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diff --git a/.gitattributes b/.gitattributes new file mode 100644 index 0000000..6833f05 --- /dev/null +++ b/.gitattributes @@ -0,0 +1,3 @@ +* text=auto +*.txt text +*.md text diff --git a/36372-8.txt b/36372-8.txt new file mode 100644 index 0000000..cfdbebf --- /dev/null +++ b/36372-8.txt @@ -0,0 +1,2463 @@ +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Type, by A. A. Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Type + Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices #1 + +Author: A. A. Stewart + +Release Date: June 10, 2011 [EBook #36372] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, David Garcia and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART I. NO. 1 + + + + + TYPE + + A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT THE + MECHANICAL FEATURES OF PRINTING + TYPES: THEIR SIZES, FONT SCHEMES, &c. + WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF + THEIR MANUFACTURE + + COMPILED BY + A. A. STEWART + + + PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + 1918 + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1918 + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + CHICAGO, ILL. + + Composition by + PUPILS IN THE TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING + NORTH END UNION, BOSTON + + + + +PREFACE + + +This treatise is the first of a series of text-books, published under +the general title of _Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices_, +which have been prepared under the auspices of the Committee on +Education of the United Typothetae of America, for the use of +printers' apprentices and students of typographic printing. + +As will be noted by the table of contents, only the mechanical +features of type and the usual methods of its manufacture have been +considered here. No attempt has been made to review the history of +type-faces or the development of type-making processes. These phases +of the subject are considered in other publications of the series (see +p. 36) and in supplementary reading recommended for students (p. 28). + +It is not what they are but what they can be made to do under the +control of trained intelligence and skilful hands that makes printer's +types of importance to the world. No tools used in modern industry +seem simpler than these little pieces of metal, yet they are the +product of the most highly specialized skill and ingeniously perfected +mechanisms. To the young printer their physical elements are matters +of first concern. An understanding of these elements may be only a +small part of his trade education, but it is important. The +possibilities and the limitations of type can be appreciated only by +thorough familiarity with the technical details and niceties provided +by the modern typefounder. + +A special feature of this series of technical publications is the list +of Review Questions, which will be found at the end of each treatise +(see pp. 29-31). These questions cover the essential points in each +subject and will be of assistance to instructors, for examinations, +etc. A list of the other titles of the series, as well as a statement +of their plan and scope, will be found on pp. i-vii of this +publication. + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + + FEATURES OF A TYPE 7 + + A FONT OF TYPE 9 + + SCHEME FOR JOB FONT 11 + + SCHEME FOR 100-LB. FONT 12 + + THE SIZES OF TYPE 13 + + LINING TYPE FACES 16 + + KERNED TYPES 18 + + SPACES AND QUADS 19 + + HOW TYPE IS MADE 20 + + THE LINOTYPE 23 + + THE MONOTYPE 25 + + INGREDIENTS OF TYPE METAL 26 + + WOOD TYPE 27 + + SUPPLEMENTARY READING 28 + + REVIEW QUESTIONS 29 + + GLOSSARY OF TERMS 32 + + + + +MECHANICAL FEATURES OF TYPE + + +Printing owes its development first and chiefly to movable metal +types. The so-called invention of printing was the discovery of a +method of making serviceable type in quantity. The idea of a separate +type for each letter of the alphabet was probably conceived long +before Gutenberg's time, but it remained for him and his associates to +devise an apparatus for making them quickly and accurately enough to +be of practical value. That apparatus was the type mold, which +experience has since proved to be the most efficient means of securing +exactness and uniformity in a number of small pieces of metal. + +Type is made of an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony. Its length +(technically called height-to-paper) is .918 of an inch. Each type is +cast separately in a mold, and has the letter or printing character in +bold relief on one end. + +[Illustration] + +Exact uniformity of body is necessary in order that the types, when +composed in lines and pages, may be locked together by pressure at the +sides so as to make a compact mass. All types in a printing form must +be of the same height, so that their faces may present a uniformly +level surface from which an impression may be made that will show all +the characters clearly. A short type will print faintly or will not +print at all, while a long one will be unduly forced into the sheet. + +[Illustration] + +There are on an average about one hundred and fifty roman letters and +other characters required in ordinary book printing. These letters are +divided into a number of classes: full-body letters, ascending +letters, descending letters, short letters; and in some cases, small +capitals, which are larger than short letters but not so tall as +capitals or ascenders. Only a few letters, like J and Q, cover +nearly the entire surface on the end of the type; other letters, like +B h l i, cover the upper portion chiefly and leave a blank space at +the bottom; while the small letters, like a e o u v, occupy only the +middle portion of the surface; still others, like g y p, cover the +middle and lower portions of the surface. As all these irregular +shapes must be made to appear in line with each other, the type-body +on which they are made is larger than the letter. The blank parts +around the face of a letter are called the counter, the shoulder, and +the beard. The counter is the shallow place between the lines of the +face. The shoulder is the low flat part of the type around the face. +The beard is the sloping part between the face and the shoulder. + +[Illustration: + A A, the face + B B, the serifs + C C, the counter + E, the pin-mark + F F, the beard + G, the shoulder + H, the nick + J J, the feet + K, the groove] + +An important feature of a type is the nick on the side of the body. In +many cases there may be two, three, or even four nicks on a type. +Usually all the types of a font have nicks that are identical in +number and position, and when the types are composed in lines these +nicks match each other and form continuous grooves on the lower part +of the line of type. + +The nicks serve as guides to the compositor when taking the type from +the case to his composing stick, and they assist in distinguishing the +types of one font or face from those of another on the same size of +body.[1] Individual letters of different type faces sometimes bear +such close resemblance that they are more readily distinguished by +the nick or some other body-mark than by the face. A difference in +alignment of nicks in a line will readily show the presence of a +wrong-font letter. Typefounders sometimes make an extra nick on a few +small-capitals (o s v w x z) in order to distinguish these types from +the lower-case letters of the same font. + + +_A Font of Type_ + +A font of type is an assortment of one size and kind that is used +together. It is usually all the type in the composing-room of a +certain kind matching in body, nick, and face. A small font may be +held in one case, but several cases may be required for a font of +large quantity. + +An ordinary font of roman type for book work will include these +characters: + +_Roman Capitals_-- + A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Æ [OE] + +_Small Capitals_-- + A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Æ [OE] + +_Lower-case Letters_[2]-- + a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z æ [oe] + [fi] [fl] [ff] [ffi] [ffl] + +_Figures_-- + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 (or oldstyle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0) + +_Marks of Punctuation_--Period . comma , colon : semi-colon ; hyphen - +apostrophe ' exclamation mark ! question mark ? parenthesis ( bracket [ +The latter two are used in pairs () [], the second type being set in +reversed position. + +_Quotation Marks_ are made by two inverted commas " at the beginning +and two apostrophes " at the end of the quoted matter. In some fonts +there is a double mark |"| |"| cast on single bodies, but these are +not often used. + +_Dashes_--En - em -- two-em ---- three-em ------ + +_Reference Marks_--Asterisk or star * dagger [Symbol: dagger] double +dagger [Symbol: double dagger] section § parallel || paragraph ¶ index +(hand, or fist) [Symbol: right hand] + +_Braces_--Two-em [Graphic: two-em brace] three-em [Graphic: three-em +brace] pieced braces [Graphic: pieced brace] made on em bodies, which +may be extended more or less with dashes [Graphic: longer pieced brace] + +The dollar-mark $, short-and (or round-and) &, and sterling pound-mark +£ are also included with all full fonts. + +The character [ct] is an old-style ligature (two joined letters cast +on one type) made in some fonts of old-style faces. It is one of the +many letter combinations formerly common, in imitation of the work of +old manuscript writers. + +Many styles of roman types have italic letters to match, but the +italic fonts include only capitals, lower-case, figures, and +punctuation marks: + +_Italic Capitals_-- + _A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z Æ [OE]_ + +_Italic Lower-case_-- + _a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z æ [oe]_ + +_Italic Figures_-- + _1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0_ (_1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0_) + +_Italic Points, etc._[3]-- + _. , : ; - ' ! ? ) $ &_ + +Small capitals are not made for italic fonts, except in rare cases. +When they are needed in composition, capitals of a smaller size of +type are justified into the text line. + +Other extra characters, not included in ordinary fonts but which may +be added when required, are accented letters (â é ë [=i] [=o] û etc.), +fractions 3/4 5/13 etc.), mathematical signs (+ × ÷ = etc.), +superior (^{ab 42}) and inferior (_{ab 12}) letters and figures, +leaders (............), commercial signs (@ [Symbol: lb bar] [Symbol: +per sign] [Symbol: account of] ¢), and many other characters for +special kinds of printing. + +Fonts of advertising, jobbing, and display types usually consist +of the capitals, lower-case letters, figures, and points, with +occasionally a few extra characters. For many recent styles of heavy +faces the founders furnish fractions, accented letters, and other +special characters to match in boldness of face, but these are not +included in ordinary letter-fonts. + +The quantity of each character apportioned to a regular font is the +estimated average required for ordinary composition in the English +language. It is rare that more than a fraction of a small font can +be used in any piece of composition. No general scheme can meet the +needs of every kind of work; tables and statistical matter will need +extra figures, directories and other lists will call for surplus +capitals, dialogue matter will need more than the usual portion of +commas and apostrophes for quote-marks; even plain descriptive +composition will often call for extra "sorts." For these and other +peculiar kinds of composition extra quantities of some characters, +as well as other material, must be provided. + +Ordinary roman and other faces used in large quantities are measured +by weight. The proportion of letters in a 100-pound font, showing +the proportions of each character, is given on the next page. +Miscellaneous faces used in small quantities are put up in fonts +containing a certain number of each letter, the size of the font +being designated by the number of capital A's and lower-case a's +it contains. + +_Scheme for 15-A 30-a Job Font of 12-Point[4]_ + + +------------+------------+---------------+ + | CAPITALS | LOWER-CASE | POINTS | + | A 15 | a 30 | period 31 | + | B 6 | b 12 | comma 31 | + | C 10 | c 16 | colon 6 | + | D 8 | d 18 | semi-colon 6 | + | E 18 | e 40 | hyphen 9 | + | F 7 | f 12 | apostrophe 13 | + | G 7 | g 12 | ! 9 | + | H 8 | h 20 | ? 8 | + | I 15 | i 30 | ( 6 | + | J 5 | j 8 | | + | K 5 | k 8 | FIGURES | + | L 10 | l 20 | | + | M 8 | m 16 | 1 5 | + | N 15 | n 30 | 2 4 | + | O 15 | o 30 | 3 4 | + | P 8 | p 12 | 4 4 | + | Q 3 | q 6 | 5 4 | + | R 15 | r 30 | 6 4 | + | S 15 | s 30 | 7 4 | + | T 15 | t 30 | 8 4 | + | U 8 | u 16 | 9 5 | + | V 5 | v 8 | 0 6 | + | W 6 | w 12 | $ 4 | + | X 3 | x 6 | £ 1 | + | Y 6 | y 12 | | + | Z 3 | z 6 | | + | & 6 | [fi] 3 | | + | | [fl] 3 | | + | | [ff] 3 | | + | | [ffi] 2 | | + | | [ffl] 2 | | + +------------+------------+---------------+ + +A WEIGHT FONT + +_Proportion of Letters &c. in 100 lb. of Roman Type_ + + +-----------+------------+--------------+--------------------+ + | CAPITALS | SMALL CAPS.| LOWER CASE | FIGURES | + | _oz_ | _oz_ | _lb_ _oz_ | _oz_ | + | A 8-1/2 | A 2-1/2 | a 4 6 | 1 8 | + | B 5 | B 1-1/2 | b 1 - | 2 6-1/2 | + | C 7-1/2 | C 2 | c 1 14 | 3 5-1/2 | + | D 6-1/2 | D 2 | d 3 - | 4 5 | + | E 10 | E 3-1/2 | e 6 8 | 5 6-1/2 | + | F 5 | F 1-1/2 | f 1 1 | 6 5 | + | G 5-1/2 | G 1-1/2 | g 1 4 | 7 5 | + | H 6-1/2 | H 2 | h 3 8 | 8 5 | + | I 6 | I 1-3/4 | i 2 12 | 9 5 | + | J 4-1/2 | J 1-1/4 | j - 5 | 0 10 | + | K 4 | K 1-1/4 | k - 8 | 2 | + | L 6 | L 2 | l 1 8 | £ 1/2 | + | M 7-1/2 | M 2-1/4 | m 2 10 | ----- | + | N 7-1/2 | N 2-1/2 | n 4 6 | 4_lb_ | + | O 7-1/2 | O 2-1/2 | o 4 4 | | + | P 6 | P 1-3/4 | p 1 6 | POINTS | + | Q 2-1/2 | Q 3/4 | q - 5 | _lb_ _oz_ | + | R 8 | R 2-1/4 | r 3 5 | period 1 - | + | S 8 | S 2-1/4 | s 3 6 | comma 1 8 | + | T 9 | T 2-1/2 | t 3 12 | colon - 2 | + | U 5 | U 1-1/2 | u 2 2 | semi-colon - 3 | + | V 3-1/2 | V 1 | v - 14 | hyphen - 9 | + | W 7 | W 2 | w 1 10 | apostrophe - 4 | + | X 2 | X 3/4 | x - 5 | ! - 2 | + | Y 4-1/2 | Y 1-1/4 | y 1 4 | -- - 3 | + | Z 2 | Z 1/2 | z - 4 | ( - 2 | + | Æ 3/4 | Æ 1/4 | æ - 1 | [ - 1 | + | [OE] 3/4 | [OE] 1/4 | [oe] - 1 | ------ | + | & 3-1/2 | & 1 | [fi] - 5 | 4 4 | + | ------ | ----- | [ff] - 4 | | + | 10_lb_ | 3_lb_ | [ffi] - 4 | SPACES AND QUADS | + |-----------+------------| [fl] - 3 | _lb_ _oz_ | + | | [ffl] - 3 | hair - 2 | + | TOTALS _lb_ | ------- | 5-to-em - 10 | + | Capitals 10 | 58 12 | 4-to-em 1 - | + | Small capitals 3 | | 3-to-em 6 - | + | Lower-case 58-3/4 | | en-quad 2 4 | + | Figures 4 | | em " 1 10 | + | Points 4-1/4 | | 2-em " 4 2 | + | Spaces 20 | | 3-em " 4 4 | + | and Quads ------- | | ------ | + | 100_lb_ | | 20_lb_ | + +------------------------+--------------+--------------------+ + +Weight fonts of body type are usually put up by the founders in +sections or parts of fonts as given in the above summary of totals, +so that one or more of these sections may be obtained to supplement +a font already in use. + +It will be noted that braces, dashes, and reference-marks are omitted +in the above list. These characters, like fractions, commercial signs, +etc., are not now considered parts of ordinary fonts, but are put up +in separate packages and must be specially ordered when wanted. + +Font schemes apportioned in quantities like the foregoing are more or +less closely adhered to for original packages of foundry-cast type. To +insure precision, when ordering, it is necessary to state not only the +quantity (by number of letters or weight) but also whether a complete +font or part of a complete font (capital font, lower-case font, or +figure font) is referred to. + + +_The Sizes of Type_ + +All printing type has, first, a name denoting its size, and second, +one denoting the style of its face. For instance, the type used for +the text of this book is 10-point (its size) Lining Caslon Oldstyle +(the foundry name of its face). + +[Illustration] + +The _size_ of a type is the vertical thickness of its body--the +thickness of a line up and down the page. The width of a type is its +_set_. Thus a 12-point en-quad is 12-point body and 6-point set, a +10-point figure of the thickness of an en quad is 10-point body and +5-point set, etc. The total length of a type, including feet and face, +is its _height-to-paper_. + +American type sizes conform to a graduated scale known as the point +system. The unit of the system is a division of space called a +_point_, which is .0138+ (approximately 1/72) of an inch. Type bodies +are multiples of this point. + +The usual sizes are graduated by points up to 12-point. Sizes above +18-point are multiples of 6-point up to 60-point (18, 24, 30, 36, 42, +48, 54, 60). Larger sizes are 72-point, 84-point (rare), 96-point, +120-point, and 144-point, the latter being the largest type commonly +cast in a mold. + +[Illustration: + + Agate ABCDEFGHIJKLMabcdefghijklmnop + 6-point ABCDEFGHIJKabcdefehijklmnopqrstw + 8-point ABCDEFabcdefghijklmnop + 10-point ABCDEabcdefghijklmr + 12-point ABCDEabcdefghi + 14-point ABCDabcdghi + 18-point DEFcdjklu + 24-point BCabyc + 30-point Bangl + 36-point Bats + 42-point Bld + 48-point Ht + +The above squares show one em of the sizes stated. The letters show +the size of face made on the body.] + +In addition to the small sizes shown in the accompanying illustration, +there are some intermediate sizes like 5-1/2-point and 4-1/2-point, +and type as small as 3-point has been made. These are rare, however, +as type smaller than 5-1/2-point is not practicable for extended use. +These small sizes are employed for special purposes, like miniature +editions of books (parts of the Bible, prayer books, etc.) cut-in +notes, piece-fractions, small borders, special characters, and +occasional words or lines that are required to be put in the smallest +possible space. The size of type known as agate (fourteen lines to an +inch) is considered the common standard of measurement for newspaper +and magazine advertising space. + +Many plain types for books, periodicals, etc., are made only in small +sizes. Certain faces are made in a few sizes only, while others are +made in more or less complete series from 6-point to 48-point. The +irregular sizes of 5-1/2-point, 7-point, 9-point, and 11-point are +mostly roman faces, with companion italics, and a few bolder styles +for headings and other display in combination with romans of the same +body. Many new faces are now made by founders in graded series from +6-point to 72-point, and in some cases even larger. Type faces adapted +to many kinds of work are made in nearly all the regular sizes, while +those faces designed for small and dainty work, like personal and +society cards and stationery, are made only in the smaller sizes of +the list. + +Types are now often cast with faces larger or smaller than is commonly +made on the body, such as a 12-point face on 10-point body, giving the +effect of compactness; or an 8-point face made on a 10-point body, +which gives a lighter appearance as if opened with 2-point leads. +These are known as bastard types. Because of this irregularity in the +faces of types it is difficult to know the exact body-size of a type +by merely examining a printed sheet. + +Borders, ornaments, florets, and decorative characters cast on +type-bodies are now made mostly in sizes based on the 6-point as +the unit (6, 12, 18, 24-point, and larger multiples), but 8-point, +10-point, and 14-point sizes are sometimes used. + +Before the adoption of the point system, type sizes were named in +a haphazard way. Arbitrary names were given to certain sizes and in +many cases types of the same name made by different founders varied +so much in size that they could not be used together without great +inconvenience to the printer. Some of these old names still survive +and are applied to the point-system bodies which approximate the old +sizes. + + + POINT SIZE OLD NAME + + 3-point excelsior + 4-point brilliant + 4-1/2-point diamond + 5-point pearl + 5-1/2-point agate + 6-point nonpareil + 7-point minion + 8-point brevier + 9-point bourgeois + 10-point long primer + 11-point small pica + 12-point pica + 14-point english + 16-point columbian + 18-point { great primer + { three-line nonpareil + 20-point paragon + 22-point two-line small pica + 24-point two-line pica + 28-point two-line english + 32-point two-line columbian + 36-point two-line great primer + 40-point two-line paragon + 44-point meridian + 48-point canon, four-line pica + +While these old names and their sizes are now nearly obsolete, young +printers should learn the names and associate them with their +corresponding sizes of the point system. In the foregoing list there +are several intermediate sizes (16, 20, 22, 28, 32, 40, 44-point) +rarely used for type of recent design. Fonts of these odd sizes may +be sometimes found, and there has been a size of 15-point made, but +little used. These odd sizes are, however, mostly old faces, scripts, +and black-letter, originally cast on old bodies and later, after the +introduction of the point system, made on new point-bodies which are +nearest to their original sizes. + +The point system has been applied to the width of types, as well as +to the body-size; that is, the set of each type is fixed at a given +number of points or fraction thereof. This method simplifies in a +degree the process of accurate justification, as each line, though +containing various letters and spaces, is composed of the same number +of units. An advantage over the old method of unrelated widths is in +the saving of time in composition, by reducing the number of different +widths in the characters of the alphabet. By the old method each type +had its own special width; in a complete font there might be a hundred +or more different widths. By the modern point system those characters +which are nearly alike in width are made on the same set, or, if +different, the variation is governed by the standard unit. + + +_Lining Type Faces_ + +American founders have adopted the practice of casting type-faces on +uniform lining systems, variously known as American line, standard +line, uniform line, etc. The earlier practice was to cast the type of +a font so that the letters would align at the bottom only with their +mates of the same font, without reference to any other face of type. +When the compositor had occasion to use two or more different faces of +type in the same line, these faces were rarely in even alignment, but +were irregularly high or low, as shown in the accompanying example +[A]. This lack of uniformity made it necessary when a different +face was used in the line, as is often required in jobbing and +advertisements, to use thin leads, cards, or pieces of paper above and +below different parts of the type-line in order to get the faces in +line--an operation more or less troublesome and expensive. By the +modern lining system, the faces made on any given size of body are +cast to align with each other, as shown in the second example [B]. +These different faces require no more adjustment than if they were +all of one font. + +[Illustration: + Showing irregular alignment of faces, the old method. + Showing exact alignment of different faces, the modern way.] + +On different sizes of type the shoulder, or blank space, at the bottom +of the letter increases gradually with the size of the type, so that a +word of small type placed beside a larger size must have some spacing +material below as well as above to keep it in its right alignment. +This necessary difference in the face-alignment of various sizes is +graduated by points, in the lining system, so that when more than one +size type is used in the same line the justification is made by using +point-body leads. This makes the use of slips of card and paper +unnecessary and secures greater accuracy and solidity of the composed +page. + +[Illustration: 30-point to 6-point lined up with 1-point] + +Faces of radically different style are not, however, all cast on the +same alignment, but are classified into three groups. One group +embraces the majority of type-faces, those having capitals and small +letters, g y p j. Another group embraces fonts of capitals only, +mostly faces known as title letters and combination lining faces +which, having no descenders, may be made lower on the body. A third +group includes those faces having long descenders, like script types, +which must be placed high on the body. + +[Illustration: + These types show letters cast on [A] the common line, [B] title line, + [C] script line.] + +A common class of "lining" types for job work are the combination +series, or those having two or more sizes of face (capitals only) cast +on bodies of the same size. Each face is made to line with the others +on the same body, and all the faces are readily used in combination, +with a single size of spaces and quads. In order that the type of each +face may be readily distinguished, the nicks are varied in number or +position--a single nick for one face, two nicks for another, etc. + +[Illustration: AMERICAN LINING SYSTEM] + +_Kerned Types_ + +When the face of a letter is so large that it projects over the +type-body, it is known as a kerned type. Letters of this kind are +common in italic and script fonts, and there are a few letters, like +f and j, in some oldstyle roman fonts which have the tip of the letter +overhang. Kerned types are a source of trouble because of the ease +with which these projections break off during composition, proofing, +etc. Yet they cannot be entirely dispensed with, especially in italic +and script faces having a definite slope, where the long letters would +have wide gaps on the side (as shown in the script line above) if they +were cast on bodies wide enough to hold the entire face. In some +styles of upright faces having extra long descending letters g, p, q, +y, these descenders may be kerned. + +[Illustration: + s l o p i n g sloping + Showing why some letters must be made on kerned types.] + +[Illustration: + Large italic letters are sometimes mortised at the + corners, instead of kerned, to allow the next letter to fit close.] + +Modern type-makers try, by changing the shape of the letters slightly, +to avoid kerns as much as possible, because of the extra care and +expense involved in casting. Too often, unfortunately, this avoidance +of the kern, in order to meet mechanical convenience, is secured by +sacrificing the distinctive form of the letter. + + +_Spaces and Quads_ + +Short metal spaces and quads (from _quadrat_, a square), used for +blanks between words and elsewhere, are of various thicknesses, as +illustrated below. An em is a square of type body of any size. This +10-point em [Symbol: hollow square] is ten points square; a 10-point +three-to-em space is one third of the em, a four-to-em is one fourth, +etc. The en quad is really a thick space, though called a quad, and +is equal to half the em. Larger blanks are the two-em and three-em +quads, used to fill the last lines of paragraphs and other wide spaces. + +[Illustration: 10-POINT SPACES AND QUADS + hair space + five-to-em + four-to-em + three-to-em + en-quad + em-quad + two-em + three-em] + +The metal blanks shown here are the regular spaces and quads belonging +to a font of type of the size of 10-point. They enable the compositor +to obtain the many different spacings required to make lines the +required length, and to properly separate words and place them +wherever desired in the line. While these thicknesses of spaces are +the usual kinds for sizes of type up to 12-point, larger types may +have other kinds of spaces, six-to-em, eight-to-em, and even smaller +divisions. The thickness of the hair space does not always bear the +same proportion to the em quad; in some sizes it is one sixth of the +em, in others it may be one eighth or one twelfth. Very thin spaces +(copper 1/2-point, brass 1-point), for exact spacing and justifying, +are supplied by dealers. + +A space of the thickness intermediate between the three-to-em and the +en quad, known as a patent space, has been made for use in book work. +Although it has great advantage as a substitute for two of the thinner +spaces when these are needed in spacing a line, its use has been +limited and it is not included with the usual assortment furnished by +dealers. + +The common spaces and quads for general work, when the type itself is +used for printing, are about seven-eighths of the height of the type, +so that they are well below the printing surface. A type-page composed +with these spaces will have a little deep hole at the top of each +space. These numerous little holes present a difficult surface for +making a good wax mold when an electroplate is made for printing. +Where much molding is to be done, higher spaces, quads, and other +blanks are provided. These high spaces and quads reach nearly to the +shoulder of the type. + + +_How Type is Made_ + +[Illustration: + Solid lines indicate one half of the mold. Dotted lines show the other + half in position. Shaded portion represents type metal filling aperture + in the mold. The molten type metal flows through the opening at A, down + to the side B, where the matrix (not shown in this diagram) molds the + face of the type. The tag of metal, called the jet, marked C, is cut + off after casting. D is a narrow flange on the mold which forms the + nick on the under surface of the type body.] + +The mold in which type is cast consists of two essential parts--the +steel box in which the body is formed, and the matrix which contains +a sunken image of the character. The matrix covers the opening at one +end of the mold, and on the opposite end (which is the foot of the +type) is an opening through which the melted metal is injected. A mold +is made for a single body-size of type but it is adjustable sideways +to correspond to the various widths of the letters in an alphabet. One +mold may be used to cast, in succession, all the letters of a font of +type, or it may be used to cast any number of fonts of different faces +that may be made on the same body, by merely changing the matrices +that form the face. The mold is made in two sections, which are +fitted together so as to close up to the required width of the letter, +and, after the cast is made, to open slightly in order to release the +type. + +[Illustration: Matrix] + +_The Matrix._ There are three different methods of making type +matrices. By the oldest method the first step is to cut the character +on the end of a small bar of soft steel, called a punch; when this is +done, the steel is hardened and it is used to stamp an impression in a +bar of copper. This copper bar is a matrix in the rough, and its sides +are next trimmed and squared so that it will fit the mold. + +[Illustration: + Type-mold complete, in two parts, but without the matrix (which is + shown separately above). Position of the matrix when cast is made + is indicated by the letter H on the end of the type within the mold. + The upper and lower halves of the mold slide horizontally, to make + the interior casting-box wide or narrow to conform to the required + widths of various letters.] + +The second method of making a matrix is by electrotype process. The +original pattern of the letter may be engraved by hand or by other +operation, or it may be a perfect type-face of a previous casting. +This is fitted into a small frame of brass and then held in the vat +of an electro-galvanic battery, which deposits a thick film of copper +around the pattern and fills the opening in the brass frame. When this +electro-plating process is completed, the pattern letter is extracted +and the brass frame, with its copper impression of the letter, becomes +the essential feature of the matrix. It is then reinforced by riveting +another plate on the back, and is trimmed and fitted to place on the +mold. + +A third process of making matrices is with an automatic matrix-cutting +machine, in which the shape of the desired letter is cut in the face +of a plate of composition metal by a small rapidly-revolving cutting +point. A large pattern of the letter is placed in one part of the +machine, and while the operator traces the outline with the point of a +lever all the motions are duplicated in miniature by the cutting tool +on the bar of metal, which becomes, when completed, a matrix. + +_Casting the Type._ The old-time method of casting type was with hand +molds, the melted metal being poured in at the foot of the mold with a +small ladle while the mold was held in the hand. In the modern casting +machine, the mold with its matrix, is assembled by the side of the +metal pot, in which the metal is kept at a uniform temperature by +means of a gas furnace. + +In the center of this metal pot is a rod with a spring attachment +which, at each operation of the machine, acts as a plunger to force a +small stream of hot metal through a side aperture into the jet-hole +of the mold. After the casting, the two parts of the mold separate +slightly, the matrix is drawn away from the face of the type, and the +cast is moved out; then the mold and matrix close together again and +the operation is repeated. Cold water or air is circulated near the +mold to keep an even temperature. The matrix for one character only +is placed in the machine and when enough types have been cast, it is +taken out and replaced by another, the change usually requiring but +a few moments. + +There are several kinds of type-casting machines in use, such as hand +casters, steam casters, and automatic casters. The older style is +the hand caster, which is operated by a small wheel with a handle +attached. Steam casters are operated by mechanical power (originally +steam power). + +When type is cast by a hand machine it is unfinished, as a piece of +metal called the jet still adheres to the bottom of each type. This +jet is broken off, and the types are set in long lines and fastened +in a narrow channel, face down. A small plane smooths away the rough +surface caused by breaking off the jet. This leaves a shallow groove +on the bottom of each type and allows it to stand squarely on its +feet. The types also have slight burs and sharp edges of metal which +must be rubbed off before they are ready for inspection and for the +font-room. Type cast on the older "steam" machines require the jet to +be broken off after the casting, and the final finishing of the type +is done afterward by other operations. These finishing touches are +done mostly by hand, with the aid of a polishing stone or a small +dressing wheel. + +On the automatic machine, which is the modern method of casting type, +breaking off the jet, rubbing, dressing, etc., are all accomplished +automatically on the machine, the types coming out in a continuous +line practically ready for the compositor's case. + + * * * * * + +The foregoing describes in a general way the methods of making type +by the regular founders. There is now a great deal of type made by +automatic composing and casting machines installed directly in many +composing rooms. + +Two distinctive styles of these machines are now extensively used--the +Linotype and the Monotype. Both of these have reached a high degree of +efficiency because of their nice mechanisms, based on the principle of +automatically operated molds, matrices, and delivery devices. + +In the Linotype the matrices for a desired line of words are assembled +side by side and the line is cast in one piece. + +In the Monotype the mechanism automatically and rapidly adjusts the +matrix of the desired letters one at a time over the mold, and each +type is cast and moved along into lines and then into a column on a +galley. + + +_The Linotype_ + +The Linotype (line-o'-type) consists of a mechanism for assembling +brass dies or matrices in lines, presenting them in front of a mold +in which a type-high metal bar, or slug, is cast, and returning the +matrices to their respective channels for use again. The brass +matrices have the characters of the alphabet, figures, points, etc., +sunk into their edges; these are held in a magazine, which is an +arrangement of channels in an inclined position above a keyboard. By +the pressing of a key the required matrix is released, which drops and +is carried into place by a small belt. Wedge-shaped space-bands are +also controlled by a key, and when sufficient matrices and space-bands +are assembled to make the line a bell rings. By operating a lever the +line of matrices then moves in front of the mold inserted in the side +of a wheel and behind which is a pot of melted metal. + +[Illustration: Four-Magazine Linotype Machine] + +By the next operation the space-bands are pushed between the words, +thus spreading them to the measure. The line justified, a plunger in +the metal-pot forces a quantity of metal into the mold and against the +line of matrices, forming a metal strip or slug with the letters in +relief on one edge. After the cast is made, a turn of the mold-wheel +and other mechanism shaves off the surplus metal on the foot of the +slug and pushes it between knife-edges, where it is trimmed on the +sides, and is then pushed on to a galley. The melting of the metal is +done by a small gas furnace under the metal-pot. + +After the matrices have been used for the line they are lifted by an +arm to the top of the machine and distributed again, each character +in its particular channel in the magazine. The matrices for each +character have a set of notches or teeth different from every other +character; and as they are moved along the distributing apparatus by +horizontal screws each matrix reaches a point where its notches are +matched and it drops into the top of its channel. There are a number +of matrices of each character, and the arrangement of the machine +is such that three lines of matrices may be kept in operation at +once--one being assembled, one at the casting mold, and the third +being distributed. + +The work of the operator is to manipulate the keyboard and, at the end +of each line, move a lever which engages the mechanism that carries +the assembled line to the mold. All other operations are performed by +mechanical power. + + +_The Monotype_ + +[Illustration: Monotype Keyboard] + +The Lanston Monotype is a type-casting machine which produces separate +types set in lines of any length, up to sixty ems pica, spaced and +justified. It is in two parts--a keyboard and a casting machine. The +function of the keyboard section is to punch a series of holes in a +moving strip of paper, which unwinds from one spool to another, +passing under a series of punches in its journey. The punches are +operated by pressing the keys on the keyboard, the result of this +operation being a roll of perforated paper ribbon. This ribbon is then +taken to the casting machine, which contains a pot for melted metal, a +stationary mold for the size of type to be cast, and a matrix-plate. +The matrix-plate is about five inches square, and has on its face +depressed images or matrices of each letter and character of the font. +The perforated strip of paper, when fed to its place, controls the +movement of the matrix-plate, so that the required letter is adjusted +exactly in place over the mold, while the melted metal is squirted in +to form the type. The type then moves away and takes its proper place +in the line, until the line is completed, when it is automatically +moved out on to a galley. + +The Monotype keyboard, being an entirely separate machine, may be and +usually is operated in any place away from the casting apparatus and +work may be executed on it anytime before casting. The perforated roll +may be fed through any number of times to produce duplicate castings +of the matter, and a matrix-plate for a different face may be used if +desired. In the casting of the line the proper spaces are cast with +it, the spacing needed to justify each line being indicated on the +perforated record during composition on the keyboard. + +[Illustration: Monotype Casting Machine] + +A peculiarity of Monotype composition is that, while the keyboard +produces the perforated roll in the usual sequence from beginning to +end of the story, the casting machine reverses the process by starting +at the end of the composition and finishing up with the beginning. + + +_Ingredients of Type Metal_ + +The metal used for casting type is a mixture of lead (five parts), +antimony (two parts), tin (one part), and sometimes a small addition +of copper. Lead forms the chief part of all type metal, as it melts +easily and fuses readily with other metals; but lead alone is too +soft for the service required of type. Antimony is brittle and gives +hardness, and tin is added to impart toughness. Lead and antimony in +approximately these proportions make an alloy which has the unusual +quality of expanding slightly, instead of shrinking, when cooling, +thus permitting a full, sharp cast in all parts of the mold. Tin flows +readily when melted and increases the smoothness of the cast on the +surface of the mold. A small quantity of copper may sometimes be added +to give still greater toughness. + +The metal used for small sizes of type is commonly harder than that +used for the large sizes, the softness of the metal gradually +increasing with the size of type made. Script types and faces with +delicate lines are usually cast with metal a little harder than that +used for the normal and bolder faces. + +The foregoing refers more particularly to type cast by the regular +foundries. The metal used in automatic casting machines, like the +Monotype, contains a larger proportion of lead and less antimony; +while the metal used for casting line-slugs in the Linotype machine is +composed of still larger proportion of lead and very little of the +other two metals. Stereotype metal and metals used for leads, slugs, +furniture, etc., are largely lead. + + +_Wood Type_ + +Large types, such as are used for posters and large bills, are made of +wood. The smallest size for practical use is 48-point, or 4-line pica. +Sizes of wood type are multiples of the pica, and are so named, as +8-line, 10-line, etc. They are much cheaper than metal types, though +not as durable or satisfactory for printing. The wood commonly used is +maple, and the letter is made on the end of the grain. It must be well +seasoned and polished. Pine and other soft woods are used for very +large sizes of wood type and poster engravings. + +The manner of cutting the letter is by routing away the blank parts +with a small rapidly-revolving cutter. The strip of wood, large enough +to make several letters, and planed type-high, is placed in a machine +equipped with a pantagraph apparatus. A pattern letter is put in +place, and over this a guide-point is moved. On another part of the +machine is the revolving cutting tool. As the guide-point is moved +over the pattern its motions are duplicated on the block under the +cutting tool, which cuts away the wood. When the letters on a block +are thus routed out, they are sawed apart, the finishing touches +given, and the letters oiled. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + + + The Invention of Printing. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald + Publishing Co., New York. Cloth, 557 pp. $6. + + Plain Printing Types. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publishing + Co., New York. Cloth, 476 pp. $2. + + The Monotype System. Published by the Lanston Monotype Machine + Co., Philadelphia. 294 pp. and diagrams. + + The Mechanism of the Linotype. By John S. Thompson. The Inland + Printer Co., Chicago. 216 pp. $2. + + History of Composing Machines. By John S. Thompson. The Inland + Printer Co., Chicago. Cloth, 557 pp. $2. + + Specimen Books of American Type Founders Co.; H. C. Hansen, + Boston; Barnhart Brothers & Spindler, Chicago; Keystone Type + Foundry, Philadelphia. + + + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + +SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS + +The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are +intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an +aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite +statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of +securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own +words. + +A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full +acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental +omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed +that nothing should be omitted. + +In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions +and such others as may occur to the teacher, should be made the basis +of frequent written work, and of final examinations. + +The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only +assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge +correctly and in good form. + +If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form +it will be doubly useful. + + +QUESTIONS + + 1. What was the so-called invention of printing? + + 2. What was Gutenberg's contribution to printing? + + 3. Describe a type. + + 4. Upon what does the utility of type depend? Why? + + 5. How many different characters are required in ordinary book + printing? + + 6. Into what classes are they divided? + + 7. How much of the surface of a type is covered by the letter? + + 8. How is the type body related in size to the letter face? Why? + + 9. What are the blank parts around the face of the letter called? + +10. Describe each part. + +11. What is the nick and what is its use? + +12. What is a font of type? + +13. In what is it kept for the compositor's use? + +14. What characters are included in an ordinary font of roman type + for book work? + +15. What can you say about small capitals? + +16. What can you say about other extra characters? + +17. What characters do fonts of advertising and jobbing type include? + +18. Name some other characters supplied by the foundries? + +19. What determines the number of characters of the various sorts in a + font of type? + +20. Is there any rule fitting all kinds of composition? + +21. Mention some special kinds of composition and tell what extra + sorts each demands. + +22. How are ordinary faces measured when used in large quantities? + +23. How are job fonts designated? + +24. To what kind of type do these schemes apply? + +25. What are the three measurements for type? + +26. What is the "size" of a type? + +27. What is the "set" of a type? + +28. Describe the point system. + +29. What are the usual sizes of type? + +30. What other sizes are made and for what are they used? + +31. What determines the choice of sizes for any particular face? + +32. What are bastard types? + +33. Can you always tell the size of type used by examining a printed + page? Why? + +34. What is meant by height-to-paper? + +35. How were types described before the adoption of the point system? + +36. Give the old names in common use and the approximate equivalents + in points. + +37. What can you say of 16, 20, 22, 28, and 40-point sizes? + +38. What are the advantages of the application of the point system to + the width of type? + +39. What is meant by "lining" type faces? + +40. What is the chief advantage of the lining system? + +41. What is needed when a word of small type is placed beside a word + of large type? Why? + +42. How is the line justified? + +43. Into what groups are type faces divided for aligning purposes? + +44. What are "combination series" of lining types? + +45. What are kerned types? + +46. How is kerning avoided? + +47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these expedients? + +48. What is an em quad? + +49. Describe the spaces used in type composition. + +50. Describe the mold used in type casting. + +51. Describe the three methods of making the matrix. + +52. What was the old method of casting type? + +53. What is the modern method? + +54. Describe the different kinds of type-casting machines. + +55. Describe the finishing of type after casting. + +56. How is type made outside the type foundries? + +57. What is a Linotype? + +58. What does a Linotype produce? + +59. Describe briefly the operation of a Linotype. + +60. How are Linotype matrices distributed? + +61. What does the operator have to do? + +62. What is a Monotype? + +63. What does a Monotype do? + +64. What are the essential differences between a Monotype and a + Linotype? + +65. Describe the operation of the Monotype keyboard. + +66. Describe the operation of the casting machine. + +67. What peculiarity has the Monotype? + +68. What is type made of? + +69. What are the qualities of the several ingredients? + +70. What can you say of the uses of different metals in the type + foundries? + +71. What sort of type metal is used in composing machines? + +72. What other material is used for type? + +73. For what purpose is it used? + +74. How is this kind of type made? + + + + +GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO TYPE + +The numbers in parentheses refer to preceding pages in the text, where +further information about the different subjects may be found. + + +AGATE--A small size of type, about 5-1/2-point. (14) + +ASCENDING LETTERS--The tall letters of the lower-case alphabet. (7) + +ANTIMONY--One of the ingredients of type-metal; a silver-white, hard +crystalline metallic substance, used in chemistry and medicine, as well +as in industrial arts. (26) + +BASTARD TYPES--Those with faces larger or smaller than is commonly made +on a type-body. (15) + +BEARD--The beveled space below the face of a type. (15) + +BODY--The piece of metal upon which the face is cast. (7, 8, 13) + +BODY SIZE--The size of a type considered from top to bottom of the +letter. (13) + +BODY TYPE--The kinds of type, mostly roman faces, used for plain +composition in paragraphs or pages of one face; text letter. + +BORDERS--Characters cast in type, which may be adjustable in many ways, +as for marginal lines, panels, and other decorative uses. (15) + +BOURGEOIS--An old size of type, about 9-point. + +BRASS TYPE--For stamping book covers, etc. Ordinary type-metal cannot +endure the heat which must be applied for stamping gold leaf, or +printing on hard, rough surfaces. Brass types are more expensive as well +as more durable. + +BREVIER--An old size of type nearly equal to 8-point. (15) + +CANON--An old size of type approximately 48-point. (15) + +CAP.--Abbreviation for capital letter; s.c. or sm.cap., small capital. + +COPPER-FACED TYPE--New type coated by electric action, depositing a thin +film of copper, to make it more durable. + +COPPER THIN SPACES--Extra thin spaces for justifying lines. (19) + +CORNER QUADS--Blanks cast in this shape [Symbol: thick right angle] +matching 6-point and 12-point quads; placed outside the corners of +pages with mitered brass rules to keep the joints in place. + +COUNTER--The blank space within the lines of a letter or other +character. (8) + +DESCENDING LETTERS--Those which have part of the face below the regular +alignment, g, p, y. (8) + +DIAMOND--A small size of type, equal to about 4-1/2-point. (15) + +DISPLAY TYPE--A general term meaning the kinds of type made for +advertising, title pages, and other composition in which different sizes +and faces are used; in distinction from body type. + +EM--The square of a type body. En, half the width of the square. (19) + +EXTENDED, EXPANDED--An extra wide face of type. + +FACE--That part of a type or printing surface which leaves its +impression upon the sheet. (8) + +FEET--The bottom of the type body. (8) + +FONT--A complete assortment of type of one size and face. (9) + +FURNITURE--A general term applied to pieces of soft metal, steel, or +wood, used to fill the large blank spaces in a printing form; made in +different sizes based upon a 12-point (pica) unit. + +GREAT PRIMER--An old size of type nearly equal to 18-point. (15) + +HAIR SPACES--Very thin spaces. (19) + +HEIGHT-TO-PAPER--The length of a type from top to bottom, including feet +and face. This is not measured by points, but by thousandths of an inch. +See Type-high. (7, 13) + +HIGH SPACES AND QUADS--Used in type composition when the page is to be +molded for electrotyping. (20) + +HIGH-TO-LINE--When the face of a type is above the regular alignment of +the other letters in the line; when below the alignment it is +low-to-line. (17) + +HOLLOW QUADS--Large blanks are sometimes cast with hollow parts to make +them lighter and to economize metal. See Quotations. + +ITALIC--The style of letters that _slope forward_, in distinction from +upright, or roman, letters. (10) + +JET--The waste metal at the bottom of a type when it is first cast, +being the metal which cools in the aperture of the mold. (22) + +JOB FONT--A small assortment of type. (11) + +JOB TYPE--The kinds used for miscellaneous work, usually in small fonts, +in distinction from book type, body letter, etc. + +KERNED TYPES--Those which have a small part of the face projecting over +the body. (18) + +LAYING TYPE--Putting a font of type into cases. + +LEADERS--Dots or short dashes placed at intervals in open lines to guide +the eye, as in indexes, price-lists, etc. They are cast like quads for +sizes of type most used. Leaders are also made of brass. + +LETTER--Sometimes this word is used to mean type. Letter-press printing, +that done with type. Letter foundry, a type foundry. + +LINING TYPE--The exact alignment at top or bottom of the face on a +type-body. (16-18) + +LINOTYPE--A machine for casting type in solid lines. (23) + +LONG PRIMER--An old size of type nearly equal to 10-point. (15) + +LOW-TO-PAPER--Said of a type when it does not come up to the height of +its mates; opposite of high-to-paper. (7) + +LOW SPACES AND QUADS--Those used for ordinary composition, about +seven-eighths of the length of the type. (20) + +LOWER-CASE--The small letters of the alphabet. (9) + +MATRIX--The shallow mold in which the face of a type is cast. (21) + +MINION--An old size of type, about 7-point. (15) + +MONOTYPE--A machine for casting and composing type. (25) + +MORTISED TYPE--When some part of the body is cut away, either in the +interior or on the sides, to allow the insertion of another letter, or +to fit closer to an adjoining type. (18) + +MUSIC TYPE--An assortment of characters cast in type for printing +music scores. + +NICK--The notch on the side of a type. (8) In fonts made for use on the +Unitype composing machine each character has nicks in different +position and combination from every other character, to fit its +special channel, in order to control the various characters in the +operation of the machine. Thus the nicks in a line of Unitype matter +show great irregularity. + +NONPAREIL--Old name for size of type equal to 6-point; half pica (15) + +OFF ITS FEET--Type must stand squarely upright in order to give a good +impression; when it leans one way or the other it is off its feet. + +PARAGON--An old size of type, about 20-point (15) + +PATENT SPACE--A type space thicker than three-to-em and less than the +en-quad. (19) + +PEARL--An old size of type, about 5-point. (15) + +PI--Types of different kinds mixed up in confusion. + +PICA--Old name, but still commonly used, for a size of type equal to +12-point. (15) A common unit of measurement in typography. + +PIECE FRACTIONS--Fractions made up of two or more types; the numerator +and denominator cast separately, usually on bodies half the size of the +whole numbers or the type with which they are used. Sometimes called +split fractions. + +PIN-MARK--The little mark sometimes seen on the side of foundry-made +type. (8) + +POINT SYSTEM--The standard system of type bodies, based on the point as +a unit; in America the point is .0138 of an inch. Calculations are +simplified ordinarily by assuming the point as 1/72 of an inch. (13) + +POSTER TYPE--Large sizes for billboard printing, mostly made of wood. +(27) + +PUNCH--In typefounding, an original die of a letter or character cut +on the end of a steel bar, used to make a matrix. (21) + +QUADS--Metal blanks used for large spaces in composing type. (19) + +QUOTATIONS--Large hollow quads; similar to metal furniture. + +RUBBER TYPE--Cast with a vulcanized-rubber face mounted on short metal +bodies; not used in ordinary typographic printing, but classed with +rubber hand stamps. + +SCRIPT--A general name for that class of type designed to imitate +handwriting. (18) + +SECTIONAL TYPE--A style of type now in disuse, in which each letter was +made in two parts, the upper half being separate from the lower. Any +letter or character cast in two or more parts. + +SERIF--The short cross-line or tick at the end of the main strokes in +roman letters. (8) + +SET--The width of a type. (13) + +SHOULDER--The blank space on the top of a type not covered by the +letter; specifically, the space above and below the letter, the space on +the side being designated by typefounders as side-bearings. (8) + +SMALL CAPS--A secondary set of capitals made for fonts intended for book +work. They are slightly larger than the small (lower-case) letters, but +smaller than the regular capitals. See the side-headings in this +glossary. (9, 10, 12) + +SMALL PICA--An old size of type nearly equal to 11-point. (15) + +SPACES--Thin metal blanks used to separate words in a line. (19) + +SORT--Any particular letter or character of a font, in distinction from +the complete assortment. "Out of sorts," when some needed letters of a +font are missing. + +SORT ORDER--A request for some particular character of a font. + +TWO-LINE LETTER--A large letter covering two lines of the adjoining +text, used for initials at the beginning of paragraphs. Two-line +figures, used for displaying price-figures in advertisements, etc. + +TYPE-HIGH--Of the standard height of type; said of an electrotype or +engraving that is the right height to accompany type. (7) + +TYPE METAL--A composition of lead, tin, and antimony. (26) + +TYPOGRAPHY--The process of printing with forms composed of movable types +and small relief blocks. + +WEIGHT FONT--A complete assortment of type measured by its weight +instead of by the number of each letter. (12) + +WEIGHT OF TYPE--Four square inches of type, composed solid, weigh +approximately one pound. Thus, to find the weight of any given amount of +type composition, find the number of square inches and divide by four. + +One pound of type (about 4 square inches) contains the following number +of ems (solid) of the different sizes: + + 18-point 64 ems + 12-point 144 ems + 11-point 170 ems + 10-point 207 ems + 9-point 256 ems + 8-point 324 ems + 7-point 423 ems + 6-point 576 ems + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES + + +The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC +TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the +supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of +America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, +and by individuals. + +Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group +of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide +the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and +apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive +compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various +branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in +orderly fashion for progressive study. + +The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far +as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the +particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be +found under each title in the following list. + +Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody +in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary +information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the +subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and +clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the +understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever +practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have +been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. + +In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for +use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is +accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of +the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to +the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. + +These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. + +Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED +TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. + + +PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ + +1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart + + Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, + font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. + 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. + +2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, + brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; + illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. + +3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, + case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; + illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. + +4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart + + Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the + press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 + pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. + +5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the customary methods and machines + for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review + questions; glossary. + +6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker + + A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical + construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand + press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on + automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review + questions; glossary. + +7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker + + Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types + of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review + questions; glossary. + +8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier + + The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; + with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + +9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott + + A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and + allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 + pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. + +10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. + + A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever + cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting + paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. + +11. =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and + care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; + glossary. + +12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton + + Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by + permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of + Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the + everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review + questions; glossary. + +13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright + + A primer of information about the materials and processes of + manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; + 62 review questions; glossary. + +14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan + + Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of + engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for + reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and + stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; + glossaries. + + +PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ + +16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, + spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +17. =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart + + The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with + observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVéze + + Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first + jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make + good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; + glossary. + +19. =General Job Composition= + + How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and + miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell + + Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," + revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. + Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of + pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 + review questions; glossary. + +21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver + + A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples + of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review + questions. + +22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon + + Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, + calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard + tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with + examples and exercises. 159 pp. + +23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor + + Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein + Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays + Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens + Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting + Machines By Frank H. Smith + + A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their + mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ + +24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and + about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods + of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART IV--_Presswork_ + +26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew + + The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive + features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, + regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting + gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew + + Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, + ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and + overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton + + Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with + directions and useful information relating to a variety of + printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. + +29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson + + A primer of information about the distinctive features of the + relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. + 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. + + +PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ + +30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin + + A primer of information about the various operations employed in + binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; + review questions; glossary. + +31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger + + Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; + folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case + making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and + blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ + +32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about words, their relations, and their + uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. + +33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their + use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review + questions; glossary. + +34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical + typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review + questions; glossary. + +35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks + on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review + questions. + +36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + A study of the principles of compounding, the components of + compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. + +37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with + classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review + questions. + +38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the history and uses of italic + letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. + +39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas + + The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, + revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by + examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. + +40. =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F. W. Hamilton + + Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in + preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. + +41. =Printers' Manual of Style= + + A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions + relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, + abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. + +42. =The Printer's Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about + various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical + terms explained. Illustrated. + + +PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ + +43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage + + A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on + the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of + harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and + variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 + review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage + + Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building + material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and + illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, + treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. + Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. + +45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage + + Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster + effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with + process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and + chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, + intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory + of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full + color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage + + Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. + Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence + on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. + Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully + illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage + + The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which + advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, + legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising + typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage + + A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a + proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. + Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy + envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +PART VIII--_History of Printing_ + +49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the + history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; + illustrated; 64 review questions. + +50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. + 64 pp.; 62 review questions. + +51. =History of Printing=--Part I By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the + development of the book, the development of printers' materials, + and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. + +52. =History of Printing=--Part II By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry + from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, + internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review + questions. + +53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton + + A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present + time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. + +54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes + on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; + 84 review questions. + +55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and + press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. + + +PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ + +56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter + + The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. + The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of + the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. + +59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter + + The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for + estimating. Review questions. Glossary. + +60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter + + An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their + relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. + +61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter + + A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary + books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. + + +PART X--_Miscellaneous_ + +62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter + + Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; + practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and + rules for safety. + +63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton + + A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic + Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. + +64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton + + A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for + classroom and shop work. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America. + +The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, +under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, +acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by +the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work. + +While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of +those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that +a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. + +The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who +have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, +constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books +comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which +the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be +printed in each volume. + +The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. + + COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. + + HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, + E. LAWRENCE FELL, + A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, + J. CLYDE OSWALD, + TOBY RUBOVITS. + + FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. + + + + +CONTRIBUTORS + + +For Composition and Electrotypes + + ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. + THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. + R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. + GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. + EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. + FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. + F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. + STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. + J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. + THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York + THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. + POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. + EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. + C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. + THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. + +For Composition + + BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. + WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. + TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. + +For Electrotypes + + BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. + FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. + C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. + ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. + +For Engravings + + AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. + C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. + GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. + HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. + INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. + LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. + MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. + OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. + THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. + B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. + THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. + +For Book Paper + + AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. + WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] In old or much-used fonts to which additions have been made after +the first supply, the new letters, being cast later in a different +mold, may often show a difference in the position or the number of +nicks. In cases of this kind the apprentice should observe carefully +and inquire before deciding that a type with a different nick does not +belong to the font. + +[2] The small letters are called lower-case by printers, because they +are commonly kept in the lower case of a pair on the case-stand. + +[3] The period, comma, hyphen, apostrophe, and occasionally some other +character (such as the $) are often the same in both roman and italic +fonts that are intended as companion faces. + +[4] Job fonts are usually put up by founders in two sections, one +containing capitals, figures, and points; the other lower-case, with a +small portion of points. Diphthongs Æ [OE] æ [oe] are not now included +in job fonts, and many advertising type fonts do not include the +lower-case ligatures [fi] [ff] [fl] [ffi] [ffl]. + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: The original printed text contains a significant +number of characters which are not included in standard ASCII or +ISO-8859-1 encodings. Those glyphs are represented in this file either +as square-bracketed sets of letters (for accents or ligatures), or +as square-bracketed type/description pairs, e.g. [Symbol: per sign]. +These limitations are not present in the HTML version of this document, +which uses numeric entities of the Unicode characters which accurately +represent these glyphs as printed in the original.] + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Type, by A. A. 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A. Stewart. + </title> + <style type="text/css"> + + p {margin-top: .75em; text-align: justify; margin-bottom: .75em;} + + h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6 {text-align: center; clear: both;} + + hr {width: 33%; margin-top: 2em; margin-bottom: 2em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; clear: both;} + + table {margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;} + + body {margin-left: 12%; margin-right: 12%;} + + .pagenum {position: absolute; left: 92%; font-size: smaller; text-align: right;} + + .blockquot {margin-left: 5%; margin-right: 10%;} + + .lfooter {margin-left:15%; margin-right:15%;} + + .right {text-align: right;} + .center {text-align: center;} + .smcap {font-variant: small-caps;} + + .inline { margin: auto; height: 1.2em!important; position:relative; bottom:-0.25em;} + + .figcenter {margin: auto; text-align: center; font-size: 90%;} + + .figleft {float: left; clear: left; margin-left: 0; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-top: + 1em; margin-right: 1em; padding: 0; text-align: justify; font-size: 90%;} + + .figright {float: right; clear: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 1em; + margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 0; padding: 0; text-align: justify; font-size: 90%;} + + .caption {text-align: center; font-weight: bold;} + + p.dropcap:first-letter{float: left; padding-right: 3px; font-size: 250%; line-height: 83%; width:auto;} + .caps {text-transform:uppercase;} + + a:link {color:#0000ff; text-decoration:none} + a:visited {color:#6633cc; text-decoration:none} + + .indent {padding-left: 2em;} + .spacer {padding-left: 1em; padding-right: 1em;} + + </style> + </head> +<body> + + +<pre> + +The Project Gutenberg EBook of Type, by A. A. Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Type + Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices #1 + +Author: A. A. Stewart + +Release Date: June 10, 2011 [EBook #36372] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ISO-8859-1 + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, David Garcia and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +</pre> + + + + +<h4>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES—PART I. NO. 1</h4> +<p> </p> +<h1>TYPE</h1> +<p> </p> +<h3>A PRIMER <i>of</i> INFORMATION ABOUT THE<br /> +MECHANICAL FEATURES OF PRINTING<br /> +TYPES: THEIR SIZES, FONT SCHEMES, &c.<br /> +WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF<br /> +THEIR MANUFACTURE</h3> +<p> </p> +<h4>COMPILED BY</h4> +<h3>A. A. STEWART</h3> +<p> </p> +<div class="figcenter"><img src="images/title.png" alt="publishers logo" /></div> +<p> </p> +<h4>PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION<br /> +UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA<br /> +1918</h4> +<p> </p><p> </p> +<h4><span class="smcap">Copyright, 1918</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">United Typothetae of America</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">Chicago, Ill.</span></h4> +<p> </p> +<h4>Composition by<br /> +<span class="smcap">Pupils in the Typothetae School of Printing</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">North End Union, Boston</span></h4> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_3" id="Page_3">[Pg 3]</a></span></p> +<h2>PREFACE</h2> + +<p>This treatise is the first of a series of text-books, published under +the general title of <i>Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices</i>, +which have been prepared under the auspices of the Committee on +Education of the United Typothetae of America, for the use of +printers’ apprentices and students of typographic printing.</p> + +<p>As will be noted by the table of contents, only the mechanical +features of type and the usual methods of its manufacture have been +considered here. No attempt has been made to review the history of +type-faces or the development of type-making processes. These phases +of the subject are considered in other publications of the series (see +<a href="#Page_i">p. 36</a>) and in supplementary reading recommended for students (<a href="#Page_28">p. 28</a>).</p> + +<p>It is not what they are but what they can be made to do under the +control of trained intelligence and skilful hands that makes printer’s +types of importance to the world. No tools used in modern industry +seem simpler than these little pieces of metal, yet they are the +product of the most highly specialized skill and ingeniously perfected +mechanisms. To the young printer their physical elements are matters +of first concern. An understanding of these elements may be only a +small part of his trade education, but it is important. The +possibilities and the limitations of type can be appreciated only by +thorough familiarity with the technical details and niceties provided +by the modern typefounder.</p> + +<p>A special feature of this series of technical publications is the list +of Review Questions, which will be found at the end of each treatise +(see <a href="#Page_29">pp. 29-31</a>). These questions cover the essential points in each +subject and will be of assistance to instructors, for examinations, +etc. A list of the other titles of the series, as well as a statement +of their plan and scope, will be found on <a href="#Page_i">pp. i-vii</a> of this +publication.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_4" id="Page_4">[Pg 4]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_5" id="Page_5">[Pg 5]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTENTS</h2> + +<table border="0" cellpadding="0" cellspacing="5" summary="Table of Contents"> +<tr><td> </td><td><span class="spacer"> </span></td><td align="right"><span class="smcap">page</span></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Features of a Type</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_7"><ins class="correction" title="original reads '8'">7</ins></a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">A Font of Type</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_9">9</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Scheme for Job Font</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_11">11</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Scheme for 100-lb. Font</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_12">12</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Sizes of Type</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_13">13</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Lining Type Faces</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_16">16</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Kerned Types</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_18">18</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Spaces and Quads</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_19">19</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">How Type is Made</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_20">20</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Linotype</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_23">23</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">The Monotype</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_25">25</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Ingredients of Type Metal</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_26">26</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Wood Type</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_27">27</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Supplementary Reading</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_28">28</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Review Questions</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_29">29</a></td></tr> +<tr><td><span class="smcap">Glossary of Terms</span></td><td> </td><td align="right"><a href="#Page_32">32</a></td></tr></table> + + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_6" id="Page_6">[Pg 6]</a></span></p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_7" id="Page_7">[Pg 7]</a></span></p> +<h2>MECHANICAL FEATURES OF TYPE</h2> + +<div class="figright"> +<a name="image-0001" id="image-0001"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p07-f.png"><img src="images/p07-s.png" width="50" height="178" +alt="[A piece of metal type]" /></a> +</div> + +<p>Printing owes its development first and chiefly to movable metal +types. The so-called invention of printing was the discovery of a +method of making serviceable type in quantity. The idea of a separate +type for each letter of the alphabet was probably conceived long +before Gutenberg’s time, but it remained for him and his associates to +devise an apparatus for making them quickly and accurately enough to +be of practical value. That apparatus was the type mold, which +experience has since proved to be the most efficient means of securing +exactness and uniformity in a number of small pieces of metal.</p> + +<p>Type is made of an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony. Its length +(technically called height-to-paper) is .918 of an inch. Each type is +cast separately in a mold, and has the letter or printing character in +bold relief on one end.</p> + +<p>Exact uniformity of body is necessary in order that the types, when +composed in lines and pages, may be locked together by pressure at the +sides so as to make a compact mass. All types in a printing form must +be of the same height, so that their faces may present a uniformly +level surface from which an impression may be made that will show all +the characters clearly. A short type will print faintly or will not +print at all, while a long one will be unduly forced into the sheet.</p> + +<div class="figleft"> +<a name="image-0002" id="image-0002"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p08a-f.png"><img src="images/p08a-s.png" width="254" height="40" +alt="[Diagram of a line of metal type]" /></a> +</div> + +<p>There are on an average about one hundred and fifty roman letters and +other characters required in ordinary book printing. These letters are +divided into a number of classes: full-body letters, ascending +letters, descending letters, short letters; and in some cases, small +capitals, which are larger than short letters but not so tall as +capitals or<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_8" id="Page_8">[Pg 8]</a></span> ascenders. Only a few letters, like J and Q, cover +nearly the entire surface on the end of the type; other letters, like +B h l i, cover the upper portion chiefly and leave a blank space at +the bottom; while the small letters, like a e o u v, occupy only the +middle portion of the surface; still others, like g y p, cover the +middle and lower portions of the surface. As all these irregular +shapes must be made to appear in line with each other, the type-body +on which they are made is larger than the letter. The blank parts +around the face of a letter are called the counter, the shoulder, and +the beard. The counter is the shallow place between the lines of the +face. The shoulder is the low flat part of the type around the face. +The beard is the sloping part between the face and the shoulder.</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<a name="image-0003" id="image-0003"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p08b-f.png"><img src="images/p08b-s.png" width="100" height="162" +alt="" /></a> +<br /> +<span style="text-align:left!important;"> +A A, the face<br /> +B B, the serifs<br /> +C C, the counter<br /> +E, the pin-mark<br /> +F F, the beard<br /> +G, the shoulder<br /> +H, the nick<br /> +J J, the feet<br /> +K, the groove +</span> +</div> + +<p>An important feature of a type is the nick on the side of the body. In +many cases there may be two, three, or even four nicks on a type. +Usually all the types of a font have nicks that are identical in +number and position, and when the types are composed in lines these +nicks match each other and form continuous grooves on the lower part +of the line of type.</p> + +<p>The nicks serve as guides to the compositor when taking the type from +the case to his composing stick, and they assist in distinguishing the +types of one font or face from those of another on the same size of +body.<small><a name="f1.1" id="f1.1" href="#f1">[1]</a></small> Individual letters of different type faces sometimes bear +<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_9" id="Page_9">[Pg 9]</a></span>such close resemblance that they are more readily distinguished by +the nick or some other body-mark than by the face. A difference in +alignment of nicks in a line will readily show the presence of a +wrong-font letter. Typefounders sometimes make an extra nick on a few +small-capitals (o s v w x z) in order to distinguish these types from +the lower-case letters of the same font.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>A Font of Type</i></h3> + +<p>A font of type is an assortment of one size and kind that is used +together. It is usually all the type in the composing-room of a +certain kind matching in body, nick, and face. A small font may be +held in one case, but several cases may be required for a font of +large quantity.</p> + +<p>An ordinary font of roman type for book work will include these +characters:</p> + +<p><i>Roman Capitals</i>—A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z +Æ Œ</p> + +<p><i>Small Capitals</i>—<span class="smcap">a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z +æ œ</span></p> + +<p><i>Lower-case Letters</i><small><a name="f2.1" id="f2.1" href="#f2">[2]</a></small>—a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w +x y z æ œ <span title="[fi] ligature">fi</span> <span title="[fl] ligature">fl</span> <span title="[ff] ligature">ff</span> <span title="[ffi] ligature">ffi</span> <span title="[ffl] ligature">ffl</span></p> + +<p><i>Figures</i>—1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 (or oldstyle <img class="inline" src="images/p09a.png" alt="old-style: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0" />)</p> + +<p><i>Marks of Punctuation</i>—Period . comma , colon : semi-colon ; hyphen - +apostrophe ’ exclamation mark ! question mark ? parenthesis ( bracket [ +The latter two are used in pairs () [], the second type being set in +reversed position.</p> + +<p><i>Quotation Marks</i> are made by two inverted commas “ at the beginning +and two apostrophes ” at the end of the quoted matter. In some fonts +there is a double mark |"| |"| cast on single bodies, but these are +not often used.</p> + +<p><i>Dashes</i>—En <span title="en-dash">–</span> em — two-em —— three-em ———</p> + +<p><i>Reference Marks</i>—Asterisk or star * dagger <span title="dagger">†</span> double +dagger <span title="double dagger">‡</span> section § parallel <span title="parallel ||">‖</span> paragraph ¶ index (hand, or +fist) <span title="index (hand, or fist)">☞</span></p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_10" id="Page_10">[Pg 10]</a></span> +<i>Braces</i>—Two-em <img class="inline" src="images/p10a.png" alt="two-em horizontal brace" title="two-em horizontal brace" /> three-em <img class="inline" src="images/p10b.png" alt="three-em horizontal brace" title="three-em horizontal brace" /> pieced +braces <img class="inline" src="images/p10c.png" alt="pieced brace" title="pieced brace" /> made on em bodies, which may be extended more +or less with dashes <img class="inline" src="images/p10d.png" alt="longer pieced brace" title="longer pieced brace" /></p> + +<p>The dollar-mark $, short-and (or round-and) &, and sterling pound-mark +£ are also included with all full fonts.</p> + +<p>The character <img class="inline" src="images/p10e.png" alt="ct ligature" title="ct ligature" /> is an old-style ligature (two joined letters cast +on one type) made in some fonts of old-style faces. It is one of the +many letter combinations formerly common, in imitation of the work of +old manuscript writers.</p> + +<p>Many styles of roman types have italic letters to match, but the +italic fonts include only capitals, lower-case, figures, and +punctuation marks:</p> + +<p><i>Italic Capitals</i>—<i>A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y +Z Æ Œ</i></p> + +<p><i>Italic Lower-case</i>—<i>a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x +y z æ œ</i></p> + +<p><i>Italic Figures</i>—<i>1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0</i> (<img class="inline" src="images/p10f.png" alt="old-style: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0" />)</p> + +<p><i>Italic Points, etc.</i><small><a name="f3.1" id="f3.1" href="#f3">[3]</a></small>—<i>. , : ; - ’ ! ? ) $ &</i></p> + +<p>Small capitals are not made for italic fonts, except in rare cases. +When they are needed in composition, capitals of a smaller size of +type are justified into the text line.</p> + +<p>Other extra characters, not included in ordinary fonts but which may +be added when required, are accented letters (â é ë <span title="lowercase i with macron above">ī</span> <span title="lowercase o with macron above">ō</span> û etc.), +fractions ¾ <span title="fraction 5/13"><small><sup>5</sup></small>⁄<small><sub>13</sub></small></span> etc.), mathematical signs (+ × ÷ = etc.), +superior (<sup>ab 42</sup>) and inferior (<sub>ab 12</sub>) letters and figures, +leaders (<span title="leader dots ...">…………</span>), commercial signs (@ <span title="lb bar">℔</span> <span title="per sign">⅌</span> <span title="account of">℀</span> ¢), and many other characters for special kinds of +printing.</p> + +<!--<img class="inline" src="images/p10g.png" alt="lb. bar symbol, per symbol, account of symbol" />--> + +<p>Fonts of advertising, jobbing, and display types usually consist of +the capitals, lower-case letters, figures, and points, with +occasionally a few extra characters. For many recent styles of heavy +faces the founders furnish fractions, accented letters, and other +special characters to match in boldness of face, but these are not +included in ordinary letter-fonts.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_11" id="Page_11">[Pg 11]</a></span>The quantity of each character apportioned to a regular font is the +estimated average required for ordinary composition in the English +language. It is rare that more than a fraction of a small font can +be used in any piece of composition. No general scheme can meet the +needs of every kind of work; tables and statistical matter will need +extra figures, directories and other lists will call for surplus +capitals, dialogue matter will need more than the usual portion of +commas and apostrophes for quote-marks; even plain descriptive +composition will often call for extra “sorts.” For these and other +peculiar kinds of composition extra quantities of some characters, +as well as other material, must be provided.</p> + +<p>Ordinary roman and other faces used in large quantities are measured +by weight. The proportion of letters in a 100-pound font, showing the +proportions of each character, is given on the next page. +Miscellaneous faces used in small quantities are put up in fonts +containing a certain number of each letter, the size of the font being +designated by the number of capital A’s and lower-case a’s it +contains.</p> + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Scheme for 15-A 30-a Job Font of 12-point"> +<tr><th colspan="3"><i>Scheme for 15-A 30-a Job Font of 12-Point<small><a name="f4.1" id="f4.1" href="#f4">[4]</a></small></i></th></tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" style="width:33%;" valign="top"> + <table summary="Capitals" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">CAPITALS</th></tr> + <tr><td align="left">A</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">B</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">C</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">D</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">E</td><td align="right">18</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">F</td><td align="right">7</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">G</td><td align="right">7</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">H</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">I</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">J</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">K</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">L</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">M</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">N</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">O</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">P</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Q</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">R</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">S</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">T</td><td align="right">15</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">U</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">V</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">W</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">X</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Y</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Z</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">&</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + </table> + </td> + <td rowspan="2" style="width:33%;" valign="top"> + <table summary="Lower-case" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">LOWER-CASE</th></tr> + <tr><td align="left">a</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">b</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">c</td><td align="right">16</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">d</td><td align="right">18</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">e</td><td align="right">40</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">f</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">g</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">h</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">i</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">j</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">k</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">l</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">m</td><td align="right">16</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">n</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">o</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">p</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">q</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">r</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">s</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">t</td><td align="right">30</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">u</td><td align="right">16</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">v</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">w</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">x</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">y</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">z</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[fi] ligature">fi</span></td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[fl] ligature">fl</span></td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[ff] ligature">ff</span></td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[ffi] ligature">ffi</span></td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[ffl] ligature">ffl</span></td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + </table> + </td> + <td style="width:33%;" valign="top"> + <table summary="Points" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">POINTS</th></tr> + <tr><td align="left">period</td><td align="right">31</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">comma</td><td align="right">31</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">colon</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">semi-colon</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">hyphen</td><td align="right">9</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">apostrophe</td><td align="right">13</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">!</td><td align="right">9</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">?</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">(</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + </table> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign="top"> + <table summary="Figures" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">FIGURES</th></tr> + <tr><td align="left">1</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">2</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">3</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">4</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">5</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">6</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">7</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">8</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">9</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">0</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">$</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">£</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + </table> + </td></tr> +</table> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_12" id="Page_12">[Pg 12]</a></span></p> + +<h3>A WEIGHT FONT</h3> + + +<table border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0" summary="Proportions of letters in 100 lb. of Roman type"> + +<tr><th colspan="4"><i>Proportion of Letters &c. in 100 lb. of Roman Type</i></th></tr> +<tr> + <td rowspan="2" style="width:25%;" valign="top"> + <table summary="Capitals" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">CAPITALS</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>oz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">A</td><td align="right">8½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">B</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">C</td><td align="right">7½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">D</td><td align="right">6½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">E</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">F</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">G</td><td align="right">5½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">H</td><td align="right">6½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">I</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">J</td><td align="right">4½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">K</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">L</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">M</td><td align="right">7½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">N</td><td align="right">7½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">O</td><td align="right">7½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">P</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Q</td><td align="right">2½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">R</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">S</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">T</td><td align="right">9</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">U</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">V</td><td align="right">3½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">W</td><td align="right">7</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">X</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Y</td><td align="right">4½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Z</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Æ</td><td align="right">¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Œ</td><td align="right">¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">&</td><td align="right">3½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">———</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">10 <i>lb</i></td></tr> + </table> + </td> + <td rowspan="2" style="width:25%;" valign="top"> + <table summary="Small Caps." width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">SMALL CAPS.</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>oz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">A</td><td align="right">2½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">B</td><td align="right">1½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">C</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">D</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">E</td><td align="right">3½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">F</td><td align="right">1½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">G</td><td align="right">1½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">H</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">I</td><td align="right">1¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">J</td><td align="right">1¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">K</td><td align="right">1¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">L</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">M</td><td align="right">2¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">N</td><td align="right">2½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">O</td><td align="right">2½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">P</td><td align="right">1¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Q</td><td align="right">¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">R</td><td align="right">2¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">S</td><td align="right">2¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">T</td><td align="right">2½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">U</td><td align="right">1½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">V</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">W</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">X</td><td align="right">¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Y</td><td align="right">1¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Z</td><td align="right">½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Æ</td><td align="right">¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Œ</td><td align="right">¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">&</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">———</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">3 <i>lb</i></td></tr> + </table> + </td> + <td rowspan="3" valign="top" style="width:25%;"> + <table summary="Lower Case" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="3">LOWER CASE</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>lb</i></td><td align="right"><i>oz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">a</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">b</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">-</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">c</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">14</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">d</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">-</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">e</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">f</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">g</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">h</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">i</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">j</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">k</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">l</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">m</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">n</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">o</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">p</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">q</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">r</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">s</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">6</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">t</td><td align="right">3</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">u</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">v</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">14</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">w</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">x</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">y</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">z</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">æ</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">œ</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[fi] ligature">fi</span></td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[ff] ligature">ff</span></td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[ffi] ligature">ffi</span></td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[fl] ligature">fl</span></td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"><span title="[ffl] ligature">ffl</span></td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right">——————</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">58</td><td align="right">12</td></tr> + </table> + </td> + <td style="width:25%;" valign="top"> + <table summary="Figures" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">FIGURES</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>oz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">1</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">2</td><td align="right">6½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">3</td><td align="right">5½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">4</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">5</td><td align="right">6½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">6</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">7</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">8</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">9</td><td align="right">5</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">0</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">$</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">£</td><td align="right">½</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">———</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">4 <i>lb</i></td></tr> + </table> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td valign="top"> + <table summary="Points" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="3">POINTS</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>lb</i></td><td align="right"><i>oz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">period</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">-</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">comma</td> <td align="right">1</td><td align="right">8</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">colon</td> <td align="right">-</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">semi-colon</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">hyphen</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">9</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">apostrophe</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">!</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">?</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">—</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">(</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">[</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">1</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right">——————</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + </table> + </td> +</tr> +<tr> + <td colspan="2" valign="top"> + <table summary="Totals" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="2">TOTALS</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>lb</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Capitals</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Small Capitals</td><td align="right">3</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Lower-case</td><td align="right">58¾</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Figures</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Points</td><td align="right">4¼</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">Spaces and quads</td><td align="right">20</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">———</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">100 <i>lb</i></td></tr> + </table> + </td> + <td valign="top"> + <table summary="Spaces and Quads" width="100%"> + <tr><th colspan="3">SPACES AND QUADS</th></tr> + <tr><td></td><td align="right"><i>lb</i></td><td align="right"><i>oz</i></td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">hair</td><td align="right">-</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">5-to-em</td> <td align="right">-</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">4-to-em</td> <td align="right">1</td><td align="right">-</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">3-to-em</td><td align="right">6</td><td align="right">-</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">en-quad</td><td align="right">2</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">em "</td><td align="right">1</td><td align="right">10</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">2-em "</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">2</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left">3-em "</td><td align="right">4</td><td align="right">4</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td colspan="2" align="right">——————</td></tr> + <tr><td align="left"> </td><td align="right">20 <i>lb</i></td><td align="right"></td></tr> + </table> + + </td> +</tr> +</table> + +<p>Weight fonts of body type are usually put up by the founders in +sections or parts of fonts as given in the above summary of totals, +so that one or more of these sections may be obtained to supplement a +font already in use.</p> + +<p>It will be noted that braces, dashes, and reference-marks are omitted +in the above list. These characters, like fractions, commercial signs, +etc., are not now considered parts of ordinary fonts, but are put up +in separate packages and must be specially ordered when wanted.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_13" id="Page_13">[Pg 13]</a></span>Font schemes apportioned in quantities like the foregoing are more or +less closely adhered to for original packages of foundry-cast type. To +insure precision, when ordering, it is necessary to state not only the +quantity (by number of letters or weight) but also whether a complete +font or part of a complete font (capital font, lower-case font, or +figure font) is referred to.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>The Sizes of Type</i></h3> + +<p>All printing type has, first, a name denoting its size, and second, +one denoting the style of its face. For instance, the type used for +the text of this book is 10-point (its size) Lining Caslon Oldstyle +(the foundry name of its face).</p> + +<div class="figright"> +<a name="image-0004" id="image-0004"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p13-f.png"><img src="images/p13-s.png" width="100" height="243" +alt="[Diagram of type sizes]" /></a> +</div> + +<p>The <i>size</i> of a type is the vertical thickness of its body—the +thickness of a line up and down the page. The width of a type is its +<i>set</i>. Thus a 12-point en-quad is 12-point body and 6-point set, a +10-point figure of the thickness of an en quad is 10-point body and +5-point set, etc. The total length of a type, including feet and face, +is its <i>height-to-paper</i>.</p> + +<p>American type sizes conform to a graduated scale known as the point +system. The unit of the system is a division of space called a +<i>point</i>, which is .0138+ (approximately <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>72</sub>) of an inch. Type bodies +are multiples of this point.</p> + +<p>The usual sizes are graduated by points up to 12-point. Sizes above +18-point are multiples of 6-point up to 60-point (18, 24, 30, 36, 42, +48, 54, 60). Larger sizes are 72-point, 84-point (rare), 96-point, +120-point, and 144-point, the latter being the largest type commonly +cast in a mold.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 160px;"> +<a name="image-0005" id="image-0005"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p14-f.png"><img src="images/p14-s.png" width="150" height="314" +alt="The above squares show one em of the sizes stated. The letters show +the size of face made on the body." /></a><br /> +The above squares show one em of the sizes stated. The letters show +the size of face made on the body. +</div> + +<p>In addition to the small sizes shown in the accompanying illustration, +there are some intermediate sizes like 5½-point and 4½-point, +and type as small as 3-point has been made.<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_14" id="Page_14">[Pg 14]</a></span> These are rare, however, +as type smaller than 5½-point is not practicable for extended use. +These small sizes are employed for special purposes, like miniature +editions of books (parts of the Bible, prayer books, etc.) cut-in +notes, piece-fractions, small borders, special characters, and +occasional words or lines that are required to be put in the smallest +possible space. The size of type known as agate (fourteen lines to an +inch) is considered the common standard of measurement for newspaper +and magazine advertising space.</p> + +<p>Many plain types for books, periodicals, etc., are made only in small +sizes. Certain faces are made in a few sizes only, while others are +made in more or less complete series from 6-point to 48-point. The +irregular sizes of 5½-point, 7-point, 9-point, and 11-point are +mostly roman faces, with companion italics, and a few bolder styles +for headings and other display in combination with romans of the same +body. Many new faces are now made by founders in graded series from +6-point to 72-point, and in some cases even larger. Type faces adapted +to many<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_15" id="Page_15">[Pg 15]</a></span> kinds of work are made in nearly all the regular sizes, while +those faces designed for small and dainty work, like personal and +society cards and stationery, are made only in the smaller sizes of +the list.</p> + +<p>Types are now often cast with faces larger or smaller than is commonly +made on the body, such as a 12-point face on 10-point body, giving the +effect of compactness; or an 8-point face made on a 10-point body, +which gives a lighter appearance as if opened with 2-point leads. +These are known as bastard types. Because of this irregularity in the +faces of types it is difficult to know the exact body-size of a type +by merely examining a printed sheet.</p> + +<p>Borders, ornaments, florets, and decorative characters cast on +type-bodies are now made mostly in sizes based on the 6-point as the +unit (6, 12, 18, 24-point, and larger multiples), but 8-point, +10-point, and 14-point sizes are sometimes used.</p> + +<p>Before the adoption of the point system, type sizes were named in a +haphazard way. Arbitrary names were given to certain sizes and in many +cases types of the same name made by different founders varied so much +in size that they could not be used together without great +inconvenience to the printer. Some of these old names still survive +and are applied to the point-system bodies which approximate the old +sizes.</p> + +<div style="float:left; clear:left; margin: 0em 2em 0em 0em;"> +<table summary="list of point sizes and their old names"> +<tr><th>POINT SIZE</th><th colspan="2">OLD NAME</th></tr> + +<tr><td align="right">3-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">excelsior</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">brilliant</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">4½-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">diamond</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">pearl</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">5½-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">agate</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">nonpareil</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">minion</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">brevier</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">9-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">bourgeois</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">long primer</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">11-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">small pica</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">12-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">pica</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">14-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">english</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">16-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">columbian</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">18-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">⎰ great primer<br /> + ⎱ three-line nonpareil</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">20-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">paragon</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">22-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">two-line small pica</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">24-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">two-line pica</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">28-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">two-line english</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">32-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">two-line columbian</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">36-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">two-line great primer</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">40-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">two-line paragon</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">44-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">meridian</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">48-point </td><td>…</td><td align="left">canon, four-line pica</td></tr> +</table> +</div> + +<p>While these old names and their sizes are now nearly obsolete, young +printers should learn the names and associate them with their +corresponding sizes of the point system. <span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_16" id="Page_16">[Pg 16]</a></span>In the foregoing list there +are several intermediate sizes (16, 20, 22, 28, 32, 40, 44-point) +rarely used for type of recent design. Fonts of these odd sizes may be +sometimes found, and there has been a size of 15-point made, but +little used. These odd sizes are, however, mostly old faces, scripts, +and black-letter, originally cast on old bodies and later, after the +introduction of the point system, made on new point-bodies which are +nearest to their original sizes.</p> + +<p>The point system has been applied to the width of types, as well as to +the body-size; that is, the set of each type is fixed at a given +number of points or fraction thereof. This method simplifies in a +degree the process of accurate justification, as each line, though +containing various letters and spaces, is composed of the same number +of units. An advantage over the old method of unrelated widths is in +the saving of time in composition, by reducing the number of different +widths in the characters of the alphabet. By the old method each type +had its own special width; in a complete font there might be a hundred +or more different widths. By the modern point system those characters +which are nearly alike in width are made on the same set, or, if +different, the variation is governed by the standard unit.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>Lining Type Faces</i></h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px; text-align: center;"> +<a name="image-0006" id="image-0006"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p17a-f.png"><img src="images/p17a-s.png" width="200" height="131" +alt="Showing irregular alignment of faces, the old method. +Showing exact alignment of different faces, the modern way." /></a> +<br /> +Showing irregular alignment of faces, the old method.<br /> +Showing exact alignment of different faces, the modern way. +</div> + +<p>American founders have adopted the practice of casting type-faces on +uniform lining systems, variously known as American line, standard +line, uniform line, etc. The earlier practice was to cast the type of +a font so that the letters would align at the bottom only with their +mates of the same font, without reference to any other face of type. +When the compositor had occasion to use two or more different faces of +type in the same line, these faces were rarely in even alignment, but +were irregularly high or low, as shown in the accompanying example +[<span class="smcap">a</span>]. This lack of uniformity made it necessary when a different face +was used in the line,<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_17" id="Page_17">[Pg 17]</a></span> as is often required in jobbing and +advertisements, to use thin leads, cards, or pieces of paper above and +below different parts of the type-line in order to get the faces in +line—an operation more or less troublesome and expensive. By the +modern lining system, the faces made on any given size of body are +cast to align with each other, as shown in the second example [<span class="smcap">b</span>]. +These different faces require no more adjustment than if they were all +of one font.</p> + +<p>On different sizes of type the shoulder, or blank space, at the bottom +of the letter increases gradually with the size of the type, so that a +word of small type placed beside a larger size must have some spacing +material below as well as above to keep it in its right alignment. +This necessary difference in the face-alignment of various sizes is +graduated by points, in the lining system, so that when more than one +size type is used in the same line the justification is made by using +point-body leads. This makes the use of slips of card and paper +unnecessary and secures greater accuracy and solidity of the composed +page.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="image-0007" id="image-0007"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p17b-f.png"><img src="images/p17b-s.png" width="200" height="59" +alt="30-point to 6-point lined up with 1-point." /></a> +<br /> +30-point to 6-point lined up with 1-point. +</div> + +<p>Faces of radically different style are not, however, all cast on the +same alignment, but are classified into three groups. One group +embraces the majority of type-faces, those having capitals and small +letters, g y p j. Another group embraces fonts of capitals only, +mostly faces known as title letters and combination lining faces +which, having no descenders, may be made lower on the body. A third +group includes those faces having long descenders, like script types, +which must be placed high on the body.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_18" id="Page_18">[Pg 18]</a></span></p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="image-0008" id="image-0008"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p17c-f.png"><img src="images/p17c-s.png" width="200" height="52" +alt="These types show letters cast on [A] the common line, [B] title line, +[C] script line." /></a> +<br /> +These types show letters cast on [<span class="smcap">a</span>] the common line, [<span class="smcap">b</span>] title line, [<span class="smcap">c</span>] script line. +</div> + +<p>A common class of “lining” types for job work are the combination +series, or those having two or more sizes of face (capitals only) cast +on bodies of the same size. Each face is made to line with the others +on the same body, and all the faces are readily used in combination, +with a single size of spaces and quads. In order that the type of each +face may be readily distinguished, the nicks are varied in number or +position—a single nick for one face, two nicks for another, etc.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px; text-align:center;"> +<a name="image-0009" id="image-0009"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p18a-f.png"><img src="images/p18a-s.png" width="200" height="78" +alt="American Lining System" /></a> +<br /> +American Lining System +<!-- +Four sizes on 6-point<br /> +Three sizes on 12-point<br /> +Four sizes on 6-point--> +</div> + + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>Kerned Types</i></h3> + +<p>When the face of a letter is so large that it projects over the +type-body, it is known as a kerned type. Letters of this kind are +common in italic and script fonts, and there are a few letters, like f +and j, in some oldstyle roman fonts which have the tip of the letter +overhang. Kerned types are a source of trouble because of the ease +with which these projections break off during composition, proofing, +etc. Yet they cannot be entirely dispensed with, especially in italic +and script faces having a definite slope, where the long letters would +have wide gaps on the side (as shown in the script line above) if they +were cast on bodies wide enough to hold the entire face. In some +styles of upright faces having extra long descending letters g, p, q, +y, these descenders may be kerned.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 200px;"> +<a name="image-0010" id="image-0010"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p18b-f.png"><img src="images/p18b-s.png" width="200" height="42" +alt="Showing why some letters must be made on kerned types." /></a> +<br /> +Showing why some letters must be made on kerned types. +</div> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 100px;"> +<a name="image-0011" id="image-0011"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p18c-f.png"><img src="images/p18c-s.png" width="100" height="105" +alt="Large italic letters are sometimes mortised at the +corners, instead of kerned, to allow the next letter to fit close." /></a> +<br /> +Large italic letters are sometimes mortised at the +corners, instead of kerned, to allow the next letter to fit close. +</div> + +<p>Modern type-makers try, by changing the shape of the letters slightly, +to avoid kerns as much as possible, because of the extra care and +expense involved in casting. Too<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_19" id="Page_19">[Pg 19]</a></span> often, unfortunately, this avoidance +of the kern, in order to meet mechanical convenience, is secured by +sacrificing the distinctive form of the letter.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>Spaces and Quads</i></h3> + +<p>Short metal spaces and quads (from <i>quadrat</i>, a square), used for +blanks between words and elsewhere, are of various thicknesses, as +illustrated below. An em is a square of type body of any size. This +10-point em <span style="font-size: 200%;" title="hollow 10-point em square">□</span> is ten points square; a 10-point three-to-em +space is one third of the em, a four-to-em is one fourth, etc. The en +quad is really a thick space, though called a quad, and is equal to +half the em. Larger blanks are the two-em and three-em quads, used to +fill the last lines of paragraphs and other wide spaces.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 150px;"> +<a name="image-0012" id="image-0012"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p19-f.png"><img src="images/p19-s.png" width="150" height="333" +alt="10-point Spaces and Quads" /></a> +<br /> +<!--<span class="smcap">10-point Spaces and Quads</span>--> +</div> + +<p>The metal blanks shown here are the regular spaces and quads belonging +to a font of type of the size of 10-point. They enable the compositor +to obtain the many different spacings required to make lines the +required length, and to properly separate words and place them +wherever desired in the line. While these thicknesses of spaces are +the usual kinds for sizes of type up to 12-point, larger types may +have other kinds of spaces, six-to-em, eight-to-em, and even smaller +divisions. The thickness of the hair space does not always bear the +same proportion to the em quad; in some sizes it is one sixth of the +em, in others it may be one eighth or one twelfth. Very thin spaces +(copper ½-point, brass 1-point), for exact spacing and justifying, +are supplied by dealers.</p> + +<p>A space of the thickness intermediate between the three-to-em and the +en quad, known as a patent space, has been made for use in book work. +Although it has great advantage as a substitute for two of the thinner +spaces when these are<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_20" id="Page_20">[Pg 20]</a></span> needed in spacing a line, its use has been +limited and it is not included with the usual assortment furnished by +dealers.</p> + +<p>The common spaces and quads for general work, when the type itself is +used for printing, are about seven-eighths of the height of the type, +so that they are well below the printing surface. A type-page composed +with these spaces will have a little deep hole at the top of each +space. These numerous little holes present a difficult surface for +making a good wax mold when an electroplate is made for printing. +Where much molding is to be done, higher spaces, quads, and other +blanks are provided. These high spaces and quads reach nearly to the +shoulder of the type.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>How Type is Made</i></h3> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="image-0013" id="image-0013"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p20-f.png"><img src="images/p20-s.png" width="250" height="147" +alt="[Diagram of a type mold]" /></a> +<br /> +Solid lines indicate one half of the mold. Dotted lines +show the other half in position. Shaded portion represents type metal +filling aperture in the mold. The molten type metal flows through the +opening at <span class="smcap">A</span>, down to the side <span class="smcap">B</span>, where the matrix (not shown in this +diagram) molds the face of the type. The tag of metal, called the jet, +marked <span class="smcap">C</span>, is cut off after casting. <span class="smcap">D</span> is a narrow flange on the mold +which forms the nick on the under surface of the type body. +</div> + +<p>The mold in which type is cast consists of two essential parts—the +steel box in which the body is formed, and the matrix which contains a +sunken image of the character. The matrix covers the opening at one +end of the mold, and on the opposite end (which is the foot of the +type) is an opening through which the melted metal is injected. A mold +is made for a single body-size of type but it is adjustable sideways +to correspond to the various widths of the letters in an alphabet. One +mold may be used to cast, in succession, all the letters of a font of +type, or it may be used to cast any number of fonts of different faces +that may be made on the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_21" id="Page_21">[Pg 21]</a></span> same body, by merely changing the matrices +that form the face. The mold is made in two sections, which are +fitted together so as to close up to the required width of the letter, +and, after the cast is made, to open slightly in order to release the +type.</p> + +<div class="figleft" style="width: 50px; text-align: center;"> +<a name="image-0014" id="image-0014"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p21a-f.png"><img src="images/p21a-s.png" width="50" height="213" +alt="Matrix" /></a> +<br /> +Matrix +</div> + +<p><i>The Matrix.</i> There are three different methods of making type +matrices. By the oldest method the first step is to cut the character +on the end of a small bar of soft steel, called a punch; when this is +done, the steel is hardened and it is used to stamp an impression in a +bar of copper. This copper bar is a matrix in the rough, and its sides +are next trimmed and squared so that it will fit the mold.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px;"> +<a name="image-0015" id="image-0015"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p21b-f.png"><img src="images/p21b-s.png" width="250" height="109" +alt="Type mold, complete, in two parts..." /></a> +<br /> +Type-mold complete, in two parts, but without the +matrix (which is shown separately above). Position of the matrix when +cast is made is indicated by the letter <span class="smcap">H</span> on the end of the type +within the mold. The upper and lower halves of the mold slide +horizontally, to make the interior casting-box wide or narrow to +conform to the required widths of various letters. +</div> + +<p>The second method of making a matrix is by electrotype process. The +original pattern of the letter may be engraved by hand or by other +operation, or it may be a perfect type-face of a previous casting. +This is fitted into a small frame of brass and then held in the vat of +an electro-galvanic battery, which deposits a thick film of copper +around the pattern and fills the opening in the brass frame. When this +electro-plating process is completed, the pattern letter is extracted +and the brass frame, with its copper impression of the letter, becomes +the essential feature of the matrix. It is then reinforced by riveting +another plate on the back, and is trimmed and fitted to place on the +mold.</p> + +<p>A third process of making matrices is with an automatic matrix-cutting +machine, in which the shape of the desired letter is cut in the face +of a plate of composition metal by a small rapidly-revolving cutting +point. A large pattern of the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_22" id="Page_22">[Pg 22]</a></span> letter is placed in one part of the +machine, and while the operator traces the outline with the point of a +lever all the motions are duplicated in miniature by the cutting tool +on the bar of metal, which becomes, when completed, a matrix.</p> + +<p><i>Casting the Type.</i> The old-time method of casting type was with hand +molds, the melted metal being poured in at the foot of the mold with a +small ladle while the mold was held in the hand. In the modern casting +machine, the mold with its matrix, is assembled by the side of the +metal pot, in which the metal is kept at a uniform temperature by +means of a gas furnace.</p> + +<p>In the center of this metal pot is a rod with a spring attachment +which, at each operation of the machine, acts as a plunger to force a +small stream of hot metal through a side aperture into the jet-hole of +the mold. After the casting, the two parts of the mold separate +slightly, the matrix is drawn away from the face of the type, and the +cast is moved out; then the mold and matrix close together again and +the operation is repeated. Cold water or air is circulated near the +mold to keep an even temperature. The matrix for one character only is +placed in the machine and when enough types have been cast, it is +taken out and replaced by another, the change usually requiring but a +few moments.</p> + +<p>There are several kinds of type-casting machines in use, such as hand +casters, steam casters, and automatic casters. The older style is the +hand caster, which is operated by a small wheel with a handle +attached. Steam casters are operated by mechanical power (originally +steam power).</p> + +<p>When type is cast by a hand machine it is unfinished, as a piece of +metal called the jet still adheres to the bottom of each type. This +jet is broken off, and the types are set in long lines and fastened in +a narrow channel, face down. A small plane smooths away the rough +surface caused by breaking off the jet. This leaves a shallow groove +on the bottom of each type and allows it to stand squarely on its<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_23" id="Page_23">[Pg 23]</a></span> +feet. The types also have slight burs and sharp edges of metal which +must be rubbed off before they are ready for inspection and for the +font-room. Type cast on the older “steam” machines require the jet to +be broken off after the casting, and the final finishing of the type +is done afterward by other operations. These finishing touches are +done mostly by hand, with the aid of a polishing stone or a small +dressing wheel.</p> + +<p>On the automatic machine, which is the modern method of casting type, +breaking off the jet, rubbing, dressing, etc., are all accomplished +automatically on the machine, the types coming out in a continuous +line practically ready for the compositor’s case.</p> + +<hr style='width: 45%;' /> + +<p>The foregoing describes in a general way the methods of making type by +the regular founders. There is now a great deal of type made by +automatic composing and casting machines installed directly in many +composing rooms.</p> + +<p>Two distinctive styles of these machines are now extensively used—the +Linotype and the Monotype. Both of these have reached a high degree of +efficiency because of their nice mechanisms, based on the principle of +automatically operated molds, matrices, and delivery devices.</p> + +<p>In the Linotype the matrices for a desired line of words are assembled +side by side and the line is cast in one piece.</p> + +<p>In the Monotype the mechanism automatically and rapidly adjusts the +matrix of the desired letters one at a time over the mold, and each +type is cast and moved along into lines and then into a column on a +galley.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>The Linotype</i></h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px; text-align: center;"> +<a name="image-0016" id="image-0016"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p24-f.png"><img src="images/p24-s.png" width="250" height="299" +alt="Four-Magazine Linotype Machine" /></a> +<br /> +Four-Magazine Linotype Machine +</div> + +<p>The Linotype (line-o’-type) consists of a mechanism for assembling +brass dies or matrices in lines, presenting them in front of a mold in +which a type-high metal bar, or slug, is cast, and returning the +matrices to their respective<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_24" id="Page_24">[Pg 24]</a></span> channels for use again. The brass +matrices have the characters of the alphabet, figures, points, etc., +sunk into their edges; these are held in a magazine, which is an +arrangement of channels in an inclined position above a keyboard. By +the pressing of a key the required matrix is released, which drops and +is carried into place by a small belt. Wedge-shaped space-bands are +also controlled by a key, and when sufficient matrices and space-bands +are assembled to make the line a bell rings. By operating a lever the +line of matrices then moves in front of the mold inserted in the side +of a wheel and behind which is a pot of melted metal.</p> + +<p>By the next operation the space-bands are pushed between the words, +thus spreading them to the measure. The line justified, a plunger in +the metal-pot forces a quantity of metal into the mold and against the +line of matrices, forming a metal strip or slug with the letters in +relief on one edge. After the cast is made, a turn of the mold-wheel +and other mechanism shaves off the surplus metal on the foot of the +slug and pushes it between knife-edges, where it is trimmed on the +sides, and is then pushed on to a galley. The melting of the metal is +done by a small gas furnace under the metal-pot.</p> + +<p>After the matrices have been used for the line they are lifted by an +arm to the top of the machine and distributed again, each character in +its particular channel in the<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_25" id="Page_25">[Pg 25]</a></span> magazine. The matrices for each +character have a set of notches or teeth different from every other +character; and as they are moved along the distributing apparatus by +horizontal screws each matrix reaches a point where its notches are +matched and it drops into the top of its channel. There are a number +of matrices of each character, and the arrangement of the machine is +such that three lines of matrices may be kept in operation at +once—one being assembled, one at the casting mold, and the third +being distributed.</p> + +<p>The work of the operator is to manipulate the keyboard and, at the end +of each line, move a lever which engages the mechanism that carries +the assembled line to the mold. All other operations are performed by +mechanical power.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>The Monotype</i></h3> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px; text-align: center;"> +<a name="image-0017" id="image-0017"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p25-f.png"><img src="images/p25-s.png" width="250" height="368" +alt="Monotype Keyboard" /></a> +<br /> +Monotype Keyboard +</div> + +<p>The Lanston Monotype is a type-casting machine which produces separate +types set in lines of any length, up to sixty ems pica, spaced and +justified. It is in two parts—a keyboard and a casting machine. The +function of the keyboard section is to punch a series of holes in a +moving strip of paper, which unwinds from one spool to another, +passing under a series of punches in its journey. The punches are +operated by pressing the keys on the keyboard, the result of this +operation being a roll of perforated paper ribbon. This ribbon is then +taken to the casting machine, which contains a pot for melted metal, a +stationary mold for the size of type to be cast, and a matrix-plate. +The matrix-plate is about five inches square, and has on its face +depressed images or matrices of each letter and character of the font. +The perforated strip of paper, when fed to its place, controls the +movement of<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_26" id="Page_26">[Pg 26]</a></span> the matrix-plate, so that the required letter is adjusted +exactly in place over the mold, while the melted metal is squirted in +to form the type. The type then moves away and takes its proper place +in the line, until the line is completed, when it is automatically +moved out on to a galley.</p> + +<p>The Monotype keyboard, being an entirely separate machine, may be and +usually is operated in any place away from the casting apparatus and +work may be executed on it anytime before casting. The perforated roll +may be fed through any number of times to produce duplicate castings +of the matter, and a matrix-plate for a different face may be used if +desired. In the casting of the line the proper spaces are cast with +it, the spacing needed to justify each line being indicated on the +perforated record during composition on the keyboard.</p> + +<div class="figright" style="width: 250px; text-align: center;"> +<a name="image-0018" id="image-0018"><!--IMG--></a> +<a href="images/p26-f.png"><img src="images/p26-s.png" width="250" height="371" +alt="Monotype Casting Machine" /></a> +<br /> +Monotype Casting Machine +</div> + +<p>A peculiarity of Monotype composition is that, while the keyboard +produces the perforated roll in the usual sequence from beginning to +end of the story, the casting machine reverses the process by starting +at the end of the composition and finishing up with the beginning.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>Ingredients of Type Metal</i></h3> + +<p>The metal used for casting type is a mixture of lead (five parts), +antimony (two parts), tin (one part), and sometimes a small addition +of copper. Lead forms the chief part of all type metal, as it melts +easily and fuses readily with other metals; but lead alone is too soft +for the service required of type. Antimony is brittle and gives +hardness, and tin is added to impart toughness. Lead and antimony in +approximately these proportions make an alloy which has<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_27" id="Page_27">[Pg 27]</a></span> the unusual +quality of expanding slightly, instead of shrinking, when cooling, +thus permitting a full, sharp cast in all parts of the mold. Tin flows +readily when melted and increases the smoothness of the cast on the +surface of the mold. A small quantity of copper may sometimes be added +to give still greater toughness.</p> + +<p>The metal used for small sizes of type is commonly harder than that +used for the large sizes, the softness of the metal gradually +increasing with the size of type made. Script types and faces with +delicate lines are usually cast with metal a little harder than that +used for the normal and bolder faces.</p> + +<p>The foregoing refers more particularly to type cast by the regular +foundries. The metal used in automatic casting machines, like the +Monotype, contains a larger proportion of lead and less antimony; +while the metal used for casting line-slugs in the Linotype machine is +composed of still larger proportion of lead and very little of the +other two metals. Stereotype metal and metals used for leads, slugs, +furniture, etc., are largely lead.</p> + +<p> </p> +<h3><i>Wood Type</i></h3> + +<p>Large types, such as are used for posters and large bills, are made of +wood. The smallest size for practical use is 48-point, or 4-line pica. +Sizes of wood type are multiples of the pica, and are so named, as +8-line, 10-line, etc. They are much cheaper than metal types, though +not as durable or satisfactory for printing. The wood commonly used is +maple, and the letter is made on the end of the grain. It must be well +seasoned and polished. Pine and other soft woods are used for very +large sizes of wood type and poster engravings.</p> + +<p>The manner of cutting the letter is by routing away the blank parts +with a small rapidly-revolving cutter. The strip of wood, large enough +to make several letters, and planed type-high, is placed in a machine +equipped with a pantagraph<span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_28" id="Page_28">[Pg 28]</a></span> apparatus. A pattern letter is put in +place, and over this a guide-point is moved. On another part of the +machine is the revolving cutting tool. As the guide-point is moved +over the pattern its motions are duplicated on the block under the +cutting tool, which cuts away the wood. When the letters on a block +are thus routed out, they are sawed apart, the finishing touches +given, and the letters oiled.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<h2>SUPPLEMENTARY READING</h2> + +<p class="hang">The Invention of Printing. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publishing Co., New York. Cloth, 557 pp. $6.</p> + +<p class="hang">Plain Printing Types. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publishing Co., New York. Cloth, 476 pp. $2.</p> + +<p class="hang">The Monotype System. Published by the Lanston Monotype Machine Co., Philadelphia. 294 pp. and diagrams.</p> + +<p class="hang">The Mechanism of the Linotype. By John S. Thompson. The Inland Printer Co., Chicago. 216 pp. $2.</p> + +<p class="hang">History of Composing Machines. By John S. Thompson. The Inland Printer Co., Chicago. Cloth, 557 pp. $2.</p> + +<p class="hang">Specimen Books of American Type Founders Co.; H. C. Hansen, Boston; Barnhart Brothers & Spindler, Chicago; Keystone Type Foundry, Philadelphia.</p> + + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_29" id="Page_29">[Pg 29]</a></span></p> +<h2>REVIEW QUESTIONS</h2> + + +<h3>SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS</h3> + +<p>The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are +intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an +aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite +statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of +securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own +words.</p> + +<p>A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full +acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental +omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed +that nothing should be omitted.</p> + +<p>In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions +and such others as may occur to the teacher, should be made the basis +of frequent written work, and of final examinations.</p> + +<p>The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only +assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge +correctly and in good form.</p> + +<p>If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form +it will be doubly useful.</p> + + +<h3>QUESTIONS</h3> + +<p>1. What was the so-called invention of printing?</p> + +<p>2. What was Gutenberg’s contribution to printing?</p> + +<p>3. Describe a type.</p> + +<p>4. Upon what does the utility of type depend? Why?</p> + +<p>5. How many different characters are required in ordinary book printing?</p> + +<p>6. Into what classes are they divided?</p> + +<p>7. How much of the surface of a type is covered by the letter?</p> + +<p>8. How is the type body related in size to the letter face? Why?</p> + +<p>9. What are the blank parts around the face of the letter called?</p> + +<p>10. Describe each part.</p> + +<p>11. What is the nick and what is its use?</p> + +<p>12. What is a font of type?</p> + +<p>13. In what is it kept for the compositor’s use?</p> + +<p>14. What characters are included in an ordinary font of roman type for book work?</p> + +<p>15. What can you say about small capitals?</p> + +<p>16. What can you say about other extra characters?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_30" id="Page_30">[Pg 30]</a></span>17. What characters do fonts of advertising and jobbing type include?</p> + +<p>18. Name some other characters supplied by the foundries?</p> + +<p>19. What determines the number of characters of the various sorts in a font of type?</p> + +<p>20. Is there any rule fitting all kinds of composition?</p> + +<p>21. Mention some special kinds of composition and tell what extra sorts each demands.</p> + +<p>22. How are ordinary faces measured when used in large quantities?</p> + +<p>23. How are job fonts designated?</p> + +<p>24. To what kind of type do these schemes apply?</p> + +<p>25. What are the three measurements for type?</p> + +<p>26. What is the “size” of a type?</p> + +<p>27. What is the “set” of a type?</p> + +<p>28. Describe the point system.</p> + +<p>29. What are the usual sizes of type?</p> + +<p>30. What other sizes are made and for what are they used?</p> + +<p>31. What determines the choice of sizes for any particular face?</p> + +<p>32. What are bastard types?</p> + +<p>33. Can you always tell the size of type used by examining a printed page? Why?</p> + +<p>34. What is meant by height-to-paper?</p> + +<p>35. How were types described before the adoption of the point system?</p> + +<p>36. Give the old names in common use and the approximate equivalents in points.</p> + +<p>37. What can you say of 16, 20, 22, 28, and 40-point sizes?</p> + +<p>38. What are the advantages of the application of the point system to the width of type?</p> + +<p>39. What is meant by “lining” type faces?</p> + +<p>40. What is the chief advantage of the lining system?</p> + +<p>41. What is needed when a word of small type is placed beside a word of large type? Why?</p> + +<p>42. How is the line justified?</p> + +<p>43. Into what groups are type faces divided for aligning purposes?</p> + +<p>44. What are “combination series” of lining types?</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_31" id="Page_31">[Pg 31]</a></span> + 45. What are kerned types?</p> + +<p>46. How is kerning avoided?</p> + +<p>47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these expedients?</p> + +<p>48. What is an em quad?</p> + +<p>49. Describe the spaces used in type composition.</p> + +<p>50. Describe the mold used in type casting.</p> + +<p>51. Describe the three methods of making the matrix.</p> + +<p>52. What was the old method of casting type?</p> + +<p>53. What is the modern method?</p> + +<p>54. Describe the different kinds of type-casting machines.</p> + +<p>55. Describe the finishing of type after casting.</p> + +<p>56. How is type made outside the type foundries?</p> + +<p>57. What is a Linotype?</p> + +<p>58. What does a Linotype produce?</p> + +<p>59. Describe briefly the operation of a Linotype.</p> + +<p>60. How are Linotype matrices distributed?</p> + +<p>61. What does the operator have to do?</p> + +<p>62. What is a Monotype?</p> + +<p>63. What does a Monotype do?</p> + +<p>64. What are the essential differences between a Monotype and a Linotype?</p> + +<p>65. Describe the operation of the Monotype keyboard.</p> + +<p>66. Describe the operation of the casting machine.</p> + +<p>67. What peculiarity has the Monotype?</p> + +<p>68. What is type made of?</p> + +<p>69. What are the qualities of the several ingredients?</p> + +<p>70. What can you say of the uses of different metals in the type foundries?</p> + +<p>71. What sort of type metal is used in composing machines?</p> + +<p>72. What other material is used for type?</p> + +<p>73. For what purpose is it used?</p> + +<p>74. How is this kind of type made?</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_32" id="Page_32">[Pg 32]</a></span></p> +<h2>GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO TYPE</h2> + + +<p class="center">The numbers in parentheses refer to preceding pages in the text, where +further information about the different subjects may be found.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Agate</span>—A small size of type, about 5½-point. (<a href="#Page_14">14</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Ascending Letters</span>—The tall letters of the lower-case alphabet. (<a href="#Page_7">7</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Antimony</span>—One of the ingredients of type-metal; a silver-white, hard +crystalline metallic substance, used in chemistry and medicine, as well +as in industrial arts. (<a href="#Page_26">26</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bastard Types</span>—Those with faces larger or smaller than is commonly made +on a type-body. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Beard</span>—The beveled space below the face of a type. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Body</span>—The piece of metal upon which the face is cast. (<a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_8">8</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Body Size</span>—The size of a type considered from top to bottom of the +letter. (<a href="#Page_13">13</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Body Type</span>—The kinds of type, mostly roman faces, used for plain +composition in paragraphs or pages of one face; text letter.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Borders</span>—Characters cast in type, which may be adjustable in many ways, +as for marginal lines, panels, and other decorative uses. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Bourgeois</span>—An old size of type, about 9-point.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brass Type</span>—For stamping book covers, etc. Ordinary type-metal cannot +endure the heat which must be applied for stamping gold leaf, or +printing on hard, rough surfaces. Brass types are more expensive as well +as more durable.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Brevier</span>—An old size of type nearly equal to 8-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Canon</span>—An old size of type approximately 48-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Cap.</span>—Abbreviation for capital letter; s.c. or sm.cap., small capital.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Copper-faced Type</span>—New type coated by electric action, depositing a thin +film of copper, to make it more durable.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Copper Thin Spaces</span>—Extra thin spaces for justifying lines. (<a href="#Page_19">19</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Corner Quads</span>—Blanks cast in this shape <span title="L-shaped corner quad">▛</span> matching 6-point and +12-point quads; placed outside the corners of pages with mitered brass +rules to keep the joints in place.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Counter</span>—The blank space within the lines of a letter or other +character. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Descending Letters</span>—Those which have part of the face below the regular +alignment, g, p, y. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Diamond</span>—A small size of type, equal to about 4½-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Display Type</span>—A general term meaning the kinds of type made for +advertising, title pages, and other composition in which different sizes +and faces are used; in distinction from body type.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Em</span>—The square of a type body. En, half the width of the square. (<a href="#Page_19">19</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Extended</span>, <span class="smcap">Expanded</span>—An extra wide face of type.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_33" id="Page_33">[Pg 33]</a></span><span class="smcap">Face</span>—That part of a type or printing surface which leaves its +impression upon the sheet. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Feet</span>—The bottom of the type body. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Font</span>—A complete assortment of type of one size and face. (<a href="#Page_9">9</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Furniture</span>—A general term applied to pieces of soft metal, steel, or +wood, used to fill the large blank spaces in a printing form; made in +different sizes based upon a 12-point (pica) unit.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Great Primer</span>—An old size of type nearly equal to 18-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hair Spaces</span>—Very thin spaces. (<a href="#Page_19">19</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Height-to-paper</span>—The length of a type from top to bottom, including feet +and face. This is not measured by points, but by thousandths of an inch. +See Type-high. (<a href="#Page_7">7</a>, <a href="#Page_13">13</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">High Spaces and Quads</span>—Used in type composition when the page is to be +molded for electrotyping. (<a href="#Page_20">20</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">High-to-line</span>—When the face of a type is above the regular alignment of +the other letters in the line; when below the alignment it is +low-to-line. (<a href="#Page_17">17</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Hollow Quads</span>—Large blanks are sometimes cast with hollow parts to make +them lighter and to economize metal. See Quotations.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Italic</span>—The style of letters that <i>slope forward</i>, in distinction from +upright, or roman, letters. (<a href="#Page_10">10</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Jet</span>—The waste metal at the bottom of a type when it is first cast, +being the metal which cools in the aperture of the mold. (<a href="#Page_22">22</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Job Font</span>—A small assortment of type. (<a href="#Page_11">11</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Job Type</span>—The kinds used for miscellaneous work, usually in small fonts, +in distinction from book type, body letter, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Kerned Types</span>—Those which have a small part of the face projecting over +the body. (<a href="#Page_18">18</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Laying Type</span>—Putting a font of type into cases.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Leaders</span>—Dots or short dashes placed at intervals in open lines to guide +the eye, as in indexes, price-lists, etc. They are cast like quads for +sizes of type most used. Leaders are also made of brass.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Letter</span>—Sometimes this word is used to mean type. Letter-press printing, +that done with type. Letter foundry, a type foundry.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lining Type</span>—The exact alignment at top or bottom of the face on a +type-body. (<a href="#Page_16">16-18</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Linotype</span>—A machine for casting type in solid lines. (<a href="#Page_23">23</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Long Primer</span>—An old size of type nearly equal to 10-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Low-to-paper</span>—Said of a type when it does not come up to the height of +its mates; opposite of high-to-paper. (<a href="#Page_7">7</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Low Spaces and Quads</span>—Those used for ordinary composition, about +seven-eighths of the length of the type. (<a href="#Page_20">20</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Lower-case</span>—The small letters of the alphabet. (<a href="#Page_9">9</a>)</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_34" id="Page_34">[Pg 34]</a></span><span class="smcap">Matrix</span>—The shallow mold in which the face of a type is cast. (<a href="#Page_21">21</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Minion</span>—An old size of type, about 7-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Monotype</span>—A machine for casting and composing type. (<a href="#Page_25">25</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Mortised Type</span>—When some part of the body is cut away, either in the +interior or on the sides, to allow the insertion of another letter, or +to fit closer to an adjoining type. (<a href="#Page_18">18</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Music Type</span>—An assortment of characters cast in type for printing +music scores.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nick</span>—The notch on the side of a type. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>) In fonts made for use on the +Unitype composing machine each character has nicks in different +position and combination from every other character, to fit its +special channel, in order to control the various characters in the +operation of the machine. Thus the nicks in a line of Unitype matter +show great irregularity.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Nonpareil</span>—Old name for size of type equal to 6-point; half pica (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Off Its Feet</span>—Type must stand squarely upright in order to give a good +impression; when it leans one way or the other it is off its feet.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Paragon</span>—An old size of type, about 20-point (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Patent Space</span>—A type space thicker than three-to-em and less than the +en-quad. (<a href="#Page_19">19</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pearl</span>—An old size of type, about 5-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pi</span>—Types of different kinds mixed up in confusion.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pica</span>—Old name, but still commonly used, for a size of type equal to +12-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>) A common unit of measurement in typography.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Piece Fractions</span>—Fractions made up of two or more types; the numerator +and denominator cast separately, usually on bodies half the size of the +whole numbers or the type with which they are used. Sometimes called +split fractions.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Pin-mark</span>—The little mark sometimes seen on the side of foundry-made +type. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Point System</span>—The standard system of type bodies, based on the point as +a unit; in America the point is .0138 of an inch. Calculations are +simplified ordinarily by assuming the point as <sup>1</sup>⁄<sub>72</sub> of an inch. (<a href="#Page_13">13</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Poster Type</span>—Large sizes for billboard printing, mostly made of wood. +(<a href="#Page_27">27</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Punch</span>—In typefounding, an original die of a letter or character cut +on the end of a steel bar, used to make a matrix. (<a href="#Page_21">21</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quads</span>—Metal blanks used for large spaces in composing type. (<a href="#Page_19">19</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Quotations</span>—Large hollow quads; similar to metal furniture.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Rubber Type</span>—Cast with a vulcanized-rubber face mounted on short metal +bodies; not used in ordinary typographic printing, but classed with +rubber hand stamps.</p> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_35" id="Page_35">[Pg 35]</a></span><span class="smcap">Script</span>—A general name +for that class of type designed to imitate handwriting. (<a href="#Page_18">18</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sectional Type</span>—A style of type now in disuse, in which each letter was +made in two parts, the upper half being separate from the lower. Any +letter or character cast in two or more parts.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Serif</span>—The short cross-line or tick at the end of the main strokes in +roman letters. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Set</span>—The width of a type. (<a href="#Page_13">13</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Shoulder</span>—The blank space on the top of a type not covered by the +letter; specifically, the space above and below the letter, the space on +the side being designated by typefounders as side-bearings. (<a href="#Page_8">8</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Small Caps</span>—A secondary set of capitals made for fonts intended for book +work. They are slightly larger than the small (lower-case) letters, but +smaller than the regular capitals. See the side-headings in this +glossary. (<a href="#Page_9">9</a>, <a href="#Page_10">10</a>, <a href="#Page_12">12</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Small Pica</span>—An old size of type nearly equal to 11-point. (<a href="#Page_15">15</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Spaces</span>—Thin metal blanks used to separate words in a line. (<a href="#Page_19">19</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sort</span>—Any particular letter or character of a font, in distinction from +the complete assortment. “Out of sorts,” when some needed letters of a +font are missing.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Sort Order</span>—A request for some particular character of a font.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Two-line Letter</span>—A large letter covering two lines of the adjoining +text, used for initials at the beginning of paragraphs. Two-line +figures, used for displaying price-figures in advertisements, etc.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Type-high</span>—Of the standard height of type; said of an electrotype or +engraving that is the right height to accompany type. (<a href="#Page_7">7</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Type Metal</span>—A composition of lead, tin, and antimony. (<a href="#Page_26">26</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Typography</span>—The process of printing with forms composed of movable types +and small relief blocks.</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Weight Font</span>—A complete assortment of type measured by its weight +instead of by the number of each letter. (<a href="#Page_12">12</a>)</p> + +<p><span class="smcap">Weight of Type</span>—Four square inches of type, composed solid, weigh +approximately one pound. Thus, to find the weight of any given amount of +type composition, find the number of square inches and divide by four.</p> + +<p>One pound of type (about 4 square inches) contains the following number +of ems (solid) of the different sizes:</p> + +<table summary="Number of ems of sizes per pound of type"> +<tr><td align="right">18-point </td><td align="right"> 64 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">12-point </td><td align="right">144 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">11-point </td><td align="right">170 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">10-point </td><td align="right">207 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">9-point </td><td align="right">256 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">8-point </td><td align="right">324 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">7-point </td><td align="right">423 ems</td></tr> +<tr><td align="right">6-point </td><td align="right">576 ems</td></tr> +</table> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_i" id="Page_i">[Pg i]</a></span></p> +<h2>TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES<br /> +FOR APPRENTICES</h2> + +<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">The</span> following list of publications, comprising the <span class="smcap">Typographic +Technical Series for Apprentices</span>, has been prepared under the +supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of +America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, +and by individuals.</p> + +<p>Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group of +authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide the +printers of the United States—employers, journeymen, and +apprentices—with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive +compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various +branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in +orderly fashion for progressive study.</p> + +<p>The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 × 8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far +as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the +particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be +found under each title in the following list.</p> + +<p>Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody in +each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary +information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the +subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and +clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the +understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever +practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have +been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text.</p> + +<p>In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for +use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is +accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of +the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to +the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books.</p> + +<p>These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America.</p> + +<p>Address all orders and inquiries to <span class="smcap">Committee on Education, United +Typothetae of America, Chicago, Illinois, U. S. A.</span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ii" id="Page_ii">[Pg ii]</a></span></p> + +<p class="center"><big>PART I—<i>Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">1. <b>Type: a Primer of Information</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their +sizes, font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their +manufacture. 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">2. <b>Compositors’ Tools and Materials</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, +brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; +illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">3. <b>Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, +case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; +illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">4. <b>Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for +the press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. +59 pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">5. <b>Proof Presses</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the customary methods and machines +for taking printers’ proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">6. <b>Platen Printing Presses</b></td><td align="right">By Daniel Baker</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical +construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand +press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on +automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">7. <b>Cylinder Printing Presses</b></td><td align="right">By Herbert L. Baker</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal +types of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 +review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">8. <b>Mechanical Feeders and Folders</b></td><td align="right">By William E. Spurrier</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; +with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">9. <b>Power for Machinery in Printing Houses</b></td><td align="right">By Carl F. Scott</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses +and allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. +53 pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">10. <b>Paper Cutting Machines</b></td><td align="right">By Niel Gray, Jr.</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever +cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting +paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">11. <b>Printers’ Rollers</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and +care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; +glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">12. <b>Printing Inks</b></td><td align="right">By Philip Ruxton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by +permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of +Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the +everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iii" id="Page_iii">[Pg iii]</a></span></p> +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">13. <b>How Paper is Made</b></td><td align="right">By William Bond Wheelwright</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the materials and processes of +manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; +62 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">14. <b>Relief Engravings</b></td><td align="right">By Joseph P. Donovan</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of +engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for +reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. +Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">15. <b>Electrotyping and Stereotyping</b></td><td align="right">By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and +stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; +glossaries.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART II—<i>Hand and Machine Composition</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">16. <b>Typesetting</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, +spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. +Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">17. <b>Printers’ Proofs</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with +observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; +glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">18. <b>First Steps in Job Composition</b></td><td align="right">By Camille DeVéze</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first +jobs, especially about the important little things which go to +make good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">19. <b>General Job Composition</b></td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and +miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">20. <b>Book Composition</b></td><td align="right">By J. W. Bothwell</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Chapters from DeVinne’s “Modern Methods of Book Composition,” +revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. +Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of +pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 +review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">21. <b>Tabular Composition</b></td><td align="right">By Robert Seaver</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with +examples of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 +review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">22. <b>Applied Arithmetic</b></td><td align="right">By E. E. Sheldon</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, +calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard +tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with +examples and exercises. 159 pp.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">23. <b>Typecasting and Composing Machines</b></td><td align="right">A. W. Finlay, Editor</td></tr></table> + +<table width="100%" summary="titles"> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Section I—The Linotype</span></td><td align="right">By L. A. Hornstein</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Section II—The Monotype</span></td><td align="right">By Joseph Hays</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Section III—The Intertype</span></td><td align="right">By Henry W. Cozzens</td></tr> +<tr><td align="left"><span style="margin-left: 2.5em;">Section IV—Other Typecasting and Typesetting Machines</span></td><td align="right">By Frank H. Smith</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of +their mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; reviewquestions; glossary.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_iv" id="Page_iv">[Pg iv]</a></span></p> +<p class="center"><big>PART III—<i>Imposition and Stonework</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">24. <b>Locking Forms for the Job Press</b></td><td align="right">By Frank S. Henry</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, +and about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">25. <b>Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press</b></td><td align="right">By Frank S. Henry</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods +of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART IV—<i>Presswork</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">26. <b>Making Ready on Platen Presses</b></td><td align="right">By T. G. McGrew</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive +features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, +regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting +gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">27. <b>Cylinder Presswork</b></td><td align="right">By T. G. McGrew</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, +ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and +overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; +glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">28. <b>Pressroom Hints and Helps</b></td><td align="right">By Charles L. Dunton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with +directions and useful information relating to a variety of +printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">29. <b>Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts</b></td><td align="right">By A. W. Elson</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the distinctive features of the +relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. +84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART V—<i>Pamphlet and Book Binding</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">30. <b>Pamphlet Binding</b></td><td align="right">By Bancroft L. Goodwin</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the various operations employed in +binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; +review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">31. <b>Book Binding</b></td><td align="right">By John J. Pleger</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; +folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case +making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and +blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART VI—<i>Correct Literary Composition</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">32. <b>Word Study and English Grammar</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about words, their relations, and their +uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">33. <b>Punctuation</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their +use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_v" id="Page_v">[Pg v]</a></span></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">34. <b>Capitals</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical +typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review +questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">35. <b>Division of Words</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks +on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review +questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">36. <b>Compound Words</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A study of the principles of compounding, the components of +compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">37. <b>Abbreviations and Signs</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with +classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review +questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">38. <b>The Uses of Italic</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the history and uses of italic +letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">39. <b>Proofreading</b></td><td align="right">By Arnold Levitas</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The technical phases of the proofreader’s work; reading, marking, +revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated +by examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">40. <b>Preparation of Printers’ Copy</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in +preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review +questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">41. <b>Printers’ Manual of Style</b></td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions +relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, +abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">42. <b>The Printer’s Dictionary</b></td><td align="right">By A. A. Stewart</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about +various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical +terms explained. Illustrated.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART VII—<i>Design, Color, and Lettering</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">43. <b>Applied Design for Printers</b></td><td align="right">By Harry L. Gage</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on +the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats +of harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and +variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 +review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">44. <b>Elements of Typographic Design</b></td><td align="right">By Harry L. Gage</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building +material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and +illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, +treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. +Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vi" id="Page_vi">[Pg vi]</a></span></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">45. <b>Rudiments of Color in Printing</b></td><td align="right">By Harry L. Gage</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster +effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with +process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and +chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, +intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color +theory of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations +in full color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; +bibliography.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">46. <b>Lettering in Typography</b></td><td align="right">By Harry L. Gage</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Printer’s use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. +Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence on +type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. +Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. +Fully illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">47. <b>Typographic Design in Advertising</b></td><td align="right">By Harry L. Gage</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The printer’s function in advertising. Precepts upon which +advertising is based. Printer’s analysis of his copy. Emphasis, +legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising +typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; +bibliography.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">48. <b>Making Dummies and Layouts</b></td><td align="right">By Harry L. Gage</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a +proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. +Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy +envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; +bibliography.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART VIII—<i>History of Printing</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">49. <b>Books Before Typography</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and +the history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 +pp.; illustrated; 64 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">50. <b>The Invention of Typography</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. +64 pp.; 62 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">51. <b>History of Printing</b>—Part I</td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the +development of the book, the development of printers’ materials, +and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">52. <b>History of Printing</b>—Part II</td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry +from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, +internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review +questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">53. <b>Printing in England</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present +time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">54. <b>Printing in America</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes +on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; +84 review questions.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">55. <b>Type and Presses in America</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and +press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions.</p></div> + +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_vii" id="Page_vii">[Pg vii]</a></span></p> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART IX—<i>Cost Finding and Accounting</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">56. <b>Elements of Cost in Printing</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should +show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. +Glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">57. <b>Use of a Cost System</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should +show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. Glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">58. <b>The Printer as a Merchant</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. +The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of +the finished product. Review questions. Glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">59. <b>Fundamental Principles of Estimating</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for +estimating. Review questions. Glossary.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">60. <b>Estimating and Selling</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their +relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary.</p></div> + + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">61. <b>Accounting for Printers</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary +books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary.</p></div> + +<p> </p> +<p class="center"><big>PART X—<i>Miscellaneous</i></big></p> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">62. <b>Health, Sanitation, and Safety</b></td><td align="right">By Henry P. Porter</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; +practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and +rules for safety.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">63. <b>Topical Index</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic +Technical Series, alphabetically arranged.</p></div> + +<table width="100%" summary="names"><tr><td align="left">64. <b>Courses of Study</b></td><td align="right">By F. W. Hamilton</td></tr></table> + +<div class="blockquot"><p>A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for +classroom and shop work.</p></div> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_viii" id="Page_viii">[Pg viii]</a></span></p> +<h2>ACKNOWLEDGMENT</h2> + +<p class='dropcap'><span class="caps">This</span> series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America.</p> + +<p>The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, under +whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, +acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by +the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work.</p> + +<p>While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of +those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that +a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest.</p> + +<p>The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who have +co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, +constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books +comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which +the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be +printed in each volume.</p> + +<p>The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication.</p> + +<p class="lfooter"> +<span class="smcap">Committee on Education,</span><br /> +<span class="smcap">United Typothetae of America.</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Henry P. Porter</span>, <i>Chairman</i>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">E. Lawrence Fell</span>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">A. M. Glossbrenner</span>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">J. Clyde Oswald</span>,</span><br /> +<span style="margin-left: 2em;"><span class="smcap">Toby Rubovits</span>.</span><br /> +<br /> +<span class="smcap">Frederick W. Hamilton</span>, <i>Education Director</i>.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><span class='pagenum'><a name="Page_ix" id="Page_ix">[Pg ix]</a></span></p> +<h2>CONTRIBUTORS</h2> + + +<p><b>For Composition and Electrotypes</b></p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span class="smcap">Isaac H. Blanchard Company</span>, New York, N. Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">S. H. Burbank & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">J. S. Cushing & Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The DeVinne Press</span>, New York, N. Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">R. R. Donnelley & Sons Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Geo. H. Ellis Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Evans-Winter-Hebb</span>, Detroit, Mich.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Franklin Printing Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">F. H. Gilson Company</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Stephen Greene & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">W. F. Hall Printing Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">J. B. Lippincott Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">McCalla & Co. Inc.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Patteson Press</span>, New York, New York<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Plimpton Press</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Poole Bros.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Edward Stern & Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Stone Printing & Mfg. Co.</span>, Roanoke, Va.<br /> +<span class="smcap">C. D. Traphagen</span>, Lincoln, Neb.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The University Press</span>, Cambridge, Mass.</p> + +<p><b>For Composition</b></p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span class="smcap">Boston Typothetae School of Printing</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">William F. Fell Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Kalkhoff Company</span>, New York, N. Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oxford-Print</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Toby Rubovits</span>, Chicago, Ill.</p> + +<p><b>For Electrotypes</b></p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span class="smcap">Blomgren Brothers Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Flower Steel Electrotyping Co.</span>, New York, N. Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">C. J. Peters & Son Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Royal Electrotype Co.</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">H. C. Whitcomb & Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.</p> + +<p><b>For Engravings</b></p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span class="smcap">American Type Founders Co.</span>, Boston, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">C. B. Cottrell & Sons Co.</span>, Westerly, R. I.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Golding Manufacturing Co.</span>, Franklin, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Harvard University</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Inland Printer Co.</span>, Chicago, Ill.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Lanston Monotype Machine Company</span>, Philadelphia, Pa.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Mergenthaler Linotype Company</span>, New York, N. Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Geo. H. Morrill Co.</span>, Norwood, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">Oswald Publishing Co.</span>, New York, N. Y.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Printing Art</span>, Cambridge, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">B. D. Rising Paper Company</span>, Housatonic, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">The Vandercook Press</span>, Chicago, Ill.</p> + +<p><b>For Book Paper</b></p> + +<p class="indent"> +<span class="smcap">American Writing Paper Co.</span>, Holyoke, Mass.<br /> +<span class="smcap">West Virginia Pulp & Paper Co.</span>, Mechanicville, N. Y.</p> + + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p><b>Footnotes:</b></p> + +<p><a name="f1" id="f1" href="#f1.1">[1]</a> In old or much-used fonts to which additions have been made after +the first supply, the new letters, being cast later in a different +mold, may often show a difference in the position or the number of +nicks. In cases of this kind the apprentice should observe carefully +and inquire before deciding that a type with a different nick does not +belong to the font.</p> + +<p><a name="f2" id="f2" href="#f2.1">[2]</a> The small letters are called lower-case by printers, because they +are commonly kept in the lower case of a pair on the case-stand.</p> + +<p><a name="f3" id="f3" href="#f3.1">[3]</a> The period, comma, hyphen, apostrophe, and occasionally some other +character (such as the <i>$</i>) are often the same in both roman and italic +fonts that are intended as companion faces.</p> + +<p><a name="f4" id="f4" href="#f4.1">[4]</a> Job fonts are usually put up by founders in two sections, one +containing capitals, figures, and points; the other lower-case, with a +small portion of points. Diphthongs Æ Œ æ œ are not now included +in job fonts, and many advertising type fonts do not include the +lower-case ligatures <span title="[fi] ligature">fi</span> <span title="[ff] ligature">ff</span> <span title="[fl] ligature">fl</span> <span title="[ffi] ligature">ffi</span> <span title="[ffl] ligature">ffl</span>.</p> + +<p> </p><p> </p> +<hr style="width: 65%;" /> +<p> +<b>Transcriber’s Notes:</b> The original printed text contains a significant +number of characters which are not included in standard ASCII or +ISO-8859-1 encodings. Those glyphs are represented in this file using the numeric entities +of the Unicode characters which accurately represent these glyphs as printed in the original. +These characters have 'title' attributes added to their markup so that in the event +you see the symbol for an unrecognized character, you can hover over it for a description. +Most users should not encounter this issue, but in case it occurs it can be resolved +by installing a font which has broader coverage of the Unicode character set, and/or +enabling font substitution (if it is not enabled by default in your browser/OS settings). +</p> + + + + + + + + +<pre> + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Type, by A. A. 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A. Stewart + +This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere at no cost and with +almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away or +re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License included +with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org + + +Title: Type + Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices #1 + +Author: A. A. Stewart + +Release Date: June 10, 2011 [EBook #36372] + +Language: English + +Character set encoding: ASCII + +*** START OF THIS PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK TYPE *** + + + + +Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, David Garcia and +the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at +https://www.pgdp.net + + + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART I. NO. 1 + + + + + TYPE + + A PRIMER _of_ INFORMATION ABOUT THE + MECHANICAL FEATURES OF PRINTING + TYPES: THEIR SIZES, FONT SCHEMES, &c. + WITH A BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF + THEIR MANUFACTURE + + COMPILED BY + A. A. STEWART + + + PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + 1918 + + + + COPYRIGHT, 1918 + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA + CHICAGO, ILL. + + Composition by + PUPILS IN THE TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING + NORTH END UNION, BOSTON + + + + +PREFACE + + +This treatise is the first of a series of text-books, published under +the general title of _Typographic Technical Series for Apprentices_, +which have been prepared under the auspices of the Committee on +Education of the United Typothetae of America, for the use of +printers' apprentices and students of typographic printing. + +As will be noted by the table of contents, only the mechanical +features of type and the usual methods of its manufacture have been +considered here. No attempt has been made to review the history of +type-faces or the development of type-making processes. These phases +of the subject are considered in other publications of the series (see +p. 36) and in supplementary reading recommended for students (p. 28). + +It is not what they are but what they can be made to do under the +control of trained intelligence and skilful hands that makes printer's +types of importance to the world. No tools used in modern industry +seem simpler than these little pieces of metal, yet they are the +product of the most highly specialized skill and ingeniously perfected +mechanisms. To the young printer their physical elements are matters +of first concern. An understanding of these elements may be only a +small part of his trade education, but it is important. The +possibilities and the limitations of type can be appreciated only by +thorough familiarity with the technical details and niceties provided +by the modern typefounder. + +A special feature of this series of technical publications is the list +of Review Questions, which will be found at the end of each treatise +(see pp. 29-31). These questions cover the essential points in each +subject and will be of assistance to instructors, for examinations, +etc. A list of the other titles of the series, as well as a statement +of their plan and scope, will be found on pp. i-vii of this +publication. + + + + +CONTENTS + + PAGE + + FEATURES OF A TYPE 7 + + A FONT OF TYPE 9 + + SCHEME FOR JOB FONT 11 + + SCHEME FOR 100-LB. FONT 12 + + THE SIZES OF TYPE 13 + + LINING TYPE FACES 16 + + KERNED TYPES 18 + + SPACES AND QUADS 19 + + HOW TYPE IS MADE 20 + + THE LINOTYPE 23 + + THE MONOTYPE 25 + + INGREDIENTS OF TYPE METAL 26 + + WOOD TYPE 27 + + SUPPLEMENTARY READING 28 + + REVIEW QUESTIONS 29 + + GLOSSARY OF TERMS 32 + + + + +MECHANICAL FEATURES OF TYPE + + +Printing owes its development first and chiefly to movable metal +types. The so-called invention of printing was the discovery of a +method of making serviceable type in quantity. The idea of a separate +type for each letter of the alphabet was probably conceived long +before Gutenberg's time, but it remained for him and his associates to +devise an apparatus for making them quickly and accurately enough to +be of practical value. That apparatus was the type mold, which +experience has since proved to be the most efficient means of securing +exactness and uniformity in a number of small pieces of metal. + +Type is made of an alloy of lead, tin, and antimony. Its length +(technically called height-to-paper) is .918 of an inch. Each type is +cast separately in a mold, and has the letter or printing character in +bold relief on one end. + +[Illustration] + +Exact uniformity of body is necessary in order that the types, when +composed in lines and pages, may be locked together by pressure at the +sides so as to make a compact mass. All types in a printing form must +be of the same height, so that their faces may present a uniformly +level surface from which an impression may be made that will show all +the characters clearly. A short type will print faintly or will not +print at all, while a long one will be unduly forced into the sheet. + +[Illustration] + +There are on an average about one hundred and fifty roman letters and +other characters required in ordinary book printing. These letters are +divided into a number of classes: full-body letters, ascending +letters, descending letters, short letters; and in some cases, small +capitals, which are larger than short letters but not so tall as +capitals or ascenders. Only a few letters, like J and Q, cover +nearly the entire surface on the end of the type; other letters, like +B h l i, cover the upper portion chiefly and leave a blank space at +the bottom; while the small letters, like a e o u v, occupy only the +middle portion of the surface; still others, like g y p, cover the +middle and lower portions of the surface. As all these irregular +shapes must be made to appear in line with each other, the type-body +on which they are made is larger than the letter. The blank parts +around the face of a letter are called the counter, the shoulder, and +the beard. The counter is the shallow place between the lines of the +face. The shoulder is the low flat part of the type around the face. +The beard is the sloping part between the face and the shoulder. + +[Illustration: + A A, the face + B B, the serifs + C C, the counter + E, the pin-mark + F F, the beard + G, the shoulder + H, the nick + J J, the feet + K, the groove] + +An important feature of a type is the nick on the side of the body. In +many cases there may be two, three, or even four nicks on a type. +Usually all the types of a font have nicks that are identical in +number and position, and when the types are composed in lines these +nicks match each other and form continuous grooves on the lower part +of the line of type. + +The nicks serve as guides to the compositor when taking the type from +the case to his composing stick, and they assist in distinguishing the +types of one font or face from those of another on the same size of +body.[1] Individual letters of different type faces sometimes bear +such close resemblance that they are more readily distinguished by +the nick or some other body-mark than by the face. A difference in +alignment of nicks in a line will readily show the presence of a +wrong-font letter. Typefounders sometimes make an extra nick on a few +small-capitals (o s v w x z) in order to distinguish these types from +the lower-case letters of the same font. + + +_A Font of Type_ + +A font of type is an assortment of one size and kind that is used +together. It is usually all the type in the composing-room of a +certain kind matching in body, nick, and face. A small font may be +held in one case, but several cases may be required for a font of +large quantity. + +An ordinary font of roman type for book work will include these +characters: + +_Roman Capitals_-- + A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AE [OE] + +_Small Capitals_-- + A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AE [OE] + +_Lower-case Letters_[2]-- + a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae [oe] + [fi] [fl] [ff] [ffi] [ffl] + +_Figures_-- + 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 (or oldstyle 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0) + +_Marks of Punctuation_--Period . comma , colon : semi-colon ; hyphen - +apostrophe ' exclamation mark ! question mark ? parenthesis ( bracket [ +The latter two are used in pairs () [], the second type being set in +reversed position. + +_Quotation Marks_ are made by two inverted commas " at the beginning +and two apostrophes " at the end of the quoted matter. In some fonts +there is a double mark |"| |"| cast on single bodies, but these are +not often used. + +_Dashes_--En - em -- two-em ---- three-em ------ + +_Reference Marks_--Asterisk or star * dagger [Symbol: dagger] double +dagger [Symbol: double dagger] section [Symbol: section] parallel || +paragraph [Symbol: pilcrow] index (hand, or fist) [Symbol: right hand] + +_Braces_--Two-em [Graphic: two-em brace] three-em [Graphic: three-em +brace] pieced braces [Graphic: pieced brace] made on em bodies, which +may be extended more or less with dashes [Graphic: longer pieced brace] + +The dollar-mark $, short-and (or round-and) &, and sterling pound-mark +L are also included with all full fonts. + +The character [ct] is an old-style ligature (two joined letters cast +on one type) made in some fonts of old-style faces. It is one of the +many letter combinations formerly common, in imitation of the work of +old manuscript writers. + +Many styles of roman types have italic letters to match, but the +italic fonts include only capitals, lower-case, figures, and +punctuation marks: + +_Italic Capitals_-- + _A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AE [OE]_ + +_Italic Lower-case_-- + _a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z ae [oe]_ + +_Italic Figures_-- + _1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0_ (_1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0_) + +_Italic Points, etc._[3]-- + _. , : ; - ' ! ? ) $ &_ + +Small capitals are not made for italic fonts, except in rare cases. +When they are needed in composition, capitals of a smaller size of +type are justified into the text line. + +Other extra characters, not included in ordinary fonts but which may +be added when required, are accented letters (a e e [=i] [=o] u etc.), +fractions 3/4 5/13 etc.), mathematical signs (+ x / = etc.), +superior (^{ab 42}) and inferior (_{ab 12}) letters and figures, +leaders (............), commercial signs (@ [Symbol: lb bar] [Symbol: +per sign] [Symbol: account of] c), and many other characters for +special kinds of printing. + +Fonts of advertising, jobbing, and display types usually consist +of the capitals, lower-case letters, figures, and points, with +occasionally a few extra characters. For many recent styles of heavy +faces the founders furnish fractions, accented letters, and other +special characters to match in boldness of face, but these are not +included in ordinary letter-fonts. + +The quantity of each character apportioned to a regular font is the +estimated average required for ordinary composition in the English +language. It is rare that more than a fraction of a small font can +be used in any piece of composition. No general scheme can meet the +needs of every kind of work; tables and statistical matter will need +extra figures, directories and other lists will call for surplus +capitals, dialogue matter will need more than the usual portion of +commas and apostrophes for quote-marks; even plain descriptive +composition will often call for extra "sorts." For these and other +peculiar kinds of composition extra quantities of some characters, +as well as other material, must be provided. + +Ordinary roman and other faces used in large quantities are measured +by weight. The proportion of letters in a 100-pound font, showing +the proportions of each character, is given on the next page. +Miscellaneous faces used in small quantities are put up in fonts +containing a certain number of each letter, the size of the font +being designated by the number of capital A's and lower-case a's +it contains. + +_Scheme for 15-A 30-a Job Font of 12-Point[4]_ + + +------------+------------+---------------+ + | CAPITALS | LOWER-CASE | POINTS | + | A 15 | a 30 | period 31 | + | B 6 | b 12 | comma 31 | + | C 10 | c 16 | colon 6 | + | D 8 | d 18 | semi-colon 6 | + | E 18 | e 40 | hyphen 9 | + | F 7 | f 12 | apostrophe 13 | + | G 7 | g 12 | ! 9 | + | H 8 | h 20 | ? 8 | + | I 15 | i 30 | ( 6 | + | J 5 | j 8 | | + | K 5 | k 8 | FIGURES | + | L 10 | l 20 | | + | M 8 | m 16 | 1 5 | + | N 15 | n 30 | 2 4 | + | O 15 | o 30 | 3 4 | + | P 8 | p 12 | 4 4 | + | Q 3 | q 6 | 5 4 | + | R 15 | r 30 | 6 4 | + | S 15 | s 30 | 7 4 | + | T 15 | t 30 | 8 4 | + | U 8 | u 16 | 9 5 | + | V 5 | v 8 | 0 6 | + | W 6 | w 12 | $ 4 | + | X 3 | x 6 | L 1 | + | Y 6 | y 12 | | + | Z 3 | z 6 | | + | & 6 | [fi] 3 | | + | | [fl] 3 | | + | | [ff] 3 | | + | | [ffi] 2 | | + | | [ffl] 2 | | + +------------+------------+---------------+ + +A WEIGHT FONT + +_Proportion of Letters &c. in 100 lb. of Roman Type_ + + +-----------+------------+--------------+--------------------+ + | CAPITALS | SMALL CAPS.| LOWER CASE | FIGURES | + | _oz_ | _oz_ | _lb_ _oz_ | _oz_ | + | A 8-1/2 | A 2-1/2 | a 4 6 | 1 8 | + | B 5 | B 1-1/2 | b 1 - | 2 6-1/2 | + | C 7-1/2 | C 2 | c 1 14 | 3 5-1/2 | + | D 6-1/2 | D 2 | d 3 - | 4 5 | + | E 10 | E 3-1/2 | e 6 8 | 5 6-1/2 | + | F 5 | F 1-1/2 | f 1 1 | 6 5 | + | G 5-1/2 | G 1-1/2 | g 1 4 | 7 5 | + | H 6-1/2 | H 2 | h 3 8 | 8 5 | + | I 6 | I 1-3/4 | i 2 12 | 9 5 | + | J 4-1/2 | J 1-1/4 | j - 5 | 0 10 | + | K 4 | K 1-1/4 | k - 8 | 2 | + | L 6 | L 2 | l 1 8 | L 1/2 | + | M 7-1/2 | M 2-1/4 | m 2 10 | ----- | + | N 7-1/2 | N 2-1/2 | n 4 6 | 4_lb_ | + | O 7-1/2 | O 2-1/2 | o 4 4 | | + | P 6 | P 1-3/4 | p 1 6 | POINTS | + | Q 2-1/2 | Q 3/4 | q - 5 | _lb_ _oz_ | + | R 8 | R 2-1/4 | r 3 5 | period 1 - | + | S 8 | S 2-1/4 | s 3 6 | comma 1 8 | + | T 9 | T 2-1/2 | t 3 12 | colon - 2 | + | U 5 | U 1-1/2 | u 2 2 | semi-colon - 3 | + | V 3-1/2 | V 1 | v - 14 | hyphen - 9 | + | W 7 | W 2 | w 1 10 | apostrophe - 4 | + | X 2 | X 3/4 | x - 5 | ! - 2 | + | Y 4-1/2 | Y 1-1/4 | y 1 4 | -- - 3 | + | Z 2 | Z 1/2 | z - 4 | ( - 2 | + | AE 3/4 | AE 1/4 | ae - 1 | [ - 1 | + | [OE] 3/4 | [OE] 1/4 | [oe] - 1 | ------ | + | & 3-1/2 | & 1 | [fi] - 5 | 4 4 | + | ------ | ----- | [ff] - 4 | | + | 10_lb_ | 3_lb_ | [ffi] - 4 | SPACES AND QUADS | + |-----------+------------| [fl] - 3 | _lb_ _oz_ | + | | [ffl] - 3 | hair - 2 | + | TOTALS _lb_ | ------- | 5-to-em - 10 | + | Capitals 10 | 58 12 | 4-to-em 1 - | + | Small capitals 3 | | 3-to-em 6 - | + | Lower-case 58-3/4 | | en-quad 2 4 | + | Figures 4 | | em " 1 10 | + | Points 4-1/4 | | 2-em " 4 2 | + | Spaces 20 | | 3-em " 4 4 | + | and Quads ------- | | ------ | + | 100_lb_ | | 20_lb_ | + +------------------------+--------------+--------------------+ + +Weight fonts of body type are usually put up by the founders in +sections or parts of fonts as given in the above summary of totals, +so that one or more of these sections may be obtained to supplement +a font already in use. + +It will be noted that braces, dashes, and reference-marks are omitted +in the above list. These characters, like fractions, commercial signs, +etc., are not now considered parts of ordinary fonts, but are put up +in separate packages and must be specially ordered when wanted. + +Font schemes apportioned in quantities like the foregoing are more or +less closely adhered to for original packages of foundry-cast type. To +insure precision, when ordering, it is necessary to state not only the +quantity (by number of letters or weight) but also whether a complete +font or part of a complete font (capital font, lower-case font, or +figure font) is referred to. + + +_The Sizes of Type_ + +All printing type has, first, a name denoting its size, and second, +one denoting the style of its face. For instance, the type used for +the text of this book is 10-point (its size) Lining Caslon Oldstyle +(the foundry name of its face). + +[Illustration] + +The _size_ of a type is the vertical thickness of its body--the +thickness of a line up and down the page. The width of a type is its +_set_. Thus a 12-point en-quad is 12-point body and 6-point set, a +10-point figure of the thickness of an en quad is 10-point body and +5-point set, etc. The total length of a type, including feet and face, +is its _height-to-paper_. + +American type sizes conform to a graduated scale known as the point +system. The unit of the system is a division of space called a +_point_, which is .0138+ (approximately 1/72) of an inch. Type bodies +are multiples of this point. + +The usual sizes are graduated by points up to 12-point. Sizes above +18-point are multiples of 6-point up to 60-point (18, 24, 30, 36, 42, +48, 54, 60). Larger sizes are 72-point, 84-point (rare), 96-point, +120-point, and 144-point, the latter being the largest type commonly +cast in a mold. + +[Illustration: + + Agate ABCDEFGHIJKLMabcdefghijklmnop + 6-point ABCDEFGHIJKabcdefehijklmnopqrstw + 8-point ABCDEFabcdefghijklmnop + 10-point ABCDEabcdefghijklmr + 12-point ABCDEabcdefghi + 14-point ABCDabcdghi + 18-point DEFcdjklu + 24-point BCabyc + 30-point Bangl + 36-point Bats + 42-point Bld + 48-point Ht + +The above squares show one em of the sizes stated. The letters show +the size of face made on the body.] + +In addition to the small sizes shown in the accompanying illustration, +there are some intermediate sizes like 5-1/2-point and 4-1/2-point, +and type as small as 3-point has been made. These are rare, however, +as type smaller than 5-1/2-point is not practicable for extended use. +These small sizes are employed for special purposes, like miniature +editions of books (parts of the Bible, prayer books, etc.) cut-in +notes, piece-fractions, small borders, special characters, and +occasional words or lines that are required to be put in the smallest +possible space. The size of type known as agate (fourteen lines to an +inch) is considered the common standard of measurement for newspaper +and magazine advertising space. + +Many plain types for books, periodicals, etc., are made only in small +sizes. Certain faces are made in a few sizes only, while others are +made in more or less complete series from 6-point to 48-point. The +irregular sizes of 5-1/2-point, 7-point, 9-point, and 11-point are +mostly roman faces, with companion italics, and a few bolder styles +for headings and other display in combination with romans of the same +body. Many new faces are now made by founders in graded series from +6-point to 72-point, and in some cases even larger. Type faces adapted +to many kinds of work are made in nearly all the regular sizes, while +those faces designed for small and dainty work, like personal and +society cards and stationery, are made only in the smaller sizes of +the list. + +Types are now often cast with faces larger or smaller than is commonly +made on the body, such as a 12-point face on 10-point body, giving the +effect of compactness; or an 8-point face made on a 10-point body, +which gives a lighter appearance as if opened with 2-point leads. +These are known as bastard types. Because of this irregularity in the +faces of types it is difficult to know the exact body-size of a type +by merely examining a printed sheet. + +Borders, ornaments, florets, and decorative characters cast on +type-bodies are now made mostly in sizes based on the 6-point as +the unit (6, 12, 18, 24-point, and larger multiples), but 8-point, +10-point, and 14-point sizes are sometimes used. + +Before the adoption of the point system, type sizes were named in +a haphazard way. Arbitrary names were given to certain sizes and in +many cases types of the same name made by different founders varied +so much in size that they could not be used together without great +inconvenience to the printer. Some of these old names still survive +and are applied to the point-system bodies which approximate the old +sizes. + + + POINT SIZE OLD NAME + + 3-point excelsior + 4-point brilliant + 4-1/2-point diamond + 5-point pearl + 5-1/2-point agate + 6-point nonpareil + 7-point minion + 8-point brevier + 9-point bourgeois + 10-point long primer + 11-point small pica + 12-point pica + 14-point english + 16-point columbian + 18-point { great primer + { three-line nonpareil + 20-point paragon + 22-point two-line small pica + 24-point two-line pica + 28-point two-line english + 32-point two-line columbian + 36-point two-line great primer + 40-point two-line paragon + 44-point meridian + 48-point canon, four-line pica + +While these old names and their sizes are now nearly obsolete, young +printers should learn the names and associate them with their +corresponding sizes of the point system. In the foregoing list there +are several intermediate sizes (16, 20, 22, 28, 32, 40, 44-point) +rarely used for type of recent design. Fonts of these odd sizes may +be sometimes found, and there has been a size of 15-point made, but +little used. These odd sizes are, however, mostly old faces, scripts, +and black-letter, originally cast on old bodies and later, after the +introduction of the point system, made on new point-bodies which are +nearest to their original sizes. + +The point system has been applied to the width of types, as well as +to the body-size; that is, the set of each type is fixed at a given +number of points or fraction thereof. This method simplifies in a +degree the process of accurate justification, as each line, though +containing various letters and spaces, is composed of the same number +of units. An advantage over the old method of unrelated widths is in +the saving of time in composition, by reducing the number of different +widths in the characters of the alphabet. By the old method each type +had its own special width; in a complete font there might be a hundred +or more different widths. By the modern point system those characters +which are nearly alike in width are made on the same set, or, if +different, the variation is governed by the standard unit. + + +_Lining Type Faces_ + +American founders have adopted the practice of casting type-faces on +uniform lining systems, variously known as American line, standard +line, uniform line, etc. The earlier practice was to cast the type of +a font so that the letters would align at the bottom only with their +mates of the same font, without reference to any other face of type. +When the compositor had occasion to use two or more different faces of +type in the same line, these faces were rarely in even alignment, but +were irregularly high or low, as shown in the accompanying example +[A]. This lack of uniformity made it necessary when a different +face was used in the line, as is often required in jobbing and +advertisements, to use thin leads, cards, or pieces of paper above and +below different parts of the type-line in order to get the faces in +line--an operation more or less troublesome and expensive. By the +modern lining system, the faces made on any given size of body are +cast to align with each other, as shown in the second example [B]. +These different faces require no more adjustment than if they were +all of one font. + +[Illustration: + Showing irregular alignment of faces, the old method. + Showing exact alignment of different faces, the modern way.] + +On different sizes of type the shoulder, or blank space, at the bottom +of the letter increases gradually with the size of the type, so that a +word of small type placed beside a larger size must have some spacing +material below as well as above to keep it in its right alignment. +This necessary difference in the face-alignment of various sizes is +graduated by points, in the lining system, so that when more than one +size type is used in the same line the justification is made by using +point-body leads. This makes the use of slips of card and paper +unnecessary and secures greater accuracy and solidity of the composed +page. + +[Illustration: 30-point to 6-point lined up with 1-point] + +Faces of radically different style are not, however, all cast on the +same alignment, but are classified into three groups. One group +embraces the majority of type-faces, those having capitals and small +letters, g y p j. Another group embraces fonts of capitals only, +mostly faces known as title letters and combination lining faces +which, having no descenders, may be made lower on the body. A third +group includes those faces having long descenders, like script types, +which must be placed high on the body. + +[Illustration: + These types show letters cast on [A] the common line, [B] title line, + [C] script line.] + +A common class of "lining" types for job work are the combination +series, or those having two or more sizes of face (capitals only) cast +on bodies of the same size. Each face is made to line with the others +on the same body, and all the faces are readily used in combination, +with a single size of spaces and quads. In order that the type of each +face may be readily distinguished, the nicks are varied in number or +position--a single nick for one face, two nicks for another, etc. + +[Illustration: AMERICAN LINING SYSTEM] + +_Kerned Types_ + +When the face of a letter is so large that it projects over the +type-body, it is known as a kerned type. Letters of this kind are +common in italic and script fonts, and there are a few letters, like +f and j, in some oldstyle roman fonts which have the tip of the letter +overhang. Kerned types are a source of trouble because of the ease +with which these projections break off during composition, proofing, +etc. Yet they cannot be entirely dispensed with, especially in italic +and script faces having a definite slope, where the long letters would +have wide gaps on the side (as shown in the script line above) if they +were cast on bodies wide enough to hold the entire face. In some +styles of upright faces having extra long descending letters g, p, q, +y, these descenders may be kerned. + +[Illustration: + s l o p i n g sloping + Showing why some letters must be made on kerned types.] + +[Illustration: + Large italic letters are sometimes mortised at the + corners, instead of kerned, to allow the next letter to fit close.] + +Modern type-makers try, by changing the shape of the letters slightly, +to avoid kerns as much as possible, because of the extra care and +expense involved in casting. Too often, unfortunately, this avoidance +of the kern, in order to meet mechanical convenience, is secured by +sacrificing the distinctive form of the letter. + + +_Spaces and Quads_ + +Short metal spaces and quads (from _quadrat_, a square), used for +blanks between words and elsewhere, are of various thicknesses, as +illustrated below. An em is a square of type body of any size. This +10-point em [Symbol: hollow square] is ten points square; a 10-point +three-to-em space is one third of the em, a four-to-em is one fourth, +etc. The en quad is really a thick space, though called a quad, and +is equal to half the em. Larger blanks are the two-em and three-em +quads, used to fill the last lines of paragraphs and other wide spaces. + +[Illustration: 10-POINT SPACES AND QUADS + hair space + five-to-em + four-to-em + three-to-em + en-quad + em-quad + two-em + three-em] + +The metal blanks shown here are the regular spaces and quads belonging +to a font of type of the size of 10-point. They enable the compositor +to obtain the many different spacings required to make lines the +required length, and to properly separate words and place them +wherever desired in the line. While these thicknesses of spaces are +the usual kinds for sizes of type up to 12-point, larger types may +have other kinds of spaces, six-to-em, eight-to-em, and even smaller +divisions. The thickness of the hair space does not always bear the +same proportion to the em quad; in some sizes it is one sixth of the +em, in others it may be one eighth or one twelfth. Very thin spaces +(copper 1/2-point, brass 1-point), for exact spacing and justifying, +are supplied by dealers. + +A space of the thickness intermediate between the three-to-em and the +en quad, known as a patent space, has been made for use in book work. +Although it has great advantage as a substitute for two of the thinner +spaces when these are needed in spacing a line, its use has been +limited and it is not included with the usual assortment furnished by +dealers. + +The common spaces and quads for general work, when the type itself is +used for printing, are about seven-eighths of the height of the type, +so that they are well below the printing surface. A type-page composed +with these spaces will have a little deep hole at the top of each +space. These numerous little holes present a difficult surface for +making a good wax mold when an electroplate is made for printing. +Where much molding is to be done, higher spaces, quads, and other +blanks are provided. These high spaces and quads reach nearly to the +shoulder of the type. + + +_How Type is Made_ + +[Illustration: + Solid lines indicate one half of the mold. Dotted lines show the other + half in position. Shaded portion represents type metal filling aperture + in the mold. The molten type metal flows through the opening at A, down + to the side B, where the matrix (not shown in this diagram) molds the + face of the type. The tag of metal, called the jet, marked C, is cut + off after casting. D is a narrow flange on the mold which forms the + nick on the under surface of the type body.] + +The mold in which type is cast consists of two essential parts--the +steel box in which the body is formed, and the matrix which contains +a sunken image of the character. The matrix covers the opening at one +end of the mold, and on the opposite end (which is the foot of the +type) is an opening through which the melted metal is injected. A mold +is made for a single body-size of type but it is adjustable sideways +to correspond to the various widths of the letters in an alphabet. One +mold may be used to cast, in succession, all the letters of a font of +type, or it may be used to cast any number of fonts of different faces +that may be made on the same body, by merely changing the matrices +that form the face. The mold is made in two sections, which are +fitted together so as to close up to the required width of the letter, +and, after the cast is made, to open slightly in order to release the +type. + +[Illustration: Matrix] + +_The Matrix._ There are three different methods of making type +matrices. By the oldest method the first step is to cut the character +on the end of a small bar of soft steel, called a punch; when this is +done, the steel is hardened and it is used to stamp an impression in a +bar of copper. This copper bar is a matrix in the rough, and its sides +are next trimmed and squared so that it will fit the mold. + +[Illustration: + Type-mold complete, in two parts, but without the matrix (which is + shown separately above). Position of the matrix when cast is made + is indicated by the letter H on the end of the type within the mold. + The upper and lower halves of the mold slide horizontally, to make + the interior casting-box wide or narrow to conform to the required + widths of various letters.] + +The second method of making a matrix is by electrotype process. The +original pattern of the letter may be engraved by hand or by other +operation, or it may be a perfect type-face of a previous casting. +This is fitted into a small frame of brass and then held in the vat +of an electro-galvanic battery, which deposits a thick film of copper +around the pattern and fills the opening in the brass frame. When this +electro-plating process is completed, the pattern letter is extracted +and the brass frame, with its copper impression of the letter, becomes +the essential feature of the matrix. It is then reinforced by riveting +another plate on the back, and is trimmed and fitted to place on the +mold. + +A third process of making matrices is with an automatic matrix-cutting +machine, in which the shape of the desired letter is cut in the face +of a plate of composition metal by a small rapidly-revolving cutting +point. A large pattern of the letter is placed in one part of the +machine, and while the operator traces the outline with the point of a +lever all the motions are duplicated in miniature by the cutting tool +on the bar of metal, which becomes, when completed, a matrix. + +_Casting the Type._ The old-time method of casting type was with hand +molds, the melted metal being poured in at the foot of the mold with a +small ladle while the mold was held in the hand. In the modern casting +machine, the mold with its matrix, is assembled by the side of the +metal pot, in which the metal is kept at a uniform temperature by +means of a gas furnace. + +In the center of this metal pot is a rod with a spring attachment +which, at each operation of the machine, acts as a plunger to force a +small stream of hot metal through a side aperture into the jet-hole +of the mold. After the casting, the two parts of the mold separate +slightly, the matrix is drawn away from the face of the type, and the +cast is moved out; then the mold and matrix close together again and +the operation is repeated. Cold water or air is circulated near the +mold to keep an even temperature. The matrix for one character only +is placed in the machine and when enough types have been cast, it is +taken out and replaced by another, the change usually requiring but +a few moments. + +There are several kinds of type-casting machines in use, such as hand +casters, steam casters, and automatic casters. The older style is +the hand caster, which is operated by a small wheel with a handle +attached. Steam casters are operated by mechanical power (originally +steam power). + +When type is cast by a hand machine it is unfinished, as a piece of +metal called the jet still adheres to the bottom of each type. This +jet is broken off, and the types are set in long lines and fastened +in a narrow channel, face down. A small plane smooths away the rough +surface caused by breaking off the jet. This leaves a shallow groove +on the bottom of each type and allows it to stand squarely on its +feet. The types also have slight burs and sharp edges of metal which +must be rubbed off before they are ready for inspection and for the +font-room. Type cast on the older "steam" machines require the jet to +be broken off after the casting, and the final finishing of the type +is done afterward by other operations. These finishing touches are +done mostly by hand, with the aid of a polishing stone or a small +dressing wheel. + +On the automatic machine, which is the modern method of casting type, +breaking off the jet, rubbing, dressing, etc., are all accomplished +automatically on the machine, the types coming out in a continuous +line practically ready for the compositor's case. + + * * * * * + +The foregoing describes in a general way the methods of making type +by the regular founders. There is now a great deal of type made by +automatic composing and casting machines installed directly in many +composing rooms. + +Two distinctive styles of these machines are now extensively used--the +Linotype and the Monotype. Both of these have reached a high degree of +efficiency because of their nice mechanisms, based on the principle of +automatically operated molds, matrices, and delivery devices. + +In the Linotype the matrices for a desired line of words are assembled +side by side and the line is cast in one piece. + +In the Monotype the mechanism automatically and rapidly adjusts the +matrix of the desired letters one at a time over the mold, and each +type is cast and moved along into lines and then into a column on a +galley. + + +_The Linotype_ + +The Linotype (line-o'-type) consists of a mechanism for assembling +brass dies or matrices in lines, presenting them in front of a mold +in which a type-high metal bar, or slug, is cast, and returning the +matrices to their respective channels for use again. The brass +matrices have the characters of the alphabet, figures, points, etc., +sunk into their edges; these are held in a magazine, which is an +arrangement of channels in an inclined position above a keyboard. By +the pressing of a key the required matrix is released, which drops and +is carried into place by a small belt. Wedge-shaped space-bands are +also controlled by a key, and when sufficient matrices and space-bands +are assembled to make the line a bell rings. By operating a lever the +line of matrices then moves in front of the mold inserted in the side +of a wheel and behind which is a pot of melted metal. + +[Illustration: Four-Magazine Linotype Machine] + +By the next operation the space-bands are pushed between the words, +thus spreading them to the measure. The line justified, a plunger in +the metal-pot forces a quantity of metal into the mold and against the +line of matrices, forming a metal strip or slug with the letters in +relief on one edge. After the cast is made, a turn of the mold-wheel +and other mechanism shaves off the surplus metal on the foot of the +slug and pushes it between knife-edges, where it is trimmed on the +sides, and is then pushed on to a galley. The melting of the metal is +done by a small gas furnace under the metal-pot. + +After the matrices have been used for the line they are lifted by an +arm to the top of the machine and distributed again, each character +in its particular channel in the magazine. The matrices for each +character have a set of notches or teeth different from every other +character; and as they are moved along the distributing apparatus by +horizontal screws each matrix reaches a point where its notches are +matched and it drops into the top of its channel. There are a number +of matrices of each character, and the arrangement of the machine +is such that three lines of matrices may be kept in operation at +once--one being assembled, one at the casting mold, and the third +being distributed. + +The work of the operator is to manipulate the keyboard and, at the end +of each line, move a lever which engages the mechanism that carries +the assembled line to the mold. All other operations are performed by +mechanical power. + + +_The Monotype_ + +[Illustration: Monotype Keyboard] + +The Lanston Monotype is a type-casting machine which produces separate +types set in lines of any length, up to sixty ems pica, spaced and +justified. It is in two parts--a keyboard and a casting machine. The +function of the keyboard section is to punch a series of holes in a +moving strip of paper, which unwinds from one spool to another, +passing under a series of punches in its journey. The punches are +operated by pressing the keys on the keyboard, the result of this +operation being a roll of perforated paper ribbon. This ribbon is then +taken to the casting machine, which contains a pot for melted metal, a +stationary mold for the size of type to be cast, and a matrix-plate. +The matrix-plate is about five inches square, and has on its face +depressed images or matrices of each letter and character of the font. +The perforated strip of paper, when fed to its place, controls the +movement of the matrix-plate, so that the required letter is adjusted +exactly in place over the mold, while the melted metal is squirted in +to form the type. The type then moves away and takes its proper place +in the line, until the line is completed, when it is automatically +moved out on to a galley. + +The Monotype keyboard, being an entirely separate machine, may be and +usually is operated in any place away from the casting apparatus and +work may be executed on it anytime before casting. The perforated roll +may be fed through any number of times to produce duplicate castings +of the matter, and a matrix-plate for a different face may be used if +desired. In the casting of the line the proper spaces are cast with +it, the spacing needed to justify each line being indicated on the +perforated record during composition on the keyboard. + +[Illustration: Monotype Casting Machine] + +A peculiarity of Monotype composition is that, while the keyboard +produces the perforated roll in the usual sequence from beginning to +end of the story, the casting machine reverses the process by starting +at the end of the composition and finishing up with the beginning. + + +_Ingredients of Type Metal_ + +The metal used for casting type is a mixture of lead (five parts), +antimony (two parts), tin (one part), and sometimes a small addition +of copper. Lead forms the chief part of all type metal, as it melts +easily and fuses readily with other metals; but lead alone is too +soft for the service required of type. Antimony is brittle and gives +hardness, and tin is added to impart toughness. Lead and antimony in +approximately these proportions make an alloy which has the unusual +quality of expanding slightly, instead of shrinking, when cooling, +thus permitting a full, sharp cast in all parts of the mold. Tin flows +readily when melted and increases the smoothness of the cast on the +surface of the mold. A small quantity of copper may sometimes be added +to give still greater toughness. + +The metal used for small sizes of type is commonly harder than that +used for the large sizes, the softness of the metal gradually +increasing with the size of type made. Script types and faces with +delicate lines are usually cast with metal a little harder than that +used for the normal and bolder faces. + +The foregoing refers more particularly to type cast by the regular +foundries. The metal used in automatic casting machines, like the +Monotype, contains a larger proportion of lead and less antimony; +while the metal used for casting line-slugs in the Linotype machine is +composed of still larger proportion of lead and very little of the +other two metals. Stereotype metal and metals used for leads, slugs, +furniture, etc., are largely lead. + + +_Wood Type_ + +Large types, such as are used for posters and large bills, are made of +wood. The smallest size for practical use is 48-point, or 4-line pica. +Sizes of wood type are multiples of the pica, and are so named, as +8-line, 10-line, etc. They are much cheaper than metal types, though +not as durable or satisfactory for printing. The wood commonly used is +maple, and the letter is made on the end of the grain. It must be well +seasoned and polished. Pine and other soft woods are used for very +large sizes of wood type and poster engravings. + +The manner of cutting the letter is by routing away the blank parts +with a small rapidly-revolving cutter. The strip of wood, large enough +to make several letters, and planed type-high, is placed in a machine +equipped with a pantagraph apparatus. A pattern letter is put in +place, and over this a guide-point is moved. On another part of the +machine is the revolving cutting tool. As the guide-point is moved +over the pattern its motions are duplicated on the block under the +cutting tool, which cuts away the wood. When the letters on a block +are thus routed out, they are sawed apart, the finishing touches +given, and the letters oiled. + + + + +SUPPLEMENTARY READING + + + The Invention of Printing. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald + Publishing Co., New York. Cloth, 557 pp. $6. + + Plain Printing Types. By Theodore L. De Vinne. Oswald Publishing + Co., New York. Cloth, 476 pp. $2. + + The Monotype System. Published by the Lanston Monotype Machine + Co., Philadelphia. 294 pp. and diagrams. + + The Mechanism of the Linotype. By John S. Thompson. The Inland + Printer Co., Chicago. 216 pp. $2. + + History of Composing Machines. By John S. Thompson. The Inland + Printer Co., Chicago. Cloth, 557 pp. $2. + + Specimen Books of American Type Founders Co.; H. C. Hansen, + Boston; Barnhart Brothers & Spindler, Chicago; Keystone Type + Foundry, Philadelphia. + + + + +REVIEW QUESTIONS + + +SUGGESTIONS TO STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS + +The following questions, based on the contents of this pamphlet, are +intended to serve (1) as a guide to the study of the text, (2) as an +aid to the student in putting the information contained into definite +statements without actually memorizing the text, (3) as a means of +securing from the student a reproduction of the information in his own +words. + +A careful following of the questions by the reader will insure full +acquaintance with every part of the text, avoiding the accidental +omission of what might be of value. These primers are so condensed +that nothing should be omitted. + +In teaching from these books it is very important that these questions +and such others as may occur to the teacher, should be made the basis +of frequent written work, and of final examinations. + +The importance of written work cannot be overstated. It not only +assures knowledge of material but the power to express that knowledge +correctly and in good form. + +If this written work can be submitted to the teacher in printed form +it will be doubly useful. + + +QUESTIONS + + 1. What was the so-called invention of printing? + + 2. What was Gutenberg's contribution to printing? + + 3. Describe a type. + + 4. Upon what does the utility of type depend? Why? + + 5. How many different characters are required in ordinary book + printing? + + 6. Into what classes are they divided? + + 7. How much of the surface of a type is covered by the letter? + + 8. How is the type body related in size to the letter face? Why? + + 9. What are the blank parts around the face of the letter called? + +10. Describe each part. + +11. What is the nick and what is its use? + +12. What is a font of type? + +13. In what is it kept for the compositor's use? + +14. What characters are included in an ordinary font of roman type + for book work? + +15. What can you say about small capitals? + +16. What can you say about other extra characters? + +17. What characters do fonts of advertising and jobbing type include? + +18. Name some other characters supplied by the foundries? + +19. What determines the number of characters of the various sorts in a + font of type? + +20. Is there any rule fitting all kinds of composition? + +21. Mention some special kinds of composition and tell what extra + sorts each demands. + +22. How are ordinary faces measured when used in large quantities? + +23. How are job fonts designated? + +24. To what kind of type do these schemes apply? + +25. What are the three measurements for type? + +26. What is the "size" of a type? + +27. What is the "set" of a type? + +28. Describe the point system. + +29. What are the usual sizes of type? + +30. What other sizes are made and for what are they used? + +31. What determines the choice of sizes for any particular face? + +32. What are bastard types? + +33. Can you always tell the size of type used by examining a printed + page? Why? + +34. What is meant by height-to-paper? + +35. How were types described before the adoption of the point system? + +36. Give the old names in common use and the approximate equivalents + in points. + +37. What can you say of 16, 20, 22, 28, and 40-point sizes? + +38. What are the advantages of the application of the point system to + the width of type? + +39. What is meant by "lining" type faces? + +40. What is the chief advantage of the lining system? + +41. What is needed when a word of small type is placed beside a word + of large type? Why? + +42. How is the line justified? + +43. Into what groups are type faces divided for aligning purposes? + +44. What are "combination series" of lining types? + +45. What are kerned types? + +46. How is kerning avoided? + +47. What are the advantages and disadvantages of these expedients? + +48. What is an em quad? + +49. Describe the spaces used in type composition. + +50. Describe the mold used in type casting. + +51. Describe the three methods of making the matrix. + +52. What was the old method of casting type? + +53. What is the modern method? + +54. Describe the different kinds of type-casting machines. + +55. Describe the finishing of type after casting. + +56. How is type made outside the type foundries? + +57. What is a Linotype? + +58. What does a Linotype produce? + +59. Describe briefly the operation of a Linotype. + +60. How are Linotype matrices distributed? + +61. What does the operator have to do? + +62. What is a Monotype? + +63. What does a Monotype do? + +64. What are the essential differences between a Monotype and a + Linotype? + +65. Describe the operation of the Monotype keyboard. + +66. Describe the operation of the casting machine. + +67. What peculiarity has the Monotype? + +68. What is type made of? + +69. What are the qualities of the several ingredients? + +70. What can you say of the uses of different metals in the type + foundries? + +71. What sort of type metal is used in composing machines? + +72. What other material is used for type? + +73. For what purpose is it used? + +74. How is this kind of type made? + + + + +GLOSSARY OF TERMS RELATING TO TYPE + +The numbers in parentheses refer to preceding pages in the text, where +further information about the different subjects may be found. + + +AGATE--A small size of type, about 5-1/2-point. (14) + +ASCENDING LETTERS--The tall letters of the lower-case alphabet. (7) + +ANTIMONY--One of the ingredients of type-metal; a silver-white, hard +crystalline metallic substance, used in chemistry and medicine, as well +as in industrial arts. (26) + +BASTARD TYPES--Those with faces larger or smaller than is commonly made +on a type-body. (15) + +BEARD--The beveled space below the face of a type. (15) + +BODY--The piece of metal upon which the face is cast. (7, 8, 13) + +BODY SIZE--The size of a type considered from top to bottom of the +letter. (13) + +BODY TYPE--The kinds of type, mostly roman faces, used for plain +composition in paragraphs or pages of one face; text letter. + +BORDERS--Characters cast in type, which may be adjustable in many ways, +as for marginal lines, panels, and other decorative uses. (15) + +BOURGEOIS--An old size of type, about 9-point. + +BRASS TYPE--For stamping book covers, etc. Ordinary type-metal cannot +endure the heat which must be applied for stamping gold leaf, or +printing on hard, rough surfaces. Brass types are more expensive as well +as more durable. + +BREVIER--An old size of type nearly equal to 8-point. (15) + +CANON--An old size of type approximately 48-point. (15) + +CAP.--Abbreviation for capital letter; s.c. or sm.cap., small capital. + +COPPER-FACED TYPE--New type coated by electric action, depositing a thin +film of copper, to make it more durable. + +COPPER THIN SPACES--Extra thin spaces for justifying lines. (19) + +CORNER QUADS--Blanks cast in this shape [Symbol: thick right angle] +matching 6-point and 12-point quads; placed outside the corners of +pages with mitered brass rules to keep the joints in place. + +COUNTER--The blank space within the lines of a letter or other +character. (8) + +DESCENDING LETTERS--Those which have part of the face below the regular +alignment, g, p, y. (8) + +DIAMOND--A small size of type, equal to about 4-1/2-point. (15) + +DISPLAY TYPE--A general term meaning the kinds of type made for +advertising, title pages, and other composition in which different sizes +and faces are used; in distinction from body type. + +EM--The square of a type body. En, half the width of the square. (19) + +EXTENDED, EXPANDED--An extra wide face of type. + +FACE--That part of a type or printing surface which leaves its +impression upon the sheet. (8) + +FEET--The bottom of the type body. (8) + +FONT--A complete assortment of type of one size and face. (9) + +FURNITURE--A general term applied to pieces of soft metal, steel, or +wood, used to fill the large blank spaces in a printing form; made in +different sizes based upon a 12-point (pica) unit. + +GREAT PRIMER--An old size of type nearly equal to 18-point. (15) + +HAIR SPACES--Very thin spaces. (19) + +HEIGHT-TO-PAPER--The length of a type from top to bottom, including feet +and face. This is not measured by points, but by thousandths of an inch. +See Type-high. (7, 13) + +HIGH SPACES AND QUADS--Used in type composition when the page is to be +molded for electrotyping. (20) + +HIGH-TO-LINE--When the face of a type is above the regular alignment of +the other letters in the line; when below the alignment it is +low-to-line. (17) + +HOLLOW QUADS--Large blanks are sometimes cast with hollow parts to make +them lighter and to economize metal. See Quotations. + +ITALIC--The style of letters that _slope forward_, in distinction from +upright, or roman, letters. (10) + +JET--The waste metal at the bottom of a type when it is first cast, +being the metal which cools in the aperture of the mold. (22) + +JOB FONT--A small assortment of type. (11) + +JOB TYPE--The kinds used for miscellaneous work, usually in small fonts, +in distinction from book type, body letter, etc. + +KERNED TYPES--Those which have a small part of the face projecting over +the body. (18) + +LAYING TYPE--Putting a font of type into cases. + +LEADERS--Dots or short dashes placed at intervals in open lines to guide +the eye, as in indexes, price-lists, etc. They are cast like quads for +sizes of type most used. Leaders are also made of brass. + +LETTER--Sometimes this word is used to mean type. Letter-press printing, +that done with type. Letter foundry, a type foundry. + +LINING TYPE--The exact alignment at top or bottom of the face on a +type-body. (16-18) + +LINOTYPE--A machine for casting type in solid lines. (23) + +LONG PRIMER--An old size of type nearly equal to 10-point. (15) + +LOW-TO-PAPER--Said of a type when it does not come up to the height of +its mates; opposite of high-to-paper. (7) + +LOW SPACES AND QUADS--Those used for ordinary composition, about +seven-eighths of the length of the type. (20) + +LOWER-CASE--The small letters of the alphabet. (9) + +MATRIX--The shallow mold in which the face of a type is cast. (21) + +MINION--An old size of type, about 7-point. (15) + +MONOTYPE--A machine for casting and composing type. (25) + +MORTISED TYPE--When some part of the body is cut away, either in the +interior or on the sides, to allow the insertion of another letter, or +to fit closer to an adjoining type. (18) + +MUSIC TYPE--An assortment of characters cast in type for printing +music scores. + +NICK--The notch on the side of a type. (8) In fonts made for use on the +Unitype composing machine each character has nicks in different +position and combination from every other character, to fit its +special channel, in order to control the various characters in the +operation of the machine. Thus the nicks in a line of Unitype matter +show great irregularity. + +NONPAREIL--Old name for size of type equal to 6-point; half pica (15) + +OFF ITS FEET--Type must stand squarely upright in order to give a good +impression; when it leans one way or the other it is off its feet. + +PARAGON--An old size of type, about 20-point (15) + +PATENT SPACE--A type space thicker than three-to-em and less than the +en-quad. (19) + +PEARL--An old size of type, about 5-point. (15) + +PI--Types of different kinds mixed up in confusion. + +PICA--Old name, but still commonly used, for a size of type equal to +12-point. (15) A common unit of measurement in typography. + +PIECE FRACTIONS--Fractions made up of two or more types; the numerator +and denominator cast separately, usually on bodies half the size of the +whole numbers or the type with which they are used. Sometimes called +split fractions. + +PIN-MARK--The little mark sometimes seen on the side of foundry-made +type. (8) + +POINT SYSTEM--The standard system of type bodies, based on the point as +a unit; in America the point is .0138 of an inch. Calculations are +simplified ordinarily by assuming the point as 1/72 of an inch. (13) + +POSTER TYPE--Large sizes for billboard printing, mostly made of wood. +(27) + +PUNCH--In typefounding, an original die of a letter or character cut +on the end of a steel bar, used to make a matrix. (21) + +QUADS--Metal blanks used for large spaces in composing type. (19) + +QUOTATIONS--Large hollow quads; similar to metal furniture. + +RUBBER TYPE--Cast with a vulcanized-rubber face mounted on short metal +bodies; not used in ordinary typographic printing, but classed with +rubber hand stamps. + +SCRIPT--A general name for that class of type designed to imitate +handwriting. (18) + +SECTIONAL TYPE--A style of type now in disuse, in which each letter was +made in two parts, the upper half being separate from the lower. Any +letter or character cast in two or more parts. + +SERIF--The short cross-line or tick at the end of the main strokes in +roman letters. (8) + +SET--The width of a type. (13) + +SHOULDER--The blank space on the top of a type not covered by the +letter; specifically, the space above and below the letter, the space on +the side being designated by typefounders as side-bearings. (8) + +SMALL CAPS--A secondary set of capitals made for fonts intended for book +work. They are slightly larger than the small (lower-case) letters, but +smaller than the regular capitals. See the side-headings in this +glossary. (9, 10, 12) + +SMALL PICA--An old size of type nearly equal to 11-point. (15) + +SPACES--Thin metal blanks used to separate words in a line. (19) + +SORT--Any particular letter or character of a font, in distinction from +the complete assortment. "Out of sorts," when some needed letters of a +font are missing. + +SORT ORDER--A request for some particular character of a font. + +TWO-LINE LETTER--A large letter covering two lines of the adjoining +text, used for initials at the beginning of paragraphs. Two-line +figures, used for displaying price-figures in advertisements, etc. + +TYPE-HIGH--Of the standard height of type; said of an electrotype or +engraving that is the right height to accompany type. (7) + +TYPE METAL--A composition of lead, tin, and antimony. (26) + +TYPOGRAPHY--The process of printing with forms composed of movable types +and small relief blocks. + +WEIGHT FONT--A complete assortment of type measured by its weight +instead of by the number of each letter. (12) + +WEIGHT OF TYPE--Four square inches of type, composed solid, weigh +approximately one pound. Thus, to find the weight of any given amount of +type composition, find the number of square inches and divide by four. + +One pound of type (about 4 square inches) contains the following number +of ems (solid) of the different sizes: + + 18-point 64 ems + 12-point 144 ems + 11-point 170 ems + 10-point 207 ems + 9-point 256 ems + 8-point 324 ems + 7-point 423 ems + 6-point 576 ems + + + + +TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES + + +The following list of publications, comprising the TYPOGRAPHIC +TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES, has been prepared under the +supervision of the Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of +America for use in trade classes, in course of printing instruction, +and by individuals. + +Each publication has been compiled by a competent author or group +of authors, and carefully edited, the purpose being to provide +the printers of the United States--employers, journeymen, and +apprentices--with a comprehensive series of handy and inexpensive +compendiums of reliable, up-to-date information upon the various +branches and specialties of the printing craft, all arranged in +orderly fashion for progressive study. + +The publications of the series are of uniform size, 5 x 8 inches. Their +general make-up, in typography, illustrations, etc., has been, as far +as practicable, kept in harmony throughout. A brief synopsis of the +particular contents and other chief features of each volume will be +found under each title in the following list. + +Each topic is treated in a concise manner, the aim being to embody +in each publication as completely as possible all the rudimentary +information and essential facts necessary to an understanding of the +subject. Care has been taken to make all statements accurate and +clear, with the purpose of bringing essential information within the +understanding of beginners in the different fields of study. Wherever +practicable, simple and well-defined drawings and illustrations have +been used to assist in giving additional clearness to the text. + +In order that the pamphlets may be of the greatest possible help for +use in trade-school classes and for self-instruction, each title is +accompanied by a list of Review Questions covering essential items of +the subject matter. A short Glossary of technical terms belonging to +the subject or department treated is also added to many of the books. + +These are the Official Text-books of the United Typothetae of America. + +Address all orders and inquiries to COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, UNITED +TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA, CHICAGO, ILLINOIS, U. S. A. + + +PART I--_Types, Tools, Machines, and Materials_ + +1. =Type: a Primer of Information= By A. A. Stewart + + Relating to the mechanical features of printing types; their sizes, + font schemes, etc., with a brief description of their manufacture. + 44 pp.; illustrated; 74 review questions; glossary. + +2. =Compositors' Tools and Materials= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about composing sticks, galleys, leads, + brass rules, cutting and mitering machines, etc. 47 pp.; + illustrated; 50 review questions; glossary. + +3. =Type Cases, Composing Room Furniture= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about type cases, work stands, cabinets, + case racks, galley racks, standing galleys, etc. 43 pp.; + illustrated; 33 review questions; glossary. + +4. =Imposing Tables and Lock-up Appliances= By A. A. Stewart + + Describing the tools and materials used in locking up forms for the + press, including some modern utilities for special purposes. 59 + pp.; illustrated; 70 review questions; glossary. + +5. =Proof Presses= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the customary methods and machines + for taking printers' proofs. 40 pp.; illustrated; 41 review + questions; glossary. + +6. =Platen Printing Presses= By Daniel Baker + + A primer of information regarding the history and mechanical + construction of platen printing presses, from the original hand + press to the modern job press, to which is added a chapter on + automatic presses of small size. 51 pp.; illustrated; 49 review + questions; glossary. + +7. =Cylinder Printing Presses= By Herbert L. Baker + + Being a study of the mechanism and operation of the principal types + of cylinder printing machines. 64 pp.; illustrated; 47 review + questions; glossary. + +8. =Mechanical Feeders and Folders= By William E. Spurrier + + The history and operation of modern feeding and folding machines; + with hints on their care and adjustments. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + +9. =Power for Machinery in Printing Houses= By Carl F. Scott + + A treatise on the methods of applying power to printing presses and + allied machinery with particular reference to electric drive. 53 + pp.; illustrated; 69 review questions; glossary. + +10. =Paper Cutting Machines= By Niel Gray, Jr. + + A primer of information about paper and card trimmers, hand-lever + cutters, power cutters, and other automatic machines for cutting + paper. 70 pp.; illustrated; 115 review questions; glossary. + +11. =Printers' Rollers= By A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the composition, manufacture, and + care of inking rollers. 46 pp.; illustrated; 61 review questions; + glossary. + +12. =Printing Inks= By Philip Ruxton + + Their composition, properties and manufacture (reprinted by + permission from Circular No. 53, United States Bureau of + Standards); together with some helpful suggestions about the + everyday use of printing inks by Philip Ruxton. 80 pp.; 100 review + questions; glossary. + +13. =How Paper is Made= By William Bond Wheelwright + + A primer of information about the materials and processes of + manufacturing paper for printing and writing. 68 pp.; illustrated; + 62 review questions; glossary. + +14. =Relief Engravings= By Joseph P. Donovan + + Brief history and non-technical description of modern methods of + engraving; woodcut, zinc plate, halftone; kind of copy for + reproduction; things to remember when ordering engravings. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +15. =Electrotyping and Stereotyping= By Harris B. Hatch and A. A. Stewart + + A primer of information about the processes of electrotyping and + stereotyping. 94 pp.; illustrated; 129 review questions; + glossaries. + + +PART II--_Hand and Machine Composition_ + +16. =Typesetting= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook for beginners, giving information about justifying, + spacing, correcting, and other matters relating to typesetting. + Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +17. =Printers' Proofs= By A. A. Stewart + + The methods by which they are made, marked, and corrected, with + observations on proofreading. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +18. =First Steps in Job Composition= By Camille DeVeze + + Suggestions for the apprentice compositor in setting his first + jobs, especially about the important little things which go to make + good display in typography. 63 pp.; examples; 55 review questions; + glossary. + +19. =General Job Composition= + + How the job compositor handles business stationery, programs and + miscellaneous work. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + +20. =Book Composition= By J. W. Bothwell + + Chapters from DeVinne's "Modern Methods of Book Composition," + revised and arranged for this series of text-books by J. W. + Bothwell of The DeVinne Press, New York. Part I: Composition of + pages. Part II: Imposition of pages. 229 pp.; illustrated; 525 + review questions; glossary. + +21. =Tabular Composition= By Robert Seaver + + A study of the elementary forms of table composition, with examples + of more difficult composition. 36 pp.; examples; 45 review + questions. + +22. =Applied Arithmetic= By E. E. Sheldon + + Elementary arithmetic applied to problems of the printing trade, + calculation of materials, paper weights and sizes, with standard + tables and rules for computation, each subject amplified with + examples and exercises. 159 pp. + +23. =Typecasting and Composing Machines= A. W. Finlay, Editor + + Section I--The Linotype By L. A. Hornstein + Section II--The Monotype By Joseph Hays + Section III--The Intertype By Henry W. Cozzens + Section IV--Other Typecasting and Typesetting + Machines By Frank H. Smith + + A brief history of typesetting machines, with descriptions of their + mechanical principles and operations. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART III--_Imposition and Stonework_ + +24. =Locking Forms for the Job Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Things the apprentice should know about locking up small forms, and + about general work on the stone. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +25. =Preparing Forms for the Cylinder Press= By Frank S. Henry + + Pamphlet and catalog imposition; margins; fold marks, etc. Methods + of handling type forms and electrotype forms. Illustrated; review + questions; glossary. + + +PART IV--_Presswork_ + +26. =Making Ready on Platen Presses= By T. G. McGrew + + The essential parts of a press and their functions; distinctive + features of commonly used machines. Preparing the tympan, + regulating the impression, underlaying and overlaying, setting + gauges, and other details explained. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +27. =Cylinder Presswork= By T. G. McGrew + + Preparing the press; adjustment of bed and cylinder, form rollers, + ink fountain, grippers and delivery systems. Underlaying and + overlaying; modern overlay methods. Illustrated; review questions; + glossary. + +28. =Pressroom Hints and Helps= By Charles L. Dunton + + Describing some practical methods of pressroom work, with + directions and useful information relating to a variety of + printing-press problems. 87 pp.; 176 review questions. + +29. =Reproductive Processes of the Graphic Arts= By A. W. Elson + + A primer of information about the distinctive features of the + relief, the intaglio, and the planographic processes of printing. + 84 pp.; illustrated; 100 review questions; glossary. + + +PART V--_Pamphlet and Book Binding_ + +30. =Pamphlet Binding= By Bancroft L. Goodwin + + A primer of information about the various operations employed in + binding pamphlets and other work in the bindery. Illustrated; + review questions; glossary. + +31. =Book Binding= By John J. Pleger + + Practical information about the usual operations in binding books; + folding; gathering, collating, sewing, forwarding, finishing. Case + making and cased-in books. Hand work and machine work. Job and + blank-book binding. Illustrated; review questions; glossary. + + +PART VI--_Correct Literary Composition_ + +32. =Word Study and English Grammar= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about words, their relations, and their + uses. 68 pp.; 84 review questions; glossary. + +33. =Punctuation= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the marks of punctuation and their + use, both grammatically and typographically. 56 pp.; 59 review + questions; glossary. + +34. =Capitals= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about capitalization, with some practical + typographic hints as to the use of capitals. 48 pp.; 92 review + questions; glossary. + +35. =Division of Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + Rules for the division of words at the ends of lines, with remarks + on spelling, syllabication and pronunciation. 42 pp.; 70 review + questions. + +36. =Compound Words= By F. W. Hamilton + + A study of the principles of compounding, the components of + compounds, and the use of the hyphen. 34 pp.; 62 review questions. + +37. =Abbreviations and Signs= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about abbreviations and signs, with + classified lists of those in most common use. 58 pp.; 32 review + questions. + +38. =The Uses of Italic= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the history and uses of italic + letters. 31 pp.; 37 review questions. + +39. =Proofreading= By Arnold Levitas + + The technical phases of the proofreader's work; reading, marking, + revising, etc.; methods of handling proofs and copy. Illustrated by + examples. 59 pp.; 69 review questions; glossary. + +40. =Preparation of Printers' Copy= By F. W. Hamilton + + Suggestions for authors, editors, and all who are engaged in + preparing copy for the composing room. 36 pp.; 67 review questions. + +41. =Printers' Manual of Style= + + A reference compilation of approved rules, usages, and suggestions + relating to uniformity in punctuation, capitalization, + abbreviations, numerals, and kindred features of composition. + +42. =The Printer's Dictionary= By A. A. Stewart + + A handbook of definitions and miscellaneous information about + various processes of printing, alphabetically arranged. Technical + terms explained. Illustrated. + + +PART VII--_Design, Color, and Lettering_ + +43. =Applied Design for Printers= By Harry L. Gage + + A handbook of the principles of arrangement, with brief comment on + the periods of design which have most influenced printing. Treats of + harmony, balance, proportion, and rhythm; motion; symmetry and + variety; ornament, esthetic and symbolic. 37 illustrations; 46 + review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +44. =Elements of Typographic Design= By Harry L. Gage + + Applications of the principles of decorative design. Building + material of typography: paper, types, ink, decorations and + illustrations. Handling of shapes. Design of complete book, + treating each part. Design of commercial forms and single units. + Illustrations; review questions, glossary; bibliography. + +45. =Rudiments of Color in Printing= By Harry L. Gage + + Use of color: for decoration of black and white, for broad poster + effect, in combinations of two, three, or more printings with + process engravings. Scientific nature of color, physical and + chemical. Terms in which color may be discussed: hue, value, + intensity. Diagrams in color, scales and combinations. Color theory + of process engraving. Experiments with color. Illustrations in full + color, and on various papers. Review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +46. =Lettering in Typography= By Harry L. Gage + + Printer's use of lettering: adaptability and decorative effect. + Development of historic writing and lettering and its influence + on type design. Classification of general forms in lettering. + Application of design to lettering. Drawing for reproduction. Fully + illustrated; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + +47. =Typographic Design in Advertising= By Harry L. Gage + + The printer's function in advertising. Precepts upon which + advertising is based. Printer's analysis of his copy. Emphasis, + legibility, attention, color. Method of studying advertising + typography. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; + bibliography. + +48. =Making Dummies and Layouts= By Harry L. Gage + + A layout: the architectural plan. A dummy: the imitation of a + proposed final effect. Use of dummy in sales work. Use of layout. + Function of layout man. Binding schemes for dummies. Dummy + envelopes. Illustrations; review questions; glossary; bibliography. + + +PART VIII--_History of Printing_ + +49. =Books Before Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the invention of the alphabet and the + history of bookmaking up to the invention of movable types. 62 pp.; + illustrated; 64 review questions. + +50. =The Invention of Typography= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the invention of printing and how it came about. + 64 pp.; 62 review questions. + +51. =History of Printing=--Part I By F. W. Hamilton + + A primer of information about the beginnings of printing, the + development of the book, the development of printers' materials, + and the work of the great pioneers. 63 pp.; 55 review questions. + +52. =History of Printing=--Part II By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the economic conditions of the printing industry + from 1450 to 1789, including government regulations, censorship, + internal conditions and industrial relations. 94 pp.; 128 review + questions. + +53. =Printing in England= By F. W. Hamilton + + A short history of printing in England from Caxton to the present + time. 89 pp.; 65 review questions. + +54. =Printing in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief sketch of the development of the newspaper, and some notes + on publishers who have especially contributed to printing. 98 pp.; + 84 review questions. + +55. =Type and Presses in America= By F. W. Hamilton + + A brief historical sketch of the development of type casting and + press building in the United States. 52 pp.; 61 review questions. + + +PART IX--_Cost Finding and Accounting_ + +56. =Elements of Cost in Printing= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +57. =Use of a Cost System= By Henry P. Porter + + The Standard Cost-Finding Forms and their uses. What they should + show. How to utilize the information they give. Review questions. + Glossary. + +58. =The Printer as a Merchant= By Henry P. Porter + + The selection and purchase of materials and supplies for printing. + The relation of the cost of raw material and the selling price of + the finished product. Review questions. Glossary. + +59. =Fundamental Principles of Estimating= By Henry P. Porter + + The estimator and his work; forms to use; general rules for + estimating. Review questions. Glossary. + +60. =Estimating and Selling= By Henry P. Porter + + An insight into the methods used in making estimates, and their + relation to selling. Review questions. Glossary. + +61. =Accounting for Printers= By Henry P. Porter + + A brief outline of an accounting system for printers; necessary + books and accessory records. Review questions. Glossary. + + +PART X--_Miscellaneous_ + +62. =Health, Sanitation, and Safety= By Henry P. Porter + + Hygiene in the printing trade; a study of conditions old and new; + practical suggestions for improvement; protective appliances and + rules for safety. + +63. =Topical Index= By F. W. Hamilton + + A book of reference covering the topics treated in the Typographic + Technical Series, alphabetically arranged. + +64. =Courses of Study= By F. W. Hamilton + + A guidebook for teachers, with outlines and suggestions for + classroom and shop work. + + + + +ACKNOWLEDGMENT + + +This series of Typographic Text-books is the result of the splendid +co-operation of a large number of firms and individuals engaged in the +printing business and its allied industries in the United States of +America. + +The Committee on Education of the United Typothetae of America, +under whose auspices the books have been prepared and published, +acknowledges its indebtedness for the generous assistance rendered by +the many authors, printers, and others identified with this work. + +While due acknowledgment is made on the title and copyright pages of +those contributing to each book, the Committee nevertheless felt that +a group list of co-operating firms would be of interest. + +The following list is not complete, as it includes only those who +have co-operated in the production of a portion of the volumes, +constituting the first printing. As soon as the entire list of books +comprising the Typographic Technical Series has been completed (which +the Committee hopes will be at an early date), the full list will be +printed in each volume. + +The Committee also desires to acknowledge its indebtedness to the many +subscribers to this Series who have patiently awaited its publication. + + COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION, + UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA. + + HENRY P. PORTER, _Chairman_, + E. LAWRENCE FELL, + A. M. GLOSSBRENNER, + J. CLYDE OSWALD, + TOBY RUBOVITS. + + FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, _Education Director_. + + + + +CONTRIBUTORS + + +For Composition and Electrotypes + + ISAAC H. BLANCHARD COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + S. H. BURBANK & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + J. S. CUSHING & CO., Norwood, Mass. + THE DEVINNE PRESS, New York, N. Y. + R. R. DONNELLEY & SONS CO., Chicago, Ill. + GEO. H. ELLIS CO., Boston, Mass. + EVANS-WINTER-HEBB, Detroit, Mich. + FRANKLIN PRINTING COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. + F. H. GILSON COMPANY, Boston, Mass. + STEPHEN GREENE & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + W. F. HALL PRINTING CO., Chicago, Ill. + J. B. LIPPINCOTT CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + MCCALLA & CO. INC., Philadelphia, Pa. + THE PATTESON PRESS, New York, New York + THE PLIMPTON PRESS, Norwood, Mass. + POOLE BROS., Chicago, Ill. + EDWARD STERN & CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + THE STONE PRINTING & MFG. CO., Roanoke, Va. + C. D. TRAPHAGEN, Lincoln, Neb. + THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, Cambridge, Mass. + +For Composition + + BOSTON TYPOTHETAE SCHOOL OF PRINTING, Boston, Mass. + WILLIAM F. FELL CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + THE KALKHOFF COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + OXFORD-PRINT, Boston, Mass. + TOBY RUBOVITS, Chicago, Ill. + +For Electrotypes + + BLOMGREN BROTHERS CO., Chicago, Ill. + FLOWER STEEL ELECTROTYPING CO., New York, N. Y. + C. J. PETERS & SON CO., Boston, Mass. + ROYAL ELECTROTYPE CO., Philadelphia, Pa. + H. C. WHITCOMB & CO., Boston, Mass. + +For Engravings + + AMERICAN TYPE FOUNDERS CO., Boston, Mass. + C. B. COTTRELL & SONS CO., Westerly, R. I. + GOLDING MANUFACTURING CO., Franklin, Mass. + HARVARD UNIVERSITY, Cambridge, Mass. + INLAND PRINTER CO., Chicago, Ill. + LANSTON MONOTYPE MACHINE COMPANY, Philadelphia, Pa. + MERGENTHALER LINOTYPE COMPANY, New York, N. Y. + GEO. H. MORRILL CO., Norwood, Mass. + OSWALD PUBLISHING CO., New York, N. Y. + THE PRINTING ART, Cambridge, Mass. + B. D. RISING PAPER COMPANY, Housatonic, Mass. + THE VANDERCOOK PRESS, Chicago, Ill. + +For Book Paper + + AMERICAN WRITING PAPER CO., Holyoke, Mass. + WEST VIRGINIA PULP & PAPER CO., Mechanicville, N. Y. + + + + +Footnotes: + +[1] In old or much-used fonts to which additions have been made after +the first supply, the new letters, being cast later in a different +mold, may often show a difference in the position or the number of +nicks. In cases of this kind the apprentice should observe carefully +and inquire before deciding that a type with a different nick does not +belong to the font. + +[2] The small letters are called lower-case by printers, because they +are commonly kept in the lower case of a pair on the case-stand. + +[3] The period, comma, hyphen, apostrophe, and occasionally some other +character (such as the $) are often the same in both roman and italic +fonts that are intended as companion faces. + +[4] Job fonts are usually put up by founders in two sections, one +containing capitals, figures, and points; the other lower-case, with a +small portion of points. Diphthongs AE [OE] ae [oe] are not now included +in job fonts, and many advertising type fonts do not include the +lower-case ligatures [fi] [ff] [fl] [ffi] [ffl]. + + + + +[Transcriber's Note: The original printed text contains a significant +number of characters which are not included in standard ASCII or +ISO-8859-1 encodings. Those glyphs are represented in this file either +as square-bracketed sets of letters (for accents or ligatures), or +as square-bracketed type/description pairs, e.g. [Symbol: per sign]. +These limitations are not present in the HTML version of this document, +which uses numeric entities of the Unicode characters which accurately +represent these glyphs as printed in the original.] + + + + + + + +End of the Project Gutenberg EBook of Type, by A. A. 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