumenta sacra et
+  profana_, II. ii. pp. 99-124 (1866). Two years later this scholar
+  edited the Syriac text, op. cit. V. i. pp. 4-111, and in 1883
+  reproduced the MS. by photo-lithography (_Translatio Syra Peshitto
+  V.T._ II. iv. pp. 553-572). Hilgenfeld incorporated Ceriani's Latin
+  translation in his _Messias Judaeorum_. This translation needs
+  revision and correction.
+
+  _Ethiopic Version._--First edited and translated by Laurence, _Primi
+  Ezrae libri versio Aethiopica_ (1820). Laurence's Latin translation
+  was corrected by Praetorius and reprinted in Hilgenfeld's _Messias
+  Judaeorum_. In 1894 Dillmann's text based on ten MSS. was
+  published--_V.T. Aeth. libri apocryphi_, v. 153-193.
+
+  _Arabic Versions._--The First Arabic version was translated from a MS.
+  in the Bodleian Library into English by Ockley (in Whiston's Primitive
+  Christianity, vol. iv. 1711). This was done into Latin and corrected
+  by Steiner for Hilgenfeld's _Mess. Jud._ The Second Arabic version,
+  which is independent of the first, has been edited from a Vatican MS.
+  and translated into Latin by Gildemeister, 1877.
+
+  _Armenian Version._--First printed in the Armenian Bible (1805).
+  Translated into Latin by Petermann for Hilgenfeld's Mess. Jud.; next
+  with Armenian text and English translation by Issaverdens in the
+  _Uncanonical Writings of the Old Testament_, pp. 488 sqq. (Venice,
+  1901).
+
+  _Georgian Version._--According to F.C. Conybeare an accurate Georgian
+  version made from the Greek exists in an 11th-century MS. at
+  Jerusalem.
+
+  _Relation of the above Versions._--These versions stand in the order
+  of worth as follows: Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic. The remaining versions
+  are paraphrastic and less accurate, and are guilty of additions and
+  omissions. All the versions, save the Second Arabic one, go back to
+  the same Greek version. The Second Arabic version presupposes a second
+  Greek version.
+
+  _Modern Versions._--All the English versions are now antiquated,
+  except those in the Variorum Apocrypha and the Revised Version of the
+  Apocrypha, and even these are far from satisfactory. Similarly, all
+  the German versions are behindhand, except the excellent version of
+  Gunkel in _Apok. u. Pseud._ ii. 252-401, which, however, needs
+  occasional correction.
+
+_Contents._--The book (iii.-xiv.) consists of seven visions or parts,
+like the apocalypse of Baruch. They are: (1) iii. 1-v. 19; (2) v. 20-vi.
+34; (3) vi. 35-ix. 25; (4) ix. 26-x. 60; (5) xi. 1-xii. 51; (6) xiii.;
+(7) xiv. These deal with (1) religious problems and speculations and (2)
+eschatological questions. The first three are devoted to the discussion
+of religious problems affecting in the main the individual. The
+presuppositions underlying these are in many cases the same as those in
+the Pauline Epistles. The next three visions are principally concerned
+with eschatological problems which relate to the nation. The seventh
+vision is a fragment of the Ezra Saga recounting the rewriting of the
+Scriptures, which had been destroyed. This has no organic connexion with
+what precedes.
+
+  _First Vision._ iii.-v. 19.--"In the thirtieth year after the ruin of
+  the city I Salathiel (the same is Ezra) was in Babylon and lay
+  troubled upon my bed." In a long prayer Ezra asks how the desolation
+  of Sion and the prosperity of Babylon can be in keeping with the
+  justice of God. The angel Uriel answers that God's ways are
+  unsearchable and past man's understanding. When Ezra asks when the end
+  will be and what are the signs of it, the angel answers that the end
+  is at hand and enumerates the signs of it.
+
+  _Second Vision._ v. 14-vi. 34.--Phaltiel, chief of the people,
+  reproaches Ezra for forsaking his flock. Ezra fasts, and in his prayer
+  asks why God had given up his people into the hands of the heathen.
+  Uriel replies: "Lovest thou that people better than He that made
+  them?" Man cannot find out God's judgment. The end is at hand; its
+  signs are recounted.
+
+  _Third Vision._ vi. 35-ix. 25.--Ezra recounts the works of creation,
+  and asks why Israel does not possess the world since the world was
+  made for Israel. The answer is that the present state is a necessary
+  stage to the coming one. Then follows an account of the Messianic age
+  and the resurrection: the punishment of the wicked and the blessings
+  of the righteous. There can be no intercession for the departed. Few
+  will be saved--only as it were a grape out of a cluster or a plant out
+  of a forest.
+
+  _Fourth Vision._ ix. 26-x. 60.--Ezra eats of herbs in the field of
+  Ardat, and sees in a vision a woman mourning for her only son. Ezra
+  reminds her of the greater desolation of Sion. Suddenly she is
+  transfigured and vanishes, and in her place appears a city. The woman,
+  Uriel explains, represents Sion.
+
+  _Fifth Vision._ xi. i-xii. 39.--Vision of an eagle with three heads,
+  twelve wings and eight winglets, which is rebuked by a lion and
+  destroyed. The eagle is the fourth kingdom seen by Daniel, and the
+  lion is the Messiah.
+
+  _Sixth Vision._ xiii.--Vision of a man (i.e. the Messiah) arising from
+  the sea, who destroys his enemies who assemble against him, and
+  gathers to him another multitude, i.e. the lost Ten Tribes.
+
+  _Seventh Vision._ xiv.--Ezra is told of his approaching translation.
+  He asks for the restoration of the Law, and is enabled by God to
+  dictate in forty days ninety-four books (the twenty-four canonical
+  books of the Old Testament that were lost, and seventy secret books
+  for the wise among the people).
+
+  Ezra's translation is found in the Canon only in the Oriental
+  Versions. In the Latin it was omitted when xv.-xvi. were added.
+
+_Integrity._--According to Gunkel (_Apok. u. Pseud._ ii. 335-352) the
+whole book is the work of one writer. Thus down to vii. 16 he deals with
+the problem of the origin of suffering in the world, and from vii. 17 to
+ix. 25 with the question who is worthy to share in the blessedness of
+the next world. As regards the first problem the writer shows, in the
+first vision, that suffering and death come from sin--no less truly on
+the part of Israel than of all men, for God created man to be immortal;
+that the end is nigh, when wrongs will be righted; God's rule will then
+be recognized. In the second he emphasizes the consolation to be found
+in the coming time, and in the third he speaks solely of the next world,
+and then addresses himself to the second problem. The fourth, fifth and
+sixth visions are eschatological. In these the writer turns aside from
+the religious problems of the first three visions and concerns himself
+only with the future national supremacy of Israel. Zion's glory will
+certainly be revealed (vision four), Israel will destroy Rome (five) and
+the hostile Gentiles (six). Then the book is brought to a close with the
+legend of Ezra's restoration of the lost Old Testament Scriptures.
+
+In the course of the above work there are many inconsistencies and
+contradictions. These Gunkel explains by admitting that the writer has
+drawn largely on tradition, both oral and written, for his materials.
+Thus he concedes that eschatological materials in v. 1-13, vi; 18-28,
+vii. 26 sqq., also ix. 1 sqq., are from this source, and apparently from
+an originally independent work, as Kabisch urges, but that it is no
+longer possible to separate the borrowed elements from the text. Again,
+in the four last visions he is obliged to make the same concession on a
+very large scale. Vision four is based on a current novel, which the
+author has taken up and put into an allegorical form. Visions five and
+six are drawn from oral or written tradition, and relate only to the
+political expectations of Israel, and seven is a reproduction of a
+legend, for the independent existence of which evidence is furnished by
+the quotations in Bensly-James pp. xxxvii-xxxviii. Thus the chief
+champion of the unity of the book makes so many concessions as to its
+dependence on previously existing sources that, to the student of
+eschatology, there is little to choose between his view and that of
+Kabisch. In fact, if the true meaning of the borrowed materials is to be
+discovered, the sources must be disentangled. Hence the need of some
+such analysis as that of Kabisch (_Das vierte Buck Ezra_, 1889): S = an
+Apocalypse of Salathiel, c. A.D. 100, preserved in a fragmentary
+condition, iii. 1-31, iv. 1-51, v. 13b-vi. 10, 30-vii. 25, vii. 45-viii.
+62, ix. 13-x. 57, xii. 40-48, xiv. 28-35. E = an Ezra Apocalypse, c. 31
+B.C., iv. 52-v. 13a, vi. 13-28, vii. 26-44, viii. 63-ix. 12. A = an
+Eagle Vision, c. A.D. 90, x. 60-xii. 35. M = a Son-of-Man Vision, xiii.
+E^2 = an Ezra fragment, c. A.D. 100, xiv. 1-17a, 18-27, 36-47. All
+these, according to Kabisch, were edited by a Zealot, c. 120, who
+supplied the connecting links and made many small additions. In the main
+this analysis is excellent. If we assume that the editor was also the
+author of S, and that such a vigorous stylist, as he shows himself to
+be, recast to some extent the materials he borrowed, there remains but
+slight difference between the views of Kabisch and Gunkel. Neither view,
+however, is quite satisfactory, and the problem still awaits solution.
+Other attempts, such as Ewald's (_Gesch. d. Volkes Israel_[3], vii.
+69-83) and De Faye's (_Apocalypses juives_, 155-165), make no
+contribution.
+
+_School of the Author._--The author or final redactor of the book was a
+pessimist, and herein his book stands in strong contrast with the
+Apocalypse of Baruch. Thus to the question propounded in the New
+Testament--"Are there few that be saved?" he has no hesitation in
+answering, "There be many created, but few that be saved" (viii. 3): "An
+evil heart hath grown up in us which hath led us astray ... and that not
+a few only but wellnigh all that have been created" (vii. 48). In the
+Apocalypse of Baruch on the other hand it is definitely maintained that
+not a few shall be saved (xxi. 11). Moreover, the sufferings of the
+wicked are so great in the next world it were better, according to 4
+Ezra (as also to the school of Shammai), that man had not been born. "It
+is much better (for the beasts of the field) than for us; for they
+expect not a judgment and know not of torments" (vii. 66): yet "it would
+have been best not to have given a body to Adam, or that being done, to
+have restrained him from sin; for what profit is there that man should
+in the present life live in heaviness and after death look for
+punishment" (vii. 116, 117). In iv. 12 the nexus of life, sin and
+suffering just referred to, is put still more strongly: "It were better
+we had not been at all than that we should be born and sin and
+suffer."[1] The different attitude of these two writers towards this
+question springs from their respective views on the question of free
+will. The author of Baruch declares (iv. 15, 19): "For though Adam
+sinned and brought untimely death upon all, yet of those who were born
+from him each one of them prepared for his own soul torment to come, and
+again each one of them has chosen for himself glories to come ... each
+one of us has been the Adam of his own soul," Though the writer of Ezra
+would admit the possibility of a few Israelites attaining to salvation
+through the most strenuous endeavour, yet he holds that man is all but
+predoomed through his original evil disposition or through the fall of
+Adam (vii. 118). "O Adam, what hast thou done: for though it was thou
+that sinned, the evil is not fallen on thee alone, but upon all of us
+that come of thee."
+
+Another contrast between the two books is that while Baruch shows some
+mercy to the Gentiles (lxxii. 4-6) in the Messianic period, none
+according to 4 Ezra and the Shammaites (Toseph. _Sanh._ xiii. 2) will be
+extended to them, (iii. 30, ix. 22 sq., xii. 34, xiii. 37 sq.).
+
+On the above grounds it is not unreasonable to conclude that whereas the
+Apocalypse of Baruch owes its leading characteristics to a pupil of
+Hillel's school, 4 Ezra shows just as clearly its derivation from that
+of Shammai. Kohler (_Jewish Encyc._ v. 221) points out that the view of
+4 Ezra that the Ten Tribes will return was held by the Shammaites,
+whereas it was denied by Aqiba. The Apocalypse of Baruch is silent on
+this point.
+
+_Time and Place._--The work was written towards the close of the 1st
+century (iii. 1, 29), and somewhere in the east.
+
+  LITERATURE.--In addition to the authorities mentioned above, see
+  Dillmann, Herzog's _Real-Encyk._[2] xii. 353 sqq.; Schurer, _Gesch.
+  des jud. Volkes_[3], iii. 246 sqq.; and the articles on 4 Esdras in
+  Hastings' _Bible Dictionary_ and the _Encyclopaedia Biblica_ by
+  Thackeray and James respectively.     (R. H. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In the Apocalypse of Baruch, x. 6, we find a similar expression:
+    "Blessed is he who was not born, or being born has died." But here
+    death is said to be preferable to witnessing the present woes of
+    Jerusalem.
+
+
+
+
+EZRA AND NEHEMIAH, BOOKS OF, in the Old Testament. The two canonical
+books entitled Ezra and Nehemiah in the English Bibie[1] correspond to
+the 1 and 2 Esdras of the Vulgate, to the 2 Esdras of the Septuagint,
+and to the Ezra and Nehemiah of the Massoretic (Hebrew) text. Though for
+many centuries they have thus been treated as separate compositions, we
+have abundant evidence that they were anciently regarded as forming but
+one book, and a careful examination proves that together with the book
+of Chronicles they constitute one single work. The two books may
+therefore be conveniently treated together.
+
+1. _Position and Date._--Origen (Euseb, _H.E._ vi. 25), expressly
+enumerating the twenty-two books of the old covenant as acknowledged by
+the Jews and accepted by the Christian church, names "the First and
+Second Ezra in one book"; Melito of Sardis (Euseb. _H.E._ iv. 26) in
+like manner mentions the book of Ezra only. So also the Talmud (in _Baba
+bathra_, 14. 2), nor can it be supposed that Josephus in his enumeration
+(c. _Ap._ i. 8) reckoned Nehemiah as apart from Ezra. That the Jews
+themselves recognized no real separation is shown by the fact that no
+Massoretic notes are found after Ezra x., but at the end of Nehemiah the
+contents of both are reckoned together, and it is stated that Neh. iii.
+22 is the middle verse of the book. Their position in the Hebrew Bible
+_before_ the book of Chronicles is, however, illogical. The introductory
+verses of Ezra i. are identical with the conclusion of 2 Chron. xxxvi.,
+whilst in the version of 1 Esdras no less than two chapters (2 Chron.
+xxxv. sq.) overlap. The cause of the separation is probably to be found
+in the late reception of Chronicles into the Jewish canon. Further proof
+of the unity of the three is to be found in the general similarity of
+style and treatment. The same linguistic criteria recur, and the
+interest in lists and genealogies, in priests and Levites, and in the
+temple service point unmistakably to the presence of the same hand (the
+so-called "chronicler") in Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah. See BIBLE (sect.
+Canon); CHRONICLES.
+
+The period of history covered by the books of Ezra and Nehemiah extends
+from the return of the exiles under Zerubbabel in 537-536 B.C. to
+Nehemiah's second visit to Jerusalem in 432 B.C. In their present form,
+however, the books are considerably later, and allusions to Nehemiah in
+the past (Neh. xii. 26, 47), to the days of Jaddua (the grandson of
+Nehemiah's contemporary Joiada; ib. xii. 11), to Darius (Nothus 423 B.C.
+or rather Codomannus 336 B.C., ib. v. 22), and the use of the term "king
+of Persia," as a distinctive title after the fall of that empire (332
+B.C.), are enough to show that, as a whole, they belong to the same age
+as the book of Chronicles.
+
+2. _Contents._--Their contents may be divided into four parts:--
+
+(a) The events preceding the mission of Ezra (i.-vi.).--In the first
+year of his reign Cyrus was inspired to grant a decree permitting the
+Jews to return to build the temple in Jerusalem (i.); a list of families
+is given (ii.). The altar of burnt-offering was set up, and in the
+second year of the return the foundations of the new temple were laid
+with great solemnity (iii.). The "adversaries of Judah and Benjamin"
+offered to assist but were repulsed, and they raised such opposition to
+the progress of the work that it ceased until the second year of Darius
+(521-520 B.C.). Aroused by the prophets Haggai and Zechariah the
+building was then resumed, and despite fresh attempts to hinder the work
+it was completed, consecrated and dedicated in the sixth year of that
+king (vi.). The event was solemnized by the celebration of the Passover
+(cf. 2 Chron. xxx., Hezekiah; xxxv. Josiah).
+
+(b) An interval of fifty-eight years is passed over in silence, and the
+rest of the book of Ezra comprises his account of his mission to
+Jerusalem (vii.-x.). Ezra, a scribe of repute, well versed in the laws
+of Moses, returns with a band of exiles in order to reorganize the
+religious community. A few months after his arrival (seventh year of
+Artaxerxes, 458 B.C.) he instituted a great religious reform, viz. the
+prohibition of intermarriage with the heathen of the land (cf. already
+vi. 21). In spite of some opposition (x. 15 obscurely worded) the reform
+was accepted, and the foundations of a new community were laid.
+
+(c) Twelve years elapse before the return of Nehemiah, whose description
+of his work is one of the most interesting pieces of Old Testament
+narrative (Neh. i.-vi.). In the twentieth year of Artaxerxes (445 B.C.),
+Nehemiah the royal cup-bearer at Shushan (Susa, the royal winter palace)
+was visited by friends from Judah and was overcome with grief at the
+tidings of the miserable condition of Jerusalem and the pitiful state of
+the Judaean remnant which had escaped the captivity. He obtained
+permission to return, and on reaching the city made a secret survey of
+the ruins and called upon the nobles and rulers to assist in repairing
+them. Much opposition was caused by Sanballat the Horonite (i.e. of the
+Moabite Horonaim or Beth-horon, about 15 m. N.W. of Jerusalem), Tobiah
+the Ammonite, Geshem (or Gashmu) the Arabian, and the Ashdodites, whose
+virulence increased as the rebuilding of the walls continued. But
+notwithstanding attempts upon the city and upon the life of Nehemiah,
+and in spite of intrigues among certain members of the Judaean section,
+in fifty-two days the city walls were complete (Neh. vi. 15). The
+hostility, however, did not cease, and measures were taken to ensure the
+safety of the city (vi. 16-vii. 4). A valuable account is given of
+Nehemiah's economical reforms, illustrating the internal social
+conditions of the period and the general character of the former
+governors who had been placed in charge (v., cf. the laws codified in
+Lev. xxv. 35 sqq.).
+
+(d) The remaining chapters carry on the story of the labours of _both_
+Ezra, and Nehemiah. The list of those who returned under the decree of
+Cyrus is repeated (Neh. vii.), and leads up to the reading of the Law by
+Ezra, a great national confession of guilt, and a solemn undertaking to
+observe the new covenant, the provisions of which are detailed (x.
+28-39). After sundry lists of the families dwelling in Jerusalem and its
+neighbourhood (xi. 1 sqq., apparently a sequel to vii. 1-4),[2] and of
+various priests and Levites, an account is given of the dedication of
+the walls (xii. 27-43), the arrangements for the Levitical organization
+(vv. 44-47), and a fresh separation from the heathen (Moabites and
+Ammonites, xiii. 1-3; cf. Deut. xxiii. 3 seq.). The book concludes with
+another extract from Nehemiah's memoirs dealing with the events of a
+second visit, twelve years later (xiii. 4-31). On this occasion he
+vindicated the sanctity of the temple by expelling Tobiah, reorganized
+the supplies for the Levites, took measures to uphold the observance of
+the Sabbath, and protested energetically against the foreign marriages.
+In the course of his reforms he thrust out a son of Joiada (son of
+Eliashib, the high-priest), who had married the daughter of Sanballat,
+an incident which had an important result (see SAMARITANS).
+
+That these books are the result of compilation (like the book of
+Chronicles itself) is evident from the many abrupt changes; the
+inclusion of certain documents written in an Aramaic dialect (Ezr. iv.
+8-vi. 18, vii. 12-26)[3]; the character of the name-lists; the lengthy
+gaps in the history; the use made of two distinct sources, attributed to
+Ezra and Nehemiah respectively, and from the varying form in which the
+narratives are cast. The chronicler's hand can usually be readily
+recognized. There are relatively few traces of it in Nehemiah's memoirs
+and in the Aramaic documents, but elsewhere the sources are largely
+coloured, if not written from the standpoint of his age. Examples of
+artificial arrangement appear notably in Ezr. ii.-iii. 1 compared with
+Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 (first clause); in the present position of Ezr. iv.
+6-23; and in the dislocation of certain portions of the two memoirs in
+Neh. viii.-xiii. (see below). It should be noticed that the present
+order of the narratives involves the theory that some catastrophe ensued
+after Ezr. x. and before Neh. i.; that the walls had been destroyed and
+the gates burnt down; that some external opposition (with which,
+however, Ezra did not have to contend) had been successful; that the
+main object of Ezra's mission was delayed for twelve years, and,
+finally, that only through Nehemiah's energy was the work of social and
+religious reorganization successful. These topics raise serious
+historical problems (see JEWS: _History_, S 21).
+
+3. _Criticism of Ezra i.-vi._--The chronicler's account of the
+destruction of Jerusalem, the seventy years' interval (2 Chron. xxxvi.
+20 sq.; cf. Jer. xxv. 11, xxix. 10, also Is. xxiii. 17), and the return
+of 42,360 of the exiles (Ezr. ii. 64 sqq.) represent a special view of
+the history of the period. The totals, as also the detailed figures, in
+Ezr., Neh. and 1 Esdr. v. vary considerably; the number is extremely
+large (contrast Jer. lii. 30); it includes the common people (contrast 2
+Kings xxiv. 14, xxv. 12), and ignores the fact that Judah was not
+depopulated, that the Jews were carried off to other places besides
+Babylon and that many remained behind in Babylon. According to this
+view, Judah and Jerusalem were practically deserted until the return.
+The list in Ezr. ii. is that of families which returned "every man unto
+his city" under twelve leaders (including Nehemiah, Azariah [cf. Ezra],
+Zcrubbabel and Jeshua); it recurs with many variations in a different
+and apparently more original context in Neh. vii., and in 1 Esdr. v. is
+ascribed to the time of Darius. The families (to judge from the
+northwards extension of Judaean territory) are probably those of the
+population in the later Persian period, hardly those who returned to the
+precise homes of their ancestors (see C.F. Kent, Israel's _Hist. and
+Biogr. Narratives_, p. 379). The offerings which are for the
+temple-service in Neh. vii. 70-72 (cf. 1 Chron. xxix. 6-8) are for the
+building of the temple in Ezr. ii. 68-70; and since the walls are not
+yet built, the topographical details in Neh. viii. 1 (see 1 Esdr. v. 47)
+are adjusted, and the event of the seventh month is not the reading of
+the Law amid the laments of the people (Neh. viii.; see _vv._ 9-11) but
+the erection of the altar by Jeshua and Zerubbabel under inauspicious
+circumstances (cf. Ezr. iii. 3 with 1 Esdr. v. 50).
+
+The chronologically misplaced account of the successful opposition in
+the time of Ahasuerus (i.e. Xerxes) and Artaxerxes (the son and grandson
+of Darius respectively) breaks the account of the _temple_ under Cyrus
+and Darius, and is concerned with the city walls (iv. 6-23)[4]; there is
+some obscurity in _vv._ 7-9: Rehum and Shimshai evidently take the lead,
+Tabeel may be an Aramaized equivalent of Tobiah. A recent return is
+implied (iv. 12) and the record hints that a new decree may be made (v.
+21). The account of the unsuccessful opposition to the _temple_ in the
+time of Darius (v. sq.; for another account see Jos. _Ant._ xi. 4, 9) is
+independent of iv. 7-23, and throws another light upon the decree of
+Cyrus (vi. 3-5, contrast i. 2-4). It implies that Sheshbazzar, who had
+been sent with the temple vessels in the time of Cyrus, had laid the
+foundations and that the work had continued without cessation (v. 16,
+contrast iv. 5, 24). The beginning of the reply of Darius is wanting
+(vi. 6 sqq.), and the decree which had been sought in Babylon is found
+at Ecbatana. Chap. vi. 15 sqq. follow more naturally upon v. 1-2, but
+v. 14 with its difficult reference to Artaxerxes now seems to presuppose
+the decree in iv. 21 and looks forward to the time of Ezra or Nehemiah.
+As regards this section (Ezr. i.-vi.) as a whole, there is little doubt
+that i. iii. 1-iv. 5, vi. 15-22 are from the chronicler, whose free
+treatment of his material is seen in the use he has made of ch. ii.
+Notwithstanding the unimpeachable evidence for the tolerant attitude of
+Persian kings and governors towards the religion of subject races, it is
+probable that the various decrees incorporated in the book (cf. also 1
+Esdr. iv. 42 sqq.) have been reshaped from a Jewish standpoint. A
+noteworthy example appears in the account of the unique powers entrusted
+to Ezra (vii. 11-26), the introduction to whose memoirs, at all events,
+is quite in the style of the chronicler.
+
+4. _Memoirs of Nehemiah and Ezra._--The memoirs of Ezra and Nehemiah do
+not appear to have been incorporated without some adjustment. The lapse
+of time between Neh. i. 1 and ii. 1 is noteworthy, and with the prayer
+in i. 5-11 cf. Ezr. ix. 6-15, Dan. ix. 4 sqq. (also parallels in
+Deuteronomy); chap. i. in its present form may be a compiler's
+introduction. The important topographical list in ch. iii. is probably
+from another source; the styie is different, Nehemiah is absent, and the
+high-priest is unusually prominent.[5] Chap, v., where Nehemiah reviews
+his _past_ conduct as governor, turns aside to economic reforms and
+scarcely falls within the fifty-two days of the building of the walls.
+The chapter is closely associated with the contents of xiii. and breaks
+the account of the opposition. Anticipated already in ii. 10, the
+hostility partly arises from the repudiation of Samaritan religious
+claims (ii. 20; cf. Ezr. iv. 3) and is partly political. It is difficult
+to follow its progress clearly, and the account ceases abruptly in. vi.
+17-19 with the notice of the conspiracy of Tobiah and the nobles of
+Judah. The chronicler's style can be recognized in vii. 1-5 (in its
+present form), where steps are taken to protect and to people Jerusalem;
+the older sequel is now found in ch. xi. Whilst the account of the
+dedication of the walls is marked by the use of the pronoun "I" (xii.
+31, 38, 40), it is probably now due as a whole to the chronicler, and
+when the more trustworthy memoirs of Nehemiah are resumed (xiii. 4 sqq.)
+the episodes, although placed twelve years later (ver. 6), are
+intimately connected with the preceding reforms (cf. xii. 44-xiii. 3
+with xiii. 10 sqq., 23 sqq.).[6] Nehemiah's attitude towards
+intermarriage is markedly moderate in contrast to the drastic measures
+of Ezra, whose mission and work the simpler and perhaps earlier
+narratives of Nehemiah originally ignored, and the relation between the
+two is complicated further by the literary character of the memoir of
+Ezra.
+
+To the last mentioned are prefixed (a) the scribe's genealogy, which
+traces him back to Aaron and names as his immediate ancestor, Seraiah,
+who had been slain 130 years previously (Ezr. vii. 1-5), and (b) an
+independent account of the return (_vv._ 6-10) with a reference to
+Ezra's renown, obviously not from the hand of Ezra himself. Whatever the
+original prelude to Ezra's thanksgiving may have been (vii. 27 seq.), we
+now have the essentially Jewish account of the letter of Artaxerxes with
+its unusual concessions.[7] The list of those who returned amounts to
+the moderate total of 1496 males (viii., but 1690 in 1 Esdr. viii. 30
+sqq.). Ezra's mission was obviously concerned with the Law and Temple
+service (vii. 6, 10, 14 sqq., 25; viii. 17, 24-30, 33 sq.), but four
+months elapse between his return in the fifth month (vii. 9) and the
+preparations for the marriage reforms in the ninth (x. 9), and there is
+a delay of twelve years before the Law is read (Neh. viii.). The
+Septuagint version (1 Esdr. ix.; cf. Josephus, _Antiq._ xi. 5. 5 and
+some modern scholars) would place the latter after Ezr. x., but more
+probably this event (dated in the seventh month) should precede the
+great undertaking in Ezr. ix.[8] That the adjustment was attended with
+considerable revision of the passages appears from a careful comparison
+of Neh. viii. sq. with Ezr. ix. sq. With Ezra's confession (ix. 6 sqq.)
+compare the prayer in Neh. ix. 5 sqq., which the Septuagint ascribes to
+him. In Ezr. x. (written in the third person) the number of those that
+had intermarried with the heathen is relatively small considering the
+general trend of the preliminaries, and the list bears a marked
+resemblance to that in ch. ii. It ends abruptly and obscurely (x. 44;
+cf. 1 Esdr. ix. 36), and whilst as a whole the memoirs of Ezra point to
+ideas later than those of Nehemiah, the present close literary connexion
+between them is seen in the isolated reference to Johanan the son of
+Eliashib in Ezra x. 6, which seems to be connected with Neh. xiii. 7,
+and (after W.R. Smith) in the suitability of _ib._ xiii. 1, 2 between
+Ezr. x. 9 and 10. The list of signatories in Neh. x. 1-27 should be
+compared with the names in xii. and 1 Chron. xxiv.; the true connexion
+of ix. 38 is very obscure, and the relation to Ezr. ix. seq. is
+complicated by the reference to the separation from the heathen in Neh.
+ix. 2. The description of the covenant (Neh. x. 28 sqq., marked by the
+use of "we") is closely connected with xii. 43-xiii. 3 (from the same or
+an allied source), and anticipates the parallel though somewhat
+preliminary measures detailed in the more genuine memoirs (Neh. xiii. 4
+sqq.). Finally, the specific allusion in xiii. 1-3 to Ammon and Moab is
+possibly intended as an introduction to the references to Tobiah and
+Sanballat respectively (_vv._ 4 seq., 28).
+
+5. _Summary._--The literary and historical criticism of Ezra-Nehemiah is
+closely bound up with that of Chronicles, whose characteristic features
+it shares. Although the three formed a unit at one stage it may seem
+doubtful whether two so closely related chapters as 1 Chron. ix. and
+Neh. xi. would have appeared in one single work, while the repetition of
+Neh. vii. 6-viii. 1 in Ezr. ii.-iii. 1 is less unnatural if they had
+originally appeared in distinct sources. Thus other hands apart from the
+compiler of Chronicles may have helped to shape the narratives, either
+before their union with that book or after their separation.[9] The
+present intricacy is also due partly to specific historical theories
+regarding the post-exilic period. Here the recension in 1 Esdras
+especially merits attention for its text, literary structure and for its
+variant traditions.[10] Its account of a return in the time of Darius
+scarcely arose _after_ Ezr. i.-iii. (Cyrus); the reverse seems more
+probable, and the possibility of some confusion or of an intentional
+adjustment to the earlier date is emphasized by the relation between the
+popular feeling in Ezr. iii. 12 (Cyrus) and Hag. ii. 3 (Darius), and
+between the grant by Cyrus in iii. 7 (it is not certain that he held
+Phoenicia) and the permit of Darius in 1 Esdr. iv. 47-57 (see v. 48). To
+the latter context belongs the list of names which reappears in Ezr. ii.
+(Cyrus). But from the independent testimony of Haggai and Zechariah it
+is doubtful whether the chronicler's account of the return under Cyrus
+is at all trustworthy. The list in 1 Esdr. v., Ezr. ii., as already
+observed, appears to be in its more original context in Neh. vii., i.e.
+in the time of Artaxerxes, and it is questionable whether the earliest
+of the surviving detailed traditions in Ezra-Nehemiah went back before
+this reign. It is precisely at this age that there is evidence for a
+return, apparently other than that of Ezra or Nehemiah (see Ezr. iv.
+12), yet no account seems to be preserved unless the records were used
+for the history of earlier periods (cf. generally Ezr. iii. 12 sq. with
+Neh. viii. 9-11; Ezr. iii. 7 with the special favour enlisted on behalf
+of the Jews in vi. 7 sq., 13, vii. 21; Neh. ii. 7 sq.). But the account
+of the events in the reign of Artaxerxes is extremely perplexing. Since
+the building of the walls of Jerusalem must have begun early in the
+fifth month (Neh. vi. 15), an allowance of three days (ii. 11) makes the
+date of Nehemiah's arrival practically the anniversary of Ezra's return
+(Ezr. vii. 9, viii. 32). Considering the close connexion between the
+work of the two men this can hardly be accidental. The compiler,
+however, clearly intends Neh. vi. 15 (25th of sixth month) to be the
+prelude to the events in Neh. vii. 73, viii. (seventh month), but the
+true sequence of Neh. vi. sqq. is uncertain, and the possibility of
+artificiality is suggested by the unembellished statement of Josephus
+that the building of the walls occupied, not fifty-two days, but two
+years four months (_Ant_. xi. 5. 8). The present chronological order of
+Nehemiah's work is confused (cf. S4, n. 3), and the obscure interval of
+twelve years in his work corresponds very closely to that which now
+separates the records of Ezra's labours. However, both the recovery of
+the compilers' aims and attempted reconstructions are precluded from
+finality by the scantiness of independent historical evidence. (See
+further JEWS: _History_, S21 seq.)
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--S.R. Driver, _Lit. of the O.T._ (1909), pp. 540 sqq.
+  and the commentaries of H.E. Ryle (_Camb. Bible_, 1893), C. Siegfried
+  (1901), A. Bertholet (1902), and T.W. Davies (_Cent. Bible_, 1909).
+  Impetus to recent criticism of these books starts with Van Hoonacker
+  (_Neh. et Esd_. [1890]; see also _Expos. Times_ [1897], pp. 351-354,
+  and M.-J. Lagrange, _Rev. biblique_, iii. 561-585 [1894], iv. 186-202
+  [1895]) and W.H. Kosters (Germ. ed., _Wiederherstellung Israels_,
+  1895). The latter's important conclusions (for which see his article
+  with Cheyne's additions in _Ency. Bib_. col. 1473 sqq., 3380 sqq.)
+  have been adversely criticized, especially by J. Wellhausen
+  (_Nachrichten_ of the Univ. of Gottingen, 1895, pp. 166-186), E. Meyer
+  (_Entstehung d. Judentums_, 1896), J. Nikel (_Wiederherstellung d.
+  jud. Gemein._, 1900), and S. Jampel in _Monatsschrift f. Gesch. u.
+  Wissens. d. Judentums_, vols. xlvi.-xlvii. (1902-1903). The negative
+  criticisms of Kosters have, however, been strengthened by his replies
+  (in the Dutch _Theolog. Tijdschrift_), and by the discussions of C.C.
+  Torrey and C.F. Kent (op. cit) and of G. Jahn (_Esra u. Neh._ pp.
+  i-lxxviii; 1909), and his general position appears to do more justice
+  to the biblical evidence as a whole.     (S. A. C.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTES:
+
+  [1] References to 1 Esdras in this article are to the book discussed
+    above as EZRA, THIRD BOOK OF.
+
+  [2] With Neh. xi. 4-19 cf. 1 Chron. ix. 3-17; with the list xii. 1-7
+    cf. _vv._ 12-21 and x. 3-9; and with xii. 10 sq. cf. 1 Chron. vi.
+    3-13 (to which it forms the sequel). See further Smend, _Listen d.
+    Esra u. Neh._ (1881).
+
+  [3] Sometimes wrongly styled Chaldee (q.v.); see SEMITIC LANGUAGES.
+
+  [4] Its real position in the history of this period is not certain.
+    Against the supposition that the names refer to Cambyses and
+    Pseudo-Smerdis who reigned after Cyrus and before Darius, see H.E.
+    Ryle, _Camb. Bible_, "Ezra and Neh.," p. 65 sq. Against the view that
+    Darius is D. ii. Nothus of 423-404 B.C., see G.A. Smith, _Minor
+    Prophets_, ii. 191 sqq. The ignorance of the compiler regarding the
+    sequence of the kings finds a parallel in that of the author of the
+    book of Daniel (q.v.); see C.C. Torrey, _Amer. Journ. of Sem. Lang._
+    (1907), p. 178, n. 1.
+
+  [5] See further H.G. Mitchell, _Journ. of Bibl. Lit._ (1903), pp. 88
+    sqq.
+
+  [6] The chronological difficulties will be seen from xiii. 6 ("before
+    this"), which would imply that the dedication of the walls was on the
+    occasion of Nehemiah's later visit (see G.A. Smith, _Expositor_, July
+    1906, p. 12). His previous departure is perhaps foreshadowed in vii.
+    2.
+
+  [7] See _Ency. Bib._ col. 1480. Papyri from a Jewish colony in
+    Elephantine (407 B.C.) clearly show the form which royal permits
+    could take, and what the Jews were prepared to give in return; the
+    points of resemblance are extremely interesting, but compared with
+    the biblical documents the papyri reveal some striking differences.
+
+  [8] C.C. Torrey, _Comp. and Hist. Value of Ezra-Neh._ (Beihefte of
+    _Zeit. f. alttest. Wissens._, 1896), pp. 30-34; C.F. Kent, _Israel's
+    Hist. and Biog. Narratives_, pp. 32, 369. Since Neh. vii. 70-73 is
+    closely joined to viii., the suggested transposition would place its
+    account of the contributions to the temple in a more appropriate
+    context (cf. Ezr. viii. 24-30, 33 sq.).
+
+  [9] For linguistic evidence reference should be made to J. Geissler,
+    _Die litterarischen Beziehungen d. Esramemoiren_ (Chemnitz, 1899).
+
+  [10] See especially Sir Henry Howorth, _Proc. of Society of Bibl.
+    Arch._ (1901-1904), _passim_; C.C. Torrey, _Ezra Studies_ (Chicago,
+    1910). For the text, see A. Klostermann, _Real-Ency. f. prot. Theol._
+    v. 501 sqq.; H. Guthe in Haupt's _Sacred Books of Old Testament_
+    (1899); and S.A. Cook in R.H. Charles, _Apocrypha and
+    Pseudepigrapha_.
+
+
+
+
+EZZO, or EHRENFRIED (c. 954-1024), count palatine in Lorraine, was the
+son of a certain Hermann (d. c. 1000), also a count palatine in Lorraine
+who had possessions in the neighbourhood of Bonn. Having married Matilda
+(d. 1025), a daughter of the emperor Otto II., Ezzo came to the front
+during the reign of his brother-in-law, the emperor Otto III.
+(983-1002); his power was increased owing to the liberal grant of lands
+in Thuringia and Franconia which he received with his wife, and some
+time later his position as count palatine was recognized as an
+hereditary dignity. Otto's successor, the emperor Henry II., was less
+friendly towards the powerful count palatine, though there was no
+serious trouble between them until 1011; but some disturbances in
+Lorraine quickly compelled the emperor to come to terms, and the
+assistance of Ezzo was purchased by a gift of lands. Henceforward the
+relations between Henry and his vassal appear to have been satisfactory.
+Very little is known about Ezzo's later life, but we are told that he
+died at a great age at Saalfeld on the 21st of March 1024. He left three
+sons, among them being Hermann, who was archbishop of Cologne from 1036
+to 1056, and Otto, who was for a short time duke of Swabia; and seven
+daughters, six of whom became abbesses. Ezzo founded a monastery at
+Brauweiler near Cologne, the place where his marriage had been
+celebrated. This was dedicated in 1028 by Piligrim, archbishop of
+Cologne, and here both Ezzo and his wife were buried.
+
+
+
+
+EZZOLIED, or ANEGENGE, an old German poem, written by Ezzo, a scholar of
+Bamberg. It was written about 1060, but not, as one authority asserts,
+composed while the author was making a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. The
+subject of the poem is the life of Christ. Very popular during the later
+middle ages, the _Ezzolied_ had a great influence on the poetry of south
+Germany, and is valuable as a monument of the poetical literature of the
+time.
+
+  The text is printed in the _Denkmaler deutscher Poesie und Prosa aus
+  dem 8-12. Jahrhundert_ (Berlin, 1892) of C.V. Mullenhoff and W.
+  Scherer.
+
+
+
+
+F     This is the sixth letter of the English alphabet as it was of the
+Latin. In the ordinary Greek alphabet the symbol has disappeared,
+although it survived far into historical times in many Greek dialects as
+F, the digamma, the use of which in early times was inductively proved
+by Bentley, when comparatively little was known of the local alphabets
+and dialects of Greece. The so-called _stigma_ [symbol], which serves
+for the numeral 6, is all that remains to represent it. This symbol
+derives its name from its resemblance in medieval MSS. to the
+abbreviation for [Greek: st]. The symbol occupying the same position in
+the Phoenician alphabet was Vau ([symbol] [symbol]), which seems to be
+represented by the Greek [Upsilon], the Latin V, at the end of the early
+alphabet. Many authorities therefore contend that F is only a
+modification of the preceding symbol E and has nothing to do with the
+symbol Vau. In some early Latin inscriptions F is represented by
+[symbol], as E is by [symbol]. It must be admitted that the resemblance
+between the sixth symbol of the Phoenician alphabet and the
+corresponding symbol of the European alphabet is not striking. But the
+position of the limbs of symbols in early alphabets often varies
+surprisingly. In Greek, besides F we find for _f_ in Pamphylia (the only
+Greek district in Asia which possesses the symbol) [symbol], and in
+Boeotia, Thessaly, Tarentum, Cumae and on Chalcidian vases of Italy the
+form [symbol], though except at Cumae and on the vases the form F exists
+contemporaneously with [symbol] or even earlier. At the little town of
+Falerii (Civita Castellana), whose alphabet is undoubtedly of the same
+origin as the Latin, F takes the form [symbol]. Though uncertain,
+therefore, it seems not impossible that the original symbol of the
+Phoenician alphabet, which was a consonant like the English _w_, may
+have been differentiated in Greek into two symbols, one indicating the
+consonant value _w_ and retaining the position of the Phoenician
+consonant Vau, the other having the vowel value _u_, which ultimately
+most dialects changed to a modified sound like French _u_ or German _u_.
+Be this as it may, the value of the symbol F in Greek was _w_, a
+bilabial voiced sound, not the labio-dental unvoiced sound which we call
+_f_. When the Romans adopted the Greek alphabet they took over the
+symbols with their Greek values. But Greek had no sound corresponding to
+the Latin _f_, for [phi] was pronounced _p-h_, like the final sound of
+_lip_ in ordinary English or the initial sound of _pig_ in Irish
+English. Consequently in the very old inscription on a gold fibula found
+at Praeneste and published in 1887 (see ALPHABET) the Latin _f_ is
+represented by FB. Later, as Latin did not use F for the consonant
+written as _v_ in _vis_, &c., H was dropped and F received a new special
+value in Latin as representative of the unvoiced labio-dental spirant.
+In the Oscan and Umbrian dialects, whose alphabet was borrowed from
+Etruscan, a special form appears for _f_, viz. 8, the old form [symbol]
+being kept for the other consonant _v_ (i.e. English _w_). The 8 has
+generally been asserted to be developed out of the second element in the
+combination FB, its upper and lower halves being first converted into
+lozenges, [symbol], which naturally changed to 8 when inscribed without
+lifting the writing or incising implement. Recent discoveries, however,
+make this doubtful (see ALPHABET).     (P. Gi.)
+
+
+
+
+FABBRONI, ANGELO (1732-1803), Italian biographer, was born at Marradi in
+Tuscany on the 25th of September 1732. After studying at Faenza he
+entered the Roman college founded for the education of young Tuscans. On
+the conclusion of his studies he continued his stay in Rome, and having
+been introduced to the celebrated Jansenist Bottari, received from him
+the canonry of Santa Teresa in Trastevere. Some time after this he was
+chosen to preach a discourse in the pontifical chapel before Benedict
+XIV. and made such a favourable impression that the pontiff settled on
+him an annuity, with the possession of which Fabbroni was able to devote
+his whole time to study. He was intimate with Leopold I., grand-duke of
+Tuscany, but the Jesuits disliked him on account of his Jansenist views.
+Besides his other literary labours he began at Pisa in 1771 a literary
+journal, which he continued till 1796. About 1772 he made a journey to
+Paris, where he formed the acquaintance of Condorcet, Diderot,
+d'Alembert, Rousseau and most of the other eminent Frenchmen of the day.
+He also spent four months in London. He died at Pisa on the 22nd of
+September 1803.
+
+  The following are his principal works:--_Vitae Italorum doctrina
+  excellentium qui saeculis XVII. et XVIII. floruerunt_ (20 vols., Pisa,
+  1778-1799, 1804-1805), the last two vols., published posthumously,
+  contain a life of the author; _Laurentii Medicei Magnifici Vita_ (2
+  vols., Pisa, 1784), a work which served as a basis for H. Roscoe's
+  _Life of Lorenzo dei Medici_; _Leonis X. pontificis maximi Vita_
+  (Pisa, 1797); and _Elogi di Dante Alighieri, di Angelo Poliziano, di
+  Lodovico Ariosto, e di Torq. Tasso_ (Parma, 1800).
+
+
+
+
+FABER, the name of a family of German lead-pencil manufacturers. Their
+business was founded in 1760 at Stein, near Nuremberg, by Kaspar Faber
+(d. 1784). It was then inherited by his son Anton Wilhelm (d. 1819).
+Georg Leonhard Faber succeeded in 1810 (d. 1839), and the business
+passed to Johann Lothar von Faber (1817-1896), the great-grandson of the
+founder. At the time of his assuming control about twenty hands were
+employed, under old-fashioned conditions, and owing to the invention of
+the French _crayons Contes_ of Nicolas Jacques Conte (q.v.) competition
+had reduced the entire Nuremberg industry to a low ebb (see PENCIL).
+Johann introduced improvements in machinery and methods, brought his
+factory to the highest state of efficiency, and it became a model for
+all the other German and Austrian manufacturers. He established branches
+in New York, Paris, London and Berlin, and agencies in Vienna, St
+Petersburg and Hamburg, and made his greatest _coup_ in 1856, when he
+contracted for the exclusive control of the graphite obtained from the
+East Siberian mines. Faber had also branched out into the manufacture of
+water-colour and oil paints, inks, slates and slate-pencils, and
+engineers' and architects' drawing instruments, and built additional
+factories to house his various industries at New York and at
+Noisy-le-Sec, near Paris, and had his own cedar mills in Florida. For
+his services to German industry he received a patent of nobility and an
+appointment as councillor of state. After the death of his widow (1903)
+the business was inherited by his grand-daughter Countess Otilie von
+Faber-Castell and her husband, Count Alexander.
+
+
+
+
+FABER, BASIL (1520--c. 1576), Lutheran schoolmaster and theologian, was
+born at Sorau, in lower Lusatia, in 1520. In 1538 he entered the
+university of Wittenberg, studying as _pauper gratis_ under Melanchthon.
+Choosing the schoolmaster's profession, he became successively rector of
+the schools at Nordhausen, Tennstadt (1555), Magdeburg (1557) and
+Quedlinburg (1560). From this last post he was removed in December 1570
+as a Crypto-Calvinist. In 1571 he was appointed to the Raths-gymnasium
+at Erfurt, not as rector, but as director (_Vorsteher_). In this
+situation he remained till his death in 1575 or 1576. His translation of
+the first twenty-five chapters of Luther's commentary on Genesis was
+published in 1557; in other ways he promoted the spread of Lutheran
+views. He was a contributor to the first four of the _Magdeburg
+Centuries_. He is best known by his _Thesaurus eruditionis scholasticae_
+(1571; last edition, improved by J.H. Leich, 1749, folio, 2 vols.); this
+was followed by his _Libellus de disciplina scholastica_ (1572).
+
+  See Wagenmann and G. Muller in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_
+  (1898).     (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FABER, FREDERICK WILLIAM (1814-1863), British hymn writer and
+theologian, was born on the 28th of June 1814 at Calverley, Yorkshire,
+of which place his grandfather, Thomas Faber, was vicar. He attended the
+grammar school of Bishop Auckland for a short time, but a large portion
+of his boyhood was spent in Westmorland. He afterwards went to Harrow
+and to Balliol College, Oxford. In 1835 he obtained a scholarship at
+University College; and in 1836 he gained the Newdigate prize for a poem
+on "The Knights of St John," which elicited special praise from Keble.
+Among his college friends were Dean Stanley and Roundell Palmer, 1st
+earl of Selborne. In January 1837 he was elected fellow of University
+College. Meanwhile he had given up the Calvinistic views of his youth,
+and had become an enthusiastic follower of John Henry Newman. In 1841 a
+travelling tutorship took him to the continent; and on his return a book
+appeared called _Sights and Thoughts in Foreign Churches and among
+Foreign Peoples_ (London, 1842), with a dedication to his friend the
+poet Wordsworth. He accepted the rectory of Elton in Huntingdonshire,
+but soon after went again to the continent, in order to study the
+methods of the Roman Catholic Church; and after a prolonged mental
+struggle he joined the Roman Catholic communion in November 1845. He
+founded a religious community at Birmingham, called Wilfridians, which
+was ultimately merged in the oratory of St Philip Neri, with John Henry
+Newman as Superior. In 1849 a branch of the oratory--subsequently
+independent--was established in London, first in King William Street,
+and afterwards at Brompton, over which Faber presided till his death on
+the 26th of September 1863. In spite of his weak health, an almost
+incredible amount of work was crowded into those years. He published a
+number of theological works, and edited the _Oratorian Lives of the
+Saints_. He was an eloquent preacher, and a man of great charm of
+character. It is mainly as a hymn-writer, however, that Faber is
+remembered. Among his best-known hymns are:--"The Greatness of God,"
+"The Will of God," "The Eternal Father," "The God of my Childhood,"
+"Jesus is God," "The Pilgrims of the Night," "The Land beyond the Sea,"
+"Sweet Saviour, bless us ere we go," "I was wandering and weary," and
+"The Shadow of the Rock." The hymns are largely used in Protestant
+collections. In addition to many pamphlets and translations, Faber
+published the following works: _All for Jesus_; _The Precious Blood_;
+_Bethlehem_; _The Blessed Sacrament_; _The Creator and the Creature_;
+_Growth of Holiness; Spiritual Conferences_; _The Foot of the Cross_ (8
+vols., London, 1853-1860).
+
+  See his _Life and Letters_, by Father J.E. Bowden (London, 1869), and
+  _A Brief Sketch of the Early Life of the late F.W. Faber_, D.D., by
+  his brother the Rev. F.A. Faber (London, 1869).
+
+
+
+
+FABER, Fabri or Fabry (surnamed STAPULENSIS), JACOBUS [Jacques Lefevre
+d'Etaples] (c. 1455--c. 1536), a pioneer of the Protestant movement in
+France, was born of humble parents at Etaples, in Pas de Calais,
+Picardy, about 1455. He appears to have been possessed of considerable
+means. He had already been ordained priest when he entered the
+university of Paris for higher education. Hermonymus of Sparta was his
+master in Greek. He visited Italy before 1486, for he heard the lectures
+of Argyropulus, who died in that year; he formed a friendship with
+Paulus Aemilius of Verona. In 1492 he again travelled in Italy, studying
+in Florence, Rome and Venice, making himself familiar with the writings
+of Aristotle, though greatly influenced by the Platonic philosophy.
+Returning to Paris, he became professor in the college of Cardinal
+Lemoine. Among his famous pupils were F.W. Vatable and Farel; his
+connexion with the latter drew him to the Calvinistic side of the
+movement of reform. At this time he began the publication, with critical
+apparatus, of Boetius (_De Arithmetica_), and Aristotle's _Physics_
+(1492), _Ethics_ (1497), _Metaphysics_ (1501) and _Politics_ (1506). In
+1507 he took up his residence in the Benedictine Abbey of St Germain des
+Pres, near Paris; this was due to his connexion with the family of
+Briconnet (one of whom was the superior), especially with William
+Briconnet, cardinal bishop of St Malo (Meaux). He now began to give
+himself to Biblical studies, the first-fruit of which was his
+_Quintuplex Psalterium: Gallicum, Romanum, Hebraicum, Vetus,
+Conciliatum_ (1509); the _Conciliatum_ was his own version. This was
+followed by _S. Pauli Epistolae xiv. ex vulgata editione, adjecta
+intelligentia ex Graeco cum commentariis_ (1512), a work of great
+independence and judgment. His _De Maria Magdalena et triduo Christi
+disceptatio_ (1517) provoked violent controversy and was condemned by
+the Sorbonne (1521). He had left Paris during the whole of 1520, and,
+removing to Meaux, was appointed (May 1, 1523) vicar-general to Bishop
+Briconnet, and published his French version of the New Testament (1523).
+This (contemporary with Luther's German version) has been the basis of
+all subsequent translations into French. From this, in the same year, he
+extracted the versions of the Gospels and Epistles "a l'usage du diocese
+de Meaux." The prefaces and notes to both these expressed the view that
+Holy Scripture is the only rule of doctrine, and that justification is
+by faith alone. He incurred much hostility, but was protected by Francis
+I. and the princess Margaret. Francis being in captivity after the
+battle of Pavia (February 25, 1525), Faber was condemned and his works
+suppressed by commission of the parlement; these measures were quashed
+on the return of Francis some months later. He issued _Le Psautier de
+David_ (1525), and was appointed royal librarian at Blois (1526); his
+version of the Pentateuch appeared two years later. His complete version
+of the Bible (1530), on the basis of Jerome, took the same place as his
+version of the New Testament. Margaret (now queen of Navarre) led him to
+take refuge (1531) at Nerac from persecution. He is said to have been
+visited (1533) by Calvin on his flight from France. He died in 1536 or
+1537.
+
+  See C.H. Graf, _Essai sur la vie et les ecrits_ (1842); G.
+  Bonet-Maury, in A. Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1898).
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FABER (or LEFEVRE), JOHANN (1478-1541), German theologian, styled from
+the title of one of his works "Malleus Haereticorum," son of one
+Heigerlin, a smith (_faber_), was born at Leutkirch, in Swabia, in 1478.
+His early life is obscure; the tradition that he joined the Dominicans
+is untenable. He studied theology and canon law at Tubingen and at
+Freiburg im Breisgau, where he matriculated on the 26th of July 1509,
+and graduated M.A. and doctor of canon law. He was soon appointed vicar
+of Lindau and Leutkirch, and shortly afterwards canon of Basel. In 1518
+Hugo von Landenberg, bishop of Constance, made him one of his
+vicars-general, and Pope Leo X. appointed him papal protonotary. He was
+an advocate of reforms, in sympathy with Erasmus, and corresponded
+(1519-1520) with Zwingli. While he defended Luther against Eck, he was
+as little inclined to adopt the position of Luther as of Carlstadt. His
+journey to Rome in the autumn of 1521 had the result of estranging him
+from the views of the Protestant leaders. He published _Opus adversus
+nova quaedam dogmata Lutheri_ (1522), and appeared as a disputant
+against Zwingli at Zurich (1523). Then followed his _Malleus in haeresin
+Lutheranam_ (1524). Among his efforts to stem the tide of Protestant
+innovation was the establishment of a training-house for the maintenance
+and instruction of popular preachers, drawn from the lower ranks, to
+compete with the orators of reform. In 1526 he became court preacher to
+the emperor Ferdinand, and in 1527 and 1528 was sent by him as envoy to
+Spain and England. He approved the death by burning of Balthasar
+Hubmeier, the Baptist, at Vienna on the 10th of March 1528. In 1531 he
+was consecrated bishop of Vienna, and combined with this (till 1538) the
+administration of the diocese of Neustadt. He died at Vienna on the 21st
+of May 1541. His works were collected in three volumes, 1537, 1539 and
+1541.
+
+  See C.E. Kettner, _Diss. de J. Fabri Vita Scriptisque_ (1737);
+  Wagenmann and Egli in Herzog-Hauck's _Realencyklopadie_ (1898).
+       (A. Go.*)
+
+
+
+
+FABERT, ABRAHAM DE (1599-1660), marshal of France, was the son of Abraham
+Fabert, seigneur de Moulins (d. 1638), a famous printer who rendered
+great services, civil and military, to Henry IV. At the age of fourteen
+he entered the _Gardes francaises_, and in 1618 received a commission in
+the Piedmont regiment, becoming major in 1627. He distinguished himself
+repeatedly in the constant wars of the period, notably in La Rochelle and
+at the siege of Exilles in 1630. His bravery and engineering skill were
+again displayed in the sieges of Avesnes and Maubeuge in 1637, and in
+1642 Louis XIII. made him governor of the recently-acquired fortress of
+Sedan. In 1651 he became lieutenant-general, and in 1654 at the siege of
+Stenay he introduced new methods of siegecraft which anticipated in a
+measure the great improvements of Vauban. In 1658 Fabert was made a
+marshal of France, being the first commoner to attain that rank. He died
+at Sedan on the 17th of May 1660.
+
+  See _Histoire du marechal de Fabert_ (Amsterdam, 1697); P. Barre, _Vie
+  de Fabert_ (Paris, 1752); A. Feillet, _Le Premier Marechal de France
+  plebeien_ (Paris, 1869); Bourelly, _Le Marechal Fabert_ (Paris, 1880).
+
+
+
+
+FABIAN [FABIANUS], SAINT (d. 250), pope and martyr, was chosen pope, or
+bishop of Rome, in January 236 in succession to Anteros. Eusebius
+(_Hist. Eccl._ vi. 29) relates how the Christians, having assembled in
+Rome to elect a new bishop, saw a dove alight upon the head of Fabian, a
+stranger to the city, who was thus marked out for this dignity, and was
+at once proclaimed bishop, although there were several famous men among
+the candidates for the vacant position. Fabian was martyred during the
+persecution under the emperor Decius, his death taking place on the 20th
+of January 250, and was buried in the catacomb of Calixtus, where a
+memorial has been found. He is said to have baptized the emperor Philip
+and his son, to have done some building in the catacombs, to have
+improved the organization of the church in Rome, to have appointed
+officials to register the deeds of the martyrs, and to have founded
+several churches in France. His deeds are thus described in the _Liber
+Pontificalis_: "Hic regiones dividit diaconibus et fecit vii
+subdiacones, qui vii notariis imminerent, ut gestas martyrum integro
+fideliter colligerent, et multas fabricas per cymiteria fieri
+praecepit." Although there is very little authentic information about
+Fabian, there is evidence that his episcopate was one of great
+importance in the history of the early church. He was highly esteemed by
+Cyprian, bishop of Carthage; Novatian refers to his _nobilissimae
+memoriae_, and he corresponded with Origen. One authority refers to him
+as Flavian.
+
+  See the article on "Fabian" by A. Harnack in Herzog-Hauck's
+  _Realencyklopadie_, Band v. (Leipzig, 1898).
+
+
+
+
+FABIUS, the name of a number of Roman soldiers and statesmen. The Fabian
+gens was one of the oldest and most distinguished patrician families of
+Rome. Its members claimed descent from Hercules and a daughter of the
+Arcadian Evander. From the earliest times it played a prominent part in
+Roman history, and was one of the two gentes exclusively charged with
+the management of the most ancient festival in Rome--the Lupercalia
+(Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 375). The chief family names of the Fabian gens or
+clan, in republican times, were Vibulanus, Ambustus, Maximus, Buteo,
+Pictor, Dorso, Labeo; with surnames Verrucosus, Rullianus, Gurges,
+Aemilianus, Allobrogicus (all of the Maximus branch). The most important
+members of the family are the following:--
+
+1. MARCUS FABIUS AMBUSTUS, pontifex maximus in the year of the capture
+of Rome by the Gauls (390). His three sons, Quintus, Numerius and Caeso,
+although they had been sent as ambassadors to the Gauls when they were
+besieging Clusium, subsequently took part in hostilities (Livy v. 35).
+The Gauls thereupon demanded their surrender, on the ground that they
+had violated the law of nations; the Romans, by way of reply, elected
+them consular tribunes in the following year. The result was the march
+of the Gauls upon Rome, the battle of the Allia, and the capture of the
+city (Livy vi. 1).
+
+2. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS, surnamed _Rullianus_ or _Rullus_, master of the
+horse in the second Samnite War to L. Papirius Cursor, by whom he was
+degraded for having fought the Samnites contrary to orders (Livy viii.
+30), in spite of the fact that he gained a victory. In 315, when
+dictator, he was defeated by the Samnites at Lautulae (Livy ix. 23). In
+310 he defeated the Etruscans at the Vadimonian Lake. In 295, consul for
+the fifth time, he defeated, at the great battle of Sentinum, the
+combined forces of the Etrurians, Umbrians, Samnites and Gauls (see
+ROME: _History_, II. "The Republic"). As censor (304) he altered the
+arrangement of Appius Claudius Caecus, whereby the freedmen were taken
+into all the tribes, and limited them to the four city tribes. For this
+he is said to have received the title of _Maximus_, as the deliverer of
+the comitia from the rule of the mob (Livy ix. 46), but there is reason
+to think that this title was first conferred on his grandson. It is
+probable that his achievements are greatly exaggerated by historians
+favourable to the Fabian house.
+
+3. QUINTUS FABIUS MAXIMUS, surnamed _Verrucosus_ (from a wart on his
+lip), _Ovicula_ ("the lamb," from his mild disposition), and _Cunctator_
+("the delayer," from his cautious tactics in the war against Hannibal),
+grandson of the preceding. He served his first consulship in Liguria
+(233 B.C.), was censor (230) and consul for the second time (228). In
+218 he was sent to Carthage to demand satisfaction for the attack on
+Saguntum (Livy xxi. 18). According to the well-known story, he held up a
+fold of his toga and offered the Carthaginians the choice between peace
+and war. When they declared themselves indifferent, he let fall his toga
+with the words, "Then take war." After the disastrous campaign on the
+Trebia, and the defeat on the banks of the Trasimene Lake, Fabius was
+named dictator (Livy calls him pro-dictator, since he was nominated, not
+by the consul, but by the people) in 217, and began his tactics of
+"masterly inactivity." Manoeuvring among the hills, where Hannibal's
+cavalry were useless, he cut off his supplies, harassed him incessantly,
+and did everything except fight. His steady adherence to his plan caused
+dissatisfaction at Rome and in his own camp, and aroused the suspicion
+that he was merely endeavouring to prolong his command. Minucius Rufus,
+his master of the horse, seized the opportunity, during the absence of
+Fabius at Rome, to make an attack upon the enemy which proved
+successful. The people, more than ever convinced that a forward movement
+was necessary, divided the command between Minucius and Fabius (Livy
+xxii. 15. 24; Polybius iii. 88). Minucius was led into an ambuscade by
+Hannibal, and his army was only saved by the opportune arrival of
+Fabius. Minucius confessed his mistake and henceforth submitted to the
+orders of Fabius (Livy xxiii. 32). At the end of the legal time of six
+months Fabius resigned the dictatorship and the war was carried on by
+the consuls. The result of the abandonment of Fabian tactics was the
+disaster of Cannae (216). In 215 and 214 (as consul for the third and
+fourth times) he was in charge of the operations against Hannibal
+together with Claudius Marcellus (Livy xxiii. 39). He laid siege to
+Capua, which had gone over to Hannibal after Cannae, and captured the
+important position of Casilinum; in his fifth consulship (209) he retook
+Tarentum, which had been occupied by Hannibal for three years (Livy
+xxvii. 15; Polybius xiii. 4; Plutarch, _Fabius_). He died in 203. Fabius
+was a strenuous opponent of the new aggressive policy, and did all he
+could to prevent the invasion of Africa by Scipio. He was distinguished
+for calmness and prudence, while by no means lacking in courage when it
+was required. In his later years, however, he became morose, and showed
+jealousy of rising young men, especially Scipio (_Life_ by Plutarch;
+Livy xx.-xxx.; Polybius iii. 87-106).
+
+4. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS AEMILIANUS, eldest son of L. Aemilius Paullus,
+adopted by Fabius Cunctator. He served in the last Macedonian War (168),
+and, as consul, defeated Viriathus in Spain (Livy, _Epit_. 52). He was
+the pupil and patron of Polybius (Polybius xviii., xxix. 6, xxxii. 8-10;
+Livy xliv. 35).
+
+5. Q. FABIUS MAXIMUS ALLOBROGICUS, son of the above, consul 121 in Gaul.
+He obtained his surname from his victory over the Allobroges and Arverni
+in that year (Vell. Pat. ii. 10; Eutropius iv. 22). As censor (108) he
+erected the first triumphal arch.
+
+6. Q. FABIUS VIBULANUS, with his brothers Caeso and Marcus, filled the
+consulship for seven years in succession (485-479 B.C.). In the last year
+there was a reaction against the family, in consequence of Caeso
+espousing the cause of the plebeians. Thereupon the Fabii--to the number,
+it is said, of 306 patricians, with some 5000 dependents--emigrated from
+Rome under the leadership of Caeso, and settled on the banks of the
+Cremera, a few miles above Rome. For two years the exiles continued to be
+the city's chief defence against the Veientes, until at last they were
+surprised and cut off. The only survivor of the gens was Quintus, the sen
+of Marcus, who apparently took no part in the battle. The story that he
+had been left behind at Rome on account of his youth cannot be true, as
+he was consul ten years afterwards. This Quintus was consul in 467, 465
+and 459, and a member of the second decemvirate in 450, on the fall of
+which he went into voluntary exile (Livy ii. 42, 48-50, iii. 1, 9, 41,
+58, vi. 1; Dion. Halic. viii. 82-86, ix. 14-22: Ovid, _Fasti_, ii. 195).
+
+  The Fabian name is met with as late as the 2nd century A.D. A complete
+  list of the Fabii will be found in de Vit's _Onomasticon_; see also
+  W.N. du Rieu, _Disputatio de Gente Fabia_ (1856), containing an
+  account of 57 members of the family.
+
+
+
+
+FABIUS PICTOR, QUINTUS, the father of Roman history, was born about 254
+B.C. He was the grandson of Gaius Fabius, who received the surname
+_Pictor_ for his painting of the temple of Salus (302). He took an
+active part in the subjugation of the Gauls in the north of Italy (225),
+and after the battle of Cannae (216) was employed by the Romans to
+proceed to Delphi in order to consult the oracle of Apollo. He was the
+earliest prose writer of Roman history. His materials consisted of the
+_Annales Maximi_, _Commentarii Consulares_, and similar records; the
+chronicles of the great Roman families; and his own experiences in the
+Second Punic War. He is also said to have made much use of the Greek
+historian Diodes of Peparethus. His work, which was written in Greek,
+began with the arrival of Aeneas in Italy, and ended with the Hannibalic
+war. Although Polybius and Dionysius of Halicarnassus frequently find
+fault with him, the first uses him as his chief authority for the Second
+Punic War. A Latin version of the work was in existence in the time of
+Cicero, but it is doubtful whether it was by Fabius Pictor or by a later
+writer with whom he was confused--Q. Fabius Maximus Servilianus (consul
+142); or there may have been two annalists of the name of Fabius Pictor.
+
+  Fragments in H. Peter, _Historicorum Romanorum Fragmenta_ (1883); see
+  also ANNALISTS and LIVY, and Teuffel-Schwabe, _History of Roman
+  Literature_, S 116.
+
+
+
+
+FABLE (Fr. _fable_, Lat. _fabula_). With certain restrictions, the
+necessity of which will be shown in the course of the article, we may
+accept the definition of "fable" which Dr Johnson proposes in his _Life
+of Gay_: "A _fable_ or _apologue_ seems to be, in its genuine state, a
+narrative in which beings irrational, and sometimes inanimate (_arbores
+loquuntur, non tantum ferae_), are, for the purpose of moral
+instruction, feigned to act and speak with human interests and
+passions." The description of La Fontaine, the greatest of fabulists, is
+a poetic rendering of Johnson's definition:
+
+  "Fables in sooth are not what they appear;
+   Our moralists are mice, and such small deer.
+   We yawn at sermons, but we gladly turn
+   To moral tales, and so amused we learn."
+
+The fable is distinguished from the myth, which grows and is not made,
+the spontaneous and unconscious product of primitive fancy as it plays
+round some phenomenon of natural or historical fact. The literary myth,
+such as, for instance, the legend of Pandora in Hesiod or the tale of Er
+in the _Republic_ of Plato, is really an allegory, and differs from the
+fable in so far as it is self-interpreting; the story and the moral are
+intermingled throughout. Between the parable and the fable there is no
+clear line of demarcation, and theologians like Trench have
+unwarrantably narrowed their definition of a parable to fit those of the
+New Testament. The soundest distinction is drawn by Neander. In the
+fable human passions and actions are attributed to beasts; in the
+parable the lower creation is employed only to illustrate the higher
+life and never transgresses the laws of its kind. But whether Jotham's
+apologue of the trees choosing a king, perhaps the first recorded in
+literature, should be classed as a fable or a parable is hardly worth
+disputing. Lastly, we may point out the close affinity between the fable
+and the proverb. A proverb is often a condensed or fossilized fable, and
+not a few fables are amplified or elaborated proverbs.
+
+The history of the fable goes back to the remotest antiquity, and Aesop
+has even less claim to be reckoned the father of the fable than has
+Homer to be entitled the father of poetry. The fable has its origin in
+the universal impulse of men to express their thoughts in concrete
+images, and is strictly parallel to the use of metaphor in language. It
+is the most widely diffused if not the most primitive form of
+literature. Though it has fallen from its high place it still survives,
+as in J. Chandler Harris's _Uncle Remus_ and Rudyard Kipling's _Jungle
+Book_. The Arab of to-day will invent a fable at every turn of the
+conversation as the readiest form of argument, and in the _Life_ of
+Coventry Patmore it is told how an impromptu fable of his about the
+pious dormouse found its way into Catholic books of devotion.
+
+With the fable, as we know it, the moral is indispensable. As La
+Fontaine puts it, an apologue is composed of two parts, body and soul.
+The body is the story, the soul the morality. But if we revert to the
+earliest type we shall find that this is no longer the case. In the
+primitive beast-fable, which is the direct progenitor of the Aesopian
+fable, the story is told simply for its own sake, and is as innocent of
+any moral as the fairy tales of Little Red Riding-Hood and Jack and the
+Beanstalk. Thus, in a legend of the Flathead Indians, the Little Wolf
+found in cloud-land his grandsires the Spiders with their grizzled hair
+and long crooked nails, and they spun balls of thread to let him down to
+earth; when he came down and found his wife the Speckled Duck, whom the
+Old Wolf had taken from him, she fled in confusion, and this is why she
+lives and dives alone to this very day. Such animal myths are as common
+in the New World as in the Old, and abound from Finland and Kamtchatka
+to the Hottentots and Australasians. From the story invented, as the one
+above quoted, to account for some peculiarity of the animal world, or
+told as a pure exercise of the imagination, just as a sailor spins a
+yarn about the sea-serpent, to the moral apologue the transition is
+easy; and that it has been effected by savages unaided by the example of
+higher races seems sufficiently proved by the tales quoted by E.B. Tylor
+(_Primitive Culture_, vol. i. p. 411). From the beast-fables of savages
+we come next to the Oriental apologues, which we still possess in their
+original form. The East, the land of myth and legend, is the natural
+home of the fable, and Hindustan was the birthplace, if not of the
+original of these tales, at least of the oldest shape in which they
+still exist. The _Pancha Tantra_ (2nd century B.C.), or fables of the
+Brahma Vishnu Sarman, have been translated from Sanskrit into almost
+every language and adapted by most modern fabulists. The _Kalilah_ and
+_Dimna_ (names of two jackals), or fables of Bidpai (or Pilpai), passed
+from India to western Europe through the successive stages of Pahlavi
+(ancient Persian), Arabic, Greek, Latin. By the end of the 16th century
+there were Italian, French and English versions. There is an excellent
+Arabic edition (Paris, 1816) with an introduction by Sylvestre de Sacy.
+The _Hitopadesa_, or "friendly instruction," is a modernized form of the
+same work, and of it there are three translations into English by Dr
+Charles Wilkins, Sir William Jones and Professor F. Johnson. The
+_Hitopadesa_ is a complete chaplet of fables loosely strung together,
+but connected so as to form something of a continuous story, with moral
+reflections freely interspersed, purporting to be written for the
+instruction of some dissolute young princes. Thus, in the first fable a
+flock of pigeons see the grains of rice which a fowler has scattered,
+and are about to descend on them, when the king of the pigeons warns
+them by telling the fable of a traveller who being greedy of a bracelet
+was devoured by a tiger. They neglect his warning and are caught in the
+net, but are afterwards delivered by the king of the mice, who tells the
+story of the Deer, the Jackal and the Crow, to show that no real
+friendship can exist between the strong and the weak, the beast of prey
+and his quarry, and so on to the end of the volume. Another book of
+Eastern fables is well worthy of notice, _Buddhaghosha's Parables_, a
+commentary on the _Dhammapada_ or _Buddha's Paths of Virtue_. The
+original is in Pali, but an English translation of the Burmese version
+was made by Captain T. Rogers, R.E.
+
+From Hindustan the Sanskrit fables passed to China, Tibet and Persia;
+and they must have reached Greece at an early age, for many of the
+fables which passed under the name of Aesop are identical with those of
+the East. Aesop to us is little more than a name, though, if we may
+trust a passing notice in Herodotus (ii. 134), he must have lived in the
+6th century B.C. Probably his fables were never written down, though
+several are ascribed to him by Xenophon, Aristotle, Plutarch and other
+Greek writers, and Plato represents Socrates as beguiling his last days
+by versifying such as he remembered. Aristophanes alludes to them as
+merry tales, and Plato, while excluding the poets from his ideal
+republic, admits Aesop as a moral teacher. Of the various versions of
+_Aesop's Fables_, by far the most trustworthy is that of Babrius or
+Babrias, a Greek probably of the 3rd century A.D., who rendered them in
+choliambic verse. These, which were long known in fragments only, were
+recovered in a MS. found by M. Minas in a monastery on Mount Athos in
+1842, now in the British Museum.[1] An inferior version of the same in
+Latin iambics was made by Phaedrus, a slave of Thracian origin, brought
+to Rome in the time of Augustus and manumitted by him. Phaedrus
+professes to polish in senarian verse the rough-hewn blocks from Aesop's
+quarry; but the numerous allusions to contemporary events, as, for
+example, his hit at Sejanus in the Frogs and the Sun, which brought upon
+the author disgrace and imprisonment, show that many of them are
+original or free adaptations. For some time scholars doubted as to the
+genuineness of Phaedrus's fables, but their doubts have been lately
+dispelled by a closer examination of the MSS. and by the discovery of
+two verses of a fable on a tomb at Apulum in Dacia. Phaedrus's style is
+simple, clear and brief, but dry and unpoetical; and, as Lessing has
+pointed out, he often falls into absurdities when he deserts his
+original. For instance, in Aesop the dog with the meat in his mouth sees
+his reflection in the water as he passes over a bridge; Phaedrus makes
+him see it as he swims across the river.
+
+To sum up the characteristics of the Aesopian fable, it is artless,
+simple and transparent. It affects no graces of style, and we hardly
+need the text with which each concludes, [Greek: ho mythos deloi hoti,
+k.t.l.] The moral inculcated is that of _Proverbial Philosophy_ and
+_Poor Richard's Almanacks_. Aesop is no maker of phrases, but an orator
+who wishes to gain some point or induce some course of action. It is the
+Aesopian type that Aristotle has in view when he treats of the fable as
+a branch of rhetoric, not of poetry.
+
+The Latin race was given to moralizing, and the language lent itself to
+crisp and pointed narrative, but they lacked the free play of fancy, the
+childlike "make-believe," to produce a national body of fables. With the
+doubtful exception of Phaedrus, we possess nothing but solitary
+examples, such as the famous apologue of Menenius Agrippa to the Plebs
+and the exquisite Town Mouse and Country Mouse of Horace's _Satires_.
+
+The fables of the rhetorician Aphthonius about A.D. 400 in Greek prose,
+and those in Latin elegiac verse by Avianus, used for centuries as a
+text-book in schools, form in the history of the apologue a link between
+classical and medieval times. In a Latin dress, sometimes in prose,
+sometimes in regular verse, and sometimes in rhymed stanzas, the fable
+contributed, with other kinds of narratives, to make up the huge mass of
+stories which has been bequeathed to us by the monastic libraries. These
+served more uses than one. They were at once easier and safer reading
+than the classics. To the lazy monk they stood in place of novels; to
+the more industrious and gifted they furnished an exercise on a par with
+Latin verse composition in our public schools; the more original
+transformed them into _fabliaux_, or embodied them in edifying stories,
+as in the _Gesta Romanorum_. It is not in the _Speculum Doctrinale_ of
+Vincent de Beauvais, a Dominican of the 12th century, nor in the
+collection of his contemporary Odo de Cerinton, an English Cistercian,
+nor in Planudes of the 14th century, whose one distinction is to have
+added to the fables a life of Aesop, that the direct lineage of La
+Fontaine must be traced. It is the _fabliaux_ that inspired some of his
+best fables--the Lion's Court, the Young Widow, the Coach and the Fly.
+
+As the supremacy of Latin declined and modern languages began to be
+turned to literary uses, the fable took a new life. Not only were there
+numerous adaptations of Aesop, known as Ysopets, but Marie de France in
+the 13th century composed many original fables, some rivalling La
+Fontaine's in simplicity and gracefulness. Later, also, fables were not
+wanting, though not numerous, in the English tongue. Chaucer has given
+us one, in his Nonne Preste's Tale, which is an expansion of the fable
+_Don Coc et don Werpil_ of Marie de France; another is Lydgate's tale of
+The Churl and the Bird.
+
+Several of Odo's tales, like Chaucer's story, can be ultimately traced
+to the History of Reynard the Fox. This great beast-epic has been
+referred by Grimm as far back as the 10th century, and is known to us in
+three forms, each with independent episodes, but all woven upon a common
+basis. The Latin form is probably the earliest, and the poems
+_Reinardus_ and _Ysengrinus_ date from the 10th or 11th century. Next
+come the German versions. The most ancient, that of a minnesinger
+Heinrich der Glichesaere (probably a Swabian), was analysed and edited
+by Grimm in 1840. The French poem of more than 30,000 lines, the _Roman
+du Renard_, belongs probably to the 13th century. In 1498 appeared
+_Reynke de Voss_, almost a literal version in Low Saxon of the Flemish
+poem of the 12th century, _Reinaert de Vos_. Hence the well-known
+version of Goethe into modern German hexameters was taken. The poem has
+been well named "an unholy world Bible." In it the Aesopian fable
+received a development which was in several respects quite original. We
+have here no short and unconnected stories. Materials, partly borrowed
+from older apologues, but in a much greater proportion new, are worked
+up into one long and systematic tale. The moral, so prominent in the
+fable proper, shrinks so far into the background, that the epic might be
+considered a work of pure fiction, an animal romance. The attempts to
+discover in it personal satire have signally failed; some critics deny
+even the design to represent human conduct at all; and we can scarcely
+get nearer to its signification than by regarding it as being, in a
+general way, what Carlyle has called "a parody of human life." It
+represents a contest maintained successfully, by selfish craft and
+audacity, against enemies of all sorts, in a half-barbarous and
+ill-organized society. With his weakest foes, like Chaunteclere the
+Cock, Reynard uses brute-force; over the weak who are protected, like
+Kiward the Hare and Belin the Ram, he is victorious by uniting violence
+with cunning; Bruin, the dull, strong, formidable Bear, is humbled by
+having greater power than his own enlisted against him; and the most
+dangerous of all the fox's enemies, Isengrim, the obstinate, greedy and
+implacable Wolf, after being baffled by repeated strokes of malicious
+ingenuity, forces Reynard to a single combat, but even thus is not a
+match for his dexterous adversary. The knavish fox has allies worthy of
+him in Grimbart the watchful badger, and in his own aunt Dame Rukenawe,
+the learned She-ape; and he plays at his pleasure on the simple
+credulity of the Lion-King, the image of an impotent feudal sovereign.
+The characters of these and other brutes are kept up with a rude kind of
+consistency, which gives them great liveliness; many of the incidents
+are devised with much force of humour; and the sly hits at the weak
+points of medieval polity and manners and religion are incessant and
+palpable.
+
+It is needless to trace the fable, or illustrations borrowed from
+fables, that so frequently occur as incidental ornaments in the older
+literature of England and other countries. It has appeared in every
+modern nation of Europe, but has nowhere become very important, and has
+hardly ever exhibited much originality either of spirit or of manner. In
+English, Prior transplanted from France some of La Fontaine's ease of
+narration and artful artlessness, while Gay took as his model the
+_Contes_ rather than the _Fables_. Gay's fables are often political
+satires, but some, like the Fox on his Deathbed, have the true ring, and
+in the Hare with many Friends there is genuine pathos. To Dryden's
+spirited remodellings of old poems, romances and _fabliaux_, the name of
+fables, which he was pleased to give them, is quite inapplicable. In
+German, Hagedorn and Gellert, both famous in their day and the latter
+extolled by Goethe, are quite forgotten; and even Lessing's fables are
+read by few but schoolboys. In Spanish, Yriarte's fables on literary
+subjects are sprightly and graceful, but the critic is more than the
+fabulist. A spirited version of the best appeared in _Blackwood's
+Magazine_, 1839. Among Italians Pignotti is famous for versatility and
+command of rhythm, as amongst Russians is Kriloff for his keen satire on
+Russian society. He has been translated into English by Ralston.
+
+France alone in modern times has attained any pre-eminence in the fable,
+and this distinction is almost entirely owing to one author. Marie de
+France in the 13th century, Gilles Corrozet, Guillaume Haudent and
+Guillaume Gueroult in the 16th, are now studied mainly as the
+precursors of La Fontaine, from whom he may have borrowed a stray hint
+or the outline of a story. The unique character of his work has given a
+new word to the French language: other writers of fables are called
+_fabulistes_, La Fontaine is named _le fablier_. He is a true poet; his
+verse is exquisitely modulated; his love of nature often reminds us of
+Virgil, as do his tenderness and pathos (see, for instance, The Two
+Pigeons and Death and the Woodcutter). He is full of sly fun and
+delicate humour; like Horace he satirizes without wounding, and "plays
+around the heart." Lastly, he is a keen observer of men. The whole
+society of the 17th century, its greatness and its foibles, its luxury
+and its squalor, from _Le grand monarque_ to the poor _manant_, from his
+majesty the lion to the courtier of an ape, is painted to the life. To
+borrow his own phrase, La Fontaine's fables are "une ample comedie a
+cent actes divers." Rousseau did his best to discredit the _Fables_ as
+immoral and corruptors of youth, but in spite of _Emile_ they are
+studied in every French school and are more familiar to most Frenchmen
+than their breviary. Among the successors of La Fontaine the most
+distinguished is Florian. He justly estimates his own merits in the
+pretty apologue that he prefixed to his _Fables_. He asks a sage whether
+a fabulist writing after La Fontaine would not be wise to consign his
+work to the flames. The sage replies by a question: "What would you say
+did some sweet, ingenuous Maid of Athens refuse to let herself be seen
+because there was once a Helen of Troy?"
+
+The fables of Lessing represent the reaction against the French school
+of fabulists. "With La Fontaine himself," says Lessing, "I have no
+quarrel, but against the imitators of La Fontaine I enter my protest."
+His attention was first called to the fable by Gellert's popular work
+published in 1746. Gellert's fables were closely modelled after La
+Fontaine's, and were a vehicle for lively railings against the fair sex,
+and hits at contemporary follies. Lessing's early essays were in the
+same style, but his subsequent study of the history and theory of the
+fable led him to discard his former model as a perversion of later
+times, and the "Fabeln," published in 1759, are the outcome of his riper
+views. Lessing's fables, like all that he wrote, display his vigorous
+common sense. He has, it is true, little of La Fontaine's _curiosa
+felicitas_, his sly humour and lightness of touch; and Frenchmen would
+say that his criticism of La Fontaine is an illustration of the fable of
+the sour grapes. On the other hand, he has the rare power of looking at
+both sides of a moral problem; he holds a brief for the stupid and the
+feeble, the ass and the lamb; and in spite of his formal protest against
+poetical ornament, there is in not a few of his fables a vein of true
+poetry, as in the Sheep (ii. 13) and Jupiter and the Sheep (ii. 18). But
+the monograph which introduced the _Fabeln_ is of more inportance than
+the fables themselves. According to Lessing the ideal fable is that of
+Aesop. All the elaborations and refinements of later authors, from
+Phaedrus to La Fontaine, are perversions of this original. The fable is
+essentially a moral precept illustrated by a single example, and it is
+the lesson thus enforced which gives to the fable its unity and makes it
+a work of art. The illustration must be either an actual occurrence or
+represented as such, because a fictitious case invented _ad hoc_ can
+appeal but feebly to the reader's judgment. Lastly, the fable requires a
+story or connected chain of events. A single fact will not make a fable,
+but is only an emblem. We thus arrive at the following definition:--"A
+fable is a relation of a series of changes which together form a whole.
+The unity of the fable consists herein, that all the parts lead up to an
+end, the end for which the fable was invented being the moral precept."
+
+We may notice in passing a problem in connexion with the fable which had
+long been debated, but never satisfactorily resolved till Lessing took
+it in hand--Why should animals have been almost universally chosen as
+the chief _dramatis personae_? The reason, according to Lessing, is that
+animals have distinct characters which are known and recognized by all.
+The fabulist who writes of Britannicus and Nero appeals to the few who
+know Roman history. The Wolf and the Lamb comes home to every one
+whether learned or simple. But, besides this, human sympathies obscure
+the moral judgment; hence it follows that the fable, unlike the drama
+and the epos, should abstain from all that is likely to arouse our
+prejudices or our passions. In this respect the Wolf and the Lamb of
+Aesop is a more perfect fable than the Rich Man and the Poor Man's Ewe
+Lamb of Nathan.
+
+Lessing's analysis and definition of the fable, though he seems himself
+unconscious of the scope of his argument, is in truth its death-warrant.
+The beast-fable arose in a primitive age when men firmly believed that
+beasts could talk and reason, that any wolf they met might be a
+were-wolf, that a peacock might be a Pythagoras in disguise, and an ox
+or even a cat a being worthy of their worship. To this succeeded the
+second age of the fable, which belongs to the same stage of culture as
+the Hebrew proverbs and the gnomic poets of Greece. That honesty is the
+best policy, that death is common to all, seemed to the men of that day
+profound truths worthy to be embalmed in verse or set off by the aid of
+story or anecdote. Last comes an age of high literary culture which
+tolerates the trite morals and hackneyed tales for the sake of the
+exquisite setting, and is amused at the wit which introduces topics and
+characters of the day under the transparent veil of animal life. Such an
+artificial product can be nothing more than the fashion of a day, and
+must, like pastoral poetry, die a natural death. A serious moralist
+would hardly choose that form to inculcate, like Mandeville in his
+_Fable of the Bees_, a new doctrine in morals, for the moral of the
+fable must be such that he who runs may read. A true poet will not care
+to masquerade as a moral teacher, or show his wit by refurbishing some
+old-world maxim. Yet Taine in France, Lowell in America, and J.A. Froude
+in England have proved that the fable as one form of literature is not
+yet extinct, and is capable of new and unexpected developments.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--_Pantschatantrum_, ed. Kosegarten (Bonn, 1848);
+  _Hitopadesa_, ed. Max Muller (1864); Silvestre de Sacy, _Calilah et
+  Dimna, ou Fables de Bidpai, en Arabe, precedees d'un memoire sur
+  l'origine de ce livre_ (Paris, 1816), translated by the Rev. Wyndham
+  Knatchbull (Oxford, 1819); Comparetti, _Ricerche intorno al Libro di
+  Sindebad_ (Milan, 1869); Max Muller, "Migration of Fables," _Chips
+  from a German Workshop_, vol. iv. (1875); Keller, _Untersuchungen uber
+  die Geschichte der griechischen Fabel_ (Leipzig, 1862); _Babrius_, ed.
+  W.G. Rutherford, with excursus on Greek fables (1883); L. Hervieux,
+  _Les Fabuiistes latins_ (1884); Jakob Grimm, _Reinhart Fuchs_ (Berlin,
+  1834); A.C.M. Robert, _Fables inedites des XII^e, XIII^e, et XIV^e
+  siecles_, &c. (Paris, 1825); Taine, _Essai sur les fables de La
+  Fontaine_ (1853); Saint-Marc Girardin, _La Fontaine et les fabulistes_
+  (Paris, 1867).     (F. S.)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] M. Minas professed to have discovered under the same
+    circumstances another collection of ninety-four fables by Babrius.
+    This second part was accepted by Sir G.C. Lewis, but J. Conington
+    conclusively proved it spurious, and probably a forgery. See BABRIUS.
+
+
+
+
+FABLIAU. The entertaining tales in eight-syllable rhymed verse which
+form a marked section of French medieval literature are called
+_fabliaux_, the word being derived by Littre from _fablel_, a diminutive
+of _fable_. It is a mistake to suppose, as is frequently done, that
+every legend of the middle ages is a fabliau. In a poem of the 12th
+century a clear distinction is drawn between songs of chivalry, war or
+love, and _fabliaux_, which are recitals of laughter. A fabliau always
+related an event; it was usually brief, containing not more than 400
+lines; it was neither sentimental, religious nor supernatural, but comic
+and gay. MM. de Montaiglon and Raynaud, who have closely investigated
+this class of literature, consider that about 150 fabliaux have come
+down to us more or less intact; a vast number have doubtless
+disappeared. It appears from a phrase in the writings of the trouvere,
+Henri d'Andeli, that the fabliau was not thought worthy of being copied
+out on parchment. The wonder, then, is that so many of these ephemeral
+compositions have been preserved. Arguments brought forward by M. Joseph
+Bedier, however, tend to show that we need not regret the disappearance
+of the majority of the fabliaux, as those which were copied into MSS.
+were those which were felt to be of the greatest intrinsic value. As
+early as the 8th century fabliaux must have existed, since the faithful
+are forbidden to take pleasure in these _fabulas inanes_ by the
+_Paenitentiale_ of Egbert. But it appears that all the early examples
+are lost.
+
+In the opinion of the best scholars, the earliest surviving fabliau is
+that of _Richeut_, which dates from 1159. This is a rough and powerful
+study of the coarse life of the day, with little plot, but engaged with
+a realistic picture of manners. Such poems, but of a more strictly
+narrative nature, continued to be produced, mainly in the north and
+north-east of France, until the middle of the 14th century. Much
+speculation has been expended on the probable sources of the tales which
+the trouveres told. The Aryan theory, which saw in them the direct
+influence of India upon Europe, has now been generally abandoned. It
+does not seem probable that any ancient or exotic influences were
+brought to bear upon the French jongleurs, who simply invented or
+adapted stories of that universal kind which springs unsown from every
+untilled field of human society. More remarkable than the narratives
+themselves is the spirit in which they are told. This is full of the
+national humour and the national irony, the true _esprit gaulois_. A
+very large section of these popular poems deals satirically with the
+pretensions of the clergy. Such are the famous _Pretre aux mures_, the
+_Pretre qui dit la Passion_ and _Les Perdrix_. Some of these are
+innocently merry; others are singularly depraved and obscene. Another
+class of fabliaux is that which comprises jests against the professions;
+in this, the most prominent example is _Le Vilain Mire_, a satire on
+doctors, which curiously predicts the _Medecin malgre lui_ of Moliere.
+There are also tales whose purpose is rather voluptuous than witty, and
+whose aim is to excuse libertinage and render marriage ridiculous. Among
+these are prominent _Court Mantel_ and _Le Dit de Berenger_. Yet another
+class repeated, with a strain of irony or oddity, such familiar
+classical stories as those of Narcissus, and Pyramus and Thisbe. It is
+rarely that any elevation of tone raises these poems above a familiar
+and even playful level, but there are some that are almost idealistic.
+Among these the story of a sort of Sisyphus errant, _Le Chevalier de
+Barizel_, offers an ethical interest which lifts it in certain respects
+above all other surviving fabliaux. An instance of the pathetic fabliau
+is _Housse Partie_, a kind of primitive version of the story of King
+Lear.
+
+In composing these pieces, of very varied character, the jongleurs have
+practised an art which was in many respects rudimentary, but sincere and
+simple. The student of language finds the rich vocabulary of the
+fabliaux much more attractive to him than the conventionality of the
+serious religious and amatory poems of the same age. The object of the
+writers was the immediate amusement of their audience; by reference to
+familiar things, they hoped to arouse a quick and genuine merriment.
+Hence their incorrectness and their negligence are balanced by a
+delightful ease and absence of pedantry, and in the fabliaux we get
+closer than elsewhere to the living diction of medieval France. It is
+true that if we extend too severe a judgment to these pieces, we may
+find ourselves obliged to condemn them altogether. An instructed French
+critic, vexed with their faults, has gone so far as to say that "the
+subjects of these tales are degrading, their inspiration nothing better
+than flat and cruel derision, their distinguishing features rascality,
+vulgarity and platitude of style." From one point of view, this
+condemnation of the fabliau is hardly too severe. But such scholars as
+Gaston Paris and Paul Meyer have not failed to emphasize other sides to
+the question. They have praised, in the general laxity of style and
+garrulity of the middle ages, the terseness of the jongleurs; in the
+period of false ornament, their fidelity to nature; in a time of general
+vagueness, the sharp and picturesque outlines of their art. One feature
+of the fabliaux, however, cannot be praised and yet must not be
+overlooked. In no other section of the world's literature is the scorn
+and hatred of women so prominent. It is difficult to account for the
+anti-feminine rage which pervades the fabliaux, and takes hideous shapes
+in such examples as _Le Valet aux deux femmes_, _Le Pecheur de
+Pont-sur-Seine_ and _Chicheface et Bigorne_. Probably this was a violent
+reaction against the extravagant cult of woman as expressed in the
+contemporary _lais_ as well as in the legends of saints. The
+exaggeration was not greater in the one case than in the other, and it
+is probable that the exaltation was made endurable to those who listened
+to the trouveres by the corresponding degradation. We must remember,
+too, that those who listened were not nobles or clerks, they were the
+common people. The fabliaux were _fabellae ignobilium_, little stories
+told to amuse persons of low degree, who were irritated by the moral
+pretensions of their superiors.
+
+The names of about twenty of the authors of fabliaux have been
+preserved, although in most cases nothing is known of their personal
+history. The most famous poet of this class of writing is the man whose
+name, or more probably pseudonym, was Rutebeuf. He wrote _Frere Denyse_
+and _Le Sacristain_, while to him is attributed the _Dit d'Aristote_, in
+the course of which Aristotle gives good advice to Alexander. Fabliaux,
+however, form but a small part of the work of Rutebeuf, who was a
+satirical poet of wide accomplishment and varied energy. Most of the
+jongleurs who wrote these merry and indecent tales in octosyllabic verse
+were persons of less distinction. Henri d'Andeli was an ecclesiastic,
+attached, it is supposed, to the cathedral of Rouen. Jean de Conde, who
+flourished in the court of Hainaut from 1310 to 1340, and who is the
+latest of the genuine writers of fabliaux, lived in comfort and
+security, but most of the professional jongleurs seem to have spent
+their years in a Bohemian existence, wandering among the clergy and the
+merchant class, alternately begging for money and food and reciting
+their mocking verses.
+
+  The principal authorities for the fabliaux are MM. Anatole de
+  Montaiglon and Gaston Raynaud, who published the text, in 6 vols.,
+  between 1872 and 1890. This edition corrected and supplemented the
+  very valuable labours of Meon (1808-1823) and Jubinal (1839-1842). The
+  works of Henri d'Andeli were edited by M.A. Heron in 1880, and those
+  of Rutebeuf were made the subject of an exhaustive monograph by M.
+  Leon Cledat in 1891. See also the editions of separate fabliaux by
+  Gaston Paris, Paul Meyer, Ebeling, August Scheler and other modern
+  scholars. M. Joseph Bedier's _Les Fabliaux_ (1895) is a useful summary
+  of critical opinion on the entire subject.     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRE, FERDINAND (1830-1898), French novelist, was born at Bedarieux, in
+Herault, a very picturesque district of the south of France, which he
+made completely his own in literature. He was the son of a local
+architect, who failed in business, and Ferdinand was brought up by his
+uncle, the Abbe Fulcran Fabre, at Camplong among the mulberry woods. Of
+his childhood and early youth he has given a charming account in _Ma
+Vocation_ (1889). He was destined to the priesthood, and was sent for
+that purpose to the seminary of St Pons de Thomieres, where, in 1848, he
+had, as he believed, an ecstatic vision of Christ, who warned him "It is
+not the will of God that thou shouldst be a priest." He had now to look
+about for a profession, and, after attempting medicine at Montpellier,
+was articled as a lawyer's clerk in Paris. In 1853 he published a volume
+of verses, _Feuilles de lierre_, broke down in health, and crept back,
+humble and apparently without ambition, to his old home at Bedarieux.
+After some eight or nine years of country life he reappeared in Paris,
+with the MS. of his earliest novel, _Les Courbezon_ (1862), in which he
+treated the subject which was to recur in almost all his books, the
+daily business of country priests in the Cevennes. This story enjoyed an
+immediate success with the literary class of readers; George Sand
+praised it, Sainte-Beuve hailed in its author "the strongest of the
+disciples of Balzac," and it was crowned by the French Academy. From
+this time forth Fabre settled down to the production of novels, of which
+at the time of his death he had published about twenty. Among these the
+most important were _Le Chevrier_ (1868), unique among his works as
+written in an experimental mixture of Cevenol patois and French of the
+16th century; _L'Abbe Tigrane, candidat a la papaute_ (1873), by common
+consent the best of all Fabre's novels, a very powerful picture of
+unscrupulous priestly ambition; _Mon Oncle Celestin_ (1881), a study of
+the entirely single and tender-hearted country abbe; and _Lucifer_
+(1884), a marvellous gallery of serious clerical portraits. In 1883
+Fabre was appointed curator of the Mazarin Library, with rooms in the
+Institute, where, on 11th February 1898, he died after a brief attack of
+pneumonia. Ferdinand Fabre occupies in French literature a position
+somewhat analogous to that of Mr Thomas Hardy amongst English writers of
+fiction. He deals almost exclusively with the population of the mountain
+villages of Herault, and particularly with its priests. He loved most of
+all to treat of the celibate virtues, the strictly ecclesiastical
+passions, the enduring tension of the young soul drawn between the
+spiritual vocation and the physical demands of nature. Although never a
+priest, he preserved a comprehension of and a sympathy with the clerical
+character, and he always indignantly denied that he was hostile to the
+Church, although he stood just outside her borders. Fabre possessed a
+limited and a monotonous talent, but within his own field he was as
+original as he was wholesome and charming.
+
+  See also J. Lemaitre, _Les Contemporains_, vol. ii.; G. Pellissier,
+  _Etudes de litterature contemporaine_ (1898); E.W. Gosse, _French
+  Profiles_ (1905).     (E. G.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRE D'EGLANTINE, PHILIPPE FRANCOIS NAZAIRE (1750-1794), French
+dramatist and revolutionist, was born at Carcassonne on the 28th of July
+1750. His real name was simple Fabre, the "d'Eglantine" being added in
+commemoration of his receiving the golden eglantine of Clemence Isaure
+from the academy of the floral games at Toulouse. After travelling
+through the provinces as an actor, he came to Paris, and produced an
+unsuccessful comedy entitled _Les Gens de lettres, ou le provincial a
+Paris_ (1787). A tragedy, _Augusta_, produced at the _Theatre Francais_,
+was also a failure. One only of his plays, _Philinte, ou la suite du
+Misanthrope_ (1790), still preserves its reputation. It professes to be
+a continuation of Moliere's _Misanthrope_, but the hero of the piece is
+of a different character from the nominal prototype--an impersonation,
+indeed, of pure and simple egotism. On its publication the play was
+introduced by a preface, in which the author mercilessly satirizes the
+_Optimiste_ of his rival J.F. Collin d'Harleville, whose _Chateaux en
+Espagne_ had gained the applause which Fabre's _Presomptueux_ (1789) had
+failed to win. The character of Philinte had much political
+significance. Alceste received the highest praise, and evidently
+represents the citizen patriot, while Philinte is a dangerous aristocrat
+in disguise. Fabre was president and secretary of the club of the
+Cordeliers, and belonged also to the Jacobin club. He was chosen by
+Danton as his private secretary, and sat in the National Convention. He
+voted for the king's death, supporting the _maximum_ and the law of the
+suspected, and he was a bitter enemy of the Girondins. After the death
+of Marat he published a _Portrait de l'Ami du Peuple_. On the abolition
+of the Gregorian calendar he sat on the committee entrusted with the
+formation of the republican substitute, and to him was due a large part
+of the new nomenclature, with its poetic _Prairial and Floreal_, its
+prosaic _Primidi_ and _Duodi_. The report which he made on the subject,
+on the 24th of October, has some scientific value. On the 12th of
+January 1794 he was arrested by order of the committee of public safety
+on a charge of malversation and forgery in connexion with the affairs of
+the Compagnie des Indes. Documents still existing prove that the charge
+was altogether groundless. During his trial Fabre showed the greatest
+calmness and sang his own well-known song of _Il pleut, il pleut,
+bergere, rentre tes blancs moutons_. He was guillotined on the 5th of
+April 1794. On his way to the scaffold he distributed his manuscript
+poems to the people.
+
+A posthumous play, _Les Precepteurs_, steeped with the doctrines of
+Rousseau's _Emile_, was performed on the 17th of September 1794, and met
+with an enthusiastic reception. Among Fabre's other plays are the gay
+and successful _Convalescent de qualite_ (1791), and _L'Intrigue
+epistolaire_ (1791). In the latter play Fabre is supposed to have drawn
+a portrait of the painter Jean Baptiste Greuze.
+
+  The author's _Oeuvres melees et posthumes_ were published at Paris
+  1802, 2 vols. See Albert Maurin, _Galerie hist. de la Revolution
+  francaise_, tome 11; Jules Janin, _Hist. de la litt. dram._; Chenier,
+  _Tableau de la litt. francaise_; F.A. Aulard in the _Nouvelle Revue_
+  (July 1885).
+
+
+
+
+FABRETTI, RAPHAEL (1618-1700), Italian antiquary, was born in 1618 at
+Urbino in Umbria. He studied law at Cagli and Urbino, where he took the
+degree of doctor at the age of eighteen. While in Rome he attracted the
+notice of Cardinal Lorenzo Imperiali, who employed him successively as
+treasurer and auditor of the papal legation in Spain, where he remained
+thirteen years. Meanwhile, his favourite classical and antiquarian
+studies were not neglected; and on his return journey he made important
+observations of the relics and monuments of Spain, France and Italy. At
+Rome he was appointed judge of appellation of the Capitol, which post he
+left to be auditor of the legation at Urbino. After three years he
+returned to Rome, on the invitation of Cardinal Carpegna, vicar of
+Innocent XI., and devoted himself to antiquarian research, examining
+with minute care the monuments and inscriptions of the Campagna. He
+always rode a horse which his friends nicknamed "Marco Polo," after the
+Venetian traveller. By Innocent XII. he was made keeper of the archives
+of the castle St Angelo, a charge which he retained till his death. He
+died at Rome on the 7th of January 1700. His collection of inscriptions
+and monuments was purchased by Cardinal Stoppani, and placed in the
+ducal palace at Urbino, where they may still be seen.
+
+His work _De Aquis et Aquae-ductibus veteris Romae_ (1680), three
+dissertations on the topography of ancient Latium, is inserted in
+Graevius's _Thesaurus_, iv. (1677). His interpretation of certain
+passages in Livy and other classical authors involved him in a dispute
+with Gronovius, which bore a strong resemblance to that between Milton
+and Salmasius, Gronovius addressing Fabretti as _Faber Rusticus_, and
+the latter, in reply, speaking of _Grunnovius_ and his _titivilitia_. In
+this controversy Fabretti used the pseudonym Iasitheus, which he
+afterwards took as his pastoral name in the Academy of the Arcadians.
+His other works, _De Columna Trajani Syntagma_ (Rome, 1683), and
+_Inscriptionum Antiquarum Explicatio_ (Rome, 1699), throw much light on
+Roman antiquity. In the former is to be found his explication of a
+bas-relief, with inscriptions, now in the Capitol at Rome, representing
+the war and taking of Troy, known as the Iliac table. Letters and other
+shorter works of Fabretti are to be found in publications of the time,
+as the _Journal des Savants_.
+
+  See Crescimbeni, _Le Vite degli Arcadi illustri_; Fabroni, _Vitae
+  Italorum_, vi. 174; Niceron, iv. 372; J. Lamius, _Memorabilia Italorum
+  eruditione praestantium_ (Florence, 1742-1748).
+
+
+
+
+FABRIANI, SEVERINO (1792-1849), Italian author and teacher, was born at
+Spilamberto, Italy, on the 7th of January 1792. Entering the Church, he
+took up educational work, but in consequence of complete loss of voice
+he resolved to devote himself to teaching deaf mutes, and founded a
+small school specially for them. This school the duke of Modena made
+into an institute, and by a special authority from the pope a teaching
+staff of nuns was appointed. Fabriani's method of instruction is summed
+up in his _Logical Letters on Italian Grammar_ (1847). He died on the
+27th of April 1849.
+
+
+
+
+FABRIANO, a town of the Marches, Italy, in the province of Ancona, from
+which it is 44 m. S.W. by rail, 1066 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901)
+town 9586, commune 22,996. It has been noted since the 13th century for
+its paper mills, which still produce the best paper in Italy. A school
+of painting arose here, one of the early masters of which is Allegretto
+Nuzi (1308-1385); and several of the churches contain works by him and
+other local masters. His pupil, Gentile da Fabriano (1370-1428), was a
+painter of considerably greater skill and wider knowledge; but there are
+no important works of his at Fabriano. The sacristy of S. Agostino also
+contains some good frescoes by Ottaviano Nelli of Gubbio. The municipal
+picture gallery contains a collection of pictures, and among them are
+some primitive frescoes, attributable to the 12th century, which still
+retain traces of Byzantine influence. The Archivio Comunale contains
+documents on watermarked paper of local manufacture going back to the
+13th century. The Ponte dell' Acra, a bridge of the 15th century, is
+noticeable for the ingenuity and strength of its construction. The
+hospital of S. Maria Buon Gesu is a fine work of 1456, attributed to
+Rossellino.
+
+  See A. Zonghi, _Antiche Carte Fabrianesi_.     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, GAIUS LUSCINUS (i.e. "the one-eyed"), Roman general, was the
+first member of the Fabrician gens who settled in Rome. He migrated to
+Rome from Aletrium (Livy ix. 43), one of the Hernican towns which was
+allowed to retain its independence as a reward for not having revolted.
+In 285 he was one of the ambassadors sent to the Tarentines to dissuade
+them from making war on the Romans. In 282 (when consul) he defeated the
+Bruttians and Lucanians, who had besieged Thurii (Livy, _Epit._ 12).
+After the defeat of the Romans by Pyrrhus at Heraclea (280), Fabricius
+was sent to treat for the ransom and exchange of the prisoners. All
+attempts to bribe him were unsuccessful, and Pyrrhus is said to have
+been so impressed that he released the prisoners without ransom
+(Plutarch, _Pyrrhus_, 18). The story that Pyrrhus attempted to frighten
+Fabricius by the sight of an elephant is probably a fiction. In 278
+Fabricius was elected consul for the second time, and was successful in
+negotiating terms of peace with Pyrrhus, who sailed away to Sicily.
+Fabricius afterwards gained a series of victories over the Samnites, the
+Lucanians and the Bruttians, and on his return to Rome received the
+honour of a triumph. Notwithstanding the offices he had filled he died
+poor, and provision had to be made for his daughter out of the funds of
+the state (Val. Max. iv. 4, 10). Fabricius was regarded by the Romans of
+later times as a model of ancient simplicity and incorruptible
+integrity.
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, GEORG (1516-1571), German poet, historian and archaeologist,
+was born at Chemnitz in upper Saxony on the 23rd of April 1516, and
+educated at Leipzig. Travelling in Italy with one of his pupils, he made
+an exhaustive study of the antiquities of Rome. He published the results
+in his _Roma_ (1550), in which the correspondence between every
+discoverable relic of the old city and the references to them in ancient
+literature was traced in detail. In 1546 he was appointed rector of the
+college of Meissen, where he died on the 17th of July 1571. In his
+sacred poems he affected to avoid every word with the slightest savour
+of paganism; and he blamed the poets for their allusions to pagan
+divinities.
+
+  Principal works: editions of Terence (1548) and Virgil (1551);
+  _Poematum sacrorum libri xxv._ (1560); _Poetarum veterum
+  ecclesiasticorum opera Christiana_ (1562); _De Re Poetica libri
+  septem_ (1565); _Rerum Misnicarum libri septem_ (1569); (posthumous)
+  _Originum illustrissimae stirpis Saxonicae libri septem_ (1597);
+  _Rerum Germaniae magnae et Saxoniae universae memorabilium
+  mirabiliumque volumina duo_ (1609). A life of Georg Fabricius was
+  published in 1839 by D.C.W. Baumgarten-Crusius, who in 1845 also
+  issued an edition of Fabricius's _Epistolae ad W. Meurerum et alios
+  aequales_, with a short sketch _De Vita Ge. Fabricii et de gente
+  Fabriciorum_; see also F. Wachter in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopadie_.
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, HIERONYMUS [FABRIZIO, GERONIMO] (1537-1619), Italian
+anatomist and embryologist, was surnamed Acquapendente from the
+episcopal city of that name, where he was born in 1537. At Padua, after
+a course of philosophy, he studied medicine under G. Fallopius, whose
+successor as teacher of anatomy and surgery he became in 1562. From the
+senators of Venice he received numerous honours, and an anatomical
+theatre was built by them for his accommodation. He died at Venice on
+the 21st of May 1619. His works include _De visione, voce et auditu_
+(1600), _De formato foetu_ (1600), _De venarum ostiolis_ (1603), _De
+formatione ovi et pulli_ (1621). His collected works were published at
+Leipzig in 1687 as _Opera omnia Anatomica et Physiologica_, but the
+Leiden edition, published by Albinus in 1738, is preferred as containing
+a life of the author and the prefaces of his treatises. (See ANATOMY;
+EMBRYOLOGY.)
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, JOHANN ALBERT (1668-1736), German classical scholar and
+bibliographer, was born at Leipzig on the 11th of November 1668. His
+father, Werner Fabricius, director of music in the church of St Paul at
+Leipzig, was the author of several works, the most important being
+_Deliciae Harmonicae_ (1656). The son received his early education from
+his father, who on his death-bed recommended him to the care of the
+theologian Valentin Alberti. He studied under J.G. Herrichen, and
+afterwards at Quedlinburg under Samuel Schmid. It was in Schmid's
+library, as he afterwards said, that he found the two books, F. Barth's
+_Adversaria_ and D.G. Morhof's _Polyhistor Literarius_, which suggested
+to him the idea of his _Bibliothecae_, the works on which his great
+reputation was founded. Having returned to Leipzig in 1686, he published
+anonymously (two years later) his first work, _Scriptorum recentiorum
+decas_, an attack on ten writers of the day. His _Decas Decadum, sive
+plagiariorum et pseudonymorum centuria_ (1689) is the only one ot his
+works to which be signs the name Faber. He then applied himself to the
+study of medicine, which, however, he relinquished for that of
+theology; and having gone to Hamburg in 1693, he proposed to travel
+abroad, when the unexpected tidings that the expense of his education
+had absorbed his whole patrimony, and even left him in debt to his
+trustee, forced him to abandon his project. He therefore remained at
+Hamburg in the capacity of librarian to J.F. Mayer. In 1696 he
+accompanied his patron to Sweden; and on his return to Hamburg, not long
+afterwards, he became a candidate for the chair of logic and philosophy.
+The suffrages being equally divided between Fabricius and Sebastian
+Edzardus, one of his opponents, the appointment was decided by lot in
+favour of Edzardus; but in 1699 Fabricius succeeded Vincent Placcius in
+the chair of rhetoric and ethics, a post which he held till his death,
+refusing invitations to Greifswald, Kiel, Giessen and Wittenberg. He
+died at Hamburg on the 30th of April 1736.
+
+  Fabricius is credited with 128 books, but very many of them were only
+  books which he had edited. One of the most famed and laborious of
+  these is the _Bibliotheca Latina_ (1697, republished in an improved
+  and amended form by J.A. Ernesti, 1773). The divisions of the
+  compilation are--the writers to the age of Tiberius; thence to that of
+  the Antonines; and thirdly, to the decay of the language; a fourth
+  gives fragments from old authors, and chapters on early Christian
+  literature. A supplementary work was _Bibliotheca Latina mediae et
+  infimae Aetatis_ (1734-1736; supplementary volume by C. Schottgen,
+  1746; ed. Mansi, 1754). His _chef-d'oeuvre_, however, is the
+  _Bibliotheca Graeca_ (1705-1728, revised and continued by G.C. Harles,
+  1790-1812), a work which has justly been denominated _maximus antiquae
+  eruditionis thesaurus_. Its divisions are marked off by Homer, Plato,
+  Christ, Constantine, and the capture of Constantinople in 1453, while
+  a sixth section is devoted to canon law, jurisprudence and medicine.
+  Of his remaining works we may mention:--_Bibliotheca Antiquaria_, an
+  account of the writers whose works illustrated Hebrew, Greek, Roman
+  and Christian antiquities (1713); _Centifolium Lutheranum_, a Lutheran
+  bibliography (1728); _Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica_ (1718). His _Codex
+  Apocryphus_ (1703) is still considered indispensable as an authority
+  on apocryphal Christian literature.
+
+  The details of the life of Fabricius are to be found in _De Vita et
+  Scriptis J.A. Fabricii Commentarius_, by his son-in-law, H.S.
+  Reimarus, the well-known editor of Dio Cassius, published at Hamburg,
+  1737; see also C.F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's _Allgemeine
+  Encyclopadie_, and J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ iii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+FABRICIUS, JOHANN CHRISTIAN (1745-1808), Danish entomologist and
+economist, was born at Tondern in Schleswig on the 7th of January 1745.
+After studying at Altona and Copenhagen, he was sent to Upsala, where he
+attended the lectures of Linnaeus. He devoted his attention
+professionally to political economy, and, after lecturing on that
+subject in 1769, was appointed in 1775 professor of natural history,
+economy and finance at Kiel, in which capacity he wrote various works,
+chiefly referring to Denmark, and of no special interest. He also
+published a few other works on general and natural history, botany and
+travel (including _Reise nach Norwegen_, 1779), and, although his
+professional stipend was small, he extended his personal researches into
+every town in northern and central Europe where a natural history museum
+was to be found. It is as an entomologist that his memory survives, and
+for many years his great scientific reputation rested upon the system of
+classification which he founded upon the structure of the mouth-organs
+instead of the wings. He had a keen eye for specific differences, and
+possessed the art of terse and accurate description. He died on the 3rd
+of March 1808.
+
+  A complete list of his entomological publications (31) will be found
+  in Hagen's _Bibliotheca Entomologiae_; the following are the
+  chief:--_Systema Entomologiae_ (1775); _Genera Insectorum_ (1776);
+  _Philosophia Entomologica_ (1778); _Species insectorum_ (1781);
+  _Mantissa Insectorum_ (1787); _Entomologia Systematica_ (1792-1794),
+  with a supplement (1798); _Systema Eleutheratorum_ (1801),
+  _Rhyngotorum_ (1803), _Piezatorum_ (1804), and _Antliatorum_ (1805).
+  Full particulars of his life will be found, with a portrait, in the
+  _Transactions of the Entomological Society of London_ (1845), 4, pp.
+  i-xvi, where his autobiography is translated from the Danish.
+
+
+
+
+FABRIZI, NICOLA (1804-1885), Italian patriot, was born at Modena on the
+4th of April 1804. He took part in the Modena insurrection of 1831, and
+attempted to succour Ancona, but was arrested at sea and taken to
+Toulon, whence he proceeded to Marseilles. Afterwards he organized with
+Mazzini the ill-fated Savoy expedition. Taking refuge in Spain, he
+fought against the Carlists, and was decorated for valour on the
+battlefield (18th July 1837). At the end of the Carlist War he
+established a centre of conspiracy at Malta, endeavoured to dissuade
+Mazzini from the Bandiera enterprise, but aided Crispi in organizing the
+Sicilian revolution of 1848. With a company of volunteers he
+distinguished himself in the defence of Venice, afterwards proceeding to
+Rome, where he took part in the defence of San Pancrazio. Upon the fall
+of Rome he returned to Malta, accumulating arms and stores; which he
+conveyed to Sicily; after having, in 1859, worked with Crispi to prepare
+the Sicilian revolution of 1860. While Garibaldi was sailing from Genoa
+towards Marsala Fabrizi landed at Pizzolo, and, after severe fighting,
+joined Garibaldi at Palermo. Under the Garibaldian Dictatorship he was
+appointed governor of Messina and minister of war. Returning to Malta
+after the Neapolitan plebiscite, which he had vainly endeavoured to
+postpone, he was recalled to aid Cialdini in suppressing brigandage.
+While on his way to Sicily in 1862, to induce Garibaldi to give up the
+Aspromonte enterprise, he was arrested at Naples by Lamarmora. During
+the war of 1866 he became Garibaldi's chief of staff, and in 1867 fought
+at Mentana. In parliament he endeavoured to promote agreement between
+the chiefs of the Left, and from 1878 onwards worked to secure the
+return of Crispi to power, but died on the 31st of March 1885, two years
+before the realization of his object. His whole life was characterized
+by ardent patriotism and unimpeachable integrity.     (H. W. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FABROT, CHARLES ANNIBAL (1580-1659), French jurisconsult, was born at
+Aix in Provence on the 15th of September 1580. At an early age he made
+great progress in the ancient languages and in the civil and the canon
+law; and in 1602 he received the degree of doctor of law, and was made
+avocat to the parlement of Aix. In 1609 he obtained a professorship in
+the university of his native town. He is best known by his translation
+of the _Basilica_, which may be said to have formed the code of the
+Eastern empire till its destruction. This work was published at Paris in
+1647 in 7 vols. fol., and obtained for its author a considerable pension
+from the chancellor, Pierre Seguier, to whom it was dedicated. Fabrot
+likewise rendered great service to the science of jurisprudence by his
+edition of Cujas, which comprised several treatises of that great jurist
+previously unpublished. He also edited the works of several Byzantine
+historians, and was besides the author of various antiquarian and legal
+treatises. He died at Paris on the 16th of January 1659.
+
+
+
+
+FABYAN, ROBERT (d. 1513), English chronicler, belonged to an Essex
+family, members of which had been connected with trade in London. He was
+a member of the Drapers company, alderman of Farringdon Without, and
+served as sheriff in 1493-1494. In 1496 he was one of those appointed to
+make representations to the king on the new impositions on English cloth
+in Flanders. Next year he was one of the aldermen employed in keeping
+watch at the time of the Cornish rebellion. He resigned his aldermanry
+in 1502, on the pretext of poverty, apparently in order to avoid the
+expense of mayoralty. He had, however, acquired considerable wealth with
+his wife Elizabeth Pake, by whom he had a numerous family. He spent his
+latter years on his estate of Halstedys at Theydon Garnon in Essex. He
+died on the 28th of February 1513 (_Inquisitiones post mortem for
+London_, p. 29, edited by G.S. Fry, 1896); his will, dated the 11th of
+July 1511, was proved on the 12th of July 1513. Fabyan's Chronicle was
+first published by Richard Pynson in 1516 as _The new chronicles of
+England and of France_. In this edition it ends with the reign of
+Richard III., and this probably represents the work as Fabyan left it,
+though with the omission of an autobiographical note and some religious
+verses, which form the _Envoi_ of his history. The note and verses are
+first found in the second edition, printed by John Rastell in 1533 with
+continuations down to 1509. A third edition appeared in 1542, and a
+fourth in 1559 with additions to that year. The only modern edition is
+that of Sir Henry Ellis, 1811.
+
+In the note above mentioned Fabyan himself says: "and here I make an
+ende of the vii. parte and hole werke, the vii. day of November in the
+yere of our Lord Jesu Christes Incarnacion M. vc. and iiij." This seems
+conclusive that in 1504 he did not contemplate any extension of his
+chronicles beyond 1485. The continuations printed by Rastell are
+certainly not Fabyan's work. But Stow in his _Collections_ (ap. _Survey
+of London_, ii. 305-306, ed. C.L. Kingsford) states that Fabyan wrote "a
+Chronicle of London, England and of France, beginning at the creation
+and endynge in the third year of Henry VIII., which both I have in
+written hand." In his _Survey of London_ (i. 191, 209, ii. 55, 116) Stow
+several times quotes Fabyan as his authority for statements which are
+not to be found in the printed continuations of Rastell. Some further
+evidence may be found in other notes of Stow's (ap. _Survey of London_,
+ii. 280, 283, 365-366), and in the citation by Hakluyt of an unprinted
+work of Fabyan as the authority for his note of Cabot's voyages. That
+Fabyan had continued his Chronicle to 1511 may be accepted as certain,
+but no trace of the manuscript can now be found.
+
+It is only the seventh part of Fabyan's Chronicle, from the Norman
+Conquest onwards, that possesses any historical value. For his French
+history he followed chiefly the _Compendium super Francorum gestis_ of
+Robert Gaguin, printed at Paris in 1497. For English history his best
+source was the old _Chronicles of London_, from which he borrowed also
+the arrangement of his work in civic form. From 1440 to 1485 he follows,
+as a rule with great fidelity, the original of the London Chronicle in
+Cotton MS. Vitellius A. XVI. (printed in _Chronicles of London_, 1905,
+pp. 153-264).
+
+Fabyan's own merits are little more than those of an industrious
+compiler, who strung together the accounts of his different authorities
+without any critical capacity. He says expressly that his work was
+"gaderyd without understandynge," and speaks of himself as "of cunnynge
+full destitute." Nevertheless he deserves the praise which he has
+received as an early worker, and for having made public information
+which through Hall and Holinshed has become the common property of later
+historians, and has only recently been otherwise accessible. Bale
+alleges that the first edition was burnt by order of Cardinal Wolsey
+because it reflected on the wealth of the clergy; this probably refers
+to his version of the Lollards Bill of 1410, which Fabyan extracted from
+one of the London Chronicles.
+
+  See further Ellis' _Introduction_; W. Busch, _England under the
+  Tudors_ (trans. A.M. Todd, 1895), i. 405-410; and C.L. Kingsford,
+  _Chronicles of London_, pp. xxvi-xxxii (1905).     (C. L. K.)
+
+
+
+
+FACADE, a French architectural term signifying the external face of a
+building, but more generally applied to the principal front.
+
+
+
+
+FACCIOLATI, JACOPO (1682-1769), Italian philologist, was born at
+Torriglia, in the province of Padua, in 1682. He owed his admission to
+the seminary of Padua to Cardinal Barberigo, who had formed a high
+opinion of the boy's talents. As professor of logic, and regent of the
+schools, Facciolati was the ornament of the Paduan university during a
+period of forty-five years. He published improved editions of several
+philological works, such as the _Thesaurus Ciceronianus_ of Nizolius,
+and the polyglot vocabulary known under the name of Calepino. The latter
+work, in which he was assisted by his pupil Egidio Forcellini, he
+completed in four years--1715 to 1719. It was written in seven
+languages, and suggested to the editor the idea of his _opus magnum_,
+the _Tolius Latinitatis Lexicon_, which was ultimately published at
+Cardinal Priole's expense, 4 vols. fol., Padua, 1771 (revised ed. by de
+Vit, 1858-1887). In the compilation of this work the chief burden seems
+to have been borne by Facciolati's pupil Forcellini, to whom, however,
+the lexicographer allows a very scanty measure of justice. Perhaps the
+best testimony to the learning and industry of the compiler is the
+well-known observation that the whole body of Latinity, if it were to
+perish, might be restored from this lexicon. Facciolati's mastery of
+Latin style, as displayed in his epistles, has been very much admired
+for its purity and grace. In or about 1739 Facciolati undertook the
+continuation of Papadopoli's history of the university of Padua,
+carrying it on to his own day. Facciolati was known over all Europe as
+one of the most enlightened and zealous teachers of the time; and among
+the many flattering invitations which he received, but always declined,
+was one from the king of Portugal, to accept the directorship of a
+college at Lisbon for the young nobility. He died in 1769. His history
+of the university was published in 1757, under the name _Fasti Gymnasii
+Patavini_. In 1808 a volume containing nine of his Epistles, never
+before published, was issued at Padua.
+
+  See J.E. Sandys, _Hist. Class. Schol._ ii. (1908).
+
+
+
+
+FACE (from Lat. _facies_, derived either from _facere_, to make, or from
+a root _fa-_, meaning "appear"; cf. Gr. [Greek: phainein]), a word whose
+various meanings of surface, front, expression of countenance, look or
+appearance, are adaptations of the application of the word to the
+external part of the front portion of the head, usually taken to extend
+from the top of the forehead to the point of the chin, and from ear to
+ear (see ANATOMY: _Superficial and Artistic_; and PHYSIOGNOMY).
+
+
+
+
+FACTION (through the French, from Lat. factio, a company of persons
+combined for action, _facere_, to do; from the other French derivative
+_facon_ comes "fashion"), a term, used especially with an opprobrious
+meaning, for a body of partisans who put their party aims and interests
+above those of the state or public, and employ unscrupulous or
+questionable means; it is thus a common term of reciprocal abuse between
+parties. In the history of the Roman and Later Roman empires the
+factions (_factiones_) of the circus and hippodrome, at Rome and
+Constantinople, played a prominent part in politics. The _factiones_
+were properly the four companies into which the charioteers were
+divided, and distinguished by the colours they wore. Originally at Rome
+there were only two, white (_albata_) and red (_russata_), when each
+race was open to two chariots only; on the increase to four, the green
+(_prasina_) and blue (_veneta_) were added. At Constantinople the last
+two absorbed the red and white factions.
+
+  For a brilliant description of the factions at Constantinople under
+  Justinian, and the part they played in the celebrated Nika riot in
+  January 532, see Gibbon's _Decline and Fall_, ch. xl.; and J.B. Bury's
+  _Appendix_ 10 in vol. iv. of his edition (1898), for a discussion of
+  the relationship between the _factiones_ and the demes of
+  Constantinople.
+
+
+
+
+FACTOR (from Lat. _facere_, to make or do), strictly "one who makes";
+thus in ordinary parlance, anything which goes to the composition of
+anything else is termed one of its "factors," and in mathematics the
+term is used of those quantities which, when multiplied together,
+produce a given product. In a special sense, however--and that to which
+this article is devoted--"factor" is the name given to a mercantile
+agent (of the class known as "general agents") employed to buy or sell
+goods for a commission. When employed to sell, the possession of the
+goods is entrusted to him by his principal, and when employed to buy it
+is his duty to obtain possession of the goods and to consign them to his
+principal. In this he differs from a broker (q.v.), who has not such
+possession, and it is this distinguishing characteristic which gave rise
+in England to the series of statutes known as the Factors Acts. By these
+acts, consolidated and extended by the act of 1889, third parties buying
+or taking pledges from factors are protected as if the factor were in
+reality owner; but these enactments have in no way affected the
+contractual relations between the factor and his employer, and it will
+be convenient to define them before discussing the position of third
+parties as affected by the act.
+
+
+I. FACTOR AND PRINCIPAL
+
+A factor is appointed or dismissed in the same way as any other agent.
+He may be employed for a single transaction or to transact all his
+principal's business of a certain class during a limited period or till
+such time as his authority may be determined. A factor's duty is to sell
+or buy as directed; to carry out with care, skill and good faith any
+instructions he may receive; to receive or make payment; to keep
+accounts, and to hand over to his principal the balance standing to his
+principal's credit, without any deduction save for commission and
+expenses. All express instructions he must carry out to the full,
+provided they do not involve fraud or illegality. On any point not
+covered by his express instructions he must follow the usual practice of
+his particular business, if not inconsistent with his instructions or
+his position as factor. Many usages of businesses in which factors are
+employed have been proved in court, and may now be regarded as legally
+established. For instance, he may, unless otherwise directed, sell in
+his own name, give warranties as to goods sold by him, sell by sample
+(in most businesses), give such credit as is usual in his business,
+receive payment in cash or as customary; and give receipts in full
+discharge, sell by indorsement of bills of lading; and insure the goods.
+It is his duty to clear the goods at the customs, take charge of them
+and keep them safely, give such notices to his principal and others as
+may be required, and if necessary take legal proceedings for the
+protection of the goods. On the other hand, he has not authority to
+delegate his employment, or to barter; and as between himself and his
+principal he has no right to pledge the goods, although as between the
+principal and the pledgee, an unauthorized pledge made by the factor may
+by virtue of the Factors Act 1889 be binding upon the principal. It is,
+moreover, inconsistent with his employment as agent that he should buy
+or sell on his own account from or to his principal. A factor has no
+right to follow any usage which is inconsistent with the ordinary duties
+and authority of a factor unless his principal has expressly or
+impliedly given his consent.
+
+On the due performance of his duties the factor is entitled to his
+commission, which is usually a percentage on the value of the goods sold
+or bought by him on account of his principal, regulated in amount by,
+the usages of each business. Sometimes the factor makes himself
+personally responsible for the solvency of the persons with whom he
+deals, in order that his principal may avoid the risk entailed by the
+usual trade credit. In such a case the factor is said to be employed on
+_del credere_ terms, and is entitled to a higher rate of commission,
+usually 2-1/2% extra. Such an arrangement is not a contract of guarantee
+within the Statute of Frauds, and therefore need not be in writing.
+Besides his remuneration, the factor is entitled to be reimbursed by his
+principal for any expenses, and to be indemnified against any
+liabilities which he may have properly incurred in the execution of his
+principal's instructions. For the purpose of enforcing his rights a
+factor has, without legal proceedings, two remedies. Firstly, by virtue
+of his general _lien_ (q.v.) he may hold any of his principal's goods
+which come to his hands as security for the payment to him of any
+commission, out-of-pocket expenses, or even general balance of account
+in his favour. Although he cannot sell the goods, he may refuse to give
+them up until he is paid. Secondly, where he has consigned goods to his
+principal but not been paid, he may "_stop in transit_" subject to the
+same rules of law as an ordinary vendor; that is to say, he must
+exercise his right before the transit ends; and his right may be
+defeated by his principal transferring the document of title to the
+goods to some third person, who takes it in good faith and for valuable
+consideration (Factors Act 1889, section 10). If the factor does not
+carry out his principal's instructions, or carries them out so
+negligently or unskilfully that his principal gets no benefit thereby,
+the factor loses his commission and his right to reimbursement and
+indemnity. If by such failure or negligence the principal suffers any
+loss, the latter may recover it as damages. So too if the factor fails
+to render proper accounts his principal may by proper legal proceedings
+obtain an account and payment of what is found due; and threatened
+breaches of duty may be summarily stopped by an injunction. Criminal
+acts by the factor in relation to his principal's goods are dealt with
+by section 78 of the Larceny Act 1860.
+
+
+II. PRINCIPAL AND THIRD PARTY
+
+(a) _At Common Law._--The actual authority of a factor is defined by the
+same limits as his duty, the nature of which has been just described;
+i.e. firstly, by his principal's express instructions; secondly, by the
+rules of law and usages of trade, in view of which those instructions
+were expressed. But his power to bind his principal as regards third
+parties is often wider than his actual authority; for it would not be
+reasonable that third parties should be prejudiced by secret
+instructions, given in derogation of the authority ordinarily conferred
+by the custom of trade; and, as regards them, the factor is said to have
+"_apparent_" or "_ostensible_" authority, or to be _held out_ as having
+authority to do what is customary, even though he may in fact have been
+expressly forbidden so to do by his principal. But this rule is subject
+to the proviso that if the third party have notice of the factor's
+actual instructions, the "apparent" authority will not be greater than
+the actual. "The general principle of law," said Lord Blackburn in the
+case of _Cole_ v. _North-Western Bank_, 1875, L.R. 10, C.P. 363, "is
+that when the true owner has clothed any one with apparent authority to
+act as his agent, he is bound to those who deal with the agent on the
+assumption that he really is an agent with that authority, to the same
+extent as if the apparent authority were real." Under such circumstances
+the principal is for reasons of common fairness precluded, or, in legal
+phraseology, _estopped_, from denying his agent's authority. On the same
+principle of estoppel, but not by reason of any trade usages, a course
+of dealing which has been followed between a factor and a third party
+with the assent of the principal will give the factor apparent authority
+to continue dealing on the same terms even after the principal's assent
+has been withdrawn; provided that the third party has no notice of the
+withdrawal.
+
+Such apparent authority binds the principal both as to acts done in
+excess of the actual authority and also when the actual authority has
+entirely ceased. For instance, A. B. receives goods from C.D. with
+instructions not to sell below 1s. per lb.; A. B. sells at 10-1/2d., the
+market price; the buyer is entitled to the goods at 10-1/2d., because A.
+B. had apparent authority, although he exceeded his actual authority. On
+the same principle the buyer would get a good title by buying from A. B.
+goods entrusted to him by C. D., even though at the time of the sale C.
+D. had revoked A. B.'s authority and instructed him not to sell at all.
+In either case the factor is held out as having authority to sell, and
+the principal cannot afterwards turn round and say that his factor had
+no such authority. As in the course of his business the factor must
+necessarily make representations preliminary to the contracts into which
+he enters, so the principal will be bound by any such representations as
+may be within the factor's actual or apparent authority to the same
+degree as by the factor's contracts.
+
+(b) _Under the Factors Act 1889._--The main object of the Factors Acts,
+in so far as they relate to transactions carried out by factors, has
+been to add to the number of cases in which third parties honestly
+buying or lending money on the security of goods may get a good title
+from persons in whose possession the goods are with the consent, actual
+or apparent, of the real owners, thus calling in aid the principle of
+French law that "_possession vaut titre_" as against the doctrine of the
+English common law that "_nemo dat quod non habet_." The chief change in
+the law relating specially to factors has been to put pledges by factors
+on the same footing as sales, so as to bind a principal to third parties
+by his factor's pledge as by his factor's sale. The Factors Act 1889 in
+part re-enacts and in part extends the provisions of the earlier acts of
+1823, 1825, 1842 and 1877; and is, so far as it relates to sales by
+factors, in large measure merely declaratory of the law as it previously
+existed. Its most important provisions concerning factors are as
+follows:--
+
+  Section I., s.s. 1. The expression mercantile agent shall mean a
+  mercantile agent having in the customary course of his business as
+  such agent authority either to sell goods, or to consign goods for the
+  purpose of sale, or to buy goods, or to raise money on the security of
+  goods;
+
+  2. A person shall be deemed to be in possession of goods or of the
+  documents or title to goods when the goods or documents are in his
+  actual custody or are held by any other person subject to his control
+  or for him on his behalf.
+
+  4. The expression "document of title" shall include any bill of
+  lading, dock warrant, warehouse keeper's certificate, and warrant or
+  order for the delivery of goods, and any other document used in the
+  ordinary course of business as proof of the possession or control of
+  goods, or authorizing or purporting to authorize, either by
+  indorsement or by delivery, the possessor of the document to transfer
+  or receive goods thereby represented.
+
+  Section II., s.s. 1. Where a mercantile agent is, with the consent of
+  the owner, in possession of goods or of the documents or title to
+  goods, any sale, pledge or other disposition of the goods made by him
+  when acting in the ordinary course of business of a mercantile agent
+  shall, subject to the provisions of this act, be as valid as if he
+  were expressly authorized by the owner of the goods to make the same;
+  provided that the person taking under the disposition acts in good
+  faith, and has not at the time of the disposition notice that the
+  person making the disposition has not authority to make the same.
+
+  2. Where a mercantile agent has, with the consent of the owner, been
+  in possession of goods or of the documents of title to goods, any
+  sale, pledge or other disposition which would have been valid if the
+  consent had continued shall be valid notwithstanding the determination
+  of the consent; provided that the person taking under the disposition
+  has not at the time thereof notice that the consent has been
+  determined.
+
+  3. Where a mercantile agent has obtained possession of any documents
+  of title to goods by reason of his being or having been, with the
+  consent of the owner, in possession of the goods represented thereby,
+  or of any other documents of title to the goods, his possession of the
+  first-mentioned documents shall, for the purposes of the act, be
+  deemed to be with the consent of the owner.
+
+
+III. ENFORCEMENT OF CONTRACTS
+
+1. Where a factor makes a contract in the name of his principal and
+himself signs as agent only, he drops out as soon as the contract is
+made, and the principal and third party alone can sue or be sued upon
+it. As factors usually contract in their own name this is not a common
+case. It is characteristic of brokers rather than of factors.
+
+2. Where a factor makes a contract for the principal without disclosing
+his principal's name, the third party may, on discovering the principal,
+elect whether he will treat the factor or his principal as the party to
+the contract; provided that if the factor contract expressly as factor,
+so as to exclude the idea that he is personally responsible, he will not
+be liable. The principal may sue upon the contract, so also may the
+factor, unless the principal first intervene.
+
+3. Where a factor makes a contract in his own name without disclosing
+the existence of his principal, the third party may, on discovering the
+existence of the principal, elect whether he will sue the factor or the
+principal. Either principal or factor may sue the third party upon the
+contract. But if the factor has been permitted by the principal to hold
+himself out as the principal, and the person dealing with the factor has
+believed that the factor was the principal and has acted on that belief
+before ascertaining his mistake, then in an action by the principal the
+third party may set up any defences he would have had against the factor
+if the factor had brought the action on his own account as principal.
+
+4. Where a factor has a lien upon the goods and their proceeds for
+advances made to the principal it will be no defence to an action by him
+for the third party to plead that he has paid the principal, unless the
+factor by his conduct led the third party to believe that he agreed to a
+settlement being made with his principal.
+
+5. The factor who acts for a foreign principal will always be personally
+liable unless it is clear that the third party has agreed to look only
+to the principal.
+
+6. If a factor contract by deed under seal he alone can sue or be sued
+upon the contract; but mercantile practice makes contracts by deed
+uncommon.
+
+  AUTHORITIES.--Story, _Commentaries on the Law of Agency_ (Boston,
+  1882); Boyd and Pearson, _The Factors Acts 1823 to 1877_ (London,
+  1884); Blackwell, _The Law relating to Factors_ (London, 1897).
+       (L. F. S.)
+
+
+
+
+FACTORY ACTS, the name given generally to a long series of acts
+constituting one of the most important chapters in the history of
+English labour legislation (see LABOUR LEGISLATION); the term "factory"
+itself being short for manufactory, a building or collection of
+buildings in which men or women are employed in industry.
+
+
+
+
+FACULA (diminutive of _fax_, Lat. for "torch"), in astronomy, a minute
+shining spot on the sun's disk, markedly brighter than the photosphere
+in general, usually appearing in groups. Faculae are most frequent in
+the neighbourhood of spots. (See SUN.)
+
+
+
+
+FACULTY (through the French, from the Lat. _facultas_, ability to do
+anything, from _facilis_, easy, _facere_, to do; another form of the
+word in Lat. _facilitas_, facility, ease, keeps the original meaning),
+power or capacity of mind or body for particular kinds of activity,
+feeling, &c. In the early history of psychology the term was applied to
+various mental processes considered as causes or conditions of the
+mind--a treatment of "class concepts of mental phenomena as if they were
+real forces producing these phenomena" (G.F. Stout, _Analytic
+Psychology_, vol. i. p. 17). In medieval Latin _facultas_ was used to
+translate [Greek: dunamis] in the Aristotelian application of the word
+to a branch of learning or knowledge, and thus it is particularly
+applied to the various departments of knowledge as taught in a
+university and to the body of teachers of the particular art or science
+taught. The principal "faculties" in the medieval universities were
+theology, canon and civil law, medicine and arts (see UNIVERSITIES). A
+further extension of this use is to the body of members of any
+particular profession.
+
+In law, "faculty" is a dispensation or licence to do that which is not
+permitted by the common law. The word in this sense is used only in
+ecclesiastical law. A faculty may be granted to be ordained deacon under
+twenty-three years of age; to hold two livings at once (usually called a
+licence or dispensation, but granted under the seal of the office of
+faculties; see BENEFICE); to be married at any place or time (usually
+called a special licence; see MARRIAGE; LICENCE); to act as a notary
+public (q.v.). Any alteration in a church, such as an addition or
+diminution in the fabric or the utensils or ornaments of the church,
+cannot strictly be made without the legal sanction of the ordinary,
+which can only be expressed by the issue of a faculty. So a faculty
+would be required for a vault, for the removal of a body, for the
+purpose of erecting monuments, for alterations in a parsonage house, for
+brick graves, for the apportionment of a seat, &c. Cathedrals, however,
+are exempt from the necessity for a faculty before making alterations in
+the fabric, utensils or ornaments.
+
+The court of faculties is the court of the archbishop for granting
+faculties. It is a court in which there is no litigation or holding of
+pleas. Its chief officer is called the master of faculties, and he is
+one and the same with the judge of the court of arches. Attached to the
+court of faculties are a registrar and deputy registrars, a chief clerk
+and record-keeper, and a seal keeper. In Scotland the society of
+advocates of the court of session, and local bodies of legal
+practitioners, are described as faculties.
+
+
+
+
+FAED, THOMAS (1826-1900), British painter, born in Kirkcudbrightshire,
+was the brother of John Faed, R.S.A., and received his art education in
+the school of design, Edinburgh. He was elected an associate of the
+Royal Scottish Academy in 1849, came to London three years later, was
+elected an associate of the Royal Academy in 1861, and academician in
+1864, and retired in 1893. He had much success as a painter of domestic
+genre, and had considerable executive capacity. Three of his pictures,
+"The Silken Gown," "Faults on Both Sides," and "The Highland Mother,"
+are in the National Gallery of British Art.
+
+  See William D. McKay, _The Scottish School of Painting_ (1906).
+
+
+
+
+FAENZA (anc. _Faventia_), a city and episcopal see of Emilia, Italy, in
+the province of Ravenna, from which it is 31 m. S.W. by rail, 110 ft.
+above sea-level. It is 31 m. S.E. of Bologna by rail, on the line from
+Bologna to Rimini, and it is the junction of a line to Florence through
+the Apennines. Pop. (1901) 21,809 (town), 39,757 (commune). The town is
+surrounded by walls which date from 1456. The cathedral of S. Costanzo
+stands in the spacious Piazza Vittorio Emanuele in the centre of the
+town. It was begun in 1474 by Giuliano da Maiano; the facade is,
+however, incomplete. In the interior is the beautiful early Renaissance
+tomb of S. Savinus with reliefs showing scenes from his life, of fine
+and fresh execution, by Benedetto da Maiano; and later tombs by P.
+Bariloto, a local sculptor. Opposite the cathedral is a fountain with
+bronze ornamentation of 1583-1621. The clock tower alongside the
+cathedral belongs to the 17th century. Beyond it is the Palazzo
+Comunale, formerly the residence of the Manfredi, but entirely
+reconstructed. The other churches of the town have been mostly restored,
+but S. Michele (and the Palazzo Manfredi opposite it) are fine early
+Renaissance buildings in brickwork. The municipal art gallery contains
+an altar-piece by Girolamo da Treviso (who also painted a fresco in the
+Chiesa della Commenda), a wooden St Jerome by Donatello, and a bust of
+the young St John by Antonio Rossellino (?), and some fine specimens of
+majolica, a variety of which, faience, takes its name from the town. It
+was largely manufactured in the 15th and 16th centuries, and the
+industry has been revived in modern times with success.
+
+The ancient Faventia, on the Via Aemilia, was obviously from its name
+founded by the Romans and had the citizenship before the Social War. It
+was the scene of the defeat of C. Papirius Carbo and C. Norbanus by Q.
+Caecilius Metellus Pius in 82 B.C. In the census of Vespasian a woman of
+Faventia is said to have given her age as 135. Pliny speaks of the
+whiteness of its linen, and the productiveness of its vines is
+mentioned. It is noticeable that some of the fields in the territory of
+the ancient Faventia still preserve the exact size of the ancient Roman
+_centuria_ of 200 _iugeri_ (E. Bormann in _Corp. Inscr. Lat._ xi.,
+Berlin, 1888, p. 121). When the exarchate was established, the town
+became part of it, and in 748 it was taken by Liutprand. Desiderius gave
+it to the church with the duchy of Ferrara. In the 11th century it began
+to increase in importance. In the wars of the 12th and 13th centuries it
+at first took the imperial side, but in 1240 it stood a long siege from
+Frederick II. and was only taken after eight months. After further
+struggles between Guelphs and Ghibellines, the Manfredi made themselves
+masters of the place early in the 14th century, and remained in power
+until 1501, when the town was taken by Caesar Borgia and the last
+legitimate members of the house of the Manfredi were drowned in the
+Tiber; and, after falling for a few years into the hands of the
+Venetians, it became a part of the states of the church in 1509.
+     (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FAEROE (also written FAROE or THE FAEROES, Danish _Faeroerne_ or
+_Faroerne_, "the sheep islands"), a group of islands in the North Sea
+belonging to Denmark. They are situated between Iceland and the Shetland
+Islands, about 200 m. N.W. of the latter, about the intersection of 7
+deg. E. with 62 deg. N. The total land area of the group is 511 sq. m.,
+and there are twenty-one islands (excluding small rocks and reefs), of
+which seventeen are inhabited. The population in 1880 amounted to
+11,220, and in 1900 to 15,230. The principal islands are Stromo, on
+which is the chief town, Thorshavn, with a population of 1656; Ostero,
+Sudero, Vaago, Sando and Bordo. They consist throughout of rocks and
+hills, separated from each other by narrow valleys or ravines; but,
+though the hills rise abruptly, there are often on their summits, or at
+different stages of their ascent, plains of considerable magnitude.
+Almost everywhere they present to the sea perpendicular cliffs, broken
+into fantastic forms, affording at every turn, to those who sail along
+the coast, the most picturesque and varied scenery. The highest hills
+are Slattaretindur in Ostero, and Kopende and Skellingfjeld in Stromo,
+which rise respectively to 2894, 2592 and 2520 ft. The sea pierces the
+islands in deep fjords, or separates them by narrow inlets through which
+tidal currents set with great violence, at speeds up to seven or eight
+knots an hour; and, as communications are maintained almost wholly by
+boat, the natives have need of expert watermanship. There are several
+lakes in which trout are abundant, and char also occur; the largest is
+Sorvaag Lake in Vaago, which is close to the sea, and discharges into it
+by a sheer fall of about 160 ft. Trees are scarce, and there is evidence
+that they formerly flourished where they cannot do so now.
+
+  The fundamental formation is a series of great sheets of columnar
+  basalt, 70 to 100 ft. thick, in which are intercalated thin beds of
+  tuff. Upon the basalt rests the so-called Coal formation, 35 to 50 ft.
+  thick; the lower part of this is mainly fireclay and sandstone, the
+  upper part is weathered clay with thin layers of brown coal and shale.
+  The coal is found in Sudero and in some of the other islands in
+  sufficient quantity to make it a matter of exploitation. Above these
+  beds there are layers of dolerite, 15 to 20 ft. thick, with nodular
+  segregations and abundant cavities which are often lined with
+  zeolites. As the rocks lie in a horizontal position, on most of the
+  islands of the group only the basalts or dolerite are visible. The
+  crater from which the volcanic rocks were outpoured probably lies off
+  the Faeroe Bank some distance to the south-west of Sudero. The basalts
+  are submarine flows which formed the basis of the land upon which
+  grew the vegetation which gave rise to the coals; the effusion of
+  dolerite which covered up the Coal formation was subaerial. The
+  existing land features, with the fjords, are due to ice erosion in the
+  glacial period.[1]
+
+The climate is oceanic; fogs are common, violent storms are frequent at
+all seasons. July and August are the only true summer months, but the
+winters are not very severe. It seldom freezes for more than one month,
+and the harbours are rarely ice-bound. The methods of agriculture are
+extremely primitive and less than 3% of the total area is under
+cultivation. As the plough is ill-suited to the rugged surface of the
+land, the ground is usually turned up with the spade, care being taken
+not to destroy the roots of the grass, as hay is the principal crop.
+Horses and cows are few, and the cows give little milk, in consequence
+of the coarse hay upon which they are fed. The number of sheep, however,
+justifies the name of the islands, some individuals having flocks of
+from three to five hundred, and the total number in the islands
+considerably exceeds ten thousand. The northern hare (_Lepus alpinus_)
+is pretty abundant in Stromo and Ostero, having been introduced into the
+islands about 1840-1850. The catching of the numerous sea-birds which
+build their nests upon the face of the cliffs forms an important source
+of subsistence to the inhabitants. Sometimes the fowler is let down from
+the top of the cliff; at other times he climbs the rocks, or, where
+possible, is pushed upwards by poles made for the purpose. The birds and
+the contents of the nests are taken in nets mounted on poles; shooting
+is not practised, lest it should permanently scare the birds away.
+Fowling has somewhat decreased in modern times, as the fisheries have
+risen in importance. The puffin is most commonly taken for its feathers.
+The cod fishery is especially important, dried fish being exported in
+large quantity, and the swim-bladders made into gelatine, and also used
+and exported for food. The whaling industry came into importance towards
+the close of the 19th century, and stations for the extraction of the
+oil and whalebone have been established at several points, under careful
+regulations designed to mitigate the pollution of water, the danger to
+live-stock from eating the blubber, &c. The finner whale is the species
+most commonly taken.
+
+The trade of the Faeroe Islands was for some time a monopoly in the
+hands of a mercantile house at Copenhagen, and this monopoly was
+afterwards assumed by the Danish government, but by the law of the 21st
+of March 1855 all restrictions were removed. The produce of the whaling
+and fishing industries, woollen goods, lamb skins and feathers, are the
+chief exports, while in Thorshavn the preserving of fish and the
+manufacture of carpets are carried on to some extent. Thorshavn is
+situated on the S.E. side of Stromo, upon a narrow tongue of land,
+having creeks on each side, where ships may be safely moored. It is the
+seat of the chief government and ecclesiastical officials, and has a
+government house and a hospital. The houses are generally built of wood
+and roofed with birch bark covered with turf. The character of the
+people is marked by simplicity of manners, kindness and hospitality.
+They are healthy, and the population increases steadily. The Faeroes
+form an _amt_ (county) of Denmark. They have also a local parliament
+(_lagthing_), consisting of the _amtmann_ and nineteen other members.
+Among other duties, this body elects a representative to the upper house
+of parliament (_landsthing_) in Denmark; the people choose by vote a
+representative in the lower house (_folkething_). The islands are
+included in the Danish bishopric of Zealand.
+
+_History._--The early history of the Faeroes is not clear. It appears
+that about the beginning of the 9th century Grim Kamban, a Norwegian
+emigrant who had left his country to escape the tyranny of Harold
+Haarfager, settled in the islands. It is said that a small colony of
+Irish and Scottish monks were found in Sudero and dispersed by him. The
+Faeroes then already bore their name of Sheep Islands, as these animals
+had been found to flourish here exceedingly. Early in the 11th century
+Sigmund or Sigismund Bresterson, whose family had flourished in the
+southern islands but had been almost exterminated by invaders from the
+northern, was sent from Norway, whither he had escaped, to take
+possession of the islands for Olaf Trygvason, king of Norway. He
+introduced Christianity, and, though he was subsequently murdered,
+Norwegian supremacy was upheld, and continued till 1386, when the
+islands were transferred to Denmark. English adventurers gave great
+trouble to the inhabitants in the 16th century, and the name of Magnus
+Heineson, a native of Stromo, who was sent by Frederick II. to clear the
+seas, is still celebrated in many songs and stories. There was formerly
+a bishopric at Kirkebo, S. of Thorshavn, where remains of the cathedral
+may be seen; but it was abolished at the introduction of Protestantism
+by Christian III. Denmark retained possession of the Faeroes at the
+peace of Kiel in 1815. The native literature of the islands consists of
+the _Faereyinga Saga_, dealing with the period of Sigmund Bresterson,
+and a number of popular songs and legends of early origin.
+
+  BIBLIOGRAPHY.--Lucas Jacobson Debes, _Feroa Reserata_ (Copenhagen,
+  1673; Eng. transl. London, 1675); Torfaeus, _De rebus gestis
+  Faereyensium_ (Copenhagen, 1695); I. Landt, _Beskrivelse over
+  Faroerne_ (1800), and _Descriptions of the Feroe Islands_ (London,
+  1810); A.J. Symington, _Pen and Pencil Sketches of Faroe and Iceland_
+  (1862); J. Russel-Jeaffreson, _The Faroe Islands_ (1901); J. Falk
+  Ronne, _Beskrivelse over Faroerne_ (Copenhagen, 1902); C.H. Ostenfeld,
+  E. Warming and others, _Botany of the Faeroes_ (Copenhagen,
+  1901-1903); Annandale, _The Faroes and Iceland_ (Oxford, 1905). The
+  _Faereyinga Saga_ was translated by F. York Powell (London, 1896); for
+  folk-songs and legends see S. Kraeth, _Die faroischen Lieder von
+  Sigurd_ (Paderborn, 1877); V.U. Hammershaimb, _Faeroisk Anthologi_
+  (Copenhagen, 1886-1891).
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] See Hans von Post, "Om Faroarnes uppkomst," _Geologiska
+    Foreningens i Stockholm Forhandlingar_, vol. xxiv. (1902).
+
+
+
+
+FAESULAE (mod. _Fiesole_, q.v.), an ancient city of Etruria, on the
+height 3 m. to the N.E. of Florentia, 970 ft. above sea-level. Remains
+of its walls are preserved on all sides, especially on the N.E., in one
+place to a height of 12 to 14 courses. The blocks are often not quite
+rectangular, and the courses sometimes change; but the general tendency
+is horizontal and the walls are not of remote antiquity, the
+irregularities in them being rather due to the hardness of the material
+employed, the rock of the hill itself. The courses vary in height from 1
+to 3 ft., and some blocks are as long as 12-1/2 ft. In this portion of
+the wall are two drains, below one of which is a _phallus_. The site of
+an ancient gate, and the road below it, can be traced; a little farther
+E. was an archway, conjectured by Dennis to be a gate of the Roman
+period, destroyed in 1848. The whole circuit of the walls extended for
+about 1-2/3 m. The Franciscan monastery (1130 ft.) occupies the site of
+the acropolis, once encircled by a triple wall, of which no traces are
+now visible. Here was also the _Capitolium_ of Roman times, as an
+inscription found here in 1879 records (_Corpus Inscr. Lat._ xi.,
+Berlin, 1888, No. 1545). The Roman theatre, below the cathedral to the
+N.E., has 19 tiers of stone seats and is 37 yds. in diameter. Above it
+is an embanking wall of irregular masonry, and below it some remains of
+Roman baths, including five parallel vaults of concrete. Just outside
+the town on the E. a reservoir, roofed by the convergence of its sides,
+which were of large regular blocks, was discovered in 1832, but filled
+in again. Over 1000 silver denarii, all coined before 63 B.C., were
+found at Faesulae in 1829. A small museum contains the objects found in
+the excavations of the theatre.
+
+Though Faesulae was an Etruscan city, we have no record of it in history
+until 215 B.C., when the Gauls passed near it in their march on Rome.
+Twelve years later Hannibal seems to have taken this route in his march
+south after the victory of the Trebia. It appears to have suffered at
+the hands of Rome in the Social War, and Sulla expelled some of the
+inhabitants from their lands to make room for his veterans, but some of
+the latter were soon driven out in their turn by the former occupiers.
+Both the veterans, who soon wasted what they had acquired, and the
+dispossessed cultivators joined the partisans of Catiline, and Manlius,
+one of his supporters, made his headquarters at Faesulae. Under the
+empire we hear practically nothing of it; in A.D. 405 Radagaisus was
+crushed in the neighbouring hills, and Belisarius besieged and took it
+in A.D. 539.
+
+  See L.A. Milani, _Rendiconti dei Lincei_, ser. vi. vol. ix. (1900),
+  289 seq., on the discovery of an archaic altar of the _Locus sacer_ of
+  Florence, belonging to Ancharia (Angerona), the goddess of Fiesole.
+       (T. As.)
+
+
+
+
+FAFNIR, in Scandinavian mythology, the son of the giant Hreidmar. He was
+the guardian of the hoard of the Nibelungs and was killed by Sigurd.
+
+
+
+
+FAGGING (from "fag," meaning "weary"; of uncertain etymology), in
+English public schools, a system under which, generally with the full
+approval of the authorities, a junior boy performs certain duties for a
+senior. In detail this custom varies slightly in the different schools,
+but its purpose--the maintenance of discipline among the boys
+themselves--is the same. Dr Arnold of Rugby defined fagging as "the
+power given by the supreme authorities of the school to the Sixth Form,
+to be exercised by them over the lower boys, for the sake of securing a
+regular government among the boys themselves, and avoiding the evils of
+anarchy; in other words, of the lawless tyranny of brute force." Fagging
+was a fully established system at Eton and Winchester in the 16th
+century, and is probably a good deal older. That the advantages of thus
+granting the boys a kind of autonomy have stood the test of time is
+obvious from the fact that in almost all the great public schools
+founded during the 19th century, fagging has been deliberately adopted
+by the authorities. The right to fag carries with it certain
+well-defined duties. The fag-master is the protector of his fags, and
+responsible for their happiness and good conduct. In cases of bullying
+or injustice their appeal is to him, not to the form or house master,
+and, except in the gravest cases, all such cases are dealt with by the
+fag-master on his own responsibility and without report to the master.
+Until recent years a fag's duties included such humble tasks as blacking
+boots, brushing clothes, and cooking breakfasts, and there was no limit
+as to hours; almost all the fag's spare time being so monopolized. This
+is now changed. Fagging is now restricted to such light tasks as running
+errands, bringing tea to the "master's" study, and fagging at cricket or
+football. At Eton there is no cricket fagging, and at most schools it is
+made lighter by all the fags taking their turn in regular order for one
+hour, so that each boy has to "fag" but once in so many weeks. At Rugby
+there is "study-fagging"--two fags being assigned to each Sixth Form boy
+and made responsible for the sweeping out and tidying up of his study
+alternately each week,--and "night-fagging"--running errands for the
+Sixth between 8.30 and 9.30 every evening,--and each boy can choose
+whether he will be a study-fag or night-fag. The right to fag is usually
+restricted to the Sixth Form, but at Eton the privilege is also granted
+the Fifth, and at Marlborough and elsewhere the Eleven have a right to
+fag at cricket, whether in the Sixth or not.
+
+
+
+
+FAGGOT, a bundle of sticks used for firewood. The word is adapted from
+the Fr. _fagot_, and appears in Italian as _fagotto_, the name given to
+the bassoon (q.v.). "Faggot" is frequently used with reference to the
+burning of heretics, and recanted heretics wore an embroidered faggot on
+the arm as a symbol of the punishment they had escaped. In the 18th
+century the word is used of a "dummy" soldier, appearing on the rolls of
+a regiment. It is this use, coupled with the idea of a bundle of sticks
+as being capable of subdivision, that appears in the expression
+"faggot-vote," a vote artificially created by the minute splitting up of
+property so as to give a bare qualification for the franchise.
+
+
+
+
+FAGNIEZ, GUSTAVE CHARLES (1842-   ), French historian and economist, was
+born in Paris on the 6th of October 1842. Trained at the Ecole des
+Chartes and the Ecole des Hautes Etudes, he made his first appearance in
+the world of scholarship as the author of an excellent book called
+_Etudes sur l'industrie et la classe industrielle a Paris au XIII^e et au
+XIV^e siecle_ (1877). This work, composed almost entirely from documents,
+many unpublished, opened a new field for historical study. Twenty years
+later he supplemented this book by an interesting collection of
+_Documents relatifs a l'histoire de l'industrie et du commerce en France_
+(2 vols., 1898-1900), and in 1897 he published _L'Economie sociale de la
+France sous Henri IV_, a volume containing the results of very minute
+research. He did not, however, confine himself to economic history. His
+_Le Pere Joseph et Richelieu_ (1894), though somewhat frigid and severe,
+is based on a mass of unpublished information, and shows remarkable
+psychologic grasp. In 1878 his _Journal parisien de Jean de Maupoint,
+prieur de Ste Catherine-de-la-Couture_ was published in vol. iv. of the
+_Memoires de la societe de l'histoire de Paris et de l'Ile de France_. He
+wrote numerous articles in the _Revue historique_ (of which he was
+co-director with Gabriel Monod for some years) and in other learned
+reviews, such as the _Revue des questions historiques_ and the _Journal
+des savants_. In 1901 he was elected member of the Academie des Sciences
+Morales et Politiques.
+
+
+
+
+FAGUET, EMILE (1847-   ), French critic and man of letters, was born at
+La Roche sur Yon on the 17th of December 1847. He was educated at the
+normal school in Paris, and after teaching for some time in La Rochelle
+and Bordeaux he came to Paris. After acting as assistant professor of
+poetry in the university he became professor in 1897. He was elected to
+the academy in 1900, and received the ribbon of the Legion of Honour in
+the next year. He acted as dramatic critic to the _Soleil_; from 1892 he
+was literary critic to the _Revue bleue_; and in 1896 took the place of
+M. Jules Lemaitre on the _Journal des debats_. Among his works are
+monographs on _Flaubert_ (1899), _Andre Chenier_ (1902), _Zola_ (1903);
+an admirably concise _Histoire de la litterature francaise depuis le
+XVII^e siecle jusqu'a nos jours_; series of literary studies on the
+17th, 18th and 19th centuries; _Questions politiques_ (1899); _Propos
+litteraires_ (3 series, 1902-1905); _Le Liberalisme_ (1902); and
+_L'Anticlericalisme_ (1906).
+
+  See A. Seche, _Emile Faguet_ (1904).
+
+
+
+
+FA-HIEN (fl. A.D. 399-414), Chinese Buddhist monk, pilgrim-traveller,
+and writer, author of one of the earliest and most valuable Chinese
+accounts of India. He started from Changgan or Si-gan-fu, then the
+capital of the Tsin empire, and passing the Great Wall, crossed the
+"River of Sand" or Gobi Desert beyond, that home of "evil demons and hot
+winds," which he vividly describes,--where the only way-marks were the
+bones of the dead, where no bird appeared in the air above, no animal on
+the ground below. Arriving at Khotan, the traveller witnessed a great
+Buddhist festival; here, as in Yarkand, Afghanistan and other parts
+thoroughly Islamized before the close of the middle ages, Fa-Hien shows
+us Buddhism still prevailing. India was reached by a perilous descent of
+"ten thousand cubits" from the "wall-like hills" of the Hindu Kush into
+the Indus valley (about A.D. 402); and the pilgrim passed the next ten
+years in the "central" Buddhist realm,--making journeys to Peshawur and
+Afghanistan (especially the Kabul region) on one side, and to the Ganges
+valley on another. His especial concern was the exploration of the
+scenes of Buddha's life, the copying of Buddhist texts, and converse
+with the Buddhist monks and sages whom the Brahmin reaction had not yet
+driven out. Thus we find him at Buddha's birthplace on the Kohana,
+north-west of Benares; in Patna and on the Vulture Peak near Patna; at
+the Jetvana monastery in Oudh; as well as at Muttra on the Jumna, at
+Kanauj, and at Tamluk near the mouth of the Hugli. But now the
+narrative, which in its earlier portions was primarily historical and
+geographical, becomes mystical and theological; miracle-stories and
+meditations upon Buddhist moralities and sacred memories almost entirely
+replace matters of fact. From the Ganges delta Fa-Hien sailed with a
+merchant ship, in fourteen days, to Ceylon, where he transcribed all the
+sacred books, as yet unknown in China, which he could find; witnessed
+the festival of the exhibition of Buddha's tooth; and remarked the trade
+of Arab merchants to the island, two centuries before Mahomet. He
+returned by sea to the mouth of the Yangtse-Kiang, changing vessels at
+Java, and narrowly escaping shipwreck or the fate of Jonah.
+
+Fa-Hien's work is valuable evidence to the strength, and in many places
+to the dominance, of Buddhism in central Asia and in India at the time
+of the collapse of the Roman empire in western Europe. His tone
+throughout is that of the devout, learned, sensible, rarely hysterical
+pilgrim-traveller. His record is careful and accurate, and most of his
+positions can be identified; his devotion is so strong that it leads him
+to depreciate China as a "border-land," India the home of Buddha being
+the true "middle kingdom" of his creed.
+
+  See James Legge, _Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, being an account by
+  the Chinese Monk Fa-hien of his travels in India and Ceylon_;
+  translated and edited, with map, &c. (Oxford, 1886); S. Beal, _Travels
+  of Fah-Hian and Sung-Yun, Buddhist pilgrims from China to India, 400
+  and 518 A.D._, translated, with map, &c. (1869); C.R. Beazley, _Dawn
+  of Modern Geography_, vol. i. (1897), pp. 478-485.
+
+
+
+
+FAHLCRANTZ, CHRISTIAN ERIK (1790-1866), Swedish author, was born at
+Stora Tuna in Sweden on the 30th of August 1790. His brothers, Carl
+Johan (1774-1861), the landscape-painter, and Axel Magnus (1780-1854),
+the sculptor, became hardly less distinguished than himself. In 1804 he
+entered the university of Upsala; in 1821 he became tutor in Arabic, and
+in 1825 professor of Oriental languages. In 1828 he entered the church,
+but earlier than this, in 1825, he published his _Noachs Ark_, a
+successful satire on the literary and social life of his time, followed
+in 1826 by a second part. In 1835 Fahlcrantz brought out the first part
+of his epic of _Ansgarius_, which was completed in 1846, in 14 cantos.
+In 1842 he was made a member of the Swedish Academy, and in 1849 he was
+made bishop of Vesteras, his next literary work being an archaeological
+study on the beautiful ancient cathedral of his diocese. In the course
+of the years 1858-1861 appeared the five volumes of his _Rom forr och
+nu_ (_Rome as it was and is_), a theological polemic, mainly directed
+against the Jesuits. He died on the 6th of August 1866. His complete
+works (7 vols., Orebro, 1863-1866) were issued mainly under his own
+superintendence.
+
+
+
+
+FAHRENHEIT, GABRIEL DANIEL (1686-1736), German physicist, was born at
+Danzig on the 14th of May 1686. For the most part he lived in England
+and Holland, devoting himself to the study of physics and making a
+living, apparently, by the manufacture of meteorological instruments. He
+was the author of important improvements in the construction of
+thermometers, and he introduced the thermometric scale known by his name
+and still extensively used in Great Britain and the United States (see
+THERMOMETRY). He also invented an improved form of hygrometer, a
+description of which, together with accounts of various observations and
+experiments made by him, was published in the _Phil. Trans._ for 1724.
+He died in Holland on the 16th of September 1736.
+
+
+
+
+FAIDHERBE, LOUIS LEON CESAR (1818-1889), French general and colonial
+administrator, was born on the 3rd of June 1818, at Lille, received his
+military education at the Ecole Polytechnique and at Metz, and entered
+the engineers in 1840. From 1844 to 1847 he served in Algeria, then two
+years in the West Indies, and again in Algeria, taking part in many
+expeditions against the Arabs. In 1852 he was transferred to Senegal as
+sub-director of engineers, and in 1854 was promoted _chef de bataillon_
+and appointed governor of the colony. He held this post with one brief
+interval until July 1865. The work he accomplished in West Africa
+constitutes his most enduring monument. At that time France possessed in
+Senegal little else than the town of St Louis and a strip of coast.
+Explorers had, however, made known the riches and possibilities of the
+Niger regions, and Faidherbe formed the design of adding those countries
+to the French dominions. He even dreamed of creating a French African
+empire stretching from Senegal to the Red Sea. To accomplish even the
+first part of his design he had very inadequate resources, especially in
+view of the aggressive action of Omar Al-Hadji, the Moslem ruler of the
+countries of the middle Niger. By boldly advancing the French outposts
+on the upper Senegal Faidherbe stemmed the Moslem advance, and by an
+advantageous treaty with Omar in 1860 brought the French possessions
+into touch with the Niger. He also brought into subjection the country
+lying between the Senegal and Gambia. When he resigned his post French
+rule had been firmly established over a very considerable and fertile
+area and the foundation laid upon which his successors built up the
+predominant position occupied now by France in West Africa. In 1863 he
+became general of brigade. From 1867 to the early part of 1870 he
+commanded the subdivision of Bona in Algeria, and was commanding the
+Constantine division at the commencement of the Franco-German War.
+Promoted general of division in November 1870, he was on the 3rd of
+December appointed by the Government of National Defence to be
+commander-in-chief of the army of the North. In this post he showed
+himself to be possessed of the highest military talents, and the
+struggle between the I. German army and that commanded by Faidherbe, in
+which were included the hard-fought battles of Pont Noyelles, Bapaume
+and St Quentin, was perhaps the most honourable to the French army in
+the whole of the People's War. Even with the inadequate force of which
+he disposed he was able to maintain a steady resistance up to the end of
+the war. Elected to the National Assembly for the department of the
+Nord, he resigned his seat in consequence of its reactionary
+proceedings. For his services he was decorated with the grand cross, and
+made chancellor of the order of the Legion of Honour. In 1872 he went on
+a scientific mission to Upper Egypt, where he studied the monuments and
+inscriptions. An enthusiastic geographer, philologist and archaeologist,
+he wrote numerous works, among which may be mentioned _Collection des
+inscriptions numidiques_ (1870), _Epigraphie phenicienne_ (1873), _Essai
+sur la langue poul_ (1875), and _Le Zenaga des tribes senegalaises_
+(1877), the last a study of the Berber language. He also wrote on the
+geography and history of Senegal and the Sahara, and _La Campagne de
+l'armee du Nord_ (1872). He was elected a senator in 1879, and, in spite
+of failing health, continued to the last a close student of his
+favourite subjects. He died on the 29th of September 1889, and received
+a public funeral. Statues and monuments to his memory were erected at
+Lille, Bapaume, St Quentin and St Louis, Senegal.
+
+
+
+
+FAIENCE, properly the French term for the _porzellana di Faenza_, a fine
+kind of glazed and painted earthenware made at Faenza in Italy, hence a
+term applied generally to all kinds of pottery other than unglazed
+pottery or porcelain. It is often particularly applied to the
+translucent earthenware made in Persia (see CERAMICS).
+
+
+
+
+FAILLY, PIERRE LOUIS CHARLES DE (1810-1892), French general, was born at
+Rozoy-sur-Serre (Aisne) on the 21st of January 1810, and entered the
+army from St Cyr in 1828. In 1851 he had risen to the rank of colonel,
+and Napoleon III., with whom he was a favourite, made him general of
+brigade in 1854 and general of division in 1855, after which for a time
+De Failly was his aide-de-camp. In the war of 1859 De Failly commanded a
+division, and in 1867 he defeated Garibaldi at Mentana, this action
+being the first in which the chassepot was used. In 1870 De Failly
+commanded the V. corps. His inactivity at Bitsch on the 6th of August
+while the I. corps on his right and the II. corps on his left were
+crushed at Worth and Spicheren respectively, gave rise to the greatest
+indignation in France, and his military career ended, after the V. corps
+had been severely handled at Beaumont on the 30th of August, with the
+catastrophe of Sedan. The rest of his life was spent in retirement. De
+Failly wrote _Campaigne de 1870, Operations et marche du 5^me corps
+jusqu'au 30 aout_ (Brussels, 1871).
+
+
+
+
+FAIN, AGATHON JEAN FRANCOIS (1778-1837), French historian, was born in
+Paris on the 11th of January 1778. Having gained admittance to the
+offices of the Directory, he became head of a department. Under the
+Consulate he entered the office of the secretary of state, in the
+department of the archives. In 1806 he was appointed secretary and
+archivist to the _cabinet particulier_ of the emperor, whom he attended
+on his campaigns and journeys. He was created a baron of the empire in
+1809, and, on the fall of Napoleon, was first secretary of the cabinet
+and confidential secretary. Compelled by the second Restoration to
+retire into private life, he devoted his leisure to writing the history
+of his times, an occupation for which his previous employments well
+fitted him. He published successively _Manuscrit de 1814, contenant
+l'histoire des six derniers mois du regne de Napoleon_ (1823; new
+edition with illustrations, 1906); _Manuscrit de 1813, contenant le
+precis des evenements de cette annee pour servir a l'histoire de
+l'empereur Napoleon_ (1824); _Manuscrit de 1812_ (1827); and _Manuscrit
+de l'an iii. (1794-1795), contenant les premieres transactions de
+l'Europe avec la republique francaise et le tableau des derniers
+evenements du regime conventionnel_ (1828), all of which are remarkable
+for accuracy and wide range of knowledge, and are a very valuable source
+for the history of Napoleon I. Of still greater importance for the
+history of Napoleon are Fain's _Memoires_, which were published
+posthumously in 1908; they relate more particularly to the last five
+years of the empire, and give a detailed picture of the emperor at work
+on his correspondence among his confidential secretaries. Immediately
+after the overthrow of Charles X., King Louis Philippe appointed Fain
+first secretary of his cabinet (August 1830). Fain was a member of the
+council of state and deputy from Montargis from 1834 until his death,
+which occurred in Paris on the 16th of September 1837.
+
+
+
+
+FAIR, a commercial institution, defined as a "greater species of market
+recurring at more distant intervals": both "fair" and "market" (q.v.)
+have been distinguished by Lord Coke from "mart," which he considers as
+a greater species of fair; and all three may be defined as periodic
+gatherings of buyers and sellers in an appointed place, subject to
+special regulation by law or custom. Thus in England from a strictly
+legal point of view there can be no fair or market without a franchise;
+and a franchise of fair or market can only be exercised by right of a
+grant from the crown, or by the authority of parliament or by
+prescription presupposing a grant. In the earliest times periodical
+trading in special localities was necessitated by the difficulties of
+communication and the dangers of travel. Public gatherings, whether
+religious, military or judicial, which brought together widely scattered
+populations, were utilized as opportunities for commerce. At the
+festivals of Delos and at the Olympic games trade, it is said, found
+important outlets, while in Etruria the annual general assembly at the
+temple of Voltumna served at the same time as a fair and was regularly
+attended by Roman traders. Instances of a similar nature might be
+multiplied; but it was above all with religious festivals which recurred
+with regularity and convoked large numbers of persons that fairs, as
+distinguished from markets, are most intimately associated.
+
+The most commonly accepted derivation of the word "fair" is from the
+Latin _feria_, a name which the church borrowed from Roman custom and
+applied to her own festivals. A fair was generally held during the
+period of a saint's feast and in the precincts of his church or abbey,
+but in England this desecration of church or churchyard was first
+forbidden by the Statute of Winton (c. Edward I.). Most of the famous
+fairs of medieval England and Europe, with their tolls or other
+revenues, and, within certain limits of time and place, their monopoly
+of trade, were grants from the sovereign to abbots, bishops and other
+ecclesiastical dignitaries. Their "holy day" associations are preserved
+in the German word for fairs, _Messen_; as also in the _kirmiss_,
+"church mass," of the people of Brittany. So very intimate was the
+connexion between the fair and the feast of the saint that the former
+has very commonly been regarded as an off-shoot or development of the
+latter. But there is every reason to suppose that fairs were already
+existing national institutions, long before the church turned or was
+privileged to turn them to her own profit.
+
+The first charter of the great fair of Stourbridge, near Cambridge, was
+granted by King John for the maintenance of a leper hospital; but the
+origin of the fair itself is ascribed to Carausius, the rebel emperor of
+Britain, A.D. 207. At all events, it may be seen from the _data_ given
+in Herbert Spencer's _Descriptive Sociology_ that the country had then
+arrived at the stage of development where fairs might have been
+recognized as a necessity. The Romans also appear to have elaborated a
+market-law similar to that in force throughout medieval Europe--though
+it must be observed that the Roman _nundinae_, which some have regarded
+as fairs, were weekly markets. It has also been supposed that the
+ancient fairs of Lyons were a special privilege granted by the Roman
+conquerors; and Sidonius Apollinaris, A.D. 427, alludes to the fairs of
+the district afterwards known as the county of Champagne, as if they
+were then familiarly known institutions. Fairs, in a word, would not
+only have arisen naturally, wherever the means of communication between
+individual centres of production and consumption were felt to be
+inadequate to the demand for an interchange of commodities; but, from
+their very nature, they might be expected to show some essential
+resemblances, even in points of legislation, and where no international
+transmission of custom could have been possible. Thus, the fair courts
+of pre-Spanish Mexico corresponded very closely to those of the
+Beaucaire fair. They resembled the English courts of piepowder. The
+Spaniards, when first they saw the Mexican fairs, were reminded of the
+like institutions in Salamanca and Granada. The great fair or market at
+the city of Mexico is said to have been attended by about 40,000 or
+50,000 persons, and is thus described by Prescott:--
+
+  "Officers patrolled the square, whose business it was to keep the
+  peace, to collect the dues imposed on the various kinds of
+  merchandise, to see that no false measures or fraud of any kind were
+  used, and to bring offenders at once to justice. A court of twelve
+  judges sat in one part of the _tianguez_ clothed with those ample and
+  summary powers which, in despotic countries, are often delegated even
+  to petty tribunals. The extreme severity with which they exercised
+  those powers, in more than one instance, proves that they were not a
+  dead letter."
+
+But notwithstanding the great antiquity of fairs, their charters are
+comparatively modern--the oldest known being that of St Denys, Paris,
+which Dagobert, king of the Franks, granted (A.D. 642) to the monks of
+the place "for the glory of God, and the honour of St Denys at his
+festival."
+
+In England it was only after the Norman conquest that fairs became of
+capital importance. Records exist of 2800 grants of franchise markets
+and fairs between the years 1199 and 1483. More than half of these were
+made during the reigns of John and Henry III., when the power of the
+church was in ascendancy. The first recorded grant, however, appears to
+be that of William the Conqueror to the bishop of Winchester, for leave
+to hold an annual "free fair" at St Giles's hill. The monk who had been
+the king's jester received his charter of Bartholomew fair, Smithfield,
+in the year 1133. And in 1248 Henry III. granted a like privilege to the
+abbot of Westminster, in honour of the "translation" of Edward the
+Confessor. Sometimes fairs were granted to towns as a means for enabling
+them to recover from the effects of war and other disasters. Thus,
+Edward III. granted a "free fair" to the town of Burnley in Rutland,
+just as, in subsequent times, Charles VII. favoured Bordeaux after the
+English wars, and Louis XIV. gave fair charters to the towns of Dieppe
+and Toulon. The importance attached to these old fairs may be understood
+from the inducements which, in the 14th century, Charles IV. held out to
+traders visiting the great fair of Frankfort-on-Main. The charter
+declared that both during the continuance of the fair, and for eighteen
+days before and after it, merchants would be exempt from imperial
+taxation, from arrest for debt, or civil process of any sort, except
+such as might arise from the transactions of the market itself and
+within its precincts. Philip of Valois's regulations for the fairs of
+Troyes in Champagne might not only be accepted as typical of all
+subsequent fair-legislation of the kingdom, but even of the English and
+German laws on the subject. The fair had its staff of notaries for the
+attestation of bargains, its court of justice, its police officers, its
+sergeants for the execution of the market judges' decrees, and its
+visitors--of whom we may mention the _prud'hommes_,--whose duty it was
+to examine the quality of goods exposed for sale, and to confiscate
+those found unfit for consumption. The confiscation required the consent
+of five or six representatives of the merchant community at the fair.
+The effect of these great "free fairs" of England and the continent on
+the development of society was indeed great. They helped to familiarize
+the western and northern countries with the banking and financial
+systems of the Lombards and Florentines, who resorted to them under the
+protection of the sovereign's "firm peace," and the ghostly terrors of
+the pope. They usually became the seat of foreign agencies. In the names
+of her streets Provins preserved the memory of her 12th-century
+intercourse with the agents and merchants of Germany and the Low
+Countries, and long before that time the Syrian traders at St Denys had
+established their powerful association in Paris. Like the church on the
+religious side, the free fairs on the commercial side evoked and
+cherished the international spirit. And during long ages, when
+commercial "protection" was regarded as indispensable to a nation's
+wealth, and the merchant was compelled to "fight his way through a
+wilderness of taxes," they were the sole and, so far as they went, the
+complete substitute for the free trade of later days.
+
+Their privileges, however, were, from their very nature, destined to
+grow more oppressive and intolerable the more the towns were multiplied
+and the means of communication increased. The people of London were
+compelled to close their shops during the days when the abbot of
+Westminster's fair was open. But a more curious and complete instance of
+such an ecclesiastical monopoly was that of the St Giles's fair, at
+first granted for the customary three days, which were increased by
+Henry III. to sixteen. The bishop of Winchester was, as we have seen,
+the lord of this fair. On the eve of St Giles's feast the magistrates of
+Winchester surrendered the keys of the city gates to the bishop, who
+then appointed his own mayor, bailiff and coroner, to hold office until
+the close of the fair. During the same period, Winchester and
+Southampton also--though it was then a thriving trading town--were
+forbidden to transact their ordinary commercial business, except within
+the bishop's fair, or with his special permission. The bishop's officers
+were posted along the highways, with power to forfeit to his lordship
+all goods bought and sold within 7 m. of the fair--in whose centre stood
+"the pavilion," or bishop's court. It is clear, from the curious record
+of the _Establishment and Expenses of the Household_ of Percy, 5th earl
+of Northumberland, that fairs were the chief centres of country traffic
+even as late as the 16th century. They began to decline rapidly after
+1759, when good roads had been constructed and canal communication
+established between Liverpool and the towns of Yorkshire, Cheshire and
+Lancashire. In the great towns their extinction was hastened in
+consequence of their evil effects on public morals. All the London fairs
+were abolished as public nuisances before 1855--the last year of the
+ever famous fair of St Bartholomew; and the fairs of Paris were swept
+away in the storm of the Revolution.
+
+_English Fairs and Markets._--For the general reasons apparent from the
+preceding sketch, fairs in England, as in France and Germany, have very
+largely given way to markets for specialities. Even the live-stock
+market of the metropolis is being superseded by the dead-meat market, a
+change which has been encouraged by modern legislation on cattle
+disease, the movements of home stock and the importation of foreign
+animals. Agricultural markets are also disappearing before the
+"agencies" and the corn exchanges in the principal towns. Still there
+are some considerable fairs yet remaining. Of the English fairs for live
+stock, those of Weyhill in Hampshire (October 10), St Faith's, near
+Norwich (October 17), as also several held at Devizes, Wiltshire, are
+among the largest in the kingdom. The first named stands next to none
+for its display of sheep. Horncastle, Lincolnshire, is the largest horse
+fair in the kingdom, and is regularly visited by American and
+continental dealers. The other leading horse fairs in England are Howden
+in Yorkshire (well known for its hunters), Woodbridge (on Lady Day) for
+Suffolk horses, Barnet in Hertfordshire, and Lincoln. Exeter December
+fair has a large display of cattle, horses and most kinds of
+commodities. Large numbers of Scotch cattle are also brought to the
+fairs of Carlisle and Ormskirk. Nottingham has a fair for geese. Ipswich
+has a fair for lambs on the 1st of August, and for butter and cheese on
+the 1st of September. Gloucester fair is also famous for the last-named
+commodity. Falkirk fair, or tryst, for cattle and sheep, is one of the
+largest in Scotland; and Ballinasloe, Galway, holds a like position
+among Irish fairs. The Ballinasloe cattle are usually fed for a year in
+Leinster before they are considered fit for the Dublin or Liverpool
+markets.
+
+_French Fairs._--In France fairs and markets are held under the
+authority of the prefects, new fairs and markets being established by
+order of the prefects at the instance of the commune interested. Before
+the Revolution fairs and markets could only be established by _seigneurs
+justiciers_, but only two small markets have survived the law of 1790
+abolishing private ownership of market rights, namely, the _Marche Ste
+Catherine_ and the _Marche des enfants rouges_, both in Paris. Under the
+present system markets and fairs are held in most of the towns and
+villages in France; and at all such gatherings entertainments form an
+important feature. The great fair of Beaucaire instituted in 1168 has
+steadily declined since the opening of railway communication, and now
+ranks with the fairs of ordinary provincial towns. Situated at the
+junction of the Rhone and the Canal du Midi, and less than 40 m. from
+the sea, it at one time attracted merchants from Spain, from Switzerland
+and Germany, and from the Levant and Mediterranean ports, and formed one
+of the greatest temporary centres of commerce on the continent. One
+trade firm alone, it is said, rarely did less than 1,000,000 francs
+worth of business during the fortnight that the fair lasted.
+
+_German Fairs._--In Germany the police authorities are considered the
+market authorities, and to them in most cases is assigned the duty of
+establishing new fairs and markets, subject to magisterial decision. The
+three great fairs of Germany are those of Frankfort-on-Main,
+Frankfort-on-Oder and Leipzig, but, like all the large fairs of Europe,
+they have declined rapidly in importance. Those of Frankfort-on-Main
+begin on Easter Tuesday and on the nearest Monday to September 8
+respectively, and their legal duration is three weeks, though the limit
+is regularly extended. The fairs of the second-named city are
+_Reminiscere_, February or March; _St Margaret_, July; _St Martin_,
+November. Ordinarily they last fifteen days, which is double the legal
+term. The greatest of the German fairs are those of Leipzig, whose
+display of books is famous all over the world. Its three fairs are dated
+January 1, Easter, Michaelmas. The Easter one is the book fair, which is
+attended by all the principal booksellers of Germany, and by many more
+from the adjoining countries. Most German publishers have agents at
+Leipzig. As many as 5000 new publications have been entered in a single
+Leipzig catalogue. As in the other instances given, the Leipzig fairs
+last for three weeks, or nearly thrice their allotted duration. Here no
+days of grace are allowed, and the holder of a bill must demand payment
+when due, and protest, if necessary, on the same day, otherwise he
+cannot proceed against either drawer or endorser.
+
+_Russian Fairs._--In Russia fairs are held by local authorities. Landed
+proprietors may also hold fairs on their estates subject to the sanction
+of the local authorities; but no private tolls may be levied on
+commodities brought to such fairs. In Siberia and the east of Russia,
+where more primitive conditions foster such centres of trade, fairs are
+still of considerable importance. Throughout Russia generally they are
+very numerous. The most important, that of Nijni Novgorod, held annually
+in July and August at the confluence of the rivers Volga and Kama, was
+instituted in the 17th century by the tsar Michael Fedorovitch. In 1881
+it was calculated that trade to the value of 246,000,000 roubles was
+carried on within the limits of the fair. It still continues to be of
+great commercial importance, and is usually attended by upwards of
+100,000 persons from all parts of Asia and eastern Europe. Other fairs
+of consequence are those of Irbit in Perm, Kharkoff (January and
+August), Poltava (August and February), Koreunais in Koursk,
+Ourloupinsknia in the Don Cossack country, Krolevetz in Tchernigoff, and
+a third fair held at Poltava on the feast of the Ascension.
+
+_Indian Fairs._--The largest of these, and perhaps the largest in Asia,
+is that of Hurdwar, on the upper course of the Ganges. The visitors to
+this holy fair number from 200,000 to 300,000; but every twelfth year
+there occurs a special pilgrimage to the sacred river, when the numbers
+may amount to a million or upwards. Those who go solely for the purposes
+of trade are Nepalese, Mongolians, Tibetans, central Asiatics and
+Mahommedan pedlars from the Punjab, Sind and the border states. Persian
+shawls and carpets, Indian silks, Kashmir shawls, cottons (Indian and
+English), preserved fruits, spices, drugs, &c., together with immense
+numbers of cattle, horses, sheep and camels, are brought to this famous
+fair.
+
+_American Fairs._--The word "fair," as now used in the United States,
+appears to have completely lost its Old World meaning. It seems to be
+exclusively applied to industrial exhibitions and to what in England are
+called fancy bazaars. Thus, during the Civil War, large sums were
+collected at the "sanitary fairs," for the benefit of the sick and
+wounded. To the first-named class belong the state and county fairs, as
+they are called. Among the first and best-known of these was the "New
+York World's Fair," opened in 1853 by a company formed in 1851. (See
+EXHIBITION.)
+
+  _Law of Fairs._--As no market or fair can be held in England without a
+  royal charter, or right of prescription, so any person establishing a
+  fair without such sanction is liable to be sued under a writ of _Quo
+  warranto_, by any one to whose property the said market may be
+  injurious. Nor can a fair or market be legally held beyond the time
+  specified in the grant; and by 5 Edward III. c. 5 (1331) a merchant
+  selling goods after the legal expiry of the fair forfeited double
+  their value. To be valid, a sale must take place in "market-overt"
+  (open market); "it will not be binding if it carries with it a
+  presumption of fraudulence." These regulations satisfied, the sale
+  "transfers a complete property in the thing sold to the vendee; so
+  that however injurious or illegal the title of the vendor may be, yet
+  the vendee's is good against all men except the king." (In Scottish
+  law, the claims of the real owner would still remain valid.) However,
+  by 21 Henry VIII. c. 2 (1529) it was enacted that, "if any felon rob
+  or take away money, goods, or chattels, and be indicted and found
+  guilty, or otherwise attainted upon evidence given by the owner or
+  party robbed, or by any other by their procurement, the owner or party
+  robbed shall be restored to his money, goods or chattels," but only
+  those goods were restored which were specified in the indictment, now
+  could the owner recover from a _bona fide_ purchaser in market-overt
+  who had sold the goods before conviction. For obvious reasons the
+  rules of market-overt were made particularly stringent in the case of
+  horses. Thus, by 2 Philip & Mary c. 7 (1555) and 31 Eliz. c. 12 (1589)
+  no sale of a horse was legal which had not satisfied the following
+  conditions;--Public exposure of the animal for at least an hour
+  between sunrise and sunset; identification of the vendor by the market
+  officer, or guarantee for his honesty by "one sufficient and credible
+  person"; entry of these particulars, together with a description of
+  the animal, and a statement of the price paid for it, in the market
+  officer's book. Even if his rights should have been violated in spite
+  of all these precautions, the lawful owner could recover, if he
+  claimed within six months, produced witnesses, and tendered the price
+  paid to the vendor. Tolls were not a "necessary incident" of a
+  fair--i.e. they were illegal unless specially granted in the patent,
+  or recognized by custom. As a rule, they were paid only by the vendee,
+  and to the market clerk, whose record of the payment was an
+  attestation to the genuineness of the purchase. By 2 & 3 Philip & Mary
+  c. 7 every lord of a fair entitled to exact tolls was bound to appoint
+  a clerk to collect and enter them. It was also this functionary's
+  business to test measures and weights. Tolls, again, are sometimes
+  held to include "stallage" and "picage," which mean respectively the
+  price for permission to erect stalls and to dig holes for posts in the
+  market grounds. But toll proper belongs to the lord of the market,
+  whereas the other two are usually regarded as the property of the lord
+  of the soil. The law also provided that stallage might be levied on
+  any house situated in the vicinity of a market, and kept open for
+  business during the legal term of the said market. Among modern
+  statutes, one of the chief is the Markets and Fairs Clauses Act 1847,
+  the chief purpose of which was to consolidate previous measures. By
+  the act no proprietors of a new market were permitted to let
+  stallages, take tolls, or in any way open their ground for business,
+  until two justices of the peace certified to the completion of the
+  fair or market. After the opening of the place for public use, no
+  person other than a licensed hawker may sell anywhere within the
+  borough, his own house or shop excepted, any articles in respect of
+  which tolls are legally exigible in the market. A breach of this
+  provision entails a penalty of forty shillings. Vendors of unwholesome
+  meat are liable to a penalty of L5 for each offence; and the
+  "inspectors of provisions" have full liberty to seize the goods and
+  institute proceedings against the owners. They may also enter "at all
+  times of the day, with or without assistance," the slaughter-house
+  which the undertaker of the market may, by the special act, have been
+  empowered to construct. For general sanitary reasons, persons are
+  prohibited from killing animals anywhere except in these
+  slaughter-houses. Again, by the Fairs Act 1873, times of holding fairs
+  are determined by the secretary of state; while the Fairs Act 1871
+  empowers him to abolish any fair on the representation of the
+  magistrate and with the consent of the owner. The preamble of the act
+  states that many fairs held in England and Wales are both unnecessary
+  and productive of "grievous immorality."
+
+  _The Fair Courts._--The piepowder courts, the lowest but most
+  expeditious courts of justice in the kingdom, as Chitty calls them,
+  were very ancient. The Conqueror's law _De Emporiis_ shows their
+  pre-existence in Normandy. Their name was derived from _pied
+  poudreux_, i.e. "dusty-foot."[1] The lord of the fair or his
+  representative was the presiding judge, and usually he was assisted by
+  a jury of traders chosen on the spot. Their jurisdiction was limited
+  by the legal time and precincts of the fair, and to disputes about
+  contracts, "slander of wares," attestations, the preservation of
+  order, &c.
+
+  _Authorities._--See Herbert Spencer's _Descriptive Sociology_ (1873),
+  especially the columns and paragraphs on "Distribution"; Prescott's
+  _History of Mexico_, for descriptions of fairs under the Aztecs; Giles
+  Jacob's _Law Dictionary_ (London, 1809); Joseph Chitty's _Treatise on
+  the Law of Commerce and Manufactures_, vol. ii. chap. 9 (London,
+  1824); Holinshed's and Grafton's _Chronicles_, for lists, &c., of
+  English fairs; Meyer's _Das grosse Conversations-Lexicon_ (1852),
+  under "Messen"; article "Foire" in Larousse's _Dictionnaire
+  universelle du XIX^e siecle_ (Paris, 1866-1874), and its references to
+  past authorities; and especially, the second volume, commercial
+  series, of the _Encyclopedie methodique_ (Paris, 1783); M'Culloch's
+  _Dictionary of Commerce_ (1869-1871); Wharton's _History of English
+  Poetry_, pp. 185, 186 of edition of 1870 (London, Murray & Son), for a
+  description of the Winchester Fair, &c.; a note by Professor Henry
+  Morley in p. 498, vol. vii. _Notes and Queries_, second series; the
+  same author's unique _History of the Fair of St Bartholomew_ (London,
+  1859); Wharton's _Law Lexicon_ (Will's edition, London, 1876); P.
+  Huvelin's _Essai historique sur le droit des marches et des foires_
+  (Paris, 1897); _Report of the Royal Commission on Market Rights and
+  Tolls_, vols. i. (1889), xiv. (1891); _Final Report_ (1891); Walford's
+  _Fairs, Past and Present_ (1883); _The Law relating to Markets and
+  Fairs_, by Pease and Chitty (London, 1899).     (J. Ma.; Ev. C.*)
+
+
+FOOTNOTE:
+
+  [1] In Med. Lat. _pede-pulverosus_ meant an itinerant merchant or
+    pedlar. In Scots borough law "marchand travelland" and "dusty fute"
+    are identical.
+
+
+
+
+FAIRBAIRN, ANDREW MARTIN (1838-   ), British Nonconformist divine, was
+born near Edinburgh on the 4th of November 1838. He was educated at the
+universities of Edinburgh and Berlin, and at the Evangelical Union
+Theological Academy in Glasgow. He entered the Congregational ministry
+and held pastorates at Bathgate, West Lothian and at Aberdeen. From 1877
+to 1886 he was principal of Airedale College, Bradford, a post which he
+gave up to become the first principal of Mansfield College, Oxford. In
+the transference to Oxford under that name of Spring Hill College,
+Birmingham, he took a considerable part, and he has exercised influence
+not only over generations of his own students, but also over a large
+number of undergraduates in the university generally. He was granted the
+degree of M.A. by a decree of Convocation, and in 1903 received the
+honorary degree of doctor of literature. He was also given the degrees
+of doctor of divinity of Edinburgh and Yale, and doctor of laws of
+Aberdeen. His activities were not limited to his college work. He
+delivered the Muir lectures at Edinburgh University (1878-1882), the
+Gifford lectures at Aberdeen (1892-1894), the Lyman Beecher lectures at
+Yale (1891-1892), and the Haskell lectures in India (1898-1899). He was
+a member of the Royal Commission of Secondary Education in 1894-1895,
+and of the Royal Commission on the Endowments of the Welsh Church in
+1906. In 1883 he was chairman of the Congregational Union of England and
+Wales. He is a prolific writer on theological subjects. He resigned his
+position at Mansfield College in the spring of 1909.
+
+  Among his works are:--_Studies in the Philosophy of Religion and
+  History_ (1876); _Studies in the Life of Christ_ (1881); _Religion in
+  History and in Modern Life_ (1884; rev. 1893); _Christ in Modern
+  Theology_ (1893); _Christ in the Centuries_ (1893); _Catholicism Roman
+  and Anglican_ (1899); _Philosophy of the Christian Religion_ (1902);
+  _Studies in Religion and Theology_ (1909).
+
+
+
+
+FAIRBAIRN, SIR WILLIAM, Bart. (1789-1874), Scottish engineer, was born
+on the 19th of February 1789 at Kelso, Roxburghshire, where his father
+was a farm-bailiff. In 1803 he obtained work at three shillings a week
+as a mason's labourer on the bridge then being built by John Rennie at
+Kelso; but within a few days he was incapacitated by an accident. Later
+in the same year, his father having been appointed steward on a farm
+connected with Percy Main Colliery near North Shields, he obtained
+employment as a carter in connexion with the colliery. In March 1804 he
+was bound an apprentice to a millwright at Percy Main, and then found
+time to supplement the deficiencies of his early education by systematic
+private study. It was at Percy Main that he made the acquaintance of
+George Stephenson, who then had charge of an engine at a neighbouring
+colliery. For some years subsequent to the expiry of his apprenticeship
+in 1811, he lived a somewhat roving life, seldom remaining long in one
+place and often reduced to very hard straits before he got employment.
+But in 1817 he entered into partnership with a shopmate, James Lillie,
+with whose aid he hired an old shed in High Street, Manchester, where he
+set up a lathe and began business. The firm quickly secured a good
+reputation, and the improvements in mill-work and water-wheels
+introduced by Fairbairn caused its fame to extend beyond Manchester to
+Scotland and even the continent of Europe. The partnership was dissolved
+in 1832.
+
+In 1830 Fairbairn had been employed by the Forth and Clyde Canal Company
+to make experiments with the view of determining whether it were
+possible to construct steamers capable of traversing the canal at a
+speed which would compete successfully with that of the railway; and the
+results of his investigation were published by him in 1831, under the
+title _Remarks on Canal Navigation_. His plan of using iron boats proved
+inadequate to overcome the difficulties of this problem, but in the
+development of the use of this material both in the case of merchant
+vessels and men-of-war he took a leading part. In this way also he was
+led to pursue extensive experiments in regard to the strength of iron.
+In 1835 he established, in connexion with his Manchester business, a
+shipbuilding yard at Millwall, London, where he constructed several
+hundred vessels, including many for the royal navy; but he ultimately
+found that other engagements prevented him from paying adequate
+attention to the management, and at the end of fourteen years he
+disposed of the concern at a great loss. In 1837 he was consulted by the
+sultan of Turkey in regard to machinery for the government workshops at
+Constantinople. In 1845 he was employed, in conjunction with Robert
+Stephenson, in constructing the tubular railway bridges across the
+Conway and Menai Straits. The share he had in the undertaking has been
+the subject of some dispute; his own version is contained in a volume he
+published in 1849, _An Account of the Construction of the Britannia and
+Conway Tubular Bridges_. In 1849 he was invited by the king of Prussia
+to submit designs for the construction of a bridge across the Rhine, but
+after various negotiations, another design, by a Prussian engineer,
+which was a modification of Fairbairn's, was adopted. Another matter
+which engaged much of Fairbairn's attention was steam boilers, in the
+construction of which he effected many improvements. Amid all the cares
+of business he found time for varied scientific investigation. In 1851
+his fertility and readiness of invention greatly aided an inquiry
+carried out at his Manchester works by Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin)
+and J.P. Joule, at the instigation of William Hopkins, to determine the
+melting points of substances under great pressure; and from 1861 to 1865
+he was employed to guide the experiments of the government committee
+appointed to inquire into the "application of iron to defensive
+purposes." He died at Moor Park, Surrey, on the 18th of August 1874.
+Fairbairn was a member of many learned societies, both British and
+foreign, and in 1861 served as president of the British Association. He
+declined a knighthood, in 1861, but accepted a baronetcy in 1869.
+
+His youngest brother, SIR PETER FAIRBAIRN (1799-1861), founded a large
+machine manufacturing business in Leeds. Starting on a small scale with
+flax-spinning machinery, he subsequently extended his operations to the
+manufacture of textile machinery in general, and finally to that of
+engineering tools. He was knighted in 1858.
+
+  See _The Life of Sir William Fairbairn_, partly written by himself and
+  edited and completed by Dr William Pole (1877).
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
+Edition, Volume 10, Slice 1, by Various
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